file was produced from images produced by ,core ,historical ,literature in ,agriculture 7,,chla71 ,cornell ,university7 ,the ,rural ,manuals ,,edited ,,by ,l4 ,h4 ,,bailey ,,manual ,,of ,,american ,,grape-,,growing ,the ,rural ,manuals ,,edited ,,by ,l4 ,h4 ,,bailey ,,manual ,,of ,,gardening--,bailey ,,manual ,,of ,,farm ,,animals--,harper ,,farm ,,and ,,garden ,,rule-,,book--,bailey ,,manual ,,of ,,fruit ,,insects--,slingerland and ,crosby ,,manual ,,of ,,weeds--,georgia ,,the ,,pruning-,,manual--,bailey ,,manual ,,of ,,fruit ,,diseases--,hesler and ,whetzel ,,manual ,,of ,,milk ,,products--,stocking ,,manual ,,of ,,vegetable-,,garden ,,insects--,crosby and ,leonard ,,manual ,,of ,,tree ,,diseases--,rankin ,,manual ,,of ,,home-,,making--,van ,rensselaer1 ,rose1 and ,canon ,,manual ,,of ,,american ,,grape-,,growing--,hedrick ,,manual ,,of ,,american ,,grape-,,growing ,,by ,u4 ,p4 ,,hedrick ,,horticulturist ,,of ,,the ,,new ,,york ,,agricultural ,,experiment ,,station ,new ,york ,,the ,,macmillan ,,company #aiai ,all rights reserved ,,copyright1 #aiai1 ,,by ,,the ,,macmillan ,,company4 ,setup and electrotyped4 ,published ,june1 #aiai4 ,norwood ,press ,j4 ,s4 ,cushing ,co4--,berwick ,smith ,co4 ,norwood1 ,mass41 ,u4,s4,a4 ,,preface ,seventy-nine books on grapes enrich the pomology of ,north ,america1 not counting numerous state and national publications4 ,pomological writers in ,america have been partial to the grape1 for other fruits do not fare nearly so well4 ,twenty-two books are devoted to the strawberry1 fourteen to the apple1 to the peach nine1 cranberry eight1 plum five1 pear nine1 quince two1 loganberry one1 while the cherry1 raspberry1 and blackberry are not once separated from other fruits in special books4 ,thus1 though a comparative newcomer among the fruits of the country1 the grape has been singled out for a treatise more times than all other fruits of temperate climates combined--seventy-nine books on the grape1 seventy on all other fruits4 ,this statement of partiality does not lead to an apology for a new book on the grape4 ,there is urgent need for a new book4 ,but three of the seventy-nine treatises on this fruit are contemporary1 and all but one1 a handbook on training1 are records from vanished minds4 ,methods change so rapidly and varieties multiply so fast1 that to keep pace there must be new books on fruits every few years4 ,besides1 the types of grapes are so diverse1 and different soils1 climates1 and treatments produce such widely dissimilar results1 that many books are required to do justice to this fruit--the vineyard should be seen through many eyes4 ,commercial grape-growing is now a great industry in ,america1 and deserves a treatise or its own4 ,but there are also many demands for information on grape-growing by those who grow fruits for pleasure1 especially by those who are escaping from cities to suburban homes1 for the grape is a favorite fruit of the amateur4 ,and so1 though ,pleasure and ,profit are a hard team to drive together1 this manual is written for both commercial and amateur grape-growers4 ,in particular1 the needs of the amateur are recognized in the chapter on varieties1 where many sorts are described which have little or no commercial value4 ,no other fruit offers the enchantment of novelty to be found in the grape4 ,alluring flavors1 sizes1 and colors abound1 of which the amateur wants samples4 ,the commercial grower who plants but one variety often finds himself dissatisfied with the humdrum of the business4 ,he should emulate the amateur and plant more kinds1 if only for pleasure1 remembering the adage1 ,no profit grows where is no pleasure ta'en4 ,greater pleasure in grape-growing1 then1 is offered as the justification of the long chapter on varieties4 ,at the risk of too broad spreading1 the author discusses1 in a book mainly devoted to native grapes1 the culture of ,european grapes in the far ,west4 ,the chief aim is1 of course1 to set forth information that will be helpful to growers of these grapes in the western states1 there being no treatises to which western growers can refer1 other than bulletins from state and national agricultural institutions4 ,there is1 however1 another reason for attempting to cover the whole field of grape-growing in ,america4 ,it is certain that eastern grape-growers will sometime grow ,european grapes4 ,western vineyards might well be enlarged with plantings of native grapes4 ,on the supposition1 then1 that the culture of both ,european and native grapes is to become less and less restricted in ,america1 the author has ventured to discuss the culture of all grapes for all parts of ,north ,america4 ,in the preparation of this manual1 the author's ,the ,grapes of ,new ,york1 a book long out of print and never widely distributed1 has been laid under heavy contribution1 especially in the description of varieties4 ,acknowledgments are due to ,f4 ,z4 ,hartzell for reading the chapter on ,grape ,pests and their ,control and for furnishing most of the photographs used in making illustrations of insects and fungi2 to ,f4 ,e4 ,gladwin for similar help in preparing the two chapters on pruning and training the grape in eastern ,america2 to ,frederic ,t4 ,bioletti for permission to republish from a bulletin written by him from the ,agricultural ,experiment ,station of ,california almost the whole chapter on ,grape ,pruning on the ,pacific ,slope2 and to ,o4 ,m4 ,taylor and to ,r4 ,d4 ,anthony for very material assistance in reading the manuscript and proofs4 ,u4 ,p4 ,,hedrick4 ,,geneva1 ,n4 ,y41 ,jan4 #a1 #aiai4 ,,table ,,of ,,contents ,,chapter ,,page ,i ,,the ,,domestication ,,of ,,the ,,grape #a ,,ii ,,grape ,,regions ,,and ,,their ,,determinants #af ,,iii ,,propagation #cf ,,iv ,,stocks ,,and ,,resistant ,,vines #fa ,v ,,the ,,vineyard ,,and ,,its ,,management #gc ,,vi ,,fertilizers ,,for ,,grapes #ig ,,vii ,,pruning ,,the ,,grape ,,in ,,eastern ,,america #ajh ,,viii ,,training ,,the ,,grape ,,in ,,eastern ,,america #abc ,,ix ,,grape-,,pruning ,,on ,,the ,,pacific ,,coast #aej ,x ,,european ,,grapes ,,in ,,eastern ,,america #ahd ,,xi ,,grapes ,,under ,,glass #aib ,,xii ,,grape ,,pests ,,and ,,their ,,control #bjd ,,xiii ,,marketing ,,grapes #bcj ,,xiv ,,grape ,,products #bej ,,xv ,,grape ,,breeding #bgc ,,xvi ,,miscellanies #bhd ,,xvii ,,grape ,,botany #cjj ,,xviii ,,varieties ,,of ,,grapes #ccj ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations ,,plates ,,plate ,,page ,i4 ,two views of vineyards in ,california2 a vineyard in the orchard region of central ,california1 and a vineyard in southern ,california #ad ,,ii4 ,fitting the land for planting #cd ,,iii4 ,cover-crop2 cow-horn turnips1 and rye #dh ,,iv4 ,a well-tilled vineyard of ,concords #fj ,v4 ,vinifera grapes grown out of doors in ,new ,york2 ,malvasia and ,chasselas ,golden #gb ,,vi4 ,black ,hamburg #hb ,,vii4 ,barry4 ,delaware #if ,,viii4 ,brighton #ajf ,,ix4 ,campbell ,early #aad ,x4 ,clinton #abb ,,xi4 ,concord #ach ,,xii4 ,diana #adh ,,xiii4 ,dutchess #afd ,,xiv4 ,eaton #ahb ,,xv4 ,eclipse #aij ,,xvi4 ,elvira #bjb ,,xvii4 ,empire ,state #bah ,,xviii4 ,herbert #bbh ,,xix4 ,iona #bdh ,,xx4 ,isabella #bgb ,,xxi4 ,jefferson #bhb ,,xxii4 ,lindley4 ,lucile #bih ,,xxiii4 ,lutie4 ,pocklington #cbh ,,xxiv4 ,moore ,early #cdj ,,xxv4 ,muscat ,hamburg #cej ,,xxvi4 ,niagara #cfj ,,xxvii4 ,salem #cgj ,,xxviii4 ,triumph #chj ,,xxix4 ,vergennes #cij ,,xxx4 ,winchell #djj ,,xxxi4 ,worden #daf ,,xxxii4 ,wyoming #dcb ,,figures ,,in ,,the ,,text ,,figure #a4 ,a shoot of ,vitis vinifera #c #b4 ,a shoot of ,vitis ,labrusca #f #c4 ,a shoot of ,vitis rotundifolia #aj #d4 ,a shoot of ,vitis stivalis #ab #e4 ,a shoot of ,vitis vulpina #ad #f4 ,planting cuttings #dj #g4 ,a cutting beginning growth #dj #h4 ,cutting off the trunk #df #i4 ,cutting the cleft #dg #aj4 ,inserting the cion #dg #aa4 ,the completed graft #dg #ab4 ,bench-grafted cuttings of grape1 showing the cleft-graft and the whip-graft4 7,adapted from ,husmann7 #ea #ac4 ,vine ready for pruning #aac #ad4 ,a go-devil for collecting prunings #aai #ae4 ,a trellis and a common method of bracing end posts #abj #af4 ,chautauqua training2 vine ready to prune #abg #ag4 ,keuka method of training #acj #ah4 ,single-stem four-cane ,kniffin training #acc #ai4 ,umbrella method of training #acd #bj4 ,two-trunk ,kniffin training #ace #ba4 ,rotundifolia vines trained by the overhead method #add #bb4 ,a ,rotundifolia vine trained by the #f-;arm renewal method #ade #bc4 ,forms of head pruning #aed #bd4 ,forms of head pruning #aee #be4 ,head pruning3 fan-shaped head2 fruit canes tied to horizontal trellis #aef #bf4 ,single vertical cordon with fruit-spurs #aeg #bg4 ,unilateral horizontal cordon with fruit-spurs #aeh #bh4 ,three-year-old vine ready for pruning #afi #bi4 ,vine of ,fig4 #bh after pruning for vase-formed head #afi #cj4 ,three-year-old vines3 ,a1 pruned for a vase-formed1 and ,b1 for a fan-shaped head #agj #ca4 ,four-year-old vine pruned for vase-formed head #aga #cb4 ,four-year-old vine pruned for high vase-formed head #agb #cc4 ,fan-shaped vines3 ,a1 before pruning2 ,b1 after pruning #agc #cd4 ,vertical cordon1 young vine pruned #agf #ce4 ,unilateral horizontal cordon with half-long pruning #agg #cf4 ,leaf-galls of the phylloxera #bje #cg4 ,the grape root-worm #bjg #ch4 ,root-worm beetle #bjg #ci4 ,injuries caused by beetles of the grape root-worm #bjg #dj4 ,eggs of grape-vine flea-beetle #bji #da4 ,first four stages of the grape leaf-hopper #bab #db4 ,the fifth and the mature stages of the grape leaf-hopper #bab #dc4 ,a bunch of grapes despoiled by the grape-berry moth #bad #dd4 ,work of black-rot of the grape #bai #de4 ,grapes attacked by downy-mildew #bba #df4 ,packing grapes on a packing-table #bcd #dg4 ,climax baskets in two sizes #bcf #dh4 ,william ,robert ,prince #bgd #di4 ,e4 ,s4 ,rogers #bge #ej4 ,t4 ,v4 ,munson #bgg #ea4 ,staminate and perfect flower clusters on one vine #bhe #eb4 ,ringing grape-vines2 showing tools for ringing and ringed vines #bib #ec4 ,a grape flower2 showing the opening cap and stamens #cje #ed4 ,grape flowers2 showing upright and depressed stamens #cjf ,,manual ,,of ,,american ,,grape-,,growing ,,chapter ,i ,,the ,,domestication ,,of ,,the ,,grape ,the domestication of an animal or a plant is a milestone in the advance of agriculture and so becomes of interest to every human being4 ,but1 more particularly1 the materials1 the events and the men who direct the work of domestication are of interest to those who breed and care for animals and plants2 the grape-grower should find much profit in the story of the domestication of the grape4 ,what was the raw material of a fruit known since the beginning of agriculture and wherever temperate fruits are grown8 ,how has this material been fashioned into use8 ,who were the originative and who the directive agents8 ,these are fundamental questions in the improvement of the grape1 answers to which will also throw much light on the culture of it4 ,botanists number from forty to sixty species of grapes in the world4 ,these are widely distributed in the northern hemisphere1 all but a few being found in temperate countries4 ,thus1 more than half of the named species come from the ,united ,states and ,canada1 while nearly all of the others are from ,china and ,japan1 with but one species certainly growing wild in southwestern ,asia and bordering parts of ,europe4 ,all true grapes have more or less edible fruits1 and of the twenty or more species grown in the ,new ,world more than half have been or are being domesticated4 ,of the ,old ,world grapes1 only one species is cultivated for fruit1 but this1 of all grapes1 is of greatest economic importance and1 therefore1 deserves first consideration4 ,,the ,,european ,,grape ,the ,european grape1 ,vitis vinifera 7,fig4 #a71 is the grape of ancient and modern agriculture4 ,it is the vine which ,noah planted after the ,deluge2 the vine of ,israel and of the ,promised ,land2 the vine of the parables in the ,new ,testament4 ,it is the grape and the vine of the myths1 fables1 poetry and prose of all peoples4 ,it is the grape from which the wines of the world are made4 ,from it come the raisins of the world4 ,it is the chief agricultural crop of southern ,europe and northern ,africa and of vast regions in other parts of the world1 having followed civilized man from place to place in all temperate climates4 ,the ,european grape has so impressed itself on the human mind that when one thinks or speaks of the grape1 or of the vine1 it is this ,old ,world species1 the vine of antiquity1 that presents itself4 ,the written records of the cultivation of the ,european grape go back five or six thousand years4 ,the ancient ,egyptians1 ,phoenicians1 ,greeks and ,romans grew the vine and made wine from its fruit4 ,grape seeds have been found in the remains of ,european peoples of prehistoric times1 showing that primitive men enlivened their scanty fare with wild grapes4 ,cultivation of the grape in the ,old ,world probably began in the region about the ,caspian ,sea where the vine has always run wild4 ,we have proof of the great antiquity of the grape in ,egypt1 for its seeds are found entombed with the oldest mummies4 ,probably the ,phoenicians1 the earliest navigators on the ,mediterranean1 carried the grape from ,egypt and ,syria to ,greece1 ,rome and other countries bordering on this sea4 ,the domestication of the grape was far advanced in ,christ's time1 for ,pliny1 writing then1 describes ninety-one kinds of grapes and fifty kinds of wine4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4 ,a shoot of ,vitis vinifera4 ,it can never be known exactly when the ,european grape came under cultivation4 ,there is no word as to what were the methods and processes of domestication1 and whose the minds and hands that remodeled the wild grape of ,europe into the grape of the vineyards4 ,the ,old ,world grape was domesticated long before the faint traditions which have been transmitted to our day could possibly have arisen4 ,for knowledge of how wild species of this fruit have been and may be brought under cultivation1 we must turn to ,new ,world records4 ,,american ,,grapes ,few other plants in the ,new ,world grow wild under such varied conditions and over such extended areas as the grape4 ,wild grapes are found in the warmer parts of ,new ,brunswick2 on the shores of the ,great ,lakes2 everywhere in the woodlands of the ,north and ,middle ,atlantic states2 on the limestone soils of ,kentucky1 ,tennessee and the ,virginias2 and they thrive in the sandy woods1 sea plains and reef-keys of the ,south ,atlantic and ,gulf states4 ,while not so common west of the ,mississippi1 yet some kind of wild grape is found from ,north ,dakota to ,texas2 grapes grow on the mountains and in the caons of all the ,rocky ,mountain states2 and several species thrive on the ,mexican borders and in the far ,southwest4 ,while it is possible that all ,american grapes have descended from an original species1 the types are now as diverse as the regions they inhabit4 ,the wild grapes of the forests have long slender trunks and branches1 whereby their leaves are better exposed to the sunlight4 ,two shrubby species do not attain a greater height than four or five feet2 these grow in sandy soils1 or among rocks exposed to sun and air4 ,another runs on the ground and bears foliage almost evergreen4 ,the stem of one species attains a diameter of a foot1 bearing its foliage in a great canopy4 ,from this giant form the species vary to slender1 graceful1 climbing vines4 ,wild grapes are as varied in climatic adaptations as in structure of vine and grow luxuriantly in every condition of heat or cold1 wetness or dryness1 capable of supporting fruit-culture in ,america4 ,so many of the kinds have horticultural possibilities that it seems certain that some grape can be domesticated in all of the agricultural regions of the country1 their natural plasticity indicating1 even if it were not known from experience1 that all can be domesticated4 ,leif the ,lucky1 the first ,european to visit ,america1 if the ,icelandic records are true1 christened the new land ,wineland4 ,it has been supposed that this designation was given for the grapes1 but recent investigations show that the fruits were probably mountain cranberries4 ,captain ,john ,hawkins1 who visited the ,spanish settlements in ,florida in #aefe1 mentions wild grapes among the resources of the ,new ,world4 ,amadas and ,barlowe1 sent out by ,raleigh in #aehd1 describe the coasts of the ,carolinas as1 so full of grapes that in all the world like abundance cannot be found4 ,captain ,john ,smith1 writing in #afjf1 describes the grapes of ,virginia and recommends the culture of the vine as an industry for the newly founded colony4 ,few1 indeed1 are the explorers of the ,atlantic seaboard who do not mention grapes among the plants of the country4 ,yet none saw intrinsic value in these wild vines4 ,to the ,europeans1 the grapes of the ,old ,world alone were worth cultivating1 and the vines growing everywhere in ,america only suggested that the grape they had known across the sea might be grown in the new home4 ,that ,american viticulture must depend on the native species for its varieties began to be recognized at the beginning of the nineteenth century1 when several large companies engaged in growing foreign grapes failed1 and a meritorious native grape made its appearance4 ,the vine of promise was a variety known as the ,alexander4 ,thomas ,jefferson1 ever alert for the agricultural welfare of the nation1 writing in #ahji to ,john ,adlum1 one of the first experimenters with an ,american species1 voiced the sentiment of grape experimenters in speaking of the ,alexander3 ,i think it will be well to push the culture of this grape without losing time and efforts in the search of foreign vines1 which it will take centuries to adapt to our soil and climate4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4 ,a shoot of ,vitis ,labrusca4 ,alexander is an offshoot of the common fox-grape1 ,vitis ,labrusca 7,fig4 #b71 found in the woods on the ,atlantic coast from ,maine to ,georgia and occasionally in the ,mississippi ,valley4 ,the history of the variety dates back to before the ,revolutionary ,war1 when1 according to ,william ,bartram1 the ,quaker botanist1 it was found growing in the vicinity of ,philadelphia1 by ,john ,alexander1 gardener to ,governor ,penn of ,pennsylvania4 ,curiously enough1 it came into general cultivation through the deception of a nurseryman4 ,peter ,legaux1 a ,french-,american grape-grower1 in #ahja sold the ,kentucky ,vineyard ,society fifteen hundred grape cuttings which he said had been taken from an ,european grape introduced from the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 therefore called the ,cape grape4 ,legaux's grape turned out to be the ,alexander4 ,in the new home the spurious ,cape grew wonderfully well and as the knowledge of its fruitfulness in ,kentucky1 ,ohio and ,indiana spread1 demand for it increased1 and with remarkable rapidity1 considering the time1 it came into general cultivation in the parts of the ,united ,states then settled4 ,the ,labrusca or fox-grapes4 ,of the several species of ,american grapes now under cultivation1 the ,labrusca1 first represented by the ,alexander1 has furnished more cultivated varieties than all the other ,american species together1 no less than five hundred of its varieties having been grown in the vineyards of the country4 ,there are several reasons why it is the most generally cultivated species4 ,it is native to the parts of the ,united ,states in which agriculture soonest advanced to a state where fruits were desired4 ,in the wild1 the ,labruscas are the most attractive1 being largest and handsomest in color2 among all grapes it alone shows black-1 white- and red-fruited forms on wild vines4 ,there is a northern and a southern form of the species1 and its varieties are1 therefore1 widely adapted to climates and to soils4 ,the flavor of the fruits of this species1 all things considered1 is rather better than that of any other of our wild grapes1 though the skins in most of its varieties have a peculiar aroma1 somewhat pronounced in the well-known ,concord1 ,niagara and ,worden1 which is disagreeable to tastes accustomed to the pure flavors of the ,european grapes4 ,all ,labruscas submit well to vineyard operations and are vigorous1 hardy and productive1 though they are more subject to the dreaded phylloxera than are most of the other cultivated native species4 ,of the many grapes of this type1 at least two deserve brief historical mention4 ,catawba1 probably a pure-bred ,labrusca1 the first ,american grape of commercial importance1 is the most interesting variety of its species4 ,the origin of the variety is not certainly known1 but all evidence points to its having been found about the year #ahjj on the banks of the ,catawba ,river1 ,north ,carolina4 ,it was introduced into general cultivation by ,major ,john ,adlum1 soldier of the ,revolution1 judge1 surveyor and author of the first ,american book on grapes4 ,adlum maintained an experimental vineyard in the ,district of ,columbia1 whence in #ahbc he began the distribution of the ,catawba4 ,at that time the center of ,american grape culture was about ,cincinnati1 and an early shipment of ,adlum's ,catawbas went to ,nicholas ,longworth of that city and was by him distributed throughout the grape-growing centers of the country4 ,as one of the first to test new varieties of ,american grapes1 to grow them largely and to make wine commercially from them1 ,nicholas ,longworth is known as the father of ,american grape culture4 ,catawba is still one of the four leading varieties in the vineyards of eastern ,america4 ,the characters whereby its high place is maintained among grapes are3 ,great elasticity of constitution1 by reason of which the vine is adapted to many environments2 rich flavor1 long-keeping quality1 and handsome appearance of fruit1 qualities which make it a very good dessert grape2 high sugar-content and a rich flavor of juice1 so that from its fruit is made a very good wine and a very good grape-juice2 and vigor1 hardiness and productiveness of vine4 ,the characters of ,catawba are readily transmissible1 and it has many pure-bred or hybrid offspring which more or less resemble it4 ,the second commercial grape of importance in ,american viticulture is ,concord1 which came from the seed of a wild grape planted in the fall of #ahdc by ,ephraim ,w4 ,bull1 ,concord1 ,massachusetts4 ,the new variety was disseminated in the spring of #ahed1 and from the time of its introduction the spread of its culture was phenomenal4 ,by #ahfj it was the leading grape in ,america and it so remains4 ,concord furnishes1 with the varieties that have sprung from it1 seventy-five per cent of the grapes grown in eastern ,america4 ,the characters which distinguish the vine are3 ,adaptability to various soils1 fruitfulness1 hardiness and resistance to diseases and insects4 ,the fruits are distinguished by certainty of maturity1 attractive appearance1 good but not high flavor1 and by the fact that they may be produced so cheaply that no other grape can compete with this variety in the markets4 ,concord is1 as ,horace ,greeley well denominated it in awarding the ,greeley prize for the best ,american grape1 the grape for the millions4 ,the histories of these two grapes are typical of those of five hundred or more other ,labruscas4 ,out of a prodigious number of native seedlings1 an occasional one is found greatly to excel its fellows and is brought under cultivation4 ,the ,rotundifolia or ,muscadine grapes4 ,long before the northern ,labruscas had attained prominence in the vineyards of the ,north1 a grape had been domesticated partially in the ,south4 ,it is ,vitis rotundifolia 7,fig4 #c71 a species which runs riot from the ,potomac to the ,gulf1 thriving in many diverse soils1 but growing only in the southern climate and preferring the seacoast4 ,rotundifolia grapes have been cultivated somewhat for fruit or ornament from the earliest colonial times4 ,it is certain that wine was made from this species by the ,english settlers at ,jamestown4 ,vines of it are now to be found on arbors1 in gardens or half wild on fences in nearly every farm in the ,south ,atlantic states4 ,that the ,rotundifolias have not been more generally brought under cultivation is due to the bountifulness of the wild vines1 which has obviated the necessity of domesticating them4 ,the fruit of its varieties1 to a palate unaccustomed to them1 is not very acceptable1 having a musky flavor and odor and a sweet1 juicy pulp1 which is lacking in sprightliness4 ,many1 however1 acquire a taste for these grapes and find them pleasant eating4 ,the great defect of this grape is that the berries part from the pedicels as they ripen and perfect bunches cannot be secured4 ,in fact1 the crop is often harvested by shaking the vines so that the berries drop on sheets beneath4 ,despite these defects1 a score or more varieties of this species are now under general cultivation in the cotton-belt1 and interest in their domestication is now greater than in any other species1 with great promise for the future4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4 ,a shoot of ,vitis rotundifolia4 ,the stivalis or summer-grapes4 ,the ,south has another grape of remarkable horticultural possibilities4 ,this is ,vitis stivalis 7,fig4 #d71 the summer-grape or1 to distinguish it from the ,rotundifolias1 the bunch-grape of southern forests4 ,there are now a score or more well-known varieties of this species1 the best known being ,norton1 which probably originated with ,dr4 ,d4 ,n4 ,norton1 ,richmond1 ,virginia1 in the early part of the nineteenth century4 ,the berries of the true stivalis grapes are too small1 too destitute of pulp and too tart to make good dessert fruits1 but from them are made our best native red wines4 ,domestication of this species has been greatly retarded by a peculiarity of the species which hinders its propagation4 ,grapes are best propagated from cuttings1 but this species is not easily reproduced by this means and the difficulty of securing good young vines has been a serious handicap in its culture4 ,there are two subspecies of ,vitis stivalis which promise much for ,american viticulture4 ,vitis stivalis ,bourquiniana1 known only under cultivation and of very doubtful botanical standing1 furnishes ,american viticulture several valuable varieties4 ,chief of these is the ,delaware1 the introduction of which sixty years ago from the town of ,delaware1 ,ohio1 raised the standard in quality of ,new ,world grapes to that of ,old ,world4 ,no ,european grape has a richer or more delicate flavor1 or a more pleasing aroma1 than ,delaware4 ,while a northern grape1 it can be grown in the ,south1 and thrives under so many different climatic and soil conditions and under all is so fruitful1 that1 next to the ,concord1 it is the most popular ,american grape for garden and vineyard4 ,without question1 however1 ,delaware contains a trace of ,european blood4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4 ,a shoot of ,vitis stivalis4 ,another offshoot of this subspecies is ,herbemont1 which1 in the ,south1 holds the same rank that ,concord holds in the ,north4 ,the variety is grown only south of the ,ohio1 and in this great region it is esteemed by all for a dessert grape and for its light red wine4 ,it is one of the few ,american varieties which finds favor in ,france1 being cultivated in southwest ,france as a wine-grape4 ,its history goes back to a colony of ,french ,huguenots in ,georgia before the ,revolutionary ,war4 ,very similar to ,herbemont is ,lenoir1 also with a history tracing back to the ,french in the ,carolinas or ,georgia in the eighteenth century4 ,the other subspecies of ,vitis stivalis is ,vitis stivalis ,lincecumii1 the post-oak grape of ,texas and of the southern part of the ,mississippi ,valley4 ,recently this wild grape has been brought under domestication1 and from it has been bred a number of most promising varieties for hot and dry regions4 ,the ,vulpina or river-bank grapes4 ,the ,north1 too1 has a wine-grape from which wines nearly equaling those of the southern stivalis are made4 ,this is ,vitis vulpina 7,v4 riparia71 the river-bank grape1 a shoot of which is shown in ,fig4 #e1 the most widely distributed of any of the native species4 ,it grows as far north as ,quebec1 south to the ,gulf of ,mexico and from the ,atlantic to the ,rocky ,mountains4 ,fully a century ago1 a wine-grape of this species was cultivated under the name ,worthington1 but the attention of vineyardists was not turned to the ,vulpinas until after the middle of the last century1 when the qualities of its vines attracted the attention of ,french viticulturists4 ,phylloxera had been introduced from ,america into ,france and threatened the existence of ,french vineyards4 ,after trying all possible remedies for the scourge1 it was discovered that the insect could be overcome by grafting ,european grapes on ,american vines resistant to phylloxera4 ,a trial of the promising species of ,new ,world grapes showed that vines of this species were best suited for the reconstruction of ,french vineyards1 the vines being not only resistant to the phylloxera but also vigorous and hardy4 ,at present1 a large proportion of the vines of ,europe1 ,california and other grape-growing regions are grafted on the roots of this or of other ,american species1 and the viticulture of the world is thus largely dependent on these grapes4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4 ,a shoot of ,vitis vulpina4 ,the ,french found that a number of the ,vulpina 7,riparia7 grapes introduced for their roots were valuable as direct producers for wines4 ,the fruits of this species are too small and too sour for dessert1 but they are free from the disagreeable tastes and aromas of some of our native grapes and1 therefore1 make very good wines4 ,the best known of the varieties of this species is the ,clinton1 which is generally thought to have originated in the yard of ,dr4 ,noyes1 of ,hamilton ,college1 ,clinton1 ,new ,york1 about #ahbj4 ,it is1 however1 probably the ,worthington1 of which the origin is unknown1 renamed4 ,there are possibly a hundred or more grapes now under cultivation wholly or in part from ,vulpina1 most of them hybrids with the ,american ,labrusca and the ,european ,vinifera1 with both of which it hybridizes freely4 ,domesticated species of minor importance4 ,in the preceding paragraphs we have seen that four species of grapes constitute the foundation of ,american viticulture4 ,nine other species furnish pure-bred varieties and many hybrids with the four chief species or among themselves4 ,these are ,v4 rupestris1 ,v4 ,longii1 ,v4 ,champinii1 ,v4 ,munsoniana1 ,v4 cordifolia1 ,v4 candicans1 ,v4 bicolor1 ,v4 monticola and ,v4 ,berlandieri4 ,several of these nine species are of value in the vineyard or for stocks upon which to graft other grapes4 ,the domestication of all of these is just begun1 and each year sees them more and more in use in the vineyards of the country4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,i4--,two views of vineyards in ,california4 ,top1 a vineyard in the orchard region of central ,california2 bottom1 a vineyard in southern ,california4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,grape ,,regions ,,and ,,their ,,determinants ,happily1 the grape in its great diversity of forms accommodates itself to many conditions1 so that some variety of the several cultivated species will produce fruit for home use1 if not as a market commodity1 in every part of ,america adapted to general agriculture4 ,but commercial grape-growing on this continent is confined to a few regions1 in each of which it is profitable only in ideal situations4 ,in fact1 few other agricultural industries are more definitely determined by environment than the grape-industry4 ,where are the grape regions of ,america8 ,what determines the suitability of a region for grape-growing8 ,answers to these questions furnish clews to the culture of this fruit and help in estimating the potentialities of a new region or of a location for grape-growing4 ,,the ,,grape ,,regions ,,of ,,america ,there are four chief grape-growing regions in ,north ,america1 with possibly twice as many more subsidiary ones4 ,these several regions1 each of which has its distinct varieties and to less extent distinct species1 and in each of which grapes are grown for somewhat widely different purposes1 give a great variety of industrial conditions to the grape-growing of the continent4 ,nevertheless1 the regions have much in common in their environment4 ,it is from their differences and similarities that most can be learned in the brief discussions of the regions that follow4 ,the ,pacific slope4 ,the ,pacific slope takes precedence among the grape regions of the continent1 exceeding all others combined in the production of grapes and grape products4 ,california is the viticultural center of this great region1 grapes being grown within her bounds from the foot of ,mount ,shasta on the north to ,mexico on the south and from the foothills of the ,sierras on the east to the forest that borders the coast on the west4 ,so outlined1 ,california might appear to be one vast vineyard1 but it is only in favored valleys1 plains and low hills in the territory bounded that the vine is sufficiently well suited to be productive4 ,outliers of this main region of the ,pacific slope run north into ,oregon1 ,washington1 ,idaho and even into ,british ,columbia1 forced more and more eastward the farther north to escape humidity from the ocean which northward passes farther and farther inland4 ,other outliers of the main region are found eastward in ,nevada1 ,arizona1 ,new ,mexico and even ,utah and ,colorado1 though for the most part in these states grape-growing is still insignificant4 ,plate ,i shows typical vineyards in ,california4 ,the grapes grown on the ,pacific slope are almost exclusively ,vinifera varieties1 though a few ,american grapes are planted in the ,pacific ,northwest4 ,this is not because ,american varieties cannot be grown1 although they succeed rather less well here than on the eastern seaboard1 but because the ,viniferas are liked better1 and climate and soil seem exactly to suit them4 ,viticulture on the ,pacific slope is divided into three interdependent industries which are almost never quite independent of each other--the wine industry1 raisin industry and table-grape industry4 ,each of these industries depends on grapes more or less specially adapted to the product1 the special characteristics being secured chiefly through somewhat distinct types of grapes but depending partly on soil and climatic conditions4 ,the manufacture of unfermented grape-juice is not yet a success in this region for the reasons that ,vinifera grapes do not make a good unfermented juice1 and ,american grapes are not grown in sufficient quantities to warrant the establishment of grape-juice plants4 ,bioletti gives the extent of the grape-growing industry in ,california as follows3#a ,the vineyards of ,california covered in #aiab about #che1jjj acres4 ,of this total1 about #ahj1jjj acres were producing wine-grapes4 ,roughly1 #ej per cent of the wine was produced in the great interior valleys1 including most of the sweet wines2 #ce per cent was produced by the valleys and hillsides of the ,coast ranges1 including most of the dry wines2 the remaining #ae per cent was produced in ,southern ,california and included both sweet and dry4 ,the raisin-grape vineyards covered about #acj1jjj acres1 of which about #ij per cent were in the ,san ,joaquin ,valley1 #g per cent in the ,sacramento1 and #c per cent in ,southern ,california4 ,the shipping-grape vineyards are reckoned at #ge1jjj acres1 distributed about as follows3 #ej per cent in the ,sacramento ,valley1 #dj per cent in ,san ,joaquin1 #f per cent in ,southern ,california1 and #d per cent in the ,coast ranges4 ,the ,chautauqua grape-belt4 ,the ,chautauqua grape-belt1 lying along the northeastern shore of ,lake ,erie in ,new ,york1 ,pennsylvania and ,ohio1 is the second most important grape region in ,america4 ,the belt is a narrow strip of lowland averaging about three miles in width1 lying between ,lake ,erie and a high escarpment which bounds the belt on the south throughout its entire length of a hundred or more miles4 ,here climate and soil seem to be exceptionally favorable for grape-growing4 ,climate is the chief determinant of the boundaries of this belt1 since there are several types of soil upon which grapes do equally well in the region1 and when the climate changes at the two extremities of the belt where the escarpment becomes low1 or when the distance between the lake and the escarpment is great1 grape-growing ceases to be profitable4 ,the growers of this region are organized into selling associations so that estimates of acreage and yields are obtainable4 ,at present writing1 #aiah1 there are in this belt in ,new ,york about #ce1jjj acres of grapes2 in ,pennsylvania and ,ohio1 about #ae1jjj acres1 much the greater part of which is in ,pennsylvania4 ,the average yield of grapes to the acre for the region is about two tons4 ,the average total production for the past five years has been about #ajj1jjj tons1 of which #fe1jjj tons are shipped as table-grapes1 and #ce1jjj tons are used in the manufacture of wine and grape-juice4 ,among varieties1 ,concord reigns supreme in the ,chautauqua belt4 ,the writer1 in #aijf1 made a canvass of the region1 vineyard by vineyard1 and found that #ij per cent of the acreage of the belt was set to ,concord1 #c per cent to ,niagara1 #b per cent to ,worden and the remaining #e per cent to a dozen or more varieties of which ,moore ,early and ,delaware led4 ,the manufacture of grape-juice on a commercial scale began in the ,chautauqua belt and most of this product is still produced in the region4 ,here1 only ,concord grapes of the best quality are used for grape-juice4 ,the growth of this industry is most significant for the future of grape-growing in the region4 ,twenty years ago grape-juice was a negligible factor in the grape industry of this region2 at present1 the annual output is in the neighborhood of #d1jjj1jjj gallons4 ,grape-juice-makers now determine the price of grapes for the region1 and while the quantity used is less than that for table-grapes1 the time is not distant when it will be greater4 ,the ,niagara region4 ,fifty miles due north of the ,chautauqua belt1 across the end of ,lake ,erie and the narrow isthmus of ,niagara1 is a smaller belt on the southern shore of ,lake ,ontario so similar in soil1 climate and topography that in these respects the two regions might be considered as identical4 ,this is the ,niagara region1 ,canada's chief grape-producing area4 ,it is bounded on the north by ,lake ,ontario2 on the south1 at a distance of one to three miles by the high ,niagara escarpment2 to the east it crosses the ,niagara ,river into ,new ,york2 and in the west tapers to a point at ,hamilton on the westward extremity of ,lake ,ontario4 ,here1 again1 is the influence of climate distinctly manifested4 ,as this belt passes into ,new ,york1 it widens and the influence of ,lake ,ontario is less and less felt to the eastward1 and in consequence grape-growing becomes less and less profitable4 ,there were1 according to the ,ontario ,bureau of ,industries1 in #aiad1 about #aj1hej acres of grapes in the ,niagara region in ,canada1 and possibly #d1jjj acres more near the ,niagara ,river and along the shore of ,lake ,ontario in ,new ,york4 ,the ,niagara grape originated on the ,american side of the ,niagara region and is here planted more extensively than elsewhere4 ,grape-growing in this region is similar in all respects to that of the ,chautauqua belt1 the same varieties and nearly identical methods of pruning1 cultivation1 spraying and harvesting being employed4 ,the crop is chiefly used as table-grapes but the grape-juice industry is growing4 ,the ,central ,lakes region of ,new ,york4 ,in the central part of western ,new ,york are several remarkable bodies of water known as the ,central ,lakes4 ,three of these are large and deep enough to give ideal climatic conditions for grapes1 and about these lakes are grouped several important areas of vineyards1 making this the third most important grape region in ,america4 ,the region assumes further importance because most of the champagne made in ,america is produced here1 and it is the chief center of still wines in eastern ,america as well4 ,it is further distinguished by its distinctive types of grapes1 ,catawba and ,delaware taking the place of ,concord and ,niagara1 the sorts that usually predominate in eastern grape regions4 ,the main body of this region lies on the steep slopes of the high lands surrounding ,keuka ,lake4 ,on the shores of this lake there are1 approximately1 #ae1jjj acres of grapes4 ,adjacent to this main body are several smaller bodies about the neighboring lakes4 ,thus1 at the head of ,canandaigua ,lake and on its shores are about #bejj acres2 near ,seneca and between ,seneca and ,cayuga ,lakes there are probably #aejj acres more4 ,in a few specially favored places on other of these ,central ,lakes1 there are possibly #ajjj acres1 making all told for this region1 about #bj1jjj acres4 ,again it is climate that sets the seal of approval on the region for viticulture4 ,in addition to the benefits of deep bodies of water1 high and sloping lands cause the frosts to cease early in the spring and hold them in abeyance in the autumn1 giving an exceptionally long season4 ,champagne-making began here about #ahfj2 at present there are a score or more manufacturers of champagne1 wine and brandy1 the output being annually about #c1jjj1jjj gallons of wine and #b1jjj1jjj bottles of champagne4 ,recently the manufacture of grape-juice has begun and the industry is now flourishing4 ,minor grape regions4 ,viticulture is commercially important in several other regions than those outlined4 ,thus1 in the valley of the ,hudson ,river1 grapes have been grown commercially for nearly a hundred years1 the industry reaching its height between #ahhj and #ahij1 when there were #ac1jjj acres under cultivation4 ,for some years1 however1 grape-growing along the ,hudson has been on the decline4 ,another region in which viticulture reaches considerable magnitude is in several islands in ,lake ,erie near ,sandusky1 ,ohio1 the product going largely for the manufacture of wine4 ,at one time grapes were grown commercially on the banks of the ,ohio ,river about ,cincinnati and westward into ,indiana4 ,the industry here1 however1 is a thing of the past4 ,another region in which grape-growing was once of prime importance but now lags has its center at ,hermann1 ,missouri4 ,the newest grape-producing area worthy of note is in southwestern ,michigan about the towns of ,lawton and ,paw ,paw4 ,a small but very prosperous grape-growing region has its center at ,egg ,harbor1 ,new ,jersey4 ,ives is the mainstay among varieties in this region4 ,in the southern states1 ,muscadine grapes are grown in a small way in every part of the cotton-belt and varieties of other native species are to be found in home vineyards in the upland regions1 but nowhere in the ,south can it be said that grape-growing is a commercial industry4 ,,the ,,determinants ,,of ,,grape ,,regions ,climate1 soil1 site1 the surface features of the land1 insects1 fungi and commercial geography are the chief factors that determine regions for money-making in grape-growing4 ,this has been made plain in the foregoing discussion of grape regions1 but the several factors must be taken up in greater detail4 ,to bound the regions is of less importance than to understand why they exist--less needful to remember1 more needful to understand4 ,from what has been said1 the reader has no doubt already concluded that successful grape-growing is in largest measure due to kindliness in climate4 ,climate ,under the assumption1 then1 that climate1 of all factors1 is chief in playing providence to the grape1 let us examine somewhat critically the relations of climate to grape-growing4 ,when analyzed1 the essentials of climate1 as it governs grape-growing1 are found to be six3 first1 length of season2 second1 seasonal sum of heat2 third1 amount of humidity in summer weather2 fourth1 dates of spring and autumn frosts2 fifth1 winter temperature2 sixth1 air currents4 ,length of season4 ,to reach true perfection1 each grape variety has a length of season of its own4 ,with each1 if it is grown in too low a latitude1 the vine is uninterrupted in growth2 its leaves tend to become evergreen2 and not infrequently it produces at the same time blossoms1 green fruits and ripe fruits4 ,this is1 of course1 the extreme to which grapes pass in the far ,south4 ,again1 many northern varieties fail where southern grapes succeed because the fruits pass too rapidly from maturity to decay4 ,on the other hand1 very often southern grapes are hardy in vine in the ,north1 but the season is not sufficiently long for the fruit to mature and to acquire sufficient sugar to give them good keeping quality1 properly to pass through vinous fermentation1 or even to make a good unfermented grape-juice4 ,in the uneven topography of this continent1 it is not possible to state the range in latitude in which grapes can be cultivated to advantage1 for latitude is often set aside by altitude4 ,thus1 isothermal lines1 or lines of equal temperature1 are much curved in ,america and do not at all coincide with the parallels of latitude4 ,other factors1 of course1 than length of season enter into the ripening of grapes4 ,the daily range in temperature1 not always dependent on latitude1 affects ripening4 ,cool nights may offset warm days and delay ripening4 ,certainly rains1 fogs and humid air delay maturity4 ,the bottom heat of loose1 warm1 dry gravelly or stony soils hastens maturity4 ,sunshine secured by a sunny aspect or shelter hastens maturity4 ,the seasonal sum of heat4 ,successful cultivation of the grape depends on a sufficient amount of heat during the summer season4 ,the theory is that buds of the grape commence to start when the mean daily temperature reaches a certain height1 and that the sum of the mean daily temperature must reach a certain amount before grapes ripen4 ,manifestly1 this sum must vary much with different varieties1 low for the earliest sorts1 high for the latest4 ,there have been many observations as to the temperatures at which buds of the grape start growth1 so that it is now known that the temperature varies in accordance with locality and degree of maturity4 ,roughly speaking1 grape buds start at temperatures from #ej to #fj ,f4 ,the seasonal sum of heat for ripening is probably #afjj to #bdjj units4 ,a variety ought not to be planted1 therefore1 in a region in which the average seasonal sum of heat is not sufficiently high4 ,the seasonal sum of heat can be determined for a locality from data published by the ,united ,states ,weather ,bureau2 and by comparing with the sum of heat units in localities where a variety is known to thrive1 the grape-grower can determine whether there is sufficient heat for any particular variety4 ,the grape seldom suffers from hot weather in a grape region4 ,the fruit is sometimes scalded in the full blaze of a hot sun1 but the ample foliage of the vine usually furnishes protection against a burning sun4 ,at maturing time1 the heat of an unclouded sun1 if the air circulates freely1 insures a finely finished product4 ,deep planting helps to offset the harmful influences of warm climates4 ,humidity of summer weather4 ,the grape is very sensitive to moisture conditions1 and grows best in regions where the summer rainfall is comparatively light4 ,a damp and cloudy summer brings disaster to the vineyard in several ways2 as small growth of vine1 small set of fruit1 a crop of poor quality1 and the development of the several fungous diseases4 ,although the grape stands drought1 a superfluity of moisture in the soil may do little harm1 as is shown in irrigated vineyards1 but a humid air is fatal to success especially if the air is both warm and wet4 ,moist weather during the time of maturity is particularly disastrous to the grape1 as are frequent fogs4 ,cold wet weather in blooming time is the grape-grower's vernal bane1 since it most effectually prevents the setting of fruit4 ,it may be laid down as a rule that the grape lives by sunlight1 warmth and air--it often thrives on the desert's edge4 ,these considerations make it manifest that the monthly and seasonal means of precipitation must be considered in selecting a locality to grow grapes4 ,spring and autumn frosts4 ,the average date at which the last killing frost occurs in the spring often determines the limit in latitude at which the grape can be grown4 ,even in the most favored grape region of the continent1 killing frosts occasionally destroy the grape crop1 and there are few seasons in which frost does not take some toll4 ,thus on ,may #g1 #aiaf1 frost all but ruined the crop of wine- and table-grapes in the great grape region of northern ,california where frosts are seldom expected in ,may4 ,little or nothing can be done to protect grapes from frost4 ,windbreaks as often favor the frost as the vine1 and smudging or heating the vineyards is too expensive to be practical4 ,in growing grapes1 therefore1 the commonly recognized precaution of selecting a site near water1 on slopes or in a warm thermal belt must be exercised4 ,the limits of grape culture are also determined by early autumn frosts4 ,the grape stands two or three degrees of frost1 but anything lower usually destroys the crop4 ,here1 again1 the only precaution is to take pains in selecting the site4 ,the use of weather data and dates of life events of the grape4 ,these considerations of length of season1 humidity and spring and fall frosts make it plain that the grape-grower must synchronize these phases of climate with the life events of the grape4 ,in particular1 he must study weather data in relation to the blooming and ripening of grapes4 ,usually1 the necessary weather data may be secured from the nearest local weather bureau1 while the date of blooming and ripening may be obtained from the state experiment stations in the states where the grape is an important crop4 ,winter temperature4 ,varieties of native grapes are seldom injured in ,america by winter-killing1 since they are usually planted in climates in which wild grapes withstand winter conditions4 ,native varieties follow the rule that plant and climate are truly congenial in regions in which the plant thrives without the aid of man4 ,a few varieties of native grapes fare badly in the winter's cold of northern grape regions1 and the tender ,vinifera vine is at the mercy of the winter wherever the mercury goes below zero4 ,in cold climates1 therefore1 care must be exercised in selecting hardy varieties and in following careful cultural methods with the tender sorts4 ,if other climatic conditions are favorable1 however1 winter-killing is not an unsurmountable difficulty1 since the grape is easily protected from cold1 so easily that the tender ,viniferas may be grown in the cold ,north with winter protection4 ,air currents4 ,currents of air are of but local importance in growing tree-fruits1 but are of general and vital importance in growing the grape4 ,the direction1 force and frequency of prevailing winds are often controlling factors in the suppression of fungous diseases of the grape1 and the presence of fungi often means success or failure in regions in which the grape is planted4 ,winds are beneficial1 too1 when they bring warm air or dry air1 and when they keep frosty air in motion4 ,the air must move in all grape regions1 whether from caon1 mountain1 lake or sea4 ,sunlight1 warmth1 and air in motion are life to the grape4 ,sometimes winds may be detrimental2 as when too cold1 too blustering1 or when they bring hail1 the latter being about the most disastrous of all natural calamities4 ,windbreaks are of small value and are often worse than useless4 ,having planted his vineyard1 the grape-grower must take the winds as they blow4 ,soils for grapes ,a prime requisite for a vineyard being earth in which vines will grow1 successful grape-growing is eminently dependent on the selection of soil4 ,many mistakes are made in the great grape regions in planting on unsuitable soils1 the planter going on the assumption that any soil in a grape region should be good enough for the grape4 ,but the crust of the earth in grape regions is not all grape soil4 ,in ,new ,york1 for example1 much of the land in the three grape regions is better fitted for producing crops for the mason or road-mender than for the grape-grower4 ,other soils in these regions are fit for vineyards only when tiled1 and tiling does not make all wet land fit for tilling4 ,heavy1 clammy clays1 light sands1 soils parched with thirst1 thin or hungry soils--on all of these the grower may plant but will seldom harvest4 ,the ideal soil4 ,grapes may be well grown in a wide range of soils if the land is well drained1 open to air and if it holds heat4 ,but without these essentials1 whatever the soil1 all subsequent treatment fails to produce a good vineyard4 ,generally speaking1 the grape grows best in a light1 free-working1 gravelly loam1 but there are many good vineyards in gravelly or stony clays1 gravel or stone to furnish drainage1 let in the air and to hold heat4 ,contrary to general belief1 the grape seldom thrives in very sandy soils unless there is a fair admixture of clay1 considerable decomposing vegetable matter and a clay subsoil4 ,the latter1 however1 must not come too close to the surface4 ,some of the best vineyard lands in the country are very stony1 the stones hindering only in making the land difficult to till4 ,nearly all grapes require a friable soil1 compactness being a serious defect4 ,virgil1 writing in ,christ's time1 gave good advice as to soil for the vine3 ,a free loose earth is what the vines demand1 ,where wind and frost have help'd the lab'rer's hand1 ,and sturdy peasants deep have stirr'd the land4 ,cold1 churlish1 sticky or clammy clays are never to the liking of the grape4 ,great fertility is not necessary in grape lands4 ,indeed1 the grape is conspicuous among cultivated plants for ability to nourish itself where the food supply is scant4 ,soils naturally too rich produce an overgrowth of vine1 the season's wood does not mature1 the crop does not set1 and the grapes lack sugar1 size1 color and flavor4 ,good physical condition and warmth in a well-watered1 well-aired soil enable the grape to search far and wide for its food4 ,drainage4 ,no cultivated grape endures a wet soil2 all demand drainage4 ,a few sorts may thrive for a time in moist1 heavy land1 but more often they do not live though they may linger4 ,the water-table should be at least two feet from the surface4 ,if by chance this comes naturally1 so much the better1 but otherwise the land must be tile-drained4 ,sloping land is by no means always well drained1 many hillsides having a subsoil so impervious or so retentive of moisture that under-drainage is a necessity4 ,the texture of the land is usually improved so greatly by good drainage that the grower has little need to rely on the clemency of the season in carrying on vineyard cultivation in well-drained land4 ,soil adaptations4 ,in the refinement of viticulture1 grape-growers find that particular varieties grow best in a particular soil1 the likes and dislikes being determined only by trial1 for the peculiarities which adapt a soil to a variety are not analyzable4 ,some varieties1 on the other hand1 the ,concord being a good example1 grow fruitfully in a great variety of soils4 ,each of the several species with their varieties has quite distinct adaptations to soils4 ,this is taken advantage of in planting varieties on uncongenial soils after they have been grafted on a vine which finds itself at home in the particular soil4 ,much has been accomplished in growing varieties on uncongenial soils by consorting them with other stocks1 an operation which has brought forth volumes of discussion as to the adaptabilities of cions to stocks and stocks to soils1 subjects to receive attention on a later page4 ,insects and fungi ,the profitable grape regions of the country have all been established in regions comparatively free from grape insects and fungi4 ,if pests came later in considerable numbers1 the industry1 in the old days1 perished4 ,here and there in the agricultural regions of the country may be found a sorry company of halt and maimed vines1 remnants of once flourishing vineyards1 brought to their miserable condition by some scourge of insects or fungi4 ,the advent of spraying and of better knowledge of the habits of the pests has greatly lessened the importance of parasites as a factor in determining the value of a region for grape-growing2 but even in the light of the new knowledge1 it is not wise to go against ,nature in regions where pests are strongly intrenched4 ,commercial factors ,the dominant factors that lead to the planting of large areas to any one fruit are often economic ones2 as transportation1 markets1 labor1 facilities for making by-products1 and opportunity to join in buying and selling organizations4 ,all of these factors play an important part in determining the bounds of grape regions1 but a lesser part than in the establishment of large areas of other fruits1 for the reason that the grape is so largely grown for raisins1 wine1 champagne and grape-juice1 products condensed in form1 made with little labor1 easily transported1 which keep long and find ready market at any time4 ,again1 where natural conditions are favorable for grape-growing1 the crop comes almost as a gift from ,nature2 whereas1 if the grower must breast the blows of unfavorable natural circumstances1 no matter how favorable the economic factors may be1 the vineyard is seldom profitable4 ,natural factors1 therefore1 outweigh economic ones in grape-growing1 but the latter must be considered in seeking a site for a vineyard1 a task discussed under several heads to follow4 ,accessibility to markets4 ,markets ought to be accessible in commercial grape-growing4 ,a location in which there is a good local market1 and at the same time ample facilities for shipping to distant markets1 is desirable4 ,if there are also opportunities to dispose of any surplus to makers of raisins1 wine or grape-juice1 the grower has well-nigh attained the ideal4 ,further to be desired are good roads1 short hauls1 quick transportation1 reasonable freight rates1 refrigerator service and coperative agencies4 ,the more of these advantages a grower has at his disposal1 the less likely he is to fail in commercial competition4 ,general versus local markets4 ,the grower must be reminded rather than informed that he must decide in locating his vineyard whether he will grow for distant markets1 for manufacturing into grape products1 or for local markets4 ,determination to grow grapes once made1 subsequent procedure at every step depends on the disposition to be made of the product4 ,summarized1 the differences in growing grapes for the two markets are3 ,for the general market3 the acreage should be large2 the market may be distant2 the varieties few2 the cost of production low2 sales large and prices low2 the dealings are with middlemen2 and extensive culture is practiced4 ,for the local market3 the acreage may be small2 the market must be near and prices must be high2 the sales are direct to the consumer2 there must be succession in ripening2 and intensive culture is practiced4 ,for the general market1 the vineyard is the unit2 for the local market1 the variety should be the unit4 ,in this discussion1 however1 large acreage and extensive culture set against small acreage and intensive culture may mislead4 ,this is a case in which a large endeavor may be a small endeavor1 and a small endeavor a large one2 or1 in which it may be well to take the advice of ,virgil1 who advised ,roman vineyardists1 ,praise great estates2 farm a small one4 ,the grape-growing of the times tends more and more to growing for general markets4 ,the grower plants to skim a comparatively small return from a large area4 ,this division of grape-growing is now well developed in ,america4 ,intensive grape-growing for local markets is not well developed4 ,there are1 however1 many opportunities in ,america for easy triumphs in fruit-growing in the planting of vineyards for local markets4 ,no other fruit responds to fine art in culture so well as the grape4 ,given choicely good varieties and a finely finished product1 and the grower may have almost what he desires for the produce of his skill4 ,with the grape1 too1 palm of merit goes with skill in culture2 among all who grow plants1 only the florist can rival the viticulturist in guiding the development of a plant to a special end4 ,in cultivating1 fertilizing1 training1 grafting1 pruning1 spraying1 in every cultural operation1 the grape-grower has opportunities to sell his skill not given in so high degree to the grower of other fruits4 ,labor4 ,a great advantage in the congregation of vineyardists in grape regions is found when labor must be obtained4 ,skilled labor is required to cultivate the vine1 and such labor can be freely secured only in centers of viticulture4 ,grape-growing is a specialists' business1 and it takes more than a day or a season to make a vine-dresser out of a farmer1 gardener or an orchardist4 ,expert labor is most easily obtained and is of best quality where grapes abound4 ,common labor must be somewhat abundant1 also1 in good vineyard locations1 for such rush tasks as tying and picking4 ,in these two operations1 women1 children or other unskilled labor may be employed to advantage4 ,the grape harvest must often be hurried1 and to keep it in full swing a near-by city from which to draw pickers is a great asset4 ,vineyard sites4 ,within a grape region1 the site is important in determining where to plant4 ,the site is the local position of the vineyard4 ,sites cannot be standardized1 and therefore no two are alike4 ,the cardinal natural factors to be secured in a site are warmth1 sun1 air and freedom from frost4 ,these factors have been discussed in a general way under the climate of grape regions1 but one needs to particularize a little more closely to ascertain how they affect individual vineyards4 ,warmth1 sun1 air and frostlessness are best secured by proximity to water1 high land and proper exposure4 ,proximity to water4 ,the favorable influences of water are well illustrated in the grape regions of ,new ,york1 ,pennsylvania1 ,ohio and ,canada4 ,all of the grape districts in these regions are bounded on one or more sides by water4 ,the equalizing effects of large bodies of water on temperature1 warmer winter and cooler summer1 are so well known as scarcely to need comment4 ,hardly less important than the effects of water on temperature are the off-shore breezes of night and the in-shore breezes of day which blow on large bodies of water4 ,these keep the air of the vineyard in constant motion and so prevent frosts in spring and autumn1 and also dry foliage and fruit so that spores of fungi have difficulty in finding foothold4 ,but if water brings fogs1 dews and humidity1 as does the ,pacific1 grapes must be planted inland2 otherwise leaf1 bloom and fruit are born in the blight of fungi4 ,the benign influences of water are felt in the eastern grape regions at distances of one to four miles1 seldom farther4 ,these narrow belts about the eastern waters are bounded on the landward side by high bluffs over which many showers fail to pass and which protect the belts below from heavy dews4 ,where the background of bluffs in these regions sinks to level land1 vineyards cease4 ,vineyards are usually some distance above the water1 the range in altitude running from fifty to five hundred feet4 ,where the altitude is much higher1 immunity to frosts and winter freezing ceases1 for the reason that the atmosphere is rarer and drier so that heat radiates rapidly from the land4 ,as the height increases1 also1 the revels of the wind play havoc with the vines4 ,yet1 one is often surprised to find good vineyards at the level of the lakes or1 on the other hand1 crowning high hills4 ,altitude in grape-growing must1 therefore1 be determined by experiment4 ,we know very little of the formation of the thermal belts on high land so favorable to the grape4 ,the lay of the land4 ,we associate the grape with rugged land2 as the vines on the banks of the ,rhine1 the rolling lands of ,burgundy1 the slopes of ,vesuvius and ,olympus1 the high hills of ,madeira1 the cloud-capped mountains of ,teneriffe1 mountain slopes in ,california and the escarpments of grape regions in eastern ,america4 ,these examples prove how well adapted rolling lands1 inclined plains and even steep and rocky hillsides are to the culture of the vine4 ,virgil long ago wrote1 ,bacchus is partial to broad1 sunny hills4 ,yet rolling lands are not essential to the culture of the grape1 for in ,europe and ,america very good grapes are grown on unsheltered plains1 provided the land has an elevation on one or more boundaries above the surrounding country4 ,if the conditions of soil and climate which the grape requires can be found on level land or moderate slopes1 such situations are much better than steep declivities1 since on these the cost of all vineyard operations is greater and heavy rains erode the soil4 ,the soil on hills1 too1 is often scant and niggardly4 ,level land1 however1 must not be shut in on all sides by higher land as untimely frost will often lay waste vines in such a situation4 ,exposures4 ,the exposure1 or the slope of the land toward a point of the compass1 is important in choosing a site for the vineyard1 although the value of particular exposures is often exaggerated4 ,let it be remembered that good grapes may be grown in vineyards exposed to any point of the compass1 but that slight advantages may sometimes come1 depending on the particular environment of the plantation1 and then solve the problem according to conditions4 ,the following are theories as to exposure3 ,a southern exposure is warmer and hence earlier than a northern1 and is1 therefore1 the best slope for early grapes as well as for very late ones liable to be caught by frost4 ,northward and westward slopes retard the leafing and blooming period1 thus often enabling the grape to escape untimely spring frosts2 though to plant on such slopes may be robbing ,peter to pay ,paul1 as what is gained in retardation in spring may be lost in the fall with the result that the vines may be caught by frost and may fail to ripen their crop4 ,frost damage is usually greatest on a bold eastern slope1 and vines suffer most in winter freezes on this exposure1 since the direct rays of the rising sun strike the frozen plants so that they are more injured than otherwise by rapid thawing4 ,in locations near bodies of water1 the best slope is toward the water1 regardless of direction4 ,the exposure may sometimes be selected to advantage with reference to the prevailing winds4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,ii4--,fitting the land for planting4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,propagation ,the grape commends itself to commercial and amateur growers alike by its ease of propagation4 ,the vines of all species may be propagated from seed1 and all but one of the several cultivated species may be grown readily from cuttings or layers4 ,all yield to grafting of one kind or another4 ,seeds are planted only to produce new varieties4 ,at one time stocks were grown from seed1 but this practice has fallen into disrepute because of the great variations in the seedlings4 ,varieties on their own roots and stocks are for most part propagated from cuttings4 ,in the production of stocks1 the viticulturist sets the orchardist a good example1 for there can be no question that all tree-fruits suffer from being grown on seedling stocks4 ,the grape is a vigorous1 self-assertive plant and once it is started1 whether from seeds1 cuttings or layers1 seldom fails to grow4 ,,seedlings ,growing seedling grapes is the simplest of operations4 ,the seeds are taken from the grapes at harvest time1 after which they must pass through a resting period of a few months4 ,at once or in a month or two1 the seeds should be stratified in moist sand and stored in a cold place until spring1 when they may be sown in flats or in the open ground2 or seed may be sown in a well-prepared piece of garden land in the autumn4 ,when planted in the open1 autumn or spring1 the seeds are put in at the depth of an inch1 an inch or two apart and in rows convenient for cultivation4 ,subsequent care consists of cultivation if the seed are sown in garden rows1 and in pricking out when true leaves appear if planted in flats4 ,in ground that crusts1 an expedient is to mix grape seed with apple seed2 the apple seedlings1 being more vigorous1 break the crust and act as nurse plants to the more tender grapes4 ,sometimes it is helpful to the young plants to mulch the ground lightly with lawn clippings or moss4 ,grape seedlings grow rapidly1 often making from two to three feet of wood in a season4 ,the young plants are thinned or set to stand four or five inches apart in the nursery row4 ,at the end of the first season1 all plants are cut back severely and almost entirely covered with earth by plowing up to the row on both sides4 ,this earth1 of course1 is leveled the following spring4 ,if the seasons are propitious and all goes well1 the seedlings are ready for the vineyard at the end of the second season1 but if for any reason they have fared badly during their first two years1 it is much better to give them a third season in the nursery4 ,seedling vines are seldom as vigorous as those from cuttings1 and unusual care must be taken in setting in the vineyard1 though the operation is essentially the same as that to be described for vines from cuttings4 ,the third season the vines are kept to a single shoot and are pinched back when the canes reach a length of five or six feet4 ,in the autumn1 they are pruned back to two or three feet4 ,in the spring of the fourth season1 the trellis is put up and a few fruits may be allowed to ripen4 ,the vines of promise may now be selected4 ,the plants1 however1 must fruit twice or oftener before it can be told whether hopes are consummated or must be deferred4 ,growing seedlings for new varieties is a game full of chances in which1 while there may be little immediate or individual gain1 there is much pleasure4 ,it is hardly too much to say that the grape industry of eastern ,america1 with its #cjj1jjj acres and #aejj varieties1 betokens the good that has come from growing seedling grapes4 ,,dormant ,,cuttings ,vines for vineyards1 with the exception of varieties of ,rotundifolia1 are propagated from cuttings of hard wood taken from the season's canes when the vines are pruned4 ,the inactive buds in these cuttings may be brought into active growth1 and roots induced to grow from the cut surfaces by various means4 ,by this miracle of ,nature1 an infinite number of plants1 in an endless procession1 may be propagated from the product of a single seed1 each plant complete in its heredity and differing from its fellows only in accordance with environment4 ,time to make cuttings4 ,a good cutting should have a protective callus over the cut and this requires time1 so that the sooner cuttings are made after the wood becomes thoroughly dormant the better4 ,besides1 the cutting should use its stored food material for the formation of adventitious roots rather than have it pass into buds1 as it quickly does late in the dormant season when buds are about to open4 ,if cuttings must be made late in the season1 transplanting must be delayed as long as possible1 and the cuttings be set in a northerly aspect to prevent the premature development of the buds4 ,however1 the grape responds surprisingly well to the call of ,nature in forming roots1 and great importance need not be attached to the time at which the cuttings are made4 ,selecting cutting wood4 ,cuttings are made from one-year-old wood2 that is1 canes produced during the summer are taken for cuttings in the fall4 ,immature canes and those with soft1 spongy wood ought not to be used4 ,strong vigorous canes should be given preference over weak growth1 but most nurserymen maintain that very large canes do not make as good cuttings as do those of medium size1 the objection to large size being that the cuttings do not root as well4 ,short-jointed wood is better than long-jointed4 ,cuttings from vines weakened by insects and fungi are liable to be weak1 soft1 immature and poorly stored with food4 ,the wood should be smooth and straight4 ,making the cutting4 ,grape cuttings vary in length from four inches to two feet1 the length depending on the climate and the soil of the nursery and the species and variety4 ,the hotter and drier the climate and the lighter the soil1 the longer the cutting needs to be4 ,six to nine inches1 however1 is the usual length in the climate of eastern ,america1 while on the ,pacific slope the length varies from eight to fifteen inches4 ,for convenience in handling1 all cuttings should be approximately of the same length1 to insure which some kind of simple gauge is needed4 ,various gauges are used1 as marks cut in the working table1 a stick of the required length1 or a cutting-box4 ,in making the cuttings1 a slanting cut is made close below the lowest bud1 while about an inch of wood is left above the upper bud4 ,when possible1 a heel of old wood is left at the lower end2 or1 still better1 a whorl of buds1 as roots usually start from each bud4 ,the finished cuttings are tied in bundles1 all butts one way1 and are then ready to be heeled-in4 ,this is done by burying in trenches1 butts up1 and covering with a few inches of soil4 ,it is important to invert the cuttings in trenching1 since otherwise the tops often start to grow before the butts are properly calloused1 and it is very essential that the tops remain dormant until roots appear to support the new growth4 ,planting the cuttings4 ,cuttings are planted in the nursery in rows wide enough apart for cultivation and two or three inches apart in the row4 ,trenches are made with a plow2 perpendicular if the cuttings are shorter1 and a little slanting if longer than six inches4 ,the cuttings are set at a depth which permits the upper buds to project above the ground1 as shown in ,fig4 #f4 ,when the cuttings in a row are placed1 two inches of soil are put in and pressed firmly about the base of the cuttings4 ,then the trench is evenly filled with earth and the cultivator follows4 ,doing duty by the young plants consists in cultivating often during the summer to keep the soil moist and mellow4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f4 ,planting cuttings4 ,the cuttings are planted as soon as the ground is warm and dry enough to work4 ,to delay planting too long invites injury from drought1 which almost annually parches the land in eastern ,america4 ,irrigation gives more leeway to planting time in the ,west4 ,when warm sunny weather1 accompanied by an occasional shower1 predominates1 the cuttings start growth almost at once1 as shown in ,fig4 #g1 and by fall1 all things being propitious1 make a growth from four to six feet4 ,with the cuttings three inches and the rows three feet apart1 #eh1jhj vines may be grown to the acre4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g4 ,a cutting beginning growth4 ,single-eye cuttings4 ,new and rare varieties are propagated from single-eye cuttings1 thereby doubling the number of plants from the propagating wood4 ,this method gives an opportunity1 also1 to start the work of propagating early in the season1 since single-eye cuttings are nearly always rooted by artificial heat4 ,but the greatest value of the method is that some varieties which cannot be propagated in any other way readily grow under artificial heat from single-eyes4 ,well-grown vines so propagated are as good as those grown by any other method1 but the great disadvantage is that unless much care and skill are used1 vines from these cuttings are poor and quite worthless4 ,it is also a more expensive method than growing from long cuttings out of doors4 ,there are several ways of making single-eye cuttings4 ,the most common form of the cutting is the single bud with an inch of wood above and below1 the ends being cut with a slant4 ,some modify this form by cutting away the wood on the side opposite the bud1 exposing the pith the whole length of the cutting4 ,in another form1 a square cut is made directly under the bud1 leaving an inch and a half of wood above4 ,or this last form is modified by making a long sloping cut from the bud to the upper end1 thereby exposing the maximum amount of cambium4 ,advantages are claimed for each form1 but these are mostly imaginary1 and the cutting may be made to suit the fancy of the propagator if a few essentials are observed4 ,single-eye cuttings are made in the fall and are stored in sand until late winter1 about ,february in ,new ,york4 ,at this time the cuttings are planted horizontally an inch deep in a sand propagating bench in a cool greenhouse4 ,if the cuttings are not well calloused1 they remain one or two weeks in a temperature of #dj to #ej without bottom heat1 but well-made cuttings are calloused and ready to strike root so that brisk bottom heat can be applied at once4 ,after six weeks or two months1 the young plants are ready to pot off or to transplant in a cold-frame or cool greenhouse4 ,if but a few plants are to be grown1 they may be started in two- or three-inch pots1 shifting into larger pots once or twice as growth progresses4 ,in early summer1 the young plants are set in nursery rows out of doors and by fall the young vines should be strong and vigorous4 ,single-eyes are also started in hot-beds1 cold-frames and even in the open air without the aid of artificial heat4 ,in hot-beds and cold-frames1 the method is only a modification of that described for greenhouses4 ,out of doors the cuttings are given the same conditions under which long cuttings are rooted1 except that the whole of the short cutting is buried an inch deep in the nursery row4 ,,herbaceous ,,cuttings ,grapes are easily propagated from herbaceous cuttings1 although since the vines are weak and the method expensive1 they are seldom used4 ,green cuttings are usually taken from plants forced in greenhouses1 but may be taken in summer from vineyard vines4 ,a green cutting is usually cut with two buds with the leaf at the upper one left on4 ,the cuttings are set in propagating beds of sand1 or pots of sand1 in close frames under which there is brisk bottom heat4 ,to prevent excessive evaporation1 the frames are kept closed and the atmosphere warm and moist4 ,as growth progresses1 or if mildew appears1 the frames are more and more ventilated4 ,in two to four weeks1 the cuttings should have rooted sufficiently well to be transplanted to pots4 ,herbaceous cuttings made in the summer must be kept under glass until the following spring4 ,,layering ,the grape is readily propagated from layers of either green or mature wood1 the method being certain1 convenient and producing extra vigorous plants4 ,the drawback is that fewer plants can be obtained by layering than from cuttings with a given amount of wood4 ,varieties of some species1 however1 cannot be propagated by cuttings1 and with these layering becomes of supreme importance to the propagator4 ,nearly all varieties of ,rotundifolia and some of stivalis are best grown from layers4 ,so far as is known1 all varieties of cultivated species may be grown by layering1 and since the method is simple and certain and the vines vigorous and easily handled1 this method is commended to small growers of grapes4 ,dormant wood layering4 ,the work of layering mature wood usually begins in the spring1 but the vines from which the layers are to be taken should have received preliminary treatment the preceding season4 ,the vines to be layered are severely cut back a year or more before the layering is to be done to induce a vigorous growth of canes4 ,strong vigorous canes are laid in a shallow trench1 two to five inches deep1 in which they are fastened with wood or wire pegs or staples4 ,the trench is then partly filled with fine1 moist1 mellow earth which is firmly packed about the cane4 ,roots strike and shoots spring from each joint4 ,when the young plants are well above ground1 the trench is completely filled1 and then1 or a little later1 the young plants are staked to keep them out of the way of the cultivator4 ,the following fall the young vines are ready to transplant4 ,the essentials of layering have been given1 but a number of non-essentials may be helpful under some conditions4 ,thus1 dormant wood may be layered in the fall1 in which case the cane is usually notched or ringed at the joint to induce the formation of roots4 ,the less the number of joints covered1 the stronger the young vines1 so that while the number is usually five1 six or more extra vigorous plants may be obtained by covering only one or two joints4 ,in propagating ,rotundifolia grapes1 it is expected that lateral branches will make the tops of the new plants4 ,these1 at the time of layering1 are cut back to eight or ten inches1 all on the same side of the vine1 and are not left closer together than twelve inches4 ,in nursery practice1 ,rotundifolia vines are trained along the ground for layering4 ,vines on arbors1 in greenhouses1 or on sides of buildings are easily layered in boxes or pots of soil4 ,plants grown from layers are not as conveniently handled as those from cuttings4 ,green wood layering4 ,layered plants from green wood are sometimes grown to multiply quickly new or rare varieties4 ,the work is accomplished in midsummer by bending down and covering shoots of the present season's growth4 ,strong plants are seldom obtained from summer-layering and it is never safe to attempt to grow more than one or two plants from a shoot4 ,the most forceful culture possible must be given summer-layered plants after the separation from the parent vine4 ,it is very generally agreed that plants from summer-layers not only do not give good plants1 but that the parent vine is injured in taking an offspring from it in this way4 ,layering to fill vacancies in the vineyard4 ,there is sure to be an occasional gap even in the best vineyard4 ,young plants set in vacancies must compete with neighboring full-grown vines1 and often in a bit of land so unfavorable that it may have been the cause of the demise of the original occupant4 ,under these circumstances1 the newcomer stands a poor chance for life4 ,a plant introduced by layering a strong cane from a near-by vine has little difficulty in establishing itself on its own roots1 after which it can be separated from the parent4 ,such layering is best done by taking in early spring a strong1 unpruned cane from an adjoining plant in the same row and covering an end joint six inches deep in the vacant place1 but leaving sufficient wood on the end of the cane to turn up perpendicularly out of the soil4 ,this free end becomes the new plant and by the following fall or spring may be separated from its parent4 ,not infrequently the young plant bears fruit the second season on its own roots4 ,this method is of especial value in small plantations1 whereby the trouble of ordering one or two plants is avoided and the advantage of early fruiting is obtained4 ,,grafting ,since grafting grapes is intimately connected with stocks1 the growing of which is a modern practice1 grafting is thought of as a new process in growing this fruit4 ,quite to the contrary1 it is an old practice4 ,cato1 the sturdy old ,roman grape-grower who lived nearly two hundred years before ,christ1 speaks of grafting grapes1 although ,theophrastus1 the ,greek philosopher1 wrote a hundred years before the vine cannot be grafted upon itself4 ,however1 until it became necessary to grow ,vinifera grapes on resistant stocks to avoid the ravages of phylloxera1 grafting the grape was not at all common among vineyardists and is not now except where vines susceptible to phylloxera must be grown in consort with roots resistant to this insect1 or to modify the vigor of the top by a stock more vigorous or less vigorous4 ,for these two purposes1 grafting is now in some grape regions one of the most important vineyard operations4 ,in grafting the grape1 there is a time and a way1 not so particular as many believe1 but rather more particular than in grafting most other fruits4 ,if the essentials of grafting are kept in mind1 one has considerable choice of details4 ,grafting consists in detaching and inserting one or several buds of a mother plant on another plant of the same or a similar kind2 the bud stock is the cion1 the rooted plant is the stock4 ,the essentials may be set forth in three statements3 ,first1 the prime essential is that the cambium layers1 the healing tissue lying between the bark and wood1 meet in the cion and stock2 second1 that method of grafting is best in which the cut tissues heal most rapidly and most completely2 third1 the greater the amount of cambium contact1 as compared with the whole cut surface1 the more rapidly and completely the wounds will heal4 ,out of a great many1 the following are a few of the simplest methods in use in grafting the grape1 any one of which may be modified more or less as occasion calls4 ,vineyard grafting in eastern ,america4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #h4 ,cutting off the trunk4 ,in eastern ,america1 the growing vine is usually grafted4 ,at the ,new ,york ,agricultural ,experiment ,station1 the operation is very successfully performed on old vines as follows3 ,preparatory to grafting1 the earth is removed from around the stock to a depth of two or three inches4 ,the vines are then decapitated at the surface of the ground and at right angles with the axis of the stock4 ,if the grain is straight1 the cleft can be made by splitting with a chisel1 but more often it will have to be done with a thin-bladed saw through the center of the stock for at least two inches4 ,the cion is cut with two buds1 the wedge being started at the lower bud4 ,the cleft in the stock is then opened1 and the cion inserted so that the cambium of stock and cion are in intimate contact4 ,if the stock is large1 two cions are used4 ,the several operations in grafting are shown in ,figs4 #h1 #i1 #aj and #aa4 ,grafting wax is unnecessary1 in fact is often worse than useless1 and if the stock is large the graft is not even tied4 ,raffia is used to tie the graft in young vines4 ,it suffices to mound the graft to the top of the cion with earth1 for the purposes of protection and to keep the graft moist4 ,two or three times during the summer1 sprouts coming from the stock or roots from the cion should be removed4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #i4 ,cutting the cleft4 ,a method used with fair success at the ,new ,york ,agricultural ,experiment ,station with young vines is to plant one-year-old stocks in the nursery row as soon as the ground can be worked in the spring4 ,just as the vines start in growth1 these are cut off at the surface of the ground and whip- or cleft-grafted with a two-eye cion4 ,the graft is tied with raffia1 after which it is all but covered with a mound of soil4 ,this is a case in which the work must be done at the accepted time1 as it is fatal to delay4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aj4 ,inserting the cion4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aa4 ,the completed graft4 ,r4 ,d4 ,anthony describes another method as follows3#b ,a method which a ,pennsylvania grower of ,viniferas has found very satisfactory is to root the ,vinifera cuttings1 and grow them one year on their own roots2 then the vine which is to be used as a stock is planted in the vineyard and the rooted cutting planted beside it so that the shoots from the two may be brought in contact with each other4 ,in ,june when the plants are in full growth1 two vigorous shoots 7one from each vine7 are brought together and a cut two or three inches long made in each parallel to the length of the cane removing from one-third to one-half of the thickness of the shoot4 ,these flat surfaces exposed by the cuts are then brought into contact with the cambium tissues touching and are tied in place4 ,the tops are checked somewhat by breaking off some of the growth4 ,the following spring the ,vinifera roots are cut off below the graft and the top of the stock above the graft is removed4 ,in the subsequent care of these young vines1 the grower must take time by the forelock and tie the grafts to suitable stakes2 otherwise they are liable to be broken off at the union by wind or careless workmen4 ,grafted vineyards must have extra good care in all cultural operations1 and even with the best of care from #e to #ej per cent of the grafts will fail or grow so poorly as to make regrafting necessary1 this being the most unfavorable circumstance of field grafting4 ,regrafting is done one joint lower than the first operation to avoid dead wood2 this brings the union below the surface of the ground1 and the vineyardist must expect many cion roots to try his patience4 ,vineyard grafting on the ,pacific slope4 ,vineyard grafting1 according to ,bioletti1#c was formerly the commonest method of starting resistant vineyards in ,california4 ,after stating that it is best whenever possible to plant good cuttings rather than roots1 and that the grafting should usually be done the year after planting1 ,bioletti gives the following directions for grafting3#d ,wherever possible the vines should be grafted at or above the surface of the ground4 ,in many cases1 however1 it will be necessary to go below the surface to find a smooth1 suitable part of the stock where grafting is possible4 ,the kind of graft to use will depend on the size of the stock4 ,for stocks up to #b_/c inch in diameter the methods of tongue and wire grafting already described are the best4 ,for larger vines up to #c_/d inch a modification of the ordinary tongue graft is the best4 ,if the tongue graft were made in the usual way with stocks of this size1 it would be necessary to use excessively large scions1 which is undesirable1 or to have the barks unite only on one side4 ,by cutting the bevel of the stock only part way through the vines1 it is possible to make a smaller scion unite on both sides4 ,for still larger vines1 those over #c_/d inch in diameter1 the best graft is the ordinary cleft4 ,no wax or clay should be used on the graft4 ,anything which completely excludes the air prevents the knitting of the tissues4 ,a little clay1 cloth1 or a leaf may be placed over the split in the stock when the cleft graft is used1 simply to keep out the soil4 ,otherwise there is nothing more suitable or more favorable to the formation of a good union that can be put around the graft than loose1 moist soil4 ,if the soil is clayey1 stiff or lumpy1 it is necessary to surround the union with loose soil or sand brought from outside the vineyard4 ,it will usually be necessary to tie the grafts4 ,a well-made cleft graft often holds the scion with sufficient force to prevent its displacement and no tying is necessary4 ,wherever there is any danger of the graft moving1 however1 it should be tied4 ,there is nothing better for this purpose than ordinary raffia4 ,the raffia should not be bluestoned1 as it will last long enough without and will be sure to rot in a few weeks1 and the trouble of cutting it will be avoided4 ,cotton string or anything which will keep the graft in place for a few weeks may also be used4 ,as soon as the graft is made and tied1 a stake should be driven and the union covered with a little earth4 ,the hilling up of the graft may be left for a few hours1 except in very hot1 dry weather4 ,finally1 the whole graft should be covered with a broad hill of loose soil #b inches above the top of the scion4 ,field grafting should not be commenced as a rule1 except in the hottest and driest localities1 before the middle of ,march4 ,before that there is too much danger that heavy rains may keep the soil soaked for several weeks--a condition very unfavorable to the formation of good unions4 ,in any case the grafting should not be done while the soil is wet4 ,grafting may continue as long as the cuttings can be kept dormant4 ,it is difficult to graft successfully1 however1 when the bark of the stock becomes loose1 as it does soon after the middle of ,april in most localities4 ,as in the ,east1 it is necessary in ,california to remove suckers from the roots and roots from the cions once or twice during the summer4 ,suckers should not be allowed to overshade the graft1 though it is best not to remove them until danger of disturbing the graft is past4 ,the grafts should be staked and the vines looked after as recommended for eastern conditions4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,iii4--,cover-crops4 ,top1 cow-horn turnips2 bottom1 rye4 ,bench grafting4 ,the resistant vineyards of ,france and ,california are now started almost entirely with bench-grafted vines4 ,it has been learned in these regions that a grafted vine1 to be a permanent success1 must have the consorting parts perfectly united1 and that the sooner the grafting is done in the life of stock and cion the better the union4 ,cions of the variety wanted are1 therefore1 grafted on resistant roots or resistant cuttings in the workshop and then planted in the nursery4 ,bench grafting has the advantage over field grafting in time gained and in securing a fuller stand of vines4 ,bench grafting really begins with the selection of cuttings1 since success largely depends on good cuttings of both stock and cion4 ,cuttings are taken from strong healthy vines and are of medium size1 with short to medium joints4 ,the best size is one-third of an inch in diameter1 that of stock and cion being the same since the two must match exactly4 ,the cutting-wood may be taken from the mother vines at any time during the dormant season up to two weeks before buds swell in the spring1 and the cuttings can then be made as convenience dictates1 though meanwhile the wood must be kept cool and moist1 which is best done by covering them with moist but not wet soil or sand in a cellar or cool shed4 ,in ,california1 the best results are obtained when the grafting is done in ,february or ,march1 though it may be begun earlier and continued a month later4 ,preparation of cuttings4 ,the stocks are cut into lengths of about ten inches1 a gauge being used to secure uniform length4 ,the cut at the bottom is made through a bud in such a way as to leave the diaphragm4 ,the top cut is made as near ten inches from the bottom as possible1 leaving about one and one-half inches above the top bud for convenience in grafting4 ,the stock is then disbudded1 taking both visible and adventitious buds1 the latter indicated by woody enlargements1 to keep down the number of suckers4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ab4 ,bench-grafted cuttings of grape1 showing both the cleft-graft and the whip-graft4 ,the cion should be made with but one bud1 thereby gaining the advantage of having every cion the same length so that all unions are at the same distance below the surface of the ground in the nursery4 ,the cion is made with about two and one-half inches of internode below the bud and one-half inch above1 a sharp knife being the best tool for making the cuts4 ,stock and cion cuttings are now graded to exactly the same diameters1 this being necessary to secure perfection in the unions4 ,three methods of uniting stock and cion are illustrated in ,fig4 #ab4 ,it suffices to grade by the eye into three lots--large1 small and medium--but some nurserymen prefer to secure even greater accuracy by the use of any one of several mechanical gauges4 ,the methods of uniting stock and cion may be described best by quoting ,bioletti1 from whom most of the details already given have been summarized3#e ,tongue grafting4 ,when the stocks and scions are prepared and graded the grafter takes a box of stocks and a box of the corresponding size of scions and unites them4 ,each is cut at the same angle in such a way that when placed together the cut surface of one exactly fits and covers the whole of the cut surface of the other4 ,the length of cut surface should be from three to four times the diameter of the cutting1 the shorter cut for the larger sizes and the longer for the thinner4 ,this will correspond to an angle of from #ad4e to #ai4e degrees4 ,the cut should be made with a sliding movement of the knife4 ,this will make the cut more easily and more smoothly4 ,the cut should be made with a single quick motion of the knife4 ,if the first cut is not satisfactory1 a completely new one should be made4 ,there should be no paring of the cut1 as this will make an irregular or wavy surface and prevent the cuttings coming together closely in all parts4 ,the tongues are made with a slow1 sliding motion of the knife4 ,they are commenced slightly above one-third of the distance from the sharp end of the bevel and cut down until the tongue is just a trifle more than one-third the length of the cut surface4 ,the tongue should be cut1 not split4 ,the knife should not follow the grain of the wood1 but should be slanted in such a way that the tongue will be about one-half as thick as it would be if made by splitting4 ,before withdrawing the knife it is bent over in order to open out the tongue4 ,this very much facilitates the placing together of stock and scion4 ,the stock and scion are now placed together and1 if everything has been done properly1 there will be no cut surface visible and the extremity of neither stock nor scion will project over the cut surface of the other4 ,it is much better that the points should not quite reach the bottom of the cut surface than that they should overlap1 as the union will be more complete and the scions will be less liable to throw out roots4 ,if the points do overlap1 the overlapping portion should be cut off1 as in the ,champin grafts4 ,a skillful grafter1 by following the above-described method1 will make grafts most of which will hold together very firmly4 ,many of them would be displaced1 however1 in subsequent operations1 so that it is necessary to tie them4 ,this is done with raffia or waxed string4 ,the only object of the tying is to keep the stock and scion together until they unite by the growth of their own tissues1 so that the less material used the better1 provided this object is attained4 ,for the formation of healing tissue air is necessary1 so that clay1 wax1 tinfoil or anything that would exclude the air should not be used4 ,the tying material is passed twice around the point of the scion to hold it down firmly1 and then with one or two wide spirals it is carried to the point of the stock1 which is fastened firmly with two more turns and the end of the string passed under the last turn4 ,the less string is used the more easily it is removed later in the nursery4 ,untreated raffia should be used for late grafts which are to be planted directly out in the nursery1 but if the grafts are to be placed first in a callusing bed it is best to bluestone the raffia in order to prevent rotting before the grafts are planted4 ,this is done by steeping the bundles of raffia in a three per cent solution of bluestone for a few hours and then hanging them up to dry4 ,before using1 the raffia should be washed quickly in a stream of water in order to remove the bluestone which has crystallized on the outside and which might corrode the graft4 ,some grafters prefer waxed string for grafting4 ,the string should be strong enough to hold the graft1 but thin enough to be broken by hand4 ,no4 #ah knitting cotton is a good size4 ,it is waxed by soaking the balls in melted grafting wax for several hours4 ,the string will absorb the wax1 and may then be placed on one side until needed4 ,a good wax for this purpose is made by melting together one part of tallow1 two parts of beeswax1 and three parts of rosin4 ,wire grafting4 ,the merits claimed for this method are that it is more rapid1 requires less skill1 and does away with the troublesome tying and still more troublesome removal of the tying material4 ,practiced grafters can obtain as large a percentage of ,no4 #a unions by this method as by any other1 and unpracticed grafters can do almost as well as practiced4 ,another advantage of the method is that the scions have less tendency to make roots than with the tongue graft4 ,it consists essentially of the use of a short piece of galvanized iron wire inserted in the pith of stock and scion for the purpose of holding them together1 thus replacing both tongues and raffia4 ,it has been objected that the iron would have a deleterious effect on the tissues of the graft1 corroding them1 or causing them to decay4 ,there seems1 however1 no reason to expect any such result1 and vines grafted in this way have been bearing for years without showing any such effect4 ,the preparation and grading of stocks and scions are exactly the same for this method as for the tongue graft4 ,stock and scion are cut at an angle of #de degrees4 ,a piece of galvanized iron wire two inches long is then pushed one inch into the firmest pith4 ,this will usually be the pith of the stock1 but it will depend on the varieties being grafted4 ,the scion is then pushed on to the wire and pressed down until it is in contact with the stock4 ,if the cuttings have large pith it is better to use two pieces of wire1 one placed in the stock first and the other in the scion4 ,the length of wire to use will vary with the size and firmness of the cuttings1 but #b inches will usually be found most satisfactory4 ,wire of ,no4 #ag gauge is the most useful size4 ,making bundles4 ,if the grafts are to be planted out directly in the nursery1 they may be simply laid in boxes or trays1 covered with damp sacks1 and carried out to be planted as soon as made4 ,it is usually better1 however1 to place them for several weeks in a callusing bed before planting4 ,in this case it is necessary for convenience of handling to tie them up into bundles4 ,no more than twenty grafts should be placed in a bundle1 and ten is better4 ,if the bundles are too large there is danger of the grafts in the middle becoming moldy or dry4 ,a stand is very convenient4 ,it consists of a piece of board #ab inches1 on one end of which is nailed a cleat #f inches by #d inches and under the other end a support of the same size4 ,two #d-;inch wire nails are driven through the board from below1 #d inches apart and #e inches from the cleat4 ,two other #d-;inch nails are driven similarly at #a-a_/b inches from the other end4 ,the grafts are laid on this stand with the scions resting against the cleat1 and are then tied with the two pieces of bluestoned raffia that have previously been placed above each pair of nails4 ,this arrangement insures all the scions1 and therefore the unions1 being at the same level1 and puts both ties below the union where they will not strain the graft4 ,the tying is more expeditious and less liable to disturb the unions than if the bundles are made without a guide4 ,a skillful grafter will make about one hundred tongue grafts on cuttings per hour1 or from sixty-five to seventy-five per hour if he does the tying as well4 ,wire grafts can be made at the rate of two hundred and fifty or more per hour1 and by proper division of labor where several grafters are employed this number can be easily exceeded4 ,these estimates do not include the preparation and grading of the cuttings4 ,grafting rooted cuttings4 ,the cion may be grafted on a stock rooted in the nursery the previous season1 much the same methods being used as with cuttings4 ,this method is employed to utilize cuttings too small to graft1 the added sizes attained in the nursery making them large enough1 and in grafting on stocks which root with difficulty1 thus saving the making of grafts which never grow4 ,the stocks1 in this method1 are cut so that the cions may be inserted as the original cutting and not as the new growth4 ,the roots1 for convenience in handling1 are cut back to an inch or thereabouts in length4 ,the callusing bed4 ,if bench grafts are planted at once in the nursery1 most of them fail4 ,they are1 therefore1 stratified in a callusing bed where moisture and temperature can be controlled4 ,bioletti describes a callusing bed and its use as follows3#f ,this callusing bed is usually a pile of clean sand placed on the south side of a wall or building and surrounded by a board partition where there is no possibility of its becoming too wet by the flow of water from a higher level or from an overhanging roof4 ,it should be protected1 if necessary1 by a surrounding ditch4 ,it should be furnished with a removable cover of canvas or boards to protect it from rain and to enable the temperature to be controlled by the admission or exclusion of the sun's rays4 ,a water-proof wagon-cover1 black on one side and white on the other1 is excellent for this purpose4 ,the bottom of the callusing bed is first covered with #b or #c inches of sand4 ,the bundles of grafts are then placed in a row along one end of the bed1 and sand well filled in around them4 ,the bundles should be placed in a slightly inclined position with the scions uppermost1 and the sand should be dry enough so that it sifts in between the grafts in the bundle4 ,the bundles of grafts are then covered up completely with sand1 leaving it at least #b inches deep above the top of the scion4 ,another row is then placed in the same manner until the bed is full4 ,finally a layer of #b or #c inches of moss or straw is placed over all4 ,in the callusing bed we should endeavor to hasten and perfect the union of stock and scion as much as possible while delaying the starting of the buds and the emission of the roots4 ,the latter processes require more moisture than the formation of healing tissue1 therefore the sand should be kept comparatively dry4 ,between #e and #aj per cent of water in the sand is sufficient4 ,the purer the sand the less water is necessary4 ,there should be a little more moisture present than in the sand used for keeping the cuttings over winter4 ,too much moisture will stimulate the emission of roots and starting of buds without aiding the callus formation4 ,all the vital processes progress more rapidly when the cuttings are kept warm4 ,to delay them1 therefore1 we keep the sand cool1 and to hasten them we make it warm4 ,in the beginning of the season and up to the middle of ,march we keep the sand cool4 ,this is done by keeping the bed covered during the day when the sun is shining1 and uncovering occasionally at night when there is no fear of rain4 ,if the black-and-white wagon-cover is used1 the white side should be placed outward to reflect the heat4 ,the temperature should be kept about #fj ,f4 or lower4 ,about the middle of ,march the temperature of the bed should be raised4 ,this is done by removing the cover during warm days and carefully covering at night4 ,if necessary the layer of moss or straw should be removed on sunny days and then replaced4 ,the temperature of the sand at the level of the unions should be about #ge ,f4 during this period4 ,if the temperature rises higher than this1 there will be a more abundant production of callus1 but it will be soft1 easily injured1 and liable to decay4 ,at the end of four weeks after warming the bed1 the union should be well cemented4 ,the callus should not only have formed copiously around the whole circumference of the wound1 but it should have acquired a certain amount of toughness due to the formation of fibrous tissue4 ,it should require a pull of several pounds to break the callus and separate stock and scion4 ,when the callus has acquired this quality the grafts are in condition to be planted in the nursery1 and may be handled without danger4 ,if taken from the bed while the callus is still soft1 many unions will be injured and the grafts will fail1 or unite only on one side4 ,if left as long as this in the callusing bed most of the scion buds will have started and formed white shoots4 ,these shoots1 however1 should not be more than #a_/b to #a inch long4 ,if they are longer the bed has been kept too wet or too warm4 ,roots will also have started from the stock1 but these also should not be over #a_/b inch long4 ,the grafts should be handled as carefully as is practicable1 but there is no objection to breaking off any scion shoots or stock roots which have grown too long4 ,it is almost impossible to save them1 and new ones will start after the grafts are planted1 and make a perfectly satisfactory growth4 ,care in the nursery4 ,the grafts are planted in the nursery1 and are given much the same care recommended for cuttings4 ,they may be set in trenches made with plow or spade2 or they may be planted in very shallow trenches with a dibble4 ,after planting1 the grafts are covered with an inch or two of soil1 thus forming a wide ridge in the nursery row with the union of the grafts at the original level of the soil4 ,cultivation should begin at once and be frequent enough to prevent the formation of a crust1 in order that the young shoots may not have difficulty in forcing their way through the soil4 ,roots start on the cions sooner than on the stock1 the soil being warmer at the surface1 and help sustain the cions until the stocks are well rooted1 at which time all roots started on the cion are removed1 and at the same time the tying material is cut if it has not rotted4 ,suckers are removed as soon as they show above ground4 ,the grafts are dug as soon as the leaves fall and the young vines become dormant1 after which they are sorted in three lots1 according to size of top and root1 and heeled-in in a cool moist place until they are to be planted4 ,nursery versus home-grown vines4 ,the verdict of all vineyardists is that it is better to buy nursery-grown vines than to attempt to grow them4 ,the high quality of the vines which can be purchased and the reasonable purchase price make it hardly worth while to try home-grown vines1 especially since considerable investment1 experience and skill are required to grow good vines4 ,,pedigreed ,,grape ,,vines ,many viticulturists1 in common with orchardists1 believe that their plants should be propagated only from parents which have good characters1 that is1 are vigorous1 healthy1 productive1 and bear fruit of large size1 perfect form1 good color and good quality4 ,they believe1 in short1 that varieties can be improved by bud selection4 ,there is1 however1 but little in either theory or fact to substantiate the belief of those who say that varieties once established can be improved2 or1 on the other hand1 that they degenerate4 ,present knowledge and experience indicate that heredity is all but complete in varieties propagated from parts of plants4 ,the multitude of grapes in any variety1 all from one seed1 are morphologically one individual4 ,a few kinds of grapes go back to ,christ's time1 and these seem to agree almost perfectly with the descriptions of them made by ,roman writers #bjjj years ago4 ,how1 then1 can the differences between vines of a variety in every vineyard in the land be explained8 ,ample explanation is found in nurture to account for the variation in vines without involving a change in ,nature4 ,soil1 sunlight1 moisture1 insects1 disease1 plant-food1 and the stock in the case of grafted vines1 give every vine a distinct environment and hence a distinct individuality of its own4 ,peculiarities in a vine appear and disappear with the individual4 ,a variety can be changed temporarily by its environment1 but remove the incidental forces and it snaps back into its same old self4 ,heredity is not quite complete in the grape1 however2 for1 now and then1 sports or mutations appear which are permanent and1 if sufficiently different1 become a strain of the parent variety or possibly a new variety4 ,there are several such sports of the ,concord under cultivation4 ,the grape-grower can tell these sports from the modifications brought about by environment only by propagation4 ,if a variation is transmitted unchanged through successive generations of the grape1 as occasionally happens1 it may be looked on as a new form4 ,pedigreed vines1 then1 should be subject to a test of several generations in an experimental vineyard before the grape-grower pays the price demanded for the supposed improvement4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,iv4--,a well-tilled vineyard of ,concords4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,stocks ,,and ,,resistant ,,vines ,phylloxera1 a tiny root-louse1 made its appearance in ,france in #ahfa and began multiplying with a fury unparalleled in the insect world4 ,by #ahgd1 the pest had become so widespread in ,europe that it threatened the very existence of the great vineyard industry of that continent4 ,all attempts to bring the pest under control failed1 although the ,french government offered a reward of #cjj1jjj francs for a satisfactory remedy4 ,numerous methods of treating the soil to check the ravages of the insect were tried1 also1 but none was efficacious4 ,finally1 it dawned on ,european vineyardists that phylloxera is not a scourge in ,america1 its habitat1 and that ,european vineyards might be saved by grafting ,vinifera vines on the roots of immune ,american grapes4 ,at once the reconstruction of vineyards in ,europe was begun by grafting the grapes on phylloxera-resistant roots4 ,meanwhile1 consternation spread to ,california when it was discovered that phylloxera was running riot in some of the vineyards of the ,pacific slope2 however1 with the knowledge derived from viticulturists in ,europe1 they too began reconstructing vineyards on immune roots1 without the same success as the ,europeans1 it is true1 but with such measure of success that it soon became the approved method of growing grapes in this great region4 ,through the use of resistant stocks1 phylloxera is now defied in ,vinifera regions4 ,millions of ,american stocks are annually struck at home1 in ,europe and wherever ,vinifera grapes are grown1 to be top-worked with varieties susceptible to phylloxera4 ,seldom has mastery over a pest been so complete2 but1 to triumph over the tiny insect1 the industry has had to be revolutionized4 ,resistant stocks1 in their turn1 brought innumerable new problems1 many of which are still unsolved4 ,investigations and experiences in rehabilitating vineyards have been carried on for forty years1 the results set forth in books and bulletins and yet there are many problems to be solved4 ,the grape-grower in regions infested with phylloxera is always under the necessity of taking advantage of the latest demonstration of practices in the use of resistant stocks4 ,these practices are best studied in the experiments of state experiment stations and the ,united ,states ,department of ,agriculture1 and in the vineyards of leading grape-growers1 since even those most needing elucidation can be but briefly discussed in the following paragraphs4 ,the wild vines of a species are always seedlings and are hence exceedingly variable4 ,the first vineyards of resistant stocks were vines grafted on stocks of wild vines1 and the results were very unsatisfactory2 for1 naturally1 there was divergence in many characters and especially in the vigor of the vines4 ,also1 there was difficulty in grafting1 since some wild vines are stout and others slender2 some bear grafts well1 while others do not4 ,it soon became apparent that to succeed1 varieties must be selected from the different species for vineyard work4 ,the great task of the experimenter and grape-grower1 therefore1 has been to select varieties of the several species sufficiently resistant1 vigorous and otherwise possessed of characters fitting them to become good stocks4 ,out of vast numbers tested1 a few are now generally recognized as best for the several groups of ,vinifera grapes and the several distinct regions in which these grapes are grown4 ,resistant species and varieties4 ,the reconstruction of phylloxera-ridden vineyards by the use of resistant stocks is possible only because some species and varieties are1 as has been said1 more resistant to the root-louse than others4 ,all degrees of resistance exist1 as would be suspected1 from immunity to great susceptibility4 ,it is obvious that the foundation of the art of growing resistant vineyards is exact knowledge of the immunities and susceptibilities of the many varieties and species of grapes4 ,from the first use of resistant vines1 experimenters everywhere have set themselves at work to determine not only what the most resistant vines are1 but what the causes and conditions of immunity4 ,in spite of a wealth of empirical discoveries as to what grapes can best resist the root-louse1 causes and most of the conditions of immunity are still little understood4 ,definite1 useful knowledge1 so far1 goes little further than the establishment of lists of species and varieties1 the latter subject to change1 that are most useful in setting resistant vineyards4 ,phylloxera does little damage to species of ,vitis native to the same general region in which the pest has its habitat1 but nevertheless there are some differences in resistance in ,american grapes4 ,munson1 one of the best ,american authorities on the resistance of species to phylloxera1 says3#g ,rotundifolia is entirely immune1 then ,rupestris1 ,vulpina1 ,cinerea1 ,berlandieri1 ,champini1 ,candicans1 ,doaniana1 stivalis and ,lincecumii are so high in resistance as to be practically uninjured1 though they may be attacked1 while ,labrusca is low in resistance and is much weakened in clay soils1 if infested1 and ,vinifera is entirely non-resistant4 ,some of these species are hard to propagate and difficult to suit in soil and climate so that but two of them are much used for resistant stocks4 ,the two most used are ,rupestris and ,vulpina 7,riparia71 of both of which there are varieties which give satisfaction4 ,bioletti1 a leading authority on resistant stocks in ,california1 says3#h ,varieties of resistant stocks which will in all probability be used in ,california are ,rupestris ,st4 ,george 7du ,lot71 ,riparia ,rupestris #ccjf1 ,riparia ,rupestris #ccji1 ,riparia ,solonis #afaf1 ,mourvdre ,rupestris #abjb1 ,aramon ,rupestris #b1 ,riparia gloire1 and ,riparia grande glabre4 ,these are all varieties which have given excellent varieties for years in ,europe1 and have all been tested successfully in ,california4 ,among them are varieties suitable for nearly all the vineyard soils of ,california1 with perhaps the exception of some of the heavier clays4 ,the only one of these varieties which has been planted extensively in ,california is the ,rupestris ,st4 ,george4 ,there can be little doubt1 however1 that it will fail to give satisfaction in many soils1 and though we may not find something better for all our soils it is probable that we will repeat the experience of ,southern ,france and find that in most soils there is some other variety that gives better results4 ,without attempting to describe these varieties1 but to give some idea of their merits and defects and of the soils most suited to each1 the following indications are given1 based principally on the opinions of ,l4 ,ravaz and ,prosper ,gervais1 and on a still limited experience in ,california3 ,the ,rupestris ,st4 ,george is remarkably vigorous and grows very large1 supporting the graft well even without stakes4 ,it roots easily and makes excellent unions with most vinifera varieties4 ,it is well suited to deep soils where its roots can penetrate4 ,its defects are that it is very subject to root-rot1 especially in moist soils2 it suckers badly and it suffers from drought in shallow soils4 ,its great vigor produces coulure with some varieties and often necessitates long pruning4 ,in moist or wet soils #afaf or #ccjf had given better results in ,france and gives indications of doing equally well here4 ,in drier soils #ccji will probably be found preferable4 ,aramon ,rupestris ,no4 #b is suited to the same soils as ,rupestris ,st4 ,george1 and does particularly well in extremely gravelly soils4 ,it has some of the defects of the ,st4 ,george and is moreover more difficult to graft1 and its only advantage in ,california is that it is rather less susceptible to root-rot4 ,there are no better resistant stocks than ,riparia gloire and ,riparia grande glabre1 wherever they are put in soils that suit them4 ,they do well1 however1 only in deep1 rich1 alluvial soils which are neither too wet nor too dry4 ,their grafts are the most productive of all1 and ripen their grapes from one to two weeks earlier than the grafts on ,st4 ,george4 ,their principal defect is that they are very particular as to the soil1 and they never grow quite as large as the cion4 ,the gloire is the most vigorous1 and the difference of diameter is less with this variety than with any other ,riparia4 ,the ,mourvdre ,rupestris #abjb is extremely vigorous1 roots and grafts easily1 and is well adapted to rich1 sandy and moist soils4 ,in drier and poorer soils its resistance is perhaps not sufficient4 ,the most promising varieties for general use at present seem to be the two hybrids of ,riparia and ,rupestris1 #ccjf and #ccji4 ,they have great resistance to the phylloxera1 root and graft almost as easily as ,st4 ,george1 and are quite sufficiently vigorous to support any variety of vinifera4 ,the former is more suited to the moister soils and wherever there is danger of root-rot1 and the latter to the drier soils4 ,in general1 they are suited to a larger variety of soils and condition than perhaps any other varieties4 ,riparia gloire should be planted only on rich1 deep alluvial soil containing an abundance of plant food and humus1 what would be called good garden land1 such as river bank soil not liable to overflow4 ,in most other soils ,riparia ,rupestris #ccjf is to be recommended1 except those that are rather dry1 where #ccji is to be preferred1 or those which are very wet1 where ,solonis ,riparia #afaf is surer to give good results4 ,the value of a species or variety for a resistant stock may be judged somewhat by the visible effect of the phylloxera on the roots of the vines4 ,on susceptible species1 the punctures of the insects rapidly produce swellings which vary in size and number in accordance with resistance of the species4 ,technically1 the first swelling on the young tender rootlets of the vine is called a nodosity4 ,the presence of a few nodosities on the root system does not indicate that a vine is not a valuable resistant stock4 ,when the nodosity begins to decay and becomes of a cancerous nature1 it is called a tuberosity4 ,these tuberosities decay more or less rapidly and deeply1 and when they rot deeply cause enfeeblement or death to the vine4 ,thus1 on ,vinifera varieties the tuberosities are several times larger and decay sets in much more quickly than on ,american species which show these tuberosities4 ,ratings as to resistance of species are usually made from the size and number of the tuberosities1 though when these are found producing a scab-like wound which scales off1 there may be high resisting power4 ,in order to convey with some degree of definiteness the power of resistance to phylloxera1 an arbitrary scale has been agreed on by viticulturists4 ,in this scale1 maximum resistance is indicated by #bj and minimum by #j4 ,thus1 the resisting power of a good ,vulpina is put as #ai4e and that of a poor ,vinifera variety as #j4 ,,adaptations ,,of ,,resistant ,,stocks ,,to ,,soils ,,and ,,climates ,resistance1 of course1 counts for naught in a stock which comes from a species unsuited to the soil and climate or other circumstances of the locality in which the vineyard is to be planted4 ,the several species used for stocks differ widely in the requirements affecting growth so that the grower must make certain that the resistant stock he selects will find congenial surroundings4 ,stocks in congenial circumstances are frequently more resistant than others inherently more resistant1 but which are not otherwise adapted to the particular conditions of the vineyard4 ,species of grapes vary greatly in their root systems1 some having thick1 others slender roots2 the roots of some are soft1 of others hard2 some have roots going down deeply1 others are almost at the surface of the ground4 ,manifestly these various root-forms are but adaptations to loose and heavy1 dry and moist1 deep and shallow soils1 or to some circumstance of climate4 ,a vine bruised by adversity is in no condition to withstand phylloxera4 ,therefore1 since the adaptability of a variety to a soil or climate may be changed by the stock1 the adaptations of stocks to soils and climates must have attention4 ,affinity of stock and cion4 ,different varieties of grapes do not behave alike on the same stocks1 and different stocks may affect varieties differently4 ,even when the kinship is close1 some grapes resist all the appliances of art to make a successful union2 while1 on the other hand1 quite distinct species often seem foreordained to be joined4 ,for example1 ,rotundifolia1 which has the highest resistance to phylloxera of any species1 is useless as a stock because it is impossible to graft any other grape on it1 while ,vulpina and ,rupestris unite readily with varieties of ,vinifera1 the slight decrease in the vigor of the grafted vines serving oftentimes to increase fruitfulness4 ,something more is necessary1 then1 than botanical kinship4 ,just what is necessary1 no one knows1 beyond3 that there must be conformity in habit between stock and cion2 that the two must start in growth at approximately the same time2 and that the tissues must be sufficiently alike that there be proper contact in the union4 ,yet these facts do not sufficiently explain all of the affinities and antipathies which species and varieties of grapes show to each other4 ,unfortunately1 the grape-grower has had but little to guide him in selecting stocks and has had to learn by making repeated trials4 ,,proper ,,planting ,,of ,,grafted ,,vines ,europeans and ,californians long ago learned that failures with grafted vines often came from setting the vines too deep in the soil1 the result being that the cions struck root and became independent1 whereupon the stock dies or becomes so moribund that the beneficial effects are lost4 ,there are grape-growers who argue that it is beneficial to the vine to have roots from both stock and cion1 but experience and experiments very generally teach the contrary1 it being found that in most grafts the cion roots grow more vigorously than stock roots and eventually starve out the latter4 ,the disastrous effects of cion-rooting are often to be found1 also1 when grafting has been done on old vines in the vineyard2 and1 again1 when the graft is too close to the root system4 ,another cause of failure is that different stocks require that the vineyard soil be treated differently1 especially at planting time4 ,vulpina stocks require that the soil be much more deeply plowed than for ,viniferas on their own roots1 since ,vulpinas are deep-rooted and are exacting in the depth of root-run required4 ,those who have had most experience with resistant stocks maintain that all ,american grapes require rather deeper plowing than ,european grapes on their own roots4 ,,influence ,,of ,,the ,,stocks ,,on ,,the ,,cion ,up to the present1 the growing of grafted grapes has been carried on with little thought of the mutual influence of stock and cion2 grapes have been grafted only to secure vines resistant to phylloxera4 ,yet there can be no doubt that stock and cion react on one another1 and that any variety of grapes is influenced for better or worse in characters of vine and fruit by the stock upon which it is grafted4 ,a plant is a delicate mechanism1 easily thrown out of gear1 and all plants1 the grape not the least1 are more or less changed in the adjustments of stock and cion4 ,one could fill a large volume on the supposed reciprocal influence of stock and cion in fruits4 ,space suffices1 here1 however1 to mention only those proved and those having to do with the influence of the stock on the cion when the grape is grafted4 ,influence of stocks on ,european grapes summarized4 ,common experience in ,europe and ,california indicates that varieties of ,vinifera grapes grafted on resistant stocks which are perfectly adapted to soil and climate produce not only larger crops but sweeter or sourer grapes2 that the crop ripens earlier or later2 that the vine is often more vigorous2 and that there are some minor differences depending on the stock used4 ,wine-makers assert that the character of their product may be affected for better or worse by the stock4 ,often vines are so improved by grafting that the extra expense of the operation and of the stock is paid for2 although1 to be sure1 about as often the effects are deleterious4 ,the successes and failures of vineyards on resistant stocks make plain that the vine-grower must study the many problems which stocks present and exercise utmost intelligence in the selection of the proper stock4 ,influence of stocks on ,american grapes4 ,no doubt ,american species of grapes may be as profoundly modified by stocks as the ,european species1 but there is but little evidence on this phase of grape-growing to be drawn from the experience of vineyardists4 ,one rather conclusive experiment1 however1 shows that ,american grapes may be improved by growing them on stocks which give them better adaptations to their environment4 ,the experiment was tried in the ,chautauqua grape-belt in western ,new ,york by the ,new ,york ,agricultural ,experiment ,station4 ,the test was carried on for eleven years1 during which time many interesting possibilities in grafting grapes in this region came to light4 ,it was proved that the stock materially affects the vigor and productiveness of the vine and the quality of the grapes4 ,the following brief account is taken from ,bulletin ,no4 #cee of the ,new ,york ,station3 ,in this experiment a number of varieties were grafted on ,st4 ,george1 ,riparia ,gloire and ,clevener stocks1 and a fourth group on their own roots4 ,the varieties grafted were3 ,agawam1 ,barry1 ,brighton1 ,brilliant1 ,campbell ,early1 ,catawba1 ,concord1 ,delaware1 ,goff1 ,herbert1 ,iona1 ,jefferson1 ,lindley1 ,mills1 ,niagara1 ,regal1 ,vergennes1 ,winchell and ,worden4 ,the planting plan and all of the vineyard operations were those common in commercial vineyards4 ,yearly accounts of the vineyard show that the vines passed through many vicissitudes4 ,the experiment was started in #aijb when ,st4 ,george and ,riparia ,gloire stocks from ,california were set and grafted in the field4 ,many of these died the first year4 ,the winter of #aijc-jd was unusually severe1 and many more vines were either killed or so severely injured that they died during the next two years4 ,the vines on ,st4 ,george1 a very deep-rooting grape1 withstood the cold best4 ,fidia1 the grape root-worm1 was found in the vineyards early in the life of the vines and did much damage in some years4 ,in the years of #aijg and #aiji the crops were ruined by hail4 ,but despite these serious setbacks it was evident throughout the experiment that the grafted grapes made better vines and were more productive than those on their own roots4 ,as an example of the differences in yield1 a summary of the data for #aiaa may be given4 ,in this year1 an average of all the varieties on own roots yielded at the rate of #d4ci tons to the acre2 on ,st4 ,george1 #e4cf tons2 on ,gloire1 #e4cb tons2 on ,clevener1 #e4fb tons4 ,the crops on the grafted vines were increased through the setting of more bunches and the development of larger bunches and berries4 ,the grapes on the vines grafted on ,gloire and ,clevener ripened a few days earlier than those on their own roots1 while with ,st4 ,george a few varieties were retarded in ripening4 ,changing the time of maturity may be very important in grape regions where there is danger of early frost to late-ripening sorts1 and where it is often desirable to retard the harvest time of early grapes4 ,in the behavior of the vines1 the results correspond closely with those given for yields4 ,in the growth ratings of varieties on different stocks1 the varieties on their own roots were rated in vigor at #dj2 on ,st4 ,george1 at #fc4b2 on ,gloire1 at #fe4b2 on ,clevener1 at #fg4i4 ,there is no way of deciding how much the thrift of the vines depends on adaptability to soil1 and how much on other factors4 ,since all of the varieties were more productive and vigorous on grafted vines than on their own roots it may be said that a high degree of congeniality exists between the stocks and varieties under test4 ,the experiment suggests that it would be profitable to grow fancy grapes of ,american species on grafted vines1 and that it is well within the bounds of possibility that main-crop grapes can be grafted profitably4 ,in the general tuning-up of agriculture now in progress1 it may be expected that soon ,american as well as ,european varieties of grapes will be grown under some conditions and for some purposes on roots other than their own4 ,,direct ,,producers ,attempts innumerable have been and are still being made to secure1 by hybridizing ,v4 vinifera and ,american species of grapes1 varieties that will resist phylloxera1 the mildew and black-rot4 ,the grapes of this continent are relatively immune to all of these troubles1 and if hybrids could be obtained to produce directly1 without grafting1 grapes with the good qualities of the ,viniferas--in short1 ,european grapes on ,american vines--the cultivated grape flora of the whole world might be changed4 ,so far1 a direct producer that is wholly satisfactory in either ,europe or ,california has not been found for the wine or raisin industries1 although a number of varieties are rated as very good table grapes1 and a few are used in wine-making4 ,the best of the direct producers are ,lenoir1 ,taylor1 ,noah1 ,norton's ,virginia1 ,autuchon1 ,othello1 ,catawba1 and ,delaware4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,v4--,vinifera grapes grown out of doors in ,new ,york4 ,top1 ,malvasia2 bottom1 ,chasselas ,golden4 ,,chapter ,v ,,the ,,vineyard ,,and ,,its ,,management ,a vineyard is more artificial than other plantations of fruits1 since the vine requires greater discipline under cultivation than tree or bush4 ,yet greater art is required only when the attempt is made to grow the grape to perfection1 for the vine bears fruit if left to indulge in riotous growth wheresoever it can strike root4 ,vineyard management1 therefore1 may represent the consummate art of three thousand or more years of cultural subserviency2 or it may be so primeval in simplicity as to approach neglect4 ,the grape is so wonderfully responsive to good care1 however1 that no true lover of fruit will profane it with neglect1 but will seek1 rather1 to give it a favorable situation1 its choice of soils and such generous care as will insure strong1 vigorous1 productive vineyards of choicely good fruit4 ,grape-growing is a specialists' business1 for the culture of the grape is unlike that of any other fruit4 ,the essentials of vineyard management1 however1 are easily learned4 ,indeed1 care of the vine comes almost instinctively2 for the grape has been cultivated since prehistoric times and the races of the world are so familiar with it through sacred literatures1 myths1 fables1 stories and poetry1 that its care is prompted by natural impulse4 ,the grape has followed civilized man so closely from place to place through the temperate climates of the world1 that rules and methods of culture have been developed for almost every condition under which it will grow1 so that every grape-grower may profit by the successes and failures of the generations that preceded him4 ,grape-growing is not1 however1 an art wholly governed by rules of the past to be carried on by common laborers who use hands only1 but is one in which its followers may make use of science and may put thought1 skill and taste into their work4 ,,laying ,,out ,,the ,,vineyard ,vineyards are laid out for the most part after accepted patterns for each of the great grape regions of ,america4 ,the vines are always planted in rectangles1 usually at a less distance apart in the rows than the rows are from each other1 but sometimes in squares4 ,pride in appearance and convenience in vineyard operations make perfect alignment imperative4 ,many varieties of grapes1 especially of ,american species1 are partially self-sterile1 so that some varieties must have others interplanted with them for cross-pollination4 ,this is usually done by setting alternate rows of the variety to be pollinated and the cross-pollinator4 ,all self-fertile varieties are set in solid blocks because of convenience in harvesting4 ,direction of rows4 ,some grape-growers attach considerable importance to the direction in which rows run1 holding either that the full blaze of the sun at mid-day is desirable for vine1 soil and fruit1 or that it is detrimental4 ,those who desire to provide fullest exposure to the sun plant rows east and west when the distance between vines is less than the distance between rows2 north and south when vines are farther apart in the row than the rows are from each other4 ,when shade seems more desirable1 these directions are reversed4 ,most often1 however1 the rows are laid out in accordance with the shape of the vineyard2 or1 if the land is hilly1 the rows follow the contour of the declivities to prevent soil erosion by heavy rains4 ,alleys4 ,for convenience in vineyard operations1 especially spraying and harvesting1 there should always be alleys through a vineyard4 ,on hilly lands1 the alleys are located to secure ease in hauling2 on level lands they are usually arranged to cut the vineyards into blocks twice as long as wide4 ,an alley is usually made by leaving out a row of vines4 ,many vineyards are laid out with rows far enough apart so that alleys are not needed4 ,distances between rows and plants4 ,there are great variations in the distances between rows and plants in different regions1 and distances vary somewhat in any one region4 ,distances are influenced by the following considerations3 ,rich soils and large vigorous varieties require greater distances than poor soils and less vigorous varieties2 sometimes1 however1 it is necessary to crowd a variety in the vineyard so that by reducing its vigor fruitfulness may be promoted4 ,usually the warmer the climate1 or the exposure1 the greater should be the distance between vines4 ,very often the topography of the land dictates planting distances4 ,but while taking in account the preceding considerations1 which rightly suggest the distances between plants in the row1 convenience in vineyard operations is the factor that most often fixes the distance between rows4 ,the rows must be far enough apart in commercial vineyards to permit the use of two horses in plowing1 spraying and harvesting4 ,planted in squares1 the distance varies from seven feet in garden culture to nine feet in commercial vineyards for eastern ,america4 ,more often1 however1 the rows are eight or nine feet apart1 with the vines six1 seven or eight and in the ,south ten or twelve feet apart in the rows4 ,planting distances are less1 as a rule1 on the ,pacific slope than in eastern regions2 that is1 the distances between the rows are the same1 to permit work with teams1 but the distance between plants in the rows is less1 sometimes being no greater than three and a half or four feet4 ,the rank-growing ,rotundifolias of the southern states need much room1 nine by sixteen feet being none too much4 ,sunshine must govern the distance apart somewhat4 ,grapes picked in the pleached alleys of closely set vineyards of the ,north and ,east are few1 small and poor2 farther south1 shade from the vines may be a requisite for a good crop4 ,the number of vines to the acre must be determined before growing or buying plants4 ,this is done by multiplying the distance in feet between the rows by the distance the plants are apart in the row1 and dividing #dc1efj1 the number of square feet in an acre1 by the product4 ,,preparation ,,for ,,planting ,it is impossible to put too much emphasis on the necessity of thorough preparation of the land before planting the grape4 ,extra expenditure to secure good tilth is amply repaid by increased growth in the grape1 and all subsequent care may fail to start the vines in vigorous growth if the land is not in good tilth preparatory to planting4 ,the vineyard is to stand a generation or more1 and its soil is virtually immortal1 two facts to suggest perfect preparation4 ,the land should be thoroughly well plowed1 harrowed1 mixed and smoothed4 ,the better this work is done1 the greater the potentialities of the vineyard4 ,here1 indeed1 is a time to be mindful of the adage which comes from ,cato1 a sturdy old ,roman grape-grower of #bjjj years ago3 ,the face of the master is good for the land4 ,preparation is a series of operations in which it is wise to take advantage of time and begin a year before the vines are to be set4 ,the land must be put in training to fit it for the long service it is to render4 ,the two great essentials of preparation are provision for drainage and thorough cultivation4 ,both1 to be performed as the well-being of the grape require1 take time1 and a year is none too short a period in which to do the work4 ,moreover1 newly drained and deeply plowed land requires time for frost1 air1 sunshine and rain to sweeten and enliven the soil after the mixture by these operations of live topsoil with inert subsoil4 ,drainage4 ,the ideal soil1 as we are often told1 resembles a sponge1 and is capable of retaining the greatest possible amount of plant-food dissolved in water1 and at the same time is permeable for air4 ,this ideal1 sponge-like condition is particularly desirable for the grape1 especially native species1 because the vines of all are exceedingly deep-rooted4 ,moreover1 grapes thrive best in a warm soil4 ,while1 therefore1 the roots may make good use of nutritious solutions1 if not too diluted1 in an undrained soil1 they suffocate and do not receive sufficient bottom heat4 ,it must be made emphatic that the grape will not thrive in water-logged land4 ,unless the land is naturally well drained1 under-drainage must be provided as the first step in the preparation of land for the vineyard4 ,tile-draining is usually best done by those who make land-draining their business1 but information as to every requirement of land and detail of work may be secured from many texts1 so that grape-growers may perform the work for themselves4 ,in concluding the topic1 the reader must be reminded that high and hill lands are not necessarily well drained1 and low lands are not necessarily wet even if the surface is level4 ,often hilltops and hillsides need artificial draining2 much less often valley lands and level lands may not need it4 ,to assume1 too1 that gravelly and shaley soils are always well drained often leads directly contrary to the truth4 ,sandy and gravelly soils need drainage nearly as often as loamy and clayey ones4 ,following tiling1 if the land has had to be under-drained1 the vineyard should be graded to fill depressions and to make the surface uniform4 ,usually this can be done with cutaway1 tooth or some other harrow1 but sometimes the grader or road-scraper must be put in use4 ,fitting the land4 ,preparatory cultivation should begin the spring preceding planting by deep plowing4 ,if the land has been used long for general farming so that a hard plow-sole has been formed by years of shallow plowing1 a subsoil-plow should follow in the furrow of the surface plow1 although it is seldom advisable to go deeply into the true hardpan4 ,fitting the land must not stop here but should continue through the summer with harrow and cultivator to pulverize the soil almost to its ultimate particles4 ,such cultivation can be sufficiently thorough1 and be made at the same time profitable1 by growing some hoed crop which requires intensive culture4 ,if the soil lacks humus1 a cover-crop of clover or other legume might well be sown in early summer to be plowed under in late fall4 ,or1 if stable manure is available1 this generally should be applied the fall before planting4 ,stable manure applied at this time to a soil inclined to be niggardly puts an atmosphere in the forthcoming vineyard wholly denied the grower who must rely on commercial fertilizers4 ,the land should be plowed again1 deeply and as early in the fall as possible1 harrowed thoroughly1 or possibly cross-plowed and then harrowed4 ,the land must go into the winter ready for early spring planting and the fall work must be done promptly and with a sturdy team and sharp1 bright tools4 ,the grower must keep in mind that no opportunity will offer during the life of the vineyard to even up for slackness in the start and that a vineyard of dingy1 unhappy vines may be the result of neglect at this critical time4 ,good tilth should proceed until the earth is fairly animated with growth when the vines are planted4 ,plate ,,ii shows a piece of land well fitted for planting4 ,marking for planting4 ,given level land1 a well-made marker1 a gentle team and a careful driver with a surveyor's eye1 and a vineyard may be marked for planting with a sled-marker1 a modified corn-marker or even a plow4 ,some such marker method is commonest in use in laying out vineyard rows1 but it is patent to the eye of every passer-by in grape regions that the commonest method is not the best to secure perfect alignment of row and vine4 ,the combination named for good work with any of the marker methods is found too seldom4 ,if the marker method is used1 it is put in practice as follows3 ,the rows being marked at the distance decided on1 a deep furrow is plowed along the row by going both ways with the plow2 this done1 small stakes are set in the furrow at the proper distances for the vines1 taking care to line them both ways4 ,planting holes are thus dug in the furrow with the stakes as a center4 ,marking by means of a measuring wire or chain is the best method of locating vines accurately in a vineyard4 ,the measuring wire varies according to the wishes of the user from two to three hundred feet or may be even longer4 ,the best wires are made of annealed steel wire about an eighth of an inch in diameter4 ,at each end of the wire is a strong iron ring to be slipped over stakes4 ,the wire is marked throughout its length by patches of solder at the distances desired between rows of vines2 to make these places more easily seen1 pieces of red cloth are fastened to them4 ,sometimes this measuring wire is made of several strands of small wire1 giving more flexibility and making marking easier1 since by separating the strands at the desired points1 pieces of cloth may be tied to mark distances4 ,in using the wire1 the side of the vineyard which is to serve as the base of the square is selected and the wire is stretched1 leaving at least one rod from road or fence for a headland4 ,with the wire thus stretched1 a stake is placed at each of the distance tags to represent the first row of vines4 ,beginning at the starting point1 sixty feet are measured off in the base line and a temporary stake is set2 eighty feet at a right angle with the first line are then measured off at the corner stake1 judging the angle with the eye2 then run diagonally from the eighty-foot stake to the sixty-foot stake4 ,if the distance between the two stakes is one hundred feet1 the corner is a right angle4 ,with the base lines thus started at right angles to each other1 one can measure off with the measuring wire as large an area as he desires by taking care to have the line each time drawn parallel with the last1 and the stakes accurately placed at the marking points on the wire4 ,still another method which may be put to good use in laying out a vineyard1 especially if the vineyard is small1 is to combine measure and sight4 ,the distances about the vineyard are measured and stakes set to mark the ends of the rows around the area4 ,good stakes can be made from laths pointed at one end and whitewashed at the other4 ,a line of stakes is then set across the field each way through the center1 in places1 of course1 which the two central rows of vines will fill4 ,when these are in place1 if the area is not too large or too hilly1 all measurements can be dispensed with and the vines can be set by sighting4 ,a man at the end of the row has three laths to sight by in each row and a second man should drive stakes as directed by the sighter4 ,accurate work can be done by this method1 but it requires time1 a good eye and much patience in the man who is sighting4 ,,selecting ,,and ,,preparing ,,the ,,vines ,young grape vines covet life1 for they are usually vigorous and not easily injured4 ,hence1 the plants may be brought from a distance without fear of loss4 ,the local nurseryman is1 however1 a good adviser as to varieties if he is honest and intelligent1 and1 other things equal1 he should be patronized4 ,but if the grower's needs cannot be met at home1 he should not hesitate to seek a nurseryman at a distance4 ,this is more necessary with the grape than other fruits because young grapes are well and cheaply grown in certain localities only4 ,with the grape1 as with all fruit plants1 it is much better to buy from the grower than from tree peddlers4 ,selecting vines4 ,unless the buyer knows what he wants1 selecting vines is gambling pure and simple4 ,fortunately1 there are several marks of good vines very helpful to those who know them4 ,one should first make sure that the roots and tops are alive to the remotest parts4 ,the vines should have a good clean1 healthy look with trunk diameter large enough to indicate vigorous growth1 and an ample spread of roots4 ,large size is not as desirable as firm1 well-matured wood and an abundance of roots4 ,vines with internodes of medium length for the variety are better than those with great length or very short internodes4 ,such precautions as are possible should be taken to insure varieties true to name1 although here the reputation of the nurseryman must be depended on except for the few varieties which may be known at sight in the nursery4 ,first-grade one-year-old vines are usually better than two-year-olds4 ,stunted vines are not worth planting and two-year-old vines are often stunted one-year-olds4 ,a few weak-growing varieties gain in vigor if allowed to remain in the nursery two years--three years1 never4 ,handling and preparing the vines4 ,the better vines are packed1 transported and cared for in the field1 the quicker will the roots take hold and the vines make the vigorous start on which so much depends4 ,the nurseryman should be requested not to prune much before packing and to pack the vines well for shipping4 ,the vines should be heeled-in as soon as they reach their destination4 ,if the vines are dry on arrival1 they should be drenched well before heeling-in4 ,it sometimes happens that the vines are shriveled and shrunken from excessive drying1 in which case the plants often may be brought back to plumpness by burying them root and branch in damp earth1 to remain a week or possibly two4 ,to heel-in1 a trench should be double furrowed in light1 moist soil1 the vines spread out in the trench two or three deep1 and then earth shoveled over the roots and half the tops1 sifting it in the roots1 after which the soil is firmed4 ,the vines may thus be kept in good condition for several weeks if need arises4 ,the vines are prepared for planting by cutting away all dead or injured roots and shortening-in the healthy roots4 ,grape roots can be cut severely if healthy stubs remain1 the removal of small roots and fibers doing no harm1 since fibers are of value only as indicating that the vine is strong and vigorous4 ,fresh fibers come quickly from stout1 healthy roots4 ,most of the fibers of a transplanted vine die1 and laying them out in the hole to preserve them1 as is so often recommended1 is but a useless burial rite4 ,on good healthy vines1 the stubs of the roots1 when cut back1 will be four to eight inches in length4 ,the root system having been considerably pruned1 the reciprocity between roots and tops must be taken into account and the top pruned accordingly4 ,to reduce the work of the leaves to harmonize with the activities of the roots1 the top should be pruned to a single cane and two1 never more than three1 buds4 ,the vine is now ready for planting and1 the soil being in readiness1 planting should proceed apace4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,vi4--,black ,hamburg 7#a_/b74 ,,planting ,the dangers and difficulties of planting hardwooded plants are greatly exaggerated4 ,the tyro1 in particular1 is impressed with his responsibilities at this time1 and often sends a hurry-up call to experiment station or nurseryman to send him a man to plant4 ,if the land is properly prepared and the plants in good condition1 the operation of planting is easily1 quickly and safely accomplished4 ,there is no need1 in planting the vine1 of such puttering overniceties as laying out the roots to preserve the fibers1 watering each vine as it is set1 inserting the vine in a gingerly fashion to make sure that it stands in its new abode as it stood in the old1 or puddling the roots in pail or tub of water4 ,on the other hand1 the slap-dash method of a ,stringfellow who cuts off all small roots and uses a crowbar in place of a spade is not doing duty by the plant1 and burying the roots deep in the earth or covering them close to the surface is courting failure4 ,digging the holes4 ,this is a simple task in land in good tilth4 ,the holes need only be large and deep enough to hold the roots without undue cramping4 ,herein is again manifested the wisdom of thoroughly preparing the land2 for1 in well-prepared land1 the hole is really as large as the vineyard4 ,even in the condition of poor tilth1 deep holes are often a menace to the life of the plant1 especially if drainage is not provided1 for the deep hole becomes a tub into which water pours and stands to soak the roots of dying vines4 ,an extra spurt in digging holes cannot take the place of perfect fitting of the land4 ,there is nothing to commend the practice of digging holes in a leisure time that all may be ready when the time to plant arrives4 ,the vines will strike root best in the freshly turned1 moist soil of newly dug earth1 which can be firmly set about the roots when the vine is planted4 ,neither is time saved in digging beforehand1 for the sun-baked and rain-washed sides of holes long dug would surely have to be pared afresh4 ,it is1 however1 quite worth while to throw the surface soil to one side and that lower to the other1 that a spadeful of moist1 virile1 surface soil may be put next to the roots4 ,there are1 no doubt1 some soils in which the holes might be blasted out with dynamite1 as1 for instance1 in a shallow soil with the hardpan near the surface and good subsoil beneath4 ,it is very questionable1 however1 whether these defective soils should be used for commercial plantings as long as there still remain unplanted many acres in all grape regions of good deep land for the grape4 ,to such as are attracted by dynamite farming1 minute descriptions of methods of use of dynamite and even demonstrations may be secured from manufacturers of the explosive4 ,time to plant4 ,the best time to plant the vine in cold climates is early spring1 when sun and showers arouse the spirit of growth in plants1 and nutritive solutions proceed quickly and unerringly to their preappointed places4 ,at this time1 the much mutilated vine can undertake best the double task of making fresh roots and opening the dormant leaves4 ,fall planting puts forward the work1 thus diminishing the rush of early spring when vineyard operations crowd1 and1 no doubt1 when all is favorable1 enables the vines to start a little more quickly4 ,however1 there are frequently serious losses from planting in the fall4 ,in cold winters the grip of frost is sufficient to wrench the young vine from its place and sometimes all but heaves it out of the soil4 ,there is1 also1 great liability of winter-killing in vines transplanted in the autumn1 not because of greater tenderness of the plant1 but because of greater porosity of the loosened soil which enables the cold to strike to a greater depth4 ,these two objections to fall planting can be overcome largely by mounding up the earth so as practically to cover the vines1 leveling the mound in early spring2 but this extra work more than offsets the labor saving in fall planting4 ,in climates in which the soil does not freeze in the winter1 the vines may be set in the autumn if all is favorable4 ,often1 however1 conditions are not favorable to fall planting in warm climates1 since autumn rains frequently soak the soil so that it cannot be placed properly about the roots2 and1 moreover1 in a cold1 water-logged soil the inactive roots begin to decay2 or the soil may be too dry for fall planting4 ,under such conditions1 it is often better to delay planting in warm climates until spring when better soil conditions can be secured4 ,fall or spring1 the soil should be reasonably dry1 warm and mellow when the work is done4 ,the best time to plant must necessarily vary from year to year1 and the vineyardist must decide exactly when to undertake planting in accordance with the conditions of soil and weather1 mindful that the ,psalmist's injunction that there is a time to plant1 and a time to pluck up that which is planted is subject to several conditions requiring judgment4 ,the grape puts out its leaves late in the spring1 making the temptation great to delay planting2 late-set plants1 however1 need special care lest they suffer from the summer droughts which annually parch the lands of this continent4 ,the operation of planting4 ,all being in readiness1 planting proceeds rapidly4 ,a gang of four men work to advantage4 ,two dig holes1 a third holds the vines and tramps the earth as the remaining man shovels in earth4 ,except in large vineyards1 four men are seldom available1 and gangs of two or three must divide the work among its members as best suits conditions4 ,a tree-setting board is not needed in planting grapes1 although some growers use it4 ,the man who holds the vines in the hole and tramps as the shoveler fills1 must align the plant after the stake is removed and see that it stands perpendicularly in the hole4 ,the stake1 a lath1 is set in its old place in the hole to serve as a support for the growing vine and to mark it so that the cultivator does not pull up the young plant4 ,the soil must be set firm about the roots of the plant1 but zeal in tramping should diminish as the hole is filled1 leaving the topsoil untramped1 smooth1 loose and pulverized1 a dust mulch--the best of all mulches--to prevent evaporation4 ,the depth to which vines should be set is a matter of controversy4 ,this should be governed by the soil more than by any other factor1 although some varieties need a deeper root-run than others4 ,the rule to plant to the depth the vine stood in the nursery row is safe under most conditions1 although in light1 hungry or thirsty soils the roots should go deeper2 and1 on the other hand1 in heavy soils1 not so deep4 ,deep planting is a more common mistake than shallow planting1 for roots under most conditions stand exposure better than internment1 going down being more natural than coming up for a root seeking a place to its liking4 ,watering at planting is necessary only when the land is parched with drought or in regions in which irrigation is practiced4 ,when necessary1 water should be used liberally1 at least a gallon or two to a vine4 ,after the earth has been firmed about the roots and the hole is nearly filled1 the water should be poured in and the hole filled without more firming4 ,under dry weather conditions1 some prefer to puddle the roots2 that is1 to dip them in thin mud and plant with the mud adhering4 ,in making the puddle1 loose loam and not sticky clay is used1 as clay may bake so hard as to injure the roots4 ,with puddling1 as with watering1 the surface soil should be left loose and soft without traces of the puddling below4 ,manure or fertilizer about the roots or even in the hole are not necessary or even desirable4 ,if the soil is to be enriched at all at planting time1 the fertilizer should be spread on the surface to be cultivated in or to have its food elements leak down as rains fall4 ,in land in which the providential design for grapes is plainly manifested1 the vine at no time responds heartily to fertilizers1 the good of stable manure probably coming for the most part from its effects on the texture and water-holding capacity of the soil4 ,the newly set plant is not in need of outside nourishment2 to put rank manure or strong commercial fertilizers about the roots of a young newly set vine is plant infanticide4 ,,care ,,of ,,young ,,vines ,virgil calls the period in the life of the vine between the setting and the first vintage1 the tender nonage1 and tells us that at this time the vines need careful rearing2 so they do1 now as then1 ,american grapes as well as the grapes of ancient ,rome4 ,fortunately1 any departure from normal well-being is easily told in the grape1 for the color of the leaf is as accurate an index to the health and vigor of the vine as the color of the tongue or the beat of the pulse in man4 ,a change of color from the luxuriant green of thrifty grape foliage1 especially the yellow hue indicating that the leaf-green is not functioning properly1 suggests that the vines are sick or need nursing in some detail of care4 ,when all goes well1 however1 the amazing energy of ,nature is nowhere better seen among plants than in the growth of the grape1 so that much of the care is in the use of the knife2 in fact1 as we shall see1 the grape almost lives by the knife the first two years out4 ,the first year4 ,the vines having been pruned and staked at planting1 these operations need no attention in the first summer4 ,many varieties send up several shoots as growth starts1 and1 except in the case of grafted plants and in the event of the suckers coming from the stock1 these should be left to feed the vine and help to establish a good root system4 ,vines making a strong growth should be tied to the stake1 at least the strongest shoot1 to keep the wind from whipping it about and to keep the plants out of the way of the cultivator4 ,the only knack in tying is to keep the vine on the windward side of the stake1 thus saving the breaking of tying material4 ,the first year's pruning1 though severe1 is easily done4 ,all but the strongest cane are cut out and this is pruned back to two buds1 nearly to the ground1 so that the vines are much as when set in the vineyard4 ,this pruning1 and that of the next two years1 has as the object the establishment of a good root system and the production of a sturdy trunk at the height at which the vine is to be headed4 ,it is important that the cane from which the trunk is to come be healthy and the wood well ripened4 ,pruning may be done at any time after the leaves fall1 though most growers give preference to late winter4 ,in cold climates it is a good practice to plow up to the young vines for winter protection1 in which case the pruning should be done before plowing4 ,every detail of vineyard management should be performed with care and at the accepted time in this critical first year4 ,cultivation must be intensive1 insects and fungi must be warded off1 mechanical injuries avoided1 vines that have refused to grow must be marked for discard1 and the vineyard be put down to a cover-crop in early ,august if it was not earlier planted to some hoed catch-crop4 ,the second year4 ,work begins in the spring of the second year with the setting of trellis posts on which one wire is put up4 ,the vine is not yet ready to train but the slender lath of the first season is not sufficient support1 and the one wire on the future trellis saves the expense of staking4 ,tying requires some care and is usually done with string or bast4 ,as the summer proceeds1 suckers from the roots are removed and some growers thin the shoots on the young vine2 some think it necessary also to top the growth if it becomes too luxuriant and so keep the cane within bounds4 ,suckers must be cut or broken off at the points where they originate1 otherwise several new ones may start from the base of the old4 ,if the vines are topped1 it must be kept in mind that summer pruning is weakening1 and the tips of shoots should1 therefore1 be taken when small1 the object being to direct the growth into those parts of the vine which are to become permanent4 ,pruning1 the second winter the vine is out1 depends on the vigor of the plant4 ,if a strong1 healthy1 well-matured cane over-tops the lower wire of the trellis1 it should be cut back so that the cane may be tied to the wire2 otherwise the vine should again be cut almost to the ground1 leaving but three or four buds4 ,if the cane be left1 in addition to sturdiness and maturity1 it should be straight1 for it is to become the trunk of the mature vine4 ,the training of the young vine is now at an end1 for the next season the vine must be started toward its permanent form1 instructions for which are given in the chapter on pruning4 ,the summer care of the vineyard does not differ materially in the second year from that of the first4 ,intensive cultivation continues1 the vines are treated for pests and the annual cover-crop follows cultivation4 ,many varieties1 if vigorous1 will set some fruit in this second summer1 but the crop should not be allowed to mature1 the sooner removed the better1 as fruiting at this stage of growth seriously weakens the young vines4 ,,catch-,,crops ,,and ,,cover-,,crops ,a catch-crop is one grown between the rows of another crop for profit from the produce4 ,a cover-crop is a temporary crop grown1 as the term was first used1 to protect the soil1 but the word is now used to include green-manuring crops as well4 ,catch-crops seldom have a place in most vineyards1 but cover-crops are often grown4 ,catch-crops4 ,catch-crops are not1 as a rule1 profitable in commercial vineyards2 they may bring temporary profit but in the long run they are usually detrimental to the vines4 ,it may pay and the grape may not be injured in some localities1 if such truck crops as potatoes1 beans1 tomatoes and cabbage are grown between the rows or even in the rows for the first year and possibly the second4 ,land1 to do duty by the two crops1 however1 must be excellent and the care of both crops must be of the best4 ,growing gooseberries1 currants1 any of the brambles1 or even strawberries1 is a poor procedure unless the vineyard is small1 the land very valuable or other conditions prevail which make intensive culture possible or necessary4 ,the objections to catch-crops in the vineyard are two3 they rob the vines of food and moisture and endanger them to injury from tools in caring for the catch-crop4 ,sometimes the grape itself is planted as a catch-crop in the vineyard4 ,that is1 twice the number of vines required in a row for the permanent vineyard are set with the expectation of cutting out alternate vines when two or three crops have been harvested and the vines begin to crowd4 ,this practice is preferable to inter-planting with bush-fruits1 yet there is not much to commend it if the experience of those who have tried it is taken as a guide4 ,too often the filler vines are left a year too long with the result that the permanent vines are checked in growth for several years following4 ,the profits from the fillers are never large1 scarcely pay for the extra work1 and if the permanent vines are stunted1 the filler must be put down as a liability rather than as an asset4 ,cover-crops4 ,in an experiment being conducted by the ,new ,york ,agricultural ,experiment ,station1 grapes do not give a very appreciable response to cover-crops in yield of fruit or growth of vine4#i ,there seem to be no other experiments to confirm the results at the ,new ,york ,station1 and grape-growers nowhere have used cover-crops very generally for the betterment of their vineyards4 ,there is doubt1 therefore1 as to whether grapes will respond profitably to the annual use of cover-crops in yield of fruit1 which1 of course1 is the ultimate test of the value of cover-crops1 but a test hard to apply unless the experiment runs a great number of years4 ,leaving out the doubtful value of cover-crops in increasing the supply of plant-food and thereby producing an increase in yield1 there are at least three ways in which cover-crops are valuable in the vineyard4 ,thus1 it is patent to all who have tried cover-crops in the vineyard that the land is in much better tilth and more easily worked when some green crop is turned under in fall or spring2 it is not unreasonable to assume1 though it is impossible to secure reliable experimental data to confirm the belief1 that cover-crops protect the roots of grapes from winter-killing2 certainly it may be expected that a cover-crop sowed in midsummer will cause grapes to mature their wood earlier and more thoroughly so that the vines go into the winter in better condition4 ,the only objection to be raised against cover-crops in the vineyard is that pickers1 mostly women1 object to the cover-crop when wet with rain or dew and usually choose to pick in vineyards having no such crop4 ,this seemingly insignificant factor often gives the grape-grower who sows cover-crops much trouble in harvest time4 ,several cover-crops may be planted in vineyards as clover1 vetch1 oats1 barley1 cow-horn turnip1 rape1 rye and buckwheat4 ,combinations of these usually make the seed too costly or the trouble of sowing too great4 ,yet some combinations of a leguminous and non-leguminous crop would seem to make the best green crop for the grape4 ,thus1 a bushel of oats or barley plus ten pounds of clover or twenty pounds of winter vetch1 a combination often used in orchards1 should prove satisfactory in the vineyard4 ,or1 doubling the amount of seed for each1 these crops could be alternated1 with a change in the rotation every four or six years1 with cow-horn turnip or rape4 ,turnip and rape require at least three pounds of seed to the acre4 ,the cover-crop is sown in midsummer1 about the first of ,august in northern latitudes1 and should be plowed under in the fall or early spring4 ,under no circumstances should the green crop be permitted to stand in the vineyard late in the spring to rob the vines of food and moisture4 ,the weather map must be watched at sowing time to make sure of a moist seed-bed4 ,plate ,,iii illustrates two vineyards with well-grown cover-crops4 ,,tillage ,grape-growers are not in the fog that befuddles growers of tree-fruits in regard to tillage4 ,he is a sloven1 indeed1 who permits his vines to stand a season in unbroken ground1 and there are no growers who recommend sod or any of the modified sod-mulches for the grape4 ,tillage is difficult in hilly regions and the operation is often neglected in hillside vineyards1 as in the ,central ,lakes region of ,new ,york1 but even here some sort of tillage is universal4 ,the skip of a single season in tilling stunts the vines1 and two or three skips in successive seasons ruin a vineyard4 ,no one complains that grapes suffer from over-tilling as one frequently hears of tree-fruits4 ,there is no tonic for the grape that compares with cultivation when the leaves lack color and hang limp and the vine has an indefinable air of depression2 and there is nothing better than cultivation to rouse latent vigor in a scorching summer1 or when drought lays heavy on the land4 ,tillage tools4 ,the tools to be used in tilling grapes vary with the topography of the vineyard1 the kind of soil and the preferences of the vineyardist4 ,the best tool is the one with which the ground can be well fitted at least expense4 ,good work in the vineyard requires at least two plows1 a single-horse and a two-horse plow4 ,the latter1 except on very hilly land1 should be a gang-plow4 ,for commercial vineyards of any considerable size1 several cultivators are necessary for different seasons and conditions of the soil4 ,thus1 every vineyard should have a spring-tooth and a disc harrow1 one of the several types of weeders1 a one-horse and a sulky cultivator4 ,if weeds abound1 it is necessary to have some cutting tool1 or an attachment to one of the cultivators1 to slide over the ground and cut off large weeds4 ,another indispensable tool in a large vineyard is a one-horse grape-hoe1 to supplement the work of which there must be heavy hand-hoes4 ,very often the surface soil must be pulverized1 and a clod-crusher1 roller or a float becomes a necessity4 ,a full complement of bright1 sharp tools at the command of the grape-grower goes far toward success in his business4 ,tillage methods4 ,there are several reliable guides indicating when the vineyard needs to be tilled4 ,the vineyardist who is but a casual observer of the relation of vineyard operations to the life events and the welfare of his vines will take the crop of weeds as his guide4 ,it is1 of course1 necessary to keep down the weeds1 but the man who waits until weeds force him to till will make a poor showing in his vineyard4 ,the amount of moisture in the soil is a better guide4 ,the chief function of tillage is to save moisture by checking evaporation and to put the soil in such condition that its water-holding capacity is increased4 ,the physical condition of the land is another guide4 ,tilling when the soil needs pulverizing furnishes a greater feeding surface for the roots4 ,tillage begins with plowing in early spring4 ,whether provided with a cover-crop to be turned under or hard and bare1 the land must be broken each spring with the plow4 ,plowing is best done by running a single furrow with a one-horse plow up to or away from the vines as occasion calls and then following with a two-horse or a gang-plow4 ,some growers use a disc harrow instead of the plow to break the land in the spring1 but this is a doubtful procedure in most vineyards and is impossible when a heavy green-crop covers the land4 ,tillage with harrow1 cultivator1 weeder or roller then proceeds at such intervals as conditions demand1 seldom less than once a fortnight1 until time to sow the cover-crop in midsummer4 ,about the time grapes blossom1 the grape-hoe should be used to level down the furrow turned up to the vines in the spring plowing4 ,tillage should always follow a heavy rain to prevent the formation of a soil crust1 this being a time when he who tills quickly tills twice4 ,the number of times a vineyard should be tilled depends on the soil and the season4 ,ten times over with the cultivator in one vineyard or season may not be as effective as five times in another vineyard or another season4 ,in some regions1 as in ,new ,york1 the grower is so often at the mercy of wet weather in early spring that the plowing is best done in the fall1 and spring operations must then open with harrowing with some tool that will break the land thoroughly4 ,the depth to till is governed by the nature of the soil and the season4 ,heavy soils need deep tilling2 light soils1 shallow tilling2 in wet weather1 till deeply2 in dry weather1 lightly4 ,grape roots are well down in the soil and there is little danger of injuring them in deep tillage4 ,the depth of plowing and cultivating should be varied somewhat from season to season to avoid the formation of a plow-sole4 ,in some regions plowing and cultivating may be made a means of combating insects and fungi1 and this regulates the depth of tillage4 ,thus1 in the ,chautauqua grape-belt of western ,new ,york1 the pupa of the root-worm1 a scourge of the grape in this region1 is thrown out and destroyed by the grape-hoe just as it is about ready to emerge as an adult to lay its eggs on the vines4 ,in all regions1 leaves and mummied grapes bearing countless myriads of spores of the mildews1 black-rot and other fungi are interned by the plow and cannot scatter disease4 ,the time in the season to stop tillage depends on the locality1 the season and the variety4 ,it is a good rule to cease cultivation a few weeks before the grapes attain full size and begin to color1 for by this time they will have weighted down the vines so that fruit and foliage will be in the way of the cultivator4 ,in the ,north1 cultivation ceases in the ordinary season about the first of ,august1 earlier the farther south4 ,rank-growing sorts1 as ,concord or ,clinton1 do not need to be cultivated as late as those of smaller growth and scantier foliage1 as ,delaware or ,diamond4 ,the cover-crop seed is covered the last time over with the cultivator4 ,plate ,,iv shows a well-tilled vineyard of ,concords4 ,,irrigation ,the grape1 as a rule1 withstands drought very well1 several species growing wild on the desert's edge4 ,even in the semi-arid regions of the far ,west1 where other fruits must always be irrigated1 the grape often grows well without artificial watering4 ,irrigation is practiced in vineyards in the ,united ,states only on the ,pacific slope and here the practice is not as general as with other fruit crops4 ,whether the grape shall be grown under irrigation or not is a local and often an individual question answered with regard to several conditions2 as the local rainfall1 the depth and character of the soil1 the cost of water and ease of irrigation4 ,these conditions are all correlated and make about the most complex and difficult problem the growers of grapes in semi-arid regions have to solve4 ,as long1 however1 as the grape-grower can grow fairly vigorous vines and harvest a fairly bountiful crop by natural rainfall1 he should not irrigate2 for1 even though the crop offsets the cost1 there are several objections to growing grapes under irrigation4 ,the vines are subject to more diseases and physiological troubles2 the fruit is said to lack aroma and flavor2 grapes grown on irrigated land do not stand shipment well1 the unduly inflated grapes often bursting2 wine-makers do not like irrigated grapes as well as those from non-irrigated lands2 and watery grapes from irrigated lands make inferior raisins4 ,it is maintained1 however1 with a show of reason1 that grapes suffer in irrigated vineyards in the ways set forth only when the vines are over-or improperly irrigated4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,vii4--,barry 7#b_/e74 ,delaware 7#b_/e74 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,fertilizers ,,for ,,grapes ,as regards fertilizers1 the grape-grower has much to learn and in learning he must approach the problem with humility of mind4 ,for in his experimenting1 which is the best way to learn1 he will no sooner arrive at what seems to be a certain conclusion1 than another season's results or the yields in an adjoining vineyard will upset the findings of past seasons and those obtained in other places4 ,unfortunately1 there is little real knowledge to be obtained on the subject1 for grape-growers have not yet broken away from time-worn dictums in regard to fertilizers and still follow recommendations drawn from work with truck and field crops4 ,this is excused by the fact that there have been almost no comprehensive experiments in the country with fertilizers for grapes4 ,no fallacies die harder than the pronouncements of chemists a generation ago that fertilizing consists in putting in the soil approximately that which the plants take out2 and that the chemical composition of the crop affords the necessary guide to fertilizing4 ,these two theories are the basis of nearly every recommendation that can be found for the use of fertilizers in growing crops4 ,the facts applied to the grape1 however1 are that the average tillable soil contains a hundred or a thousand times more of the chemical constituents of plants than the grape can possibly take from the soil2 and many experiments in supplying food to plants show that the chemical composition of the plant is not a safe guide to their fertilizer requirements4 ,later teachings in regard to the use of fertilizers are3 ,that the quantity of mineral food in a soil may be of far less importance than the quantity of water1 and that the cultivator should make certain that there is sufficient moisture in his land so that the mineral salts may be readily dissolved and so become available as plant-food2 that far too much importance has been attached to putting chemicals in the soil and too little to the physical condition of the soil1 whereby the work of bacteria and the solvent action of organic acids may make available plant-food that without these agencies is unavailable4 ,these brief and simple statements introduce to grape-growers some of the problems with which they must deal in fertilizing grapes1 and show what a complex problem of chemistry1 physics and biology fertilizing the soil is2 how difficult experimental work in this field is2 and how cautious workers must be in interpreting results of either experiment or experience4 ,an account of an experiment in fertilizing a vineyard may make even more plain the difficulties in carrying on experiments in fertilizing fruits and the caution that must be observed in drawing conclusions4 ,,an ,,experiment ,,in ,,fertilizing ,,grapes ,the ,new ,york ,agricultural ,experiment ,station is experimenting with fertilizers for grapes at ,fredonia1 ,chautauqua ,county1 the chief grape region in eastern ,america4 ,the experiment should be of interest to every grape-grower from several points of view4 ,it not only shows that there are many and difficult problems in fertilizing grapes1 but also the results of the use of manure1 commercial fertilizers and cover-crops in a particular vineyard2 it suggests the fertilizers to be used and the methods of use2 and it furnishes a plan for an experiment by grape-growers who want to try such an experiment and draw their own conclusions4 ,an account of the experiment and the results for the first five years follows3#aj ,tests at ,fredonia4 ,in the vineyard at ,fredonia eleven plats were laid out in a section of the vineyard where inequalities of soil and other conditions were slight or were neutralized4 ,each plat included three rows 7about one-sixth of an acre7 and was separated from the adjoining plats by a 'buffer' row not under test4 ,one plat in the center of the section served as a check1 and five different fertilizer combinations were used on duplicate plats at either side of the check4 ,plats #a and #g received lime and a complete fertilizer with quick-acting and slow-acting nitrogen2 ,plats #b and #h received the complete fertilizer but no lime2 on ,plats #c and #i potash was omitted from the complete fertilizer combination2 ,plats #d and #aj received no phosphorus2 ,plats #e and #aa1 no nitrogen2 and ,plat #f was the check4 ,the materials were applied at such rates that they provided for the first year #gb pounds of nitrogen per acre1 #be pounds of phosphorus and #ei pounds of potassium2 and for each of the last four years two-thirds as much nitrogen and phosphorus and eight-ninths as much potassium4 ,the lime was applied the first and fourth years in quantity to make a ton to the acre annually4 ,cover-crops were sown on all plats alike and were plowed under in late ,april or early ,may of each year4 ,these differed in successive years1 but included no legumes4 ,the crops used were rye1 wheat1 barley and cow-horn turnips separately and the last two in combination4 ,the cultivation differed only in thoroughness from that generally used in the ,belt1 the aim being to maintain a good dust mulch during the whole growing season4 ,pruning by the ,chautauqua ,system was done throughout by one man1 who pruned solely according to the vigor of the individual vines and left four1 two or three1 or no fruiting canes as appeared best4 ,the vineyard was thoroughly sprayed1 all plats alike4 ,low winter temperatures1 affecting immature wood and buds caused by unfavorable weather of the previous season1 reduced yields materially during two of the five years1 and practically neutralized any anticipated benefit from fertilizers4 ,following the first of these low-crop years1 came a season1 #aiaa1 in which favorable conditions1 acting upon vines left undiminished in vigor by the light crop of the previous year resulted in heavy and quite uniform yields on all the plats4 ,the yields for the five years are shown in ,table ,i2 and a summary showing the average gains from each treatment is given in ,table ,,ii1 with the average financial balance after deducting the cost of fertilizer application from the increased returns from the plats receiving them4 ,,table ,i4--,,yield ,,of ,,grapes 7,,tons ,,per ,,acre7 ,,in ,,fertilizer ,,experiments ,plat4 #e-year ,no4 #aiji #aiaj #aiaa #aiab #aiac avg4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,tons,tons,tons,tons,tons,tons #a ,complete fertilizer2 lime #d4dh #b4aj #e4cg #c4df #b4ad #c4ea #b ,complete fertilizer #d4gf #b4ba #e4ga #d4cj #b4hc #c4if #c ,nitrogen and phosphorus #e4ag #b4ad #e4fa #d4jj #b4be #c4hc #d ,nitrogen and potash #d4be #b4ee #e4fd #d4aj #b4he #c4hg #e ,phosphorus and potash #c4da #b4jj #e4dd #d4ce #a4gh #c4ci #f ,check #c4ch #b4aj #e4cb #c4fj #a4bd #c4ab #g ,complete fertilizer2 lime #d4fi #b4ch #e4fb #d4hj #c4jd #d4aj #h ,complete fertilizer #d4ff #b4jg #e4ga #d4ih #b4gb #d4jb #i ,nitrogen and phosphorus #d4ii #b4jd #e4ce #d4hi #b4fa #c4ig #aj ,nitrogen and potash #d4gi #b4bf #e4ia #d4hi #c4jg #d4ah #aa ,phosphorus and potash #d4ii #a4hg #e4jc #d4ba #a4ig #c4fa ,,table ,,ii4--,,average ,,increase ,,in ,,grape ,,yields ,,and ,,average ,,financial ,,gain ,,from ,,fertilizer ,,applications ,n nitrogen1 ,p phosphorus1 ,k potassium1 ,ca lime4 ,gains in tons per acre4 ,n1 ,p1 ,n1 ,p1 ,n1 ,p4 ,n1 ,k4 ,p1 ,k4 ,k1 ,ca4 ,k4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,tons ,tons ,tons ,tons ,tons ,first plat of pair #c4ea #c4if #c4hc #c4hg #c4ci ,second plat of pair #d4aj #d4jb #c4ig #d4ah #c4fa ---------------------------------------- ----- ,average #c4hj #c4ig #c4ij #d4jb #c4ej ,check plat #c4ab #c4ab #c4ab #c4ab #c4ab ---------------------------------------- ----- ,average gain 4#fh 4#he 4#gh 4#ij 4#ch ,average financial gain #e4hb #ac4hd #ad4je #ah4ed #f4ii ,from this last table the benefit from nitrogen appears quite evident since every combination in which it appears gives a substantial gain over the one from which it is absent4 ,phosphorus and potassium without the nitrogen1 lead to only a slight increase over the check2 and lime appears to be of no benefit4 ,financially1 the complete fertilizer and lime combination1 the nitrogen and phosphorus combination and the phosphorus and potassium combination failed to pay their cost in five of the ten comparisons2 the complete fertilizer was used at a loss four times out of ten2 and the nitrogen and potassium combination three times out of ten4 ,lime had no appreciable effect on either vines or fruit4 ,no effect of the fertilizers on the fruit itself1 aside from yield1 was shown for the first three years2 but in #aiab1 and even more markedly in #aiac1 the fruit from the plats on which nitrogen had been used was superior in compactness of cluster1 size of cluster and size of berry4 ,in #aiab also1 when early ripening was a decided advantage1 the fruit on the nitrogen plats matured earlier than that on the check plats4 ,in #aiac the favorable ripening season and the smaller crop tended to equalize the time of ripening on all plats4 ,the grapes on the phosphorus-potassium plats were better in quality than those in the check plats but not as good as those on the plats where nitrogen was used4 ,other indexes also show plainly the benefit from nitrogen in this vineyard2 for size and weight of leaf1 weight of wood produced and number of fruiting canes left on the vines were all greater where fertilizers1 and particularly nitrogen1 had been used4 ,the three-year averages 7#aiaa-aiac7 of the measurements for these characteristics are shown in ,table ,,iii3 ,,table ,,iii4--,,comparative ,,production ,,of ,,leaves1 ,,wood ,,and ,,fruiting ,,canes ,,on ,,grape ,,vines ,,differently ,,fertilized 7,averages for three years47 ,,fertilizer ,,application ,,leaf ,,wood ,,fruiting ,,weight#aa ,,pruned#ab ,,canes ,,left#ac ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,grams4 ,lbs4 ,complete fertilizer2 lime #a1jcc #a1bie #b1dfh ,complete fertilizer #a1jaj #a1cfg #b1fji ,nitrogen and phosphorus #a1jdg #a1bgb #b1ehe ,nitrogen and potassium #a1jfi #a1dja #b1fdf ,phosphorus and potassium #ifd #a1jhf #b1cbf ,check #icj #iae #b1aaj ,coperative experiments4 ,in order to secure information as to the behavior of fertilizers on the different soils of the ,grape ,belt1 coperative tests were carried on in six vineyards owned1 respectively1 by ,s4 ,s4 ,grandin1 ,westfield2 ,hon4 ,c4 ,m4 ,hamilton1 ,state ,line2 ,james ,lee1 ,brocton2 ,h4 ,s4 ,miner1 ,dunkirk2 ,miss ,frances ,jennings1 ,silver ,creek2 and ,j4 ,t4 ,barnes1 ,prospect ,station4 ,the soil in these vineyards included gravelly loam1 shale loam and clay loam1 all in the ,dunkirk series1 and the experiments covered from two to two and a half acres in three cases and about five acres in each of the other vineyards4 ,the work continued four years in all but one of the experiments1 which it was necessary to end after the second year4 ,the general plan of the tests was much like that at ,fredonia in most of the vineyards1 with the additions of plats for stable manure and for leguminous and non-leguminous cover crops with and without lime4 ,from two to six check plats were left for comparison in each vineyard4 ,as already stated the results were often inconsistent in duplicate plats in the same vineyard1 and if one test appeared to point definitely in a certain direction1 the indication would be negatived by results in other vineyards4 ,in these experiments the yield of fruit was the only index to the effect of treatments as it was not possible to weigh leaves or pruned wood1 or to count the canes left4 ,nitrogen and potassium in combination1 which gave the largest gains and greatest profit in the ,station vineyard at ,fredonia1 showed a #ac per ct4 increase in yield on one plat in the ,jennings vineyard and a #i per ct4 decrease on the other2 in the ,miner vineyard this combination apparently resulted in a #be per ct4 increase2 in the ,lee vineyard in a #b-a_/b per ct4 loss2 in the ,hamilton vineyard a #ag per ct4 gain2 and in the ,grandin vineyard neither gain nor loss4 ,in only two of the five vineyards in which this combination was tested was the gain great enough to pay the cost of the fertilizer applied4 ,similar discrepancies1 or absence of profitable gain1 mark the use of the other fertilizer combinations4 ,even stable manure1 the standby of the farmer and fruit-grower1 when applied at the rate of five tons per acre each spring1 and plowed in1 did not1 on the average1 pay for itself4 ,indeed1 there were few instances among the #fj comparisons possible1 in which more than a very moderate profit could be credited to manure4 ,the average increase in yield following the application of manure alone was less than a quarter of a ton of grapes to the acre2 while the use of lime with the manure increased the gain to one-third of a ton per acre4 ,the ton of lime to the acre annually would not be paid for by the gain of #age pounds of grapes4 ,cover-crops were used in five of the six coperative experiments and proved even less adapted to increasing crop yields than did the manure4 ,there was no appreciable gain1 on the average1 from the use of mammoth clover2 indeed1 a slight loss must be recorded for the clover except upon the plats which were also limed1 and even with the lime the average yields on check plats and mammoth clover plats differed by only one one-hundredth of a ton4 ,wheat or barley with cow-horn turnips made a slightly better showing1 as the plats on which these crops were turned under1 without lime1 averaged about one-twentieth of a ton to the acre better than the checks4 ,with these non-legumes1 lime was apparently a detriment1 as the plants with the lime yielded a tenth of a ton less1 on the average1 than those without it4 ,practical lessons from the ,fredonia experiment4 ,from this experiment it becomes clear that the use of fertilizers in a vineyard is a local problem4 ,general advice is of little value4 ,it is evident also that the fertilization of vineyards is so involved with other factors that only carefully planned and long continued work will give reliable information as to the needs of vines4 ,indeed1 field experiments even in carefully selected vineyards1 as the coperative experiments show1 may be so contradictory and misleading as to be worse than useless1 if deductions are made from the results of a few seasons4 ,the experiment1 however1 has brought forth information about fertilizing vineyards that ought to be most helpful to grape-growers4 ,thus1 the results suggest3 ,only vineyards in good condition respond to fertilizers4 ,it is usually waste to make applications of fertilizers in poorly drained vineyards1 in such as suffer from winter cold or spring frosts1 where insect pests are epidemic and uncontrolled or where good care is lacking4 ,the experiments furnish several examples of inertness1 ineffectiveness or failure to produce profit when the fertilizers were applied under any of the conditions named4 ,they emphasize the importance of paying attention to all of the factors on which plant growth is dependent4 ,moisture1 soil temperature1 aration1 the texture of the soil1 freedom from pests1 cold and frosts1 as well as the supply of food may limit the yield of grapes4 ,a vineyard soil may have a one-sided wear4 ,it is certain in some of the experiments and strongly indicated in others that the soil is having a one-sided wear--that only one or a very few of the elements of fertility are lacking4 ,the element most frequently lacking is nitrogen4 ,exception will probably be found in very light sands or gravels which are often deficient in potash and the phosphates2 or on soils so shallow or of such mechanical texture that the root range of the vine is limited2 or in soils so wet or so dry as to limit the root range or prevent biological activities4 ,these exceptions mean1 as a rule1 that the soils possessing the unfavorable qualities are unfitted for grape-growing4 ,the grape-grower should try to discover which of the fertilizing elements his soil lacks and not waste by using elements not needed4 ,grape soils are often uneven4 ,the marked unevenness of the soil in the seven vineyards in which these experiments were carried on1 as indicated by the crops and the effects of the fertilizers1 furnishes food for thought to grape-growers4 ,maximum profits cannot be approached in vineyards in which the soil is as uneven as in these1 which were in every case selected because there was an appearance of uniformity4 ,a problem before grape-growers is to make uniform all conditions in their vineyards1 and the vines must be kept free from pests if fertilizers are to be profitably used4 ,how a grape-grower may know when his vines need fertilizers4 ,a grape-grower may assume that his vines do not need fertilizers if they are vigorous and making a fair annual growth4 ,when the vineyard is found to be failing in vigor1 the first step to be taken is to make sure that the drainage is good2 the second step1 to control insect and fungous pests2 the third1 to give tillage and good care2 and the fourth step is to apply fertilizers if they be found necessary4 ,few vineyards will be found to require a complete fertilizer4 ,what the special requirements of a vineyard are can be ascertained only by experiment and are probably not ascertainable by analyses of the soil4 ,this experiment furnishes suggestions as to how the grape-grower may test the value of fertilizers in his own vineyard4 ,applying fertilizers4 ,when it is certain that vines need fertilization1 and what is wanted is known1 the fertilizers should be put on in the spring and be worked in by the spring cultivation4 ,stable manure should be plowed under4 ,grape roots forage throughout the whole top layer of soil so that the land should be covered with the fertilizer1 whether chemical or barnyard manure4 ,applications of commercial fertilizers are generally spread broadcast1 though it is better to drill them in if the foliage is out on the vines and thus avoid possible injury to tender foliage4 ,commercial fertilizers should be mixed thoroughly and in a finely divided state4 ,in leachy soils1 nitrate of soda ought not to be applied too early in the season1 as it will quickly wash down out of reach of the grape roots4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,viii4--,brighton 7#b_/c74 ,over-rich soils4 ,some soils are too rich for the grape4 ,on these the growth is over-luxuriant1 the wood does not mature in the autumn1 fruit-buds do not form and the fruit is poor in quality4 ,certain varieties can stand a richer soil than others4 ,over-richness is a trouble that may cure itself as the vines come in full bearing and make greater demands on the soil for food4 ,it is well1 however1 on a soil that is suspected of being too rich or so proved by the behavior of the vines1 to provide an extra wire on the trellis1 to prune little and thus take care of the rampant growth4 ,some soils1 however1 and this is often the case1 are so rich that the grape cannot be made to thrive in them2 the vines waste their substance in riotous living1 producing luxuriant foliage and lusty wood but little or no fruit4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,pruning ,,the ,,grape ,,in ,,eastern ,,america ,the inexperienced look on pruning as a difficult operation in grape-growing4 ,but once a few fundamentals are grasped1 grape-pruning is not difficult4 ,there is much less perplexity in pruning the grape than in pruning tree-fruits4 ,pruning follows accepted patterns in every grape region1 and when the pattern is learned the difficulties are easily overcome4 ,the inexperienced are confused by the array of principles1 types1 methods1 systems and the many technical terms that enter into discussions of grape-pruning4 ,some of the technicalities come from ,european practices1 and others originated in the infancy of grape-growing in this country when there was great diversity in pruning4 ,divested of much that is but jargon1 an inexperienced man can easily learn in a few lessons1 from word of mouth or printed page1 how to prune grapes4 ,the simplicity of pruning has led to slighting the work in commercial vineyards1 by too often trusting it to unskilled hands4 ,then1 too1 in this age of power-propelled tools1 pride in hand labor has been left behind1 and few grape-growers now take time and trouble to become expert in pruning4 ,simple as the work may seem to those long accustomed to it1 he who wants to put into his pruning painstaking intelligence and to taste the joy of a task well done finds in this vineyard operation an ample field for pleasure and for the development of greater profits4 ,the price to be paid by those who would thus attempt perfection in pruning the vine is forward vision1 the mechanic's eye1 the gardener's touch1 patience1 and pride in handicraft4 ,simple as pruning is1 the pruner soon learns that it is an art in which perfection is better known in mind than followed in deed4 ,the theory is easy but there are some stumbling blocks to make its consummation difficult4 ,it is an art in which rules do not suffice1 for no two vineyards can be pruned alike in amount or method1 and every grape-grower finds his vineyard a proper field for the gratification of his taste in pruning4 ,happily1 however1 enlightened theory and sound practice are in perfect accord in grape-pruning1 so that specific advice is well founded on governing principles4 ,one cannot1 of course1 learn to prune unless he understands the habit of the grape-vine and is familiar with the terms applied to the different parts of the vine4 ,as a preliminary to this chapter1 therefore1 knowledge of ,chapter ,,xvii1 in which the structure of the grape-vine is discussed1 is necessary4 ,the next step is to distinguish between pruning and training4 ,,pruning ,,and ,,training ,,distinguished ,the grape is pruned to increase in various ways the economic value of the plant by increasing the quantity and value of the crop4 ,this is pruning proper4 ,or grapes are pruned to make well-proportioned plants with the parts so disposed that the vines are to the highest degree manageable in the vineyard4 ,this is training4 ,to repeat1 the grape-plant is pruned to regulate the crop2 it is trained to regulate the vine4 ,grape-growers usually speak of both operations as pruning1 but it is better to keep in mind the two conceptions4 ,the distinctions between pruning and training must be made more apparent by setting forth in greater detail the results attained by the two operations4 ,results attained in pruning to regulate the crop4 ,proper pruning of vines in their first year in the vineyard1 which1 as we have seen1 consists of cutting the young plants back severely1 brings the vines in productive bearing a year or two years earlier than they would have borne had the pruning been neglected4 ,this early pruning1 since it is done with an eye to the vigor of each vine1 insures greater uniformity in the growth and productiveness of the vineyard4 ,uniformity thus brought about is important not only for the time being1 but for the future development of the vines1 since weak vines1 if unpruned1 are stunted and may require years to overtake more vigorous vines in the vineyard4 ,the quality of the crop may be regulated by pruning4 ,when vines bear too heavily1 the grapes are small1 and wine-makers have found that they seldom develop sugar and flavor as do grapes on vines not over-bearing4 ,grapes on vines too heavily laden seldom ripen or color well4 ,not only are the grapes on poorly pruned and unpruned vines poor in quality but the grapes on such vines are usually not well distributed and therefore ripen and color unevenly4 ,the results just mentioned follow because the bunches in a poorly distributed crop receive varying amounts of light and heat depending on the distance from the ground1 the distance from the trunk and on the amount of shade4 ,pruning may be used to regulate the quantity of grapes borne in a vineyard and so be made somewhat helpful in preventing alternate bearing4 ,abnormally large crops are usually followed by partial crop failure and biennial bearing sometimes sets in1 but the large crop may be reduced by pruning and the evil consequences wholly or partly avoided4 ,it follows that pruning must depend much on the vigor of the vine2 for a weak vine may be so pruned as to cause it to overbear2 and1 on the other hand1 a vigorous vine pruned in the same way might not bear at all4 ,results attained in pruning to regulate the vine4 ,it is necessary to regulate the shape of the vine by training so that tilling1 spraying1 pruning and harvesting can be easily performed and the crop be kept off the ground4 ,the cost of production is always less in a well-pruned vineyard because all vineyard operations are more easily carried out4 ,the life of a vineyard is lengthened when the vines are well trained1 because when the parts of a vine are properly disposed on trellis or stake the plants are less often injured in vineyard operations4 ,moreover1 not infrequently vines die from over-production and consequent breaking of canes or trunks which might have been prevented by pruning to shape the vine4 ,suckers and water-sprouts are less common on well-trained vines4 ,it is necessary1 too1 by training to keep the bunches away from trunk1 canes and other bunches and so prevent injury to the grapes4 ,lastly1 fashion1 taste or a more or less abnormal use of the grapes1 may prescribe the form in which a vine is trained4 ,fashion and taste run from very simple or natural styles to exceedingly complex1 formal ones1 depending1 often1 on the variety1 the environment or other condition1 but just as often on the whim of the grape-grower4 ,the grape is a favorite ornamental for fences1 arbors and to cover buildings2 for all of these purposes the vines must be trained as occasion calls4 ,,some ,,principles ,,of ,,pruning ,leaving the shaping of the plant out of consideration and having in mind pruning proper1 all efforts in pruning are directed toward two objects3 7#a7 ,the production of leafy shoots to increase the vigor of the plant4 7#b7 ,the promotion of the formation of fruit-buds4 ,the first1 in common parlance1 is pruning for wood2 the second1 pruning for fruit4 ,pruning for wood4 ,some grapes1 in common with varieties of all fruits1 produce excessive crops of fruit so that the plants exhaust themselves1 to their permanent injury and to the detriment of the crop4 ,something must be done to restore and increase vegetative vigor4 ,the most natural procedure is to lessen the struggle for existence among the parts of the plant4 ,the richer and the more abundant the supply of the food solution1 the greater the vegetative activity1 the larger the leaves and the larger and stouter the internodes4 ,obviously1 the supply of food solution for each bud may be increased by decreasing the number of buds4 ,the weaker the plants1 therefore1 the more the vine should be cut4 ,the severe pruning in the first two years of the vine's existence is an example of pruning for wood4 ,the vine is pruned for wood in the resting period between the fall of leaf and the swelling of buds the following spring4 ,pruning for fruit4 ,growers of all fruits soon learn that excessive vegetative vigor is not usually accompanied by fruitfulness4 ,too great vigor is indicated by long1 leafy1 unbranching shoots4 ,some fruit-growers go so far as to say that fruitfulness is inversely proportionate to vegetative vigor4 ,there are several methods of diminishing the vigor of the vine2 as1 withholding water and fertilizers1 stopping tillage1 the method of training and by pruning4 ,pruning is used to decrease the vigor of the vine1 in theory at least1 for the practice is not always so successful1 by pruning the roots or by summer-pruning the shoots4 ,root-pruning the grape at intervals of several years is a regular practice with some varieties in warm countries1 ,europe more especially1 but is seldom or never practiced in ,america except when planting and when roots arise from the cion above the union of stock and cion4 ,summer-pruning to induce fruitfulness consists in removing new shoots with newly developed leaves4 ,these young shoots have been developed from reserve material stored up the preceding season1 and until they are so far developed that they can perform the functions of leaves they are to be counted as parasites4 ,when1 therefore1 these shoots are pruned or pinched away1 the plant is robbed of the material used by the lusty shoot which up to this time has given nothing in return4 ,the vigor of the plant is thus checked and fruitfulness increased4 ,summer-pruning may become harmful if delayed too long4 ,the time to prune is past with the grape when the leaves have passed from the light green color of new growth to the dark green of mature leaves4 ,fruit-bearing may be augmented by bending1 twisting or ringing the canes1 since all of these operations diminish vegetative vigor4 ,ringing is the only one of these methods in general use1 and this only for some special variety or special purpose1 and usually with the result that the vigor of the vine is diminished too much for the good of the plant4 ,ringing is discussed more fully in ,chapter ,,xvi4 ,the manner of fruit-bearing in the grape4 ,before attempting to prune1 the pruner must understand precisely how the grape bears its crop4 ,the fruit is borne near the base of the shoots of the current season1 and the shoots are borne on the wood of the previous year's growth coming from a dormant bud4 ,here is manifested one of ,nature's energy-saving devices1 shoot1 leaves1 flowers and fruit spring in a short season from a single bud4 ,in the light of this fact1 pruning should be looked on as a simple problem to be solved mathematically and not as a puzzle to be untangled1 as so many regard it4 ,for an example1 a problem in pruning is here stated and solved4 ,a thrifty grape-vine should yield1 let us say1 fifteen pounds of grapes1 a fair average for the mainstay varieties4 ,each bunch will weigh from a quarter to a half pound4 ,to produce fifteen pounds on a vine1 therefore1 will require from thirty to sixty bunches4 ,as each shoot will bear two or three bunches1 from fifteen to thirty buds must be left on the canes of the preceding year4 ,these buds are selected in pruning on one or more canes distributed on one or two main stems in such manner as the pruner may choose1 but usually in accordance with one or another of several well-developed methods of training4 ,pruning1 then1 consists in calculating the number of bunches and buds necessary and removing the remainder4 ,in essence pruning is thinning4 ,horizontal versus perpendicular canes4 ,an old dictum of viticulture is that the nearer the growing parts of the vine approach the perpendicular1 the more vigorous the parts4 ,the terminal buds1 as every grape-grower knows1 grow very rapidly and probably absorb1 unless checked1 more than their share of the energy of the vine4 ,this tendency can be checked somewhat by removing the terminal buds1 which also helps to keep the plants within manageable limits1 but is better controlled by training the canes to horizontal positions4 ,grape canes are tied horizontally to wires to make the vines more manageable and to reduce their vigor and so induce fruitfulness2 they are trained vertically to increase the vigor of the vine4 ,winter-pruning4 ,winter-pruning of the vineyard may be done at any time from the dropping of the leaves in the autumn to the swelling of the buds in the spring4 ,the sap begins to circulate actively in the grape early in the spring1 even to the extremities of the vine1 and most grape-growers believe this sap to be a vital stream and that1 if the vine is pruned during its flow1 the plant will bleed to death4 ,the vine1 however1 is at this season of so dropsical a constitution that the loss of sap is better denominated weeping than bleeding4 ,it is doubtful whether serious injury results from pruning after the sap begins to flow1 but it is a safe practice to prune earlier and the work is certainly pleasanter4 ,the vine should not be pruned when the wood is frozen1 since at this time the canes are brittle and easily broken in handling4 ,on the other hand1 it is well to delay pruning in northern climates until after a heavy freeze in the autumn1 to winterkill and wither immature wood so that it can be removed in pruning4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,ix4--,campbell ,early 7#b_/c74 ,summer-pruning4 ,there are three kinds of summer-pruning1 the removal of superfluous shoots1 heading-in canes to keep the vines in manageable limits and the pruning to induce fruitfulness discussed on a foregoing page1 which need not have further consideration4 ,it is very essential that the grower keep these three purposes in mind1 especially as there is much dispute as to the necessity of two of these operations4 ,all agree that the vine usually bears superfluous shoots that should be removed4 ,these are such as spring from small1 weak buds or from buds on the arms and trunk of the vine4 ,these shoots are useless1 devitalize the vine1 and hinder vineyard operations4 ,a good practice is to rub off the buds from which these shoots grow as they are detected1 but in most vineyards the vines must be gone over from time to time as the shoots appear4 ,still another kind of superfluous shoots1 which ought to be removed as they appear1 are those which grow from the base of the season's shoots1 the so-called secondary or axillary shoots4 ,these are usually broken out at the time the shoots from weak buds are removed4 ,while there is doubt as to the value of heading-back the vine in the summer for the sole purpose of inducing fruitfulness1 there can be no doubt that it is desirable for the purpose of keeping some varieties within bounds4 ,heading-back is not now the major operation it once was1 the need of severe cutting being obviated by putting the vines farther apart1 by training high on three or even four wires and by adopting one of the drooping systems of training4 ,the objections to heading-back in the summer are that it often unduly weakens the vines1 that it may induce a growth of laterals which thicken the vines too much1 and that it delays the maturing of the wood4 ,these bad effects1 however1 can be overcome by pruning lightly and doing the work so late in the season that lateral growths will not start4 ,most vineyardists who keep their plantations up find it necessary to head back more or less1 depending on the season and the variety4 ,the work is usually done when the over-luxuriant shoots begin to touch the ground4 ,the shoots are then topped off with a sickle1 corn-cutter or similar tool4 ,,renewing ,,fruiting ,,wood ,there are two ways of renewing the fruiting wood on a grape-vine1 by canes and from spurs4 ,the manner of renewing refers to pruning and not to training1 for either can be used in any method of training4 ,cane renewals4 ,renewal by canes is made each year by taking one or more canes1 cut to the desired number of buds1 to supply bearing shoots4 ,by this method the most of the bearing wood is removed each year1 new canes taking the place of the old4 ,these renewal canes may be taken either from the head of the vine or from the ground1 though the latter is little used except where vines must be laid down for winter protection4 ,canes may be renewed indefinitely1 if care is exercised in keeping the stubs short1 without enlarging the head from which the canes are taken out of proportion to the size of the trunk4 ,renewing by canes is a more common method than renewal by spurs1 as will be found in the discussion of methods of training4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ac4 ,vine ready for pruning2 i1 the stem2 g1 arms2 d1 canes2 s1 shoots2 b1 spurs4 ,the faint lines near the bases of the canes indicate the points where they should be pruned off in the winter1 leaving spurs for the production of shoots the following season4 ,spur renewal4 ,in renewing by spurs1 a permanent arm is established to right and left on the canes4 ,shoots on this arm are not permitted to remain as canes but are cut back to spurs in the dormant pruning4 ,two buds are left at this pruning1 both of which will produce bearing shoots2 the lower one1 however1 is not suffered to do so but is kept to furnish the spur for the next season4 ,the shoot from the upper bud is cut away entirely4 ,when this process is carried on from year to year1 the spurs become longer and longer until they become unwieldy4 ,occasionally1 however1 happy chance permits the selection of a shoot on the old wood for a new spur4 ,failing in this1 a new arm must be laid down and the spurring goes on as before4 ,the objections to renewing by spurs are3 it is often difficult to replace spurs with new wood1 and the bearing portion of the vine gets farther and farther from the trunk4 ,for these reasons1 spur-renewing is generally in disfavor with commercial grape-growers1 though it is still used in one or two prominent methods of training1 as will be discovered in this discussion4 ,figure #ac shows a vine ready for pruning4 ,,the ,,work ,,of ,,pruning ,the pruner may take his choice between several styles of hand pruning-shears with which to do his work4 ,the knife is seldom used except in summer-pruning1 and here1 more often1 the shoots are broken out or pinched out4 ,in winter-pruning1 the cane is cut an inch or thereabout beyond the last bud it is desired to leave2 otherwise the bud may die from the drying out of the cane4 ,the canes are usually allowed to remain tied to the wires until the pruning is done1 though growers who use the ,kniffin method of training may cut them loose before they prune4 ,two men working together do the work of pruning best4 ,the more skilled of the two severs the wood from the bearing vine1 leaving just the number of buds desired for the next season's crop4 ,the less skilled man cuts tendrils and severs the cut canes from each other so that the prunings may be moved from the vineyard without trouble by the stripper4 ,not the least of the tasks of pruning is stripping the brush and getting it out of the vineyard4 ,the prunings cling to the trellis with considerable tenacity and must be pulled loose with a peculiar jerk1 learned by practice1 and placed on the ground between the rows4 ,stripping is done1 usually by cheap labor1 at any time after the pruning until spring1 but must not be delayed until growth starts or the young buds may suffer as the cut wood is torn from the trellis4 ,the brush is hauled to the end of the row by hand or by horse-power applied to any one of a dozen devices used in the several grape regions4 ,one of the best is the device in common use in the ,chautauqua vineyards of western ,new ,york4 ,a pole1 twelve feet long1 four inches in diameter at the butt and two at the top1 is bored with an inch hole four feet from the butt4 ,a horse is hitched to this pole by a rope drawn through the hole1 and the pole1 butt to the ground1 is then pulled between rows1 the small end being held in the right hand4 ,the pole1 when skillfully used1 collects the brush1 which is dumped at the end of the row by letting the small end fly over towards the horse4 ,the go-devil1 shown in ,fig4 #ad1 is another common device for collecting prunings4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ad4 ,a go-devil for collecting prunings4 ,,the ,,trellis ,the trellis is a considerable item in the grape-grower's budget1 since it must be renewed every fifteen years or thereabouts4 ,wires are strung in the ,north at the end of the second season after planting1 but in the ,south the growth is often so great that the wires must be put up at the end of the first season4 ,trellises are of the same general style for commercial vineyards2 namely1 two or three wires tautly stretched on firmly set posts4 ,occasionally slat trellises are put up in gardens but these are not to be recommended for any but ornamental purposes4 ,posts4 ,strong1 durable posts of chestnut1 locust1 cedar1 oak or renforced cement are placed at such distance apart that two or three vines can be set between each two posts4 ,the distance apart depends on the distance between vines1 although the tendency now is to have three vines between two posts4 ,the posts are from six to eight feet in length1 the heaviest being used as end posts4 ,in hard stony soils it may be necessary to set the end posts with a spade1 but usually sharpened posts can be driven into holes made with a crowbar4 ,in driving1 the operator stands on a wagon hauled by a horse and uses a ten- or twelve-pound maul4 ,the posts are driven to a depth of eighteen or twenty-four inches for the end posts4 ,however set1 the posts must stand firm to hold the load of vines and fruit4 ,the end posts must be braced4 ,as good a brace as any is made from a four-by-four timber1 notched to fit the post halfway up from the ground1 and extending obliquely to the ground1 where it is held by a four-by-four stake4 ,a two-wire trellis and a common method of bracing end posts are shown in ,fig4 #ae4 ,the posts on hillsides must lean slightly up-hill1 otherwise they will almost certainly sooner or later tilt down the slope4 ,the posts are usually permitted to stand a little higher at first than necessary so that they may be driven down should occasion call2 driving is usually done in the early spring4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ae4 ,a trellis and a common method of bracing end posts4 ,wire for the trellis4 ,four sizes of wire are in common use for vineyard trellises2 nos4 #i1 #aj1 #aa and #ab4 ,number #i1 the heaviest1 is often used for the top wire with lighter wires lower4 ,the following figures show the length of wire in a ton3 ,no4 #i1 #cd1dhc ft4 ,no4 #aj1 #da1djh ft4 ,no4 #aa1 #eb1ceb ft4 ,no4 #ab1 #fh1dic ft4 ,from these figures the number of pounds required to the acre is easily calculated4 ,common annealed wire makes a durable trellis1 but many growers prefer the more durable galvanized wire1 the cost of which is slightly greater4 ,the wires are fastened to the end posts by winding once around the post1 and then each wire is firmly looped about itself2 they are secured to the intervening posts by ordinary fence staples so driven that the wire cannot pull through of its own weight but with space enough to permit tightening from season to season4 ,the size and length of the staples depend on whether the posts are hard or soft wood4 ,the longest and largest staples are used with soft woods1 as cedar or chestnut4 ,an acre requires from nine to twelve pounds of staples4 ,the wires should be placed on the windward sides of posts and on the up-hill side in hillside vineyards4 ,the distance between wires depends on the method of pruning4 ,the wires must be stretched taut on the posts1 for which purpose any one of a half-dozen good wire stretchers may be purchased at hardware stores4 ,some growers loosen the wires after harvest to allow for the contraction in cold weather and others use some one of several devices to relieve the strain4 ,most growers1 however1 find it necessary to go over the vineyard each spring to drive down loosened posts and stretch sagging wires1 and so take no precautions to release wires in the fall4 ,all agree that the wires must be kept tight during the growing season to protect buds1 foliage and fruit from being injured from whipping4 ,tying4 ,the canes are tied to the trellis in early spring1 and under most systems of pruning the growing shoots are tied in the summer4 ,this work is done by cheap men1 women1 boys and girls4 ,a great variety of material is used to make the tie1 as raffia1 wooltwine1 willow1 inner bark of the linden or basswood1 green rye straw1 corn husks1 carpet-rags and wire4 ,the same materials are not usually employed for both canes and shoots1 since the canes are tied firmly to hold them steady and the work is done early before there is danger of breaking swelling buds1 while the summer shoots are tied to hold for a shorter time and more loosely to permit growth in diameter4 ,tying usually follows accepted patterns in one region but varies greatly in different regions4 ,there is a knack to be learned in the use of each one of the materials named1 but with none is it difficult1 and an ingenious person can easily contrive a tie of his own to suit fancy or conditions4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,x4--,clinton 7#b_/c74 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,methods ,,of ,,training ,,grapes ,,in ,,eastern ,,america ,the grape-grower takes great liberties with ,nature in training his plants4 ,no other fruit is so completely transformed by the grower's art from its natural habit of growth4 ,happily1 the grape endures cutting well1 and the pruner may rest assured that he may work his will in pruning his vines1 following to his heart's desire a favorite method with little fear of seriously injuring his vines4 ,because of its accommodation to the desires of man in the disposition of the vine1 there are many methods of training the grape2 there being in the commercial vineyards of eastern ,america a dozen or more4 ,however1 the differences and similarities are so marked that the several methods fall into a simple classification which makes conspicuous their chief features4 ,thus1 all of the methods fall under two chief heads3 7#a7 ,the disposition of shoots2 7#b7 the disposition of canes4 ,the disposition of shoots4 ,bearing shoots are disposed of in three ways in training grapes2 shoots upright1 shoots drooping1 and shoots horizontal4 ,the terms explain themselves1 but the three methods need amplification since their adoption is not optional with growers but depends on several circumstances4 ,shoots are trained upright in several methods in which two or more arms or canes are laid to right and left1 sometimes horizontally1 sometimes obliquely along or across horizontal wires4 ,as the shoots grow upward1 they are tied to wires above4 ,the upright methods are supposed to distribute the bearing wood more evenly on the vines and to insure greater uniformity in the fruit4 ,in the upright methods1 also1 the canes and arms are left nearer the ground1 which is thought to be an advantage in small1 weak or slow-growing varieties4 ,delaware1 ,catawba1 ,iona and ,diana are examples of varieties thought to grow best when trained to one of the upright methods4 ,in the several methods in which the shoots droop1 however the canes may be disposed1 the shoots are not tied but are allowed to droop at will4 ,these methods are comparatively new but are being rapidly adopted because of several marked advantages4 ,usually one less wire can be used in a drooping method than in an upright one2 since the shoots are not tied1 much labor is saved in summer tying2 the ground can be tilled with less danger to the vines2 and there is less sun-scalding of the fruit1 since the pendant foliage protects the clusters4 ,grape-growers generally agree that strong-growing varieties like ,concord1 ,niagara1 ,brighton1 ,diamond and most of the hybrids between ,european grapes and native species grow best when the shoots droop4 ,shoots are trained horizontally in but one recognized method1 the ,hudson ,horizontal1 to be described in detail later4 ,since this method is all but obsolete1 there is still less reason for discussing it here1 the expressive name sufficing for present purposes4 ,disposition of canes4 ,there are many recognized methods of disposing of the canes in training the grape4 ,the chief of these are discussed in the pages that follow1 their names being set down for the present in the classification that follows4 ,,classification ,,of ,,methods ,,of ,,training ,,the ,,grape ,,in ,,eastern ,,america ,i4 ,shoots upright3 #a4 ,chautauqua ,arm4 #b4 ,keuka ,high ,renewal4 #c4 ,fan4 ,,ii4 ,shoots drooping3 #a4 ,single-stem1 ,four-cane ,kniffin4 #b4 ,two-stem1 ,four-cane ,kniffin4 #c4 ,umbrella ,kniffin4 #d4 ,y-stem ,kniffin4 #e4 ,munson4 ,,iii4 ,shoots horizontal3 #a4 ,hudson ,horizontal4 ,i4 ,shoots upright ,systematic training of the grape in ,america began toward the middle of the nineteenth century with a method in which the shoots were trained upright from two permanent horizontal arms4 ,these arms are laid to right and left on a low wire and bear more or less permanent spurs1 from each of which two shoots are produced each season to bear the crop4 ,the number of spurs left on each arm depends on the vigor of the vine and the space between vines4 ,as the shoots grow upward1 they are tied to upper wires1 there being three wires on the trellis for this method4 ,this method is now known as the ,horizontal ,arm ,spur4 ,it has a serious fault in its troublesome spurs and has almost entirely given way to a modification called the ,chautauqua ,arm method1 much used in the great ,chautauqua grape-belt4 ,as one of the chief methods of training the grape in eastern ,america1 this must be described in detail4 ,the ,chautauqua ,arm method4 ,the trellis for this method has two wires1 although occasionally three are used4 ,the lower wire is eighteen or twenty inches above the ground and the second thirty-four inches above the lower4 ,if three are used1 the wires are twenty inches apart4 ,f4 ,e4 ,gladwin1 in charge of the vineyard laboratory of the ,new ,york ,agricultural ,experiment ,station at ,fredonia1 in the heart of the ,chautauqua belt1 describes this method of training as follows3 ,the vines are cut back to two buds at each pruning the first two years4 ,if the vines are vigorous two canes are tied up at the beginning of the third year2 if scant1 but one is left and this1 if the growth is extremely unfavorable1 is cut back to two buds4 ,the canes are carried up obliquely to the upper wire when the growth permits and are there firmly tied either with twine or fine wire1 the latter being more commonly used4 ,the canes are also loosely tied to the lower wire4 ,the pruning for the fourth year consists in cutting away all but two or three canes and a number of spurs from the arms formed by tying up the two canes the previous year4 ,the vine now consists of two arms1 arising from near the ground1 with two or three canes of the previous year1 and several two-bud spurs at intervals along the arms4 ,as far as possible such canes as have arisen but a short distance above the lower wire are selected4 ,all the old wood projecting beyond the last cane retained on each of the arms is cut away4 ,the arms of the third year are bent down from their oblique position and are tied firmly to the lower wire1 to the right and left of the center of the vine4 ,these are now permanent arms4 ,the vine at this time consists of two arms1 arising from near the ground1 tied to the lower wire to the right and left of the center1 and on these are two or three canes1 pruned long enough to reach to the middle wire at least1 and if possible to the upper4 ,they are tied so that they stand in a vertical or oblique position4 ,along the arms at intervals of a few inches are spurs1 consisting of two buds4 ,if the vineyardist maintains the arms permanently1 these spurs furnish the fruiting wood for the succeeding year4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #af4 ,chautauqua training2 vine ready to prune4 ,at the pruning for the fifth year one of the arms is cut away entirely1 close to the point of its origin4 ,the remaining arm1 reaching from the ground to a point a few inches below the level of the lower wire1 now becomes the permanent stem4 ,the vineyardist must now provide for the arm cut away4 ,this is done by the selection of a cane1 arising from the remaining arm at a point below the lower wire1 either directly1 or from a spur left for the purpose4 ,this is pruned to reach the top wire and is tied obliquely to it4 ,this cane at the next pruning is tied down to the lower wire and becomes the second arm4 ,then the same selection of canes and spurs is made from it as was made at the previous pruning1 and the canes are tied up as before4 ,however1 if the grower desires to retain both arms of the preceding year for a few years1 canes that have grown from the spurs may be tied up and provision made for the following year through further spurring4 ,if but a single arm is retained1 it is pruned in the same way4 ,spurs may be obtained from canes that have arisen from dormant buds on the arm1 or by spurring in the basal canes of the fruiting wood of the year previous4 ,a combination of both methods of renewal will in the long run work out the better1 as the repeated spurring in of the basal canes will result in greatly lengthened spurs that will require frequent cutting out4 ,while the canes that arise directly from dormant buds on wood two years and over are not necessarily the best fruiting ones1 they can1 however1 be utilized for renewal purposes4 ,the ideal vine pruned to this system now consists of a stem reaching from sixteen or eighteen inches above the ground level or a few inches below the level of the lower wire4 ,such a vine is shown in ,figure #af4 ,from the head two arms arise1 one extending to the right1 the other to the left and tied along the lower wire1 each arm not extending for more than two feet and a half to either side of the head4 ,from the arms two canes on each are tied vertically or obliquely to the top wire4 ,in addition there are left two or three spurs1 growing from the upper side of each arm1 located at well-spaced intervals starting close to the head2 these may be used for the renewal of the arms4 ,the shoots are not tied4 ,one of the chief faults of the ,chautauqua ,arm method is the tendency of the best matured1 and most desirable canes to develop at or near the upper wire1 while those lower down are often too short1 or so poorly matured as to be unfitted for fruiting purposes4 ,when the wood1 bearing the well-developed upper canes1 is brought down for arms1 a considerable interval of the arm from the head to the point where the canes arise is without fruiting wood4 ,under such conditions the growth will be again thrown to the extremities4 ,if spurring on the arms has been practiced1 this undesirable condition is eliminated4 ,with either type of renewal1 spurring should be practiced4 ,the fruit from vines trained by this method reaches its highest development at or near the level of the upper wire1 that on the lower shoots is1 as a rule1 quite inferior4 ,this comes from the fact that the sap flow is more vigorous at these upper points1 resulting in more and healthier leaves1 which1 in turn1 influence the fruit for the better4 ,keuka ,high ,renewal4 ,several methods of training pass under the general term ,high ,renewal1 the significance of which becomes apparent in the discussion of the ,keuka ,high ,renewal method which is probably now the most common of the several types4 ,in most of these methods the trellis is put up with three wires1 but occasionally only two wires are used and still less often four4 ,the lowest wire on the three-wire trellis is eighteen or twenty inches from the ground with twenty-inch intervals between wires4 ,gladwin1 who has direct charge of vineyard experimental work about ,keuka ,lake for the ,new ,york ,agricultural ,experiment ,station1 describes current practices in pruning according to this method as follows3 ,at each pruning for the first two years the vines are cut back to two buds4 ,however1 with strong-growing varieties like ,concord1 ,niagara and ,isabella1 and under good soil conditions1 the stem may be formed the second year4 ,with moderate-growing varieties and under average conditions1 the formation of the stem is left until the third year4 ,the straightest and best-matured cane is left for the purpose4 ,this is carried to the lower wire and there firmly tied with willow4 ,as soon as the shoots have made sufficient growth they are loosely tied to the wires that they may be kept away from the tillage tools4 ,the fourth year the head of the vine is formed4 ,this should stand a few inches below the lower wire4 ,two canes growing from the stem near this position are selected1 one being tied to the right and the other to the left along the lower wire4 ,in the ,keuka ,lake ,district1 the canes are tied with willows4 ,in addition1 at least two spurs of two buds each are retained near the head4 ,with ,concord1 the canes may carry about ten buds each1 but with ,catawba1 as grown on the hillsides of the ,central ,lakes ,region of ,new ,york1 the canes should not carry above six buds each4 ,as the shoots develop from the horizontal canes1 they are tied with rye straw to the middle and upper wires4 ,this summer tying is almost continuous after the shoots are long enough to reach the middle wire4 ,the following year all the wood is cut away except two or three canes that have developed from the basal buds of the canes put up the previous year1 or that have grown from the spurs4 ,in the event of a third cane being retained1 it is tied along the middle wire4 ,spurs are again maintained close to the head for renewal purposes4 ,the other two canes are tied along the lower wire as before4 ,if the same spurs are used for a few years they become so long that the canes arising from them reach above the wire and cannot be well managed in the 'willowing4' ,it is desirable to provide new spurs annually1 selecting those canes for the purpose that arise from the head of the vine or near it4 ,it is possible by careful pruning to so cut away the old wood that practically all that remains after each pruning is the stem4 ,thus the vine is renewed almost to the ground4 ,when the stem approaches the end of its usefulness1 a shoot is allowed to grow from the ground1 and the old one is cut away4 ,figure #ag shows a vine pruned by the ,keuka method4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ag4 ,keuka method of training4 ,this method of training is especially well adapted to slow growing varieties1 or those situated on poor soils1 where but little wood growth is made4 ,it is ideally adapted for the growing of ,catawba on the hillsides of ,keuka ,lake4 ,it is well adapted to late-maturing varieties planted out of their zone4 ,concord1 growing under average conditions1 is too vigorous to be trained by this method4 ,it makes a tremendous growth of wood out of all proportion to the quantity of fruit1 which is inclined to be very inferior4 ,the chief objection to this method is the amount of summer tying involved which comes at a time when attention to tillage should be given4 ,it might prove profitable in the growing of dessert varieties that have been discarded because of lack of vigor4 ,on thin hillside soils1 ,catawba requires training modelled after this method but on the heavier upland ones1 with shorter pruning1 it can be grown on the ,chautauqua ,arm plan4 ,delaware1 ,iona1 ,dutchess1 ,campbell1 ,eumelan1 ,jessica1 ,vergennes and ,regal are1 as a rule1 grown to better advantage when trained by the ,high ,renewal method4 ,fan-training4 ,the only other method now in use in which the shoots may be trained upright is that in which the canes are disposed of in fan-shape4 ,this method was much used a generation ago but is rapidly becoming obsolete4 ,in fan-training the renewals are made yearly from spurs near the ground1 and the fruiting canes are carried up obliquely and so form a fan4 ,the great advantage in fan-training is that a trunk is almost dispensed with1 which greatly facilitates laying down the vine in winter where winter-protection is needed4 ,there are several objections to this method in commercial plantations4 ,the chief one is that the spurs become long1 crooked and almost unmanageable so that renewals from the root must be made frequently4 ,another is that the fruit is borne close to the ground and becomes soiled with mud in dashing rains4 ,the vines1 also1 are inconvenient in shape for tying4 ,there are two or three modifications of fan-training which may be described as mongrel methods between this and the ,high ,renewal and ,horizontal ,arm methods1 none of which1 however1 is now in general favor4 ,,ii4 ,shoots drooping ,quite by accident1 ,william ,kniffin1 a stone mason living at ,clintondale1 ,new ,york1 in the ,hudson ,river grape region1 discovered that grapes of large size and handsome appearance could be grown on vines in which the canes were trained horizontally with the shoots drooping4 ,he put his discovery in practice and from it have come the several methods of training grapes which bear his name4 ,kniffin's discovery was made about #ahej and the merits of his methods spread so rapidly over eastern ,america that by the end of the century the various ,kniffin methods were more generally used than any others4 ,grape-growers now agree that strong-growing vines like ,concord1 ,niagara and ,clinton are best trained to one or another of the ,kniffin methods4 ,there are several modifications of ,kniffin's method1 three of which are now in common use1 the most popular being the ,single-stem1 ,four-cane ,kniffin4 ,the trellis for the three methods carries two wires1 the lower placed at the height of three to three and a half feet and the upper from two to two and a half feet above it4 ,to permit this height of wires1 the posts must be from eight to eight and a half feet in length1 and must be firmly set with the end posts well braced4 ,single-stem1 ,four-cane ,kniffin4 ,as practiced at the ,new ,york ,agricultural ,experiment ,station1 the vines are trained as follows3 ,one trunk is carried to the top wire the third year after planting1 or if the growth is not long enough at this time1 it is carried to the lower wire and there tied4 ,in this case1 the following year a cane is extended to the top wire4 ,this trunk is permanent4 ,if the stem reaches the upper wire the third year1 growers break out many of the developing shoots and allow only the strongest to grow1 choosing those that arise close to the wires4 ,the stem should be tied tightly to the top wire and somewhat loosely to the lower4 ,if girdling results at the top1 it is not objectionable as the head of the vine should be below rather than above the wire4 ,when the shoots are sufficiently hardened1 those growing close to the wires should be loosely tied to prevent injury during cultivation4 ,at the beginning of the fourth year1 as shown in ,fig4 #ah1 the vine should consist of a stem extending from the ground to a point below the top wire4 ,from this1 all but two canes and two spurs of two buds each have been cut away below each wire level4 ,as growth is most vigorous at the top of the stem1 four to six more buds are left on the upper than on the lower canes4 ,a vine of which the stem reaches the upper wire the third year should support the next season canes1 aggregating twenty-two buds with eight additional buds on the spurs4 ,if the growth is weak1 only half this number should be left4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ah4 ,single-stem1 ,four-cane ,kniffin training4 ,the tying at this time consists of fastening the stem loosely1 with ordinary grape twine1 to the lower wire1 and with the same material the canes are tied along the two wires to right and left of the stem4 ,the canes should be tied tightly toward the trunk so that they cannot slip out of the twine4 ,ordinarily tying at this time is sufficient for the year1 but if conditions for growth are unfavorable1 the twine may rot before the tendrils take hold of the wires1 and a partial second tying may be necessary4 ,after the fourth season1 the pruner has greater choice of fruiting-wood for the following year4 ,it may be chosen from the basal canes of the preceding year's wood or the canes that develop from the spurs may be used4 ,the choice should depend on the accessibility and maturity of the wood4 ,at each pruning1 the possibilities for obtaining fruiting wood for the following year must receive consideration4 ,it is possible to use the same spurs for two or three years1 but after this they should be cut away and new ones retained4 ,after the first spurring1 spurs should be selected from wood older than two years4 ,the shoots from such wood bear but little fruit and hence make good fruiting canes for the next year4 ,umbrella ,kniffin4 ,since most of the fruit on vines trained by the ,four-cane ,kniffin method is borne on the two upper canes1 some growers in the ,hudson ,river ,valley dispense with the lower canes and cut the upper ones long enough to bear the crop4 ,in this method the trunk is brought to the top wire and the head formed as in the ,four-cane ,kniffin4 ,when the vines are pruned at the close of the third year1 two long canes are left at the head of the vine with two renewal spurs4 ,these long canes are drooped over the upper wire obliquely down to the lower wire to which they are tied just above the last bud1 forming an umbrella-shaped top as shown in ,fig4 #ai4 ,the renewals are made as in the ,four-cane ,kniffin4 ,this method reduces the amount of leaf surface to the minimum1 so that care must be taken to insure healthy leaf growth4 ,the amount of fruiting-wood put up is also reduced to the minimum1 so that the yield is low unless good cultivation is provided1 in which case1 with some varieties and on some soils1 the yield is up to the average and the crop is first-class as regards size of bunch and berry1 compactness of bunch and maturity4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ai4 ,umbrella method of training4 ,the ,two-trunk ,kniffin4 ,the ,two-trunk ,kniffin1 illustrated in ,fig4 #bj1 is another modification with the aim of securing greater fruitfulness4 ,this method also provides an equal number of buds on both wires4 ,two trunks are brought from the root1 one to the upper1 the other to the lower wire4 ,the fruiting canes are taken off and are disposed of as in the ,four-cane ,kniffin4 ,the trunks are usually tied together to hold them in place4 ,this method is in restricted use in the ,hudson ,river ,valley where it is known under the name given here and as ,double ,kniffin and ,improved ,kniffin4 ,in experiments in training grapes at ,fredonia1 ,new ,york1 under the direction of the ,new ,york ,experiment ,station1 this method proves to be one of the poorest in growing ,concords4 ,the grapes fall short in size of bunch and berry and do not mature as well as under the other drooping methods of training4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bj4 ,two-trunk ,kniffin training4 ,the ,y-trunk ,kniffin4 ,still another modification of the ,kniffin method is one in which a crotch or ,y is made in the trunk midway between the ground and the lower wire4 ,the theory on which this method is founded is that sap for the lower canes is better supplied than in a straight or continuous trunk and that the lower canes thus become as productive as those on the upper wire4 ,the theory is probably wrong but is accepted by many notwithstanding4 ,the methods of pruning1 renewing fruiting-wood and tying are the same as in the ,single-stem ,kniffin1 except1 of course1 that each stem supports two canes and two spurs4 ,this method was in somewhat common use some years ago in parts of western ,new ,york but is now disappearing4 ,the ,munson method4 ,an ingenious modification of the ,kniffin principle was devised by ,elbert ,wakeman1 ,oyster ,bay1 ,long ,island1 and afterwards improved and brought into prominence by the late ,t4 ,v4 ,munson of ,denison1 ,texas2 it is now much used in southern vineyards4 ,the method is described as follows by ,munson3#ad ,the posts should be of some durable strong wood1 such as ,bois d',arc 7,osage71 ,cedar1 heartwood of ,catalpa1 ,black ,locust or ,white ,oak4 ,the end posts of every row should be large and strong and be set three and one-half or four feet in the ground and well tamped4 ,the intermediate posts1 which may be much lighter than the end posts1 should be six and one-half or seven feet long and set two to two and one-half feet in the ground1 with twenty-four feet spaces between posts1 which will take three vines1 eight feet apart1 or two vines twelve feet apart4 ,after the posts are set1 a three-eighths-inch hole should be bored through each post1 four feet from the surface of the ground1 in the direction in which the row runs1 leaving six inches or more of post above the hole4 ,these holes are for the admittance of the middle1 lower wire of the trellis4 ,for each end post prepare for cross-arm1 a piece of two by four hard pine or oak1 two feet long1 and at one inch from either end1 and one inch from the upper side1 bore a three-eighths of an inch bit-hole1 or saw into upper side half an inch1 which will take less time and do as well1 to pass the lateral wires through1 and in the middle of the lower side1 saw a notch one-half inch deep4 ,for each intermediate post1 prepare a board of similar wood1 two feet long1 one inch thick by four broad1 and likewise bore or notch4 ,through the holes in the posts run a ,no4 #aa galvanized wire1 fasten at one end1 tighten at the other end by a wire stretcher and fasten4 ,this will be the middle and lower wire of the trellis1 and all that will be needed the first year1 when the young vines are trained up a string1 tied from the vine 7when set7 to the wire1 and along it4 ,the arms1 and the two lateral wires which they bear1 need not be put on the trellis until after the vines are pruned and tied the next winter4 ,to put on the cross-arms1 use no bolts or nails1 only ,no4 #aa galvanized wire4 ,each end cross-arm is placed inside the post1 and against it on top of the wire1 already through the posts1 notch-side downward1 straddling the wire1 to keep it from sliding4 ,then take a piece of same size wire1 about seven feet long1 pass one end through the bit-hole or saw-notch1 in one end of arm and fasten it by looping and twisting about six inches of the end back upon itself1 then while one person holds the cross-arm in place1 the operator carries the wire down around the post once near the ground1 staples it on each side and brings the other end up to the opposite end of arm1 puts it through the bit-hole1 or saw-notch1 draws it tightly1 keeping the arm level1 and fastens the end of the wire as was done the other4 ,wire nippers and pliers will be needed for this work4 ,then take another piece of wire about two feet long1 and put it twice around the cross-arm and the post where they come together1 above the middle wire1 and firmly tie them together1 crossing the wire as it goes around4 ,this will hold the arm in place and not weaken or split the arm as do nails and bolts1 and will be longer-lasting1 quicker and cheaper1 and more elastic1 so that when struck by the hames or collar in cultivation1 it gives a little1 receiving no damage4 ,likewise place the cross-arms on the intermediate posts1 leaving the ends of the wire projecting about six inches after fastening1 for a purpose soon to be mentioned4 ,then draw the two lateral wires through the bit-holes in the ends of the arms1 or drop into the saw-notches1 if such are made1 throughout the row1 tighten with the wire stretcher and fasten4 ,then return along each lateral wire1 wrapping ends of wire at the ends of the arms very closely and tightly around the through-going lateral wires1 as telegraph and telephone wires are wrapped in splicing4 ,this is quickly done with the proper pliers1 and prevents the arms from slipping out of proper position4 ,now the trellis is complete1 and will need little or no repairs1 and looks very neat1 especially if painted4 ,pruning and training on the ,munson trellis is very simple and easy with a little instruction for a few minutes with a vine or two pruned for example4 ,the vine the first season is allowed to grow up on to the middle wire by a string around which it is coiled by hand1 by going over the vineyard once or twice until the selected shoot of each vine is upon the wire1 after which it is allowed to ramble at freedom over the wires4 ,by getting on to the trellis the first year1 one strong shoot1 and allowing no other to grow1 a partial crop can be had the second year1 without damage1 on all but weak growers1 like ,delaware1 that should not be allowed to bear until the third year4 ,at the first regular pruning 7all prunings should be done in ,november or ,december1 after leaf fall1 and never so late as to cause the vines to bleed71 the vine should be cut back to two or three buds that have reached the middle wire1 if weak growers1 if strong1 with heavy growth1 six or eight buds each1 to two arms1 one going each way along the lower wire from where the ascending vine first touches the wire4 ,after the vines are thus pruned1 the outer end of each arm is firmly tied to the lower wire1 along which it is gently coiled4 ,these two ties hold the vine firmly in place4 ,the buds on the arms push and ascend1 passing over the lateral wires1 clinging thereto with their tendrils1 and hang over like a beautiful green drapery shading the fruit and body of the vine according to its natural habit4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xi4--,concord 7#b_/c74 ,on the canopy trellis1 all the summer pruning required is1 to go through the vineyard at or a few days before blooming time1 and with a light sharp butcher knife1 clip off the tips of all advanced shoots to be left for bearing1 leaving two or three leaves beyond the outer flower cluster4 ,from the shoots near the crotch1 selected for bearing arms the next year1 pick the flower clusters1 and strip off or rub off all shoots and buds that start on trunk of vine below crotch4 ,this latter is very important1 as such shoots1 if left1 eat up the nourishment of the land with no return but added work at pruning time4 ,it will be found that the shoots at the ends of the arms usually start first and strongest1 and if not clipped back1 will not allow the buds back toward the crotch to start well1 but if clipped1 all other desirable buds then push4 ,in about six to ten days after the first clipping1 a second one is usually necessary1 especially if the weather is moist and warm1 and the land rich4 ,the first clipped shoots1 as well as those not clipped the first time1 will need clipping back this time1 the end buds on the first clipped having pushed vigorously4 ,at a second year's pruning and others following1 the old arms with all the bearing shoots on them are cut off down to the new arms and the new arms cut back to lengths they can fill with fruit and well mature4 ,in this1 critical judgment and knowledge of capabilities of different varieties are more required in the pruner than in any other of the training work4 ,some varieties1 such as the ,delaware1 cannot carry more than three to four arms1 two feet long1 while ,herbemont can more easily carry four arms each eight feet long1 hence such as ,delaware should be planted eight feet or less apart1 while ,herbemont and most of the ,post-,oak grape hybrids1 should be twelve to sixteen feet apart4 ,in other words1 each variety should be set that distance apart that it will fill the trellis with fruit from end to end1 and mature it well1 so as to better economize space4 ,by the third year1 the vine should come to full bearing1 and be pruned with four bearing arms1 two to go each way along the lower wire of trellis1 gently coiling around the wire1 one arm in one direction1 the other in opposite direction1 and should be in about equal lengths1 so that one firm tie with jute yarn1 near the ends1 will be all the tying the vines will need--that is1 two ties to each vine--the least required by any trellis system1 and the pruning is also simplest and the results every way the best4 ,some of the advantages of this trellis are its cheapness1 its simplicity1 bringing the work up breast-high so that pruning1 tying1 harvesting1 spraying1 can be done in an erect position1 saving back strain2 perfect distribution of light1 heat and air to foliage and fruit2 shielding from sunscald and birds2 giving free ventilation and easy passage of wind through the vineyard without blowing down the trellis or tender shoots from the vines1 and allowing ready passage from row to row1 without going around1 thus getting larger and better crops at less expense and increasing length of life of vineyard and the pleasure of taking care of it4 ,this method does not seem to be adapted to the needs of grapes in northern vineyards1 and in the ,south such weak-growing sorts as ,delaware do not thrive when so trained4 ,several modified ,munson methods are in use in the southern states1 but those most commonly employed do not depart greatly from the method here described4 ,,iii4 ,shoots horizontal ,hudson horizontal4 ,there is now in use but one method of training shoots horizontally4 ,in this method the trellis is made by setting posts eight or ten feet apart and connecting them by two slats1 one at the top of the posts1 the other about eighteen inches from the ground4 ,strands of wire are stretched perpendicularly between the slats at ten- or twelve-inch intervals4 ,one cane is trained from a trunk from one to two feet high on the trellis2 it rises perpendicularly from the ground and is tied to the top slat4 ,the shoots push out right and left and are tied horizontally to each wire as they reach it4 ,the cane is usually allowed to bear about six shoots on each side4 ,the grapes set at the base of the shoots so that the bunches hang one over the other1 making a pretty sight4 ,this method is too expensive for a commercial vineyard but is often used in gardens and for ornamental plantings4 ,only weak-growing sorts1 as ,delaware1 ,iona or ,diana are adapted for this method4 ,delaware does remarkably well under horizontal training4 ,the use of slats and wires in horizontal training are often reversed4 ,the alternative from the method just described is to set posts sixteen or eighteen feet apart upon which are strung two wires as for the ordinary trellis4 ,perpendicular slats are then fastened to these wires to which the shoots are tied4 ,two slats1 fifteen inches apart1 are provided on each side of a fruiting cane1 which1 with the slat for the support of the cane1 give five to a vine4 ,or the vine may be supported by a stake driven in the ground4 ,in both of these methods1 a shoot must be taken out from the head of the vine each season for the next season's fruiting-wood4 ,this shoot is tied to the central wire or slat and is now allowed to fruit4 ,thus the vine starts each spring with a single cane4 ,grapes are grown under these horizontal methods chiefly1 if not only1 in the ,hudson ,river ,valley and even here they are going out of use4 ,,training ,,on ,,arbors1 ,,pergolas ,,and ,,as ,,ornamentals ,the grape is much used to cover arbors1 pergolas1 lattices and to screen the sides of buildings1 few climbing plants being more ornamental4 ,leaf1 fruit and vine have been favorite subjects for reproduction by ornamentalists of all ages4 ,as yet1 however1 it is seldom seen in cultivated landscapes except to secure shade and seclusion4 ,grown for sthetic purposes1 the grape is seldom fruitful1 for the vines can rarely be cultivated or deprived of their luxuriant growth as in the vineyard4 ,nevertheless1 grapes grown as ornamentals can be trained so as to serve the double purpose of ornamental and fruit-bearing plant4 ,grown on the sides of a building1 the grape often can be made to bear large crops of choicely fine fruit4 ,the ancients had learned this1 for the ,psalmist says3 ,thy wife shall be like the fruitful vine by the sides of thine house4 ,in all ornamental plantings on arbors or pergolas1 if fruit is to be considered1 the permanent trunk is carried to the top of the structure4 ,along this trunk1 at intervals of eighteen inches1 spurs are left from which to renew the wood from year to year4 ,the vines should stand six or eight feet apart1 depending on the variety1 and one cane is left1 three or four feet long1 on each spur when the pruning is done4 ,shoots springing from these cover intermediate spaces soon after growth begins4 ,provision1 of course1 must be made for a new cane each season1 and this is done by saving a shoot springing from spur or trunk at pruning time4 ,the same method of training1 with modifications to suit the case1 may be employed on sides of buildings1 walls1 fences and lattices4 ,if the object to be covered is low1 however1 and especially if fruit as well as a covering is wanted1 perhaps a better plan is annually to renew from a low trunk or even back to the root4 ,in this low renewal1 a new cane1 or two or three if desired1 should be brought out each season1 thus securing greater vigor for the vine1 but greatly delaying1 especially in the case of high walls1 the production of a screen of foliage4 ,,pruning ,,and ,,training ,,muscadine ,,grapes ,the ,muscadine grapes of the ,south are so distinct in characters of growth and fruit-bearing that their requirements as to pruning and training are quite different from the methods so far given4 ,until recent years when these grapes have become of commercial importance1 it was thought by southern vineyardists that the ,muscadines needed little or no pruning and some held that pruning injured the vines4 ,now it is found that ,muscadines respond quite as readily as other types of grapes to pruning and training4 ,husmann and ,dearing#ae give following directions for pruning ,muscadines3 ,two systems of training are employed with ,muscadine grapes3 7#a7 ,the horizontal or overhead system1 by which the growth is spread as an overhead canopy about #g feet above the ground and supported by posts2 and 7#b7 the upright or vertical system1 in which the growth is spread over a trellis4 ,in the overhead system a single trunk is caused to grow erect from the ground alongside a permanent post4 ,when the vine has reached the top of the post it is pinched in or cut back1 so as to make it throw out shoots to grow and spread out from the head of the vine as the spokes of a wheel radiate from the hub4 7,the overhead training of ,muscadines is shown in ,fig4 #ba2 upright training1 in ,fig4 #bb47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ba4 ,rotundifolia vines trained by the overhead method4 ,in the upright systems the fruiting arms are either radiated from a low vine head1 like the ribs of a fan1 or they are taken off as horizontal arms from a central vertical trunk4 ,where the vineyard is not given close personal attention and pruning and other vineyard practices are neglected the best results will be obtained with the overhead trellis4 ,moreover1 such a trellis permits cross-plowing and cultivation and is better adapted for grazing hogs1 sheep1 or cattle on cover crops grown in the vineyard4 ,on the other hand1 the careful vineyardist can expect the best and earliest results from vines on the upright or vertical supports4 ,the upright trellis facilitates pruning1 harvesting1 spraying1 and intercropping throughout the life of the vineyard2 it is also easier to repair and can be erected from #aj to #bj an acre cheaper than the overhead trellis4 ,the use of both the upright system and the overhead trellis has netted the growers profitable returns4 ,each has its advantages and disadvantages4 ,the prospective grower1 knowing his own conditions1 must determine which training system is best suited to his conditions4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bb4 ,a ,rotundifolia vine trained by the #f-;arm renewal method4 ,during the first year after planting1 a strong stake reaching #d feet above the ground at each vine is sufficient support4 ,a trellis should be erected the second season1 though the upper wires of an upright trellis and the secondary wires of an overhead trellis may be added later1 as the vines need them4 ,in erecting an upright trellis the posts should be set midway between the vines1 the distances apart varying with the distances between the plants4 ,the end posts of the rows should be firmly braced4 ,three wires are generally used1 placed #bd1 #db1 and from #ef to #fj inches from the ground4 ,in erecting an overhead trellis1 the usual method is to place a substantial1 durable post reaching #g feet above the ground at each of the permanent vines4 ,rows of extra heavy1 well-braced posts1 running parallel with and also at the ends of the rows of vines1 are set at the boundaries of the vineyard4 ,there are a number of different ways of arranging the wires4 ,usually ,no4 #aj galvanized wires are securely fastened to the tops of the boundary posts on the four sides of a vineyard and then are run along and securely fastened on the tops of the inside post down each row in both directions as governor wires4 ,as needed1 ,no4 #ad wires #b feet apart are run parallel with the governor wires until in this manner the entire area has been covered4 ,a cheaper but less durable overhead trellis is made by running ,no4 #i governor wires in only one direction and the secondary wires only at right angles to the governor wires1 the secondary wires being fastened to the governor wires wherever they cross4 ,some growers construct arbors entirely of wood1 using slats or poles instead of wires4 ,the pruning of ,muscadine grapes during the first three years is mainly for the purpose of establishing the permanent parts and adjusting the other parts of the vine to the desired training system for future usefulness4 ,after that the pruning is primarily a matter of renewing the bearing surface and keeping the vines healthy1 vigorous1 and productive4 ,during the first season the trunk of the vine should be established4 ,from this the main fruiting branches are started the second season4 ,these1 under favorable circumstances1 will bear a small crop of fruit the third season4 ,after that the purpose of pruning should be to renew growth1 to increase or decrease the bearing surface1 and to maintain the shape of the vine4 ,severe pruning usually removes most of the fruit-bearing wood and throws the vine into vigorous wood growth4 ,no pruning1 on the other hand1 causes a growth which is too much distributed1 weak1 and incapable of bearing good crops4 ,therefore1 the grape grower should study the vines sufficiently to enable him to judge each year the proper severity of pruning for the best results4 ,this will depend on the variety1 the age of the vines1 the fertility of the soil1 etc4 ,muscadine grapes bear their fruit in small clusters4 ,it is therefore necessary to maintain a large fruiting surface in order to secure a proper tonnage of fruit4 ,this is accomplished by developing a series of fruiting arms1 spurring along these1 and lengthening them as the vines become stronger4 ,such fruiting arms can be maintained for a number of years1 but after a time it is desirable to renew them4 ,this is done by cutting out the arm and starting a new one from a cane that has been previously grown for such purposes4 ,it is preferable to renew systematically only one or1 at most1 two arms on a vine each year4 ,this gradual renewal does not disturb the vigor of the vine1 but keeps it productive1 healthy1 and strong4 ,the pruning can be quickly and easily done if systematically practiced from the time the vines are started4 ,,rejuvenating ,,old ,,vines ,when pruning and training are neglected1 a vineyard soon becomes a sorry company of halt and maimed vines4 ,these neglected vines can rarely be reshaped and restored to their pristine vigor4 ,if the old vines seem capable of throwing out a strong new growth1 it is almost always better to grow a new top by taking out canes from the roots and so rejuvenate4 ,the energy and activity of ,nature are seldom seen to better advantage than in these new tops1 if the old tops are cut back severely and the vineyard given good care4 ,the new canes grow with the gusto of the biblical bay tree1 making it difficult oftentimes to keep them within bounds4 ,usually this new top can be treated essentially as if it were a new vine4 ,not infrequently the cane will make sufficient growth and mature well enough so that it may be left as a permanent trunk at the end of the first season4 ,if1 however1 the wood is short1 weak and soft1 it should be cut back in the autumn to two or three buds from one of which a permanent trunk can be trained the next season from which a good top can be formed in another season4 ,the old top is discarded as soon as the new trunk is tied to the trellis4 ,old vineyards are often rejuvenated in this way to advantage and return profits to their owners for years2 but if the soil is poor and the vines weak1 attempts to renew the tops seldom pay4 ,occasionally rejuvenating old vines by pruning is worth while4 ,when such an attempt is made1 it is best to cut back severely at the winter-pruning1 leaving two1 three or four canes1 depending on the method of training1 of six1 eight or ten buds4 ,the amount of wood left must depend on the vigor of the plant and the variety4 ,the success of such rejuvenation depends much on selecting suitable places on the old vine from which to renew the bearing wood4 ,it requires good judgment1 considerable skill and much experience to rejuvenate successfully an old vineyard by remodeling the existing top1 and if the vines are far gone with neglect it is seldom worth while4 ,sometimes old vines or even a whole vineyard can be rejuvenated most easily by grafting4 ,this is particularly true when the vines are not of the kind wanted1 and when the vineyard contains an occasional stray vine from the variety to which it is planted4 ,directions for grafting are given on pages #de to #ej4 ,the grafted vine is readily brought into shape1 under any of the several methods of training1 by treating it as a young vine4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xii4--,diana 7#c_/e74 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,grape-,,pruning ,,on ,,the ,,pacific ,,slope ,the methods of pruning and training native grapes1 discussed in the last two chapters1 do not apply to the ,vinifera grapes grown in the favored valleys of the ,rocky ,mountains and on the ,pacific slope4 ,as we have already seen1 the ,vinifera or ,old ,world grape differs markedly in habits of growth from the ,american species so that it would not be expected that pruning which applies to the one would apply to the other types4 ,the fundamentals1 to be sure1 are much the same and the different species of grapes are about equally subservient to the shears of the pruner1 but while pruning to regulate fruit-bearing finds many similarities in ,old and ,new ,world grapes1 the training of the vines is radically different4 ,european practices in pruning and training ,vinifera grapes are so many and so diverse that the first growers of this fruit in ,america were at a loss to know how to prune their vines4 ,but1 out of a half century of experience1 ,american growers of ,old ,world grapes have adapted from ,european practices and have devised to meet new conditions1 methods which serve very well in the new home for this old grape4 ,since the culture of the ,old ,world grape is centered in ,california1 almost confined to that state1 ,california practice may be taken as a pattern in pruning and training the vines of this species4 ,,vine ,,pruning ,,in ,,california#af ,the systems of pruning in use in ,california may be divided into two classes according to the arrangement of the arms on the trunk of the vine4 ,in the commonest systems1 there is a definite head to the trunk1 from which all the arms arise symmetrically at nearly the same level4 ,the vines of these systems may be called headed vines4 ,in the other systems1 the trunk is elongated four to eight feet and the arms are distributed regularly along the whole or the greater portion of its length4 ,the vines of these systems1 owing to the rope-like form of the trunks1 are called cordons4 ,the headed vines are divided according to the length of the vertical trunk into high1 #b-c feet1 medium1 #a-a-a_/b feet1 and low1 #j-f inches4 ,the cordons may be vertical or horizontal1 according to the direction of the trunk1 which is from four to eight feet long4 ,the horizontal cordons may be single 7unilateral7 or composed of two branches extending in opposite directions 7bilateral74 ,double and even multiple vertical cordons occur1 but they are very inadvisable and have no advantages4 ,the arrangement of the arms of a headed vine may be symmetrical in all directions at an angle of about #de degrees4 ,such a vine is said to be vase-formed1 though the hollow center which this term implies is not essential4 ,this is the form used in the great majority of our vineyards whether of wine1 raisin1 or shipping grapes4 ,it is suitable for the square system of planting and cross cultivation4 ,where vines are planted in the avenue system1 particularly when trellised and where cross cultivation is impossible1 the arms are given a fan-shaped arrangement in a vertical plane4 ,this arrangement is considered to be essential for the economical and easy working of trellised vines4 ,on the vertical or upright cordon1 the arms are arranged at as regular intervals as possible on all sides of the trunk from the top to within twelve or fifteen inches of the bottom4 ,on the horizontal cordon the arms are arranged similarly1 but as nearly as possible on the upper side of the trunk only4 ,each of these systems may again be divided into two subsystems1 according to the management of the annual growth or canes4 ,in one1 spurs of one1 two1 or three eyes are left for fruit production4 ,this system is called short or spur pruning4 ,in the other1 long canes are left for fruit production4 ,this is called long or cane pruning4 ,in rare cases an intermediate form is adopted in which long spurs or short canes of five or six eyes are left4 ,in cane pruning1 each fruit cane is accompanied by one or two short renewal spurs4 ,these must also accompany half-long pruning4 ,systems of pruning1 when only long canes are left without renewal-spurs1 are not in use in ,california4 ,in all systems1 replacing-spurs are left wherever and whenever needed4 ,other modifications are introduced by the manner of disposal of the fruit canes4 ,these may be tied up vertically to a stake driven at the foot of each vine or bowed in a circle and tied to this same stake1 or they may be tied laterally to wires stretching along the rows in a horizontal1 ascending or descending direction4 ,the different systems differ therefore in3 7#a7 the shape1 length1 and direction of the trunk2 7#b7 the arrangement of the arms2 7#c7 the use of fruit spurs or fruit canes with renewal spurs2 7#d7 the disposal of the fruit canes4 ,the principal possibilities of the pruning are shown in the following table3 ,a4 ,,head ,,pruning3 ,,vase-,,form 7a7 ,fruit spurs or #a4 ,high trunk3 7b7 ,half-long canes and renewal spurs or #b4 ,medium trunk3 with 7c7 ,fruit canes and renewal #c4 ,low trunk3 spurs2 canes vertical or bowed4 ,b4 ,,head ,,pruning3 ,,fan-,,shaped2 ,,trellised #a4 ,high trunk3 ,fruit canes and renewal spurs2 canes descending4 #b4 ,medium trunk3 ,fruit canes and renewal spurs2 canes horizontal or ascending4 ,c4 ,,cordon ,,pruning #a4 ,vertical3 ,spur2 half-long2 cane4 #b4 ,horizontal-unilateral3 ,spur2 half-long2 cane4 #c4 ,horizontal-bilateral3 ,spur2 half-long2 cane4 ,all possible combinations indicated by this table represent #bd variations4 ,some of these combinations1 however1 are not used and some are rare4 ,the most common are shown in ,figs4 #bc1 #bd1 #be1 #bf and #bg4 ,figure #bc ,b represents a headed1 vase-formed vine1 with a medium trunk and short fruit spurs4 ,this is the most common system used in all parts of ,california and is suited for all small growing vines which bear on the lower buds1 for most wine grapes and for ,muscats4 ,the unit of pruning in this case is a fruit spur of #a1 #b1 or #c internodes1 according to the vigor of the variety and of the individual cane4 ,figure #bc ,a differs from #bc ,b only in the higher trunk and longer arms4 ,it is commonly used for ,tokay and other large growing varieties1 especially when growing in rich soil and when planted far apart4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bc4 ,forms of head pruning3 ,a1 spur pruning with high trunk2 ,b1 spur pruning with medium trunk2 ,c1 half-long with medium trunk4 ,figure #bc ,c has the same form of body as ,a and ,b1 except that the arms are somewhat less numerous4 ,the unit of pruning is a short fruit cane of four to five internodes1 accompanied by a renewal spur of one internode4 ,it is suited for vigorous table grapes1 which do not bear well on short spurs4 ,it is used especially for the ,cornichon and ,malaga in rich soil4 ,this is a difficult system to keep in good shape owing to the tendency for all the vigor to go to the growth on the ends of the fruit canes4 ,it is difficult to obtain vigorous canes on the renewal spurs4 ,occasional short pruning is usually necessary to keep the vines in proper shape4 ,figure #bd ,a is similar to #bc ,c in form1 but the number of arms is still further reduced to #b1 #c1 or at most #d4 ,the unit of pruning is a fruit cane of #b-a_/b to #c-a_/b feet with its renewal spur4 ,owing to the length of the fruit canes they require support and are tied to a high stake4 ,this method is used in a large number of vineyards with ,sultanina1 ,sultana and certain wine grapes1 especially ,semillon and ,cabernet4 ,it is not to be recommended in any case1 as it has several very serious defects4 ,the difficulty of obtaining new wood from the renewal spurs is even greater than in the system shown in ,fig4 #bc ,c4 ,the length and vertical position of the fruit canes cause the main growth and vigor of the vine to be expended on the highest shoots4 ,the renewal spurs are thus so shaded that1 even though their buds start1 the shoots make but a weak growth4 ,the result is that at the following pruning all the good new wood is at the top of the fruit canes of the previous year1 where it cannot be utilized4 ,the pruner has to choose then between reverting to spur pruning and getting no crop or using the weak growth from the renewal spurs for fruit canes1 in which case he may get blossoms but little or no fruit of any value4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bd4 ,forms of head pruning3 ,a1 vertical fruit canes and renewal spurs2 ,b1 bowed fruit canes and renewal spurs4 ,other defects of this method are that the fruiting shoots are excessively vigorous and therefore often tend to drop their blossoms without setting and the fruit when produced is massed together so that it ripens unevenly and is difficult to gather4 ,it also requires a tall and expensive stake4 ,figure #bd ,b represents an improvement on the last system4 ,it differs only in the method of treating the fruit canes4 ,these are bent over in the form of a circle and tied by their middle part to a stake which may be smaller and lower than that needed for the vertical canes4 ,this bowing of the canes has several useful effects4 ,the change of direction moderates the tendency of the vigor of the vine to expend itself only on the terminal shoots4 ,more shoots therefore are formed on the fruit canes and as their vigor is somewhat decreased they tend to be more fruitful4 ,the slight mechanical injury caused by the bending operates in the same direction4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #be4 ,head pruning3 fan-shaped head2 fruit canes tied to horizontal trellis4 ,the excess of vigor thus being diverted from the fruit canes causes the renewal spurs to form vigorous shoots1 which soon grow above the fruit shoots and obtain the light and air they need for their proper development4 ,this method is used successfully for certain wine grapes such as ,riesling1 ,cabernet1 and ,semillon4 ,it is unsuited to large vigorous varieties or for vines on rich soil planted wide apart4 ,in these cases two fruit canes are usually insufficient and1 if more are used1 the grapes and leaves are so massed together that they are subject to mildew and do not ripen evenly or well4 ,the bowing and tying of the canes requires considerable skill and care on the part of the workmen4 ,the body1 arms1 and annual pruning of the system shown in ,fig4 #be are similar to those of ,fig4 #bd1 with the exception that the arms are given a fan-shaped arrangement in one plane4 ,it differs in the disposal of the fruit canes1 which are supported by a trellis stretching along the row from vine to vine4 ,this method is largely used for the ,sultanina 7,thompson's ,seedless71 and is the best system for vigorous vines which require long pruning1 wherever it is possible to dispense with cross cultivation4 ,it is also suitable for any long-pruned varieties when growing in very fertile soil4 ,figure #bf is a photograph of a four-year-old ,emperor vine1 illustrating the vertical cordon system4 ,it consists of an upright trunk #d-a_/b feet high with short arms and fruit spurs scattered evenly and symmetrically from the top to within fifteen inches of the bottom4 ,this system is used in many ,emperor vineyards in the ,san ,joaquin ,valley4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bf4 ,single vertical cordon with fruit spurs4 ,its advantages are that it allows the large development of the vine and the large number of spurs which the vigor of the ,emperor demands1 without1 on the one hand1 crowding the fruit by the proximity of the spurs or1 on the other hand1 spreading the vine so much that cultivation is interfered with4 ,it also permits cross cultivation4 ,one of its defects is that the fruit is subjected to various degrees of temperature and shading in different parts of the vine and the ripening and coloring are often uneven4 ,a more vital defect is that it cannot be maintained permanently4 ,the arms and spurs at the top of the trunk tend to absorb the energies of the vine and the lower arms and spurs become weaker each year until finally no growth at all is obtained below4 ,after several years1 most of the vines therefore lose their character of cordons and become simply headed-vines with abnormally long trunks4 ,the cordon can be restablished in this case by allowing a vigorous sucker to develop one year from which to form a new trunk the next4 ,the following year the old trunk is removed entirely4 ,an objection to this method is that it makes very large wounds in the most vital part of the vine--the base of the trunk4 ,figure #bg is a photograph of a four-year-old ,colombar vine1 illustrating the unilateral1 horizontal cordon system4 ,it consists of a trunk about seven feet long1 supported horizontally by a wire two feet from the ground4 ,arms and spurs are arranged along the whole horizontal part of the trunk4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bg4 ,unilateral horizontal cordon with fruit spurs4 ,this system accomplishes the same objects as the vertical cordon4 ,it allows a large development of the vine and numerous fruit spurs without crowding4 ,it is superior to the vertical cordon in the distribution of the fruit1 which is all exposed to approximately the same conditions owing to the uniform distance from the ground of the fruit spurs4 ,all parts of the trunk producing an annual growth of wood and fruit are equally exposed to light and the tendency of the growth to occur principally at the part of the trunk farthest removed from the root is counteracted by the horizontal position4 ,there is not the same difficulty therefore in maintaining this form of vine permanently that there is with the vertical cordon4 ,this system should not be used for small weak vines1 whether the weakness is a characteristic of the variety or due to the nature of the soil4 ,it is suited only to very vigorous varieties such as ,emperor1 ,almeria1 and the ,persian grapes when growing far apart in rich1 moist soil4 ,periods of development4 ,the first year in the life of a vine is devoted to developing a vigorous root system2 the next two or three years to building up a shapely trunk and head1 and a like period to forming the full complement of arms4 ,at the end of from five to nine years the framework of the vine is complete and should undergo no particular change of shape except a gradual thickening of trunk and arms4 ,there are1 therefore1 several periods in the life of the vine with varying objects1 and the methods of pruning must vary accordingly4 ,these periods do not correspond exactly to periods of time1 so it may be misleading to speak of pruning a two-year-old or a three-year-old vine4 ,one vine under certain conditions will reach the same stage of development in two years that another will reach only in three or four years under other conditions4 ,the range of time of these periods is about as follows3 ,first period--,formation of a strong root system #a to #b years ,second period--,formation of stem or trunk #a year ,third period--,formation of head #b to #c years ,fourth period--,complete development of the arms #b to #c years ,total time of formation of framework #f to #i years ,under exceptionally favorable conditions the first and second periods may be included in the first year and a completely formed vine may be obtained in five years4 ,before planting4 ,for planting1 cuttings1 one-year-old rooted vines1 or bench grafts are used4 ,in all cases1 they need some attention from the pruner4 ,the usual way to prune a good rooted vine of average size having a single cane at the top and several good roots at the bottom is to shorten the cane to one or two buds and the roots to two or four inches1 according to their size4 ,shortening the cane makes the vine less liable to dry out before rooting and forces the growth from the lower buds which produce more vigorous shoots4 ,the roots are shortened so that there will be no danger of the ends being turned upwards when planted4 ,if they are to be planted in a large hole1 they may be left as long as five or six inches2 if to be planted with a crowbar or dibble1 they must be cut back to half an inch4 ,if the rooted vine has several canes1 all but one should be removed entirely1 and this one shortened to one or two eyes4 ,the one left should be that which is strongest1 has the best buds1 and is the best placed4 ,where a horizontal cane is left1 it should be cut back to the base bud4 ,otherwise the main growth may occur at a higher bud and the vine will have a crook which will result in a badly formed trunk4 ,if canes are growing from different joints1 it is usually best to leave the lower cane if they are equally vigorous4 ,this brings the buds from which growth will come nearer to the roots1 and leaves less of the original cutting1 which are advantages4 ,the upper joint between the canes is1 moreover1 often more or less decayed or imperfect4 ,first growing season4 ,the treatment during the first spring and summer will depend on what growth the vines are expected to make and on whether the vines are staked the first year4 ,with cuttings and with both rooted vines and grafts where the growth will be moderate1 staking the first year is unnecessary1 though it has some slight advantages4 ,in these cases1 no pruning of any kind is necessary until the winter following the planting1 except in the case of bench grafts4 ,the pruning in the last case is confined to the removal of the suckers from the stock and roots from the cion4 ,if the stocks have been well disbudded by the nurseryman1 few suckers will develop4 ,in moist soil1 the cion roots may develop vigorously and must be removed before they grow too large1 or they may prevent the proper development of the resistant roots4 ,the removal of roots should usually be done some time in ,july4 ,for this purpose the hill of soil is scraped away from the union and after the cion roots and suckers are removed it is replaced4 ,in this second hilling up1 the union should be just barely covered so that the soil round the union will be dry and unfavorable to a second growth of roots4 ,later in the season1 about ,september1 the soil should be removed entirely from around the union and any new roots that may have formed removed4 ,the union is then left exposed to harden and mature1 so that it will pass the winter without injury4 ,first winter pruning4 ,at the end of the first growing season1 an average good vine will have produced from three to five canes1 the longest of which will be from two to three feet long4 ,soon after the leaves have fallen in ,december or early in ,january the vines should be pruned4 ,the method is precisely similar to that used for rooted vines before planting except that the main roots are not touched4 ,all the canes are removed entirely except one4 ,this one should be well matured1 at least at the base1 and should have well-formed eyes4 ,it is shortened to two eyes4 ,it is well also to cut off all shallow roots within three or four inches of the surface4 ,this is necessary in the case of grafted vines if any have escaped the summer root-cutting4 ,some of the vines may have made an exceptionally large growth4 ,such vines may sometimes possess a cane large enough from which to start the trunk in the way described later for the second winter pruning4 ,staking4 ,if the vines have not been staked before1 the stakes should be driven soon after pruning and before the starting of the buds4 ,in order to preserve the alignment of the vineyard1 the stakes should be driven on the same side of every vine at a uniform distance4 ,the best distance is about two inches4 ,if driven closer they may injure large roots or even the main underground stem if the vines have not been carefully planted vertically or slanting towards the side on which the stake is to be placed4 ,the side on which the stake should be placed depends on the direction of the prevailing winds during the growing season4 ,this side is the leeward4 ,that is1 the stake should be so placed that the wind will press the vine towards the stake instead of away from it4 ,this will much facilitate the work of keeping the vine upright and attached to the stake4 ,if the vine is on the other side the pressure of the wind will stretch the string tight and the swaying of the vine will gradually wear the string until it breaks1 necessitating retying4 ,by carefully observing this rule1 very few vines will require retying even if weak material like binding twine is used4 ,second summer pruning4 ,before the starting of the buds1 in the spring following the planting1 most of the vines appear about the same as when they were planted4 ,there is1 however1 a very notable difference1 in that they have well-developed root systems in the soil where they were formed4 ,the result is that they make a much more prompt and early start and will produce a much larger growth than they did the first season4 ,for this reason they require very careful attention from the pruner during the spring and summer of the second season4 ,vines neglected at this time1 in this respect1 may make as large a growth1 but a large part of it will be wasted1 the vines will be misformed and it will require from one to two years longer to develop a suitable framework and to bring them into bearing1 even though they are properly handled during subsequent years4 ,the more vigorous the vines1 the more necessary it is to handle them properly during this period4 ,the main object during this second growing season is to develop a single1 strong1 vigorous and well-ripened cane from which to form the permanent trunk of the vine4 ,this is done by concentrating all the energies of the vine into the growth of a single shoot4 ,as soon as the buds start1 or when the most precocious has developed a shoot of a few inches in length1 the vines should be disbudded4 ,this consists in rubbing off with the hand all buds and shoots except the two largest and best placed4 ,the lowest1 upright shoots are usually the best4 ,leave only those which will make a straight vine4 ,it is better to leave less developed buds than a shoot which1 when it grows1 will make an awkward crook with the underground stem4 ,after this disbudding1 the two shoots left will grow rapidly1 as they receive all the energies of the root system4 ,when the longest have grown from ten to fifteen inches1 they should be tied to the stake4 ,unless this is done1 they are liable to be broken off by any heavy wind1 owing to their soft1 succulent texture4 ,only the best placed and most vigorous of the two shoots should be tied up4 ,if this shoot is growing upright and near the stake1 this can be done without any danger of injuring it4 ,in this case the second shoot should be removed4 ,if the shoot has to be bent over in tying it to the stake it may be injured4 ,in such a case the second shoot should be allowed to grow until it is known whether the first has been injured4 ,in case of injury the second shoot can be tied up the next time the vines are visited and the injured shoot removed4 ,at the tying up of the reserved shoots1 all new shoots which have developed since the first disbudding should be removed4 ,the shoots should be tied up loosely1 as they are soft and easily injured1 and they should be brought around carefully to the windward side of the stake4 ,the shoots will require tying once more when they have grown another foot or eighteen inches4 ,there will then be two ties1 one at two or three inches from the top of the stake and the other at about the middle4 ,if the vines have a tall stake and are to be headed very high1 another tying higher up may be needed later4 ,with vines making only a moderate growth1 no other pruning will be needed until the winter4 ,exceptionally vigorous vines1 however1 may make a cane eight1 ten or more feet long4 ,such a cane is heavy and is very likely to break the ropes by which it is attached to the stake4 ,in this case it may break off at the bottom1 or at least will form an awkward crook near the ground when it matures4 ,in either case it is difficult to form a good trunk the following year4 ,even when the ties do not break1 the cane will not be well suited for the commencement of a trunk1 as the joints will be so long that it will be impossible to leave enough well-placed buds at the winter pruning4 ,both these difficulties are avoided by timely topping4 ,when such vigorously growing canes have grown twelve or eighteen inches above the top of the stake they are cut back about level with the stake4 ,this is most conveniently done with a long-bladed knife or piece of split bamboo4 ,after topping1 the cane ceases to grow in length and laterals start at most of the joints4 ,it is less exposed to the action of the wind1 and the laterals supply the buds needed for forming the vine at the winter pruning4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xiii4--,dutchess 7#b_/c74 ,the result of the second season's growth1 then1 has been to produce a single vigorous cane with or without laterals4 ,this is the cane which is to develop into the final and permanent trunk of the vine4 ,it must not only be large and vigorous1 but must be properly matured4 ,if the vine is allowed to grow too late in the season1 an early frost may destroy the unmatured cane1 and much of the results of the year's growth will be wasted4 ,such a frost may indeed kill the entire vine4 ,grafted vines are particularly liable to injury from this cause1 as if they are killed down to the union they are completely ruined4 ,ungrafted vines when killed to the ground may be renewed from a sucker next year4 ,this sucker1 however1 is likely to grow with such vigor that it is even more liable to injury from an autumn frost than the original shoot4 ,this late growth is much more likely to occur with young vines than with old4 ,the old vines stop growing earlier because their energies are directed into the crop1 and as they produce a larger amount of foliage they draw more upon the moisture of the soil1 which therefore dries out earlier4 ,late growth of the young vines must be prevented and the wood matured before frost if possible4 ,this is accomplished by means which promote the drying of the soil in autumn4 ,late irrigations should be avoided4 ,cultivation should usually stop by midsummer4 ,in very moist1 rich soils1 it is often an advantage to grow corn1 sunflowers or similar crops between the rows of vines to take off the surplus moisture4 ,in some cases it is good practice to let the summer weeds grow for the same purpose4 ,second winter pruning4 ,with vines which have been treated as described and to which no accident has happened1 the second winter pruning is very simple4 ,it consists simply in cutting back the single cane which has been allowed to grow to the height at which it is desired to head the vine4 ,the vine so pruned consists of a single cane which with the older wood at the base reaches nearly to the top of the stake1 or fifteen inches4 ,this if properly treated will develop into a vine with a trunk of about twelve inches1 though this length can be modified slightly1 as will be explained later4 ,this cane consists of about seven or eight joints or internodes1 with an equal number of well-formed eyes and an indefinite number of dormant buds1 principally near the base of the cane or junction of the one- and two-year-old wood4 ,only the buds on the upper half of this cane will be allowed to grow4 ,these buds--about four--should give six to eight bunches of grapes and four1 six1 or eight shoots from which to form the spurs at the following winter pruning4 ,with a vine which has been cut back to form a high head1 the cane is about twenty-four inches long and can be used to form a trunk eighteen inches high1 though this height can be modified as in the last case4 ,as with the shorter cane1 only the buds on the upper half will be allowed to produce shoots4 ,these--about six--should give ten to twelve bunches and the shoots necessary for the formation of spurs4 ,in all cases a full internode has been left above the top bud4 ,this is done by cutting through the first bud above the highest which it is desired to have grow4 ,this cut is made in such a way as to destroy the bud but to leave the diaphragm intact and part of the swelling of the node4 ,this upper internode is left partly to protect the upper bud1 but principally to facilitate tying4 ,by making a half-hitch around this internode1 the vine is held very firmly4 ,if the swelling at the node of the destroyed bud is not left1 many vines will be pulled out of the hitch when they become heavy with leaves and supple with the flow of sap in the spring4 ,in tying the vines1 no turns or hitches must be made around any part except this upper internode4 ,a hitch below the top bud will result in a crook-necked vine1 as the top will bend over in the summer under the weight of the foliage4 ,a hitch lower down is even more harmful1 as it will girdle and strangle the vine4 ,a second tie about half way from the upper to the ground is always necessary to straighten the cane4 ,even if the cane is straight when pruned1 a second tie is needed to keep it from curving under the pressure of leaves and wind in the spring4 ,for high-headed vines three ties are usually necessary4 ,for the top tie1 wire is particularly suitable4 ,it holds better than twine and does not wear4 ,even though it is not removed1 it does no harm1 as the part around which it is wound does not grow4 ,the lower ties should be of softer material1 as wire has a tendency to cut into the wood4 ,they should be placed so that the cane is able to expand as it grows4 ,with thin and especially with round stakes this means that the tie must be loose4 ,with large1 square stakes there is usually sufficient room for expansion1 even when the twine is tied tight4 ,third summer pruning4 ,during the third season1 average well-grown vines will produce their first considerable crop and develop the canes from which will be formed the first arms4 ,such a vine1 soon after the starting of the buds in spring1 will have one vigorous shoot about three inches long grown from the old wood and five fruit buds started above on the cane4 ,all the buds and shoots below the middle of the cane should be removed4 ,this will leave the four or five fruit buds and will give the vine the opportunity to produce eight or ten bunches of grapes4 ,these buds will produce also at least four or five shoots4 ,if the vine is very vigorous and the season favorable1 they may produce eight1 ten or more4 ,when the five shoots grow1 the height of the head will be determined at the next winter pruning by which of the corresponding canes are left as spurs4 ,if the highest two canes are cut back to spurs and all others removed1 the vine will be headed as high as possible1 as these two spurs form the two first arms which determine the length of the trunk4 ,if the lowest two canes are chosen and all of the vine above them removed1 the trunk will be made as low as possible4 ,intermediate heights can be obtained by using some other two adjacent canes and removing the rest4 ,it is often advisable to leave some extra spurs lower than it is desired to head the vine and to remove these lower spurs the following winter after they have borne a crop4 ,for example1 the three or four upper canes might be left1 if the vine is vigorous enough1 and the lowest one or two of these removed at the next pruning4 ,this1 however1 is not often necessary with properly handled vines and is objectionable because it makes large wounds in the trunk4 ,third winter pruning4 ,at the end of the third season's growth the vine should have a straight1 well-developed trunk with a number of vigorous canes near the top from which to form the arms4 ,figure #bh represents a well-grown vine at this period4 ,no shoots have been allowed to grow on the lower part of the trunk and the five buds allowed to grow above have produced nine vigorous canes4 ,the pruner should leave enough spurs to supply all the fruit buds that the vine can utilize4 ,the number1 size and thickness of the canes show that the vine is very vigorous and can support a large crop4 ,it will depend somewhat on the variety how many buds should be left4 ,for a variety whose bunches average one pound1 and which produces two bunches to the shoot1 twelve fruit buds should give about twenty-four pounds1 or about seven tons per acre1 if the vines are planted #ab by #f feet1 as these were4 ,the number of spurs will depend on their length4 ,six spurs of two buds each will give the required number1 but as some of these canes are exceptionally vigorous they should be left a little longer1 in which case a smaller number of spurs will suffice4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bh4 ,three-year-old vine ready for pruning4 ,when the number and length of the spurs are decided on1 the canes should be chosen which will leave these spurs in the most suitable position for forming arms4 ,this position will depend on whether we want a vase-form or fan-shaped vine4 ,in the first case1 we choose those which will distribute the spurs most evenly and symmetrically on all sides1 avoiding any which cross or point downwards4 ,in the second case1 we choose only those canes which run in the direction of the trellis1 avoiding canes which stick out between the rows4 ,downward pointing canes may be used in this case4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bi4 ,vine of ,fig4 #bh after pruning for vase-formed head4 ,figure #bi shows the vine after pruning for a vase-formed head4 ,the pruner has used two of the strongest canes to form two three-bud spurs and three of medium vigor to form three two-bud spurs4 ,the head is of good shape1 though some of the spurs are a little too low4 ,one1 two1 or three of these can be removed at the following winter pruning1 and the permanent arms and head of the vine formed from canes which develop on the two highest spurs4 ,if the vine were too high1 the head could be developed the next year from the three lowest spurs and the upper part removed4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cj4 ,three-year-old vines3 ,a1 pruned for a vase-formed1 and ,b1 for a fan-shaped head4 ,figure #cj shows vines of the same age of practically perfect shape4 ,less spurs have been left because the vines were less vigorous4 ,it is easier to properly shape vines which make only a moderate growth during the first three seasons4 ,on the other hand1 very vigorous vines can finally be brought into practically perfect shape and the somewhat larger and more numerous wounds necessary are more easily healed by a vigorous vine4 ,pruning after the third winter4 ,for the pruner who understands the pruning of young vines and has brought them to approximately the form represented in ,figs4 #bi and #cj1 the subsequent winter pruning is very simple4 ,it involves1 however1 one new idea--the distinction between fruit and sterile wood4 ,up to the third winter pruning1 this distinction is not necessary2 first1 because practically all the wood is fruit wood1 and second1 because the necessity of forming the vine controls the choice of wood4 ,from this time on1 however1 this distinction must be carefully made4 ,at each winter pruning a number of spurs of fruit wood must be left to produce the crop to be expected from the size and vigor of the vine4 ,besides these fruit spurs1 it may be necessary to leave spurs of sterile wood to permit of increasing the number of fruit spurs the following year4 ,this will be made clear by comparing ,figs4 #cj ,a and #ca4 ,figure #cj ,a shows a vine at the third winter pruning with two fruit spurs of two buds each and one fruit spur of one bud--five fruit buds in all4 ,if these five fruit buds all produce vigorous shoots during the following summer1 they will supply five canes of fruit wood which can be used to form five fruit spurs at the following winter pruning1 which will be about the normal increase necessary4 ,some of these fruit buds1 however1 may produce weak shoots or shoots so badly placed that they would spoil the shape of the head if used for spurs4 ,other shoots1 however1 will be produced from base1 secondary and adventitious buds which1 while less fruitful1 can be used to form spurs for the starting of new arms4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ca4 ,four-year-old vine pruned for vase-formed head4 ,figure #ca shows a vine after the fourth winter pruning which had developed from a vine similar to that shown in ,fig4 #cj ,a4 ,from the three fruit spurs left the previous year four canes have been chosen for the fruit spurs of this year4 ,the old spur on the left has furnished two new spurs and the two old spurs at the right each one new spur4 ,the pruner1 judging that the vine is sufficiently vigorous to stand more wood1 has formed two spurs from water sprouts which1 while not likely to produce much fruit the first season1 will supply fruit wood for the following year4 ,the result is a very well-shaped vine with six almost perfectly balanced spurs4 ,these spurs will develop into permanent arms1 some of them furnishing finally two or three4 ,figure #cb shows a high-headed vine of the same age4 ,it has five spurs1 of which four are fruit spurs and one a spur of sterile wood left to shape the vine4 ,the two more or less horizontal spurs on the right will bear fruit the following autumn and will be removed entirely at the following winter pruning1 as they are badly placed4 ,the arms of the vine will then be developed from the three upright spurs1 which are excellently placed4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cb4 ,four-year-old vine pruned for high vase-formed head4 ,each year thereafter the same process must be followed4 ,first1 enough fruit spurs1 as well placed as possible1 must be left to produce the crop4 ,second1 on most vines supplementary spurs of sterile wood must be left to supply more arms where they are needed1 and finally1 when the full complement of arms has developed1 to supply new arms to replace those which have become too long or are otherwise defective4 ,fan-shaped vines4 ,with headed vines1 the treatment up to the third winter is the same except for the variations in the height of the head4 ,at the third winter pruning1 however1 the formation of the head commences1 and the pruner determines whether it shall be vase-formed or fan-shaped4 ,the production of a vase-formed head has already been described4 ,at the third winter pruning1 the vine should be pruned to two spurs1 as shown in ,fig4 #cj ,b4 ,more vigorous vines should not be given more spurs1 as in ,figs4 #bi and #cj ,a1 but the spurs should be made longer1 with four1 five1 or even six eyes in some cases4 ,this is in order to obtain some fruit1 which might not be obtained from long pruning varieties by leaving many spurs4 ,with extremely vigorous vines one fruit cane may be left at this pruning4 ,the wires of the trellis should be put up this year1 if this has not already been done4 ,fig4 #cc ,a and #cc ,b illustrates the second step in the production of a fan-shaped head4 ,this form of head is used only for trellised vines and long-pruned varieties4 ,the formation of the head and the management of the fruit canes are therefore conveniently discussed together4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cc4 ,a1 before pruning2 ,b1 after pruning4 ,by comparing the pruned vine1 ,fig4 #cc ,b1 with the unpruned1 ,fig4 #cc ,a1 the method of pruning will be made clear4 ,the unpruned vine shows two arms1 the spurs of the previous year1 from one of which have grown three vigorous canes and from the other two somewhat less vigorous4 ,the pruned vine shows a complete unit1 that is1 a fruit cane with its accompanying renewal spur on the vigorous side and a spur for the production of fruit wood for the following year on the other side4 ,if the vine had been more vigorous two complete units would have been left and one or two extra spurs4 ,as the form of the vine is determined by the renewal spurs1 special attention should be paid to their position4 ,in this case1 the middle cane on one arm and the lower cane on the other have been used for renewal spurs4 ,this brings them both to the same height above the ground and determines the place of the permanent arms4 ,the next year each of these spurs will furnish a fruit cane and one or two renewal spurs4 ,the arms will thus in two or three years be increased to four1 or1 with very large vines1 to six4 ,these spurs should be chosen as nearly as possible in the plane of the trellis1 that is1 they should not project out sideways4 ,figure #be shows vines of this kind of full size and in full bearing4 ,the fruit canes also should be as nearly as possible in the direction of the trellis1 though this is not so important1 as they can be bent over to the wire when tied up1 and in any case they are removed the next year4 ,double-headed vines4 ,some growers attempt to arrange the arms of their vines in two stages1 one above the other1 forming double-headed or two-crowned vines4 ,the method is applied to both vase-formed and trellised vines4 ,it is open to the same criticisms as the vertical cordon1 the chief of which is that it cannot be maintained permanently4 ,the lower head or ring of arms finally becomes weak and fails to produce wood4 ,it is easier to maintain in trellised vineyards and has some advantages1 the chief of which is that it makes it easier to keep the vine in the single plane and to prevent arms getting into the inter-rows4 ,the double trunk is not necessary and is1 in fact1 a disadvantage1 as one trunk has a tendency to grow at the expense of the other4 ,vertical and bowed canes4 ,figure #bd ,a shows a long-pruned vine in which the fruit canes have been tied vertically to a tall stake4 ,this is a method used commonly in many vineyards4 ,the unit of pruning is the same as in the method just described1 consisting of a fruit cane and a renewal spur4 ,the framework of the vine consists of a trunk of medium height1 with a vase-formed head consisting of three or four arms4 ,the defects of this system have been pointed out on page #aee4 ,it is used with fair success with seedless ,sultanas and with some wine grapes such as ,colombar1 ,semillon1 ,cabernet1 and ,riesling1 in the hands of skillful pruners4 ,the results with ,sultanina are very unsatisfactory4 ,by this method1 on most of the vines1 the fruit canes start from high up near the middle of the stake1 and are therefore too short for the best results4 ,the canes which start from low down are in most cases suckers1 and therefore of little value for fruit bearing4 ,figure #bd ,b shows a vine with bowed canes4 ,the method of pruning is exactly the same as in the method just described4 ,the bowing of the canes1 however1 overcomes some of the defects of that method4 ,it is used regularly in many wine grape vineyards of the cooler regions4 ,it is unsuited for very vigorous vines in rich soil4 ,vertical cordons4 ,in head pruning1 the treatment of young vines up to the second or third winter pruning is identical for all systems4 ,in cordon pruning the treatment for the first and second is also the same4 ,that is1 the vine is cut back to two buds near the level of the ground until a cane sufficiently long to serve for the formation of the trunk is obtained4 ,in the vertical cordon the trunk is three to four feet long instead of one to two1 as in head pruning4 ,this makes it necessary to have a longer and more vigorous cane to start with4 ,it may require a year longer to obtain this4 ,that is to say1 at the end of the second season's growth many vines will not have a single cane sufficiently developed to give the necessary three and one-half feet of well-ripened wood and properly developed buds4 ,at the second winter pruning1 therefore1 it will often be necessary to cut the vine back to two buds1 as at the first winter pruning4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cd4 ,vertical cordon1 young vine pruned4 ,finally1 a cane of the required length will be obtained4 ,the vine is then formed as already described for the second winter pruning of headed vines1 except that the cane is left longer4 ,when such a vine is pruned1 spurs are left at intervals along the trunk1 as shown in ,fig4 #cd4 ,each of these spurs is a fruit spur and is also the commencement of an arm4 ,the future treatment of these arms is the same as that of the arms in head pruning4 ,horizontal cordons4 ,during the first two or three years1 vines which are to be given the form of horizontal cordons are treated exactly as for vertical cordons1 that is1 they are pruned back to two buds each winter and the growth forced by disbudding into a single cane during the summer4 ,as soon as a well-ripened cane of the required length is obtained1 it is tied to a wire stretched horizontally along the row at from fifteen to twenty-four inches from the ground4 ,for this system of pruning1 the rows should be twelve to fourteen feet apart and the vines six1 seven1 or eight feet apart in the rows4 ,as the cordon or trunk of each vine should reach the next vine1 it will have to be six to eight feet long4 ,the best shape is obtained when the trunk is all formed one year from a single cane4 ,it is necessary1 however1 sometimes to take two years for the formation of the trunk4 ,in any case1 the cane first tied down should reach at least half way to the next vine4 ,the following year a new cane from the end of this should be used to complete the full length of the trunk4 ,in attaching the cane to the wire1 it must be bent over in a gentle curve and care taken not to break or injure it4 ,the proper form of the bend is shown in ,figs4 #bg and #ce4 ,sharp bends should be avoided4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ce4 ,unilateral horizontal cordon with half-long pruning4 ,the cane should be placed on top of the wire1 but should not be twisted around it4 ,the end should be tied firmly and the rest of the cane supported by strings tied loosely in order to avoid girdling when the cane grows4 ,in the following spring1 most of the buds on a good cane will start4 ,if the cane is short jointed1 some of the shoots should be removed and only those shoots allowed to develop which are conveniently situated for permanent arms4 ,if the vines are to be short pruned1 the arms should be developed every eight to twelve inches from a few inches beyond the bend to the extreme end4 ,for long pruning1 the arms should be farther apart1 twelve to twenty inches4 ,shoots starting from the top of the cane and growing vertically upwards are to be preferred4 ,as the shoots develop1 the strongest should be pinched repeatedly1 if necessary4 ,this will tend to force the growth of the weaker shoots and to equalize the vigor of all4 ,at the end of the season1 there should be from five to ten canes growing on each cordon of full length4 ,these canes are then pruned back to two or three buds1 or a little longer for long-pruned varieties4 ,during the following spring and summer1 the vines should be carefully suckered and unnecessary water sprouts removed4 ,any shoots coming from the lower side of the cordon should be removed early to strengthen the growth in the shoots on the upper side4 ,such vines are apt to become dry or decayed on the upper side4 ,at the end of this year1 which should be the fourth or fifth from planting at the latest1 the cordon will be fully formed and the final style of pruning can be applied4 ,a short-pruned cordon vine is shown in ,fig4 #bg4 ,the arms and spurs are a little too numerous and too close together4 ,if this vine required the number of buds shown it would have been better to have left the fruit spurs longer and to have left fewer and shorter wood spurs4 ,the upper vine of ,fig4 #ce shows a cordon pruned half long4 ,this is an excellent system for ,malaga1 ,emperor1 and ,cornichon when growing in very fertile soil4 ,it gives the half-long fruit canes1 which these varieties need to produce good crops4 ,the fruit canes may be attached to a wire twelve or fifteen inches above the cordon or bent down and tied to the cordon itself1 as in the lower vine of the figure4 ,the first method is the more convenient1 but the second is necessary where there is difficulty in obtaining satisfactory growth from the renewal spurs4 ,when the fruit canes are tied down1 as indicated in the lower vine1 renewal spurs may not be needed1 as vigorous shoots will usually be obtained from the lower buds of the fruit canes4 ,choice of a system4 ,in choosing a system1 we must consider carefully the characteristics of the particular variety we are growing4 ,a variety which bears only on the upper buds must be pruned long1 that is1 must be given fruit canes4 ,it should be noted that many varieties1 such as ,petite ,sirah1 which will bear with short pruning when grafted on resistant roots require fruit canes when growing on their own roots4 ,in general1 grafted vines require shorter pruning than ungrafted4 ,if pruned the same1 the grafted vines may overbear and quickly exhaust themselves4 ,this seems to be the principal reason for the frequent failure of ,muscat vines grafted on resistant stock4 ,the cultural conditions also affect the vine in this respect4 ,vines made vigorous by rich soil1 abundant moisture1 and thorough cultivation require longer pruning than weaker vines of the same variety4 ,the normal size of the bunch is also of importance4 ,this size will vary from one-quarter of a pound to #b or #c pounds4 ,it is difficult to obtain a full crop from a variety whose bunches are very small without the use of fruit canes4 ,spurs will not furnish enough fruit buds without crowding them inconveniently4 ,on the other hand1 some shipping grapes may bear larger crops when pruned long1 but the bunches and berries may be too small for the best quality4 ,the possibilities of development vary much with different varieties4 ,a ,mission or ,flame ,tokay may be made to cover a quarter of an acre and develop a trunk four or five feet in circumference4 ,a ,zinfandel vine under the same conditions would not reach a tenth of this size in the same time4 ,vines in a rich valley soil will grow much larger than on a poor hillside4 ,the size and shape of the trunk must be modified accordingly and adapted to the available room or number of vines to the acre4 ,the shape of the vine must be such as to protect it as much as possible from various unfavorable conditions4 ,a variety susceptible to odium1 like the ,carignane1 must be pruned so that the fruit and foliage are not unduly massed together4 ,free exposure to light and air are a great protection in this respect4 ,the same is true for varieties like the ,muscat1 which have a tendency to coulure if the blossoms are too moist or shaded4 ,in frosty locations1 a high trunk will be a protection1 as the air is always colder close to the ground4 ,the qualities required in the crop also influence our choice of a pruning system4 ,with wine grapes1 even1 perfect ripening and full flavor are desirable4 ,these are obtained best by having the grapes at a uniform height from the ground and as near to it as possible4 ,the same qualities are desirable in raisin grapes1 with the addition of large size of the berries4 ,with shipping grapes1 the size and perfection of the berries and bunches are the most essential characteristics4 ,the vine1 therefore1 should be so formed that each bunch hangs clear1 free from injurious contact with canes or soil and equally exposed to light and air4 ,the maximum returns in crop depend on the early bearing of young vines1 the regularity of bearing of mature vines and the longevity of the vineyard4 ,these are insured by careful attention to all the details of pruning1 but are possible only when the vines are given a suitable form4 ,the running expenses of a vineyard depend in a great measure on the style of pruning adopted4 ,vines of suitable form are cultivated1 pruned and the crop gathered easily and cheaply4 ,this depends also both on the form of vine adopted and on care in details4 ,it is impossible1 therefore1 to state for any particular variety or any particular location the best style of pruning to be adopted4 ,all that can be done is to give the general characteristics of the variety and to indicate how these may be modified by grafting1 soil or climatic or other conditions4 ,the most important characteristic of the variety in making a choice of a pruning system is whether it normally or usually requires short1 half-long1 or long pruning4 ,with this idea1 the principal grapes grown in ,california1 together with all those grown at the ,experiment ,station on which data exist1 have been divided into five groups in the following list3 #a4 ,varieties which require long pruning under all conditions4--,clairette blanche1 ,corinth white and black1 ,seedless ,sultana1 ,sultanina white 7,thompson's ,seedless7 and rose4 #b4 ,varieties which usually require long pruning4--,bastardo1 ,boal de ,madeira1 ,chardonay1 ,chauch gris and noir1 ,colombar1 ,crabbe's ,black ,burgundy1 ,durif1 ,gamais1 ,kleinberger1 ,luglienga1 ,marsanne1 ,marzemino1 ,merlot1 ,meunier1 ,muscadelle de ,bordelais1 ,nebbiolo1 ,pagadebito1 ,peverella1 ,pinots1 ,rieslings1 ,robin noir1 ,rulnder1 ,sauvignon blanc1 ,semillon1 ,serine1 ,petite ,sirah1 ,slancamenca1 ,steinschiller1 ,tinta ,cao1 ,tinta ,madeira1 ,trousseau1 ,verdelho1 ,petit ,verdot1 ,wlcherisling4 #c4 ,varieties which usually require short pruning4--,aleatico1 ,aligot1 ,aspiran1 ,bakator1 ,bouschets1 ,blaue ,elbe1 ,beba1 ,bonarda1 ,barbarossa1 ,catarattu1 ,charbono1 ,chasselas1 ,freisa1 ,frontignan1 ,furmint1 ,grand noir1 ,grosseblaue1 ,green ,hungarian1 ,malmsey1 ,mantuo1 ,monica1 ,mission1 ,moscatello fino1 ,mourisco branco1 ,mourisco preto1 ,negro amaro1 ,palomino1 ,pedro ,zumbon1 ,perruno1 ,pizzutello di ,roma1 ,black ,prince1 ,west's ,white ,prolific1 ,quagliano1 ,rodites1 ,rozaki1 ,tinta ,amarella1 ,vernaccia bianca1 ,vernaccia ,sarda4 #d4 ,varieties which require short pruning under all conditions4--,aramon1 ,burger1 ,chardonay1 ,chauch gris and noir1 ,colombar1 ,crabbe's ,black ,burgundy1 ,durif1 ,black ,morocco1 ,mourastel1 ,muscat of ,alexander1 ,napoleon1 ,picpoule blanc and noir1 ,flame ,tokay1 ,ugni blanc1 ,verdal1 ,zinfandel4 #e4 ,varieties of table grapes which usually require half-long or cordon pruning4--,almeria 7,ohanez71 ,bellino1 ,bermestia bianca and violacea1 ,cipro nero1 ,dattier de ,beirut1 ,cornichon1 ,emperor1 ,black ,ferrara1 ,malaga1 ,olivette de ,cadenet1 ,pis-de-,chevre blanc1 ,schiradzouli1 ,zabalkanski4 ,these lists must not be taken as indicating absolutely for all cases how these varieties are to be pruned4 ,they simply indicate their natural tendencies4 ,certain methods and conditions tend to make vines more fruitful4 ,where these occur1 shorter pruning than is indicated may be advisable4 ,on the other hand1 other methods and conditions tend to make the vines vigorous at the expense of fruitfulness4 ,where these occur1 longer pruning may be advisable4 ,the more usual factors which tend towards fruitfulness are3 ,grafting on resistant vines1 especially on certain varieties such as those of ,riparia and ,berlandieri2 ,old age of the vines2 ,mechanical or other injuries to any part of the vine2 ,large development of the trunk1 as in the cordon systems4 ,the more usual factors which tend towards vigor at the expense of fruitfulness are3 ,rich soil1 especially large amounts of humus and nitrogen2 ,youth of the vines2 ,excessive irrigation or rainfall 7within limits74 ,in deciding what system of pruning to adopt1 all these factors1 together with the nature of the vine and the uses to which the fruit is to be put1 must be considered4 ,it is best when the vineyard is started to err on the side of short pruning4 ,while this may diminish slightly the first one or two crops1 the vines will gain in vigor and the loss will be made up in subsequent crops4 ,if the style of pruning adopted results in excessive vigor of the vines1 it should be gradually changed in the direction of longer pruning with the object of utilizing this vigor in the production of crop4 ,this change should be gradual1 or the risk is run of injuring the vitality of the vines by one or two excessively heavy crops4 ,finally1 each year the condition of the individual vine should determine the kind of pruning to be adopted4 ,if the vine appears weak1 from whatever cause1 it should be pruned shorter or given less spurs or fruit canes than the year before4 ,on the contrary1 if it appears unnecessarily vigorous1 more or longer spurs or fruit canes should be left4 ,every vine should be judged by itself4 ,it is not possible to give more than general directions for the pruning of the whole vineyard4 ,it cannot be well pruned unless the men who do the actual pruning are capable of using sufficient judgment to properly modify their methods for each individual vine4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xiv4--,eaton 7#d_/e74 ,,chapter ,x ,,european ,,grapes ,,in ,,eastern ,,america ,as we have seen1 there were many efforts to grow ,european grapes in ,america during the first two centuries in the settlement of the country4 ,the various attempts1 some involving individuals1 others corporations and in early days even colonies1 form about the most instructive and dramatic episodes in the history of ,american agriculture4 ,all endeavors1 it will be remembered1 were failures1 so dismally and pathetically complete that we are wont to think of the two hundred years from the first settlements in ,america to the introduction of the ,isabella1 a native grape1 as time wasted in futile culture of a foreign fruit4 ,the early efforts were far from wasted1 however1 for out of the tribulations of two centuries of grape-growing came the domestication of our native grapes1 one of the most remarkable achievements of agriculture4 ,the advent of ,isabella and ,catawba wholly turned the thoughts of vineyardists from ,old ,world to ,new ,world grapes4 ,so completely1 indeed1 were viticulturists won by the thousand and more native grapes1 that for the century which followed no one has planted ,old ,world grapes east of the ,rockies1 while vineyards of native species may be found ,north and ,south from the ,atlantic to the ,pacific4 ,meanwhile1 much new knowledge has come to agriculture1 old fallacies have received many hard knocks and chains of tradition in which the culture of plants was bound1 have been broken4 ,in no field of agriculture have workers received greater aid from science than in viticulture4 ,particularly is this true of the diseases of the vine4 ,the reports of the old experimenters were much the same1 a sickness takes hold of the vines and they die4 ,what the sickness was and whether there were preventatives or remedies1 no one knew a hundred years ago4 ,but in the last half century we have learned much about the ills of grapes and now know preventatives or remedies for most of them4 ,we know also that the early vine-growers failed1 in part at least1 because they followed empirical ,european practices4 ,is it not possible that with the new knowledge we can now grow ,european grapes in eastern ,america8 ,the ,new ,york ,agricultural ,experiment ,station has put this question to test1 with results indicating that ,european grapes may now be grown successfully in eastern ,america4 ,the following is an account of the work with this fruit at the ,new ,york ,station4 ,,european ,,grapes ,,at ,,the ,,new ,,york ,,experiment ,,station#ag ,in the spring of #aiaa1 the ,station obtained cuttings of #aja varieties of ,european grapes from the ,united ,states ,department of ,agriculture and the ,university of ,california4 ,the cuttings obtained were grafted on the roots of a heterogeneous collection of seedlings1 five years set1 representing a half dozen species of ,vitis4 ,these stocks had little to recommend them except that all were vigorous1 well established and all were more immune to phylloxera than the ,old ,world varieties4 ,from four to six grafts of each of the hundred varieties were made and a stand of #chj vines resulted1 the percentage of loss being exceedingly small4 ,the success in grafting was probably due to the method used1 the value of which had been proved in previous work on the ,station grounds4 ,the method of grafting and details of care follow3 ,details of care4 ,in grafting1 the earth was removed from the plants to a depth of two or three inches4 ,the vines were sawed squarely off below the surface of the ground4 ,the stock was then split for a cleft graft4 ,two cions1 made as described on page #df1 were inserted in each cleft and tied in place with waxed string4 ,wax was not used as it does not stick in grafting grapes1 because of the bleeding of the stock4 ,after setting the cion1 the earth was replaced and enough more of it used to cover stock and cion to prevent evaporation4 ,this method of grafting is available to those who have old vineyards4 ,it is so simple that the veriest tyro can thus graft grapes4 ,were young plants or cuttings used as stocks1 some method of bench grafting would1 of course1 be resorted to4 ,the cultivation and spraying were precisely that given native grapes4 ,there has been no coddling of vines4 ,the fungous diseases which helped to destroy the vineyards and vexed the souls of the old experimenters were kept in check by two sprayings with bordeaux mixture2 the first application was made just after the fruit set1 the second when the grapes were two-thirds grown4 ,some years a third spraying with a tobacco concoction was used to keep thrips in check4 ,phylloxera was present in the vineyard but none of the varieties seemed to suffer from this pest4 ,the stocks used were not those best suited either to the vines grafted on them or to resist phylloxera4 ,unquestionably some of the standard sorts used in ,france and ,california from ,vitis rupestris or ,vitis vulpina1 or hybrids of these species1 would give better results4 ,from theoretical consideration1 it would seem that the ,vitis vulpina stocks should be best suited to the needs of eastern ,america4 ,it was thought by the old experimenters that ,european grapes failed in ,new ,york because of unfavorable climatic conditions4 ,it was said that the winters were too cold and the summers too hot and dry for this grape4 ,during the years the ,station vineyard of ,viniferas has been in existence1 there have been stresses of all kinds of weather to which the variable climate of ,new ,york is subject4 ,two winters have been exceedingly cold1 killing peach and pear trees2 one summer gave the hottest weather and hottest day in twenty-five years2 the vines have withstood two severe summer droughts and three cold1 wet summers4 ,these test seasons have proved that ,european grapes will stand the climate of ,new ,york as well as the native varieties except in the matter of cold2 they must have winter protection4 ,to growers of ,american grapes1 the extra work of winter protection seems to be an insuperable obstacle4 ,the experience of several seasons in ,new ,york shows that winter protection is a cheap and simple matter4 ,two methods have been used2 vines have been covered with earth and others have been wrapped with straw4 ,the earth covering is cheaper and more efficient4 ,the vines are pruned and placed full length on the ground and covered with a few inches of earth4 ,the cost of winter protection will run from two to three cents a vine4 ,since ,european vines are much more productive than those of ,american grapes1 the added cost of winter protection is more than offset by the greater yield of grapes4 ,trellising1 also1 is simpler and less expensive for the ,european grapes1 helping further to offset the cost of winter protection4 ,pruning4 ,it is apparent at once that ,european grapes must have special treatment in pruning if they are to be laid on the ground annually4 ,several modifications of ,european and ,california practices can be employed in the ,east to bring the plants in condition for winter laying-down4 ,all methods of pruning must have this in common2 new wood must be brought up from the base of the plant every year to permit bending the plant4 ,this can be done by leaving a replacing spur at the base of the trunk4 ,if two-eye cions are used when the plants are grafted and both buds grow1 the shoot from the upper can be used to form the main trunk1 while that from the lower bud will supply the replacing spur4 ,each year all but one of the canes coming from this spur are removed and the remaining one is cut back to one or two buds until the main trunk begins to be too stiff to bend down readily1 then one cane from the spur is left for a new trunk and another is pruned for a new renewal spur4 ,the main trunk is carried up only to the lower wire of the trellis4 ,at the winter pruning1 two one-year canes are selected to be tied along this wire1 one on each side1 and the two renewal spurs chosen for tying up and new renewal spurs left4 ,for the best production1 different varieties require different lengths of fruit canes1 but the work at ,geneva has not progressed far enough so that recommendations can be made for particular varieties4 ,it has been found best1 however1 to prune weak vines heavily and vigorous ones lightly4 ,under normal conditions1 from four to eight buds are left on each cane1 depending on the vigor of the vine4 ,with some of the older seedlings used for stocks in #aiaa which were so large that two cions were used1 and in many of those where the roots seemed to have sufficient vigor to support the larger top1 two trunks were formed1 one from each graft4 ,by spreading these into a ,v and making the inner arms shorter1 very satisfactory results were secured4 ,the type of growth in ,vinifera is different from that of native grapes4 ,the young shoots which spring from the one-year canes1 instead of trailing to the ground or running out along the trellis wires1 grow erect4 ,advantage must be taken of this in the pruning system adopted in the ,east4 ,the canes and the renewal spurs as described above are tied along the lower wire2 then the young shoots which come from these grow upward to the second wire4 ,when the shoots are four to six inches above this wire1 they are pinched off just above the wire and any which have not already fastened themselves are tied to prevent the wind breaking them off4 ,at the same time1 if any of the axial buds on the shoots have begun to form secondary shoots1 they are rubbed off1 beginning with the node next above the upper cluster and going down to the old cane4 ,this gives the cluster more room and better light4 ,soon after the first heading-back1 the upper buds of the young shoot start lateral growth4 ,the secondary branches usually grow upright and when they are several inches high they are topped with a sickle4 ,this heading-back results in stockier and more mature canes for the following year1 and if properly done adds to the fruitfulness of the vine and the fruit matures better4 ,general considerations4 ,the grower of ,european grapes grafted on ,american vines may be prepared to be surprised at the growth the vines make4 ,at the end of the first season1 the grafts attain the magnitude of full-sized vines2 the second season they begin to fruit more or less abundantly1 and the third year they produce approximately the same number of bunches as a ,concord or ,niagara vine2 and1 as the bunches of most varieties are larger than those of the ,american grapes1 the yield1 therefore1 is greater4 ,the ,european varieties1 also1 may be set more closely than the ,american sorts1 since they are seldom such rampant growers4 ,it is too early to reason from this short experiment that we are to grow varieties of ,european grapes commonly in the ,east1 but the behavior of the vines under discussion seems to indicate that we may do so4 ,at the ,new ,york ,station1 the ,european varieties are as vigorous and thrifty as ,american vines and quite as easily managed4 ,why may we not grow these grapes if we protect them from phylloxera1 fungi and cold8 ,in ,europe1 there are varieties of grapes for nearly every soil and condition in the southern half of the continent4 ,in eastern ,europe and western ,asia1 the vines must be protected just as they must be protected here4 ,it seems almost certain that from the many sorts selected to meet the various conditions of ,europe1 we shall be able to find kinds to meet the diverse soils and climates of this continent4 ,and here we have one of the chief reasons for wishing to grow these grapes that ,american grape-growing may not be so localized as at present4 ,probably we shall find that ,european grapes can be grown under a greater diversity of conditions than native varieties4 ,the culture of ,european grapes in the ,east gives this region essentially a new fruit4 ,if any considerable degree of success attends their culture1 wine-making in eastern ,america will be revolutionized1 for the ,european grapes are far superior to the native sorts for this purpose4 ,varieties of these grapes have a higher sugar- and solid-content than do those of the ,american species and for this reason1 as a rule1 keep longer4 ,we may thus expect that through these grapes the season for this fruit will be extended4 ,the ,european varieties are better flavored1 possessing a more delicate and a richer vinous flavor1 a more agreeable aroma1 and are lacking in the acidity and the obnoxious foxy taste of many ,american grapes4 ,many consumers of fruit will like them better and the demand for grapes thus will be increased4 ,the advent of the ,european grape in the vineyards of eastern ,america ought to greatly increase the production of hybrids between this species and the ,american species of grapes4 ,as we have seen1 there are many such hybrids1 but curiously enough scarcely more than a half dozen varieties of ,european grapes have been used in crossing4 ,most of these have been greenhouse grapes and not those that could be expected to give best results for vineyard culture4 ,as we come to know the varieties best adapted to ,american conditions1 we ought to be able to select ,european parents to better advantage than we have done in the past and by using them produce better hybrid sorts4 ,varieties4 ,from the eighty-five varieties of ,european grapes now fruiting on the grounds of the ,new ,york ,agricultural ,experiment ,station1 the following are named as worth trying in the ,east for table grapes3 ,actoni1 ,bakator1 ,chasselas ,golden1 ,chasselas ,rose1 ,feher ,szagos1 ,gray ,pinot1 ,lignan ,blanc1 ,malvasia1 ,muscat ,hamburg1 ,palomino and ,rosaki4 ,these and other ,european grapes are described in ,chapter ,,xviii2 ,chasselas ,golden and ,malvasia are illustrated in ,plate ,v4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xv4--,eclipse 7#b_/c74 ,,chapter ,,xi ,,grapes ,,under ,,glass ,grape-growing under glass is on the decline in ,america4 ,forty or fifty years ago the industry was a considerable one1 grapes being rather commonly grown near all large cities for the market1 and nearly every large estate possessing a range of glass had a grapery4 ,but grapes are better and more cheaply grown in ,europe than in ,america1 and the advent of quick transportation permits ,english1 ,french and ,belgian grape-growers to send their wares to ,american markets more cheaply than they can be grown at home4 ,for the present1 the world war has stopped the importation of luxuries from ,europe1 and ,american gardeners ought to find the culture of grapes under glass profitable2 they may expect also to be able to hold the markets for many years to come because of the destruction of ,belgian houses and the shortage of labor in ,europe resulting from the war4 ,amateur gardeners ought never to let the culture of grapes under glass wane1 since the hot-house grape is the consummation of the gardener's skill4 ,certainly the forcing of no other fruit yields such generous rewards4 ,grapes grown under glass are handsomer in appearance and better in quality than those grown out-of-doors4 ,the clusters often attain enormous size1 a weight of twenty to thirty pounds being not uncommon4 ,the impression prevails that to grow grapes under glass1 one must have expensive houses2 this is not necessary1 and hot-house grapes is a misnomer1 the fruit really being grown in cold or relatively cool houses which need not be expensive4 ,grapes are grown under glass with greater ease and certainty than is imagined by those who form the opinion from buying the fruit at high prices in delicatessen stores4 ,a grapery need not be an expensive luxury1 and the culture of grapes under glass can be recommended to persons of moderate means who are looking for a horticultural hobby4 ,,the ,,grapery ,almost any of the various modifications of greenhouses can be adapted to growing grapes4 ,firms constructing greenhouses usually have had experience in building graperies1 and1 as a rule1 it will pay to have these professional builders put up the house4 ,if the actual work is not done by a builder1 it is possible to purchase plans and estimates1 from which1 if sufficiently detailed1 local builders can work4 ,on small places there is no doubt that the lean-to houses are most suitable1 being inexpensive and furnishing protection from prevailing winds4 ,these lean-tos should face the south and may be built against the stable1 garage or other building2 or better1 a brick or stone wall to the north may be erected4 ,it is possible to build a small grapery as a lean-to out of hot-house sash4 ,in commercial establishments and for large estates1 where the grapery must be more or less ornamental1 a span-roof house is rather better adapted to the grapery than a lean-to1 especially if the house is not to be used for the production of grapes early in the season4 ,on account of the exposure of the span-roof house on all sides1 however1 rather more skill must be exercised in growing grapes in them than in the better protected lean-to grapery4 ,whatever the house1 it must be so constructed as to furnish an abundance of light1 a requisite in which much is gained by having large-size glasses for the glazing4 ,the glass must be of the best quality1 otherwise the foliage and fruit may be blistered by the sun's rays being focused through defective spots4 ,light1 heat1 moisture and good ventilation are all required in the grapery4 ,brick or stone are preferable to woodwork1 as heat and moisture in the grapery are quickly destructive to wood foundations4 ,if wood is used1 only the most durable kinds should enter into the construction of the house4 ,the under structure of masonry or of wood should be low1 not higher than #ah inches or #b feet before the superstructure of glass begins4 ,the grapery must be well ventilated4 ,there must be large ventilators at the peak of the house and small ones just above the foundation walls or in the foundation walls themselves4 ,the ventilation should be such that the house can be kept free from draughts or sudden changes of temperature1 as the grape under glass is a sensitive plant1 and subject to mildew4 ,plenty of air1 therefore1 is an absolute necessity to the grapes1 especially during the ripening of the fruit4 ,the lower ventilators in graperies are seldom much used until the grapes begin to color1 at which time the new growth1 foliage and fruit are hardened1 but from this time on upper and lower ventilators must be so manipulated that the houses are always generously aired4 ,grapes can be forced in cold houses without the aid of artificial heat and formerly these cold graperies were very popular2 but in the modern houses for growing this fruit1 artificial heat is now considered a necessity1 even though the heating apparatus may seldom be in use4 ,for a finely finished product1 a little heat to warm the room and dry the atmosphere may be absolutely necessary at a critical time1 this often saving a house of grapes4 ,of heating apparatus1 little need be said4 ,standard boilers for heating greenhouses with either steam or hot water are now to be purchased of many designs for almost every style and condition of house4 ,since the grapery seldom requires high heat1 hot water is rather to be preferred to steam1 although there is no objection to steam1 especially if the grapery is a part of a large range of glass4 ,the border4 ,the border in which the vines are to be planted is the most important part of the grapery4 ,all subsequent efforts fail if the border lacks in two imperatives1 good drainage and a soil that is rich but not too rich4 ,the grapery must be built on well-drained land or elevated above the ground to permit the construction of a properly drained border4 ,border1 in the sense of its being a strip or a narrow bed just inside the house1 is now a misnomer1 though the name undoubtedly comes from the fact that narrow beds inside the house were at one time used in which to plant vines4 ,the border in a modern grapery now occupies all of the ground surface inside the house and may extend several feet outside the house4 ,much skill is required in building the border4 ,a good formula is3 ,six parts loamy turf from an old pasture2 one part of well-rotted cow manure2 one part of old plaster and one part of ground bone4 ,these ingredients are composted and if the work is well done will meet very well the soil and food requirements of the grape4 ,this formula can be varied according to soil conditions and somewhat in accordance with the variety planted4 ,unless natural drainage is well-nigh perfect1 the border must be under-drained with tile and in any case a layer of old brick or stone is needful to make certain that the drainage is perfect4 ,at least two feet1 better three feet1 of the border compost should be placed above the drainage material4 ,in a border made as described1 the grape finds ample root-run1 but not too much1 as in a surprisingly short time roots are found throughout all parts of this extensive border4 ,the care of the border is a matter of considerable moment and varies1 of course1 with those in charge4 ,the usual procedure is to spade the outside border1 if the border extends outside1 before winter1 after which it is covered with a coating of well-rotted manure1 without any particular attempt having been made to keep out the frost1 as a certain amount of freezing outside of the house is held to be beneficial4 ,the inside border must be spaded just before the vines are started in the spring1 having been covered previously with well-rotted manure4 ,the time at which the vines are to be started in growth is determined by whether an early or a late crop of grapes is wanted4 ,for an early crop1 the vines must be started early in ,february2 for a late crop1 a month or even two months later suffices4 ,so started1 the first crop of grapes comes on in ,june or ,july1 the later ones following in ,august or ,september4 ,it is related that ,napoleon ,i1 to secure saltpetre for making gunpowder1 composted filth1 dead animals1 urine and offal with alternate layers of turf and lime mortar1 and asserted that a nitre-bed is the very pattern of a vine-border and that when the materials have been turned over and over again for a year or two they are in exactly the proper state to yield either gunpowder or grapes4 ,napoleon's niter-bed is not now considered a good model for a grape-border1 as the fruit produced in so rich a soil1 though abundant1 is coarse and poorly flavored1 and the vines complete their own destruction by over-bearing4 ,gardeners hold that a grape-border may be too rich in plant-food1 especially too rich in nitrogen4 ,,varieties ,out of the #bjjj or more ,vinifera grapes1 probably not more than a score are grown under glass1 and of these but a half dozen are commonly grown4 ,black varieties have the preference for indoors1 especially if grown for the market1 where they bring the highest prices4 ,they are also as a rule more easily handled indoors than the white sorts4 ,however1 as we shall see1 one or two white kinds are indispensable in a house of any considerable size4 ,of black grapes1 ,black ,hamburg carries the palm of merit because it is most easily grown1 best stands neglect1 is a heavy producer1 sets its fruit well1 the grapes mature early2 and1 in particular1 it meets the requirements of the unskilled gardener better than any other grape4 ,the clusters are not as large and the flavor not as good as that of some other sorts4 ,muscat of ,alexandria is the best of the white varieties4 ,it is1 however1 a hard grape to handle since it requires a high temperature to bring it to perfection1 is a little shy in setting fruit and the grapes are not very certain in coming to maturity2 it also requires a long season4 ,a good quality is that it may be kept long after cutting1 much longer than ,black ,hamburg4 ,for an earlier white grape1 ,buckland ,sweetwater has much to recommend it2 it ripens from two to three weeks earlier than ,muscat of ,alexandria and is much more easily grown4 ,it is good in quality but not of high quality4 ,buckland ,sweetwater may be well grown in the house with ,black ,hamburg1 whereas it is almost impossible to grow ,muscat of ,alexandria in the same house with ,black ,hamburg4 ,muscat ,hamburg is a cross between ,black ,hamburg and ,muscat of ,alexandria1 and is an intermediate in most fruit characters between these two standard sorts4 ,it is not1 however1 very generally grown1 although it well deserves to be because of its large1 beautiful1 tapering clusters of black grapes of finest quality4 ,grizzly ,frontignan adds novelty to luxury in the list of indoor grapes4 ,the fruits are mottled pink in color1 deepening sometimes to a dark shade of pink1 and are borne in long1 slender clusters4 ,the grapes ripen early and are unsurpassed in quality but are1 all in all1 rather difficult to grow4 ,barbarossa and ,gros ,colman are the two best late black grapes1 especially for those who are ambitious to grow clusters of large size with large berries4 ,both are very good in quality4 ,neither of the two is particularly easy to grow1 since they require a long time to ripen2 but1 to offset this1 both keep longer than any other sorts after ripening4 ,because of the large size of the berries1 thinning must begin early and must be rather more severe than with other grapes4 ,this variety is now largely grown in ,england for exportation to this country in early spring4 ,white ,nice and ,syrian are two white sorts which attain largest size in clusters1 specimens weighing thirty pounds being not infrequent1 but are coarse and poor in quality and are1 therefore1 hardly worth growing4 ,alicante is a black sort often grown for the sake of variety1 since it departs from the ,vinifera type rather markedly in flavor4 ,the grapes have very thick skins and may be kept longer than those of any other variety4 ,lady ,downs is another late-keeping black grape of highest quality1 but difficult to grow4 ,the bunches and berries are small in comparison with other standard sorts1 characters that do not commend the variety to most gardeners4 ,perhaps a dozen more sorts might be named worthy of trial in ,american graperies1 but the list given covers the needs of commercial establishments and will meet the wants of most amateur growers4 ,,planting ,,and ,,training ,two-year-old vines are most commonly planted4 ,the vines are set inside the house at least a foot from the walls and four feet apart4 ,the grapery must be built on piers with spaces of at least two feet between1 and the vines are placed opposite these openings in the foundation4 ,when planted1 the vines are cut back to two or three buds1 and when these start the strongest are selected for training1 the others being rubbed off4 ,the grapery must be strung with wires running lengthwise of the house at about fifteen inches from the glass4 ,greenhouse supply merchants furnish at a low price cast iron brackets to be fastened to the rafters to hold these wires4 ,as the growing vines reach one wire after another1 they are tied with raffia to hold them in place4 ,usually1 young vines will reach the peak of the house by midsummer1 and as soon as this goal is attained must be pinched so that the cane may thicken up and store food in the lateral buds for the coming season4 ,when the wood is well matured1 the vine is cut back to half or one-third its length1 depending on the variety1 laid on the ground and covered for the winter4 ,an item of no small importance in winter care is to keep out mice1 this pest being inordinately fond of grape buds1 and once the buds are destroyed the vines are ruined for the coming season4 ,the second year's work is largely a repetition of that of the first4 ,the vines are permitted to reach the peak of the house and are again stopped by pinching4 ,a considerable number of laterals spring up on each side of the main vine1 and these must be thinned as they develop to stand at the distance apart of the wires to which they are fastened4 ,this is pre-supposing that the gardener has chosen the spur method of pruning1 the method generally used in ,america and the one1 all things considered1 which gives best results4 ,the selection of the laterals the second year1 therefore1 is a matter of much importance since spurs are to be developed from them4 ,care should be taken to have these spurs regularly distributed over the length of the vine4 ,this second year1 grapes must not be permitted to develop on the terminal shoots1 but a few clusters may be taken from the laterals in which case the laterals are pinched two buds beyond the cluster1 the pinching continuing throughout the season if the laterals persist in breaking1 as they will do in most cases4 ,at the end of the season1 the terminal is shortened at least one-half1 and the laterals are pinched back to a bud as close as possible to the main stem4 ,the vines are then put down for the winter as at the close of the first season4 ,the work of the third season is a repetition of that of the second1 with the exception that the vine is permitted to fruit throughout its whole length1 although not more than one pound of fruit to a foot of main vine is permitted4 ,the plants are now established and the only pruning in this and succeeding years is to cut the laterals at the close of each season close to the main stem1 leaving strong healthy buds of which at least one1 usually more1 will be found close to the stem4 ,if more than one bud starts1 only the strongest is chosen1 although often an extra one is needed to fill a vacancy on the opposite side4 ,after the third or fourth season1 depending somewhat on the variety1 two pounds of fruit or more to the foot of the main stem can be permitted4 ,the novice1 however1 is likely to permit his vines to overbear with the result that the crop is cast1 or the berries rattle1 or the fruit turns sour before ripening4 ,from the beginning to the finish of the season1 in this method of pruning1 much pinching of laterals is required4 ,no hard and fast rule can be laid down for this pinching1 but1 roughly speaking1 all new growth beyond the second joint from the cluster should be pinched out as fast as it shows4 ,with most varieties1 this means that the lateral is kept about eighteen inches from the main stem4 ,after a few years1 well-developed spurs form at the base of the original laterals1 and from these spurs the new wood comes year after year4 ,an alternative method of pruning is to permit the new canes to grow up from a bud near the ground each season4 ,when the vine is well established1 this new cane is fruited throughout its entire length1 the laterals being pinched as described under the spur method4 ,this method of pruning is known as the long cane method4 ,gardeners hold that they can grow better fruit with this than with the spur method1 but the difficulties are greater and the crop is not as large4 ,,care ,,of ,,the ,,vines ,with the cultivation of all varieties indoors1 more clusters set than the vines can carry4 ,this means that a part of the clusters must be removed1 an operation that depends on the variety and one that requires experience and judgment on the part of the gardener4 ,roughly speaking1 half the clusters are taken1 leaving the other half as evenly distributed on each side of the vine as possible4 ,the time to take these clusters is also a delicate matter1 since some sorts are shy in setting and the clusters must not be taken until the berries are formed and it can be seen how large the crop will be4 ,as a rule1 however1 this thinning of clusters may be begun as soon as the form of the cluster can be seen4 ,it is very necessary also1 especially with all sorts bearing large berries1 that grapes be thinned in the cluster4 ,the time to thin the cluster varies with the variety4 ,sorts which set fruit freely can be thinned sooner than those which are shy in setting4 ,on the one hand1 the thinning must not be done too soon as it cannot be told until the berries are of fair size which have set seed and which have not2 however1 if thinning is neglected too long1 the berries become over-crowded and the task becomes difficult4 ,the thinning is performed with slender scissors1 and the bunches must not be touched with the hand1 as touching impairs the bloom and disfigures the fruit4 ,the clusters are turned and steadied by a small piece of pencil-shaped wood4 ,thinning is practiced not only to permit the berries to attain their full size but also to permit the bunches to attain as great size as possible4 ,if too severely thinned1 the clusters flatten out after maturity4 ,this is especially the case when too many berries are taken from the center of the bunch4 ,a large cluster of grapes is made up of several small clusters1 making it necessary to tie up the upper clusters or shoulders of the bunch to permit the berries to swell without being thinned too severely4 ,grapes intended for long keeping require more thinning than those to be used at once after picking1 since1 in keeping1 the berries mold or damp-off in the center of the bunch if it is too compact4 ,the vines in the grapery must be watered with considerable care4 ,the amount of water to be used depends on the composition of the borders and the season of growth4 ,if the border is loose and well-drained1 the supply of water must be large2 if close and retentive1 but a small amount of moisture is required4 ,watering must not be done during the period of blossoming1 since dry air is necessary for proper pollination4 ,when the grapes begin to show color1 the vines are heavily watered1 after which little if any water is applied4 ,some gardeners mulch the vines with hay to retain the moisture in the house and keep the atmosphere dry4 ,ventilating the grapery is another important detail of the season's work4 ,proper ventilation is difficult to secure in the early spring months when the dryness of the sun on the one hand1 and cold air on the other1 make it difficult to avoid draughts and regulate the temperature4 ,another troublesome time is when the grapes begin to color1 as it is then necessary for the grapery to have air at night2 but when too much air enters1 there is danger from mildew4 ,towards the end of the season1 all parts of the plant become harder in texture and the grapery may then be more generously aired4 ,after the fruit is cut1 the houses are ventilated in full so that the wood may ripen properly4 ,,pests ,several pests vex the gardener in growing grapes indoors4 ,of these1 mealy-bug1 red-spider1 thrips and mildew are most troublesome4 ,in a well-conducted grapery1 there is never an intermission in the warfare against these pests4 ,mealy-bug is usually a sign of sloth on the part of the gardener4 ,in a grapery devoted exclusively to grape-growing1 it should never be seen1 but1 since gardeners must often grow other plants in the grapery1 mealy-bug sooner or later appears and is often hard to dislodge4 ,it is best repelled by removing the loose bark on the trunks which harbor the pest and then washing with kerosene emulsion4 ,when this becomes necessary1 not only the vines but the rafters and all parts of the house should be sprayed with the emulsion4 ,red-spider is another pest usually found in the grapery1 but it thrives only in a dry atmosphere and is easily gotten rid of by syringing4 ,as soon as red-spider appears in a house its appearance is usually known by the reddish tinge on the foliage2 syringing should be kept up until the pest is disposed of1 keeping the house damp in all except dull weather4 ,syringing is done only when plenty of air can be given and when it can be followed by sunlight so that the water remains on the vines as short a time as possible4 ,thrips1 another small insect1 is sometimes troublesome but not often and is now easily controlled by applications of nicotine4 ,much care must be taken in the application of nicotine late in the season1 otherwise the fruit will be injured4 ,the only fungous disease of the grape troublesome in the greenhouse is mildew4 ,mildew is usually brought on by a sudden change of temperature or by draughts in the grapery4 ,gardeners are of the opinion that east winds1 in particular1 give unfavorable conditions for mildew and prefer to open the ventilators to the west4 ,if taken in time1 mildew is easily kept in check by preventing the conditions which favor it1 and by dusting the vines in dry sunshine with sulfur4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xvi4--,elvira 7#b_/c74 ,,chapter ,,xii ,,grape ,,pests ,,and ,,their ,,control ,in common with other cultivated fruits1 grapes are at the mercy of numerous insect and fungous pests unless man intervenes with remedial or preventive treatment4 ,happily for viticulture1 knowledge of the pests of the vine has made such advancement in recent years that practically all are now controlled by remedial or preventive measures4 ,possibly no field of agriculture has had greater need1 or received greater aid from science in the study and control of insects and diseases than grape-growing4 ,a separate treatise would be required to treat the pathological troubles of the grape fully2 only such details of the life histories of the several pests to be discussed as are essential to a proper understanding of the control of the parasites can be given here4 ,,insect ,,pests ,insects troubling the grapes are numerous1 at least #bjj having been described in ,america1 most of which have their habitat on the wild prototypes of the cultivated vines of this continent4 ,for this reason1 with a few exceptions1 the insect pests of the grape in ,america are widely distributed1 abundant1 and1 therefore1 often very destructive to vineyards unless vigorously combated4 ,the many pestiferous species vary greatly in importance1 depending on locality1 weather and the variety4 ,phylloxera1 however1 the country over1 is most common and deserves first attention4 ,phylloxera4 ,this minute sucking insect 7,phylloxera vastatrix71 injures the grape by feeding on its roots4 ,decay usually follows its work on the roots and is often more injurious than the harm done directly by the parasite4 ,this decay is always much more serious on ,european vines than on those of our native species4 ,the phylloxera is a native of the ,united ,states east of the ,rocky ,mountains1 from whence it was introduced into ,france and from ,france into ,california1 where it causes much greater damage than elsewhere in the ,united ,states4 ,wherever the pest is found1 it is more injurious in heavy than in sandy soils4 ,in fact1 in very sandy soils the vines are often sufficiently resistant to be practically immune4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cf4 ,leaf-galls of the phylloxera4 ,the life history of the phylloxera is very complex where the different forms of the insect appear and need not be entered into in detail here4 ,east of the ,rockies1 the most evident indication of the presence of the pest is great numbers of leaf-galls on the under side of the leaves of the grape as shown in ,fig4 #cf4 ,these galls1 however1 are seldom to be seen in ,california and are not present on ,concords and some other varieties in the ,east4 ,the winter egg may be taken as the beginning of the life cycle of the phylloxera4 ,from a single winter egg a colony may arise1 the first insect after hatching making its way to the leaves where it becomes a gall-maker and gives rise to a new generation of egg-laying root-feeders4 ,on varieties and in regions where the gall form is not found1 the insect probably goes directly from the winter egg to the roots4 ,once the pest is established on the roots1 generation follows generation throughout the growing period of the vines1 as many as seven or eight occurring in one season4 ,from midsummer until the close of the growing season1 some of the eggs deposited by the root-feeders develop into nymphs which acquire wings and emerge from the soil to form new colonies from eggs deposited on the under side of the leaf4 ,an individual insect deposits from three to six eggs of two sizes1 from the larger of which come the females and these1 after fertilization1 move to the rough bark of the vine and deposit the winter egg for the renewal of the cycle4 ,several methods of control have been employed in ,europe and ,california1 as treatment by carbon bisulfide injected in the soil2 flooding in vineyards that can be irrigated2 confining the vines to sandy soils2 and1 most important1 planting vines grafted on resistant stocks1 there being great variation in immunity of species of ,american grapes to phylloxera4 ,the subject of stocks resistant to this pest has been discussed in ,chapter ,,iv and need not be taken up again4 ,east of the ,rockies1 treatment is not necessary with ,american grapes4 ,the grape root-worm4 ,the grape root-worm is the most harmful of the insect pests of grapes in the grape-belt along the shores of ,lake ,erie in ,ohio1 ,pennsylvania and ,new ,york4 ,this root-worm 7,fig4 #cg7 is the larva of a grayish-brown beetle 7,fidia viticida71 shown in ,fig4 #ch4 ,the worms feed at first on the rootlets and later on the bark of the larger roots of the vines so that the injured plants show roots devoid of rootlets and bark channeled by the pest4 ,so plain is the work of the root-worm that the grower never need be at a loss as to the cause of vines injured by this pest4 ,the worms feed during the latter part of the growing season1 reaching full growth at this time4 ,the next ,june they transform into pup and in late ,june or early ,july emerge as adult beetles4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cg4 ,the grape root-worm4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ch4 ,root-worm beetle4 ,the presence of the adult beetles is more easily detected on the foliage than is that of the larv on the roots1 for the feeding beetles ravenously devour the upper sides of the leaves1 leaving chain-like markings1 shown in ,fig4 #ci1 their destructiveness decreasing somewhat after a few days from their first appearance4 ,a fortnight after the beetles begin their attack on the foliage the female begins laying her eggs1 to the number of #bjj1 placing them under the rough bark of trunk and cane4 ,these hatch in late ,july or ,august and the young grubs at once seek the roots4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ci4 ,injuries caused by beetles of the grape root-worm4 ,two methods of control have been devised3 destruction of the beetles before they lay their eggs2 and destruction of the pup while in the ground4 ,when the beetles are present in large numbers1 many of them may be destroyed by spraying with a mixture of cheap molasses and arsenate of lead1 using molasses at the rate of two gallons to a hundred gallons of water and the arsenate of lead at the rate of six pounds4 ,this should be followed by a second spraying a week later1 using bordeaux mixture 7#d-d-ej7 and three pounds of arsenate of lead4 ,this second spray serves to repel migrating beetles from the vines4 ,the molasses spray is ineffective unless several days of fair weather follow the spraying1 as rain washes the material from the foliage4 ,bordeaux mixture is not easily affected by rain4 ,in moderately infested vineyards1 bordeaux mixture and arsenate are used instead of molasses and arsenate of lead1 followed in about ten days with a second application of the same material4 ,an effective method of reducing the number of beetles is the destruction of the pup4 ,this is best done by leaving a low ridge of earth under the vines at the last seasonal cultivation to remain until most of the larv have pupated1 and then be leveled with a horse-hoe and later with a harrow4 ,the horse-hoe and harrow crush many of the pup and break the cells of others to the great destruction of the pest4 ,this latter method of control is not adequate in itself and in bad infestations both should be used4 ,when the infestation is only moderate1 this latter method is not advised1 owing to the lateness of the time of horse-hoeing4 ,it is good horticultural practice to horse-hoe the latter part of ,may or early ,june4 ,to wait for the pupal stage of the root-worm delays the work until numerous small roots start which would be destroyed by the horse-hoe4 ,spraying will control a moderate infestation4 ,the grape-vine flea-beetle4 ,in the warm days of ,may and ,june when the buds of grapes are swelling1 a shining steel-blue beetle may often be found in the vineyards of eastern ,america feeding on the tender buds of the grape4 ,from its color the insect is often called the steely-beetle1 and from its activity and habit of jumping it is known as the flea-beetle 7,haltica chalybea74 ,the vine is seldom seriously injured by this pest but many buds are destroyed1 causing the loss of the fruit that should have developed from the buds4 ,it is true that new buds often develop after the injury1 but these1 as a rule1 produce only foliage4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dj4 ,eggs of grape-vine flea-beetle4 ,the life history of the flea-beetle is such that the pest is not hard to control1 the chief steps in its development being as follows3 ,the beetles deposit small orange-colored eggs1 cylindrical in form1 illustrated in ,fig4 #dj1 about the buds and in crevices of the bark of the canes in ,may or ,june4 ,most of these eggs are hatched by the middle of ,june4 ,the larv feed upon the foliage until about ,july first and then crawl to the ground in which they form cells and pupate4 ,the latter part of ,july the adults emerge and seek wild vines upon which they feed1 entering hibernation rather early in the fall4 ,the beetles hibernate under leaves1 in rubbish and in the shelter of the bark of trees and vines1 but emerge in the warm days the following spring to seek vineyards4 ,two methods of control have been developed to keep this pest under4 ,the vines should be sprayed with three pounds of arsenate of lead in fifty gallons of water when the larv are feeding on the foliage2 or the beetles when feeding may be knocked into a pan containing a shallow layer of kerosene4 ,the former is the cheaper and more effective method provided the grape-grower has the foresight to discover the larv1 since the larv of this summer produce the beetles that will destroy the buds next spring4 ,when the adults migrate from wild vines1 or the larv were not destroyed in the vineyard1 collecting the adults is the only practical method4 ,the destruction of wild vines near a vineyard helps to give immunity from this pest4 ,the rose-chafer4 ,the rose-chafer 7,macrodactylus subspinosus71 a long-legged beetle of a yellowish-brown color1 about a third of an inch in length1 often appears in vineyards in vast swarms toward the middle of ,june in northern states and about two weeks earlier in southern states east of the ,rocky ,mountains4 ,often they overrun gardens1 orchards1 vineyards and nurseries1 and usually1 after having done a vast amount of damage in the month of their devastating presence1 the beetles disappear as suddenly as they came4 ,vineyards on or near sandy soils are most often infested1 the larv of the beetle seeming to live in considerable numbers only in these light soils4 ,the chief damage to the grape is done to the blossom2 in fact the insects1 after feeding on the blossoms during the blossoming period1 usually migrate to blossoms of any one of several shrubs4 ,the larv feed on the roots of grasses1 having particular liking for the roots of foxtail1 timothy and blue-grass4 ,some knowledge of the life history of these beetles is essential to effective control4 ,the beetles emerge as adults in ,june and after feeding a short time begin to mate1 although egg-laying does not take place until the insects have been out for a fortnight or more4 ,the females burrow into the soil and deposit their eggs1 seldom more than twenty-five in number1 which begin to hatch in about ten days4 ,the young larv feed during the remainder of the summer on roots of grasses4 ,they are seldom found deeper than six inches while feeding1 but as cold weather approaches they burrow deeper to avoid sudden changes of temperature4 ,the following spring they again come near the surface to feed4 ,the grubs form cells from which the pup emerge1 as we have seen1 about the middle of ,june1 timing their appearance very closely to the blossoming of ,concord grapes4 ,the methods of control are three1 namely3 destruction of the larv2 cultivation to kill the pup2 and spraying to kill the beetles4 ,since the larv feed on the roots of grasses in sandy soils1 it is easy to locate the feeding ground of the pest and plant it to cultivated crops which destroy the grasses and therefore the larv4 ,the second method of destruction is similar1 consisting of cultivation to kill the pup4 ,this is accomplished by thorough cultivation during the pupating stage to break the cells and crush the pup1 thus preventing the emergence of the beetles4 ,the third method1 however1 is the most effective and consists of spraying the vineyard with a sweetened arsenical spray4 ,the spraying should be done as soon as the beetles appear1 using arsenate of lead six pounds1 molasses one gallon and water one hundred gallons4 ,it is often necessary to make a second application a week later4 ,if rain occurs within thirty-six hours after spraying1 the application should be repeated as soon as the weather clears4 ,the grape leaf-hopper4 ,from ,canada to the ,gulf and from the ,atlantic to the ,pacific1 wherever the grape is grown1 the small leaf-hopper 7,typhlocyba comes7 infests the grape in greater or less numbers1 feeding on the lower surface of the leaf4 ,grape-growers commonly call these insects thrips1 a name1 however1 which really belongs to a very different class of insects4 ,the injury done by this pest varies greatly with the season and the locality1 in some regions it being comparatively harmless and in others exceedingly destructive in seasons when it occurs in abundance4 ,there is great variation also in individual vineyards1 those near favorable hibernating places and early spring food plants often being injured seriously season after season in succession4 ,these leaf-hoppers obtain their food by piercing the epidermis on the under side of the leaf surface and sucking the sap1 and add further injury by inserting their eggs underneath the skin of the leaf4 ,the punctures greatly decrease the starch-producing area of the leaf with the result that the vigor of the plant is lowered1 and the quality of the fruit decreased4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #da4 ,first four stages of the grape leaf-hopper4 7,enlarged47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #db4 ,the fifth and the mature stages of the grape leaf-hopper4 7,enlarged47 ,the life history of the leaf-hopper is very well known4 ,the eggs are deposited in ,june or early ,july1 and hatch from ,june #ae to ,july #aj in ,new ,york1 the season being earlier or later as one goes south or north4 ,the young leaf-hoppers are wingless1 the nymph stage1 but reach the adult stage in late ,july and ,august1 at which time many of them mate1 and eggs are laid from which a second brood may develop1 although usually only one full brood is produced in a season in the northern states4 ,figures #da and #db show the several life stages of the leaf-hopper4 ,insects which become adults in the latter part of ,july feed on the foliage until autumn and then seek winter quarters1 passing the winter in the adult stage under fallen leaves1 in dead grass or other similar protection4 ,the hibernating place must be dry and for this reason sandy knolls are most favored by the insects4 ,the adults emerge in the warm days of spring and then seek food first on the strawberry1 then migrate to red and black raspberries or blackberries1 if raspberries are not present4 ,they remain upon these hosts until the grape leaves expand and then migrate to these to feed1 lay their eggs and die4 ,three methods of control are in use to prevent the ravages of the leaf-hopper3 avoiding the planting of raspberries near grapes2 spraying with contact insecticides2 and the destruction of hibernating places4 ,since the leaf-hoppers feed especially on the raspberry before the leaves of the grape have expanded in the spring1 avoiding planting these two plants near each other is a very effective method of control4 ,the contact spray must touch the body of the insect and must1 therefore1 be applied before the nymphs develop wings4 ,the best spray is a half pint of ,black ,leaf #dj to a hundred gallons of water or bordeaux mixture4 ,it is applied to the under side of the foliage by a trailing hose or by an automatic grape leaf-hopper spray devised by ,f4 ,z4 ,hartzell and described in bulletin #cdd of the ,new ,york ,experiment ,station4 ,the destruction of hibernating places is almost as effective a method of control as spraying4 ,all weeds and strong-stalked grasses which die in the fall and all rubbish in the vineyard should be destroyed4 ,it is quite worth while1 also1 to burn leaves and rubbish in fence rows and waste places near infested vineyards in the autumn or early winter4 ,cover-crops which remain green during the winter do not harbor the leaf-hoppers4 ,the grape-berry moth4 ,this pest is widely distributed1 attacking the grape wherever grown in ,north ,america4 ,the insect feeds on all varieties but is especially destructive to grapes with tender skins and such as grow in compact bunches4 ,its work is detected usually in compact grape clusters where a number of berries are injured by a worm4 ,the worm is a dark-colored caterpillar1 the larva of the grape-berry moth 7,polychrosis viteana47 ,there are two broods of this caterpillar1 the first of which feeds on the stems and external portions of the young berries1 while the second attacks the berries4 ,the loss to the fruit-grower is of two kinds1 the loss of the fruit and the marring of clusters which entails the cost of picking out worthless berries4 ,figure #dc shows the work of the grape-berry moth4 ,the damage is usually greatest near woodlands since the trees cause more snow to lodge in the adjoining vineyards1 this protection permitting a greater percentage of pup to survive4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dc4 ,a bunch of grapes despoiled by the grape-berry moth4 ,the moth passes the winter in the pupal state on leaves underneath the vine1 emerging about the time grapes are blossoming4 ,the sexes then mate and the eggs are laid on the stems1 blossom clusters and newly set fruit4 ,after reaching full growth1 the caterpillars cut out a portion of the leaf from which they make a pupal case by means of silken threads1 and here pupate for the second brood which emerges in late ,july and ,august4 ,eggs are laid at once and from these come the caterpillars which live entirely in the berry4 ,the larv leave the berries about the time the fruit is ripe1 form cocoons on the leaves and hibernate4 ,the moths are small1 brown in color1 mottled with gray and so much the color of the grape cane that they can hardly be detected when resting on the wood4 ,the grape-berry moth is difficult to control but much can be done to curtail its ravages4 ,spraying after the fruit sets is the most effective preventive4 ,bordeaux mixture should be used 7#d-d-ej7 to which has been added one and one-half pounds of resin-fish-oil soap and three pounds arsenate of lead4 ,a second application of the same spray is advisable in early ,august4 ,in a small vineyard or with a slight infestation1 it often pays to pick and destroy the berries infested by the spring brood4 ,plowing infested vineyards in late fall or early spring to bury all leaves prevents the emergence of many of the moths4 ,to be effective1 this practice must cover the leaves deeply directly under the vines and this earth must remain until after the time for the adults to emerge4 ,plowing under leaves is not as effective on sandy as on heavy soils1 since sandy soils do not become sufficiently compact to prevent the escape of moths4 ,insect pests of minor importance4 ,of the #bjj species of insects that feed more or less on the grape1 entomologists mention several others than those described that in occasional years or localities become abundant and cause serious injury4 ,thus1 there are several species of cut-worms which sometimes feed on the expanding buds of the young leaves of grapes4 ,the damage of these cut-worms to the grape is greater in ,california than in other parts of the ,united ,states1 but nevertheless they occasionally feed on the vines in eastern regions to the detriment of the crop4 ,the most satisfactory control measure for cut-worms is the application of poisoned bait placed on the ground at the base of the vines4 ,in ,california there is a grape root-worm 7,adoxus obscurus7 quite distinct from the grape root-worm of eastern ,america which injures both the roots and the parts of the vine above ground4 ,as in the eastern species1 the best evidence of infestation of this pest is the narrow chain-like strips eaten out of the leaves1 though the insect also gouges out part of the petioles1 pedicels1 berries and shoots and works under ground1 eating the rootlets and bark of the larger roots4 ,infested vines show a stunted condition1 the canes fail to attain a normal growth and often the vines are killed outright4 ,as in the case of the eastern species1 this root-worm is the larva of a beetle1 the life history of the insect not being greatly different from that of the eastern beetle4 ,two methods of control are fairly effective3 the adult beetles may be jarred from the vine and captured on a screen when the infestation is restricted to small areas2 or the beetles may be poisoned with the arsenical spray recommended for the eastern species4 ,both jarring and spraying often have to be repeated as new infestations appear4 ,the grape leaf-folder 7,desmia funeralis7 is another insect pest of vineyards in ,california1 and occasionally in the ,east1 which works1 however1 only in restricted localities and in occasional years4 ,in ,california1 the insects are detected in a vineyard by the characteristic rolling of the leaves in which a tube rather less than the diameter of a lead pencil is formed for the home of the larv4 ,the larv feed on the free edge of the leaf in the interior of the roll and are thus protected by the outer layers4 ,in the ,east the caterpillar merely folds the edges of the leaves together4 ,this leaf-folder hibernates as a chrysalis1 coming forth in early spring to lay eggs on the vine shortly after the foliage has appeared4 ,there are two broods in ,california and the northern states and three broods in the southern states4 ,the leaf-folder is easily disposed of by spraying with an arsenical spray just after the eggs hatch and before the larva is protected by its roll of leaves4 ,still another pest found throughout the ,united ,states and especially destructive in ,california is the hawk-moth 7,pholus achemon71 the larv of which occasionally do serious damage to small areas of vines4 ,these larv are very similar to the large worms1 familiar to all1 which attack the tomato and tobacco4 ,the insect hibernates in the pupal state in the ground where it may be distinguished as a large cylindrical object of dark brown color4 ,the moths emerge about the middle of ,may and deposit their eggs on the leaves of the grape1 upon which the larv when hatched immediately begin to feed4 ,there are several species of these hawk-moths1 all of which have essentially the same life history4 ,it is not a difficult pest to control since the larv are easily killed with arsenical sprays2 or if there are but occasional specimens they may be picked by hand4 ,there are several species of the hawk-moth which attack the grape but this is the common one4 ,in eastern grape-growing regions1 there are two other destructive grape insects widely distributed1 but each noteworthy as pests only in the ,appalachian region of ,west ,virginia and neighboring states4 ,one is the grape-curculio 7,craponius inqualis71 not essentially different from the familiar curculio of the plum and cherry4 ,this snout-beetle feeds freely on the upper surface of the leaves and the bark of fruit stems1 and the female in laying eggs devours the tissues of the grapes in excavating her egg chamber4 ,the grape-curculio is effectively destroyed by spraying with an arsenical spray in the spring as the beetles appear on the vines and before egg-laying begins4 ,another insect pest of this region is the grape-vine root-borer 7,memythrus polistiformis7 closely allied to the peach-borer1 known by all fruit-growers and the squash-vine borer known to the growers of vegetables4 ,this borer is the larva of a moth and is a whitish grub with a brown head which1 when fully grown1 is about one and three-quarters inches in length4 ,the body is slender1 distinctly segmented and has a sparse covering of short1 stiff hairs4 ,these larv burrow into the grape-root1 at first confining themselves to the softer portions of the bark1 often encircling the root several times1 but later bore with the grain of the wood and by the end of the season so destroy the roots as to leave only the thin membrane of the outer bark intact4 ,this pest is difficult to deal with4 ,the borers cannot be removed by worming as in the peach1 and neither can the roots be protected by sprays or washes4 ,no one variety of the grape seems more immune than another4 ,thorough cultivation in the months of ,june and ,july to destroy the insects while in their cocoons at the surface of the ground seems to be the only method of stopping their ravages1 and this is not always effective4 ,,fungous ,,diseases ,,of ,,the ,,grape ,the grape is ravaged by four or five fungous diseases in ,america1 unless the utmost vigilance is exercised to keep the parasites in check4 ,happily for commercial viticulture1 there are regions1 as we have seen in the description of grape regions in ,chapter ,i1 so fortunate in their freedom from fungous diseases that there is little uncertainty in grape-growing and but small expense in controlling diseases4 ,also modern science has discovered the life history of all the important diseases and devised fairly effective means of combating them4 ,all of the fungous parasites of the grape in ,america are indigenous1 having long subsisted on wild vines4 ,they are1 therefore1 all widely distributed1 and as cultivation has presented to them great numbers of grape plants in continuous areas1 the diseases have increased rapidly in intensity1 at times have swept like wildfire through grape regions devastating and utterly ruining great areas of vines4 ,means1 however1 are now at hand in remedial and preventive treatment1 which1 while because of cost may not permit the grapes to be grown profitably in all parts of ,america1 do permit their culture for home use in practically all agricultural districts in the country4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xvii4--,empire ,state 7#b_/c74 ,black-rot4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dd4 ,work of black-rot of the grape4 ,this is the most widely distributed and the most destructive fungous disease of the grape in the region east of the ,rocky ,mountains4 ,fortunately1 it is unknown on the ,pacific coast4 ,the disease is caused by a parasitic fungus 7,guignardia ,bidwellii7 which gains entrance to the grape plant by means of minute spores distributed chiefly by wind and rain4 ,black-rot passes the winter in mummied grapes1 on dead tendrils or on small1 dead areas on the canes4 ,in the spring1 the fungus spreads from these spots to the leaves and forms brown leaf spots about a fourth of an inch in diameter1 or oblong1 black spots on the shoots1 leaves1 petioles and tendrils4 ,later the disease spreads to the fruits1 not usually attracting attention until the berries are at least half grown4 ,soon after the ravages of the fungus become apparent on the berries1 the fruits turn black1 shrivel and become covered with minute black pustules which contain the summer-spores4 ,figure #dd shows the work of black-rot4 ,in the winter and spring1 another form called the winter- or resting-spore is produced upon these old1 shriveled1 mummied berries1 and these carry the disease over from one season to another4 ,since the disease is carried through the winter in mummied fruits and diseased wood1 the desirability of destroying these mummied grapes and the leaves and prunings of infected vines as soon as possible is apparent4 ,this treatment1 however1 is not sufficient1 and the disease can be effectually controlled only by thorough spraying with bordeaux mixture 7#d-d-ej74 ,the first application should be made just before the grape blossoms2 the second1 shortly after blossoming4 ,the amount of material applied matters less than evenness in distribution and fineness of the spray as applied4 ,in rainy seasons1 perhaps a third or a fourth application should be made in regions where the disease is serious2 the third is made when the berries are the size of a pea2 the fourth1 as the berries become large enough to touch each other4 ,downy-mildew4 ,downy-mildew 7,plasmopara viticola7 rivals black-rot for first place among fungous diseases of the grape4 ,it is found in all grape regions east of the ,rocky ,mountains but does most harm in northern localities4 ,like black-rot1 downy-mildew attacks all the tender growing parts of the vine1 but is chiefly found on the foliage and is usually less destructive than black-rot4 ,as first seen on the foliage1 the work of the fungus appears as greenish-yellow1 irregular spots upon the upper surface which later become reddish-brown4 ,at the same time on the under surface of the leaf1 a thin1 white downy growth puts forth4 ,the spores of the fungus are produced on this downy growth1 and under favorable conditions are distributed by wind and water to all tender parts of the vine1 where they germinate and begin their work of destruction4 ,the fruit is attacked when partly grown1 as shown in ,fig4 #de1 becoming covered with the gray down of the fungus1 the gray-rot of the grape-grower4 ,if the berries escape the disease until half grown1 the fungus causes a brownish-purple spot that soon covers the whole grape1 giving the disease at this stage the name of brown-rot4 ,besides the summer-spores1 another form of reproductive bodies is produced in the winter to carry the fungus through the resting period4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #de4 ,grapes attacked by downy-mildew4 ,downy-mildew1 like black-rot1 spreads most rapidly and does most injury in hot1 wet weather4 ,as with practically all diseases of the grape1 much can be accomplished in the way of control of the disease by destroying infested leaves1 shoots and berries which contain the winter spores1 but these sanitary measures are not sufficiently effective and vineyards must be sprayed as recommended for black-rot1 except that the first application should be made before the blossom-buds appear4 ,powdery-mildew4 ,less troublesome than downy-mildew in the ,east1 powdery-mildew 7,uncinula necator71 unless checked1 is capable of destroying the entire crop of ,european grapes on the ,pacific slope4 ,in the ,east it sometimes causes great loss on the several varieties known as ,rogers hybrids and1 curiously enough1 is often a rather serious disease of the ,concord4 ,the disease is caused by a superficial fungus which passes the winter on fallen leaves and also on the canes4 ,the spores begin to germinate a few weeks after the grape blossoms1 but the disease is not often found until the grapes are nearly half grown4 ,the fine white filaments of the fungus1 which constitute the vegetative portion of the parasite1 then attack the leaves1 shoots and fruit1 sending up short irregular branches on which great numbers of spores are borne4 ,these give the upper surface of the leaf a gray1 powdery appearance1 hence the name4 ,eventually the diseased leaves become light brown and if the disease is severe1 soon fall4 ,infected berries take on a gray1 scurfy appearance1 speckled with brown1 are checked in growth and often burst on one side1 exposing the seeds4 ,the berries1 however1 do not become soft and shrunken as when attacked by the downy-mildew4 ,the disease passes the winter in resting-spores produced late in the growing season4 ,powdery-mildew differs from other fungous diseases of the grape in being more prevalent in hot1 dry seasons than in cold1 wet ones4 ,in eastern ,america powdery-mildew is controlled by the treatment recommended for black-rot4 ,when black-rot is not prevalent1 two sprays with bordeaux mixture are recommended2 the first in early ,july and the second about two weeks later4 ,on the ,pacific coast1 however1 powdery-mildew or odium as it is often called there1 the name coming from ,europe1 is more cheaply and more successfully combated by dusting with flowers of sulfur4 ,dusting is often done by hand or with perforated cans but this is wasteful and uncertain1 and any one of several sulfur-sprayers may be used which does the work better4 ,anthracnose4 ,another widespread disease is anthracnose 7,sphaceloma ampelinum71 called birds-eye-rot because of the peculiar spots produced on the affected fruits1 which attacks leaves1 shoots and fruits of the vine4 ,it first appears on the leaves in small1 irregular1 dark brown sunken spots with a dark margin4 ,later it appears on the fruits1 having much the same appearance though the spots are usually larger and more sunken1 the disease being most characteristic on the fruit1 however4 ,frequently two or more spots unite and so cover the greater part of the berry4 ,the fruits become hard1 more or less wrinkled1 and the diseased area often ruptures1 exposing the seed1 much as with powdery-mildew4 ,the spores of the fungus are produced in great numbers on diseased areas during the growing season and are borne on thread-like filaments which live throughout the winter in the tissues of the vine and are ready for new growth in the spring4 ,winter-spores have not yet been discovered4 ,anthracnose is widely distributed in eastern ,america but seldom causes great or general loss1 most of the commercial grapes being relatively immune to the disease4 ,a few sorts rather commonly grown in home vineyards1 as ,diamond1 ,brighton and ,agawam1 suffer most from anthracnose4 ,spraying with bordeaux mixture1 as recommended for black-rot1 is usually sufficient to keep the disease in check4 ,dead-arm disease4 ,a troublesome disease of recent appearance is now doing considerable damage in the ,chautauqua grape-belt along the shores of ,lake ,erie1 being most common on the ,concord4 ,from the fact that it is usually found on one arm of the vine it is called dead-arm disease 7,cryptosporella viticola47 ,the disease is caused by a fungus which passes the winter in small1 black fruiting bodies in the dead parts of the vine4 ,early in the spring the fungus spreads by means of spores to the young shoots and later in the season attacks mature berries1 producing small1 black1 oblong spots of black-rot4 ,sooner or later1 if the diseased shoot is not cut off1 the fungus spreads to the arms or trunk of the vine1 producing a slow1 dry rot which eventually kills the affected part4 ,fortunately1 the presence of the disease is quickly detected by small yellowish leaves1 much crimped about the margin4 ,the fungus is easily controlled by marking the diseased arms when the first symptoms appear and cutting these off at pruning time4 ,if the vine is much mutilated by such pruning1 usually suckers can be brought up from beneath the surface of the ground to renew the vine4 ,the applications of bordeaux mixture recommended for black-rot are valuable in preventing the dead-arm disease4 ,the disease is largely prevented by renewing the old wood of the vine as soon as the trunk begins to show a gnarled appearance4 ,shelling4 ,in eastern ,america1 especially in the ,chautauqua grape-belt1 grape-growers not infrequently lose a large part of the crop by the premature falling of the grapes from the stems4 ,the trouble is an ancient one and is designated as shelling or rattling4 ,this premature dropping usually begins at the end of a cluster1 and clusters farthest from the trunk are earliest affected4 ,when vineyards suffer badly from this shelling1 the vines often take on a sickly appearance1 the foliage falling off in color and the outer margins of the leaves drying up more or less4 ,the fallen fruit has an insipid taste and is1 of course1 worthless even if it could be harvested4 ,the cause of the trouble is not known4 ,grapes may rattle on high land or low land1 on poor soil or rich soil1 on heavy or light soil4 ,a vineyard may be affected one year and not the next4 ,grape-growers usually attribute the trouble to faulty nutrition1 but applications of fertilizers have not proved a preventive4 ,old and well-established vineyards seem freer from the trouble than new and poorly established plantings4 ,the most reasonable theory as to the cause of shelling is that it comes from faulty nutrition of the vine1 but the conditions so affecting the nutrition are not yet satisfactorily determined4 ,diseases of minor importance4 ,ripe-rot or bitter-rot 7,glomerella rufomaculans7 is a disease due to the same fungus causing the bitter-rot of the apple4 ,as the name indicates1 the disease usually appears on the fruit at ripening time and under favorable conditions continues after the grapes are picked4 ,it may also attack the leaves and stems4 ,the first indication of the fungus is the appearance of reddish-brown spots which spread and eventually cover the whole fruit4 ,the berries do not shrivel1 but the rotted surface becomes dotted with pustules in which the spores are borne4 ,it is hard to tell how much damage this disease does1 but it is not usually great and the late applications of bordeaux mixture for black-rot or powdery-mildew are very effective in controlling it4 ,crown-gall1 now known to be a bacterial disease which causes knots or galls on the roots of various wild and cultivated plants1 sometimes attacks grape roots or even the vines above ground4 ,occasionally1 the disease is rather serious1 but it is not often to be reckoned with in the vineyard regions of ,america4 ,fungicides are useless in combating the disease and all that can be done is to exercise great care in planting infected stock4 ,it is doubtful whether crown-gall ever seriously injures vines in northern regions1 although it may occasionally do so in the ,south4 ,in ,california there is a somewhat mysterious disease known as ,anaheim disease1 because of its having first made its appearance in the vicinity of ,anaheim4 ,as near as can be learned1 the disease first appeared in #ahhd and then spread rapidly from forty to fifty miles from the point where it began its ravages1 causing direct and indirect loss of many millions of dollars1 and leading to the abandonment of grape-growing in some parts of southern ,california4 ,fortunately1 in recent years the ,anaheim disease is less aggressive but still does more or less damage4 ,the nature and the treatment of this disease are not as yet fully determined1 although several experimenters are studying the trouble4 ,californians whose vineyards suffer from this disease should apply to the experiment station at ,berkeley for the latest information in regard to it4 ,coulure is another trouble of the vine in ,california of which little is yet known1 either as to cause or treatment4 ,the term signifies the failure of the fruit to set or to remain on the clusters4 ,the trouble occurs in varying degrees from the loss of a few berries to the complete shelling of the fruit from the stem4 ,it is worse in some localities than others and in some varieties than others4 ,various causes have been assigned to the disease1 chief of which1 and most probable1 are unfavorable climatic conditions4 ,,control ,,of ,,insects ,,and ,,diseases ,from the number of insects and diseases found on the grape1 it would seem that1 literally1 pestilence walketh in darkness and destruction wasteth at noonday in the vineyards of the country4 ,but not many of the ills that grape-flesh is heir to are ever found in one region1 and the vineyard is seldom attacked by many diseases or insects in a single season4 ,there was a time1 as we have said before1 when grape-growers were so beset by pests which they could not control1 that viticulture was one of the most uncertain fields in agriculture4 ,but one brilliant discovery after another has brought the pests of the grape under the hand of man until now there are but few that need cause much expense in treatment or worry as to the outcome4 ,plants cannot be attacked by diseases unless infection is permitted4 ,it follows that by proper sanitation most of the insect pests of the vine can be kept out of the vineyard4 ,vineyard sanitation4 ,by changing or modifying environment1 immunity can be secured from many of the pests of the grape and damage may be reduced with most if not all4 ,cultivation1 as has been noted under several insect pests and one or two of the diseases of the grape1 is an effective method of eliminating grape pests4 ,in the case of insects1 it destroys the insects themselves and the hibernating places as well4 ,the vineyard should never be kept in sod1 but always under thorough and frequent cultivation4 ,vineyard sanitation is greatly improved1 also1 if cover-crops which remain green during the winter are planted after the last cultivation4 ,cultivation should usually be preceded by deep plowing in the fall or spring to turn under fallen leaves and weeds or grass in which hibernating insects may pass the winter4 ,the surroundings of the vineyard should be looked after4 ,fence-rows and waste lands which cannot be cultivated may often be burned over to destroy the hibernating places of grape insects4 ,as a rule1 it is unwise to plant the bramble berries or even strawberries in vineyards1 or adjoining vineyards1 since these plants afford hibernating places and food plants for some of the grape insects1 especially the destructive leaf-hopper4 ,lastly1 precaution should be taken by destroying all wild grape-vines near vineyards1 as these frequently harbor insects and diseases1 the flea-beetle finding the wild grape-vine almost a necessity to its existence4 ,spraying4 ,definite rules cannot be laid down for spraying vineyards the country over4 ,the literature on this subject is plentiful in any state in which grapes are largely grown1 within the reach of the grape-grower1 and is not difficult to understand once it is in hand4 ,every grape-grower should secure and study the publications of the state experiment stations having to do with the control of insects and diseases4 ,the number of applications and the sprays to be used vary greatly in different parts of ,america4 ,on the ,pacific slope the only application yearly required in most vineyard regions is dusting with flowers of sulfur for powdery-mildew4 ,several other pests may1 however1 from year to year1 or in one locality or another1 require special treatment4 ,in the grape regions of ,new ,york1 many grape-growers do not spray at all1 but these are usually slovens or procrastinators whose profits are small and uncertain4 ,in the grape regions of the northeastern states1 orderly vineyardists spray at least once with bordeaux mixture 7#d-d-ej7 in which is put three pounds of arsenate of lead1 no matter how few insects and fungi are present4 ,this treatment is given soon after the blossoms fall4 ,in more southern regions it may be necessary to make a similar treatment soon after the first leaves appear1 again after the blossoms fall and every two weeks thereafter until the grapes begin to turn in color1 making as many as four1 five or even six applications in all4 ,to these regular applications of bordeaux mixture and arsenate of lead1 contact insecticides1 as some of the nicotine preparations1 may have to be added2 or1 for special purposes as specified in discussing the several pests1 cheap molasses is added4 ,it is doubtful1 however1 whether the grape can be grown with commercial success where insects and fungi prevail and are so pestiferous as to require annually more than two or three applications of spraying mixtures4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xviii4--,herbert 7#b_/c74 ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,marketing ,,the ,,crops ,,and ,,vineyard ,,returns ,viticulture1 as all divisions of agriculture1 is made up of two quite distinct phases of activity3 growing the crop and marketing the crop4 ,the subjects to be treated in this and the next chapter belong rather more to marketing than to cultural activities4 ,treated in detail1 these operations constitute matter sufficient for a separate treatise1 and only an outline of present practices is in place in a text such as this devoted to the culture of the fruit4 ,the several operations to be discussed are picking1 packing1 storing1 shipping and marketing4 ,,harvesting ,,in ,,the ,,east ,,and ,,north ,as the consummation of the care of the vine1 the in-gathering of the crop is celebrated in all ,european countries with rejoicings in song1 dance and mirth4 ,in ,america the vintage is less of an event than in ,europe1 but it is more picturesque and diverting than the harvest of most other crops4 ,it is work in which youth and old age1 as well as those in the prime of life in both sexes1 can take part and is reputed as a most healthful occupation4 ,for these reasons1 the grape harvest in ,america1 as in ,europe1 has somewhat the air of a holiday1 so that workers are usually readily found for the several operations of harvesting4 ,laborers come as grapes begin to ripen from near-by cities and towns and neighboring country-sides in such numbers that the care of the crop is speedily accomplished4 ,pickers4 ,as a rule1 pickers are hired by the piece rather than by the day1 experience having demonstrated that so paid they do more and better work4 ,there is usually much diversity in race1 age and condition of life of pickers so that harmonious and efficient work is scarcely possible without a competent foreman in charge who must often be assisted by a sub-foreman4 ,efficient supervision doubles the picking capacity of a gang of workers1 and1 moreover1 is necessary to see that the fruit is picked and packed with proper care4 ,in hiring pickers1 it is usually stipulated that a part of the pay is to be reserved until the close of the season2 otherwise those disposed to have a holiday leave when the weather becomes unpleasant or seek greener pastures when the grapes become scarce4 ,time to pick4 ,unlike some fruits1 grapes must not be picked until they are fully ripe1 as unripe grapes do not mature after picking4 ,grapes not matured lack the necessary percentage of sugar and solids to keep well and have not developed their full flavor4 ,many growers make the mistake of sending grapes to the market before fully ripe1 a mistake easily made with some varieties because they acquire full color before full maturity4 ,color1 therefore1 is not a good guide as to the time to pick4 ,in the northern and eastern states1 late varieties of grapes may be allowed to hang on the vines for some little time after maturity1 the late autumn suns giving them a higher degree of sweetness and perfection4 ,some growers run the risks of light frosts to further maturity and to secure the added advantage of the removal of many leaves from the vines4 ,ripeness is indicated by a combination of signs difficult to describe but easily learned by experience4 ,these signs are3 first1 a characteristic color2 second1 full development of flavor and aroma2 third1 a softer texture of the pulp and a slight thickening of the juice so that it is more or less sticky2 fourth1 the ends of the stems turn from green to brown2 fifth1 the berries pull more readily from their stems2 sixth1 the seeds are free or more nearly free from the pulp and usually turn from green to brown4 ,picking appliances4 ,but few appliances are needed in picking grapes4 ,shears are a necessity4 ,these are of special make and can be bought from dealers in horticultural supplies1 costing from #ge cents to #a4 ,some growers1 after picking1 pack the fruit in the field in the receptacles in which it is to go to market4 ,the greater number1 however1 pick in trays which are taken to the packing-house and allowed to stand until the fruit is wilted before packing for shipment4 ,trays may be of several sizes and shapes1 but are usually shallow flats holding from twenty-five to thirty-five pounds4 ,the picked fruit is taken from the vineyard to the packing-shed in a wagon with flexible springs to prevent jarring and jolting4 ,large growers usually have specially built one-horse platform wagons1 the front wheels of which pass under the platform4 ,picking accounts4 ,it is no small matter to keep a picking account with pickers4 ,business-like growers use one of several kinds of tickets or tags in keeping accounts4 ,probably the most common method is to give a ticket to the picker when the receptacle of grapes is delivered1 the grower either keeping half of the original or a duplicate of it4 ,objections to ticket systems are that the pickers often lose the tickets1 are irregular in returning them1 or exchange them with other pickers4 ,to obviate the disadvantages of tickets1 some growers use tags which bear the picker's name and are attached to his person4 ,these tags have marginal numbers or divisions which are canceled by a punch as pickers deliver the grapes4 ,still another method is to keep book accounts with each picker in which case payment is made by the pound1 each receptacle being put on the scales as brought in from the field1 credit being given for the number of pounds4 ,it is the duty of those in charge to see that each picker finishes the row or the part of the row to which he is assigned1 and that he does not wander over the vineyard in search of the best picking4 ,packing-houses and their appliances4 ,the commercial grape-grower must have a house for packing and storing4 ,houses differ in design and fitting for almost every vineyard4 ,sometimes the house is a combination one for packing and storing4 ,often the packing-house is a halfway place between the vineyard and the shipping station1 in which case it is an open shed or a lightly constructed building4 ,in these field packing-houses there are usually no provisions for storing4 ,the better types of combined houses are provided with a cellar for the storage of grapes1 the first floor is used for packing1 and the attic provides a place for the storage of baskets and crates4 ,in all such houses provision must be made for thorough ventilation1 especially for the storage cellar if the grapes are to be kept for any length of time4 ,properly ventilated1 the temperature of the grape cellar can be kept as low as #ej ,f4 during ,september and ,october4 ,the cellar floor in these houses is usually of dirt better to regulate the moisture-content of the room4 ,often the first floor is divided into two rooms1 one to be used for packing and the other as a shipping room4 ,a good combination packing-and-storage-house of this type can be built for #ajjj to #bjjj4 ,now that cold storage facilities can be secured in most grape-growing regions1 and the rates of storage are becoming more reasonable1 there is less need of storage-houses4 ,packing-houses are so simple in construction and may be so different in design that it is neither possible nor necessary to describe them in detail4 ,a building that protects the workers from the elements and affords conveniences in packing serves the purpose4 ,such a packing-house1 which is often located in the vineyard1 should be well lighted1 should be connected with the storage-room for baskets and should have advantages for delivering the packages from the storage-room to the packing-room and from the packing-room to the shipping-room4 ,its size will depend on the quantities of grapes to be packed4 ,the house must be built so that it can be kept clean and sweet4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #df4 ,packing grapes on a packing-table4 ,every packing-house1 whatever the design1 must be furnished with tables for holding the trays while the fruit is being packed4 ,usually these tables are so made that the picking trays are set before the packers on an inclined table4 ,the packer transfers the grapes from the trays into the baskets in which the fruit is to be sold4 ,the trays of grapes as they come from the field are set before the worker1 who then packs the fruit into the basket from the left4 ,as the baskets are filled1 they are placed on a flat ledge or shelf in front of the packer and are then taken off by an attendant4 ,empty baskets are usually held in store on a higher shelf convenient to the packer and from time to time are replenished by the attendant4 ,figure #df shows a packing-table of the kind just described4 ,sometimes the packing-table is circular and revolves1 the packers sitting about the table4 ,the baskets are held on the lap and the packer takes the grapes off the table which is turned as fresh fruit is brought in4 ,this circular table is not in general use2 its only advantage is that it permits the packer to select from a larger quantity of fruit4 ,grading grapes4 ,grapes are more easily graded than most other fruits2 for usually there are but two grades1 firsts and culls4 ,it is difficult to specify exactly what firsts are1 since a number of factors must be considered which bring in play the judgment of the grader4 ,at least1 firsts must have the following qualities3 ,the bunches must be approximately uniform in size2 there must be few or no berries missing from the stems2 the grapes must be fully ripe1 of a uniform degree of ripeness and uniformly colored2 and the fruit must be free from insect and fungous injuries4 ,it is easier to give specifications for culls1 since all grapes not firsts are culls4 ,in large vineyards1 only good fruit or the best fruit is worth grading4 ,it is more advisable to sell poor fruit by the ton with little or no grading4 ,it follows1 also1 that the higher the price1 the more special the market1 and the more carefully the crop is picked1 the more profitable it is to grade4 ,the work of grading is done in the packing-shed when the fruit is transferred from the trays into the selling receptacles4 ,a pair of slender scissors made for the purpose1 to be purchased from dealers in horticultural supplies1 is used to trim out diseased and crushed berries4 ,the fruit must be permitted to wilt for a few hours1 a half day or overnight1 before it can be graded to advantage4 ,in this work of grading1 the greatest care should be taken to keep the fruit clean and fresh1 to sort out broken bunches and to preserve the bloom4 ,the less handling1 the more finely finished is the product4 ,grape packages in eastern grape regions4 ,packages for grapes are less varied than those for any other fruit1 selling receptacles in the states east of the ,rocky ,mountains being much the same for all regions4 ,dessert grapes are universally packed in gift packages--that is1 packages which are given away when the fruit is sold--and this insures a clean dainty package4 ,it seems imperative that a uniform style of package should be used the country over for the general market1 but up until this time1 although there have been both national and state laws passed1 uniformity has not been secured4 ,a national law is needed establishing standard commercial packages so that the grower may safely ship from one state to another without being a law-breaker4 ,such a package should be based on cubic-measure and not on weight as is often advocated2 for grapes cannot be shipped without some loss from sampling in transit2 and there are also losses in weight by evaporation so that the grower1 although trying to comply with the law1 may become technically a law-breaker if the standard is based on weight4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dg4 ,climax baskets in two sizes4 ,the most popular package for the grape in eastern grape regions is the ,climax basket made in various styles and sizes4 ,these are cheap1 easily packed and handled1 nest well in shipment and are durable4 ,three sizes are commonest in use1 the five-pound1 the ten-pound and the twenty-pound basket4 ,the five-pound basket usually holds only a little over four pounds2 the ten-pound about eight pounds2 and the twenty-pound rather less than twenty pounds4 ,two sizes of ,climax baskets are shown in ,fig4 #dg4 ,it is commonly understood1 however1 that the packages are short in weight1 and as grapes are retailed by the basket and not by the pound1 short weight does not really deceive4 ,these baskets are made of thin wood veneer with a light wood binding at the top and bottom4 ,the cover is of wood and is usually fastened on with staples4 ,the handle is either of wood or of wire4 ,when well made1 the baskets are firm and symmetrical1 without splinters and are clean and white4 ,packages carried over from year to year become dingy in color1 but the wood may be whitened by fumigating in the storage-room with sulfur4 ,the baskets also become yellow and discolored if left in the sun and must1 therefore1 be stored in clean1 dark1 dry rooms4 ,when grapes are sold by weight to manufacturers of wine or grape-juice1 they are usually delivered in the picking trays which1 if the market is near at hand1 are always returned4 ,if they are to be shipped far1 they go to market in twenty-pound baskets or bushel baskets1 although the latter are not regarded with favor by consumers4 ,packing4 ,grapes packed indoors1 as has been said1 are allowed to stand from a few to twenty-four hours after being picked to permit them to wilt4 ,when thus wilted they are much more easily packed and do not shrink in transportation1 so that the basket usually reaches the market well filled with fruit4 ,each bunch of grapes is placed separately in the basket after all unmarketable berries have been removed4 ,the bunches are arranged in concentric tiers1 the top layer being placed with special care4 ,when the basket is filled1 the grapes rise a little above the level of the basket1 care being taken not to have the fruit project too much so that the grapes will be crushed when putting on the cover4 ,in all this work1 the berries are handled as little as possible1 so as not to destroy the bloom4 ,care is taken1 also1 that the fruit is free from spraying material and is otherwise clean and fresh4 ,much less pains need be taken when the grapes are packed in trays to be sold by weight1 but even in this there must be method in filling the trays1 otherwise there will be many open spaces and corners between bunches4 ,practically all commercial grape-growers now use labels on their packages4 ,these not only add to the attractiveness of the packages1 but are a guarantee of the contents1 both as to name of the variety and the quality of the fruit4 ,these labels are1 also1 a sign by which a grower's fruit may be distinguished and are1 therefore1 a valuable advertising medium4 ,some growers have registered their labels in the ,united ,states ,patent ,office in order to prevent others from using them4 ,obviously1 it is not desirable or worth while to label a poor grade of grapes4 ,storing grapes4 ,the commercial grape-grower now stores his grapes in cold storage warehouses if he keeps them any length of time after harvesting4 ,there is no question but that keeping a part of the crop in artificially cooled houses is a great benefit to the grape-grower1 since it prolongs the season for selling by some three or four months4 ,formerly1 native grapes could be secured in general markets only until ,thanksgiving time or thereabouts1 but now ,american grapes are very generally offered for sale in ,january and ,february1 while the ,european grapes from ,california are in the market nearly the year around4 ,the grape-grower need make little or no preparation of his product in putting it in cold storage except to make sure that the product is first class in every respect4 ,it would be a waste of money and effort to attempt to store any but clean1 sound1 well-matured1 well-packed grapes4 ,the grape-grower1 however1 seldom need concern himself with storing1 since the crop is usually stored by the buyers4 ,few small growers seem to have learned the art of keeping grapes in common storage1 ,there are but few difficulties in keeping ,european grapes for several months after picking if they are stored under favorable conditions4 ,not all1 but several of the native grapes may also be kept practically throughout the winter if proper precautions are taken4 ,among these varieties ,catawba is the standard winter sort1 but ,diana1 ,iona1 ,isabella1 ,rogers' hybrids and ,vergennes1 all rather commonly grown1 may be kept by the small grower4 ,to insure keeping1 these native grapes must be handled most carefully4 ,the fruit is picked a few days before it is dead ripe and the bunches placed in trays holding forty or fifty pounds4 ,it is important that the temperature be reduced gradually so that there are no sudden changes4 ,if the nights are cool1 a valuable aid is to leave the grapes out-of-doors in crates the night after they are picked1 placing them in a cool building or dry cellar early the next morning4 ,the cellar or store-room should be well ventilated and should be such that the temperature is not variable1 care being taken that the air in every part of the storage room is changed4 ,draughts1 however1 should be avoided or stems and berries will shrivel4 ,if a temperature from #dj to #ej can be maintained1 the varieties named may be kept until ,march or ,april4 ,an expensive store-room is not necessary and ice to cool the room is not only unnecessary but undesirable4 ,if the storage-room is too dry1 the grapes wilt and lose flavor2 if1 on the other hand1 the atmosphere is too damp1 the grapes mold4 ,it is essential1 therefore1 to strike a medium between an atmosphere too dry and one too wet4 ,it is possible that a light fumigation with sulfur or formaldehyde might help to keep down molds in these common storage grape-rooms1 but as to the value of fumigation there seems to be no experimental evidence4 ,grapes grown on clay lands are said to be firmer and to keep better than those grown on gravel or lighter soils4 ,some years ago there was an association in ,ohio known as ,the ,clay-,growers ,association which handled only grapes grown on clay lands4 ,the members of this association believed that their grapes were much more desirable for storage than grapes from regions where the soil was lighter4 ,,harvesting ,,and ,,handling ,,muscadine ,,grapes ,the ,muscadine grapes of the ,south ,atlantic and ,gulf states are unique in vine and fruit1 are used for different purposes and go to different markets from the grapes of the ,north1 so that they may be considered almost a distinct fruit4 ,not only are cultural requirements peculiar to this fruit1 as we have seen1 but the methods of harvesting and marketing are quite distinct4 ,these are well set forth by ,husmann and ,dearing#ah as follows3 ,rotundifolia vines have been almost entirely grown on overhead arbors in the past1 the fruit being made into wine1 and under such conditions the general practice of jarring the grapes from the vines is perhaps the most practical method of harvesting4 ,if the vines are trained to upright trellises or if the fruit is intended for shipping or table use the grapes should be picked by hand in order to be sound and clean4 ,on account of the presence of leaves1 twigs1 etc41 mixed with the grapes jarred from the vines1 wine and grape-juice manufacturers will pay #e to #ae cents a bushel more for hand-picked grapes4 ,the growers who make a practice of hand picking claim that the work can be done at practically no greater expense than is necessary to shake off and clean a crop1 and the increased price obtained for the fruit will more than pay the difference4 ,a description of the harvesting of the ,rotundifolia grapes by the jarring method will be interesting to those not familiar with it4 ,poles are attached to sheets of canvas measuring #f by #ab feet and having leather handles4 ,a man is placed at each end of the sheets and four men with two sheets work together4 ,the wide sides of the two sheets are brought close together under each vine1 with the trunk of the vine in the middle4 ,the vines are then jarred1 the berries falling into the sheets4 ,those not caught by the sheets or that have fallen to the ground by the shaking of the trellis when the fruit of the adjoining vines was harvested1 etc41 and which are usually of the best quality1 are picked by hand4 ,the writers are informed that it costs approximately #ae cents a bushel to harvest the fruit on the ground and #ab cents to harvest that which falls on the sheets4 ,the fruit is put in boxes or barrels1 and if the quantity is not large the leaves1 sticks1 etc41 which become mixed with the fruit are removed by hand4 ,if there is a considerable quantity of fruit some mechanical means1 such as ordinary grain fan mills1 are used to clean it4 ,after cleaning1 the fruit is hauled or shipped to the winery4 ,in wineries with modern equipment there are blowers which thoroughly clean the fruit4 ,these are located near the end of the elevators that carry the fruit to the crusher4 ,a common and very objectionable practice followed in harvesting ,rotundifolia grapes1 especially by the jarring method1 is that of gathering the fruit all at once1 whereas there should be at least three periods of harvesting4 ,when harvested at one time the best quality of fruit ripens1 falls to the ground1 and is lost before the harvest is commenced and the last part of the crop is thrashed from the vines in a half-ripe condition along with the ripe fruit4 ,in this manner not only is the first and best fruit entirely lost1 but the harvested fruit is inferior in quality1 which necessarily results in a poor product from the entire yield4 ,returns from ,muscadine grapes4 ,great variations occur in the yields from ,rotundifolia vines4 ,at times there are record-breaking yields and1 again1 small yields are reported1 the small yields resulting from black-rot1 coulure1 wet weather1 self-sterility1 lack of cultivation1 fertilization1 lack of pruning1 age of vines1 and various other causes4 ,in spite of this1 ,rotundifolia vines are said to be among the safest and most prolific of fruit-bearing plants4 ,while in one of the largest ,rotundifolia vineyards there has been only a partial crop during the last three years1 owing to various causes1 another grower reports a yield of #agg bushels of grapes from #d-year-old ,james vines1 in addition to a bale of cotton to the acre4 ,a ,florida grower estimated his crop of white ,rotundifolia and ,thomas grapes for the season of #aiaa at #bhj bushels to the acre4 ,an average yield of #bg bushels an acre from #d-year-old vines1 #ajj bushels from #e-year-old vines1 and #aej bushels to the acre when the vines are in full bearing should be obtained4 ,the prices paid for ,rotundifolia grapes depend on the season1 the quality of fruit1 and the market4 ,in years when the crop is short better prices are usually paid than when there is a heavy crop4 ,aside from the grapes sold and shipped to wineries1 grapes as a rule sell for more in the cities and larger towns than in smaller places1 the local demand being somewhat in proportion to the population4 ,in such localities fruit of good quality will bring a much better price than inferior fruit4 ,hand-picked fruit in half-bushel peach baskets or in berry boxes usually brings from #a to #b per bushel4 ,grapes harvested by jarring are usually sent to the wineries and bring an average of #ge cents per bushel of #fj pounds4 ,the highest price paid for this quality of fruit was reached in #aiaj1 when #b4be per bushel 7f4o4b4 shipping point7 was paid for white ,rotundifolia4 ,in many localities certain growers have built up quite a reputation for themselves in choice1 hand-picked fruit1 which they ship to special customers in distant markets4 ,for this purpose the ,james variety is usually grown because the berries adhere well and are of good size and flavor4 ,several growers ship as far north as ,new ,york and ,boston1 getting from #b4jj to #b4ej gross per bushel crate4 ,in shipping1 three styles of carriers are used--the #bd-;box strawberry crate1 the #f-;basket peach crate1 and the #h-pound basket4 ,more attention should be given to this phase of the industry4 ,the varieties best suited for shipping are the ,james1 ,memory1 ,flowers1 and ,mish4 ,in the fall of #aiaj shipments of the ,james1 ,thomas1 and ,eden varieties were sent from the ,rotundifolia experiment vineyard at ,willard1 ,n4 ,c41 to ,washington ,d4 ,c41 part of the consignment being in strawberry boxes and the remainder in bushel baskets4 ,no important difference could be noted in the two lots on their arrival in ,washington4 ,the ,james variety arrived in perfect condition in both packages2 of the ,eden #cj per cent and of the ,thomas #ce per cent had shelled4 ,more extensive experiments along this line are contemplated4 ,,handling ,,the ,,grape ,,in ,,california ,grapes are grown in ,california for three purposes1 wine1 raisins and the table4 ,the handling of the crop for raisins and wine is best taken up in a discussion of these products in the chapter on by-products of the grape1 leaving only table grapes to be discussed at this place4 ,the table-grape industry of the ,pacific slope is dependent on the wide distribution of the product in eastern markets for a profitable sale of the crop1 since production is so great that but a small part of the crop is consumed in the markets of the ,pacific slope4 ,the growers in this region1 therefore1 have special problems1 chief of which are those of successful shipment over long distances4 ,california annually ships in the neighborhood of #aj1jjj carloads of table grapes1 all of which must be handled within a period of about two months4 ,as competition increases1 it becomes more and more necessary to extend the area over which the fruit is to be sold2 to lengthen the marketing season through cold storage2 and for both of these purposes to devise new or to improve present methods of handling the fruit4 ,the two requisites for the successful shipment of this great bulk of grapes are3 ,the fruit must reach the markets in sound condition2 and it must have sufficient market-holding quality to remain sound for a considerable length of time after it arrives in the markets4 ,experience has thoroughly demonstrated to grape-growers in ,california that decay in grapes is largely dependent on the presence of injuries to the grape berries1 to the pedicels or to the stems of the bunches4 ,methods of handling grapes1 therefore1 and the type of package used1 must be such that the product is injured as little as possible4 ,careful handling4 ,in the shipment of ,european grapes from ,california1 it has been found that it pays to go to much extra trouble in handling the crop4 ,the bunches are picked with care to avoid bruising or crushing berries1 and as far as possible they are lifted only by the main stems4 ,they are then laid with care in the picking trays which are filled only one layer deep4 ,in moving the trays to the packing-house1 they are handled carefully1 the trays being moved only on wagons with springs4 ,in sorting1 special care is taken to remove all injured and unsound berries and not to injure others in the bunch1 here again handling the clusters by the stems4 ,in packing1 the bunches are placed firmly in the baskets with care not to crush or bruise the stems or to injure the pedicels of the berries4 ,a slight injury of either berry or pedicel permits the spores of the fungus causing decay to gain entrance into the fruit4 ,shipping packages4 ,the most common package for table-grapes in ,california is a square basket holding about five pounds4 ,these baskets are placed for shipment in fours in crates4 ,the bunches of some varieties may be too large for these small baskets1 and these extra large-clustered grapes are packed in oblong baskets holding in the neighborhood of eight pounds1 two baskets filling a crate4 ,no good filler seems yet to have been devised for packing grapes in ,california4 ,the cork dust in which grapes from the ,mediterranean are received is not available and a good substitute has not yet been found4 ,sawdust is sometimes used but has not proved satisfactory in holding the decay and the fruit absorbs disagreeable flavors from the wood4 ,occasionally1 however1 grapes from ,california are sent to eastern markets packed in dry redwood sawdust and these seem to come through in good condition and not to have absorbed a disagreeable flavor4 ,reports seem to indicate that this specially selected redwood sawdust is proving much better than the ordinary sawdust experimented with some years ago4 ,shipping4 ,considerable work has been done by the ,united ,states ,department of ,agriculture to determine how table-grapes could best be shipped from the far ,west and reach the eastern markets in good condition4 ,the crop is1 of course1 shipped in refrigerator cars and much depends on the cooling of these cars and especially on the temperature at which the grapes are kept while in transit4 ,to carry well over the #cjjj miles of mountain and desert1 heat and cold1 the best type of refrigerator car must be used4 ,it does not appear that the pre-cooling so advantageous to citrous and other tree-fruits is worth the trouble and expense with table-grapes1 as it does not seem to prevent decay4 ,cooling cannot be substituted for careful handling1 which seems as yet the most necessary precaution to be taken in the preparation of these grapes for eastern shipment4 ,,marketing ,table-grapes from both eastern and western grape regions are now almost entirely shipped in carload lots4 ,since few grape-growers are prepared to load a car quickly with grapes1 some kind of coperation is required1 or the crop must be handled by large buyers4 ,coperative methods are becoming more and more popular1 although a large part of the grape crop1 both ,east and ,west1 is now handled by buyers4 ,there are several important advantages in selling through a coperative organization4 ,thus1 in selling coperatively1 the grapes are graded and packed in accordance with one standard2 more favorable transportation rates can be secured by a coperative association2 and1 most important of all1 the output can be distributed to the grape markets of the country without the disastrous competition that attends individual marketing4 ,in some of these organizations1 also1 supplies needed by the grape-grower in producing a crop are purchased more economically than by individuals2 in particular1 grape packages can be purchased better by an organization than by an individual4 ,as the grape industry and competition grow in the different regions of the country1 the necessity of forming marketing organizations becomes greater4 ,such organizations must be founded on the principles which many experiments have shown best govern fruit-marketing associations4 ,it is not possible to discuss these principles at length1 but the following fundamentals will suffice3 ,an ideal coperative association is one in which there are no profits nor dividends4 ,every member of the whole organized association is a producer4 ,all of the product grown by a member is sold through the association4 ,the association is democratic1 all members having an equal voice in its management and all sharing alike in its successes and failures4 ,when profits arise of necessity1 they are distributed to the members of the association in proportion to the amount of business each has done4 ,the work of the organization is conducted at as near cost as possible and profits are declared only after expenses1 depreciation1 interest on capital for future operations are deducted4 ,thus it is seen that the plan of the organization is to give each member as nearly as possible the exact price his fruit has brought in the markets4 ,,vineyard ,,returns ,grape-growing as a business is a comparatively new industry in ,america4 ,it is true that the first attempts at growing this fruit were made to found an industry1 but these were complete and dismal failures1 and the start in growing grapes in ,america eventually came as a pleasing hobby4 ,in evolving from a hobby into vineyard culture on a large scale1 the business side of the industry long lagged4 ,at present1 with increasing competition1 manifold uncertainties in vineyard conditions1 and much unbusinesslike administration1 interest in cultural operations1 with which pioneers in the industry were chiefly concerned1 is eclipsed by the conception that grape-growing is a highly developed commercial enterprise requiring for success careful business management4 ,unfortunately there is nowhere a substantial body of figures from which growers can obtain a fair conception of what the outgo and income of average vineyards in grape regions are4 ,the value of such data to investors or to those making an effort to keep track of the finances of their business is obvious1 and an attempt is made here to put the reader in possession of figures that ought to be helpful4 ,the data given1 although scant and fragmentary1 show fairly accurately the cost of producing grapes1 selling prices and profits in the culture of this fruit in one of the great grape regions4 ,the ,new ,york ,agricultural ,experiment ,station is carrying on experiments to determine the outgo and income from vineyards in the ,chautauqua grape-belt4 ,the work is not yet finished1 nor could the findings be published in detail before being sent out by the ,station1 but ,f4 ,e4 ,gladwin1 in charge of the work1 has consented to set down summaries of costs and returns taken from vineyards at ,fredonia1 which will serve as a guide to planters of grapes in this region at least3 ,first ,year ,interest on value of land #bjj per acre #ab4jj ,preparation of land #h4jj ,cost of vines per acre #ab4jj ,planting #d4jj ,cultivating #f4jj ------ ,total expenditure for first year #db4jj ,second ,year ,interest on value of vineyard #bbe per acre #ac4ej ,cultivating1 hand hoeing1 etc4 #i4be ,pruning #a4jj ------ ,total expenditure for second year #bc4ge ,third ,year ,interest on value of vineyard #bej per acre #ae4jj ,pruning #b4ej ,posts 7cost of7 4#aj #bdj #bd4jj ,setting and driving #f4ej ,wire and wiring1 staples1 etc4 #aa4fe ,tying and twine #a4de ,cultivating1 plowing1 harrowing #i4be ,spraying #d4jj ,no4 baskets sold 4#af per basket #ejj #hj4jj ,cost of baskets #bj per thousand #aj4jj ,picking 4#ja per basket #e4jj ,packing 4#ja per basket #e4jj ,hauling 4#jjc #a4ej ------ ,outgo for third year #ie4he ------ ,income #hj4jj ,fourth ,year ,interest on value of vineyard #cjj per acre #ah4jj ,pruning #b4ej ,tying #b4ij ,spraying and materials #d4jj ,cultivating1 plowing1 harrowing1 hand-hoeing and plowing back one furrow #i4be ,trellis upkeep1 driving posts1 tightening wires1 etc4 #b4ej ,pulling and poling out brush #a4fi ,no4 baskets sold 4#af per basket #ajjj #afj4jj ,cost of baskets #bj per thousand #bj4jj ,picking 4#ja per basket #aj4jj ,packing 4#ja per basket #aj4jj ,hauling 4#jjc #c4jj ------ ,outgo for fourth year #hc4hd ------- ,income #afj4jj ,outgo for four years #bde4dd ,income for four years #bdj4jj ,estimates for ,succeeding ,years ,gross income #abe-bjj ,outgo #ge- #he ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xix4--,iona 7#c_/e74 ,,chapter ,,xiv ,,grape ,,products ,over-production1 with the attendant losses caused by glutted markets1 is a factor which1 like frosts and freezes1 is ever in the mind of the grape-grower4 ,no season passes but that some of the grape regions of the country suffer from over-production4 ,not uncommonly the grape industry in a region is better off in a season when the crop is small and prices high1 than when the crop is large and prices low4 ,in every part of the country where grapes are grown1 over-production has been a great deterrent to viticulture2 this1 in spite of the fact that grape-growers have availed themselves of the opportunity to manufacture products from this fruit4 ,thus1 wine and raisins are made from the grape in ,california1 and a large part of the harvest in the ,east goes into wine1 champagne and grape-juice4 ,but the growth of prohibition now threatens the wine and champagne industries of the country1 in fact may be said to have driven them to the wall1 making the need of new outlets in manufactured products a greater necessity4 ,under these conditions1 grape-growers must seek in every way to enlarge the sale of the crop to manufacturers with the hope that thus1 together with more perfect distribution of his commodities1 the inroads made by prohibition on the industry may be offset and the over-production of table-grapes be better prevented4 ,with this brief emphasis on the importance of manufactured products of the grape1 we approach the discussion of the several possible outlets to over-production in this fruit4 ,,wine ,the manufacture and use of wine in ,america1 as has been intimated1 is likely to cease through prohibition4 ,therefore1 whatever may be said of this product of the grape is of less and less interest to grape-growers4 ,however1 a few years of grace probably remain for the making of wines in ,america1 and since wine-making yet offers the greatest outlet for the grape crop1 next to table-grapes1 wine must be considered as a factor in the grape industry4 ,since the demand and price for grapes depend very largely on the kind of wine to be made1 it is necessary to characterize the wines made in ,america4 ,wine1 it should be said1 is the product of alcoholic fermentation of the grape4 ,alcoholic fermentations made from other fruits are not1 strictly speaking1 wines4 ,natural wines are divided into three broad groups2 dry1 sweet and sparkling wines4 ,dry wines are those in which sugar has been eliminated by fermentation2 sweet wines those in which sufficient sugar remains to give a sweet taste2 and sparkling wines are those which contain sufficient carbonic acid gas to give a pressure of several atmospheres in the bottle4 ,the carbonic acid gas is produced in sparkling wines by fermentation in the bottle of a dry wine4 ,the color in these three classes of wine may be red or white1 depending on whether or not the color is extracted from the skins in the process of fermentation4 ,to make red wine1 of course1 the grapes to be fermented must have red coloring matter in skin or juice or both4 ,each of these groups of wine includes a very large number of kinds distinguished by the name of the region1 the locality or the name of the vineyard in which a wine is made4 ,wines are still further distinguished according to the year of the vintage4 ,wine-making4 ,there are four distinct stages in the making of wine after the grapes are grown4 ,the first is the harvesting of the grapes when they have reached the proper stage of maturity1 which is known as wine-making ripeness4 ,this stage of ripeness is determined by means of a must-scale or saccharometer4 ,the wine-maker squeezes the juice from a number of bunches of grapes into a receptacle into which he drops the must-scale1 whereupon the sugar-content of the juice is indicated on the scale1 determining whether the proper stage of ripeness has been reached4 ,suitable varieties of grapes having been grown1 it is necessary that they be permitted to hang on the vine until the proper degree of ripeness is developed1 after which they are delivered at the winery as free as possible from injury or decay4 ,the second stage is the preparation of the grapes for fermentation4 ,the grapes are weighed on arriving at the winery and are then conveyed either by hand or more often by a mechanical conveyor to the hopper or crusher4 ,the ancient method of crushing1 which still prevails in some parts of ,europe1 was to tramp the grapes with bare feet or wooden shoes4 ,tramping has been superseded by mechanical crushers which break the skin but do not crush the seeds4 ,the best mechanical crushers consist of two-grooved revolving cylinders4 ,as the grapes pass through the crusher1 they fall into the stemmer1 a machine which tears off the stems1 discharging them at one end1 while the seeds1 skins1 pulp and juice pass through the bottom to the presses usually on the floor below4 ,there are several types of wine-presses1 all of which1 however1 are modifications of screw1 hydraulic or knuckle-joint power4 ,in large wineries1 the hydraulic press has almost driven out the other two forms of power and when great quantities of grapes must be handled a number of hydraulic presses are usually in operation4 ,the grape pomace is built up into a cheese by the use of cloths and racks variously arranged4 ,the cheese is then put under heavy pressure from which the juice or must is quickly extracted4 ,the third stage is fermentation4 ,the must is carried from the press into open tanks or vats which hold from #ejj to #ejjj gallons or even more4 ,the yeast cells which cause fermentation may be introduced naturally on the skins of the grapes2 or in many modern wineries the must is sterilized to rid it of undesirable micro-organisms and a starter of wine-yeast is added to start the fermentation4 ,yeast organisms attack the sugar and must1 breaking it up into alcohol and carbonic acid gas1 the latter passing off as it is formed4 ,when active fermentation ceases1 the new wine is drawn from the pomace and is put into closed casks or tanks where it undergoes a secondary fermentation1 much sediment settling at the bottom of the cask4 ,to rid the new wine of this sediment1 it must be drawn off into clean casks1 an operation called racking4 ,the first racking usually takes place within a month or six weeks4 ,a second racking is necessary at the end of the winter and a third is desirable in the summer or fall4 ,the fourth stage is the aging of the wine4 ,before aging begins1 however1 the wine usually must be rendered perfectly clear and bright by fining4 ,the materials used in fining are isinglass1 white of egg or gelatine4 ,these1 introduced into the wine1 cause undissolved matters to precipitate4 ,the wine is now ready for bottling or consumption4 ,most wines acquire a more desirable flavor through aging1 a slow oxidation in the bottles4 ,champagne4 ,when champagne wines have gone through their first fermentation1 they are racked off into casks to age until their quality can be ascertained1 after which a blend of several different wines is made4 ,this blend is called the cuve4 ,the cuve is bottled and a second fermentation starts4 ,the bottles are now put in cool cellars1 corded in horizontal layers with thin strips of wood between each layer of bottles4 ,the champagne in this stage is said to be in tirage4 ,the carbonic acid gas generated at this second fermentation is confined in the bottles and absorbed by the wine4 ,when the bottle is uncorked1 the gas1 seeking to escape1 produces the sparkling effect desirable in sparkling wines4 ,after the wine has been in tirage for one or two years1 the bottles are placed in ,a-shaped racks1 the neck of the bottle pointing downward so that the sediment formed during fermentation drops to the cork4 ,to further the settling of the sediment1 workmen turn or shake each bottle daily for a period of one to three months4 ,the bottles are then taken to the finishing room1 cork down and the wine is disgorged4 ,disgorging is accomplished by freezing a small quantity of wine in the neck of the bottle containing the sediment1 after which the cork is removed and with it the frozen sediment4 ,the bottle is refilled1 recorked1 wired1 capped1 and the champagne is ready for shipment4 ,the vintage4 ,the wine-making season the world over is known as the vintage4 ,the time at which the vintage begins depends1 of course1 on the region1 the variety of grapes1 the growing season and the location of the vineyard4 ,its duration1 also1 depends on these same factors4 ,the season is usually lengthened by the fact that wine-makers require for their purposes a number of varieties of grapes which ripen at different times4 ,before or during the vintage1 representatives of wine cellars usually make contracts for the number of tons of grapes required at a certain price a ton4 ,the notion prevails that grapes for wine and grape-juice need not be first-class4 ,this is far from the truth4 ,to make good wine the grapes must be carefully harvested1 transported with as little injury as possible and must be protected from dirt1 mold and fermentation before reaching the winery4 ,european vintagers maintain that grapes picked at sunrise produce the lightest and most limped wines and yield more juice4 ,they say1 also1 that the grapes should not be gathered in the heat of the day because fermentation sets in at once4 ,these niceties are not observed in ,america4 ,prices paid for wine grapes4 ,supply and demand regulate the price paid for wine grapes4 ,there is always demand for good wine grapes1 although a poor product often goes begging for market4 ,in the ,east1 the highest prices are paid for the grapes used in making champagne4 ,the champagne region of the ,east is confined to a few localities along ,lake ,erie and to western ,new ,york about ,keuka ,lake1 where the industry is most largely developed4 ,the varieties used in champagne-making in the ,east are ,delaware1 ,catawba1 ,elvira1 ,dutchess1 ,iona1 ,diamond and a few other sorts4 ,prices differ with the many conditions affecting the grape and champagne industries1 perhaps the average price for ,catawba1 the grape chiefly used in making champagne in this region1 being from #dj to #ej a ton4 ,choicer grapes1 as ,delaware1 ,iona and ,dutchess1 often sell from #ge to #ajj a ton4 ,concords are sometimes utilized in making dry wines in the eastern states1 #cj or #dj a ton being the average price4 ,ives and ,norton are much used for red wines and sell for top prices4 ,wine-makers in the ,east are at a disadvantage in producing wines other than champagne1 since the price paid on the ,pacific slope for wine grapes is much lower2 ,grapes for sweet wine in ,california often sell as low as #f or #g a ton1 the average price being #aj or #ab4 ,grapes for dry wines1 such as ,zinfandel and ,burger1 bring on the ,pacific coast from #aj to #ab a ton4 ,choice varieties of grapes in this region1 such as ,cabernet1 ,sauvignon1 ,petite ,sirah and ,riesling1 bring from #bb to #bd4 ,the eastern wine-makers1 however1 have the advantage of being close to the largest and best markets in the country4 ,wines made in the ,east are very different from those made in ,california and supply a different market4 ,a few years ago most of the ,muscadine grapes grown in the ,south were used for wine-making4 ,from these grapes wine has been made since colonial times1 and for a century there have been some large vineyards of ,muscadine grapes in the ,south from which wine was made in a commercial way4 ,since ,muscadine grapes do not sell well in the markets in competition with the grapes of the ,north or the ,pacific slope1 the ,muscadine grape industry has been dependent on the wine industry of the section in which the fruit is produced4 ,the growth of prohibition in the ,south1 however1 has driven the wine industry to the ,north and ,west and there is now little wine manufactured from ,muscadine grapes in the ,south1 although some grapes are shipped ,north for wine-making4 ,the wine made from these grapes is very distinct in flavor and on that account a special trade has been developed for it4 ,it is possible that this special trade will keep up the demand for ,muscadine wine so that some part of the crop may be shipped to wine-making states to supply this demand4 ,,grape-,,juice ,when properly made1 grape-juice is the undiluted1 unsweetened1 unfermented juice of the grape and contains no preservatives1 fermentation being prevented by sterilization with heat4 ,the product is as ancient as wine1 and1 therefore1 as the cultivation of the vine1 for all wine-making peoples have used new wine or grape-juice as a beverage4 ,for centuries physicians in wine-making countries have prescribed grape-juice as it comes from the wine-press for certain maladies1 the treatment constituting an essential part of the grape-cures of ,european countries4 ,the process of making an unfermented grape-juice that will keep from season to season as an article of commerce is1 however1 a modern invention1 and is the outcome of the discoveries of the last half century regarding the control of the agents of fermentation4 ,the manufacture of commercial grape-juice in ,america1 to which country the industry is confined1 began as a home practice following the fundamental processes of canning fruit4 ,toward the close of the last century1 several inventive minds discovered methods of making a commercial product and began developing markets for their wares4 ,the beginning of the present century found the new industry in full swing1 since which time its growth has been truly marvelous4 ,in #aijj the amount of grape-juice made in the ,united ,states was so small as to be negligible in the census report of that year4 ,by #aiaj1 the annual output had reached for the whole country over #a1ejj1jjj gallons and at present writing1 #aiah1 it is well above #c1ejj1jjj gallons per annum4 ,the manufacture of grape-juice is no longer a home industry but a great commercial enterprise4 ,it is an industry closely associated with grape-growing1 however1 and as such needs further consideration here4 ,grape-juice regions4 ,the manufacture of grape-juice is centered in the ,chautauqua grape-belt in ,new ,york1 ,pennsylvania and ,ohio4 ,so far1 the demand seems to be almost wholly for juices made from native grapes1 the juice of ,european grapes grown on the ,pacific slope being so sweet as to be insipid4 ,possibly #hj per cent of the grape-juice now manufactured in ,america comes from a single variety1 the ,concord4 ,there can be no question1 however1 but that sooner or later grape-juices of distinct qualities will be made from many varieties of grapes1 thus giving wider sale and greater variation for the product4 ,a very good sparkling grape-juice is now on the market and its reception seems to promise a great increase in the production of an article that closely simulates champagne in color and sparkling vivacity1 but not1 of course1 in taste1 since it contains no alcohol4 ,the grape-juice industry has been started and is in a flourishing condition in several other grape regions than the ,chautauqua belt which is now its center4 ,there are factories at ,sandusky1 ,ohio1 using grapes grown in the ,kelly ,island district2 in southwestern ,michigan there are several factories2 and the industry still survives at ,vineland1 ,new ,jersey1 which probably should be called the original home of the manufacture of grape-juice4 ,in the ,south1 some grape-juice is made from ,muscadine grapes1 but this product seems not as yet to have been well received in the markets4 ,commercial methods of making grape-juice4 ,there is at present a great diversity of methods and of apparatus employed in the grape-juice manufacturing plants throughout the country4 ,since the industry is in its infancy1 and the attempt has been made to hold some of the methods as trade secrets1 the diversity of methods and appliances is not to be wondered at4 ,no doubt there will be greater uniformity of method and machinery and1 therefore1 greater efficiency1 as the industry develops4 ,husmann#ai gives the following account of the manufacture of grape-juice in the eastern states and in ,california3 ,sound1 ripe1 but not over-ripe1 grapes are used4 ,these are first crushed or1 in case the stems are to be removed1 are run through a combined stemmer and crusher4 ,if the machinery is stationed high enough1 the crushed fruit can be run through chutes directly into the presses or kettles2 otherwise1 it must be pumped into them by means of a pomace or must pump or carried in pomace carts or tubs4 ,if a white or light colored juice is desired1 the crushed grapes are first pressed1 the juice which comes from the press being heated to about #afe ,f41 skimmed1 run through a pasteurizer at a temperature of between #age and #bjj ,f4 into well-sterilized containers1 and then placed in storage4 ,if a colored juice is desired1 the crushed grapes are heated immediately1 usually in aluminum kettles having double bottoms1 which prevent the steam from coming in contact with the contents4 ,these kettles usually contain revolving cylinders1 the arms of which keep the crushed grapes thoroughly stirred while they are being heated to about #adj ,f4 ,the simultaneous heating and stirring help to extract the coloring matter from the skins1 tear the cells of the berries1 increase the quantity of juice obtained per ton of fruit1 and give to the must many ingredients of red wine1 with the substitution of grape sugar for alcohol of the wine4 ,the aluminum kettles are filled and emptied in rotation1 thereby making continuous manipulation possible4 ,the presses should be situated below the kettles1 so that the hot juice can be drained directly into them4 ,the expressed juice is then reheated to about #afe ,f41 skimmed1 and run through the pasteurizer in the same manner in which the white juice is handled4 ,the juice passes from the pasteurizer while still hot 7about #afj ,f47 into the container1 which should be sealed immediately4 ,the lower the temperature 7above the freezing point7 at which these containers are then stored1 the less is the danger of fermentation and the more rapidly the juice will clear and deposit its sediment4 ,the ordinary receptacles in which the juice is stored are #e-;gallon demijohns1 #bj-;gallon carboys1 or clean1 new barrels or puncheons1 well washed and drained4 ,all containers should be thoroughly sterilized before they are filled1 and the covers1 corks1 bungs1 cloths1 etc41 used in sealing them should be scrupulously clean and carefully sterilized4 ,if barrels or puncheons are used as containers1 they are placed on skids and firmly wedged to prevent movement4 ,as the juice cools1 air laden with fermentation germs is apt to be drawn into the barrels by the decrease in the volume of the liquid4 ,in order to prevent this1 tight air-filtering plugs of sterilized cotton are sometimes used instead of the ordinary bungs of solid wood4 ,the type of pasteurizer differs in almost every establishment4 ,as the industry is of comparatively recent development commercially1 there are few models on the market and each manufacturer has constructed the model best suited to his particular ideas or requirements4 ,there are two general types1 however1 7#a7 open1 double-bottomed kettles in which the juice is heated to the required temperature and then drawn off1 and 7#b7 continuous pasteurizers in which the juice is heated to the required temperature as it passes through the water bath4 ,the presses also show great variation in different establishments1 either hydraulic1 screw or lever power being used1 and there is a marked difference between the types of pomace containers4 ,sometimes the crushed grapes are heaped on burlap cloths the sides of which are folded in1 and these burlaps are placed one on top of the other in the press2 sometimes press baskets take the place of these burlaps4 ,the manufacturers in ,california and those in the grape-growing regions of the ,rocky ,mountains seem to have adopted entirely different methods of handling the juice after it is first pasteurized and stored4 ,most of the eastern juices are red and are obtained from the ,labrusca varieties1 generally the ,concord4 ,when the juice comes from the presses1 some manufacturers strain it to remove the coarse particles and then pour it directly into well-sterilized bottles2 others siphon it off the sediment in the containers in which it is stored after the first pasteurization and pour it into pasteurized bottles4 ,in either case1 the bottles are securely corked and then repasteurized4 ,the ,california juices1 however1 both red and white1 are made exclusively from ,vinifera varieties4 ,they are allowed to settle in the original containers and are siphoned out of these and carefully filtered to make them clear and bright4 ,the clearing of the juice is sometimes facilitated by fining or adding a small quantity of a substance which coagulates and when settling carries down with it the solid matters causing cloudiness in the liquid4 ,such finings may be applied at the time of the first pasteurization or just before the final filtration and bottling4 ,in the latter case the juice is drawn off the settlings in containers1 the finings are added1 and the juice again pasteurized into other receptacles4 ,when it clears1 it is either bottled directly or first passed through a filter1 drawn into carefully sterilized bottles1 securely corked1 and then repasteurized4 ,care must be taken that the final sterilization is not at a higher temperature than the previous one2 otherwise1 solid matter may be precipitated and the must clouded again4 ,a simple and efficient form of sterilizer consists of a wooden trough provided with a wooden grating which is raised #b inches from the bottom and on which rest the filled bottles in wire baskets4 ,the trough contains enough water to submerge the bottles and is kept at a temperature of #ahe ,f4 by means of a steam coil beneath the grating4 ,it requires about #ae minutes for the must at the bottom of the bottles to reach that temperature2 for packages of other sizes it is necessary to make a test with a thermometer in order to determine how long it takes for the entire contents to reach #ahe4 ,to prevent the corks from being expelled during sterilization1 they are either tied down with a strong twine or with some contrivance such as the cork holder4 ,in order that mold germs may not enter the must through the corks1 especially if a poor quality of cork is used1 the necks of the corked bottles are dipped in heated paraffin before putting on the caps1 or the corks are sealed down with sealing wax4 ,it is also well to keep the bottles on their rider to prevent the corks drying out4 ,home methods of making grape-juice4 ,the principles involved in making grape-juice in the home are the same as those used in canning4 ,the grapes may be crushed by hand or in mills similar or identical with the small cider-mills owned by many farmers4 ,in making a light-colored juice1 the crushed grapes are put in a cloth sack and hung up to drain1 or the filled sack may be twisted by two persons until the greater part of the juice is expressed4 ,the juice is then sterilized in a double-boiler by heating it at a temperature of #ahj to #bjj ,f41 care being taken that the thermometer never goes above #bjj4 ,the sterilized juice is now poured into a glass or enameled vessel to stand for twenty-four hours1 after which it is drained from the sediment and strained through several thicknesses of clean flannel4 ,the juice is now put in clean bottles preparatory to a second sterilization1 care being taken that at least an inch of space is left at the top for the liquid to expand when heated4 ,the second sterilization may be conducted in a wash-boiler or similar receptacle4 ,the filled bottles must not rest on the bottom of the boiler but should be separated from it with a thin board4 ,the boiler is filled with water up to within an inch of the tops of the bottles and heated until the water begins to boil4 ,the bottles should then be taken out and corked immediately1 using only new corks4 ,after corking1 the bottles are further sealed by dipping the corks in melted paraffin4 ,a cheap corking machine is a great convenience in this work1 and in any case the corks should be soaked for at least a half hour in warm but not boiling water4 ,the process varies somewhat in the making of red grape-juice4 ,the crushed grapes are heated to a temperature of #bjj ,f41 and are then strained through a drip bag without pressure1 after which the liquid is set away in glass or enamel vessels to settle for twenty-four hours4 ,except for this difference in the preliminary treatment of the juice1 the methods are the same in making the red or the light-colored product4 ,for proper keeping it is not necessary to let the juice settle after it is strained1 but a clearer and brighter product is obtained if the juice is permitted to settle4 ,in either case the grape-juice should keep indefinitely if the work has been well done4 ,as soon as bottles are opened1 fermentation begins with the formation of alcohol4 ,,raisins ,the grape is best conserved as a raisin4 ,canning is seldom practiced with this fruit4 ,a raisin is a dried grape4 ,tree-fruits are evaporated as by-products1 but the raisin is a primary product4 ,this is a difference worth noting2 for with tree-fruits the cream of the crop goes to the fresh fruit market1 while with the grape the entire crop of raisin varieties may go into the cured product4 ,the raisin industry is dependent on a sunny and rainless climate and hence in ,america is confined to the grape regions of certain parts of ,california4 ,in this state1 raisin-making is a rich resource of the grape-grower1 the annual output now averaging well above #bjj1jjj pounds1 grown on #abj1jjj acres of land1 and having a market value of #aj1jjj1jjj4 ,fresno ,county1 ,california1 produces nearly #fj per cent of the output of the state and the city of ,fresno is the center of the industry4 ,the raisin industry does not stand alone in ,california1 as some raisin grapes1 notably ,muscat of ,alexandria1 are good dessert sorts and are also much used for wine and brandy4 ,only the first crop of the variety named is used for raisins1 while practically all of the second crop each season is made into wine and brandy4 ,raisins proper are mostly made from the ,muscat of ,alexandria1 although other large1 white1 sweet grapes are sometimes used4 ,sultana raisins1 naturally seedless1 are made from ,sultanina and the ,sultana4 ,the dried currants of commerce are made from grapes1 and of these ,california produces small quantities from ,white ,corinth4 ,the following account of raisin-making is given by ,husmann3#bj ,in the raisin districts grapes are ripe by the middle of ,august1 the season often lasting into ,november4 ,the average time necessary for drying and curing a tray of raisins is about three weeks1 depending on the weather1 the earliest picked grapes drying in ten days and the later ones often taking four weeks or more4 ,the method of drying is very simple4 ,the bunches are cut from the vines and placed in shallow trays #b feet wide1 #c feet long1 and #a inch high on which the grapes are allowed to sun-dry1 being turned from time to time by simply placing an empty tray upside down on the full one and then turning both over and taking off the top tray4 ,after the raisins are dried they are stored away until they are packed and prepared for shipment4 ,some of the larger growers1 in order not to run so much risk in drying on account of rain1 and also to enable them to handle the crop fast enough1 have curing houses1 where the curing is finished after having been partially done outside4 ,dipping and scalding raisins4 ,the operation of dipping and scalding is designed to accomplish several purposes1 namely1 to cleanse the fruit1 to hasten its drying1 and to give the dried fruit a lighter color4 ,in dipping and drying1 the fruit1 immediately after being cut from the vines1 is either dipped in clear water to first rinse it of particles of dust and other foreign matter1 or it is taken direct to the scalder and immersed in a boiling alkaline mixture called 'legia' 7lye7 until the grapes show an almost imperceptible cracking of the skin1 the operation consuming perhaps from one-fourth to one-half of a minute4 ,this dipping calls for skill on the part of the operator1 the duration of the emersion depending on the strength and temperature of the mixture and the condition of the fruit4 ,desiccation follows the scalding process1 which is accomplished on trays in the sun1 the same as undipped raisins cured entirely by solar heat4 ,on account of the scald they cure rapidly1 and the fruit is also often of lighter color when cured4 ,the following formula has been used for ,sultana and ,sultanina grapes at ,fresno3 ,fifteen pounds of ',greenbank's #ih-per cent lye' are boiled in #ajj gallons of water4 ,this mixture is for grapes containing #be per cent of sugar4 ,should their sugar content be less1 enough lye is added to remove the bloom and open the pores of the skin of the grapes4 ,after dipping1 the grapes are spread on trays and sulphured for #a to #a-a_/b hours4 ,observation will show whether it may be necessary to vary this formula a trifle to suit conditions of ripeness and influence of temperature4 ,the length of time required for dipping is ascertained by experience1 and differs with the strength of the lye1 the heat of the solution1 and the thickness of the skins of the grapes4 ,packing raisins4 ,the raisins as received at the packing house are weighed and the loose raisins and those that are to be shipped as dried grapes are immediately run through a stemmer and grader which stems1 cleans1 and assorts the raisins into three or four different grades1 after which they are packed and shipped to various parts of the country1 some also being exported4 ,those producing cluster or layer raisins 7if they have not already been equalized7 are first stored in the equalizing rooms4 ,in these rooms the sweat boxes1 filled with layers of new raisins1 are stacked and left usually from #aj to #cj days1 or long enough for the overdried berries to absorb moisture from the under-dried ones4 ,this sweating also properly softens and toughens the stems1 which prevents their breaking and enables them to hold the berries better4 ,in ,california1 where the climate is so dry1 no first class pack could be made without thus first equalizing the raisins4 ,after having been equalized the raisins are taken out1 assorted into the different grades1 and placed in trays holding #e pounds each4 ,the trays of the same grades are then pressed and stacked away in piles ready for packing4 ,pressing the raisins so that they look well and so none are burst open is work requiring experience and good judgment4 ,it takes four pressed trays to fill a #bj-pound box4 ,the loose raisins that have dropped from the cluster through handling before they were equalized are also graded1 the largest1 of course1 making the choicest pack4 ,classes of raisins4 ,previous to the consolidated organization of the packers the three best grades of raisins on the stems were known as ',imperial1' ',dehesia1' and ',fancy ,clusters1' respectively4 ,the ,california ,raisin ,growers ,association established classification and grades similar to those of the ,spanish raisin packers1 on which the ,french trade names are also based4 ,the original ,spanish1 as well as ,english terms with which they correspond1 and the different grades in descending order of quality are shown in the following table3 ,,spanish ,,terms,,french ,,terms ,,english ,,terms ,,california ,,terms ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,imperial ,imperiaux ,extra,extra ,imperial ,cluster,six-,crown ,cluster ,imperial ,bajo,imperiaux ,imperial ,cluster ,five-,crown ,cluster ,royan ,bajo ,royaux ,royal ,cluster ,four-,crown ,cluster ,cuarta 7#d;a7 ,surchoix ,extra ,choicest ,three-,crown ,cluster ,quinta 7#e;a7 ,choix ,extra ,choice ,cluster ,two-,crown ,cluster ,the grading is optical1 as a result of experience1 there being no linear or cubic measurement standard4 ,thus1 a nice cluster with all berries of large size1 would be a ',six-,crown ,cluster1' such being the very finest raisins on the stem4 ',five-,crown ,clusters' were formerly the ',dehesia' cluster1 and ',four-,crown ,clusters' were formerly ',fancy ,clusters4' ,grades less than ',four-,crown' on the stems 7the ',three-,crown' and ',two-,crown'7 are known as ',layers1' or ',london ,layers4' ,these are placed in boxes containing #bj pounds net2 in half boxes of #aj pounds2 and quarter boxes of #e pounds2 and in fancy boxes containing #b-a_/b pounds4 ,loose raisins1 or raisins off the stem1 are graded into ,two-,crown1 ,three-,crown1 and ,four-,crown raisins by being run through screens the meshes of which are thirteen thirty-seconds1 seventeen thirty-seconds1 and twenty-two thirty-seconds of an inch in size1 respectively4 ,the ,sultanina 7erroneously called ,thompson ,seedless71 and the ,sultana are packed in #ab-ounce cartons1 #de to the case4 ,seeded raisins4 ,the invention of a raisin-seeding machine by ,george ,e4 ,pettit in the early seventies1 and its use1 has had a wonderful effect on the industry4 ,seeded raisins were first put on the market by the late ,col4 ,william ,forsythe1 of ,fresno1 ,cal41 who at first found it very difficult to dispose of #bj tons4 ,the output in the last #ae years has increased from #gjj tons to #ej1jjj tons per annum1 and their popularity is constantly increasing4 ,in #aijj about #ad1jjj tons were placed on the market1 in #aije about #ba1jjj tons1 in #aiaj about #ca1jjj tons1 and in #aiac about #di1jjj tons4 ,the seeding machines in present use can turn out #cjj tons per day4 ,seeded raisins are now the most important branch of the raisin industry4 ,a brief outline of how seeded raisins are prepared will prove interesting4 ,the raisins are first exposed to a dry temperature of #adj ,f4 for three to five hours1 after which they are put through a chilling process so that the pedicels can be easily removed1 and are then thoroughly cleansed by being passed through cleaning machines4 ,they are then taken by automatic carriers to another room1 spread out on trays1 and exposed to a moist temperature of #acj ,f4 to bring them back to their normal condition4 ,the raisins pass to the seeding machine1 where they are carried between rubber-faced rollers and the impaling device of the seeding machine which catches the seeds and removes them from the fruits as they are flattened between the surfaces of the rollers4 ,the impaled seeds are removed from the roller by a whisking device in such a way as to be caught in a separate receptacle4 ,the seeded raisins pass through chutes to the packing tables on the floor below4 ,the seeded or loose raisins are packed in #ej-pound boxes2 in #a-pound cartons1 #cf to the case2 in #ab-ounce cartons1 #de to the case2 and some in bulk in #be-pound boxes4 ,information has recently been sent out to the effect that the ,california ,associated ,raisin ,co4 is arranging to do away with the grades in seeded raisins1 so there will only be one grade4 ,this contemplates using all of the ,three-,crown1 the smallest of the ,four-,crown1 and the best of the ,two-,crown in one blended grade4 ,from the seeds1 formerly used as a fuel1 a number of by-products are now made4 ,the seeds and pedicels removed from the raisins in seeding vary from #aj to #ab per cent of the original weight of the raisins according to their conditions and quality4 ,the grading1 seeding1 facing1 and packing have become separate branches of the industry1 and the work is nearly all done by especially trained women1 who have become experts at it4 ,the establishments in which this work is done furnish employment for over #ejjj persons4 ,the aggregate pay roll each month during the season is between #bjj1jjj and #cej1jjj4 ,,grape-,,vinegar ,a very good vinegar can be made from grapes1 although as yet this outlet for over-production is not largely utilized in ,america4 ,grapes which are unsuitable for raisins1 dessert1 wine-making or grape-juice can be used for vinegar-making4 ,under the most favorable conditions1 grape-vinegar cannot compete in cheapness with vinegar made from numerous other products and must1 therefore1 always sell at a high price4 ,indeed1 it is doubtful whether a high-grade grape-vinegar can be manufactured at a less price than good wine4 ,the production of grape-vinegar requires as much care1 but possibly not as much expert knowledge1 as the making of wine4 ,unlike the latter1 however1 the vinegar can be produced on a small scale for domestic purposes by any one possessing a knowledge of wine-making or vinegar-making4 ,grape-vinegar may be manufactured from either white or red grapes1 although that from white grapes is generally preferred4 ,it may be made either directly from grapes or from wine1 the acetifying process being the same for both4 ,there are1 therefore1 two distinct stages in the manufacture of this product4 ,first1 there must be alcoholic fermentation by which the sugar in the grape is changed into alcohol with the escape of carbonic acid gas4 ,second1 acetic fermentation must follow the alcoholic fermentation by which the alcohol is changed into acetic acid4 ,,by-,,products ,,of ,,grape ,,industries ,there are several valuable by-products in the wine-making and grape-juice industries1 and even raisin-making yields a by-product in the seeds taken from the raisins4 ,the utilization of these wastes has been rendered profitable in ,europe1 and there is no reason why by-products should not yield considerable profit in ,america1 as a few already do4 ,good authorities state that if all the wastes of the grape crop could be utilized the value of the crop would be increased over #aj per cent4 ,pomace4 ,the pomace or marc1 the residue left after grape pressing1 is the most valuable of the by-products of the wine and grape-juice manufacturers4 ,if the pomace is permitted to ferment1 and afterwards is distilled1 a product called pomace-brandy is made4 ,unscrupulous wine-makers often add water and sugar to pomace1 after which it is refermented and the resulting product is sold as wine4 ,notwithstanding the fact that the word wine as applied to this product is a misnomer1 the total amount of such wine made and consumed in ,america is large4 ,piquette is another product in which the pomace is put into fermenting vats1 sprinkled with water and the liquid after a time is drawn off1 carrying with it the wine contained in the pomace4 ,this liquid is re-used in other pomace1 until it is high enough in alcoholic strength1 when it is distilled into piquette or wash4 ,in ,europe1 the pomace from stemmed grapes is said to make a sheep and cattle food of more or less value when salted slightly and stored in silos4 ,the pomace is also oftentimes used as a manure1 for which it has considerable to recommend it1 being rich in potash and nitrogen4 ,acetic acid is made from pomace by drying it in vapor-tight rooms1 during which process #ej to #fj per cent of the weight of the pomace becomes vapor1 and this1 condensed1 yields considerable quantities of acetic acid4 ,cream-of-tartar4 ,the lees of wine1 the sediment which settles in the casks in which new wine or grape-juice is stored1 form a grayish or reddish crust on the inside of the receptacle4 ,this is the argol or wine-stone of the wine-maker1 and from it is made cream-of-tartar1 an article considerably used in medicine1 the arts and for culinary purposes4 ,from #bj to #gj per cent of the lees consist of either cream-of-tartar1 or of calcium tartrate1 the latter also having commercial value4 ,red wines are much richer in argol than white wines4 ,a ton of grapes yields from one to two pounds of argol4 ,this product becomes a source of considerable profit in large wineries and in grape-juice manufacturing plants4 ,seeds4 ,in ,europe1 the seeds are separated from the pomace and used in various ways4 ,they are also utilized to a smaller extent in ,america1 especially when separated from raisins4 ,the seeds are used as food for horses1 cattle and poultry1 for which they are said to have considerable value4 ,if crushed and ground1 the seeds yield a clear yellow oil which burns without smoke or smell and which may also be employed as a substitute for olive oil4 ,a ton of grapes yields from forty to one hundred pounds of seeds from which may be made from three to sixteen pounds of oil4 ,this oil is also used as a substitute for linseed oil and in soap-making4 ,besides oil1 the seeds yield tannin4 ,after the oil and tannin have been taken from the seeds1 there remains a meal which may still be utilized as a stock food or as a fertilizer4 ,,domestic ,,uses ,,for ,,grapes ,at present1 when food conservation is being emphasized everywhere1 mention of the domestic use for grapes is particularly appropriate4 ,the country over1 no fruit is more generally grown than the grape2 yet grape products are not as common for home use as those of several other fruits1 although many attractive and appetizing preserves can be made from grapes without the use of large quantities of sugar1 spices or other ingredients4 ,few housekeepers realize the high quality and the cheapness of the products that can be made from the grape4 ,thus1 grape-juice1 jelly1 jam1 marmalade1 grape-butter1 catsup1 spiced grapes1 canned grapes1 conserves in which grapes are used1 preserves and mince-meat are among the desirable culinary products easily and cheaply prepared from home-grown grapes or those bought in the market4 ,only simple domestic utensils are needed in the preparation of any of these products4 ,grape-sirup is less easily produced1 yet can be made in any home without the addition of sugar4 ,it is not only a good table sirup1 but is a most useful sugar substitute for the preparation of other culinary products4 ,the ,muscadine grapes in the ,south1 to be purchased by almost every householder in southeastern ,united ,states1 in particular1 are useful for these domestic products4 ,recipes for all of these products can be found in cook books1 and one or two bulletins and circulars from the ,united ,states ,department of ,agriculture give recipes for preparing grapes for domestic purposes4 ,farmers' ,bulletin #hei entitled ,home ,uses for ,muscadine ,grapes is a particularly valuable publication on this subject4 ,it is interesting to note that several large manufacturers of grape-juice are putting on the market grape jams1 jellies and marmalades4 ,it would seem that these delicious and wholesome products would find a ready sale in the markets of the country1 and that their manufacture would prove profitable to the maker and to the grape-grower4 ,the greater the use of grapes for their products1 the better the grower can breast the blows of unfavorable markets and over-production4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xx4--,isabella 7#b_/c74 ,,chapter ,,xv ,,grape-,,breeding ,chance1 pure and simple1 has been the greatest factor in the production of varieties of ,american grapes4 ,from the millions of wild plants1 an occasional grape of pre-eminent merit has caught the eye of the cultivator and has been brought into the vineyard to be the progenitor of a new variety4 ,or in the vineyards1 more often in near-by waste lands1 from the prodigious number of seedlings that spring up1 pure or cross-bred1 a plant of merit becomes the foundation of a new variety4 ,an interesting fact in the domestication of the four chief species of ,american grapes is that none came under cultivation until forms of them1 striking in value1 had been found4 ,catawba1 representing the ,labrusca grapes2 the ,scuppernong1 the ,rotundifolias2 ,norton1 from ,vitis stivalis2 ,delaware and ,herbemont from the ,bourquiniana grapes2 and ,clinton from ,vitis vulpina1 are1 after a century1 scarcely excelled1 although in each species there are now many new varieties4 ,that our best grapes have come from chance is not because of a lack of human effort to produce superior varieties4 ,of all fruits1 the grape has received most attention in ,america from the generation of plant-breeders just passing4 ,grape-breeders have produced #bjjj or more varieties1 a medley of the heterogeneous characters of a dozen species4 ,that so many of this vast number are worthless is due more to a lack of knowledge of plant-breeding than to a lack of effort1 for the order and system in plant-breeding that now prevail1 disclosed by recent brilliant discoveries1 were unknown to grape-breeders of the last century4 ,,grape ,,hybrids ,as early as #ahbb1 ,nuttall1 a noted botanist1 then at ,harvard1 recommended hybrids betwixt the ,european vine and those of the ,united ,states which would better answer the variable climates of ,north ,america4 ,in #ahcj1 ,william ,robert ,prince1 ,fig4 #dh1 fourth proprietor of the then famous ,linnean ,botanic ,nursery at ,flushing1 ,long ,island1 grew #aj1jjj seedling grapes from admixture under every variety of circumstance4 ,this was probably the first attempt on a large scale to improve the native grapes by hybridizing1 although little seems to have come of it4 ,later1 a ,dr4 ,valk1 also of ,flushing1 grew hybrids from which he obtained ,ada1 the first named hybrid1 the introduction of which started hybridizers to work in all parts of the country where grapes were grown4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dh4 ,william ,robert ,prince4 ,soon after ,valk's hybrid was sent out1 ,e4 ,s4 ,rogers1 ,fig4 #di1 ,salem1 ,massachusetts1 and ,j4 ,h4 ,ricketts1 ,newburgh1 ,new ,york1 began to give viticulturists hybrids of the ,european ,vinifera and the ,american species which were so promising that enthusiasm and speculation in grape-growing ran riot4 ,never before nor since has grape-growing received the attention in ,america as given during the introduction of ,rogers' hybrids4 ,it was the expectation of all that we were to grow in ,america1 in these hybrids1 grapes but little inferior1 if at all1 to those of ,europe4 ,a statement of the difference between ,european and ,american grapes shows why ,american viticulturists have been so eager to grow either pure-breds from the foreign grape or hybrids with it4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #di4 ,e4 ,s4 ,rogers4 ,european grapes have a higher sugar-and-solid content than the ,american species2 they1 therefore1 make better wines and keep much longer after harvesting and can be made into raisins4 ,also1 they have a greater variety of flavors1 which are more delicate1 yet richer1 with a pleasanter aroma1 seldom so acid1 and are always lacking the disagreeable1 rancid odor and taste1 the foxiness1 of many ,american varieties4 ,there is1 however1 an unpleasant astringency in some of the foreign grapes1 and many varieties are without character of flavor4 ,american table-grapes1 on the other hand1 are more refreshing1 the unfermented juice makes a pleasanter drink1 and lacking sweetness and richness1 they do not cloy the appetite so quickly4 ,the bunches and berries of the ,european grapes are larger1 more attractive and are borne in greater quantities4 ,the pulp1 seeds and skins are somewhat objectionable in all of the native species and scarcely so at all in the ,old ,world sorts4 ,the berries of the native grapes shell from the stem so quickly that the bunches do not ship well4 ,the vines of the ,old ,world grapes are more compact in habit and require less pruning and training than do those of the native grapes2 and1 as a species1 probably through long cultivation1 they are adapted to more kinds of soil1 to greater differences in environment and are more easily propagated than the ,american species4 ,because of these points of superiority in the ,old ,world grape1 since ,valk1 ,allen and ,rogers showed the way1 ,american grape-breeders have sought to unite by hybridization the good characters of the ,old ,world grape with those of the ,american4 ,nearly half of the #bjjj grapes cultivated in eastern ,america have more or less ,european blood in them4 ,yet1 despite the efforts of the breeders1 few of these hybrids have commercial value4 ,whether because they are naturally better fixed1 or long cultivation has more firmly established them1 the vine characters of ,vitis vinifera more often appear in varieties arising as primary hybrids between that and the native species1 and the weaknesses of the foreign grape1 which prevent their cultivation in ,america1 crop out4 ,hybrids in which the vinifera blood is more attenuated1 as secondary or tertiary crosses1 give better results4 ,several secondary hybrids now rank among the best of the cultivated grapes4 ,examples are ,brighton and ,diamond4 ,the first is a cross between ,diana-,hamburg1 a hybrid of a ,vinifera and a ,labrusca1 crossed in its turn with ,concord1 a ,labrusca2 the second is a cross between ,iona1 also a hybrid between a ,vinifera and a ,labrusca1 crossed with ,concord4 ,both were grown from seed planted by ,jacob ,moore1 ,brighton1 ,new ,york1 in #ahgj4 ,brighton was the first secondary hybrid to attract the attention of grape-breeders1 and its advent marked an important step in breeding grapes4 ,the signal success achieved by hybridizers of the ,european grape with native species quickly led to similar amalgamations among ,american species4 ,jacob ,rommel1 of ,morrison1 ,missouri1 beginning work about #ahfj1 hybridized ,labrusca and ,vulpina grapes so successfully that a dozen or more of his varieties are still cultivated4 ,all are characterized by great vigor and productiveness2 and1 although they lack the qualities which make good table-grapes1 they are among the best for wine-making4 ,rommel has had many followers in hybridizing native species1 chief of whom was the late ,t4 ,v4 ,munson1 ,fig4 #ej1 ,denison1 ,texas1 who literally made every combination of grapes possible1 grew thousands of seedlings and produced many valuable varieties4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ej4 ,t4 ,v4 ,munson4 ,improvement by selection4 ,selection1 continued through successive generations1 so important in the improvement of field and garden plants1 has played but small part in the domestication of the grape4 ,the period between planting and fruiting is so long that progress would be slow indeed were this method relied on4 ,moreover1 selection1 as a method in breeding1 is possible only when plants are bred pure1 and it is the experience of grape-breeders that in pure breeding this fruit loses in vigor and productiveness and that the variations are exceedingly slight and unstable4 ,many pure-bred grapes have been raised on the grounds of the ,new ,york ,agricultural ,experiment ,station under the eyes of the writer1 of which very few have surpassed the parent or have shown promise for the practice of selection4 ,new varieties from sports4 ,bud-sports or mutations now and then arise in grapes4 ,but not more than two or three of the #bjjj varieties now under cultivation are suspected of having arisen in this way4 ,it is true that mutations seem to occur rather often in grapes1 but they are easily confused with variations due to environment and are usually too vague to lay hands on4 ,until the causes of these mutations are known and until they can be produced and controlled1 but little can be hoped for in the amelioration of grapes through mutations4 ,,hybridizing ,,the ,,grape ,hybridization has been the chief means of improving the grape4 ,at present1 from what is being accomplished by many workers1 it looks as if it will long continue to be the best means of improving this fruit4 ,since the grape-grower must depend on new varieties for progress1 as old varieties cannot be changed1 it should be the ambition of growers to produce varieties better than those we now have4 ,many amateur and professional grape-growers in the past have found breeding grapes a pleasing and profitable hobby1 so that much knowledge has accumulated in regard to manipulating the plants in hybridization1 and the results that follow in the offspring of hybridization4 ,how to hybridize4 ,it is assumed that the reader is familiar with the botany of flowers and the essential principles in crossing plants4 ,if he is not1 he must carefully study the structure of flowers1 especially those of the grape1 so as to be able to distinguish the different organs and to discover when the pollen and stigma are ready for the work of pollination4 ,he should1 also1 read any one of several current books on plant-breeding4 ,the first task in crossing grapes is to remove the anthers before the flower opens1 a process known as emasculation4 ,this is necessary to prevent self-pollination4 ,this first operation having been performed1 the cluster of grape-flowers must be tied securely in a bag to protect it from foreign pollen which otherwise would surely be carried to the stigma by insects4 ,as soon as the stigma is ready to receive the pollen1 the bag is removed and pollen from the male parent is applied1 after which the bag is again put on the flower to remain until the grapes are well set4 ,by examining the stigmas in the flowers of uncovered grapes1 the operator can tell approximately whether the covered stigma is ready to receive pollen4 ,the time required after covering depends1 of course1 on the age of the bud when emasculation takes place4 ,it is1 by the way1 best to delay emasculation until just before the flowers open1 but one must be certain that the anthers have not discharged their pollen before the flower has been emasculated4 ,emasculation is a simple operation4 ,the essential organs of the grape-flower are covered by a small cap2 this in some grapes must be removed before the anthers can be reached4 ,in many native grapes1 however1 the cap and the anthers may be removed at one stroke by the operator4 ,the best tool for this is a small pair of forceps4 ,each of the blades of the forceps in working with native grapes should have a sharp cutting surface1 but with ,vinifera sorts1 where the cap must be removed before the anthers can be reached1 forcep blades with a flat surface are best4 ,there is1 of course1 some danger when the buds are well developed that the pollen may be squeezed out and so reach the stigma or adhere to the instrument and thus contaminate future crosses4 ,the first danger must be avoided carefully by the skill of the operator1 while the second is easily overcome by sterilizing the forceps in alcohol4 ,an effort should be made to fertilize as many of the flowers in the cluster as possible1 but success is not always certain2 when there is doubt1 the uncertain flower should be removed from the cluster4 ,the flower from which the pollen is to be taken must be protected from wind and insects2 otherwise pollen from another flower may be left on it4 ,protection should be given by tying the flowers in a bag while still in bud4 ,there are various ways of obtaining pollen from ripe anthers and applying it to the stigma of the flowers to be crossed4 ,the simplest is to crush the anthers1 thus squeezing out the pollen1 after which1 with a brush1 scalpel or other instrument1 it may be placed upon the stigma4 ,a brush is very wasteful of pollen and often becomes a source of contamination to future crosses1 so that the scalpel is the better implement of the two4 ,when pollen is plentiful1 as will usually be the case when a man is working with vines in his own vineyard1 by far the best method is to take the cluster from the male vine and apply the pollen directly to the stigma of the flower to be crossed1 thereby making certain of fresh pollen and an abundance of it4 ,the stigma1 if pollen suffice1 should be covered with pollen4 ,grape pollen does not keep well and an effort should be made to have it as fresh as possible4 ,the work of pollination is best performed in bright1 sunny weather when the pollen is very dry4 ,as may be seen from the foregoing statements1 tools and methods are of less importance than care in doing the work4 ,the only tool absolutely necessary is a pair of forceps1 although a hand-lens is often helpful4 ,bags for covering the flowers should be just large enough and no larger4 ,a bag to cover the pollen-producing flower may well be an ordinary manilla bag sufficiently large to amply cover the flower-cluster4 ,it is helpful1 however1 to have a light transparent oiled bag through which one can see the condition of the anthers4 ,it is desirable that the bag for the female flower be permitted to remain until the fruits ripen as a protection against birds and fungi4 ,it must1 therefore1 be of larger size4 ,while the bags are still flat1 a hole is made near the opening through which a string is passed which can be tied when the upper end of the bag is squeezed about the cluster4 ,choosing the parents4 ,very much depends on the immediate parentage in hybridizing grapes4 ,some varieties when crossed produce much higher averages of worthy offspring than others4 ,there is so much difference in varieties in this respect that to discover parents so endowed should be the first task of the grape-breeder4 ,fortunately1 considerable work has been done by several experiment stations in breeding grapes1 and their accumulated knowledge1 together with that from such workers as ,rogers1 ,ricketts1 ,campbell and ,munson1 furnishes beginners with good starting points4 ,there is no way possible of discovering what the best progenitors are except by records of performance4 ,very often varieties of high cultural value are worthless in breeding because their characters seem not to be transmitted to their progeny and1 to the contrary1 a good-for-nothing variety in the vineyard is often valuable in breeding4 ,from present knowledge it does not appear that new characters are introduced in plants by hybridizing4 ,a new variety originating from hybridization is but a recombination of the characters of the parents2 the combination is new but the characters are not4 ,thus1 one parent of a hybridized grape may contribute color1 size1 flavor and practically all the characters of the fruit1 while the other parent may contribute vigor1 hardiness1 resistance to disease and the characters of the vine4 ,or these and other characters in the make-up of a new grape may be intermingled in any mathematical way possible4 ,the grape-breeder must make certain that one or the other of the parents possesses the particular characters he desires in his new grape4 ,it is now known that the characters of the grape1 in common with those of other plants1 are inherited in accordance with certain laws discovered by ,mendel4 ,the early workers in grape-breeding did not know of these laws and could not take aim in the work they were doing4 ,consequently1 hybridization was a maze in which these breeders often lost themselves4 ,mendel's discoveries1 however1 assure a regularity of averages and give a definiteness and constancy of action which enable the grape-breeder to attain with fair certainty what he wants if he keeps patiently at his task4 ,the grape-breeder should inform himself as to what ,mendel's laws are1 and on the work that has been done on the inheritance of characters of the grape4 ,a technical bulletin published by the ,state ,experiment ,station at ,geneva1 ,new ,york1 and another from the ,north ,carolina ,station at ,raleigh give much information on the inheritance of characters in certain grapes1 and further information can be secured by applying to the ,united ,states ,department of ,agriculture at ,washington for literature on the subject4 ,the grape-breeder can hope to progress only by making many combinations between different varieties and growing large numbers of seedlings4 ,he should extend his work to all varieties which show promise in the breeding of grapes for the particular purpose he has in mind4 ,the seed may be saved and planted as directed in the chapter on propagation4 ,unless he desires to make scientific interpretations of his results1 weak seedlings should be discarded the first year1 and a second discard may be made before the young plants go in the vineyard4 ,the breeder will soon discover that he can tell fairly well from the character of the seedlings whether they are of sufficient promise to keep4 ,thus1 if the number of leaves is small or if the leaves themselves are small1 the vine is of doubtful value2 if the internodes are exceedingly long1 the prospect is poor2 slenderness of cane1 if accentuated1 does not promise well2 on the other hand1 great stoutness and very short internodes are not desirable indications4 ,through these and other signs1 the breeder will come quickly to know which vines should eventually go to the vineyard4 ,,results ,,of ,,grape-,,breeding ,there are now #bjjj or more varieties of grapes of ,american origin1 all produced within approximately a century4 ,it is doubtful whether any other cultivated plant at any time in the history of the world has attained such importance in so short a time from the wild state as ,american grapes4 ,it would seem that almost every possible combination between species worth considering has been made4 ,through hybridization1 species and varieties have become so mixed that the grape-breeder cannot now work intelligently with these gross forms and must work with characters rather than with species and varieties which are but combinations of characters4 ,great progress1 it is true1 has been made in the past in breeding grapes in ,america1 but the work has been wholly empirical and extremely wasteful4 ,many varieties have been called1 but few have been chosen4 ,with the new knowledge of breeding and with the experience of past workers1 progress should be made with greater certainty4 ,from what has been done and from work now under way1 it is not too much to say that we shall soon be growing grapes everywhere in ,america1 and kinds so diverse that they will meet not only all purposes to which grapes are now put1 but also the demand for better grapes made by more critical consumers4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxi4--,jefferson 7#c_/e74 ,,chapter ,,xvi ,,miscellanies ,there yet remain several phases of grape-culture essential to success1 none of which quite deserves a chapter and none of which properly falls into any of the foregoing chapters4 ,the subjects are not closely related1 are by no means of equal importance1 yet all are too important to be relegated to the limbo of an appendix and are1 therefore1 thrown into a chapter of miscellanies4 ,,cross-,,pollination ,the blooming of the vine had little significance to the grape-grower1 the blooming period being so late that grapes are seldom caught by frost1 until the discovery was made that many varieties of grapes are unable to fertilize themselves1 and that failure of crops of these varieties was often due to the self-sterility of the variety4 ,until this discovery1 the uncertainty attending the setting of the grape in these varieties was one of the discouragements of grape-growing4 ,following investigations of the self-sterility of the tree-fruits1 an investigation of the grape showed that the vines of this fruit are often self-sterile4 ,this knowledge has in some degree modified the planting of all home collections and has more or less affected the plantings of commercial sorts4 ,varieties of ,american grapes show most remarkable differences in the degree of self-fertility4 ,many sorts fruit perfectly without cross-pollination4 ,others set no fruit whatsoever if cross-pollination is not provided for4 ,most varieties1 however1 are found in groups between the two extremes1 neither self-fertile nor self-sterile4 ,figure #ea shows staminate and perfect clusters on one vine4 ,some varieties show no variation in the degree of self-sterility or self-fertility2 others behave differently in regard to these characters under different environment4 ,now and then the widest variations are to be found in a variety in respect to self-fertility4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ea4 ,staminate and perfect clusters on one vine2 right1 staminate2 left1 perfect4 ,following the lead of ,beach at the ,new ,york ,agricultural ,experiment ,station1 several workers have made careful studies of the self-fertility of the grape1 and now the cultivated varieties of native grapes are divided into four groups in accordance with the degree of self-fertility4 ,class ,i includes self-fertile varieties having perfect or nearly perfect clusters2 ,class ,,ii includes self-fertile varieties having clusters loose but marketable2 ,class ,,iii includes varieties which are so imperfectly self-fertile that the clusters are generally too loose to be marketable2 ,class ,,iv includes self-sterile varieties4 ,the following is a list of commonly cultivated grapes classified according to the divisions just given3 ,,classification ,,of ,,grapes ,,according ,,to ,,self-,,fertility ,,class ,i4 ,clusters perfect or varying from perfect to somewhat loose4 ,berckmans ,bertha ,cottage ,croton ,delaware ,diana ,etta ,janesville ,lady ,washington ,lutie ,moore ,early ,poughkeepsie ,pocklington ,prentiss ,rochester ,senasqua ,winchell ,,class ,,ii4 ,clusters marketable2 moderately compact or loose4 ,agawam ,brilliant ,brown ,catawba ,champion ,chautauqua ,clinton ,colerain ,concord ,dutchess ,early ,victor ,elvira ,empire ,state ,fern ,munson ,hartford ,iona ,isabella ,isabella ,seedling ,jefferson ,jessica ,lady ,mills ,missouri ,riesling ,perkins ,rommel ,triumph ,ulster ,,class ,,iii4 ,clusters unmarketable4 ,brighton ,canada ,dracut ,amber ,eumelan ,geneva ,hayes ,lindley ,noah ,northern ,muscadine ,vergennes ,,class ,,iv4 ,self-sterile4 ,no fruit develops on covered clusters4 ,america ,aminia ,barry ,black ,eagle ,clevener ,creveling ,eldorado ,faith 787 ,gaertner ,grein ,golden ,hercules ,jewel ,massasoit ,maxatawney 787 ,merrimac ,montefiore ,requa ,salem ,wyoming ,in the main1 the cause of infertility1 as with other fruits1 is the impotency of pollen on the pistils of the same variety4 ,there are a few cases in which pollen does not seem to be formed abundantly1 but these are very few4 ,there are a few cases1 also1 in which the pistil does not become receptive until after the pollen has lost its vitality2 these1 however1 are very few4 ,in a greater number of cases the pollen is found defective4 ,however1 dismissing all of these as the exception1 the rule is that self-sterility is due1 as has been said1 to the lack of affinity between pollen and pistils produced on the vines of some varieties4 ,nature is helpful to the grape-grower in giving a guide to self-fertility4 ,the length of stamens is a fairly safe indication of self-fertility4 ,all grapes which are self-fertile bear flowers with long stamens1 although the latter are not a sure sign of self-fertility1 as a few varieties with long stamens are self-sterile4 ,on the other hand1 short or recurved stamens are always associated with complete or nearly complete self-sterility4 ,the remedy for self-sterility is inter-planting4 ,only the varieties named in ,classes ,i and ,,ii in the foregoing classification should be planted alone4 ,the sorts named in ,classes ,,iii and ,,iv must be planted near other sorts which bloom at the same time in order that their flowers may be cross-pollinated4 ,it is evident that the grape-grower must have some knowledge of the relative time that grapes bloom1 if he is to plant intelligently to secure cross-pollination4 ,the following table1 taken from ,bulletin #djg of the ,new ,york ,agricultural ,experiment ,station1 shows the blooming time of grapes at that ,station4 ,variations due to location and season must be expected1 but within the bounds of the regions in which these grapes are grown variations will be slight4 ,when this table is used for other regions than ,new ,york1 it must be borne in mind that the farther south1 the longer the blooming season2 the farther north1 the shorter the season4 ,blooming dates of grapes4 ,from three years' records1 the average length of blooming season for grapes was twenty days1 nineteen days in #aiab and #aiad and twenty-two days in #aiac4 ,the first date in the average year of #aiab was ,june #ad1 while for #aiad1 it was ,june #g3 ,,table ,,iv4--,,showing ,,blooming ,,time ,,of ,,grapes ,,very ,,mid- ,,very ,,early ,,early ,,season ,,late ,,late ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,agawam 99 ,america 99 ,august ,giant 99 ,bacchus 99 ,barry 99 ,beacon 99 ,bell 99 ,berckmans 99 ,black ,eagle 99 ,brighton 99 ,brilliant 99 ,brown 99 ,campbell ,early 99 ,canada 99 ,canandaigua 99 ,carman 99 ,catawba 99 ,champion 99 ,chautauqua 99 ,clevener 99 ,clinton 99 ,colerain 99 ,columbian ,imperial 99 ,concord 99 ,cottage 99 ,creveling 99 ,croton 99 ,delago 99 ,delaware 99 ,diamond 99 ,diana 99 ,downing 99 ,dracut ,amber 99 ,dutchess 99 ,early ,victor 99 ,eaton 99 ,eclipse 99 ,eldorado 99 ,elvira 99 ,empire ,state 99 ,etta 99 ,eumedel 99 ,eumelan 99 ,faith 99 ,fern ,munson 99 ,gaertner 99 ,geneva 99 ,goethe 99 ,gold ,coin 99 ,grein ,golden 99 ,hartford 99 ,headlight 99 ,helen ,keller 99 ,herbert 99 ,hercules 99 ,hicks 99 ,hidalgo 99 ,hosford 99 ,iona 99 ,isabella 99 ,janesville 99 ,jefferson 99 ,jessica 99 ,jewel 99 ,kensington 99 ,king 99 ,lady ,washington 99 ,lindley 99 ,lucile 99 ,lutie 99 ,mc,pike 99 ,manito 99 ,martha 99 ,massasoit 99 ,maxatawney 99 ,merrimac 99 ,mills 99 ,missouri ,riesling 99 ,montefiore 99 ,moore ,early 99 ,moyer 99 ,nectar 99 ,niagara 99 ,noah 99 ,northern ,muscadine 99 ,norton 99 ,oporto 99 ,ozark 99 ,peabody 99 ,perfection 99 ,perkins 99 ,pierce 99 ,pocklington 99 ,poughkeepsie 99 ,prentiss 99 ,rebecca 99 ,regal 99 ,requa 99 ,rochester 99 ,rommel 99 ,salem 99 ,secretary 99 ,senasqua 99 ,stark-,star 99 ,triumph 99 ,ulster 99 ,vergennes 99 ,winchell 99 ,worden 99 ,wyoming 99 ,,ringing ,,grape ,,vines ,the ringing of woody plants is a well-known horticultural practice4 ,three objects may be attained by ringing3 unproductive plants may be brought into bearing by ringing2 the size of the fruits may be increased and thereby the plants be made more productive2 and the maturity of the fruit may be hastened4 ,in ,european countries1 ringing has long been practiced with all tree-fruits and the grape1 but in ,america the operation is recommended only for the apple and the grape and with neither fruit is ringing widely practiced4 ,experiments carried on at the ,new ,york ,agricultural ,experiment ,station by ,paddock1 as reported in ,bulletin #aea from this ,station1 show that ringing may well be practiced by grape-growers under some conditions4 ,since ,paddock's experiments1 and possibly to some extent before1 the grape has been ringed to produce exhibition fruits or a fancy product for the market4 ,ringing consists in taking from the vine a layer of bark around the vine through the cortex and bast of the plant4 ,the width of the wound varies from that of a simple cut made with a knife to a band of bark an inch in diameter4 ,the operation is performed during that period of growth in which the bark peels most readily from the vine1 the period of greatest cambial activity4 ,the term ringing is preferred to girdling1 a word sometimes used1 since the latter properly designates a wound which extends into and usually kills the plant4 ,the theory of ringing is simple4 ,unassimilated sap passes from the roots of the plant to the leaves through the outer layer of the woody cylinder4 ,in the leaves this raw material is acted on by various agents1 after which it is distributed to the several organs of the plant through vessels in the inner bark4 ,when plants are ringed1 the upward flow of sap is continued as before the operation1 but the newly made food compounds cannot pass beyond the injury1 and therefore the top of the plant is supplied with an extra amount of food at the expense of the parts below the ring4 ,the extra food produces the results noted4 ,it turns out in practice that ringing is usually harmful to the plant1 as one might expect from so unnatural an operation4 ,injury to the plant arises from the fact that parts of the vine are starved at the expense of other parts2 and because1 when the bark is removed1 the outer layers of the woody cylinder dry out very quickly and thus check to some extent the upward flow of sap through evaporation from the exposed wood4 ,thus1 not infrequently1 the plant's vitality is seriously drained4 ,nevertheless1 vineyards may be found in which ringing has been extensively practiced many seasons in succession and which continue to yield profitable crops1 the growers having learned to perform the work of ringing so as to injure the vines but little4 ,ringing without harm to the plant depends much on the way in which the vines have been pruned4 ,for instance1 if the vines are pruned to the two-arm ,kniffin method1 the ringing of bark should be done from both arms just beyond the fifth bud4 ,thus1 the ten buds left on the vine produce enough leaf surface to supply the food necessary to keep the vine in vigorous condition4 ,when the four-arm ,kniffin method is used1 the two top arms only are ringed1 and even so three or four buds must be left on each for renewals4 ,whatever the method of training1 it will be seen from these examples that some unringed wood must be left to the vine with which to supply leafy shoots to support the vine4 ,some growers ring their vines only every other year1 thus giving them an opportunity to recover from whatever loss of vigor they may have sustained in the season of ringing4 ,several other considerations are important in ringing3 ,first1 the vines must not be permitted to carry too large a crop4 ,again1 the amount of fruit on the ringed portion of the vine must depend on the amount of leaf surface not only of the plant but of the ringed arms1 each ringed arm acting somewhat independently so far as its crop is concerned4 ,if too many clusters are left on the ringed arms1 it always follows that the fruit is inferior and often worthless4 ,lastly1 all fruit between the rings and the trunk must be removed1 for it does not mature properly and so adds only to the drain on the plant's vitality4 ,as to the results1 it is certain from the experiments that have been conducted and from the experience of grape-growers1 that the maturity of the fruit is hastened1 and berries and bunches are larger when the ringing has been done intelligently4 ,many growers hold that fruit produced on ringed vines is never quite up to the mark in quality and in firmness of fruit4 ,there seems to be a difference in opinion about this falling off in quality1 however1 although unquestionably1 choice sorts1 as ,delaware1 ,iona and ,dutchess1 suffer more or less in quality4 ,it is commonly agreed1 also1 that varieties1 the fruits of which crack badly1 as the ,worden1 suffer more from cracking on ringed than on unringed vines4 ,experiment and experience prove that the best results of ringing are obtained if the work is done when the grapes are about one-third grown4 ,of course the exact time depends on the season and on the variety4 ,the operation is variously performed and is easily done with a sharp knife1 but when large vineyards are to be ringed the grower ought to provide himself with some simple tool4 ,paddock1 in the bulletin previously mentioned1 pictures two of these tools and these are reproduced in ,fig4 #eb4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eb4 ,tools used in ringing grape-vines are shown in #a and #b2 while #c and #d show ringed vines at the beginning and the close of the season4 ,in conclusion it must be said that it is doubtful whether the gains attained by ringing offset the losses4 ,the practice is chiefly of value only when exhibition clusters of grapes are wanted or when it is necessary to hasten the maturity of the crop4 ,always1 however1 the work must be performed with intelligence and judgment or the losses will offset the gains4 ,,bagging ,,grapes ,in some localities bagging is considered an essential to profitable grape-growing4 ,the bags serve to protect the grapes against birds4 ,in some grape regions vineyards suffer more from the depredations of robins and other birds than from all other troubles4 ,grapes bearing small berries and having tender pulp and those which shell most readily from the stem suffer most4 ,of standard sorts1 ,delaware is probably more enticing to robins than any other variety4 ,there is only one way of preventing damage to grapes from birds and that is by bagging the clusters4 ,bagging is also an effective means of protecting the grape from several fungi and insects4 ,in home plantations or small commercial vineyards1 bagging the bunches often eliminates the necessity of spraying for fungi and for most of the insects that trouble the grape4 ,because of the warmth afforded by the bags1 bagged grapes ripen a little earlier and are of somewhat higher quality than those not bagged4 ,grapes bagged are protected from early frost1 thus prolonging the season4 ,grapes that have been protected from the elements during the summer are more attractive than those exposed to the weather1 since the fruits are free from weather marks and present a fresh1 bright appearance1 which puts them in a grade above unbagged grapes4 ,bagging often enables the grower to sell his crop as a fancy product4 ,grapes are bagged as soon as the fruits are well set1 the sooner the better if protection against fungi is one of the purposes4 ,under no circumstances1 however1 should the clusters be bagged while in blossom4 ,a patent bag made for the purpose may be purchased or1 serving equally well1 the common one and one-half and two-pound manila bags used by grocers prove satisfactory4 ,one of the patent bags which is known as the ,ideal ,clasp ,bag has a metal clasp attached to the top for securing the bag in place over the cluster4 ,in using the grocer's bag1 before it is put in place the corners of both the top and bottom are cut off by placing several bags on a firm level surface and using a broad-shaped chisel4 ,cutting off the corners of the top enables the operator to close the bag neatly over the cluster1 while cutting off the corners of the bottom furnishes a means of escape for any water that gets in the bag4 ,in putting the bag in place1 the top is pinned above the lateral from which the bunch hangs1 and must not be fastened about the small stem of the cluster1 as the wind blowing the bag almost invariably breaks the cluster from the vine4 ,the largest pins to be purchased in dry-goods stores are used in pinning the bags4 ,the bags remain until the grapes are picked4 ,wet weather does not injure bags and seemingly they grow stronger with exposure to sun and wind4 ,the cost of the bags and the work of putting them on is no small item4 ,to secure the best results1 the work must be done at the period between the dropping of the blossoms and the formation of the seeds1 when the grapes are about the size of a small pea4 ,this is a busy time for the grape-grower1 which adds to the cost4 ,when the work is conducted on a large scale1 the cost is about two dollars a thousand bags1 this figure covering both the cost of bags and labor4 ,women do the work more expeditiously than men and soon become very skillful in putting on the bags4 ,despite the trouble and cost of bagging1 growers seeking to produce a fancy product find that the expenditure proves profitable4 ,,winter-,,protection ,,of ,,grapes ,with a little care as to winter-protection1 grapes may be grown profitably in northern regions where1 without protection1 the vines are killed or injured by low temperatures4 ,indeed1 it is little short of amazing how well grapes can be grown in northern regions where nature wears a most austere countenance in winter1 if hardy early sorts are planted in warm soils and situations1 and the vines are covered in the winter4 ,occasionally one finds grapes grown profitably in commercial vineyards in the northern states in regions where protection must be given to prevent winter-killing1 the extra work of giving protection being more than offset by the high price received in local markets for the fruit4 ,in all locations in which winter-protection must be given1 several other precautions are helpful or even necessary4 ,thus1 cultivation must cease early in the season1 and a cover-crop be sown to help harden and mature the vines4 ,the grapes1 also1 must not be planted in soils rich in nitrogen1 and nitrogenous fertilizers must be applied with care4 ,the pruning should be such as does not induce great growth4 ,these simple precautions to hasten maturity often suffice in climates where the danger of winter-killing is but slight1 but where danger is imminent the vines must be covered either by wrapping or by laying down4 ,wrapping with straw may suffice for a few vines1 but when many vines are to be protected1 laying them down is cheaper and much more effectual4 ,by laying down is meant that the vines must be placed on the ground and there be protected by earth and snow or other covering4 ,it is obvious that to protect thus1 the vines must receive special training2 otherwise the trunks may be too stiff for bending4 ,some method of training must be chosen in which renewals may be made rather frequently from the ground so that if the trunks become large1 clumsy and unpliable1 a more manageable trunk can be trained4 ,if the provisions for renewal are kept in mind1 any one of the several methods of training grapes explained in ,chapter ,,viii on training may be used4 ,laying down must be preceded by pruning1 after which the arms and trunk are loosened from the wires and bent to the ground4 ,bending is facilitated by removing a spade full of earth from the side of the vine in the direction in which the vine is to be bent4 ,the trunk is then laid on the earth and sufficient soil placed on it to keep it in place on the ground4 ,if the danger of winter-killing is great because of the tenderness of the variety or the austerity of the climate1 it often becomes necessary to cover the whole plant lightly with earth4 ,small growers often make use of coarse manure1 straw1 corn-stalks or similar covering1 in which case the vines are held on the ground by fence-rails or other timbers2 but protecting with material that must be brought into the vineyard is expensive and not more satisfactory than earth4 ,the vines can be put down at any time after the leaves drop and before the earth begins to freeze4 ,it is more important that the vines be taken up at the proper time in the spring4 ,if uncovered too early and cold weather follows1 injury may result and more harm be done than if the vines had not been covered4 ,on the other hand1 if the earth is permitted to remain too long1 foliage and vine are tender both to sunshine and frost4 ,a grape-grower in ,new ,york who has had much experience in laying down vines in a vineyard of some thirty or forty acres says that the work may be done at a cost of #f an acre at the average wage paid for farm-labor4 ,it must be expected in a large plantation1 no matter how well the work of covering is done1 that occasionally a trunk will be broken1 making it necessary to graft the vine if a shoot does not spring up from below the break4 ,,ripening ,,dates ,,and ,,length ,,of ,,season ,,for ,,grapes ,every grape-grower should know when his varieties may be expected to ripen and the length of season that they will keep4 ,the commercial fruit-grower by all means should have this information4 ,it is not sufficient that he know only roughly at what season his varieties ripen2 for1 to take the turn of the market1 he must know exactly when a variety will ripen and how long it will keep4 ,he needs this information1 also1 that he may distribute his labor better throughout the picking season4 ,unfortunately1 the data as to ripening time given by originators and introducers of varieties are not always reliable4 ,this untrustworthiness of data is readily accounted for in several ways3 ,first1 growers do not generally agree as to when grapes are ripe nor as to how long they are fit to eat4 ,again1 much confusion as to when varieties ripen and how long they will keep arises from the fact that grapes ripen at different times in different places1 and it is difficult for the grape-grower in ,maine to make allowance in season for varieties1 the time of ripening of which is given for ,maryland4 ,there are also other causes than the seasonal differences in grape regions for variability in ripening time2 thus1 some soils are warmer and quicker than others1 and on these grapes ripen earlier4 ,application of nitrogenous fertilizers may delay the period of ripening somewhat4 ,grapes ripen perceptibly earlier on old plants than on young ones4 ,lastly1 every vineyard in a particular region has its own particular climate caused by the lay of land1 nearness to water1 air currents and altitude which cause small differences in ripening4 ,the following table taken from ,bulletin ,no4 #djh of the ,new ,york ,agricultural ,experiment ,station gives the ripening dates of grapes at ,geneva1 ,new ,york4 ,it is necessary that the reader know something about the conditions affecting the ripening time at ,geneva4 ,the latitude is #db #ej' #df4 ,the altitude is #ebe feet above sea level4 ,the vineyard lies a mile west of a relatively large body of water4 ,the soil is a cold heavy clay which must delay ripening time somewhat4 ,the land is level4 ,the data are given as an average for three seasons1 #aiac-aiae4 ,the figures given for weeks in common storage cover a variable number of years1 but for all varieties three or more years4 ,the grapes1 after being picked1 were at once placed in common storage in a room on the second floor of a building4 ,there conditions were not ideal1 and no doubt the season of storage would have been prolonged somewhat had the fruit been kept in a better storage-room4 ,,table ,v4--,,showing ,,the ,,ripening ,,time ,,of ,,grapes ,,weeks ,,in ,,common ,,very ,,mid- ,,very ,,storage ,,early ,,early ,,season ,,late ,,late ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,agawam 99 ,america 99 ,barry #bh 99 ,beacon #g 99 ,bell #h 99 ,berckmans #ba 99 ,black ,eagle #ah 99 ,brighton #bj 99 ,brilliant #aa 99 ,brown #f 99 ,campbell ,early #ab 99 ,canada #ag 99 ,canandaigua #bj 99 ,carman #ag 99 ,catawba #ba 99 ,champion #f 99 ,chautauqua #aj 99 ,clevener #ac 99 ,clinton #ba 99 ,colerain #h 99 ,columbian ,imperial #g 99 ,concord #h 99 ,cottage #e 99 ,creveling #af 99 ,croton #bc 99 ,delago #be 99 ,delaware #ae 99 ,diamond #aj 99 ,diana #ag 99 ,downing 99 ,dracut ,amber #i 99 ,dutchess #bc 99 ,early ,ohio 99 ,early ,victor #aa 99 ,eaton #f 99 ,eclipse #g 99 ,eldorado #ag 99 ,elvira #ah 99 ,empire ,state #bd 99 ,etta #ae 99 ,eumelan #ag 99 ,faith #aa 99 ,fern ,munson #aa 99 ,gaertner #ag 99 ,geneva #bb 99 ,goethe #ah 99 ,gold ,coin #aj 99 ,grein ,golden #ab 99 ,hartford #h 99 ,headlight #h 99 ,helen ,keller #bf 99 ,herbert #bg 99 ,hercules #ac 99 ,hicks #aj 99 ,hidalgo #ab 99 ,hosford #f 99 ,iona #ac 99 ,isabella #aa 99 ,janesville #ac 99 ,jefferson #ah 99 ,jessica #ab 99 ,jewel #ab 99 ,kensington #ai 99 ,king 99 ,lady ,washington #af 99 ,lindley #bg 99 ,lucile #i 99 ,lutie #d 99 ,mc,pike #g 99 ,manito #g 99 ,martha #aj 99 ,massasoit #af 99 ,maxatawney #ab 99 ,merrimac #ca 99 ,mills #bi 99 ,missouri ,riesling #f 99 ,montefiore #i 99 ,moore ,early #f 99 ,moyer #i 99 ,nectar #aj 99 ,niagara #aj 99 ,noah #aj 99 ,northern ,muscadine #i 99 ,norton #g 99 ,oporto #ab 99 ,ozark #aa 99 ,peabody 99 ,perfection #h 99 ,perkins 99 ,pierce 99 ,pocklington 99 ,poughkeepsie #ae 99 ,prentiss #af 99 ,rebecca #ah 99 ,regal #af 99 ,requa #cj 99 ,rochester #g 99 ,rommel #aj 99 ,salem #bg 99 ,secretary #be 99 ,senasqua #ac 99 ,stark-,star #aj 99 ,triumph #ae 99 ,ulster #ba 99 ,vergennes #bh 99 ,wilder #aa 99 ,winchell #f 99 ,worden #f 99 ,wyoming #i 99 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxii4--,lindley 7#a_/b74 ,lucile 7#a_/b74 ,,chapter ,,xvii ,,grape ,,botany ,the grape-grower must know the gross structure and the habits of growth of the plants properly to propagate1 transplant1 prune and otherwise care for the grape4 ,certainly he must have knowledge of the several species from which varieties come if he is to know the kinds of grapes1 understand their adaptations to soils and climates1 their relation to insects and fungi1 and their value for table1 wine1 grape-juice and other purposes4 ,fortunately1 the botany of the grape is comparatively simple4 ,the organs of vine and fruit are distinctive and easily discerned and there are no nearly related plants cultivated for fruit with which the grape can possibly be confused4 ,botanists1 it is true1 have dug pitfalls for those who seek exact knowledge as to the names and characters of the many species1 but1 fortunately1 each of the cultivated species constitutes a natural group so distinct that the grape-grower can hardly mistake one for another in either fruit or vine4 ,,plant ,,characters ,,and ,,growth ,,habits ,,of ,,the ,,grape ,a grape plant is a complex organism with its many separate parts especially developed to do one or a few kinds of work4 ,the part of a plant devoted to one or a group of functions is called an organ4 ,the chief organs of the plant are the root1 stem1 bud1 flower1 leaf1 fruit and seed4 ,flowers and leaves1 it is true1 develop from buds and the seeds are parts of the fruits1 but for descriptive purposes the vine may well be divided into the parts named4 ,these chief organs are further divided as follows3 ,the root4 ,root-crown3 ,the region of the plant in which root and stem unite4 ,tap-root3 ,the prolongation of the stem plunging vertically downward4 ,rootlets3 ,the ultimate divisions of the root2 usually of one season's growth4 ,root-tips3 ,the extreme ends of the rootlets4 ,the roots of some species of the grape are soft and succulent as those of ,v4 vinifera1 while the same organs in other species1 as in most ,american grapes1 are hard and fibrous4 ,they may also be few or numerous1 deep or shallow1 spreading or restricted1 fibrous or non-fibrous4 ,the structure of the root thus becomes important in distinguishing species4 ,the stem4 ,stem or trunk3 ,the unbranched main axis of the plant above ground4 ,branches or arms3 ,main divisions of the trunk4 ,head3 ,the region from which branches arise4 ,old wood3 ,parts of the vine older than one year4 ,canes3 ,wood of the current season4 ,spurs3 ,short pieces of the bases of canes2 usually one or two nodes with a bud each4 ,renewal spurs3 ,spurs left to bear canes the following year4 ,shoots3 ,newly developed succulent stems with their leaves4 ,fruit-shoots3 ,flower and fruit-bearing shoots4 ,wood-shoots3 ,shoots which bear leaves only4 ,laterals3 ,secondary shoots arising from main shoots4 ,water sprouts3 ,shoots arising from adventitious buds4 ,suckers3 ,shoots arising from below ground4 ,nodes3 ,joints in the stem from which leaves are or may be borne4 ,internodes3 ,the part between two nodes4 ,diaphragm3 ,the woody tissue which interrupts the pith at the node4 ,bloom3 ,the powdery coating on the cane4 ,tendril3 ,the coiled1 thread-like organ by which the vine grasps an object and clings to it4 ,species of grapes have very characteristic vines4 ,a glance at a vine enables one to tell the ,european grape from any of the ,american grapes2 so1 also1 one is able to distinguish most of the ,american species by the aspect of the vine4 ,many varieties of any species of grape are readily told by the size and habits of the plant4 ,size of vine is rather more variable than other gross characters because of the influence of environment1 such as food1 moisture1 light1 isolation and pests2 yet1 size in a plant or the parts of a plant is a very reliable character when proper allowances are made for environment4 ,the degree of hardiness is a very important diagnostic character in determining both species and varieties of grapes and very largely indicates their value for the vineyard4 ,thus1 the varieties of the ,european grape are less hardy than the peach1 while our ,american ,labruscas and ,vulpinas are as hardy as the apple4 ,the range of varieties as to hardiness falls within that of the species1 and cultivated varieties hardier than the wild grape are not found4 ,grapes are designated in descriptions of varieties and species as hardy1 half-hardy and tender4 ,habit of growth varies but little with changing conditions and is thus an important means of distinguishing species and varieties and not infrequently stamps the variety as fit or unfit for the vineyard4 ,habit of growth gives aspect to the vine4 ,thus1 a vine may be upright1 drooping1 horizontal1 stocky1 straggling1 spreading1 dense or open4 ,the vine may grow rapidly or slowly and may be long-lived or short-lived2 the trunk may be short and stocky or long and slender4 ,these several characters largely determine whether a vine is manageable in the vineyard4 ,productiveness1 age of bearing and regularity of bearing are distinctive characters with cultivated grapes4 ,the care given the vine influences these characters2 yet all are helpful in identifying species and varieties and all must be considered by the grape-grower4 ,immunity and susceptibility to diseases and insects are most valuable diagnostic characters of species and varieties of grapes4 ,thus1 species differ widely in resistance to phylloxera1 the grape-louse1 to the grape leaf-hopper1 the flea-beetle1 berry-moth1 root-worm1 powdery-mildew1 downy-mildew1 anthracnose and other insect and fungous troubles of this fruit4 ,the structure of the bark is an important distinguishing character for some species1 but is of little importance in identifying the variety and has no economic value to the fruit-grower4 ,in most species of grapes1 the bark has distinct lenticels and on the old wood separates in long thin strips and fibers2 but in two species from southeastern ,north ,america1 the bark bears prominent lenticels and never shreds4 ,smoothness1 color and thickness are other attributes of the bark to be noted4 ,canes of different species vary greatly in total length and in length of internodes4 ,they vary also in size1 in number and in color1 while the shape in some species is quite distinctive1 being in some round1 in others angular and in still others flattened4 ,the direction of growth in canes1 whether sinuous1 straight or zigzag1 is an important character4 ,nodes and internodes are indicative characters in some species1 being more or less prominent1 angular or flattened1 while the internodes are long or short4 ,the diaphragm distinguishes several species of grapes4 ,the cane contains a large pith and this in most species is interrupted by woody tissue1 forming a diaphragm at the nodes4 ,in the ,rotundifolia grapes the diaphragm is absent1 while in several other ,american species it is very thin and in still others quite thick4 ,the character of the diaphragm is best observed in year-old canes4 ,in studying the diaphragm1 notice should be taken also of the pith1 which is very variable in size4 ,young shoots of the grape offer a ready means of distinguishing species and varieties through their color and the amount and character of the pubescence4 ,shoots may be glabrous1 pubescent or hairy and even spiny4 ,the tendril is one of the organs most used in determining species and varieties of grapes4 ,in some species1 as ,v4 ,labrusca1 there is a tendril or an inflorescence opposite nearly every leaf1 continuous tendrils4 ,all other species have two leaves with a tendril opposite each and a third leaf without a tendril1 intermittent tendrils4 ,to study this organ it is necessary to have vigorous1 healthy1 typical canes4 ,tendrils may be long or short1 stout or slender2 simple1 bifurcated or trifurcated2 or smooth1 pubescent or warty4 ,the number of inflorescences borne by species is an important character in some cases4 ,all species1 excepting ,v4 ,labrusca1 average two inflorescences to a cane1 but ,v4 ,labrusca may bear from three to six inflorescences1 each in the place of a tendril opposite the leaf4 ,the bud4 ,bud3 ,an undeveloped shoot4 ,fruit-bud3 ,a bud in which a shoot bearing flowers originates4 ,wood-bud3 ,a bud in which a shoot bearing only leaves originates4 ,latent bud3 ,a bud which remains dormant for one or more seasons4 ,adventitious bud3 ,a bud arising elsewhere than the normal position at a node4 ,eye3 ,a compound bud4 ,main bud3 ,the central bud of an eye4 ,secondary bud3 ,the lateral bud of an eye4 ,buds of different species of grapes vary greatly in time of opening as they do somewhat in varieties1 so that the time the buds begin to swell is a fine mark of distinction4 ,the angle at which the bud stands out from the branch is of some value in determining species4 ,differences in color1 size1 shape1 position and amount of pubescence of buds must all be noted in describing grapes4 ,the scales of the buds vary more or less in size and in thickness4 ,the flower4 ,staminate3 ,having stamens and not pistils2 a male flower4 ,pistillate3 ,having pistils and not stamens2 a female flower4 ,dioecious3 ,said when the stamens are on one plant and the pistils on another4 ,polygamous3 ,said when flowers on a plant are in part perfect 7having both stamens and pistils7 while others are staminate or pistillate4 ,hermaphrodite3 ,said of a flower having both stamens and pistils4 ,fertile3 ,said of a flower capable of bearing seed without pollen from another flower4 ,sterile3 ,said of a flower without or with abortive pistils4 ,perfect3 ,said of a flower having both stamens and pistils4 ,imperfect3 ,said of a flower wanting either stamens or pistils4 ,peduncle3 ,the stalk of a flower-cluster4 ,pedicel3 ,the stalk of each particular flower4 ,the time of bloom is an easy mark of distinction between several species of grapes and helps to distinguish varieties in a species as well4 ,most species of grapes bear fertile flowers on one vine and sterile flowers on another and are1 therefore1 polygamous-dioecious4 ,sterile vines bear male flowers with abortive pistils so that1 while they never produce fruits themselves1 they usually assist in fertilizing others4 ,fertile flowers are capable of ripening fruits without cross-pollination4 ,vines with female flowers only are seldom found4 ,in most species of the grape1 plants with sterile flowers and those with complete flowers are found mixed in the wild state1 but usually only the fertile plants have been selected for cultivation4 ,plants raised from seeds of any of the species1 however1 furnish many sterile vines4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ec4 ,the grape flower4 ,i4 ,opening bud showing the way in which the cap becomes loosened at the base4 ,,ii4 ,diagrammatic illustration of grape stamens4 ,the degree of fertility of blossoms is also a fine mark of distinction in species and varieties of the grape4 ,fertile vines are of two kinds in most species4 ,the flowers on one kind are perfect hermaphrodites1 while in the other kind the stamens are smaller and shorter than the pistil and eventually bent down and curved under4 ,the two kinds of stamens are shown in ,figs4 #ec and #ed4 ,these may be called imperfect hermaphrodites since they are seldom as fruitful as the perfect hermaphrodites unless fertilized from another plant4 ,examined with a microscope1 it is found that self-sterile plants usually bear abortive pollen and that the percentage of abortive pollen grains varies greatly in different varieties4 ,the upright or depressed stamen does not always indicate the condition of the pollen1 since there are many instances in which upright stamens bear impotent pollen and occasionally the depressed stamens bear perfect pollen4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ed4 ,grape flowers4 ,left1 upright stamens of ,delaware2 right1 depressed stamens of ,brighton4 ,the leaf4 ,blade3 ,the expanded portion of the leaf4 ,lobe3 ,the more or less rounded division of the leaf4 ,sinus3 ,the recess or bay between two lobes4 ,petiole3 ,the leaf-stalk4 ,petiolar sinus3 ,the sinus about the petiole4 ,basal sinuses3 ,the two sinuses toward the base of the blade4 ,lateral sinuses3 ,the two sinuses toward the apex of the blade4 ,the size1 shape and color of the leaves are quite distinctive of species and more or less so of varieties1 if allowances are made for variation due to environment4 ,the lobing of leaves is a very uniform character in most species1 some having lobes and others having entire leaves4 ,the upper surface of the leaf in some species is smooth1 glossy and shiny and in others is rough and dull4 ,the lower surface shows similar variations and has1 besides1 varying amounts of pubescence1 down and bloom4 ,in some species the down resembles cobwebs4 ,the number1 size and shape of the lobes are important in distinguishing both varieties and species1 as are also the petiolar1 basal and lateral sinuses4 ,as in most plants1 the margins of the leaves1 whether serrate1 dentate or crenate1 are often distinguishing characters4 ,the petiole in different species varies from short to long and from stout to slender4 ,lastly1 the time at which the leaves fall is often a good distinguishing mark4 ,the fruit4 ,peduncle and pedicel3 ,defined as in flower4 ,brush3 ,the end of the pedicel projecting into the fruit4 ,base3 ,the point of attachment of bunch or berry4 ,apex3 ,the point opposite the base4 ,bloom3 ,the powdery coating on the fruit4 ,pigment3 ,the coloring matter in the skin4 ,quality3 ,the combination of characters that makes grapes pleasant to the palate1 sight1 smell and touch4 ,foxiness3 ,the rancid taste and smell of some grapes which are similar to the effluvium of a fox4 ,of all organs the fruit is most responsive to changed conditions and hence most variable4 ,yet the fruits furnish most valuable characters for determining both species and varieties4 ,size1 shape1 compactness and the number of clusters on a shoot must be noted4 ,coming to the berry1 size1 shape1 color1 bloom1 adherence of stigma to the apex and adhesion of fruit to the pedicel are all of value4 ,difference in adherence of the skin to the pulp separates ,european from all ,american grapes4 ,the thickness1 toughness1 flavor and pigment of the skin have more or less value4 ,the color1 firmness1 juiciness1 aroma and flavor of the flesh1 as well as its adherence to seed and skin1 are valuable marks in describing grapes4 ,all species and varieties are well distinguished by the time of ripening and by keeping quality4 ,the color of the juice is a plain and certain dividing line between some species and many varieties4 ,the seed4 ,beak3 ,the narrow prolonged base of the seed4 ,hilum3 ,the scar left where the seed was attached to the seed-stalk4 ,chalaza3 ,the place where the seed-coats and kernel are connected4 ,raphe3 ,the line or ridge which runs from the hilum to the chalaza4 ,seeds are accounted of much value in determining species4 ,the size and weight of seed differ greatly in different species1 as they do also in varieties of any one species4 ,thus1 of native grapes1 ,labrusca has the largest and heaviest seeds and ,vulpina has the smallest seed1 while those of stivalis are of medium size and weight4 ,the shape and color of seed offer distinguishing marks1 while the size1 shape and position of the raphe and chalaza furnish very certain marks of distinction in some species4 ,,the ,,genus ,,vitis ,the genus ,vitis belongs to the vine family 7,vitace7 in which most botanists also put the wood-vines 7,ampelopsis71 of which ,virginia creeper is the best-known plant4 ,the genus ,cissus1 to which belong many southern climbers1 is combined with ,vitis by some botanists4 ,vitis is separated from ,ampelopsis and ,cissus by marked differences in several organs1 of which1 horticulturally at least1 those in the fruit best serve to distinguish the group4 ,species of ,vitis1 with possibly one or two exceptions1 bear pulpy edible fruits2 species of ,ampelopsis and ,cissus bear fruits with pulp so scant that the berries are inedible4 ,vitis is further distinguished as follows3 ,the plants are climbing or trailing1 rarely shrubby1 with woody stems and mostly with coiling1 naked-tipped tendrils4 ,the leaves are simple1 palmately lobed1 round-dentate or heart-shaped-dentate4 ,the stipules are small1 falling early4 ,the flowers are polygamo-dioecious 7some plants with perfect flowers1 others staminate with at most a rudimentary ovary71 five-parted4 ,the petals are separated only at the base and fall off without expanding4 ,the disk is hypogynous with five nectariferous glands which are alternate with the stamens4 ,the berry is globose or ovoid1 few-seeded and pulpy4 ,the seeds are pyriform and beak-like at the base4 ,,species ,,of ,,american ,,grapes ,the number of species of grapes in the world depends on the arbitrary limits set for a species of this fruit1 and knowledge of the genus is yet too meager to set these limits with certainty4 ,indeed1 the men who have made grape species have seldom been able to outline the habitats of their groups with much certainty4 ,in habitat1 it should be said1 grapes are confined almost wholly to temperate and subtropical regions4 ,however1 the grape-grower is not much concerned with species of grapes other than those that have horticultural value4 ,of these1 in ,america1 there are now ten more or less cultivated either for fruit or for stocks4 ,the following descriptions of these ten species are adapted from the author's ,the ,grapes of ,new ,york1 published in #aijh by the state of ,new ,york 7,chapter ,,iv1 pages #ajg-aef74 ,,conspectus ,,of ,,cultivated ,,species ,,of ,,vitis ,a4 ,skin of mature berry separating freely from the pulp4 ,b4 ,nodes without diaphragms2 tendrils simple4 #a4 ,v4 rotundifolia4 #b4 ,v4 ,munsoniana4 ,,bb4 ,nodes with diaphragms2 tendrils forked4 ,c4 ,leaves and shoots glabrous at maturity and without bloom2 tendrils intermittent4 ,d4 ,leaves thin1 light1 bright green1 generally glabrous below at maturity except perhaps in the axils of the veins with a long or at least a prominent point and usually long and sharp teeth or the edge even-jagged4 ,e4 ,leaves broader than long2 petiolar sinus usually wide and shallow4 #c4 ,v4 rupestris4 ,,ee4 ,leaves ovate in outline2 petiolar sinus usually medium to narrow4 #d4 ,v4 vulpina4 ,,dd4 ,leaves thick1 dull colored or grayish-green1 often holding some close1 dull pubescence below at maturity1 shoots and leaves nearly always more or less pubescent when young2 the teeth mostly short4 #e4 ,v4 cordifolia4 #f4 ,v4 ,berlandieri4 ,,cc4 ,leaves rusty or white tomentose or glaucous blue below1 thick or at least firm4 ,d4 ,leaves flocculent or cobwebby or glaucous below when fully grown4 #g4 ,v4 stivalis4 #h4 ,v4 bicolor4 ,,dd4 ,leaves densely tomentose or felt-like beneath throughout the season2 covering white or rusty white4 ,e4 ,tendrils intermittent4 #i4 ,v4 candicans4 ,,ee4 ,tendrils mostly continuous4 #aj4 ,v4 ,labrusca4 ,,aa4 ,skin and pulp of mature berry cohering4 7,old ,world47 #aa4 ,v4 vinifera4 #a4 ,vitis rotundifolia1 ,michx4 ,muscadine ,grape4 ,bull ,grape4 ,bullet ,grape4 ,bushy ,grape4 ,bullace ,grape4 ,scuppernong4 ,southern ,fox ,grape4 ,vine very vigorous1 sometimes1 when without support1 shrubby and only three or four feet high2 when growing in the shade often sending down arial roots4 ,wood hard1 bark smooth1 not scaling1 with prominent warty lenticels2 shoots short-jointed1 angled1 with fine scurfy pubescence2 diaphragms absent2 tendrils intermittent1 simple4 ,leaves small1 broadly cordate or roundish2 petiolar sinus wide1 shallow2 margin with obtuse1 wide teeth2 not lobed2 dense in texture1 light green color1 glabrous above1 sometimes pubescent along veins below4 ,cluster small 7#f-bd berries71 loose2 peduncle short2 pedicels short1 thick4 ,berries large1 globular or somewhat oblate1 black or greenish-yellow2 skin thick1 tough and with a musky odor2 pulp tough2 ripening unevenly and dropping as soon as ripe4 ,seeds flattened1 shallowly and broadly notched2 beak very short2 chalaza narrow1 slightly depressed with radiating ridges and furrows2 raphe a narrow groove4 ,leafing1 flowering and ripening fruit very late4 ,the habitat of this species is southern ,delaware1 west through ,tennessee1 southern ,illinois1 southeastern ,missouri1 ,arkansas 7except the northwestern portions71 to ,grayson ,county1 ,texas1 as a northern and western boundary1 to the ,atlantic ,ocean and the ,gulf on the east and south4 ,it becomes rare as one approaches the western limit but is common in many sections of the great region outlined above1 being most abundant on sandy1 well-drained bottom lands and along river banks and in swampy1 thick woodlands and thickets4 ,the climate most suitable for ,rotundifolia is that in which cotton grows1 and it thrives best in the lower portions of the cotton-belt of the ,united ,states4 ,the fruit of ,rotundifolia is very characteristic4 ,the skin is thick1 has a leathery appearance1 adheres strongly to the underlying flesh and is marked with lenticel-like russet dots4 ,the flesh is more or less tough but the toughness is not localized around the seed as in the case of ,labrusca4 ,the fruit and most of the varieties of the species are characterized by a strong1 musky aroma and are lacking in sugar and acid4 ,some varieties yield over four gallons of must to the bushel4 ,wine-makers are divided in opinion as to its value for wine-making1 but at present the most promising outlook for ,rotundifolia varieties is as wine1 grape-juice and culinary grapes4 ,rotundifolia does not produce fruit suitable for shipping as dessert grapes chiefly because the berries ripen unevenly and when ripe drop from the cluster4 ,the common method of gathering the fruit of this species is to shake the vines at intervals so that the ripe berries drop on sheets spread below the vines4 ,the juice which exudes from the point where the stem is broken off causes the berries to become smeared and gives them an unattractive appearance4 ,owing1 however1 to the tough skin1 the berries do not crack as badly as other grapes would under the same conditions1 but nevertheless they are not adapted to long-distance shipments4 ,under reasonably favorable conditions1 the vines attain great age and size and when grown on arbors1 as they often are1 and without pruning1 they cover a large area4 ,rotundifolia is remarkably resistant to the attacks of all insects and to fungal diseases4 ,the phylloxera do not attack its roots and it is considered as resistant as any other1 if not the most resistant of all ,american species4 ,the vines are grown from cuttings only with difficulty and this prevents the use of this species as a resistant stock4 ,however1 under favorable circumstances1 and with skillful handling1 this is a successful method of propagation4 ,under unfavorable circumstances1 or when only a few vines are desired1 it is better to depend on layers4 ,as a stock upon which to graft other vines1 this species has not been a success4 ,there is great difficulty in crossing ,rotundifolia with other species1 but several ,rotundifolia hybrids are now on record4 #b4 ,vitis ,munsoniana1 ,simpson4 ,florida ,grape4 ,everbearing grape4 ,bird ,grape4 ,mustang ,grape of ,florida4 ,vine slender1 usually running on the ground or over low bushes4 ,canes angular2 internodes short2 tendrils intermittent1 simple4 ,leaves smaller and thinner than ,rotundifolia and rather more circular in outline2 not lobed2 teeth open and spreading2 petiolar sinus ,v-shaped2 both surfaces smooth1 rather light green4 ,cluster with more berries but about the same size as in ,rotundifolia4 ,berry one-third to one-half the diameter1 with thinner and more tender skin2 black1 shining2 pulp less solid1 more acid and without muskiness4 ,seeds about one-half the size of those of ,rotundifolia1 similar in other respects4 ,leafing1 flowering and ripening fruit very late4 ,the habitat of ,v4 ,munsoniana is central and southern ,florida and the ,florida ,keys4 ,it extends south of the habitat of ,rotundifolia and blends into this species at their point of meeting4 ,munsoniana appears to be a variation of ,rotundifolia1 fitted to subtropical conditions4 ,it is tender1 not enduring a lower temperature than zero4 ,in the matter of multiplication1 it differs from ,v4 rotundifolia in that it can be propagated readily from cuttings4 ,like ,rotundifolia it is resistant to phylloxera4 #c4 ,vitis rupestris1 ,scheele4 ,mountain ,grape4 ,rock ,grape4 ,bush ,grape4 ,sand ,grape4 ,sugar ,grape4 ,beach ,grape4 ,a small1 much branched shrub or1 under favorable circumstances1 climbing4 ,diaphragm thin2 tendrils few1 or if present1 weak1 usually deciduous4 ,leaves small2 young leaves frequently folded on midrib2 broadly cordate or reniform1 wider than long1 scarcely ever lobed1 smooth1 glabrous on both surfaces at maturity2 petiolar sinus wide1 shallow2 margin coarsely toothed1 frequently a sharp1 abrupt point at terminal4 ,cluster small4 ,berries small1 black or purple-black4 ,seeds small1 not notched2 beak short1 blunt2 raphe distinct to indistinct1 usually showing as a narrow groove2 chalaza pear-shaped1 sometimes distinct1 but usually a depression only4 ,leafing1 blossoming and ripening early4 ,this species is an inhabitant of southwestern ,texas1 extending eastward and northward into ,new ,mexico1 southern ,missouri1 ,indiana and ,tennessee to southern ,pennsylvania and the ,district of ,columbia4 ,its favorite places are gravelly banks and bars of mountain streams or the rocky beds of dry watercourses4 ,this species is rather variable both in type and growth4 ,it was introduced into ,france at about the same time as ,vulpina1 and the ,french vineyardists selected the most vigorous and healthy forms for grafting stock4 ,these pass under the various names of ,rupestris ,mission1 ,rupestris du ,lot1 ,rupestris ,ganzin1 ,rupestris ,martin1 ,rupestris ,st4 ,george and others4 ,in ,france1 these varieties have given particularly good results on bare1 rocky soils with hot1 dry exposures4 ,in ,california1 ,rupestris does not flourish in dry locations1 and as it suckers profusely and does not take the graft as readily as ,vulpina and stivalis1 it is not largely propagated4 ,the clusters of fruit are small1 with berries about the size of a currant and varying from sweet to sour4 ,the berry is characterized by much pigment under the skin4 ,the fruit has a sprightly taste wholly free from any disagreeable foxiness4 ,rupestris under cultivation is said to be very resistant to rot and mildew of the foliage4 ,the vine is considered hardy in the ,southwest4 ,the attention of hybridizers was attracted to this species over thirty years ago1 and various hybrids have been produced of great promise for grape-breeding4 ,the root system of ,rupestris is peculiar in that the roots penetrate at once deeply into the ground instead of extending laterally as in other species4 ,like those of ,vulpina1 the roots are slender1 hard and resistant to phylloxera4 ,the species is easily propagated by cuttings4 ,the vines bench-graft readily but are difficult to handle in field grafting4 #d4 ,vitis vulpina1 ,linn4 7,v4 riparia1 ,michx474 ,winter ,grape4 ,river ,grape4 ,riverside ,grape4 ,riverbank ,grape4 ,sweet-scented ,grape4 ,vine very vigorous1 climbing4 ,shoots cylindrical or angled1 usually smooth1 slender2 diaphragms thin2 tendrils intermittent1 slender1 usually bifid4 ,leaves with large stipules2 leaf-blade large1 thin1 entire1 three- or lower ones often five-lobed2 sinuses shallow1 angular2 petiolar sinus broad1 usually shallow2 margin with incised1 sharply serrate teeth of variable size2 light green1 glabrous above1 glabrous but sometimes pubescent on ribs and veins below4 ,cluster small1 compact1 shouldered2 peduncle short4 ,berries small1 black with a heavy blue bloom4 ,seeds two to four1 small1 notched1 short1 plump1 with very short beak2 chalaza narrowly oval1 depressed1 indistinct2 raphe usually a groove1 sometimes distinct4 ,very variable in flavor and time of ripening4 ,vulpina is the most widely distributed of any ,american species of grape4 ,it has been discovered in parts of ,canada north of ,quebec and from thence southward to the ,gulf of ,mexico4 ,it is found from the ,atlantic coast westward1 most botanists say1 to the ,rocky ,mountains4 ,usually it grows on river banks1 on islands or in upland ravines4 ,vulpina has always been considered of great promise in the evolution of ,american grapes4 ,it can hardly be said that it has fulfilled expectations1 there probably being no pure variety of this species of more than local importance1 and the results of hybridizing it with other species have not been wholly successful4 ,attention was early turned to ,vulpina because of the qualities presented by the vine rather than those of the fruit1 particularly its hardiness and vigor4 ,however1 both of these qualities are rather variable1 although it is only reasonable to suppose that in such a widely distributed species1 plants found in a certain region would have adapted themselves to the conditions there present2 thus1 it should be expected that the northern plants would be more hardy than those from the ,south1 and that the western prairie forms would be more capable of resisting drouth than those from humid regions4 ,it is1 consequently1 impossible to say what conditions best suit this species4 ,it may be said1 however1 that ,vulpina is adapted to a great variety of soils and locations2 vines have withstood a temperature of #dj to #fj degrees below zero and they show equal ability in withstanding the injurious effects of high temperatures in the summer4 ,on account of its habit of early blooming1 the blossoms sometimes suffer from late frosts in the spring4 ,while ,vulpina is not a swamp grape and is not found growing under swampy conditions1 it is fond of water4 ,in the semi-arid regions always1 and in humid regions usually1 it is found growing along the banks of streams1 in ravines1 on the islands of rivers and in wet places4 ,it is not nearly so capable of withstanding drouth as ,rupestris4 ,vulpina likes a rather rich soil1 but in ,france has been found to do poorly on limestone land and calcareous marls4 ,the ,french tell us1 however1 that this is a characteristic of all our ,american grapes1 and that ,vulpina is more resistant to the injurious effects of an excess of lime than either ,rupestris or stivalis4 ,the fruit of ,vulpina is usually small1 there being occasional varieties of medium size or above4 ,the clusters are of medium size and1 if judged from the standpoint of number of berries1 might frequently be called large4 ,the flavor is usually sharply acid but free from foxiness or any disagreeable wild taste4 ,if eaten in quantity1 the acidity is likely to affect the lips and end of the tongue4 ,when the acidity is somewhat ameliorated1 as in the case of thoroughly ripe or even over-ripe and shriveled fruit1 the flavor is much liked4 ,the flesh is neither pulpy nor solid and dissolves in the mouth and separates readily from the seed4 ,the must of ,vulpina is characterized by an average amount of sugar1 varying considerably in the fruit from different vines1 and by an excess of acid4 ,vulpina is very resistant to phylloxera1 the roots are small1 hard1 numerous and branch freely4 ,the roots feed close to the surface and do not seem to be well adapted to forcing their way through heavy clays4 ,vulpina grows readily from cuttings and makes a good stock for grafting1 its union with other species being usually permanent4 ,when ,vulpinas were first sent to ,france to be used as a stock in reconstituting the ,french vineyards1 it was found that many of the vines secured from the woods were too weak in growth to support the stronger-growing ,viniferas4 ,on this account the ,french growers selected the more vigorous forms of the ,vulpinas1 to which they gave varietal names1 as ,vulpina ,gloire1 ,vulpina ,grand ,glabre1 ,vulpina ,schribner1 ,vulpina ,martin and others4 ,with these selected ,vulpinas1 the graft does not outgrow the stock4 ,vulpina is less resistant to black-rot than stivalis but somewhat more resistant than ,labrusca4 ,the foliage is rarely attacked by mildew4 ,one of the chief failings of this species is the susceptibility of the leaves to the attack of the leaf-hopper4 ,the ,vulpinas are generally late in ripening2 the fruit is better in quality in long seasons and should be left on the vines as late as possible4 #e4 ,vitis cordifolia1 ,michx4 ,winter ,grape4 ,frost ,grape4 ,fox ,grape4 ,chicken ,grape4 ,heart-leaved ,vitis4 ,possum ,grape4 ,sour ,winter ,grape4 ,vine very vigorous1 climbing4 ,shoots slender2 internodes long1 angular1 usually glabrous1 sometimes pubescent2 diaphragms thick2 tendrils intermittent1 long1 usually bifid4 ,leaves with short1 broad stipules2 leaf-blade medium to large1 cordate1 entire or indistinctly three-lobed2 petiolar sinus deep1 usually narrow1 acute2 margin with coarse angular teeth2 point of leaf acuminate2 upper surface light green1 glossy1 glabrous2 glabrous or sparingly pubescent below4 ,clusters medium to large1 loose1 with long peduncle4 ,berries numerous and small1 black1 shining1 little or no bloom4 ,seeds medium in size1 broad1 beak short2 chalaza oval or roundish1 elevated1 very distinct2 raphe a distinct1 cord-like ridge4 ,fruit sour and astringent and frequently consisting of little besides skins and seeds4 ,leafing1 flowering and ripening fruit very late4 ,owing to the fact that ,cordifolia and ,vulpina have been badly confused1 the limits of the habitat of this species are difficult to determine4 ,the best authorities give the northern limit as ,new ,york or the ,great ,lakes4 ,the eastern limit is the ,atlantic ,ocean and the southern limit1 the ,gulf of ,mexico4 ,it extends westward1 according to ,engelmann1 to the western limits of the wooded portion of the ,mississippi ,valley in the ,north1 and1 according to ,munson1 to the ,brazos ,river1 ,texas1 in the ,south4 ,it is found along creeks and river banks sometimes mixed with ,vulpina1 having about the same soil adaptations as that species4 ,it is a very common species in the middle states and frequently grows on limestone soils1 but is not indigenous to such soils4 ,cordifolia makes a good stock for grafting1 being vigorous and forming a good union with most of our cultivated grapes4 ,it is seldom used for this purpose1 however1 on account of the difficulty of propagating it by means of cuttings4 ,for the same reason vines of it are seldom found in cultivation4 #f4 ,vitis ,berlandieri1 ,planch4 ,mountain-,grape4 ,spanish ,grape4 ,fall ,grape4 ,winter ,grape4 ,little ,mountain ,grape4 ,vine vigorous1 climbing2 shoots more or less angled and pubescent2 pubescence remaining only in patches on mature wood2 canes mostly with short internodes2 diaphragms thick2 tendrils intermittent1 long1 strong1 bifid or trifid4 ,leaves with small stipules2 leaf-blade large1 broadly cordate1 notched or shortly three-lobed2 petiolar sinus rather open1 ,v- or ,u-shaped1 margin with broad but rather shallow teeth1 rather dark glossy green above1 grayish pubescence below when young2 becoming glabrous and even glossy except on ribs and veins1 when mature4 ,clusters large1 compact1 compound1 with long peduncle4 ,berries small1 black1 with thin bloom1 juicy1 rather tart but pleasant tasting when thoroughly ripe4 ,seeds few1 small1 short1 plump1 oval or roundish1 with short beak2 chalaza oval or roundish1 distinct2 raphe narrow1 slightly distinct to indistinct4 ,leafing1 flowering and ripening fruit very late4 ,berlandieri is a native of the limestone hills of southwest ,texas and adjacent ,mexico4 ,it grows in the same region with ,v4 monticola1 but is less restricted locally1 growing from the tops of the hills down and along the creek bottoms of these regions4 ,its great virtue is that it withstands a soil largely composed of lime1 being superior to all other ,american species in this respect4 ,this and its moderate degree of vigor have recommended it to the ,french growers as a stock for their calcareous soils4 ,the roots are strong1 thick1 and very resistant to phylloxera4 ,it is propagated by cuttings with comparative ease1 but its varieties are variable1 some not rooting at all easily4 ,while the fruit of this species shows a large cluster1 the berries are small and sour1 and ,berlandieri is not regarded as having promise for culture in ,america4 #g4 ,vitis stivalis1 ,michx4 ,blue ,grape4 ,bunch ,grape4 ,summer ,grape4 ,little ,grape4 ,duck-shot ,grape4 ,swamp ,grape4 ,chicken ,grape4 ,pigeon ,grape4 ,vine very vigorous1 shoots pubescent or smooth when young2 diaphragms thick2 tendrils intermittent1 usually bifid4 ,leaves with short1 broad stipules2 leaf-blade large1 thin when young but becoming thick2 petiolar sinus deep1 usually narrow1 frequently overlapping2 margin rarely entire1 usually three- to five-lobed2 teeth dentate1 shallow1 wide2 upper surface dark green2 lower surface with more or less reddish or rusty pubescence which1 in mature leaves1 usually shows in patches on the ribs and veins2 petioles frequently pubescent4 ,clusters long1 not much branched1 with long peduncle4 ,berries small1 with moderate amount of bloom1 usually astringent4 ,seeds two to three1 of medium size1 plump1 smooth1 not notched2 chalaza oval1 distinct2 raphe a distinct cord-like ridge4 ,leafing and ripening fruit late to very late4 ,the division of the original species has reduced the habitat materially1 confining it to the southeastern part of the ,united ,states from southern ,new ,york to ,florida and westward to the ,mississippi ,river4 stivalis grows in thickets and openings in the woods and shows no such fondness for streams as ,vulpina1 or for thick timber as ,labrusca1 but is generally confined to uplands4 ,under favorable circumstances1 the vines grow to be very large4 stivalis is preminently a wine grape4 ,the fruit usually has a tart1 acrid taste1 due to the presence of a high percentage of acid1 but there is also a large amount of sugar1 the scale showing that juice from this species has a much higher percentage of sugar than the sweeter-tasting ,labruscas4 ,the wine made from varieties of stivalis is very rich in coloring matter and is used by some ,european vintners to mix with the must of ,european sorts in order to give the combined product a higher color4 ,the berries are destitute of pulp1 have a comparatively thin1 tough skin and a peculiar spicy flavor4 ,the berries hang to the bunch after becoming ripe much better than do those of ,labrusca4 ,this species thrives in a lighter and shallower soil than ,labrusca and appears to endure drought better1 although not equaling in this respect either ,vulpina or ,rupestris4 ,the ,french growers report that stivalis is very liable to chlorosis on soils which contain much lime4 ,the leaves are never injured by the sun and they resist the attacks of insects1 such as leaf-hoppers1 better than any other ,american species under cultivation4 stivalis is rarely injured by black-rot or mildew1 according to ,american experience1 but ,french growers speak of its being susceptible to both4 ,the hard roots of stivalis enable it to resist phylloxera1 and varieties with any great amount of the blood of this species are seldom seriously injured by this insect4 ,an objection to stivalis1 from a horticultural standpoint1 is that it does not root well from cuttings4 ,many authorities speak of it as not rooting at all from cuttings1 but this is an over-statement of the facts1 as many of the wild and cultivated varieties are occasionally propagated in this manner1 and some southern nurseries1 located in particularly favorable situations1 make a practice of propagating it by this method4 ,varieties of this species bear grafting well1 especially in the vineyard4 ,vitis stivalis ,lincecumii1 ,munson4 ,post-oak ,grape4 ,pine-wood ,grape4 ,turkey ,grape4 ,vine vigorous1 sometimes climbing high upon trees1 sometimes forming a bushy clump from two to six feet high2 canes cylindrical1 much rusty wool on shoots2 tendrils intermittent4 ,leaves very large1 almost as wide as long2 entire or three-1 five-1 or rarely seven-lobed2 lobes frequently divided2 sinuses1 including petiolar sinus1 deep2 smooth above1 and with more or less rusty pubescence below4 7,the north-,texas1 southwestern ,missouri and northern ,arkansas form shows little or no pubescence but has fine prickly spines at base of shoots and shows much blue bloom on shoots1 canes and the under side of the leaves47 ,fruit small to large1 usually larger than typical stivalis1 usually black1 with heavy bloom4 ,seeds larger than stivalis1 pear-shaped2 chalaza roundish4 ,lincecumii inhabits the eastern half of ,texas1 western ,louisiana1 ,oklahoma1 ,arkansas and southern ,missouri on high sandy land1 frequently climbing post-oak trees1 hence the name1 post-oak grape1 by which it is locally known4 ,lincecumii has attracted considerable attention through the work of ,h4 ,jaeger and ,t4 ,v4 ,munson in domesticating it1 both of whom considered it one of the most1 if not the most1 promising form from which to secure cultivated varieties for the ,southwest4 ,the qualities which recommend it are3 ,first1 vigor2 second1 capacity to withstand rot and mildew2 third1 hardiness and capacity to endure hot and dry summers without injury2 fourth1 the large cluster and berry which were found on certain of the wild vines4 ,the fruit is characteristic because of its dense bloom1 firm1 yet tender texture and peculiar flavor4 ,the cultivated varieties have given satisfaction in many sections of the ,central ,western and ,southern states4 ,like stivalis1 it is difficult to propagate from cuttings4 ,the north-,texas glaucous form of this variety mentioned in the technical description above is the ,v4 stivalis glauca of ,bailey4 ,this is the type of ,lincecumii that ,munson has used in breeding work4 ,vitis stivalis ,bourquiniana1 ,bailey4 ,southern stivalis4 ,bourquiniana differs chiefly from the type in having thinner leaves2 the shoots and under side of the leaves are only slightly reddish-brown in color2 the pubescence usually disappears at maturity2 the leaves are more deeply lobed than is common in stivalis2 and the fruit is larger1 sweeter and more juicy4 ,bourquiniana is known only in cultivation4 ,the name was given by ,munson1 who ranks the group as a species4 ,he includes therein many southern varieties1 the most important of which are3 ,herbemont1 ,bertrand1 ,cunningham and ,lenoir1 grouped in the ,herbemont section2 and ,devereaux1 ,louisiana and ,warren1 in the ,devereaux section4 ,munson has traced the history of this interesting group and states that it was brought from southern ,france to ,america over one hundred fifty years ago by the ,bourquin family of ,savannah1 ,georgia4 ,many botanists are of the opinion that ,bourquiniana is a hybrid4 ,the hybrid supposition is corroborated to a degree by the characters being more or less intermediate between the supposed parent species1 and also by the fact that up to date no wild form of ,bourquiniana has been found4 ,the only northern variety of any importance supposed to have ,bourquiniana blood is the ,delaware1 and in this variety only a fraction of ,bourquiniana blood is presumably present4 ,bourquiniana can be propagated from cuttings more easily than the typical stivalis but not so readily as ,labrusca1 ,vulpina or ,vinifera4 ,many of the varieties of ,bourquiniana show a marked susceptibility to mildew and black-rot2 in fact1 the whole ,herbemont group is much inferior in this respect to the ,norton group of stivalis4 ,the roots are somewhat hard1 branch rather freely and are quite resistant to phylloxera4 #h4 ,vitis bicolor1 ,le ,conte4 ,blue ,grape4 ,northern ,summer ,grape4 ,northern stivalis4 ,vine vigorous1 climbing2 shoots cylindrical or angled1 with long internodes1 generally glabrous1 usually showing much blue bloom1 sometimes spiny at base2 diaphragms thick2 tendrils intermittent1 long1 usually bifid4 ,leaves with short1 broad stipules2 leaf-blade large2 roundish-cordate1 usually three-1 sometimes on older growth shallowly five-lobed1 rarely entire2 petiolar sinus variable in depth1 usually narrow2 margin irregularly dentate2 teeth acuminate2 glabrous above1 usually glabrous below and showing much blue bloom which sometimes disappears late in the season2 young leaves sometimes pubescent2 petioles very long4 ,cluster of medium size1 compact1 simple2 peduncle long4 ,berries small1 black with much bloom1 acid but pleasant tasting when ripe4 ,seeds small1 plump1 broadly oval1 very short beak2 chalaza oval1 raised1 distinct2 raphe distinct1 showing as a cord-like ridge4 ,bicolor is readily distinguished from stivalis by the absence of the reddish pubescence and by blooming slightly later4 ,the habitat of ,bicolor is to the north of that of stivalis1 occupying the northeastern1 whereas stivalis occupies the southeastern quarter of the ,united ,states4 ,like stivalis1 this species is not confined to streams and river banks but frequently grows on higher land also4 ,it is found in north ,missouri1 ,illinois1 southwestern ,wisconsin1 ,indiana1 southern ,michigan1 ,ohio1 ,kentucky1 ,pennsylvania1 ,new ,york1 southwestern ,ontario1 ,new ,jersey and ,maryland and by some botanists is reported as far south as western ,north ,carolina and west ,tennessee4 ,the horticultural characters of ,bicolor are much the same as those of stivalis4 ,about the only points of difference are that it is much hardier 7some of the ,wisconsin vines stand a temperature as low as #bj degrees below zero72 it is said to be slightly less resistant to mildew and more resistant to phylloxera4 ,like stivalis1 ,bicolor does not thrive on limy soils and it is difficult to propagate from cuttings4 ,the horticultural possibilities of ,bicolor are probably much the same as those of stivalis1 although many think it to be more promising for the ,north4 ,it is as yet cultivated but little4 ,its chief defect for domestication is the small size of the fruit4 #i4 ,vitis candicans1 ,englem4 ,mustang ,grape4 ,vine very vigorous1 climbing2 shoots and petioles densely wooly1 whitish or rusty2 diaphragm thick2 tendrils intermittent4 ,leaves with large stipules2 blade small1 broadly cordate to reniform-ovate1 entire or in young shoots and on young vines and sprouts usually deeply three- to five-1 or even seven-lobed2 teeth shallow1 sinuate2 petiolar sinus shallow1 wide1 sometimes lacking2 dull1 slightly rugose above1 dense whitish pubescence below4 ,clusters small4 ,berries medium to large1 black1 purple1 green1 or even whitish1 thin blue bloom or bloomless4 ,seeds usually three or four1 large1 short1 plump1 blunt1 notched2 chalaza oval1 depressed1 indistinct2 raphe a broad groove4 ,the habitat of this grape extends from southern ,oklahoma1 as a northern limit1 southwesterly into ,mexico4 ,the western boundary is the ,pecos ,river4 ,it is found on dry1 alluvial1 sandy or limestone bottoms or on limestone bluff lands and is said to be especially abundant along upland ravines4 ,candicans grows well on limestone lands1 enduring as much as #fj per cent of carbonate of lime in the soil4 ,the species blooms shortly before ,labrusca and a week later than ,vulpina4 ,it requires the long hot summers of its native country and will stand extreme drouth but is not hardy to cold1 #aj or #ae degrees below zero killing the vine outright unless protected2 and a lesser degree of cold injuring it severely4 ,the berries1 which are large for wild vines1 have thin skins under which there is a pigment which gives them1 when first ripe1 a fiery1 pungent taste but which partly disappears with maturity4 ,the berries are very persistent1 clinging to the pedicel long after ripe4 ,candicans is difficult to propagate from cuttings4 ,its roots resist phylloxera fairly well4 ,it makes a good stock for ,vinifera vines in its native country1 but owing to the difficulty of propagation is seldom used for that purpose4 ,in the early days of ,texas1 it was much used for the making of wine but as it is deficient in sugar1 and as the must retains the acrid1 pungent flavor1 it does not seem to be well adapted for this purpose4 ,it is not regarded as having great promise for southern horticulture and certainly has none for the ,north4 #aj4 ,vitis ,labrusca1 ,linn4 ,fox-,grape4 ,vine vigorous1 stocky1 climbing2 shoots cylindrical1 densely pubescent2 diaphragms medium to thick2 tendrils continuous1 strong1 bifid or trifid4 ,leaves with long1 cordate stipules2 leaf-blade large1 thick1 broadly cordate or round2 entire or three-lobed1 frequently notched2 sinuses rounded2 petiolar sinus variable in depth and width1 ,v-shaped2 margin with shallow1 acute-pointed1 scalloped teeth2 upper surface rugose1 dark green1 on young leaves pubescent1 becoming glabrous when mature2 lower surface covered with dense pubescence1 more or less whitish on young leaves1 becoming dun-colored when mature4 ,clusters more or less compound1 usually shouldered1 compact2 pedicels thick2 peduncle short4 ,berries round2 skin thick1 covered with bloom1 with strong musky or foxy aroma4 ,seeds two to four1 large1 distinctly notched1 beak short2 chalaza oval in shape1 indistinct1 showing as a depression2 raphe1 a groove4 ,labrusca is indigenous to the eastern part of ,north ,america1 including the region between the ,atlantic ,ocean and the ,alleghany ,mountains4 ,it is sometimes found in the valleys and along the western slopes of the ,alleghanies4 ,many botanists say it never occurs in the ,mississippi ,valley4 ,in the first-named area it ranges from ,maine to ,georgia4 ,it has the most restricted habitat of any ,american species of horticultural importance1 being much exceeded in extent of territory by ,v4 rotundifolia1 ,v4 stivalis and ,v4 vulpina4 ,labrusca has furnished more cultivated varieties1 either pure-breeds or hybrids1 than all other ,american species together4 ,the reason for this is partly1 no doubt1 that it is native to the portion of the ,united ,states first settled and is the most common grape in the region where agriculture first advanced to the condition at which fruits were desired4 ,this does not wholly account for its prominence1 however1 which must be sought elsewhere4 ,in its wild state1 ,labrusca is probably the most attractive to the eye of any of our ,american grapes on account of the size of its fruit1 and this undoubtedly turned the attention of those who were early interested in the possibilities of ,american grape-growing to this species rather than to any other4 ,the southern ,labrusca is quite different from the northern form and demands different conditions for its successful growth2 in the ,north1 at least two types of the species may be distinguished4 ,vines are found in the woods of ,new ,england which resemble ,concord very closely in both vine and fruit1 excepting that the grapes are much smaller in size and more seedy4 ,there is also the large-fruited1 foxy ,labrusca1 usually with reddish berries1 represented by such cultivated varieties as ,northern ,muscadine1 ,dracut ,amber1 ,lutie and others4 ,labrusca is peculiar amongst ,american grapes in showing black-1 white- and red-fruited forms of wild vines growing in the woods4 ,because of this variability1 it is impossible to give the exact climatic and soil conditions best adapted to the species4 ,it is reasonable to suppose1 however1 that the ideal conditions for this species under cultivation are not widely different from those prevailing where the species is indigenous4 ,in the case of ,labrusca1 this means that it is best adapted to humid climates1 and that the temperature desired varies according to whether the variety comes from the southern or northern form of the species4 ,the root system of ,labrusca does not penetrate the soil deeply1 but the vine is said to succeed better in deep and clayey soils than stivalis4 ,it endures an excess of water in the soil1 and1 on the other hand1 requires less water for successful growing than stivalis or ,vulpina4 ,in spite of its ability to withstand clayey soils1 it seems to prefer loose1 warm1 well-drained sandy lands to all others4 ,the ,french growers report that all varieties of this species show a marked antipathy to a limestone soil1 the vines soon becoming affected with chlorosis when planted in soils of this nature4 ,in corroboration of this1 it may be said that ,labrusca is not often found wild in limestone soils4 ,the ,labruscas succeed very well in the ,north and fairly well in the ,middle ,west as far south as ,arkansas1 where they are raised on account of their fruit qualities1 for here the vines are not nearly so vigorous and healthy as are those of other species4 ,in ,alabama1 they are reported to be generally unsatisfactory1 and in ,texas the vines are short-lived1 unhealthy1 and generally unsatisfactory1 particularly in the dry regions4 ,there are some exceptions to this1 as for instance1 in the ,piedmont region of the ,carolinas1 where1 owing to elevation or other causes1 the climate of a southern region is semi-northern in its character4 ,the grapes of ,labrusca are large and usually handsomely colored4 ,the skin is thick1 covering a layer of adhering flesh1 which gives the impression of its being thicker than it actually is2 the berry is variable in tenderness1 sometimes tough1 but in many cultivated varieties is so tender that it cracks in transportation4 ,the skin of this species usually has a peculiar aroma1 generally spoken of as foxy1 and a slightly acid1 astringent taste4 ,beneath the skin there is a layer of juicy pulp1 quite sweet and never showing much acidity in ripe fruit4 ,the center of the berry is occupied by rather dense pulp1 more or less stringy1 with considerable acid close to the seeds4 ,many object to the foxy aroma of this species1 but1 nevertheless1 the most popular ,american varieties are more or less foxy4 ,analyses show that the fruit is usually characterized by a low percentage of sugar and acid1 the very sweet-tasting fox-grapes not showing as high a sugar-content as some of the disagreeably tart stivalis and ,vulpina sorts4 ,this1 in addition to the foxiness which furnishes an excess of aroma in the wine1 has prevented ,labrusca varieties from becoming favorites with the wine-makers1 but most of the grape-juice now manufactured is made from them4 ,in addition to the characters enumerated1 it may be said that ,labrusca submits well to vineyard culture1 is fairly vigorous and generally quite productive4 ,it grows readily from cuttings and in hardiness is intermediate between ,vulpina1 the hardiest of our ,american species1 and stivalis4 ,the roots are soft and fleshy 7for an ,american grape7 and in some localities subject to attacks of phylloxera4 ,none of the varieties of ,labrusca has ever been popular in ,france on this account4 ,in the wild vines1 the fruit is inclined to drop when ripe4 ,this defect is known as shattering or shelling among grape-growers and is a serious weakness in some varieties4 ,labrusca is said to be more sensitive in its wild state to mildew and black-rot than any other ,american species1 but the evidence on this point does not seem to be wholly conclusive4 ,in the ,south1 and in some parts of the ,middle ,west1 the leaves of all varieties of ,labrusca sunburn and shrivel in the latter part of the summer4 ,the vines do not endure drouth as well as stivalis or ,vulpina and not nearly so well as ,rupestris4 #aa4 ,vitis vinifera1 ,linn4 ,vine variable in vigor1 not so high climbing as most ,american species2 tendrils intermittent4 ,leaves round-cordate1 thin1 smooth1 and when young1 shining1 frequently more or less deeply three-1 five-1 or even seven-lobed2 usually glabrous but in some varieties the leaves and young shoots are hairy and even downy when young2 lobes rounded or pointed2 teeth variable2 petiolar sinus deep1 narrow1 usually overlapping4 ,berries very variable in size and color1 usually oval though globular4 ,seeds variable in size and shape1 usually notched at upper end and characterized always by a bottle-necked1 elongated beak2 chalaza broad1 usually rough1 distinct2 raphe indistinct4 ,roots large1 soft and spongy4 ,the original habitat of the species is not positively known4 ,de ,candolle1 as noted in the first part of this work1 considered the region about the ,caspian ,sea as the probable habitat of the ,old ,world grape4 ,there is but little doubt that the original home of ,v4 vinifera is some place in western ,asia4 ,neither ,american nor ,european writers agree as to the climate desired by ,vinifera1 for the reason1 probably that all of the varieties in this variable species do not require the same climatic conditions4 ,there are certain phases of climate1 however1 that are well agreed on3 the species requires a warm1 dry climate and is more sensitive to change of temperature than ,american species4 ,varieties of this species can be grown successfully in a wide variety of soils1 being much less particular as to soils than ,american sorts4 ,certain characters of the fruit of this species are not found in any ,american forms3 ,first1 the skin1 which is attached very closely to the flesh and which is never astringent or acid1 can be eaten with the fruit2 second1 the flesh is firm1 yet tender1 and uniform throughout1 differing in this respect from all ,american grapes which have a sweet1 watery and tender pulp close to the skin with a tough and more or less acid core at the center2 third1 the flavor has a peculiarly sprightly quality known as vinous2 fourth1 the berry adheres firmly to the pedicel1 the fruit seldom shattering or shelling from the cluster4 ,in the various hybrids that have been made between ,american and ,vinifera varieties1 it is usually found that the desirable qualities of ,vinifera are inherited in about the same proportion as the undesirable ones4 ,the fruit is improved in the hybrid but the vine is weakened2 quality is usually purchased at the expense of hardiness and disease-resisting power4 ,vinifera may be grown very readily from cuttings4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxiii4--,lutie 7#a_/b74 ,pocklington 7#a_/b74 ,,chapter ,,xviii ,,varieties ,,of ,,grapes ,nature has expended her bounties in fullest measure for the vineyard4 ,more than #bjjj varieties of grapes are described in ,american viticultural literature1 and twice as many more find mention in ,european treatises on the vine4 ,few other fruits offer the novelties given the grape in flavors1 aromas1 sizes1 colors and uses4 ,the vineyard1 then1 to fulfill commercial potentialities1 should supply grapes throughout the whole season1 and of the several colors and flavors and for all uses4 ,a prime requisite for a vineyard being well-selected varieties1 an assortment of all kinds and for all places in ,america is here described4 ,,actoni 7,vinifera7 ,actoni is a table-grape of the ,malaga type which ripens at ,geneva1 ,new ,york1 late in ,october1 too late for the average season in the ,east but worth trying in favorable locations4 ,it is grown in ,california but is not a favorite sort4 ,the following brief description is made from fruit grown at ,geneva3 ,clusters large1 shouldered1 tapering1 loose2 berries medium to very large1 long-oval to oval1 clear green yellow2 flesh crisp1 firm2 flavor sweet2 quality good4 ,,agawam 7,labrusca1 ,vinifera7 ,randall1 ,rogers ,no4 #ae ,the qualities commending ,agawam are large size and attractive appearance of bunch and berry2 rich1 sweet aromatic flavor2 vigor of vine2 and capacity for self-fertilization4 ,for a grape having its proportion of ,european parentage1 the vine is vigorous1 hardy and productive4 ,the chief defects in fruit are a thick and rough skin1 coarse1 solid texture of pulp and foxy flavor4 ,the vine is susceptible to the mildews and in many localities does not yield well4 ,although ,agawam ripens soon after ,concord1 it can be kept much longer and even improves in flavor after picking4 ,the vines prefer heavy soils1 doing better on clay than on sand or gravel4 ,this is one of the grapes grown by ,e4 ,s4 ,rogers1 ,salem1 ,massachusetts4 ,it was introduced as ,no4 #ae but in #ahfa was given the name it now bears4 ,vine vigorous1 hardy1 productive4 ,canes thick1 dark brown2 nodes enlarged1 flattened2 internodes short2 tendrils intermittent1 bifid to trifid4 ,leaves thick2 upper surface light green1 dull1 smooth2 lower surface pale green1 pubescent1 flocculent2 lobes lacking2 terminus acute2 petiolar sinus deep1 narrow2 lateral sinus very shallow2 teeth shallow1 wide4 ,flowers on plan of six1 nearly self-fertile1 open late2 stamens upright4 ,fruit mid-season1 keeps until midwinter4 ,clusters medium to large1 short1 broad1 tapering1 loose2 pedicel short2 brush very short1 pale green4 ,berries large1 oval1 dark purplish-red with thin bloom1 very persistent2 skin thick1 tough1 adherent1 astringent2 flesh pale green1 translucent1 tough1 stringy1 solid1 foxy2 good4 ,seeds adherent1 two to five1 large1 long1 brown4 ,,almeria 7,vinifera7 ,this is one of the varieties commonly found in eastern markets from ,almeria and ,malaga1 ,spain1 although occasionally it may come from ,california where the variety1 or similar varieties confused with it1 is now grown4 ,this sort is remarkable for its wonderful keeping qualities2 it is adapted only to hot interior regions4 ,the ,almeria cultivated by the ,california ,experiment ,station is described as follows3 ,vine vigorous2 leaves of medium size1 round and slightly or not at all lobed1 quite glabrous on both sides1 teeth obtuse and alternately large and small2 bunches large1 loose or compact1 irregular conical2 berries from small to large1 cylindrical1 flattened on the ends1 very hard and tasteless4 ,,america 7,lincecumii1 ,rupestris7 ,the notable qualities of ,america are vigor of growth and health of foliage in vine1 and persistence of berries1 which have strongly colored red juice1 high sugar-content and excellent flavor4 ,the grapes wholly lack the foxy taste and aroma of ,labrusca and the variety1 therefore1 offers possibilities for breeding sorts lacking the foxy flavor of ,concord and ,niagara4 ,america has great resistance to heat and cold4 ,also1 it is said to be a suitable stock upon which to graft ,vinifera varieties to resist phylloxera4 ,the vigor of the vine and the luxuriance of the foliage make it an excellent sort for arbors4 ,america was grown by ,t4 ,v4 ,munson1 ,denison1 ,texas1 from seed of ,jaeger ,no4 #dc pollinated by a male ,rupestris4 ,it was introduced about #ahib4 ,vine vigorous1 hardy1 productive4 ,canes long1 numerous1 dark reddish-brown with heavy bloom2 nodes enlarged1 flattened2 tendrils intermittent1 long1 bifid4 ,leaves small1 thin2 upper surface glossy1 smooth2 lower surface light green1 hairy2 lobes lacking or faint1 terminal one acute2 petiolar sinus deep and wide2 teeth of average depth and width4 ,flowers self-sterile1 usually on plan of six1 open late2 stamens reflexed4 ,fruit mid-season or later1 keeps well4 ,clusters large1 long1 broad1 tapering1 irregular1 single-shouldered1 compact2 pedicel short1 slender with small warts2 brush short1 thick with red tinge4 ,berries small1 variable in size1 round1 purplish-black1 glossy with purplish-red pigment1 astringent2 flesh dull white with faint red tinge1 translucent1 tender1 melting1 spicy1 vinous1 sweet2 good4 ,seeds free1 two to five1 long1 pointed1 yellowish-brown4 ,,aminia 7,labrusca1 ,vinifera7 ,aminia is one of the best early grapes1 its season being with or a little after ,moore ,early4 ,the grapes are of high quality and attractive appearance1 but the bunches are small1 variable in size1 not well formed and the berries ripen unevenly4 ,the vine is vigorous but is neither as hardy nor as productive as a commercial variety should be4 ,in #ahfg ,isadora ,bush1 a ,missourian1 planted vines of ,rogers ,no4 #ci from several different sources4 ,when these came into bearing1 he distinguished three varieties4 ,bush selected the best of the three and1 with the consent of ,rogers1 named it ,aminia4 ,in spite of ,bush's care1 there are two distinct grapes cultivated under this name4 ,vine vigorous1 precariously hardy1 lacking in productiveness4 ,canes rough1 long1 thick1 dark brown2 nodes enlarged2 internodes long2 tendrils intermittent1 long1 trifid or bifid1 persistent4 ,leaves large2 upper surface dull1 smooth2 lower surface light green1 pubescent2 lobes three2 terminal lobe acute2 petiolar sinus deep1 narrow1 often closed and overlapping2 basal sinus usually lacking2 lateral sinus shallow1 narrow2 teeth shallow1 wide4 ,flowers open in mid-season1 self-sterile2 stamens reflexed4 ,fruit early1 keeps well4 ,clusters small1 broad1 irregular1 conical1 sometimes with a long shoulder1 loose2 pedicel long with few warts2 brush short1 thick1 brownish-red4 ,berries variable1 round1 dull black with thin bloom1 persistent1 firm2 skin thick1 tender1 adherent with purplish-red pigment1 astringent2 flesh greenish1 translucent1 tender1 solid1 coarse1 foxy2 good4 ,seeds adherent1 one to six1 very large4 ,,august ,,giant 7,labrusca1 ,vinifera7 ,august ,giant is a hybrid between ,labrusca and ,vinifera in which the fruit characters are those of the latter species4 ,in appearance and taste of berry1 the variety resembles ,black ,hamburg4 ,the vine is usually vigorous and1 considering its parentage1 is very hardy4 ,the foliage is thick and luxuriant but subject to mildew4 ,vigor of vine1 beauty of foliage and the quality of the fruit make the variety desirable for the amateur4 ,it needs a long-maturing season4 ,august ,giant was grown by ,n4 ,b4 ,white1 ,norwood1 ,massachusetts1 in #ahfa1 from seed of an early1 large-berried1 red ,labrusca pollinated by ,black ,hamburg4 ,vine very vigorous1 hardy1 subject to mildew4 ,canes long1 numerous1 thick1 dark brown2 nodes enlarged1 flattened2 internodes short2 tendrils continuous1 long1 bifid or trifid4 ,leaves large1 thick2 upper surface dark green1 glossy1 smooth2 lower surface pale green or bronzed1 pubescent2 lobes three1 terminal one acute2 petiolar sinus deep1 narrow1 frequently closed and overlapping2 lateral sinus shallow or a notch2 teeth shallow1 narrow4 ,flowers open in mid-season1 self-sterile2 stamens reflexed4 ,fruit mid-season1 keeps well4 ,clusters of average size1 short1 broad1 irregularly tapering1 single-shouldered1 loose2 pedicel long1 thick with large warts2 brush short1 thick1 green or with brown tinge4 ,berries large1 oval1 purplish-red or black1 dull with thick bloom1 firm2 skin tough1 adherent1 astringent2 flesh green1 translucent1 tough1 stringy2 good4 ,seeds adherent1 one to four1 large1 blunt1 light brown4 ,,bacchus 7,vulpina1 ,labrusca7 ,bacchus is an offspring of ,clinton which it resembles in vine and leaf characters1 but surpasses in quality of fruit and in productiveness of vine4 ,the special points of merit of the variety are3 resistance to cold1 resistance to phylloxera1 freedom from fungi and insects1 productiveness1 ease of multiplication and capacity to bear grafts4 ,its limitations are3 poor quality for table use1 inability to withstand dry soils or droughts1 and nonadaptability to soils containing much lime4 ,the variety originated with ,j4 ,h4 ,ricketts1 ,newburgh1 ,new ,york1 and was first exhibited by him in #ahgi4 ,vine very vigorous1 hardy1 healthy1 productive4 ,canes numerous1 dark brown with bloom at the nodes which are enlarged and flattened2 tendrils bifid4 ,leaves small2 upper surface dark green1 glossy1 smooth2 lower surface dull green1 smooth2 lobes three1 terminal one acuminate2 petiolar sinus shallow1 narrow1 sometimes overlapping2 basal sinus lacking2 lateral sinus shallow1 wide4 ,flowers open early1 self-sterile2 stamens upright4 ,fruit late1 keeps well1 hangs long4 ,clusters small1 slender1 uniform1 cylindrical1 single-shouldered1 compact2 pedicel short1 slender with a few small warts2 brush short1 wine-colored4 ,berries small1 round1 black1 glossy1 covered with thin bloom1 hang well to pedicels1 firm2 skin thin1 adherent1 contains much wine-colored pigment1 slightly astringent2 flesh dark green1 translucent1 fine-grained1 tough1 vinous1 spicy2 fair quality4 ,seeds clinging1 one to four1 many abortive1 large1 short and wide1 plump1 sharply pointed1 brown4 ,,bakator 7,vinifera7 ,this is a ,hungarian wine grape but its high quality and early season make it a desirable table-grape in the ,east4 ,it seems to be grown but little on the ,pacific slope4 ,the following description is made from fruit grown at ,geneva1 ,new ,york3 ,vine medium in vigor1 productive4 ,young leaves tinged red at edges1 upper surface glossy2 mature leaves large1 round1 upper surface dull1 lower surface downy2 lobes five1 terminal lobe acuminate2 basal sinus deep1 medium to narrow1 closed to overlapping2 lower lateral sinus deep1 variable in width2 upper lateral sinus deep1 usually narrows2 margins dentate1 teeth shallow to medium deep4 ,flowers appear late2 stamens reflexed4 ,fruit ripens at ,geneva the first or second week in ,october and keeps well in storage2 clusters above medium in size1 medium in length1 broad1 frequently double-shouldered1 tapering1 medium to loose2 berries medium to small1 oval1 light red becoming dark when fully ripe1 with thick bloom2 skin thin1 tender1 adherent to the pulp2 flesh greenish1 juicy1 tender1 melting1 vinous1 sweet2 quality very good4 ,,barry 7,labrusca1 ,vinifera7 ,barry 7,plate ,,vii7 is one of the best ,american black grapes1 resembling in berry and in flavor and keeping quality of fruit its ,european parent1 ,black ,hamburg4 ,the appearance of berry and bunch is attractive4 ,the vine is vigorous1 hardy and productive but susceptible to mildew4 ,the ripening season is just after that of ,concord4 ,for the table1 for winter keeping and for the amateur1 this variety may be highly recommended4 ,barry was dedicated in #ahfi1 by ,e4 ,s4 ,rogers1 who originated it1 to ,patrick ,barry1 distinguished nurseryman and pomologist4 ,the variety is grown in gardens throughout the grape regions of eastern ,america4 ,vine vigorous1 hardy1 productive1 susceptible to mildew4 ,canes long1 numerous1 thick1 dark brown with heavy bloom2 nodes flattened2 shoots glabrous2 tendrils intermittent1 bifid or trifid4 ,leaves large2 upper surface light green1 glossy1 smooth2 lower surface pale green1 pubescent2 lobes one to three1 terminus acute2 petiolar sinus deep1 narrow1 sometimes closed and overlapping2 basal sinus usually lacking2 lateral sinus shallow1 narrow2 teeth shallow4 ,flowers open in mid-season1 self-sterile2 stamens reflexed4 ,fruit mid-season1 keeps well4 ,clusters short1 very broad1 tapering1 often subdividing into several parts1 compact2 pedicel with small warts4 ,berries large1 oval1 dark purplish-black1 glossy1 covered with heavy bloom1 adherent2 skin thin1 tough1 adherent2 flesh pale green1 translucent1 tender1 stringy1 vinous1 pleasant-flavored2 good4 ,seeds adherent1 one to five1 large1 deeply notched1 with enlarged neck1 brown4 ,,beacon 7,lincecumii1 ,labrusca7 ,another of ,t4 ,v4 ,munson's hybrids is ,beacon4 ,it is not well adapted to northern regions but does very well in the ,south4 ,the vine is vigorous and bears a handsome1 compact mass of foliage which retains its color and freshness through drouths and heat4 ,munson grew ,beacon in #ahhg from seed of ,big ,berry 7a variety of ,lincecumii7 pollinated by ,concord1 the vine bearing first in #ahhi4 ,vine vigorous1 precariously hardy1 productive4 ,canes short1 slender1 light brown4 ,leaves healthy1 thick1 dark green1 sometimes rugose2 veins showing indistinctly through the slight pubescence of the lower surface4 ,flowers open in mid-season1 on plan of five or six1 self-fertile4 ,fruit mid-season1 keeps well4 ,clusters large1 long1 slender1 cylindrical1 usually high-shouldered1 compact4 ,berries variable in size1 round1 purplish-black1 dull with heavy bloom1 firm2 skin tough1 adherent with a large amount of purplish-red pigment1 astringent2 flesh tender1 aromatic1 spicy1 vinous1 mildly subacid2 good4 ,seeds free1 large1 broad1 blunt1 notched4 ,,berckmans 7,vulpina1 ,labrusca1 ,bourquiniana7 ,in ,berckmans we have the fruit of ,delaware on the vine of ,clinton4 ,the berry and bunch resemble ,delaware in shape2 the fruit is of the same color2 bunch and berry are larger2 the grapes keep longer2 the flesh is firmer but the quality is not so good1 the flesh lacking tenderness and richness in comparison with ,delaware4 ,the vine of ,berckmans is not only more vigorous1 but is less subject to mildew than that of ,delaware4 ,the vine characters are not1 however1 as good as those of ,clinton4 ,the variety is poorly adapted to some soils1 and on these the grapes do not color well4 ,in spite of many good qualities1 ,berckmans is but an amateur's grape4 ,the name commemorates the viticultural labors of ,p4 ,j4 ,berckmans1 a contemporary and friend of ,a4 ,p4 ,wylie1 of ,chester1 ,south ,carolina1 who originated the variety4 ,berckmans came from ,delaware seed fertilized by ,clinton1 the seed having been sown in #ahfh4 ,vine vigorous1 hardy1 productive4 ,canes long1 numerous1 slender1 dark brown2 nodes prominent1 flattened2 internodes short2 shoots glabrous2 tendrils intermittent1 long1 bifid4 ,leaves small1 thin2 upper surface light green1 smooth2 lower surface pale green1 glabrous2 lobes one to three1 terminal one acute2 petiolar sinus shallow1 wide2 basal sinus usually lacking2 lateral sinus shallow4 ,flowers open early1 self-fertile2 stamens upright4 ,fruit ripens with ,delaware4 ,clusters shouldered1 compact1 slender2 pedicel long1 slender with few warts2 brush short1 light green4 ,berries small1 oval1 ,delaware-red1 darker when well ripened1 covered with thin bloom1 persistent2 skin thin1 tough1 adherent1 astringent2 flesh pale yellowish-green1 translucent1 fine-grained1 tender1 melting1 vinous1 sweet1 sprightly2 very good4 ,seeds free1 one to four1 small1 broad1 blunt1 brown4 ,,black ,,eagle 7,labrusca1 ,vinifera7 ,the fruit of ,black ,eagle is of the best1 but the vine lacks in vigor1 hardiness and productiveness and is self-sterile4 ,bunch and berry are large and attractive4 ,the season is about with ,concord4 ,black ,eagle has wholly failed as a commercial variety1 and its several weaknesses prevent amateurs from growing it widely4 ,the variety originated with ,stephen ,w4 ,underhill1 ,croton-on-,hudson1 ,new ,york1 from seed of ,concord pollinated by ,black ,prince4 ,it fruited first in #ahff4 ,vine vigorous1 precariously hardy1 unproductive4 ,canes rough1 thick1 reddish-brown with light bloom2 nodes enlarged1 flattened internodes long2 tendrils continuous1 long1 bifid or trifid4 ,leaves thick2 upper surface dark green1 glossy1 smooth to rugose2 lobes five2 terminal lobe acute2 petiolar sinus deep2 lateral sinus wide1 narrowing towards top1 deep4 ,flowers open in mid-season1 self-sterile2 stamens reflexed4 ,fruit mid-season1 keeps well4 ,clusters large1 long1 tapering1 single-or double-shouldered1 compact2 pedicel long1 slender with few warts2 brush short1 pale green4 ,berries variable in size1 oval1 black1 glossy with thick bloom2 skin tender1 thin1 adherent with wine-colored pigment2 flesh pale green1 translucent1 tender1 vinous2 good4 ,seeds free1 one to four1 large4 ,,black ,,hamburg 7,vinifera7 ,black ,hamburg 7,plate ,,vi7 is an old ,european sort1 long the mainstay in forcing-houses in ,belgium1 ,england and ,america and now popular out of doors in ,california4 ,it is an excellent table-grape but1 while it keeps well1 its tender skin does not permit its being shipped far1 especially when grown out of doors4 ,the vine is subject to disease4 ,the following description of the fruit is made from grapes grown in the greenhouse3 ,bunches very large1 often a foot in length and weighing several pounds2 very broad at the shoulder and gradually tapering to a point2 compact1 oftentimes too compact2 berries very large1 round or slightly round-oval2 skin rather thick2 dark purple becoming black at full maturity2 flesh firm1 juicy1 sweet and rich2 quality very good or best4 ,season early in the forcing-house but rather late out of doors4 ,,black ,,malvoise 7,vinifera7 ,this variety is rather widely grown in ,california as an early table-grape and might be worth trying in eastern grape regions4 ,while the fruit is not of the best quality1 it is good4 ,the following description is compiled3 ,vine vigorous1 healthy and productive2 wood long-jointed1 rather slender1 light brown4 ,leaves of medium size1 oval1 evenly and deeply five-lobed2 basal sinus open1 with nearly parallel sides2 upper surface smooth1 almost glabrous2 lower surface slightly tomentose on the veins and veinlets4 ,bunches large1 loose1 branching2 berries large1 oblong1 reddish black with faint bloom2 flesh firm1 juicy1 crisp2 flavor lacking in richness and character2 quality not high4 ,season early1 keeping and shipping but poorly4 ,,black ,,morocco 7,vinifera7 ,black ,morocco very generally meets the approval of grape-growers on the ,pacific slope without being a prime favorite for either home use or commerce4 ,the grapes are not high enough in quality for a home vineyard1 and1 while they ship well1 are hard to handle because of the large size and rigidity of the bunches4 ,another fault is that the vines are subject to root-knot4 ,the chief asset of the variety is handsome appearance of fruit4 ,this variety is remarkable for the number of second-crop bunches which it produces on the laterals4 ,the following description is compiled3 ,vine very vigorous1 productive2 canes spreading1 few4 ,leaves medium to small1 very deeply five-lobed2 the younger leaves truncate at base1 giving them a semi-circular outline1 with long1 sharp teeth alternating with very small ones2 glabrous1 or nearly so1 on both sides4 ,bunches very large1 short1 shouldered1 compact and rigid2 berries very large1 round1 often misshapen from compression2 dull purple1 lacking color in the center of the bunch2 flesh firm1 crisp1 neutral in flavor1 lacking in richness2 quality rather low4 ,season late1 keeping and shipping well4 ,,brighton 7,labrusca1 ,vinifera7 ,brighton 7,plate ,,viii7 is one of the few ,labrusca-,vinifera hybrids which have attained prominence in commercial vineyards4 ,it ranks as one of the leading amateur grapes in eastern ,america and is among the ten or twelve chief commercial sorts of this region4 ,its good points are3 for the fruit1 high quality2 for the vine1 vigorous growth1 productiveness1 adaptability to various soils and ability to withstand fungi4 ,brighton has two serious defects which keep it from taking higher rank as a commercial variety3 it deteriorates in quality very quickly after maturity1 so that it cannot be kept for more than a few days at its best1 hence cannot well be shipped to distant markets2 and it is self-sterile to a more marked degree than any other commonly-grown grape4 ,brighton is a seedling of ,diana ,hamburg pollinated by ,concord1 raised by ,jacob ,moore1 ,brighton1 ,new ,york4 ,the original vine fruited first in #ahgj4 ,vine vigorous1 hardy1 productive1 subject to mildew4 ,canes long1 numerous1 light brown2 nodes enlarged1 usually flattened2 internodes long2 tendrils continuous1 long1 bifid4 ,leaves large1 thick2 upper surface dark green1 dull1 smooth2 lower surface pale green1 pubescent2 lobes three when present1 terminal one acute2 petiolar sinus intermediate in depth and width2 lateral sinus shallow2 teeth narrow4 ,flowers open late1 self-sterile2 stamens reflexed4 ,fruit mid-season4 ,clusters large1 long1 broad1 tapering1 heavily shouldered1 loose2 pedicel thick2 brush pale green with brown tinge1 thick1 short4 ,berries irregular1 large1 oval1 light red1 glossy with heavy bloom1 persistent1 soft2 skin thick1 tender1 adherent1 astringent2 flesh green1 transparent1 tender1 stringy1 melting1 aromatic1 vinous1 sweet2 very good4 ,seeds free1 one to five1 broad1 light brown4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxiv4--,moore ,early 7#c_/e74 ,,brilliant 7,labrusca1 ,vinifera1 ,bourquiniana7 ,brilliant is a cross between ,lindley and ,delaware4 ,in cluster and size of berry it resembles ,lindley2 in color and quality of fruit it is about the same as ,delaware1 differing chiefly in having more astringency in the skin4 ,its season is about with ,delaware4 ,the grapes do not crack or shell1 therefore ship well1 and have very good keeping qualities1 especially on the vine where they often hang for weeks4 ,the vine is vigorous and hardy4 ,the defects which have kept ,brilliant from becoming one of the standard commercial sorts are3 marked susceptibility to fungi1 variability in size of cluster1 unevenness in ripening and unproductiveness4 ,in favorable situations this variety pleases the amateur1 and the commercial grower often finds it profitable4 ,the seed which produced ,brilliant was planted by ,t4 ,v4 ,munson1 ,denison1 ,texas1 in #ahhc and the variety was introduced in #ahhg4 ,vine vigorous1 hardy1 rather unproductive4 ,canes long1 numerous1 thick1 dark brown2 nodes enlarged1 flattened2 internodes long2 tendrils intermittent1 long1 bifid4 ,leaves large1 thick2 upper surface dark green1 dull1 rugose2 lower surface gray-green1 downy2 obscurely three-lobed with terminal lobe acute2 petiolar sinus deep1 narrow2 basal and lateral sinuses obscure and shallow when present2 teeth intermediate in depth and width4 ,flowers open late1 self-fertile2 stamens upright4 ,fruit early mid-season1 keeps well4 ,clusters medium1 blunt1 cylindrical1 usually shouldered1 compact2 pedicel short1 thick with a few small warts2 brush short1 thick1 pale green with reddish tinge4 ,berries round1 dark red1 glossy with thin bloom1 strongly adherent1 firm2 skin thin1 tough1 adherent2 flesh pale green1 transparent1 juicy1 stringy1 fine-grained1 vinous1 sweet2 good4 ,seeds clinging1 one to four1 large1 broad1 elongated1 plump1 light brown4 ,,brown 7,labrusca7 ,in spite of many encomiums in the past quarter century1 ,brown has not received favorable recognition from fruit-growers4 ,the quality is not high1 the berries shatter badly1 and the vine is lacking in vigor4 ,brown is a seedling of ,isabella which came up in a yard at ,newburgh1 ,new ,york1 about #ahhd4 ,vine hardy1 productive4 ,canes short1 slender1 dark brown2 tendrils continuous4 ,leaves healthy1 light green1 glossy2 veins well defined1 distinctly showing through the thick bronze of the lower surface4 ,flowers open early1 self-fertile stamens upright4 ,fruit large1 keeps well4 ,clusters small to medium1 slender1 cylindrical or tapering1 usually single-shouldered4 ,berries intermediate in size1 oval1 black with thick bloom1 drop soon after ripening2 skin adherent2 flesh juicy1 tough1 fine-grained1 a little foxy1 mild next the skin but tart at center2 good4 ,seeds short1 blunt1 light brown4 ,,campbell ,,early 7,labrusca1 ,vinifera7 ,the meritorious qualities of ,campbell ,early 7,plate ,,ix7 are3 ,the grapes are high in quality when mature2 free from foxiness and from acidity about the seeds2 have small seeds which easily part from the flesh2 are early1 ripening nearly a fortnight before ,concord2 bunch and berry are large and handsome2 and the vines are exceptionally hardy4 ,campbell ,early falls short in not being adapted to many soils2 the variety lacks productiveness2 the grapes attain full color before they are ripe and are1 therefore1 often marketed in an unripe condition2 the bunch is variable in size2 and the color of the berry is not attractive4 ,george ,w4 ,campbell1 ,delaware1 ,ohio1 grew this variety from a seedling of ,moore ,early pollinated by a ,labrusca-,vinifera hybrid4 ,it bore first in #ahib4 ,vine vigorous1 hardy1 productive4 ,canes thick1 dark reddish-brown1 surface roughened with small warts2 nodes flattened2 internodes short2 shoots pubescent2 tendrils intermittent1 short1 bifid or trifid4 ,leaves large1 thick2 upper surface green1 glossy2 lower surface bronze1 heavily pubescent2 lobes three1 usually entire1 terminal one acute2 petiolar sinus shallow1 wide2 basal sinus pubescent2 lateral sinus wide or a notch2 teeth shallow1 narrow4 ,flowers self-fertile1 open in mid-season2 stamens upright4 ,fruit early1 keeps and ships well4 ,clusters usually large1 long1 broad1 tapering1 single-shouldered2 pedicel short1 slender with small warts2 brush long1 light wine color4 ,berries usually large1 round1 oval1 dark purplish-black1 dull with heavy bloom1 persistent1 firm2 skin tough1 thin1 adherent with dark red pigment1 astringent2 flesh green1 translucent1 juicy1 coarse1 vinous1 sweet from skin to center2 good4 ,seeds free1 one to four1 light brown1 often with yellow tips4 ,,canada 7,vulpina1 ,labrusca1 ,vinifera7 ,canada is considered the most desirable hybrid between ,vulpina and ,vinifera4 ,the variety shows ,vinifera more than ,vulpina parentage2 thus1 in susceptibility to fungal diseases1 in shape1 color and texture of foliage1 in the flavor of the fruit and in the seeds1 there are marked indications of ,vinifera2 while the vine1 especially in the slenderness of its shoots and in the bunch and berry1 shows ,vulpina4 ,canada has little value as a dessert fruit but makes a very good red wine or grape-juice4 ,canada is a seedling of ,clinton1 a ,labrusca-,vulpina hybrid1 fertilized by ,black ,st4 ,peters1 a variety of ,vinifera4 ,charles ,arnold1 ,paris1 ,ontario1 planted the seed which produced ,canada in #ahfj4 ,vine very vigorous1 hardy1 productive4 ,canes long1 numerous1 slender1 ash-gray1 reddish-brown at nodes with heavy bloom2 nodes enlarged2 internodes short2 tendrils intermittent1 short1 trifid or bifid4 ,leaves thin2 upper surface light green1 smooth2 lower surface pale green1 hairy2 terminal lobe acute2 petiolar sinus deep1 narrow2 basal sinus variable in depth and width2 lateral sinus deep and narrow2 teeth deep and wide4 ,flowers self-sterile1 early2 stamens upright4 ,fruit mid-season1 keeps well4 ,clusters long1 slender1 uniform1 cylindrical1 compact2 pedicel long1 slender1 smooth2 brush short1 light brown4 ,berries small1 round1 purplish-black1 glossy with heavy bloom1 persistent1 firm2 skin thin1 tough1 adherent2 flesh dark green1 very juicy1 fine-grained1 tender1 spicy1 pleasant vinous flavor1 agreeably tart2 good4 ,seeds free1 one to three1 blunt1 light brown4 ,,canandaigua 7,labrusca1 ,vinifera7 ,canandaigua is worth attention because of the exceptionally good keeping qualities of the grapes4 ,the flavor is very good at picking time but seems1 if anything1 to improve in storage4 ,the vine characters are those of ,labrusca-,vinifera hybrids1 and in these the variety is the equal of the average cultivated hybrid of these two species4 ,the characters of the fruit1 also1 show plainly an admixture of ,vinifera and ,labrusca so combined as to make the grapes very similar to the best of such hybrids4 ,canandaigua is a chance seedling found by ,e4 ,l4 ,van ,wormer1 ,canandaigua1 ,new ,york1 growing among wild grapes4 ,it was distributed about #ahig4 ,vine vigorous1 doubtfully hardy1 productive4 ,canes long1 few1 reddish-brown1 faint bloom2 nodes enlarged1 flattened2 tendrils semi-continuous1 bifid1 dehisce early4 ,leaves large1 thin2 upper surface light green2 lower surface gray-green4 ,flowers sterile or sometimes partly self-fertile1 open in mid-season2 stamens reflexed4 ,fruit late mid-season1 keeps unusually well4 ,clusters variable in size1 usually heavily single-shouldered1 loose to medium4 ,berries large1 oval1 black1 covered with thick bloom1 persistent2 skin adherent1 thin1 tough2 flesh firm1 sweet and rich2 good1 improves as season advances4 ,seeds long with enlarged neck4 ,,carman 7,lincecumii1 ,vinifera1 ,labrusca7 ,carman is a grape having the characters of three species and hence is of interest to grape improvers4 ,it has not become popular with growers1 chiefly because the grapes ripen very late and are not of high quality4 ,the most valuable character of the variety is that of long keeping1 whether hanging on the vine or after harvesting4 ,t4 ,v4 ,munson1 ,denison1 ,texas1 raised ,carman from seed of a wild post-oak grape taken from the woods1 pollinated with mixed pollen of ,triumph and ,herbemont4 ,it was introduced in #ahib4 ,vine very vigorous1 hardy1 rather productive4 ,canes long1 numerous1 thick1 reddish-brown2 nodes enlarged1 flattened2 internodes long2 tendrils intermittent1 long1 trifid4 ,leaves large1 thick2 upper surface light green1 glossy1 older leaves rugose2 lower surface pale green1 pubescent2 terminal lobe acute2 petiolar sinus deep2 basal sinus absent or shallow2 lateral sinus shallow when present4 ,flowers self-fertile or nearly so1 open very late2 stamens upright4 ,fruit late1 keeps well4 ,clusters variable in size1 tapering1 single-shouldered1 compact2 pedicel short1 slender1 smooth2 brush short1 slender1 wine-colored4 ,berries small1 round1 slightly oblate1 purplish-black1 glossy1 covered with heavy bloom1 persistent1 firm2 skin thin1 tough1 free2 flesh yellowish-green1 tender1 post-oak flavor1 vinous1 spicy2 good to very good4 ,seeds free1 one to four1 small1 blunt1 brown4 ,,catawba 7,labrusca1 ,vinifera7 ,arkansas1 ,catawba ,tokay1 ,cherokee1 ,fancher1 ,keller's ,white1 ,lebanon1 ,lincoln1 ,mammoth ,catawba1 ,mead's ,seedling1 ,merceron1 ,michigan1 ,muncy1 ,omega1 ,rose of ,tennessee1 ,saratoga1 ,singleton1 ,tekomah1 ,tokay1 ,virginia ,amber4 ,catawba has long been the standard red grape in the markets of eastern ,america1 chiefly because the fruit keeps well and is of high quality4 ,the vine is vigorous1 hardy and productive1 but the foliage and fruit are susceptible to fungi4 ,these two faults account for the decline of ,catawba in grape regions in the ,united ,states and for its growing unpopularity4 ,in botanical characters and in adaptations and susceptibilities1 the variety suggests ,vinifera crossed with ,labrusca4 ,the characters of ,catawba seem readily transmissible to its offspring and1 besides having a number of pure-bred descendants which more or less resemble it1 it is a parent of a still greater number of cross-breeds4 ,as with ,catawba1 most of its progeny show ,vinifera characters1 as intermittent tendrils1 ,vinifera color of foliage1 a vinous flavor wholly or nearly free from foxiness1 and the susceptibilities of ,labrusca-,vinifera hybrids to certain diseases and insects4 ,catawba was introduced by ,john ,adlum1 ,district of ,columbia1 about #ahbc4 ,adlum secured cuttings from a ,mrs4 ,scholl1 ,clarksburgh1 ,montgomery ,county1 ,maryland1 in the spring of #ahai4 ,its further history is not known4 ,vine vigorous1 hardy1 productive4 ,canes numerous1 thick1 dark brown2 nodes enlarged2 tendrils continuous1 bifid or trifid4 ,leaves large2 upper surface light green1 dull1 smooth2 lower surface grayish-white1 heavily pubescent2 lobes sometimes three1 terminal one acute2 petiolar sinus deep1 narrow2 basal sinus often lacking2 lateral sinus narrow2 teeth shallow1 narrow4 ,flowers self-fertile1 open late1 stamens upright4 ,fruit late1 keeps well4 ,clusters large1 long1 broad1 tapering1 single-or sometimes double-shouldered1 loose2 pedicel with a few inconspicuous warts2 brush short1 pale green4 ,berries of medium size1 oval1 dull purplish-red with thick bloom1 firm2 skin thick1 adherent1 astringent2 flesh green1 translucent1 juicy1 fine-grained1 vinous1 sprightly1 sweet and rich2 very good4 ,seeds free1 frequently abortive1 two1 broad-necked1 distinctly notched1 blunt1 brown4 ,,champion 7,labrusca7 ,beaconsfield1 ,early ,champion1 ,talman's ,seedling ,champion is a favorite early grape with some growers1 although the poor quality of the fruit should have driven it from cultivation long ago4 ,the characters which have kept it in the market are earliness1 good shipping qualities1 attractive appearance of fruit1 and a vigorous1 productive1 hardy vine4 ,the hardiness of the vine and the short season of fruit development make it a good variety for northern climates4 ,this grape is best in appearance of fruit1 in quality and in the quantity produced1 on light sandy soils4 ,the origin of ,champion is unknown4 ,it was first grown about #ahgj in ,new ,york4 ,vine very vigorous1 hardy and productive4 ,canes of average size1 dark brown2 nodes enlarged1 flattened2 internodes short2 shoots pubescent2 tendrils continuous1 long1 bifid4 ,leaves large2 upper surface dark green1 dull1 rugose2 lower surface dull gray1 downy2 lobes usually three1 often obscurely five1 terminal one acute2 petiolar sinus deep2 teeth shallow4 ,flowers self-fertile1 early2 stamens upright4 ,fruit early1 three weeks before ,concord1 season short4 ,clusters medium in size1 blunt1 cylindrical1 usually not shouldered1 compact2 pedicel short with inconspicuous warts2 brush white tinged with bronze4 ,berries medium in size1 round1 dull black covered with heavy bloom1 soft2 skin thick1 tender1 adherent1 astringent2 flesh light green1 translucent1 juicy1 fine-grained1 tender1 foxy2 poor in quality4 ,seeds adherent1 one to five1 broad1 long1 blunt1 light brown4 ,,chasselas ,,golden 7,vinifera7 ,chasselas ,dore1 ,fontainebleau1 ,sweetwater ,several qualities have made ,chasselas ,golden a favorite grape wherever it can be grown4 ,the variety is adapted to widely differing environments2 the season of ripening is early2 while not choicely high1 the quality of the grapes is good and they are beautiful1 clear green tinged with beautiful golden bronze where exposed to the sun4 ,chasselas ,golden is a popular variety on the ,pacific slope and should be one of the first ,viniferas to be tried in the ,east4 ,the following description was made from fruit grown at ,geneva1 ,new ,york3 ,vine medium in vigor1 very productive2 buds open in mid-season4 ,young leaves tinged with red on both upper and lower surfaces1 thinly pubescent to glabrous2 mature leaves medium to above in size1 slightly cordate2 upper surface glabrous1 lower surface slightly pubescent along the veins2 lobes five in number1 terminal lobe acuminate2 basal sinus broad and rather deep2 lower lateral sinus variable1 usually broad and sometimes deep2 upper lateral sinus broad and frequently deep2 teeth large1 obtuse to rounded4 ,flowers late2 stamens upright4 ,fruit ripens early and keeps well in storage2 clusters large1 long1 broad1 tapering1 sometimes with a single shoulder1 compactness medium2 berries medium to above1 slightly oval1 pale green to clear yellow1 with thin bloom2 skin thin1 tough1 adherent1 slightly astringent2 flesh greenish1 translucent1 firm1 juicy1 tender1 sweet2 good4 ,,chasselas ,,rose 7,vinifera7 ,chasselas ,rose is very similar to ,chasselas ,golden1 differing chiefly in smaller bunch and berry and slightly different flavor which is possibly better4 ,it is a standard sort in ,california and should be planted in the ,east where the culture of ,viniferas is attempted4 ,the description is made from fruit grown at ,geneva1 ,new ,york3 ,vine of medium vigor1 productive4 ,opening leaves tinged with red on both surfaces1 mature leaves small1 round2 upper surface medium green1 somewhat dull1 smooth2 lower surface glabrous2 lobes three2 basal sinus medium in depth and of variable width2 lateral sinus deep1 narrow2 teeth shallow1 wide1 dentate4 ,flowers appear late2 stamens upright4 ,fruit ripens the second week in ,october and is a good keeper though it loses its flavor in storage2 clusters above and below medium1 long1 tapering to cylindrical1 compact2 berries medium in size1 roundish-oval1 light red changed to violet-red by the bloom2 skin thin1 astringent1 juicy1 tender1 sweet1 mild2 quality good4 ,,chautauqua 7,labrusca7 ,in appearance of fruit1 ,chautauqua is very similar to ,concord1 its parent1 but the grapes ripen a few days earlier and are of better quality1 although they do not differ in these respects sufficiently to make the variety much more than an easily recognized strain of ,concord4 ,chautauqua is a volunteer seedling of ,concord1 found near ,brocton1 ,new ,york1 by ,h4 ,t4 ,bashtite about #ahij4 ,vine vigorous1 doubtfully hardy1 unproductive4 ,canes long1 thick1 cylindrical2 internodes long2 tendrils continuous1 trifid4 ,leaves large1 irregularly round1 dark green2 upper surface dark green2 lower surface tinged with bronze2 leaf entire or faintly three-lobed4 ,flowers semi-fertile1 open in mid-season or earlier2 stamens upright4 ,fruit early in mid-season4 ,clusters medium to large1 broad1 sometimes single-shouldered1 compact4 ,berries large1 round or slightly oval1 purplish-black with abundant bloom1 shatter badly2 skin thin1 very astringent2 flesh tough1 vinous1 sweet at skin1 acid at center2 good to very good4 ,seeds few1 free1 broad1 plump4 ,,clevener 7,vulpina1 ,labrusca7 ,this variety has long been grown in ,new ,jersey and ,new ,york1 and in both states is highly esteemed as a wine-grape4 ,the fruit is remarkable in coloring very early and in ripening late4 ,the vine is hardy1 very vigorous1 succeeds in various soils1 and since it bears grafts well is an excellent sort upon which to graft varieties not thriving on their own roots4 ,clevener is self-sterile and must be planted with some other variety to set fruit well4 ,in spite of its good qualities1 ,clevener is hardly holding its own in commercial vineyards1 and it is not a desirable fruit for the amateur who wants a table-grape4 ,clevener has been raised in the vicinity of ,egg ,harbor1 ,new ,jersey1 since about #ahgj1 but its place and time of origin are unknown4 ,vine a rampant grower1 hardy1 productive4 ,canes long1 numerous1 thick1 dark reddish-brown with heavy bloom2 nodes enlarged2 tendrils continuous1 bifid4 ,leaves unusually large1 dark green with well-defined ribs showing through the thin pubescence of the under surface2 lobes wanting or faint2 teeth deep1 wide4 ,flowers self-sterile1 open very early2 stamens reflexed4 ,fruit late1 keeps well4 ,clusters do not always fill well1 small1 short1 slender1 irregularly tapering1 often with a single shoulder4 ,berries small1 round or slightly flattened1 black1 glossy1 covered with heavy bloom1 persistent1 firm2 skin tough1 thin1 inclined to crack1 adherent with much purplish-red pigment2 flesh reddish-green1 juicy1 tender1 soft1 fine-grained1 aromatic1 spicy2 good4 ,seeds free1 notched1 sharp-pointed1 dark brown4 ,,clinton 7,vulpina1 ,labrusca7 ,worthington ,clinton 7,plate ,x7 came into prominence because of vigor1 hardiness1 fruitfulness and immunity to phylloxera4 ,a serious defect is that the vines bloom so early that the blossoms are often caught by late frosts in northern climates4 ,other defects are3 the fruit is small and sour1 and the seeds and skins prominent4 ,the fruit colors early in the season but does not ripen until late1 a slight touch of frost improving the flavor4 ,clinton bears grafts well1 making a quick and firm union with ,labrusca and ,vinifera1 and the vines are easily propagated from cuttings4 ,this variety has been used widely in grape-breeding1 and its blood can be traced in many valuable varieties4 ,the offspring of ,clinton are usually very hardy1 and this1 taken with its other desirable characters1 makes it an exceptionally good starting-point for breeding grapes for northern latitudes4 ,clinton is an old sort1 the ,worthington1 known as early as #ahae1 renamed2 it began to attract attention about #ahdj4 ,vine vigorous1 hardy1 healthy1 productive4 ,canes long1 numerous1 slender1 reddish-brown2 nodes enlarged1 flattened2 shoots smooth2 tendrils intermittent1 sometimes continuous1 bifid4 ,leaves hang until late in the season1 small1 thin2 upper surface dark green1 smooth2 lower surface pale green1 glabrous2 petiolar sinus deep1 narrow1 urn-shaped2 basal and lateral sinuses shallow2 teeth wide4 ,flowers self-fertile1 open early2 stamens upright4 ,fruit mid-season4 ,clusters small1 slender1 cylindrical1 uniform1 single-shouldered1 compact2 pedicel short1 very slender1 smooth2 brush tinged with red4 ,berries small1 round1 oval1 purplish-black1 glossy1 covered with thick bloom1 adherent1 firm2 skin very thin1 tough1 free from pulp with much wine-colored pigment1 astringent2 flesh dark green1 juicy1 fine-grained1 tough1 solid1 spicy1 sour1 vinous4 ,seeds adherent1 two1 short1 blunt1 brownish4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxv4--,muscat ,hamburg 7#b_/c74 ,,colerain 7,labrusca7 ,this is one of the numerous white seedlings of ,concord and one of the few with sufficient merit to be kept in cultivation4 ,the vine has the characteristic foliage and habit of growth of its parent1 but the fruit is earlier by a week1 is of much higher quality and lacks the foxiness of most ,labruscas4 ,the grapes are sprightly and vinous1 and neither seeds nor skin are as objectionable as in the parent4 ,the fruit hangs to the vine and keeps well1 but owing to tender pulp does not ship well4 ,the variety is unproductive in some localities4 ,colerain is worthy a place in home vineyards4 ,david ,bundy1 ,colerain1 ,ohio1 grew this variety from seed of ,concord planted in #ahhj4 ,vine vigorous1 hardy1 healthy1 unproductive4 ,canes slender1 dark reddish-brown2 nodes flattened2 internodes short1 bifid4 ,leaves thick2 upper surface light green1 dull1 smooth2 lower surface bronze1 downy2 leaf not lobed1 terminus acute2 petiolar sinus wide2 basal and lateral sinus very shallow when present2 teeth shallow4 ,flowers self-fertile1 opening in mid-season2 stamens upright4 ,fruit early4 ,clusters medium in size and length1 slender1 blunt1 tapering1 irregular1 strongly shouldered1 compact2 pedicel slender1 smooth2 brush green4 ,berries round1 light green1 glossy with thin bloom1 persistent2 skin unusually thin1 tender1 adherent1 unpigmented1 astringent2 flesh pale green1 translucent1 juicy1 fine-grained1 tender1 soft1 vinous1 sweet2 good4 ,seeds free1 one to three1 small1 broad1 notched1 short1 plump1 brown4 ,,columbian ,,imperial 7,labrusca1 ,vulpina7 ,columbian1 ,jumbo ,columbian ,imperial is a ,labrusca-,vulpina hybrid chiefly remarkable for the great size of its reddish-black berries1 although the vine is so exceptionally healthy and vigorous as to give it prominence for these characters as well4 ,the variety has remarkably thick leathery leaves which seem almost proof against either insects or fungi4 ,the quality of the fruit1 however1 is inferior1 and the small clusters vary in number of berries and these shell easily4 ,the only value of the variety is for exhibition purposes and for breeding to secure the desirable characters named4 ,the parentage of ,columbian ,imperial is unknown4 ,it originated with ,j4 ,s4 ,mc,kinley1 ,orient1 ,ohio1 in #ahhe4 ,vine vigorous1 hardy1 healthy1 unproductive4 ,canes long1 numerous1 thick1 dark reddish-brown1 heavily pubescent1 spiny2 nodes prominent2 internodes short2 tendrils continuous1 long1 bifid4 ,leaves green1 very thick2 lower surface pale green shading into bronze on older leaves with little pubescence2 lobes three1 indistinct2 teeth sharp1 shallow1 wide4 ,flowers self-fertile2 stamens upright4 ,fruit late4 ,clusters medium in size1 sometimes shouldered2 peduncle slender2 pedicel long2 brush long1 slender1 green4 ,berries very large1 round1 slightly oval1 dull reddish-black with faint bloom1 firm2 skin thick1 tough1 unpigmented2 flesh juicy1 tough1 sweet at the skin but acid at center2 fair in quality4 ,seeds adherent1 large1 plump1 broad1 blunt4 ,,concord 7,labrusca7 ,concord 7,plate ,,xi7 is the most widely known of the grapes of this continent1 and with its offspring1 pure-bred and cross-bred1 furnishes #ge per cent of the grapes of eastern ,america4 ,the preminently meritorious character of ,concord is that it adapts itself to varying conditions2 thus1 ,concord is grown with profit in every grape-growing state in the ,union and to an extent not possible with any other variety4 ,a second character which commends ,concord is fruitfulness--the vine bears large crops year in and year out4 ,added to these points of superiority1 are3 hardiness2 ability to withstand the ravages of diseases and insects2 comparative earliness2 certainty of maturity in northern regions2 and fair size and handsome appearance of bunch and berry4 ,concord also blossoms late in the spring and does not suffer often from spring frosts1 nor is the fruit often injured by late frosts4 ,the crop hangs well on the vine4 ,the variety is not1 however1 without faults3 the quality is not high1 the grapes lacking richness1 delicacy of flavor and aroma1 and having a foxy taste disagreeable to many2 the seeds and skin are objectionable1 the seeds being large and abundant and difficult to separate from the flesh1 and the skin being tough and unpleasantly astringent2 the grapes do not keep nor ship well and rapidly lose flavor after ripening2 the skin cracks and the berries shell from the stems after picking2 and the vine is but slightly resistant to phylloxera4 ,while ,concord is grown in the ,south1 it is essentially a northern grape1 becoming susceptible to fungi in southern climates and suffering from phylloxera in dry1 warm soils4 ,the botanical characters of ,concord indicate that it is a pure-bred ,labrusca4 ,seeds of a wild grape were planted in the fall of #ahdc by ,e4 ,w4 ,bull1 ,concord1 ,massachusetts1 plants from which fruited in #ahdi4 ,one of these seedlings was named ,concord4 ,vine vigorous1 hardy1 healthy1 productive4 ,canes long1 thick1 dark reddish-brown2 nodes enlarged1 flattened2 internodes long2 shoots pubescent2 tendrils continuous1 long1 bifid1 sometimes trifid4 ,leaves large1 thick2 upper surface dark green1 glossy1 smooth2 lower surface light bronze1 heavily pubescent2 lobes three when present1 terminal one acute2 petiolar sinus variable2 basal sinus usually lacking2 lateral sinus obscure and frequently notched2 teeth shallow1 narrow4 ,flowers self-fertile1 open in mid-season2 stamens upright4 ,fruit mid-season1 keeps from one to two months4 ,clusters uniform1 large1 wide1 broadly tapering1 usually single-shouldered1 sometimes double-shouldered1 compact2 pedicel thick1 smooth2 brush pale green4 ,berries large1 round1 glossy1 black with heavy bloom1 firm2 skin tough1 adherent with a small amount of wine-colored pigment1 astringent2 flesh pale green1 translucent1 juicy1 fine-grained1 tough1 solid1 foxy2 good4 ,seeds adherent1 one to four1 large1 broad1 distinctly notched1 plump1 blunt1 brownish4 ,,cottage 7,labrusca7 ,in vine and fruit1 ,cottage resembles its parent1 ,concord1 having1 however1 remarkably large1 thick1 leathery leaves4 ,it is noted also for its strong1 branching root system and canes so rough as to be almost spiny4 ,the fruit is better in quality than that of its parent1 having less foxiness and a richer1 more delicate flavor4 ,the crop ripens from one to two weeks earlier than ,concord4 ,the good qualities of the variety are offset by comparative unproductiveness and unevenness in ripening4 ,cottage is recommended as an early grape of the ,concord type for the garden4 ,this variety was grown from seed of ,concord by ,e4 ,w4 ,bull1 ,concord1 ,massachusetts4 ,it was introduced in #ahfi4 ,vine vigorous1 healthy1 hardy4 ,canes rough1 hairy1 long1 numerous1 dark brown2 nodes enlarged2 shoots very pubescent2 tendrils continuous1 bifid4 ,leaves large1 thick2 upper surface dark green1 glossy1 smooth or rugose2 lower surface tinged with bronze1 pubescent2 leaf entire with terminal acute2 petiolar sinus deep and wide2 teeth shallow1 wide4 ,flowers self-fertile1 open early2 stamens upright4 ,fruit does not keep well4 ,clusters of medium size1 broad1 cylindrical1 sometimes single-shouldered1 compact2 pedicel short1 thick with a few small warts2 brush dark red4 ,berries of medium size1 round1 dull black with heavy bloom1 drop badly from pedicel1 firm2 skin thick1 tender1 adherent with dark purplish-red pigment1 astringent2 flesh juicy1 tough1 solid1 foxy2 good4 ,seeds free1 one to four1 large1 broad1 blunt1 light brown4 ,,creveling 7,labrusca1 ,vinifera7 ,bloom1 ,bloomburg1 ,catawissa1 ,columbia ,bloom ,creveling was long a favorite black grape for the garden1 where1 if planted in good soil1 it produces fine clusters of large1 handsome1 very good grapes4 ,under any but the best of care1 however1 the vine is unproductive and sets loose1 straggling bunches4 ,the variety is markedly self-sterile4 ,the origin of ,creveling is uncertain4 ,it was introduced about #aheg by ,f4 ,f4 ,merceron1 ,catawissa1 ,pennsylvania4 ,vine vigorous1 not hardy1 often unproductive4 ,canes long1 numerous1 thick1 reddish-brown2 nodes enlarged1 flattened2 internodes long2 shoots glabrous2 tendrils continuous1 long1 trifid or bifid4 ,leaves large1 thick2 upper surface dark green1 dull1 rugose2 lower surface pale green1 pubescent2 lobes three1 or obscurely five1 terminal one acute2 petiolar sinus deep1 closed1 overlapping2 basal sinus very shallow2 lateral sinus shallow1 narrow2 teeth shallow4 ,flowers on plan of six1 self-sterile1 open in mid-season2 stamens reflexed4 ,fruit early1 does not keep well4 ,clusters long1 broad1 irregularly tapering1 single-shouldered1 the shoulder often connected to the cluster by a long stem1 loose2 brush thick1 dark wine-color4 ,berries large1 oval1 dull black1 covered with heavy bloom1 persistent1 firm2 skin thick1 tough1 adherent with wine-colored pigment1 astringent2 flesh pale green1 translucent1 juicy1 stringy1 tender1 coarse1 foxy2 good4 ,seeds free1 one to five1 broad1 notched1 blunt1 light brown4 ,,croton 7,vinifera1 ,labrusca1 ,bourquiniana7 ,the fruit of ,croton is a feast both to the eye and to the palate4 ,unfortunately the vine is difficult to grow1 being adapted to but few soils and proving unfruitful1 weak in growth1 precariously tender and subject to mildew and rot in unfavorable situations4 ,the grapes have a delicate1 sweet ,vinifera flavor with melting flesh which readily separates from the few seeds4 ,the crop hangs on the vines until frost and keeps well into the winter4 ,in spite of high quality of fruit1 ,croton has never become widely distributed1 wholly failing as a commercial variety4 ,it originated with ,s4 ,w4 ,underhill1 ,croton ,point1 ,new ,york1 from a seed of ,delaware pollinated by a ,european grape4 ,fruits were first exhibited in #ahfh4 ,vine vigorous1 tender1 productive4 ,canes long1 numerous1 thick1 dark reddish-brown2 nodes enlarged2 internodes short2 shoots glabrous2 tendrils intermittent1 long1 bifid4 ,leaves of medium size1 hang late2 upper surface light green1 dull1 smooth2 lower surface pale green1 pubescent2 lobes five1 terminal one blunt2 basal sinus narrow2 lateral sinus deep and narrow2 petiolar sinus narrow1 often closed and overlapping2 teeth shallow1 wide4 ,flowers self-fertile1 open late2 stamens upright4 ,fruit mid-season1 keeps well4 ,clusters uniform1 very large1 long1 slender1 irregularly tapering with heavy shoulder1 very loose2 pedicel long1 thick with inconspicuous warts2 brush green4 ,berries irregular in size1 round-elongated1 yellowish-green with thin bloom1 persistent1 soft2 skin thin1 tough1 adherent1 unpigmented2 flesh green1 transparent1 very juicy1 melting1 vinous1 pleasant1 agreeably sweet2 very good4 ,seeds free1 one to three1 elongated1 notched1 sharply pointed4 ,,cunningham 7,bourquiniana7 ,long1 ,prince ,edward ,cunningham is cultivated very little in ,america1 but in ,france1 at one time1 was one of the best-known grapes1 both as a direct producer and as a stock for ,european varieties4 ,it was much sought for by the ,french as a stock for large ,vinifera cions1 the size of the vine giving an opportunity for making a good graft4 ,in the ,south1 where the variety originated1 ,cunningham is not largely grown1 as there are several other varieties of its type superior in fruit and vine4 ,the vine is a capricious grower and is particular as to soil and climate4 ,the grapes make a deep yellow wine of a very good quality but have little value as table-grapes4 ,cunningham originated with ,jacob ,cunningham1 ,prince ,edward ,county1 ,virginia1 about #ahab4 ,vine vigorous1 spreading1 productive4 ,canes large1 long with stiff reddish hairs at base2 shoots showing considerable bloom2 tendrils intermittent1 usually trifid4 ,leaves large1 thick1 round1 entire or lobed2 smooth and dark green above1 yellowish green below1 pubescent2 petiolar sinus narrow1 frequently overlapping4 ,clusters of medium size1 long1 sometimes shouldered1 very compact2 pedicel long1 slender with small warts2 brush short1 light brown4 ,berries small1 purplish-black with thin bloom2 skin thin1 tough with much underlying pigment2 flesh tender1 juicy1 sprightly2 quality poor or but fair4 ,seeds two to five1 oval4 ,,cynthiana 7stivalis1 ,labrusca7 ,arkansas1 ,red ,river ,there is controversy as to whether this variety differs from ,norton4 ,the two ripen at separate times1 and the fruits differ a little so that they must be considered as distinct4 ,cynthiana is particular as to soil and location1 preferring sandy loams and does not thrive on clays or limestones4 ,while very resistant to phylloxera1 this variety is not much used as a resistant stock because it is not easily propagated4 ,the vines are resistant to mildew1 black-rot1 and anthracnose and are strong1 vigorous growers4 ,the cycle of vegetation for ,cynthiana is long1 the buds bursting forth early and the fruit maturing very late4 ,the variety has no value as a table-grape but in the ,south is one of the best grapes for red wine4 ,no doubt it will prove one of the best southern sorts for grape-juice4 ,cynthiana was received about #ahej by ,prince1 of ,flushing1 ,long ,island1 from ,arkansas1 where it was found growing in the woods4 ,vine vigorous1 hardy1 healthy1 productive4 ,canes medium in length1 numerous1 reddish-brown with thick bloom2 nodes enlarged2 internodes short2 shoots glabrous2 tendrils intermittent or continuous1 bifid4 ,leaves thick1 firm2 upper surface dark green1 dull1 rugose2 lower surface tinged with blue1 faintly pubescent1 cobwebby2 lobes variable in number1 terminal one acute2 petiolar sinus deep1 narrow1 closed1 sometimes overlapping2 basal sinus shallow2 lateral sinus shallow1 narrow2 teeth shallow2 stamens upright4 ,fruit very late1 keeps well4 ,clusters medium to small1 long1 tapering1 often single-shouldered1 compact2 pedicel short1 slender1 with numerous warts2 brush short1 thick1 wine-colored4 ,berries small1 round1 black1 covered with heavy bloom1 persistent1 firm2 skin thin1 tough1 adherent with purple pigment1 astringent2 flesh dark green1 translucent1 juicy1 tough1 firm1 spicy1 tart2 poor in quality4 ,seeds adherent1 one to six1 small1 short1 blunt1 dark brown4 ,,delaware 7,labrusca1 ,bourquiniana1 ,vinifera7 ,french ,grape1 ,gray ,delaware1 ,ladies' ,choice1 ,powell1 ,ruff ,delaware 7,plate ,,vii7 is used wherever ,american grapes are grown as the standard to gauge the quality of other grapes4 ,added to high quality in fruit1 the variety withstands climatic conditions to which all but the most hardy varieties succumb1 is adapted to many soils and conditions1 and bears under most situations an abundant crop4 ,these qualities make it1 next to ,concord1 the most popular grape for garden and vineyard now grown in the ,united ,states4 ,besides the qualities named1 the grapes mature sufficiently early to make the crop certain1 are attractive in appearance1 keep and ship well and are more immune than other commercial varieties to black-rot4 ,faults of the variety are3 small vine1 slow growth1 susceptibility to mildew1 capriciousness in certain soils and small berries4 ,the first two faults make it necessary to plant the vines more closely than those of other commercial varieties4 ,delaware succeeds best in deep1 rich1 well-drained1 warm soils1 but even on these it must have good cultivation1 close pruning and the crop must be thinned4 ,delaware is grown ,north and ,south1 westward to the ,rocky ,mountains4 ,it is now proving profitable in many southern locations as an early grape to ship to northern markets4 ,it is an especially desirable grape to cultivate in small gardens because of its delicious1 handsome fruit1 its compact habit of growth and its ample and lustrous green1 delicately formed leaves which make it one of the most ornamental of the grapes4 ,delaware can be traced to the garden of ,paul ,h4 ,provost1 ,frenchtown1 ,new ,jersey1 where it was growing early in the nineteenth century1 and from whence it was taken to ,delaware1 ,ohio1 in #ahdi and from there distributed to fruit-growers4 ,vine weak1 hardy1 productive4 ,canes short1 numerous1 slender1 dark brown2 nodes enlarged2 internodes short2 tendrils intermittent1 short1 bifid4 ,leaves small2 upper surface dark green1 dull1 smooth2 lower surface pale green1 pubescent2 lobes three to five in number1 terminal one acute2 petiolar sinus narrow2 basal sinus narrow and shallow when present2 lateral sinus deep1 narrow2 teeth shallow4 ,flowers self-fertile1 open late2 stamens upright4 ,fruit early1 keeps well4 ,clusters small1 slender1 blunt1 cylindrical1 regular1 shouldered1 compact2 pedicel short1 slender1 smooth2 brush light brown4 ,berries uniform in size and shape1 small1 round1 light red1 covered with thin bloom1 persistent1 firm2 skin thin1 tough1 adherent1 unpigmented1 astringent2 flesh light green1 translucent1 juicy1 tender1 aromatic1 vinous1 refreshing1 sweet2 best in quality4 ,seeds free1 one to four1 broad1 notched1 short1 blunt1 light brown4 ,,diamond 7,labrusca1 ,vinifera7 ,few other grapes surpass ,diamond in quality and beauty of fruit4 ,when to its desirable fruit characters are added hardiness1 productiveness and vigor of vine1 the variety is surpassed by no other green grape4 ,diamond is a diluted hybrid between ,labrusca and ,vinifera and the touch of the exotic grape is just sufficient to give the fruit the richness in flavor of the ,old ,world grape and not overcome the refreshing sprightliness of the native fox-grapes4 ,the ,vinifera characters are wholly recessive in vine and foliage1 the plant resembling closely its ,american parent1 ,concord4 ,diamond is well established ,north and ,south and can be grown in as great a range of latitude as ,concord4 ,jacob ,moore1 ,brighton1 ,new ,york1 grew ,diamond about #ahgj from ,concord seed fertilized by ,iona4 ,vine vigorous1 hardy1 productive4 ,canes short1 brown with a slight red tinge2 nodes enlarged2 internodes short2 tendrils intermittent1 bifid4 ,leaves thick2 upper surface light green1 dull1 smooth2 lower surface light bronze1 downy2 lobes three in number1 indistinct2 petiolar sinus very shallow2 teeth shallow4 ,flowers self-fertile1 open early2 stamens upright4 ,fruit early1 keeps well4 ,clusters medium to short1 broad1 blunt1 cylindrical1 often single-shouldered1 compact2 pedicel short1 thick with a few inconspicuous warts2 brush slender1 pale green4 ,berries large1 ovate1 green with a tinge of yellow1 glossy1 covered with thin bloom1 persistent1 firm2 skin thin1 tough1 adherent1 astringent2 flesh pale green1 transparent1 juicy1 tender1 melting1 fine-grained1 aromatic1 sprightly2 very good4 ,seeds free1 one to four1 broad and long1 sharp-pointed1 yellowish-brown4 ,,diana 7,labrusca1 ,vinifera7 ,diana 7,plate ,,xii7 is a seedling of ,catawba to which its fruit bears strong resemblance1 differing chiefly in having lighter color1 in being less pulpy and more juicy4 ,the flavor resembles that of ,catawba but has less of the wild taste4 ,the chief point of superiority of ,diana over ,catawba is in earliness1 the crop ripening ten days sooner1 making possible its culture far to the north4 ,the defects of ,diana are3 the vine is tender in cold winters2 the grapes ripen unevenly2 the berries and foliage are susceptible to fungi2 and the vine is a shy bearer4 ,diana demands poor1 dry1 gravelly soil without much humus or nitrogen4 ,on clays1 loams or rich soils1 the vines make a rank growth1 and the fruits are few1 late and of poor quality4 ,the vine needs to be long pruned and to have all surplus bunches removed1 leaving a small crop to mature4 ,diana is a satisfactory grape for the amateur1 and where it does especially well proves profitable for the local market4 ,mrs4 ,diana ,crehore1 ,milton1 ,massachusetts1 grew ,diana from seed of ,catawba1 planted about #ahcd4 ,vine vigorous1 doubtfully hardy1 often unproductive4 ,canes pubescent1 long1 reddish-brown1 covered with thin bloom2 nodes enlarged1 flattened2 internodes long2 tendrils intermittent1 long1 bifid4 ,leaves large1 thick2 upper surface light green1 heavily pubescent2 lobes three to five1 terminal one acute2 petiolar sinus deep1 wide1 often closed and overlapping2 basal sinus shallow2 lateral sinus narrow2 teeth shallow4 ,flowers self-fertile1 open in mid-season2 stamens upright4 ,fruit late1 keeps well4 ,clusters large1 broad1 tapering1 occasionally shouldered1 compact2 pedicel covered with small warts2 brush slender1 pale green4 ,berries medium in size1 slightly ovate1 light red covered with thin bloom1 persistent1 firm2 skin thick1 tough1 slightly adherent2 flesh pale green1 translucent1 juicy1 tough1 fine-grained1 vinous1 good4 ,seeds adherent1 one to three1 light brown4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxvi4--,niagara 7#b_/c74 ,,downing 7,vinifera1 stivalis1 ,labrusca7 ,downing is well worthy a place in the garden because of the high quality1 handsome appearance and good keeping qualities of the grapes4 ,added to these qualities of the fruits are fair vigor and health of vine4 ,when grown as far north as ,new ,york1 the vine should be laid down in the winter or receive other protection4 ,in most seasons1 unremitting warfare must be kept up to check mildew4 ,in appearance of bunch and berry1 ,downing is distinct1 the clusters being large and well-formed and the berries having the oval shape of a ,malaga4 ,the flesh1 also1 shows ,vitis vinifera in texture and quality1 while neither seeds nor skins are as objectionable as in pure-bred ,american varieties4 ,j4 ,h4 ,ricketts1 ,newburgh1 ,new ,york1 first grew ,downing about #ahfe4 ,vine tender to cold1 unproductive4 ,canes short1 few1 slender1 dark green with an ash-gray tinge1 surface covered with thin bloom1 often roughened with a few small warts2 nodes much enlarged1 strongly flattened2 internodes short2 tendrils intermittent1 bifid or trifid4 ,leaves small1 round1 thick2 upper surface dark green1 glossy1 rugose2 lower surface dark green1 glabrous2 lobes one to five1 terminal lobe acute2 petiolar sinus narrow1 closed and overlapping2 basal sinus shallow and narrow when present2 lateral sinus shallow1 narrow2 teeth wide1 deep4 ,flowers open late2 stamens upright4 ,fruit late1 keeps until spring4 ,clusters large1 long1 slender1 cylindrical1 sometimes loosely shouldered2 pedicel slender1 covered with numerous warts2 brush long1 slender1 green4 ,berries large1 markedly oval1 dark purplish-black1 glossy1 covered with light bloom1 strongly persistent1 firm2 skin thick1 tender1 adherent2 flesh green with a yellow tinge1 translucent1 very juicy1 tender1 fine-grained1 vinous1 mild2 very good in quality4 ,seeds free1 one to three1 notched1 long1 brown4 ,,dracut ,,amber 7,labrusca7 ,dracut ,amber is representative of the red type of ,labrusca4 ,the fruit has no particular merit1 its thick skin1 coarse pulp1 seeds and foxy taste all being objectionable4 ,however1 the vine is very hardy1 productive1 and ripens its fruit early so that this variety becomes valuable in locations where a vigorous1 hardy1 early grape is wanted4 ,asa ,clement1 ,dracut1 ,massachusetts grew ,dracut ,amber from seed planted about #ahee4 ,vine vigorous1 hardy1 productive4 ,canes long1 numerous1 dark brown2 nodes enlarged1 flattened2 tendrils continuous1 long1 bifid or trifid4 ,leaves large1 thick2 upper surface dark green1 dull1 smooth2 lower surface pale green1 cobwebby2 lobes three to five with terminal one obtuse2 petiolar sinus deep1 narrow2 basal sinus shallow1 wide2 teeth shallow4 ,flowers on plan of six1 semi-fertile1 mid-season4 ,fruit early1 season short4 ,clusters short1 broad1 cylindrical1 irregular1 rarely shouldered1 compact2 pedicel short1 covered with warts2 brush long1 light yellowish-green4 ,berries medium to large1 oval1 dull pale red or dark amber1 covered with thin bloom1 soft2 skin very thick1 tender1 adherent1 astringent2 flesh green1 translucent1 juicy1 tough1 very foxy2 inferior in quality4 ,seeds adherent1 two to five1 large1 broad1 light brown4 ,,dutchess 7,vinifera1 ,labrusca1 ,bourquiniana8 stivalis87 ,dutchess 7,plate ,,xiii7 is not grown largely in commercial vineyards because of several faults1 as3 the vine is tender to cold2 the berries do not ripen evenly2 berries and foliage are susceptible to fungi2 and in soils to which it is not adapted1 berries and bunches are small4 ,in spite of these defects1 ,dutchess should not be discarded by the grape-lover1 for there are few grapes of higher quality4 ,the grapes are sweet and rich1 yet do not cloy the appetite2 although of but medium size1 they are attractive1 being a beautiful amber color with distinctive dots2 the flesh is translucent1 sparkling1 fine-grained and tender2 the seeds are small1 few and part readily from the pulp2 the skin is thin1 yet tough enough for good keeping2 and the bunches are large and compact when well grown4 ,the variety is self-fertile and1 therefore1 desirable when only a few vines are wanted4 ,the clusters are especially fine when bagged4 ,a4 ,j4 ,caywood1 ,marlboro1 ,new ,york1 grew ,dutchess from seed of a white ,concord seedling pollinated by mixed pollen of ,delaware and ,walter4 ,the seed was planted in #ahfh4 ,vine vigorous1 an uncertain bearer4 ,canes dark brown with light bloom1 surface roughened2 nodes enlarged1 flattened2 internodes short2 tendrils intermittent1 short1 bifid or trifid4 ,leaves irregular in outline2 upper surface pale green1 pubescent2 leaf entire with terminus acute2 petiolar sinus narrow2 basal sinus shallow when present2 lateral sinus medium in depth or a mere notch4 ,flowers self-fertile1 open late2 stamens upright4 ,fruit mid-season1 keeps and ships well4 ,clusters large1 long1 slender1 tapering with a prominent single shoulder2 pedicel slender1 smooth2 brush amber-colored4 ,berries of medium size1 round1 pale yellow-green verging on amber1 some showing bronze tinge with thin bloom1 persistent1 firm2 skin sprinkled with small dark dots1 thin1 tough1 adherent2 flesh pale green1 translucent1 juicy1 fine-grained1 tender1 vinous1 sweet1 of pleasant flavor2 quality high4 ,seeds free1 one1 two or occasionally three1 small1 short1 sharp-pointed1 brown4 ,,early ,,daisy 7,labrusca7 ,the qualities of ,early ,daisy render the variety more than commonplace4 ,its earliness commends it1 the ripening period being eight or ten days earlier than ,champion or ,moore ,early1 making it one of the very earliest varieties4 ,for a grape maturing at its season1 it both keeps and ships well4 ,early ,daisy would seem to be as desirable as ,hartford or ,champion4 ,the variety originated with ,john ,kready1 ,mount ,joy1 ,pennsylvania1 in #ahgd1 as a seedling of ,hartford4 ,vine vigorous1 hardy1 produces fair crops4 ,canes of medium length1 numerous1 slender1 reddish-brown2 nodes enlarged1 flattened2 tendrils continuous1 bifid4 ,leaves small1 light green2 upper surface rugose2 lower surface slightly pubescent1 cobwebby2 lobes wanting or faintly three2 petiolar sinus deep1 narrow2 teeth shallow1 narrow4 ,flowers nearly self-sterile4 ,fruit early4 ,clusters small to medium1 often blunt at ends1 cylindrical1 sometimes single-shouldered1 compact2 pedicel short1 slender1 smooth2 brush reddish1 slender4 ,berries of medium size1 round1 dull black1 covered with heavy bloom1 persistent2 skin tough1 purplish-red pigment2 flesh tough1 solid1 aromatic1 tart at the skin1 acid at center2 inferior in flavor and quality4 ,seeds numerous1 adherent1 of average size1 dark brown4 ,,early ,,ohio 7,labrusca7 ,early ,ohio is remarkable1 chiefly1 in being one of the earliest commercial grapes4 ,the fruit resembles that of ,concord1 of which it is probably a seedling4 ,notwithstanding many defects1 ,early ,ohio is grown somewhat commonly1 although its culture is on the wane4 ,the variety was found in #ahhb by ,r4 ,a4 ,hunt1 ,euclid1 ,ohio1 between rows of ,delaware and ,concord4 ,vine weak1 tender1 usually unproductive4 ,canes short1 slender1 brown with a red tinge2 nodes enlarged1 flattened2 internodes short2 tendrils continuous1 short1 bifid4 ,leaves intermediate in size2 upper surface light green1 dull1 smooth2 lower surface pale green tinged with bronze1 pubescent2 lobes wanting or one to three1 terminal one acute2 petiolar sinus shallow1 wide2 basal sinus usually absent2 lateral sinus shallow1 narrow2 teeth shallow4 ,flowers self-fertile1 open in mid-season2 stamens upright4 ,fruit very early1 does not keep well4 ,clusters medium in size1 tapering2 pedicel slender with a few small warts2 brush slender1 tinged with red4 ,berries variable in size1 round1 purplish-black1 glossy with heavy bloom1 persistent1 firm2 skin adherent1 astringent2 flesh green1 translucent1 juicy1 tough1 aromatic2 poor in quality4 ,seeds adherent1 one to four1 notched1 brown with yellowish-brown tips4 ,,early ,,victor 7,labrusca1 ,bourquiniana87 ,early ,victor is highest in quality of early black grapes4 ,it is especially pleasing to those who object to the foxiness so marked in ,hartford and ,champion4 ,were the season but a few days earlier and bunch and berry a little larger1 ,early ,victor would be the best grape to start the grape season4 ,the vines are hardy1 healthy1 vigorous and productive1 with growth and foliage resembling ,hartford1 which is probably one of its parents1 ,delaware being the other4 ,the bunches are small1 compact1 variable in shape and the berries are about the size and shape of those of ,delaware4 ,its season is that of ,moore ,early or a little later1 although1 like many black grapes1 the fruit colors before it is ripe and is often picked too green4 ,unfortunately the fruit is susceptible to black-rot and shrivels after ripening4 ,john ,burr1 ,leavenworth1 ,kansas1 first grew ,early ,victor about #ahga4 ,vine vigorous1 hardy1 healthy1 productive4 ,canes long1 numerous1 slender1 dark brown1 surface pubescent2 nodes enlarged2 internodes long2 tendrils continuous1 bifid1 sometimes trifid4 ,leaves thick2 upper surface dark green1 smooth2 lower surface white1 heavily pubescent2 lobes three to five1 terminal one acute2 petiolar sinus intermediate in depth and width2 basal sinus shallow and wide when present2 lateral sinus narrow4 ,flowers semi-sterile1 open in mid-season2 stamens upright4 ,fruit very early1 does not keep well4 ,clusters small1 variable in shape1 cylindrical1 frequently single-shouldered1 compact2 pedicel short1 covered with numerous small warts2 brush wine-colored or pinkish-red4 ,berries small1 round1 dark purplish-black1 dull with heavy bloom1 persistent2 skin thin1 tough1 adherent1 contains much red pigment1 astringent2 flesh greenish-white1 opaque1 fine-grained1 aromatic1 vinous2 good4 ,seeds adherent1 one to four1 broad1 notched1 blunt1 dark brown4 ,,eaton 7,labrusca7 ,eaton 7,plate ,,xiv7 is a pure-bred seedling of ,concord which it surpasses in appearance but does not equal in quality of fruit4 ,the flesh is tough and stringy1 and though sweet at the skin1 is acid at the seeds and has the same foxiness that characterizes ,concord1 but with more juice and less richness1 so that it is well described as a diluted ,concord4 ,the grape-skin is very similar to that of ,concord1 and the fruit packs1 ships and keeps about the same1 perhaps not quite as well because of the greater amount of juice4 ,the season is a few days earlier than ,concord4 ,the vine is similar in all characters to that of its parent4 ,the grapes ripen unevenly1 the flowers are self-sterile1 and in some locations the vine is a shy bearer4 ,the variety has not found favor with either grower or consumer4 ,eaton originated with ,calvin ,eaton1 ,concord1 ,new ,hampshire1 about #ahfh4 ,vine vigorous1 hardy1 healthy1 productive4 ,canes thick1 light brown with blue bloom2 nodes enlarged1 flattened2 internodes short2 tendrils continuous1 long1 bifid or trifid4 ,leaves large1 round1 thick2 upper surface dark green2 lower surface tinged with bronze1 heavily pubescent2 lobes three1 terminal one acute2 petiolar sinus shallow1 wide2 basal sinus usually lacking2 lateral sinus shallow1 narrow1 often notched2 teeth shallow4 ,flowers semi-sterile1 early2 stamens upright4 ,fruit mid-season4 ,clusters large1 short1 broad1 blunt1 sometimes double-shouldered1 compact2 pedicel long1 thick1 smooth2 brush slender1 pale green4 ,berries large1 round1 black with heavy bloom1 persistent1 firm2 skin tough1 adherent1 purplish-red pigment1 astringent2 flesh green1 translucent1 juicy1 tough1 stringy1 foxy2 fair in quality4 ,seeds adherent1 one to four1 broad1 notched1 plump1 blunt4 ,,eclipse 7,labrusca7 ,eclipse 7,plate ,,xv7 is a seedling of ,niagara and1 therefore1 a descendant of ,concord which it resembles1 differing chiefly in earlier fruit which is of better quality4 ,unfortunately1 the bunches and berries are small4 ,the vines are hardly surpassed by those of any other variety1 being hardy1 healthy and productive1 qualities that should commend it for commercial vineyards4 ,the ripe fruit hangs on the vines for some time without deterioration1 and the grapes do not crack in wet weather4 ,the crop ripens several days earlier than that of ,concord4 ,eclipse originated with ,e4 ,a4 ,riehl1 ,alton1 ,illinois1 from seed planted about #ahij4 ,vine vigorous1 hardy1 productive4 ,canes medium in length1 dark reddish-brown2 nodes enlarged2 tendrils continuous1 long1 bifid4 ,leaves large2 upper surface dark green2 lower surface white with a bronze tinge1 heavily pubescent2 lobes wanting or three with terminal one acute2 petiolar sinus deep1 narrow2 basal sinus usually lacking2 lateral sinus narrow1 often notched2 teeth shallow1 narrow4 ,flowers self-sterile1 open in mid-season2 stamens reflexed4 ,fruit early1 keeps well4 ,clusters of medium size1 broad1 tapering1 frequently single-shouldered1 compact2 pedicel short1 thick1 covered with small warts2 brush long1 pale green4 ,berries1 large1 oval1 dull black with abundant bloom1 persistent1 firm2 skin tender1 slightly adherent1 astringent2 flesh pale green1 translucent1 juicy1 tender1 fine-grained1 foxy1 sweet2 good4 ,seeds free1 one to four1 short1 broad1 distinctly notched1 blunt1 brown4 ,,eden 7,rotundifolia1 ,munsoniana87 ,eden is of value as a general-purpose grape for the ,south and is interesting as one of the few supposed hybrids with ,v4 rotundifolia4 ,it is probably a hybrid between the species named and ,v4 ,munsoniana1 another southern wild grape4 ,the vine is exceedingly vigorous and productive and thrives on clay soils1 whereas most other ,rotundifolias can be grown successfully only on sandy lands4 ,eden was found some years ago on the premises of ,dr4 ,guild1 near ,atlanta1 ,georgia4 ,vine very vigorous1 productive1 healthy and bearing a dense canopy of foliage4 ,canes darker in color than most other ,rotundifolias4 ,leaves of medium size and thickness1 longer than wide2 petiolar sinus wide2 marginal teeth rounded2 leaf-tip blunt4 ,flowers perfect4 ,fruit early1 distinct first and second crops1 ripens uniformly4 ,clusters large1 loose1 bearing from five to twenty-five berries which adhere fairly well to the pedicels4 ,berries round1 one-half inch in diameter1 dull black1 faintly specked2 skin thin1 tender2 flesh soft1 juicy1 pale green1 sprightly2 good in quality4 ,,eldorado 7,labrusca1 ,vinifera7 ,the fruit of ,eldorado is delicately flavored1 with a distinct aroma and taste and ripens about with that of ,moore ,early--a time when there are few other good white grapes4 ,the vines inherit most of the good qualities of ,concord1 one of its parents1 excepting ability to set large crops4 ,even with cross-pollination1 ,eldorado sometimes fails to bear and is not worth growing unless planted in a mixed vineyard4 ,the clusters are so often small and straggling under the best conditions that the variety cannot be recommended highly to the amateur2 yet its delightful flavor and its earliness commend it4 ,j4 ,h4 ,ricketts1 ,newburgh1 ,new ,york1 grew ,eldorado about #ahgj from seed of ,concord fertilized by ,allen's ,hybrid4 ,vine vigorous1 hardy1 an uncertain bearer4 ,canes long1 few1 thick1 flattened1 bright reddish-brown2 nodes enlarged1 flattened2 tendrils intermittent1 rarely continuous1 bifid or trifid4 ,leaves large to medium1 irregularly round1 dark green2 upper surface rugose on older leaves2 lower surface tinged with brown1 pubescent2 lobes wanting or faintly three2 petiolar sinus deep2 teeth shallow4 ,flowers self-sterile1 open late2 stamens reflexed4 ,fruit early1 keeps well4 ,clusters do not always set perfectly and are variable in size1 frequently single-shouldered2 pedicel short1 slender1 smooth2 brush short1 yellow4 ,berries large1 round1 yellowish-green changing to golden yellow1 covered with thin bloom2 flesh tender1 foxy1 sweet1 mild1 high flavored2 good to very good in quality4 ,seeds intermediate in size and length1 blunt1 yellowish-brown4 ,,elvira 7,vulpina1 ,labrusca7 ,although it has never attained popularity in the ,north1 ,elvira 7,plate ,,xvi71 after its introduction into ,missouri about forty years ago1 reached the pinnacle of popularity as a wine-grape in the ,south4 ,the qualities which commended it were3 great productiveness2 earliness1 ripening in the ,north with ,concord2 exceedingly good health1 being almost free from fungal diseases2 great vigor1 as shown by a strong1 stocky growth and ample foliage2 and almost perfect hardiness even as far north as ,canada4 ,its good qualities are offset by two defects3 thin skin which bursts easily1 thus wholly debarring it from distant markets2 and flavor and appearance not sufficiently good to make it a table-grape4 ,elvira originated with ,jacob ,rommel1 ,morrison1 ,missouri1 from seed of ,taylor4 ,vine vigorous1 hardy1 healthy1 productive4 ,canes numerous1 dark brown2 nodes flattened2 internodes short2 tendrils continuous1 trifid or bifid4 ,leaves large1 thin2 upper surface light green1 pubescent1 hairy2 lobes wanting or one to three with terminus acute2 petiolar sinus deep1 narrow1 sometimes closed and overlapping2 basal sinus usually lacking2 lateral sinus shallow1 often notched2 teeth deep1 wide4 ,flowers self-fertile1 open early2 stamens upright4 ,fruit mid-season1 does not keep well4 ,clusters short1 cylindrical1 usually single-shouldered1 compact2 pedicel smooth2 brush short1 greenish-yellow with brown tinge4 ,berries medium in size1 round1 green with yellow tinge1 dull with thin bloom1 firm2 skin very thin1 tender1 adherent1 astringent2 flesh green1 juicy1 fine-grained1 tender1 foxy1 sweet2 fair in quality4 ,seeds free1 one to four1 medium to large1 blunt1 plump1 dark brown4 ,,emperor 7,vinifera7 ,emperor is one of the standard shipping grapes of the ,pacific slope1 being one of the mainstays of the interior valleys4 ,on the coast and in southern ,california1 it is irregular in bearing1 and on the coast the fruits often fail to ripen4 ,it is chiefly grown in the ,san ,joaquin ,valley4 ,it could hardly be expected to ripen even in the most favored grape regions in the ,east4 ,the following brief description is compiled3 ,vine strong1 healthy and productive4 ,leaves very large1 with five shallow lobes2 teeth short and obtuse2 light green in color2 glabrous above1 wooly beneath4 ,bunches very large1 loose1 sometimes inclined to be straggling1 long-conical4 ,berries large1 dull purple1 oval2 flesh firm and crisp2 skin thick2 flavor and quality good4 ,ripens late and keeps and ships well4 ,,empire ,,state 7,vulpina1 ,labrusca1 ,vinifera7 ,empire ,state 7,plate ,,xvii7 competes with ,niagara and ,diamond for supremacy among green grapes4 ,the variety is as vigorous in growth1 as free from parasites1 and on vines of the same age is as productive1 but is less hardy1 and the grapes are not as attractive in appearance as those of the other varieties named4 ,in particular1 the clusters are small in some localities1 a defect which can be overcome only by severe pruning or by thinning4 ,the quality is very good1 approaching the flavor of the ,old ,world grapes1 its slight wild taste suggesting one of the ,muscats4 ,empire ,state ripens early1 hangs long on the vine and keeps well after picking without losing flavor4 ,this grape originated with ,james ,h4 ,ricketts1 ,newburgh1 ,new ,york1 bearing fruit first in #ahgi4 ,vine vigorous1 somewhat tender4 ,canes short1 few1 slender1 brownish2 nodes enlarged2 internodes short2 tendrils intermittent1 bifid4 ,leaves small2 upper surface light green1 glossy1 smooth or somewhat rugose2 lower surface tinged with bronze1 heavily pubescent2 lobes three to five when present1 terminal one acuminate2 petiolar sinus deep1 narrow1 often closed and overlapping2 basal sinus variable in depth and width2 lateral sinus deep1 narrow1 often enlarged at base2 teeth deep1 wide4 ,flowers self-fertile1 open late2 stamens upright4 ,fruit mid-season1 keeps well4 ,clusters large1 long1 slender1 cylindrical1 frequently single-shouldered1 compact2 pedicel slender with small warts2 brush short1 light green4 ,berries medium or small1 round1 pale yellowish-green1 covered with thin bloom1 persistent1 firm2 skin thick1 adherent to the pulp1 slightly astringent2 flesh pale yellowish-green1 translucent1 juicy1 fine-grained1 tender1 agreeably flavored2 good to very good4 ,seeds adherent1 one to four1 small1 broad1 notched1 short1 blunt1 plump1 brown4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxvii4--,salem 7#b_/c74 ,,etta 7,vulpina1 ,labrusca7 ,in appearance1 taste and texture of fruit1 ,etta is very similar to ,elvira1 of which it is a seedling4 ,the small1 yellow clusters which characterize ,elvira are reproduced in ,etta1 which differs chiefly in having a shoulder quite as large as the main bunch itself and in having a better flavor1 lacking the slight foxiness of ,elvira4 ,the vine is very vigorous1 hardy1 and is productive to a fault4 ,the fruit ripens with that of ,catawba4 ,the tendency of ,elvira to crack and overbear influenced the originator of that variety1 ,jacob ,rommel1 ,morrison1 ,missouri1 to try for a grape without these faults1 and the result was ,etta from seed of ,elvira4 ,the fruit was first exhibited in #ahgi4 ,vine very vigorous1 hardy1 productive4 ,canes long1 numerous1 light to dark brown2 tendrils continuous1 bifid4 ,leaves large1 thick2 upper surface dark green1 glossy1 smooth2 lower surface pale green1 somewhat cobwebby4 ,flowers self-fertile1 early2 stamens upright4 ,fruit late1 keeps well4 ,clusters small1 short1 broad1 irregularly cylindrical1 usually with a short1 single shoulder but sometimes so heavily shouldered as to form a double bunch1 very compact4 ,berries small1 round1 pale green1 dull with thin bloom1 shattering when over-ripe1 firm2 skin thin1 tender2 flesh juicy1 fine-grained1 tough1 stringy1 slightly foxy1 mild2 fair in quality4 ,seeds free1 long1 blunt1 brown4 ,,eumelan 7,labrusca1 ,vinifera1 stivalis7 ,washington ,the good qualities of ,eumelan are3 vines above the average in vigor1 hardiness and productiveness2 clusters and berries well formed1 of good size and handsome color2 flesh tender1 dissolving into wine-like juice under slight pressure2 and pure flavor1 rich1 sweet1 vinous4 ,the season is early1 yet the fruit keeps much better than that of most other grapes maturing with it and becomes1 therefore1 a mid-season and late grape4 ,the defects of the variety are susceptibility to mildew1 self-sterile flowers and difficulty in propagation4 ,the latter character has greatly hindered its culture1 as the vines can be secured only at extra expense and nurserymen are loath to grow the variety at all4 ,eumelan may be recommended to amateur growers4 ,it is a chance seedling which grew from seed1 about #ahdg1 in the yard of a ,mr4 ,thorne1 ,fishkill ,landing1 ,new ,york4 ,vine vigorous1 hardy1 productive4 ,canes numerous1 covered with bloom2 nodes enlarged2 internodes short2 tendrils intermittent1 long1 trifid or bifid4 ,leaves large2 upper surface dark green1 glossy1 smooth2 lower surface pale green1 smooth2 lobes usually three with terminal one acute2 petiolar sinus deep1 variable in width2 basal sinus usually lacking2 lateral sinus shallow1 narrow2 teeth shallow4 ,flowers self-sterile1 open in mid-season2 stamens reflexed4 ,fruit early1 keeps until late winter4 ,clusters long1 slender1 tapering1 often with a long1 loose1 single shoulder2 pedicel short1 slender with a few small warts2 brush short1 stubby1 pale green4 ,berries of medium size1 round1 black1 glossy with thin bloom1 persistent1 firm2 skin tough1 adherent with wine-colored pigment1 astringent2 flesh dark green1 juicy1 fine-grained1 tender1 stringy1 spicy and aromatic1 sweet2 good4 ,seeds adherent1 one to four1 large1 wide1 blunt1 plump1 brown4 ,,faith 7,vulpina1 ,labrusca7 ,although spoken of as a desirable grape in some regions1 ,faith is of little value in most localities4 ,the fruit is unattractive in appearance1 and the quality is not high4 ,if the variety has any preminently good character1 it is productiveness4 ,the blossoms put forth so early that they often suffer from spring frosts4 ,faith is of the same breeding as ,etta and from the same originator1 ,jacob ,rommel1 ,morrison1 ,missouri1 both having come from seed of ,elvira4 ,vine vigorous1 hardy1 healthy1 productive4 ,canes long1 numerous1 thick1 cylindrical2 nodes prominent2 internodes long2 tendrils continuous1 bifid4 ,leaves large1 dark green2 upper surface dark green1 dull2 lower surface grayish-green1 thinly pubescent2 lobes wanting or faint2 teeth shallow1 wide4 ,flowers self-sterile to partly self-fertile1 open early2 stamens upright4 ,fruit early1 does not keep well4 ,clusters medium in size1 variable in length1 usually slender1 often heavily single-shouldered1 loose2 pedicel short1 slender1 warty2 brush pale green1 slender4 ,berries small1 round1 dull green1 frequently with a yellow tinge changing to pale amber1 with abundant bloom1 persistent1 soft2 skin thin1 adherent1 astringent2 flesh juicy1 tender1 agreeably flavored2 fair to good in quality4 ,seeds numerous1 broad1 dark brown4 ,,feher ,,szagos 7,vinifera7 ,this variety succeeds rather well at ,geneva1 ,new ,york1 bearing fruits of excellent quality4 ,it has two defects1 dull color of the berries and irregular bunches4 ,it is worth trying in the ,east4 ,feher ,szagos is said to make a very good raisin in ,california and usually appears in lists of table-grapes for that state4 ,vines vigorous1 somewhat uncertain bearers4 ,opening leaves pubescent1 red along the edges and a tinge of red on the upper surface4 ,flowers have upright stamens4 ,fruit usually ripens the first week in ,october and does not keep well in storage2 clusters large to medium1 broad1 loose1 frequently irregular because of poor setting of fruit2 berries large1 oval to elliptical1 rather dull green1 with thin bloom2 skin thick1 tender1 neutral2 flesh greenish1 translucent1 juicy1 meaty1 tender1 sweet2 quality of the best2 seeds free4 ,,fern ,,munson 7,lincecumii1 ,vinifera1 ,labrusca7 ,admirable1 ,fern1 ,hilgarde1 ,munson's ,no4 #gf ,fern ,munson is a southern grape not adapted to northern regions1 #dj north latitude being its limit of adaptation4 ,the fruits show some very good characters1 as attractive appearance1 agreeable quality and unobjectionable seeds and skin4 ,the vines are vigorous and productive1 but the foliage is not healthy although very abundant4 ,this variety originated with ,t4 ,v4 ,munson1 ,denison1 ,texas1 from seed of ,post-oak with mixed pollen4 ,the seed was planted in #ahhe1 and the variety was introduced by the originator in #ahic4 ,vine vigorous1 doubtfully hardy4 ,canes long1 numerous1 thick1 dark brown with a faint red tinge2 tendrils intermittent1 bifid4 ,leaves large1 thick2 upper surface rugose and heavily wrinkled2 lower surface dull1 pale green with a bronze tinge1 faintly pubescent4 ,flowers semi-fertile1 open very late2 stamens upright4 ,fruit late1 keeps well4 ,clusters large1 irregularly tapering1 usually single-shouldered1 often with many abortive fruits4 ,berries large1 round1 slightly flattened1 dark purplish-black1 glossy1 covered with thin bloom1 strongly persistent1 firm2 skin thin1 tough1 astringent2 flesh juicy1 tough1 firm1 fine-grained1 vinous1 briskly subacid2 good4 ,seeds adherent1 broad4 ,,flame ,,tokay 7,vinifera7 ,this is the leading shipping grape of the ,pacific slope where it is everywhere grown under the name ,tokay1 with several modifying terms1 as ,flame1 ,flame-colored and ,flaming4 ,the fruit is not especially high in quality nor attractive in appearance1 but it ships and keeps well1 qualities making it popular in commercial vineyards4 ,the description is compiled4 ,vine very vigorous1 luxuriant in growth of canes1 shoots and leaves2 very productive2 wood dark brown1 straight with long joints4 ,leaves dark green with a brown tinge2 lightly lobed4 ,bunches very large1 sometimes weighing eight or nine pounds1 moderately compact2 shouldered4 ,berries large1 oblong1 red when mature1 covered with lilac bloom2 flesh firm1 crisp1 sweet2 quality good4 ,season late1 keeps and ships well4 ,,flowers 7,rotundifolia7 ,flowers is a late1 dark-colored ,rotundifolia very popular in the ,carolinas4 ,the variety is noted for its vigorous and productive vines1 its large fruit-clusters and grapes that cling in the cluster unusually well for a variety of this species4 ,the crop ripens in ,north ,carolina in ,october and ,november4 ,the fruit is valuable only for wine and grape-juice1 having little to recommend it for dessert purposes4 ,flowers was found in a swamp near ,lamberton1 ,north ,carolina1 more than a hundred years ago by ,william ,flowers4 ,improved ,flowers1 probably a seedling of ,flowers1 was found near ,whiteville1 ,north ,carolina1 about #ahfi4 ,it differs from its supposed parent in having a more vigorous and productive vine and larger clusters1 the berries of which cling even more tenaciously4 ,vine vigorous1 healthy1 upright1 open1 very productive4 ,canes long1 slender1 numerous4 ,leaves variable but average medium in size1 longer than broad1 pointed1 cordate1 thick1 dark green1 smooth1 leathery2 margins sharply serrate2 flowers perfect4 ,fruit very late1 keeps well4 ,clusters1 large1 consisting of ten to twenty-five berries4 ,berries large1 round-oblong1 purple or purplish-black1 clinging well to the cluster-stem2 skin thick1 tough1 faintly marked with dots2 pulp white1 lacking in juice1 hard1 sweetish1 austere in flavor2 poor for a table-grape but excellent for grape-juice4 ,,gaertner 7,vinifera1 ,labrusca7 ,the berries and clusters of ,gaertner are large and handsomely colored1 making a very showy grape4 ,the plant is vigorous1 productive and as hardy as any of the hybrids between ,labrusca and ,vinifera4 ,in view of these qualities1 ,gaertner has not received the attention it deserves1 probably because it is more capricious as to soils than some others of its related hybrids4 ,as a market grape1 the variety has the faults of ripening unevenly and of shipping poorly4 ,the fruit keeps well and this1 with the desirable qualities noted1 makes it an excellent grape for the home vineyard4 ,gaertner is often compared with ,massasoit1 the two varieties being very similar in fruit characters1 but ,gaertner is of distinctly better quality than ,massasoit4 ,the variety originated with ,e4 ,s4 ,rogers1 ,salem1 ,massachusetts4 ,it was first mentioned about #ahfe4 ,vine vigorous1 hardy except in severe winters1 productive4 ,canes long1 dark reddish-brown1 surface covered with thin bloom2 tendrils continuous1 bifid or trifid4 ,leaves medium in size1 round2 upper surface dark green2 lower surface pale green1 pubescent4 ,flowers self-sterile1 open late2 stamens reflexed4 ,fruit mid-season1 matures unevenly1 keeps only fairly well4 ,clusters medium in size1 short1 cylindrical1 usually with a single shoulder but sometimes double-shouldered1 loose with many abortive fruits4 ,berries large1 round-oval1 light to dark red1 glossy1 covered with bloom1 persistent2 skin thin1 tender2 flesh pale green1 juicy1 fine-grained1 tough1 stringy1 agreeably vinous2 good to very good4 ,seeds free1 large1 broad1 distinctly notched1 brown4 ,,geneva 7,vinifera1 ,labrusca7 ,geneva is surpassed by so many other grapes of its season in quality that it has never become popular1 although it has much to recommend it4 ,the vine is vigorous and productive1 although not quite hardy1 and the berries and clusters are attractive2 the fruit is nearly transparent and there is so little bloom that the grapes are a lustrous green or iridescent in sunlight2 the berries cling well to the stem and the fruit keeps exceptionally well4 ,geneva originated with ,jacob ,moore1 ,brighton1 ,new ,york1 from seed planted in #ahgd from a hybrid vine fertilized by ,iona4 ,vine vigorous1 healthy1 productive4 ,canes covered with thin bloom2 tendrils intermittent or continuous1 bifid or trifid4 ,leaves medium in size2 upper surface light green1 dull2 lower surface grayish-white1 pubescent2 lobes three to five1 acute2 petiolar sinus1 shallow1 wide2 teeth shallow1 narrow4 ,flowers self-sterile or partly fertile1 open late2 stamens upright4 ,fruit mid-season1 ships well and keeps into the winter4 ,clusters large1 blunt at the ends1 usually not shouldered1 with many abortive fruits2 pedicel long1 slender1 smooth2 brush long1 green4 ,berries large1 oval1 dull green changing to a faint yellow with thin bloom2 skin thick1 tough1 unpigmented2 flesh pale green1 tender1 soft1 vinous1 sweet at skin but tart at center2 fair to good4 ,seeds of medium size and length4 ,,goethe 7,vinifera1 ,labrusca7 ,of all ,rogers' hybrids1 ,goethe shows ,vinifera characters most1 resembling in appearance the ,white ,malaga of ,europe1 and not falling far short of the best ,old ,world grapes in quality4 ,but the variety is difficult to grow1 especially where the seasons are not long enough for full maturity4 ,the vine is vigorous to a fault2 it is fairly immune to mildew1 rot and other diseases2 and1 where it succeeds1 the vines bear so freely that thinning becomes a necessity4 ,added to high quality1 which makes it an excellent table-grape1 ,goethe keeps well4 ,goethe was first mentioned in #aheh under the name of ,rogers' ,no4 #a4 ,vine vigorous1 hardy4 ,canes short1 dark brown2 nodes enlarged1 flattened2 internodes short2 tendrils continuous or intermittent1 long1 bifid to trifid4 ,leaves irregularly round1 thin2 upper surface light green1 glossy2 lower surface pale green1 pubescent2 leaf usually not lobed1 terminus broadly acute2 petiolar sinus narrow1 closed and overlapping2 basal sinus usually lacking2 lateral sinus shallow1 often a notch2 teeth shallow1 narrow4 ,flowers partly self-fertile1 open in mid-season2 stamens upright4 ,fruit late1 keeps well4 ,clusters short1 broad1 tapering1 frequently single-shouldered1 usually two bunches to shoot2 pedicel long1 thick with numerous conspicuous warts2 brush long1 slender1 yellowish-brown4 ,berries very large1 oval1 pale red covered with thin bloom1 persistent2 skin thin1 tender1 adherent1 faintly astringent2 flesh pale green1 translucent1 tender with ,vinifera flavor2 very good4 ,seeds adherent1 one to three1 large1 long1 notched1 blunt1 brown4 ,,gold ,,coin 7stivalis1 ,labrusca7 ,in the ,south1 where alone it thrives1 ,gold ,coin is a handsome market variety of very good quality4 ,the vines are productive and are unusually free from attacks of fungal diseases4 ,the variety originated with ,t4 ,v4 ,munson1 ,denison1 ,texas1 from seed of ,cynthiana or ,norton pollinated by ,martha and was introduced by the originator in #ahid4 ,vine vigorous1 hardy1 productive4 ,canes slender1 numerous2 tendrils continuous1 sometimes intermittent1 trifid or bifid4 ,leaves medium in size2 upper surface light green1 slightly rugose2 lower surface pale green1 tinged with bronze1 heavily pubescent4 ,flowers self-fertile2 stamens upright4 ,fruit late mid-season1 keeps long4 ,clusters medium to small1 usually single-shouldered4 ,berries large1 round-oval1 yellowish-green with a distinct trace of reddish-amber1 with thin bloom1 usually persistent2 skin covered with small1 scattering brown dots1 thin1 tough2 flesh faintly aromatic1 tart from skin to center2 good4 ,seeds free1 numerous1 medium in size4 ,,green ,,early 7,labrusca1 ,vinifera7 ,green ,early is a white grape coming in season with ,winchell1 which surpasses it in most characters1 quality in particular4 ,green ,early was found in #ahhe1 growing by the side of a ditch near a ,concord vineyard1 on land belonging to ,o4 ,j4 ,green1 ,portland1 ,new ,york4 ,vine vigorous1 hardy1 productive4 ,canes variable in length and thickness1 dark reddish-brown2 nodes enlarged1 flattened2 internodes short2 tendrils continuous1 sometimes intermittent1 bifid or trifid4 ,leaves variable in size1 medium green2 upper surface dark green1 glossy2 lower surface pale green1 pubescent2 lobes wanting or faintly five2 teeth shallow1 narrow2 stamens upright4 ,fruit early1 does not keep well4 ,clusters variable in size1 length and breadth1 sometimes single-shouldered1 variable in compactness4 ,berries large1 oval1 light green tinged with yellow1 with thin bloom1 persistent1 soft2 skin thin1 tender1 inclined to crack2 flesh tough and aromatic1 sweet at skin but acid at center2 fair in quality4 ,seeds medium in size1 length and breadth1 sharp-pointed4 ,,grein ,,golden 7,vulpina1 ,labrusca7 ,grein ,golden is very similar to ,riesling1 but the vine is much stronger in growth4 ,for a variety of the ,taylor group1 both cluster and berry are large and uniform1 which1 with the attractive color of the berries1 make it a most handsome fruit4 ,the flavor1 however1 is not at all pleasing1 being an unusual commingling of sweetness and acidity very disagreeable to most palates4 ,the quality of the fruit condemns it for table use1 although it is said to make a very good white wine4 ,nicholas ,grein1 ,hermann1 ,missouri1 first grew ,grein ,golden about #ahge4 ,vine vigorous1 hardy1 productive4 ,canes long1 numerous1 slender1 dark reddish-brown2 nodes enlarged1 flattened2 internodes long2 tendrils intermittent1 trifid or bifid4 ,leaves large1 thick2 upper surface dark green1 dull1 smooth2 lower surface pale green1 lightly pubescent2 lobes lacking or one to three with terminus acute2 petiolar sinus deep1 narrow2 basal sinus usually lacking2 lateral sinus shallow1 wide1 obscure2 teeth deep4 ,flowers self-sterile1 open in mid-season2 stamens reflexed4 ,fruit mid-season4 ,clusters large1 long1 broad1 tapering1 irregular1 often heavily single-shouldered1 loose2 pedicel with a few inconspicuous warts2 brush slender1 pale green4 ,berries uniform in size1 large1 round1 golden yellow1 glossy with thin bloom1 persistent2 skin very thin1 tender2 flesh green1 translucent1 very juicy1 tender1 vinous2 good4 ,seeds free1 one to four1 broad1 plump1 light brown4 ,,gros ,,colman 7,vinifera7 ,dodrelabi ,gros ,colman has the reputation of being the handsomest black table-grape grown4 ,it is one of the favorite hot-house grapes in ,england and eastern ,america and is commonly grown out of doors in ,california4 ,the variety is remarkable for having the largest berries of any round grape1 borne in immense bunches1 and for the long-keeping qualities1 although the tender skins sometimes crack4 ,the following description is compiled3 ,vine vigorous1 healthy and productive2 wood dark brown4 ,leaves very large1 round1 thick1 but slightly lobed2 teeth short and blunt2 glabrous above1 wooly below4 ,bunches very large1 short1 well filled but rather loose2 berries very large1 round1 dark blue2 skin thick but tender2 flesh firm1 crisp1 sweet and good2 quality not of the highest4 ,season late and the fruits keep long4 ,,hartford 7,labrusca7 ,the vine of ,hartford may be well characterized by its good qualities1 but the fruit is best described by its faults1 because of which the variety is passing out of cultivation4 ,the plants are vigorous1 prolific1 healthy and the fruit is borne early in the season4 ,the canes are remarkable for their stoutness and for the crooks at the joints4 ,the bunches are not unattractive1 but the quality of the fruit is low1 the flesh being pulpy and the flavor insipid and foxy4 ,the berries shell badly on the vine and when packed for shipping1 so that the fruit does not ship1 pack or keep well4 ,the grapes color long before ripe1 and the flowers are only partly self-fertile1 so that in seasons when there is bad weather during blooming time the clusters are loose and straggling4 ,the original vine of ,hartford was a chance seedling in the garden of ,paphro ,steele1 ,west ,hartford1 ,connecticut4 ,it fruited first in #ahdi4 ,vine vigorous1 very productive4 ,canes long1 dark brown1 covered with pubescence2 nodes enlarged1 flattened2 internodes short2 tendrils continuous1 long1 bifid4 ,leaves large1 thick2 upper surface dark green1 dull1 rugose2 lower surface pale green1 thinly pubescent2 lobes variable2 petiolar sinus deep1 narrow2 basal sinus usually lacking2 lateral sinus shallow1 narrow2 teeth shallow4 ,flowers partly self-fertile1 open in mid-season2 stamens upright4 ,fruit early4 ,clusters medium in size1 long1 slender1 tapering1 irregular1 often with a long1 large1 single shoulder1 loose2 pedicel short with a few small warts2 brush greenish4 ,berries medium in size1 round-oval1 black1 covered with bloom1 drop badly2 skin thick1 tough1 adherent1 contains much purplish-red pigment1 astringent2 flesh green1 translucent1 juicy1 firm1 stringy1 foxy2 poor in quality4 ,seeds free1 one to four1 broad1 dark brown4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxviii4--,triumph 7#c_/e74 ,,hayes 7,labrusca1 ,vinifera7 ,in #ahhj1 the ,massachusetts ,horticultural ,society awarded a certificate of merit to ,hayes for high quality in fruit4 ,this brought it prominently before grape-growers and for a time it was popular1 but when better known several defects became apparent4 ,the vine is hardy and vigorous1 but the growth is slow and the variety is a shy bearer4 ,both bunches and berries are small1 and the crop ripens at a time1 a week or ten days earlier than ,concord1 when there are many other good green grapes4 ,excellent though it is in quality1 the variety is hardly worth a place in any vineyard4 ,john ,b4 ,moore1 ,concord1 ,massachusetts1 is the originator of ,hayes4 ,it is a seedling of ,concord out of the same lot of seedlings as ,moore ,early4 ,it was first fruited in #ahgb4 ,vine variable in vigor and productiveness1 hardy and healthy4 ,canes numerous1 slender2 nodes enlarged1 flattened2 internodes short2 tendrils intermittent1 bifid or trifid4 ,leaves uniform in size2 upper surface dark green2 lower surface pubescent2 lobes one to three2 teeth shallow1 small4 ,flowers almost self-sterile1 open medium late2 stamens upright4 ,fruit early1 keeps well4 ,clusters variable in size and length1 often single-shouldered2 pedicel long1 slender2 brush small1 pale green4 ,berries medium in size1 round1 greenish-yellow1 covered with thin bloom1 persistent2 skin thin1 tender with a few small reddish-brown dots2 flesh fine-grained1 tender1 vinous1 sweet at the skin1 agreeably tart at center1 mild2 good4 ,seeds few1 of average size1 short1 plump1 brown4 ,,headlight 7,vinifera1 ,labrusca1 ,bourquiniana7 ,headlight is more desirable for southern than for northern vineyards1 yet it is worthy of trial in the ,north4 ,its meritorious characters are3 productiveness1 outyielding ,delaware1 with which it competes2 disease-resistant foliage and vines2 more than average vigor of vine2 high quality of fruit1 being almost the equal of ,delaware in flavor and having tender1 melting pulp which readily parts from the seeds2 and earliness1 ripening before ,delaware and hanging on the vines or keeping after being picked for some time without deterioration4 ,the originator of ,headlight1 ,t4 ,v4 ,munson1 states that the variety came from seed of ,moyer fertilized by ,brilliant4 ,the seed was planted in #ahie and the grape was introduced in #aija4 ,vine vigorous1 hardy1 very productive4 ,canes short1 few in number1 slender1 reddish-brown2 nodes enlarged2 internodes short2 tendrils continuous1 short1 bifid1 very persistent4 ,leaves small1 thick2 upper surface light green1 dull1 smooth2 lower surface pale green1 pubescent2 lobes one to three with terminus obtuse2 petiolar sinus intermediate in depth and width2 basal sinus usually lacking2 lateral sinus shallow1 narrow2 teeth shallow4 ,flowers self-sterile1 open in mid-season2 stamens reflexed4 ,fruit early1 keeps well4 ,clusters small1 short1 tapering1 frequently single-shouldered1 compact2 pedicel short1 slender1 covered with a few small warts2 brush yellowish-brown4 ,berries small1 round1 dark red with thin bloom1 persistent1 firm2 skin tough1 adherent1 astringent2 flesh green1 translucent1 very juicy1 tender1 fine-grained1 vinous1 sweet2 very good4 ,seeds free1 one to three1 small1 light brown4 ,,herbemont 7,bourquiniana7 ,bottsi1 ,brown ,french1 ,dunn1 ,herbemont's ,madeira1 ,hunt1 ,kay's ,seedling1 ,mc,kee1 ,neal1 ,warren1 ,warrenton ,in the ,south1 ,herbemont holds the same rank as ,concord in the ,north4 ,the vine is fastidious as to soil1 requiring a well-drained warm soil1 and one which is abundantly supplied with humus4 ,despite these limitations1 this variety is grown in an immense territory1 extending from ,virginia and ,tennessee to the ,gulf and westward through ,texas4 ,the vine is remarkably vigorous1 being hardly surpassed in this character by any other of our native grapes4 ,the fruits are attractive because of the large bunch and the glossy black of the small berries1 and are borne abundantly and with certainty in suitable localities4 ,the flesh characters of the fruit are good for a small grape1 neither flesh1 skin nor seeds being objectionable in eating2 the pulp is tender1 juicy1 rich1 sweet and highly flavored4 ,the ample1 lustrous green foliage makes this variety one of the attractive ornamental plants of the ,south4 ,herbemont is known to have been in cultivation in ,georgia before the ,revolutionary ,war1 when it was generally called ,warren and ,warrenton4 ,in the early part of the last century1 it came to the hands of ,nicholas ,herbemont1 ,columbia1 ,south ,carolina1 whose name it eventually took4 ,vine very vigorous4 ,canes long1 strong1 bright green1 with more or less purple and heavy bloom2 internodes short2 tendrils intermittent1 bifid or trifid4 ,leaves large1 round1 entire1 or three to seven-lobed1 nearly glabrous above and below2 upper surface clear green2 lower surface lighter green1 glaucous4 ,flowers self-fertile4 ,fruit very late4 ,clusters large1 long1 tapering1 prominently shouldered1 compact2 pedicels short with a few large warts2 brush pink4 ,berries round1 small1 uniform1 reddish-black or brown with abundant bloom2 skin thin1 tough2 flesh tender1 juicy2 juice colorless or slightly pink1 sweet1 sprightly4 ,seeds two to four1 small1 reddish-brown1 glossy4 ,,herbert 7,labrusca1 ,vinifera7 ,in all that constitutes a fine table-grape1 ,herbert 7,plate ,,xviii7 is as near perfection as any ,american variety4 ,for a ,vinifera-,labrusca hybrid1 the vine is vigorous1 hardy and fruitful1 ranking in these respects above many pure-bred ,labruscas4 ,while the fruit ripens with ,concord1 it keeps much later and packs and ships better4 ,the variety is self-sterile and must be set near other varieties4 ,herbert is deserving attention from commercial growers who supply a discriminating market1 and its many good qualities give it high place as a garden grape4 ,the variety is one of ,rogers' hybrids1 named ,herbert in #ahfi4 ,vine very vigorous1 productive4 ,canes long1 numerous1 thick1 dark brown2 nodes enlarged1 flattened2 internodes long2 tendrils intermittent1 long1 bifid or trifid4 ,leaves large1 round2 upper surface dark green1 dull1 smooth2 lower surface pale green with some pubescence2 leaf entire1 terminus obtuse2 petiolar sinus deep1 narrow1 closed1 overlapping2 basal and lateral sinuses lacking2 teeth shallow4 ,flowers self-sterile1 open in mid-season2 stamens reflexed4 ,fruit mid-season1 keeps well4 ,clusters large1 broad1 tapering1 two to three clusters per shoot1 heavily single-shouldered1 loose2 pedicel thick with small russet warts2 brush yellowish-green4 ,berries large1 round-oval1 flattened1 dull black1 covered with thick bloom1 persistent1 firm2 skin thick1 tough1 adherent1 astringent2 flesh light green1 translucent1 juicy1 tender1 fine-grained2 very good4 ,seeds adherent1 three to six1 large1 broad1 notched1 long with swollen neck1 blunt1 brown with yellow tips4 ,,hercules 7,labrusca1 ,vinifera7 ,hercules is characterized by very large berries1 fruit handsomely colored and cluster large and well-formed4 ,the flavor1 while not of the best1 is good4 ,added to the desirable qualities of the fruit1 the vines are hardy1 vigorous and productive4 ,these good characters1 however1 cannot make up for the several defects of the variety4 ,the grapes drop and crack badly and the pulp is tough and adheres too firmly to the seed for a dessert grape1 so that the variety is worthless except for breeding purposes4 ,hercules was introduced by ,g4 ,a4 ,ensenberger1 ,bloomington1 ,illinois1 about #ahij2 its parentage is unknown4 ,vine very vigorous1 hardy1 very productive4 ,canes long1 dark reddish-brown2 nodes enlarged1 flattened2 internodes long2 tendrils continuous1 bifid4 ,leaves large2 upper surface light green1 glossy1 smooth2 lower surface grayish-green1 pubescent2 lobes one to three1 terminus acute2 petiolar sinus deep1 narrow2 basal sinus usually absent2 lateral sinus shallow2 teeth shallow4 ,flowers self-sterile1 open in mid-season2 stamens reflexed4 ,fruit mid-season1 keeps well4 ,clusters very large1 broad1 tapering1 one to three clusters per shoot1 compact2 brush pale green4 ,berries very large1 round1 black1 glossy with heavy bloom1 firm2 skin adherent1 astringent2 flesh green1 translucent1 juicy1 very tough1 coarse1 stringy1 foxy2 fair in quality4 ,seeds adherent1 one to five1 large1 broad1 deeply notched1 blunt1 brown4 ,,hicks 7,labrusca7 ,hicks is a remarkably good grape and were it not that the fruit is almost identical with that of ,concord1 ripening with it or a little earlier1 it would have a place in the viticulture of the country4 ,however1 since it was introduced some years ago and has not found great favor with growers1 it seems that it cannot make headway against ,concord1 with which it must compete4 ,in many localities the vines are more prolific than those of ,concord and of stronger growth4 ,hicks was introduced in #ahih by ,henry ,wallis1 ,wellston1 ,missouri1 who states that it is a chance seedling sent from ,california about #ahgj to ,richard ,berry1 a nurseryman of ,st4 ,louis ,county1 ,missouri4 ,vine very vigorous1 hardy1 very productive4 ,canes medium to long1 numerous1 reddish-brown1 covered with thin bloom2 tendrils continuous1 bifid or trifid4 ,leaves large1 thick2 upper surface dark green1 glossy2 lower surface white1 changing to a heavy bronze1 strongly pubescent4 ,flowers self-fertile1 open early2 stamens upright4 ,fruit mid-season1 keeps well4 ,clusters large1 long1 broad1 tapering1 often single-shouldered4 ,berries large1 round1 purplish-black with heavy bloom1 shatter when over-ripe1 firm2 skin tender with dark wine-colored pigment2 flesh green1 juicy1 tough1 fine-grained1 faintly foxy2 good4 ,seeds adherent1 large1 short1 broad1 blunt1 brown4 ,,hidalgo 7,vinifera1 ,labrusca1 ,bourquiniana7 ,the grapes of ,hidalgo are rich1 sweet1 delicately flavored1 and with color1 size and form of berry and bunch so well combined as to make the fruits singularly handsome4 ,the skin is thin but firm and the variety keeps and ships well4 ,the vines1 however1 are doubtfully hardy1 variable in vigor and not always fruitful4 ,while ,hidalgo may not prove of value for the commercial vineyard1 in favorable situations it may give a supply of choice fruit for the amateur4 ,the parentage of ,hidalgo1 as given by its originator1 ,t4 ,v4 ,munson1 is ,delaware1 ,goethe and ,lindley4 ,the variety was introduced by the originator in #aijb4 ,vine variable in vigor1 hardiness and productiveness4 ,canes thick1 dark reddish-brown2 nodes enlarged1 flattened2 tendrils intermittent or continuous1 bifid or trifid4 ,leaves large1 irregularly round1 thick2 upper surface light green1 dull1 rugose2 lower surface pale green1 bronzed1 heavily pubescent2 lobes three when present2 petiolar sinus narrow1 sometimes closed and overlapping2 basal sinus wanting2 lateral sinus shallow1 narrow2 teeth very shallow1 narrow4 ,flowers semi-fertile1 open after mid-season2 stamens upright4 ,fruit mid-season1 keeps and ships well4 ,clusters large1 long1 slender1 cylindrical1 often blunt1 not shouldered1 one to two bunches per shoot1 compact2 pedicel long1 slender with small warts2 brush yellowish-green with brown tinge4 ,berries large1 oval1 greenish-yellow1 glossy with thin bloom1 persistent1 firm2 skin thin1 tough1 adherent1 astringent2 flesh green1 transparent1 juicy1 tender1 melting1 aromatic1 sweet2 very good to best4 ,seeds free1 two to four1 large1 plump1 light brown4 ,,highland 7,vinifera1 ,labrusca7 ,few varieties of black grapes equal ,highland in appearance and quality of fruit4 ,when given good care under favorable conditions1 the bunches are unusually large and handsome in appearance1 sometimes attaining a weight of two pounds1 and bear beautiful bluish-black berries with the fine flavor and tender texture of ,jura ,muscat1 one of its parents4 ,the flesh is solid1 firm and the fruit keeps and ships well4 ,the vine is vigorous1 productive to a fault but is doubtfully hardy4 ,where the climate is temperate and the season long enough for the vine and fruit of ,highland to develop1 this is one of the choicest grapes for the amateur4 ,the variety originated about the close of the ,civil ,war with ,j4 ,h4 ,ricketts1 ,newburgh1 ,new ,york1 from seed of ,concord fertilized by ,jura ,muscat4 ,vine variable in vigor1 productive1 healthy4 ,canes long1 numerous1 dark brown with thin bloom2 nodes enlarged2 internodes long2 tendrils intermittent1 bifid or trifid4 ,leaves large2 upper surface dark green1 dull1 rugose2 lower surface grayish-green1 pubescent2 lobes one to five1 terminal one acute2 petiolar sinus deep1 variable in width2 basal sinus shallow1 narrow2 lateral sinus a notch2 teeth deep1 wide4 ,flowers self-fertile1 open in mid-season2 stamens upright4 ,fruit late1 keeps well4 ,clusters large1 long1 broad1 tapering1 usually single-shouldered1 usually two bunches per shoot2 pedicel long1 thick1 smooth2 brush green with yellow tinge4 ,berries large1 round-oval1 purplish-black1 dull with heavy bloom1 persistent1 firm2 skin tough1 free2 flesh green1 translucent1 juicy1 tender1 vinous2 good4 ,seeds free1 one to six1 large1 long1 notched1 brown4 ,,hopkins 7,rotundifolia7 ,hopkins is named by grape-growers in the ,south ,atlantic states as the best early ,rotundifolia grape4 ,its season in ,north ,carolina begins early in ,august1 nearly a month before any other4 ,it is1 also1 one of the best in quality and for quality and earliness should be in every home vineyard in the region in which it grows4 ,hopkins was found near ,wilmington1 ,north ,carolina1 about #ahde1 by ,john ,hopkins4 ,vine very vigorous1 hardy1 productive4 ,canes long1 slender1 upright4 ,leaves of medium size1 variable1 cordate1 longer than broad1 thick1 leathery1 smooth1 dark green2 margins sharply serrate4 ,flowers self-fertile4 ,fruit very early4 ,clusters large1 containing from four to ten berries4 ,berries large1 dark purple or almost black1 round-oblong1 shelling badly2 skin thick1 tough1 faintly marked with dots2 pulp white1 tender1 juicy with a sweet1 pleasant flavor2 one of the best of the ,rotundifolias in quality4 ,,hosford 7,labrusca7 ,hosford is an offspring of ,concord1 differing from the parent chiefly in the greater size of bunch and berry and in being less fruitful4 ,the variety is surpassed by ,worden and ,eaton1 of the same type1 and is probably not worth cultivation4 ,it is claimed by some that ,hosford is identical with ,eaton but there are noticeable differences in both vine and fruit characters4 ,the vine looks very like that of ,concord except that the indentations along the margins of the leaves are deeper4 ,hosford originated in the garden of ,george ,hosford1 ,ionia1 ,michigan1 about #ahgf1 as a chance seedling growing between two ,concord vines4 ,vines lacking in vigor1 hardy1 unproductive4 ,canes short1 few in number1 slender2 nodes enlarged2 internodes very short2 tendrils continuous1 bifid or trifid4 ,leaves medium in size2 upper surface light green1 rugose2 lower surface grayish-white to bronze1 heavily pubescent2 lobes faint2 petiolar sinus wide2 teeth small1 sharp4 ,flowers shallow1 semi-fertile1 open in mid-season2 stamens upright4 ,fruit mid-season1 does not keep well4 ,clusters large1 tapering1 slightly shouldered1 compact2 pedicel short with small warts2 brush slender1 green4 ,berries large1 round-oval1 dull black with abundant bloom1 persistent2 skin thick1 tender2 flesh pale green1 juicy1 fine-grained1 tender1 vinous1 sweet2 good4 ,seeds few1 large1 broad1 blunt1 plump1 brown4 ,,hybrid ,,franc 7,vinifera1 ,rupestris7 ,hybrid ,franc is the best-known cross between ,rupestris and ,vinifera4 ,it is one of the few varieties used in ,europe as a resistant stock now recommended for a direct producer4 ,the vines are hardy1 vigorous and very productive4 ,the fruit is fit only for wine or grape-juice1 being too acid to eat out of hand4 ,the coloring matter in the fruit is very intense and might be used in giving color to grape products4 ,the variety is of ,french origin4 ,vine vigorous1 hardy1 productive4 ,canes numerous1 thick1 light brown with blue bloom2 nodes enlarged2 internodes short2 tendrils intermittent1 long1 bifid or trifid4 ,leaves small1 thin2 upper surface light green1 glossy1 smooth2 lower surface green1 hairy along ribs and large veins2 lobes three to five with terminal one acute2 petiolar sinus narrow1 sometimes closed and overlapping2 lateral sinus a notch4 ,flowers semi-fertile1 open early2 stamens upright4 ,fruit mid-season1 does not keep well4 ,clusters medium in size1 short1 cylindrical1 single-shouldered1 compact2 pedicel long1 slender with few small warts2 brush short1 wine-colored4 ,berries small1 oblate1 black1 glossy with thick bloom1 persistent1 firm2 skin thin1 tender with very dark wine-colored pigment2 flesh green with reddish tinge1 translucent1 juicy1 fine-grained1 tender1 spicy1 tart2 fair in quality4 ,seeds free1 one to five1 small1 short1 light brown4 ,,ideal 7,labrusca1 ,vinifera1 ,bourquiniana7 ,ideal is a handsome seedling of ,delaware1 from which it differs chiefly in being larger in bunch and berry1 attaining in both of these characters nearly the size of ,catawba4 ,in ,kansas and ,missouri1 this variety is highly recommended1 not only for the high quality of the fruit1 ranking with ,delaware in quality1 but because of vigorous1 healthy1 productive vines4 ,but farther north the vines are precariously hardy and not sufficiently fruitful1 healthy nor vigorous to warrant high recommendation4 ,ideal originated with ,john ,burr1 ,leavenworth1 ,kansas1 from seed of ,delaware1 about #ahhe4 ,vine vigorous1 doubtfully hardy1 productive2 tendrils intermittent1 bifid or trifid4 ,canes long1 numerous1 slender1 dark brown2 nodes enlarged1 flattened2 internodes long4 ,leaves large1 variable in color2 lobes three to five2 petiolar sinus deep1 wide2 teeth deep1 narrow2 upper surface light green1 dull2 lower surface pale green1 pubescent4 ,fruit early mid-season1 keeps well4 ,clusters large1 broad1 heavily shouldered2 pedicel thick2 brush green4 ,berries large1 round1 dark red with thin bloom1 usually persistent1 firm2 skin thick1 tough1 adherent2 flesh green1 tender1 aromatic1 sweet next the skin1 acid at the center2 good to very good4 ,seeds adherent1 large1 plump1 brown4 ,,iona 7,labrusca1 ,vinifera7 ,in flavor1 the fruit of ,iona 7,plate ,,xix7 has a rare combination of sweetness and acidity1 pure1 delicate and vinous4 ,the flesh is transparent1 melting1 tender1 juicy and of uniform consistency quite to the center4 ,the seeds are few and small and part readily from the flesh4 ,the color is a peculiar dark-red wine with a tint of amethyst1 variable and not always attractive4 ,the bunch is large but loose1 with berries varying in size and ripening unevenly4 ,the fruit may be kept until late winter4 ,the vine characters of ,iona are not as good as those of the fruit4 ,to do well1 the vine must have a soil exactly suited to its wants1 seemingly thriving best in deep1 dry1 sandy or gravelly clays4 ,iona responds especially well when trained against walls or buildings1 attaining under such conditions rare perfection4 ,the vines are doubtfully hardy and in many parts of the ,north must have winter protection2 they are not vigorous and are inclined to overbear1 to remedy which they must have close pruning4 ,in localities in which mildew and rot thrive1 the variety is badly attacked by these diseases4 ,iona originated with ,c4 ,w4 ,grant1 ,iona ,island1 ,new ,york1 from seed of ,diana planted in #ahhe4 ,vine weak1 doubtfully hardy1 unproductive4 ,canes short1 light brown2 nodes enlarged2 internodes short2 tendrils intermittent1 bifid4 ,leaves thick2 upper surface light green1 dull1 smooth2 lower surface grayish-green1 heavily pubescent2 lobes three to five with terminal one acute2 petiolar sinus of medium depth and width2 basal sinus shallow2 lateral sinus shallow1 wide2 teeth shallow4 ,flowers self-fertile1 open late2 stamens upright4 ,fruit late1 keeps well4 ,clusters medium in size1 sometimes double-shouldered1 slender1 tapering1 loose2 brush pale green4 ,berries uniform1 oval1 round1 dull1 light and dark red with thin bloom1 persistent1 firm2 skin tough1 adherent1 slightly astringent2 flesh green1 translucent1 juicy1 fine-grained1 tender1 melting1 vinous2 very good4 ,seeds free1 one to four1 small1 broad1 plump1 brown4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxix4--,vergennes 7#b_/c74 ,,isabella 7,labrusca1 ,vinifera7 ,alexander1 ,black ,cape1 ,christie's ,improved ,isabella1 ,conckling's ,wilding1 ,constantia1 ,dorchester1 ,gibb's ,grape1 ,hensell's ,long ,island1 ,payne's ,early1 ,helene1 ,woodward ,isabella 7,plate ,,xx7 is now of little more than historical interest1 it having been one of the mainstays of ,american viticulture4 ,in appearance1 the fruit of ,isabella is fully as attractive as that of any black grape1 the clusters being large and well formed and the berries glossy black with thick bloom4 ,the flavor is good1 but the thick skin and muskiness in taste are objectionable4 ,the grapes keep and ship well4 ,isabella is surpassed in vine characters by many other kinds1 notably ,concord1 which has taken its place4 ,the lustrous green1 ample foliage which remains late in the season1 and the vigor of the vine1 make this variety an attractive ornamental1 well adapted for growing on arbors1 porches and trellises4 ,the origin of ,isabella is not known4 ,it was obtained by ,william ,prince1 ,flushing1 ,long ,island1 about #ahaf from ,mrs4 ,isabella ,gibbs1 ,brooklyn1 ,new ,york4 ,vine vigorous1 hardy1 productive4 ,canes short1 numerous with heavy pubescence1 thick1 light brown2 nodes enlarged1 flattened2 internodes short2 tendrils continuous1 long1 bifid or trifid4 ,leaves thick2 upper surface dark green1 smooth1 glossy2 lower surface whitish-green1 heavily pubescent2 lobes three when present with terminal lobe obtuse2 petiolar sinus shallow1 narrow1 often closed1 overlapping2 basal sinus usually wanting2 lateral sinus shallow1 narrow1 frequently notched2 teeth shallow1 wide4 ,flowers self-fertile1 open in mid-season2 stamens upright4 ,fruit late1 keeps and ships well4 ,clusters large1 cylindrical1 frequently single-shouldered2 pedicel slender1 smooth2 brush long1 yellowish-green4 ,berries medium to large1 oval1 black with heavy bloom1 persistent1 soft2 skin thick1 tough1 adherent1 astringent2 flesh pale green1 translucent1 juicy1 fine-grained1 tender1 meaty1 some foxiness1 sweet2 good4 ,seeds one to three1 large1 broad1 distinctly notched1 short1 brown with yellow tips4 ,,isabella ,,seedling 7,labrusca1 ,vinifera7 ,isabella ,seedling is an early1 vigorous1 productive offspring of ,isabella4 ,in fruit characters it greatly resembles its parent1 but ripens its crop earlier and has a more compact bunch4 ,like that of its parent1 the fruit is of good quality and keeps remarkably well4 ,this seedling is now grown more than ,isabella and1 while not of any considerable commercial importance1 is far more deserving attention as a market grape than some of the poorly flavored kinds more generally grown4 ,there are several varieties under this name4 ,two are mentioned by ,warder2 one of ,ohio and one of ,new ,york origin4 ,the ,isabella ,seedling here described originated with ,g4 ,a4 ,ensenberger1 ,bloomington1 ,illinois1 in #ahhi4 ,vine vigorous1 healthy1 hardy1 productive4 ,canes long1 thick1 dark brown1 often with a red tinge1 with thin bloom2 nodes prominent1 flattened2 internodes long2 tendrils intermittent or continuous1 bifid4 ,leaves healthy1 large1 thick2 upper surface green1 dull2 lower surface pale green or grayish-green1 occasionally with a tinge of bronze1 pubescent4 ,flowers self-fertile2 stamens upright4 ,fruit early1 keeps well4 ,clusters large1 long1 slender1 cylindrical1 usually single-shouldered1 loose1 compact4 ,berries large1 oval1 often pear-shaped1 dull black with thick bloom1 persistent1 soft2 skin thick with some red pigment2 flesh pale green1 juicy1 tender1 coarse1 vinous2 good4 ,seeds numerous1 free1 large1 broad1 notched1 dark brown4 ,,israella 7,labrusca1 ,vinifera7 ,israella came from ,c4 ,w4 ,grant contemporaneously with ,iona and was heralded as the earliest good grape in cultivation4 ,for several years after its introduction1 it was widely tried but was almost everywhere discarded because of the poor quality and unattractive appearance of the fruit and lack of vigor1 hardiness and productiveness in the vine4 ,grant grew ,israella from seed of ,isabella planted in #ahhe4 ,vine lacking in vigor1 unproductive4 ,canes slender1 dark brown2 nodes enlarged1 flattened2 internodes short2 tendrils continuous1 bifid4 ,leaves large2 upper surface light green1 dull1 rugose2 lower surface pale green1 pubescent2 lobes one to five1 faint2 petiolar sinus deep1 narrow2 teeth shallow1 sharp2 stamens upright4 ,fruit late1 keeps well4 ,clusters large1 of medium length and breadth1 tapering1 often single-shouldered1 compact1 frequently with many abortive fruits4 ,berries of medium size1 round-oval1 black or purplish-black with thin bloom1 inclined to drop1 soft2 skin thick1 tough with a large amount of purplish-red pigment2 flesh pale green1 juicy1 stringy1 mild1 sweet from skin to center2 fair in quality4 ,seeds free1 medium in size1 notched1 blunt1 light brown1 often covered with grayish warts4 ,,ives 7,labrusca1 stivalis7 ,ives' ,madeira1 ,ives' ,seedling1 ,kittredge ,ives has a high reputation as a grape for making red wine1 being surpassed only by ,norton for this purpose4 ,the vine is hardy1 healthy1 vigorous and fruitful4 ,the fruit is poor in quality1 colors long before ripe1 has a foxy odor1 and the flesh is tough and pulpy4 ,the bunches are compact1 with well-formed1 jet-black grapes1 which make them attractive4 ,the vine is easily propagated and is adapted to any good grape soil1 but is so rampant in growth that it is difficult to manage4 ,the variety is not widely cultivated4 ,ives was grown by ,henry ,ives from seed planted in #ahdj in his garden in ,cincinnati1 ,ohio4 ,vine vigorous1 hardy1 healthy1 productive4 ,canes long1 thick1 reddish-brown with thin bloom2 nodes enlarged1 flattened2 internodes short2 tendrils continuous1 bifid or trifid4 ,leaves large2 upper surface dark green1 dull1 rugose2 lower surface pale green1 pubescent2 lobes three to five when present with terminal one acute2 petiolar sinus deep1 narrow1 sometimes closed and overlapping2 basal sinus shallow2 lateral sinus narrow2 teeth shallow4 ,fruit late mid-season1 keeps well4 ,clusters large1 tapering1 frequently single-shouldered1 compact1 often with numerous abortive berries2 pedicel slender with numerous small warts2 brush short1 slender1 pale with a reddish-brown tinge4 ,berries oval1 jet-black with heavy bloom1 very persistent1 firm2 skin tough1 adherent1 wine-colored pigment1 astringent2 flesh pale green1 translucent1 juicy1 fine-grained1 tough1 foxy2 good4 ,seeds adherent1 one to four1 small1 often abortive1 broad1 short1 blunt1 plump1 brown4 ,,james 7,rotundifolia7 ,james is one of the largest of the ,rotundifolia grapes and probably the best general-purpose variety of this species4 ,the vine is noted for vigor and productiveness4 ,it cannot be grown north of ,maryland4 ,it thrives in sandy loam soils with clay subsoil4 ,the variety was found by ,b4 ,w4 ,m4 ,james1 ,pitt ,county1 ,north ,carolina4 ,it was introduced about #ahij and was placed on the grape list of the ,american ,pomological ,society fruit catalog in #ahii4 ,vine vigorous1 healthy1 productive4 ,canes slender1 numerous1 long1 slightly trailing4 ,leaves of medium size1 thick1 smooth1 leathery1 cordate1 as broad as long1 with a serrate margin4 ,flowers open late2 stamens reflexed4 ,fruit ripens late1 hangs on the vine for three weeks1 keeps well4 ,clusters small1 containing from four to twelve berries1 irregular1 loose4 ,berries large1 three-fourths to one and one-fourth inches in diameter1 round1 blue-black1 marked with specks2 skin thick1 tough4 ,pulp juicy1 sweet2 good in quality4 ,,janesville 7,labrusca1 ,vulpina7 ,endowed with a constitution enabling it to withstand cold to which most other grapes succumb1 ,janesville has made a place for itself in far northern localities4 ,moreover1 the grapes ripen early1 being about the first to color although they are not ripe until some time after coloring4 ,the vine also is healthy1 vigorous and productive4 ,the fruit1 however1 is worthless when better sorts can be grown4 ,the clusters and berries are small1 the grapes are pulpy1 tough1 seedy1 have a thick skin and a disagreeable acid taste4 ,janesville was grown by ,f4 ,w4 ,loudon1 ,janesville1 ,wisconsin1 from chance seed planted in #aheh4 ,vine vigorous1 hardy1 healthy1 productive4 ,canes spiny1 numerous1 dark brown2 nodes flattened2 internodes long2 tendrils intermittent or continuous1 long1 bifid or trifid4 ,leaves small1 thin2 upper surface glossy1 smooth2 lower surface pale green1 lightly pubescent2 leaf usually not lobed with terminus acute2 petiolar sinus narrow1 often closed and overlapping2 basal and lateral sinuses lacking2 teeth shallow4 ,flowers self-fertile1 open very early2 stamens upright4 ,fruit early1 keeps well4 ,clusters small1 short1 cylindrical1 usually single-shouldered1 compact2 pedicel short1 slender1 covered with small1 scattering warts2 brush dark wine color4 ,berries round1 dull black with heavy bloom1 persistent1 firm2 skin thick1 tough1 adherent with dark wine-colored pigment1 astringent2 flesh pale reddish-green1 translucent1 juicy1 tough1 coarse1 vinous1 acid2 fair in quality4 ,seeds adherent1 one to six1 large1 broad1 angular1 blunt1 dark brown4 ,,jefferson 7,labrusca1 ,vinifera7 ,jefferson 7,plate ,,xxi7 is an offspring of ,concord crossed with ,iona1 and resembles ,concord in vigor1 productiveness and healthiness of vine1 and ,iona in color and quality of fruit4 ,the vine produces its fruit two weeks later than ,concord and is not as hardy1 faults that debar it from taking high rank as a commercial grape4 ,fortunately the vines yield readily to laying down for winter protection so that even in commercial plantations it is not difficult to prevent winter injury4 ,the bunches of ,jefferson are large1 well-formed1 compact with berries of uniform size and color4 ,the flesh is firm yet tender1 juicy with a rich1 vinous flavor and a delicate aroma which persists even after the berries have dried into raisins4 ,the fruit ships and keeps well1 the berries adhering to the cluster and the fruit retaining its freshness into late winter4 ,jefferson is widely distributed and is well known by viticulturists in eastern ,america4 ,it is not particular as to localities1 if the season be long and the climate temperate1 and thrives in all soils4 ,the variety originated with ,j4 ,h4 ,ricketts1 ,newburgh1 ,new ,york2 it fruited first in #ahgd4 ,vine vigorous1 healthy1 doubtfully hardy1 productive4 ,canes short1 numerous1 light to dark brown2 nodes enlarged1 round2 internodes short2 tendrils intermittent1 short1 bifid or trifid4 ,leaves healthy2 upper surface light green1 older leaves rugose2 lower surface pale green1 strongly pubescent2 leaf usually not lobed with terminus acute2 petiolar sinus narrow1 sometimes closed and overlapping2 basal sinus usually absent2 lateral sinus shallow1 often a mere notch2 teeth regular1 shallow4 ,flowers self-fertile1 open late2 stamens upright4 ,fruit late1 keeps and ships well4 ,clusters large1 cylindrical1 usually single-shouldered1 sometimes double-shouldered1 compact2 pedicel short1 slender with a few inconspicuous warts2 brush long1 slender1 pale yellowish-green4 ,berries medium in size1 oval1 light and dark red1 glossy with thin bloom1 persistent1 very firm2 skin thick1 tough1 free1 slightly astringent2 flesh light green1 translucent1 juicy1 coarse-grained1 tender1 vinous2 good to best4 ,seeds free1 one to four1 broad1 short1 blunt1 plump1 brown4 ,,jessica 7,labrusca1 ,vinifera7 ,jessica is an early1 hardy1 green grape4 ,the fruit is sweet1 rich1 sprightly and almost free from foxiness1 but is unattractive and does not keep well4 ,the clusters and berries are small1 and the clusters are too loose for a good grape4 ,jessica may be commended for earliness and hardiness and is1 therefore1 desirable1 if at all1 in northern regions4 ,william ,h4 ,read1 ,port ,dalhousie1 ,ontario1 grew ,jessica from seed planted some time between #ahgj and #ahhj4 ,vine medium in vigor1 healthy1 hardy1 productive4 ,canes long1 thick1 dark brown with red tinge2 nodes enlarged1 flattened2 internodes short2 tendrils continuous or intermittent1 bifid or trifid4 ,leaves small2 upper surface dark green1 glossy1 often rugose2 lower surface pale green1 very pubescent2 lobes three2 petiolar sinus narrow2 teeth shallow1 narrow4 ,flowers self-fertile1 open in mid-season2 stamens upright4 ,fruit very early4 ,clusters small1 slender1 tapering1 usually single-shouldered4 ,berries small1 round1 light green1 often tinged with yellow1 covered with thin bloom1 persistent1 soft2 skin thin1 adherent1 faintly astringent2 flesh pale green1 transparent1 juicy1 tender1 soft1 sprightly1 sweet2 good4 ,seeds adherent1 medium to broad1 notched1 brown4 ,,jewel 7,labrusca1 ,bourquiniana1 ,vinifera7 ,the notable characters of ,jewel are earliness and high quality in fruit2 although1 as compared with ,delaware1 its parent1 the vine is vigorous1 healthy and hardy4 ,in form and size of bunch and berry1 ,jewel closely resembles ,delaware1 but the grapes are deep black in color4 ,the flesh characters and flavor of the fruit are much like those of ,delaware1 the pulp being tender yet firm1 and the flavor having the same rich1 sprightly1 vinous taste found in the parent4 ,the seeds are few and small4 ,the skin is thin but tough1 and the grapes ship well1 keep long1 do not shell1 and although early1 hang until frost4 ,jewel is a most excellent grape1 worthy the place among black grapes that ,delaware has among red varieties4 ,in particular1 it is recommended for earliness and for localities in the ,north where standard varieties do not ripen4 ,john ,burr1 ,leavenworth1 ,kansas1 grew ,jewel from seed of ,delaware planted about #ahgd4 ,vine vigorous1 healthy1 hardy1 productive4 ,canes slender1 light reddish-brown2 nodes enlarged1 flattened2 internodes short2 tendrils continuous1 bifid4 ,leaves scant1 thick2 upper surface light green1 dull1 rugose2 lower surface tinged with bronze1 heavily pubescent2 lobes three when present with terminus acute2 petiolar sinus narrow2 basal sinus usually lacking2 lateral sinus shallow1 wide2 teeth shallow4 ,flowers self-sterile1 open in mid-season2 stamens reflexed4 ,fruit early4 ,clusters small1 slender1 cylindrical1 single-shouldered1 compact2 pedicel short1 slender2 brush short1 wine-colored4 ,berries medium in size1 round1 dark purplish-black1 dull with heavy bloom1 persistent1 firm2 skin thin1 tough1 adherent1 wine-colored pigment2 flesh pale green1 translucent1 juicy1 fine-grained1 tender1 sprightly1 vinous1 sweet2 very good4 ,seeds adherent1 one to four1 frequently one-sided1 blunt1 light brown4 ,,kensington 7,vinifera1 ,vulpina7 ,kensington has several very meritorious fruit and vine characters4 ,the vine resembles that of ,clinton1 its ,vulpina parent1 in vigor1 hardiness1 growth and productiveness1 but the fruit has many of the characters of the ,european parent1 ,buckland ,sweetwater4 ,the grapes are yellowish-green1 large1 oval and borne in loose clusters of medium size4 ,in quality the fruit of ,kensington is not equal to that of ,buckland ,sweetwater but is much better than that of ,clinton4 ,the flesh is tender and juicy with a rich1 sweet1 vinous flavor4 ,the hardiness of the vine and the high quality of the fruit should make ,kensington a favorite green grape in northern gardens4 ,this variety was grown by ,william ,saunders1 ,london1 ,ontario4 ,it was sent out some time between #ahgj and #ahhj4 ,vine vigorous1 hardy1 productive4 ,canes long1 slender1 light brown2 nodes enlarged1 flattened2 internodes short2 tendrils persistent1 intermittent or continuous1 long1 bifid or trifid4 ,leaves thin2 upper surface light green1 glossy1 smooth2 lower surface pale green1 pubescent1 hairy2 lobes wanting or one to three with terminus obtuse2 petiolar sinus narrow2 basal sinus shallow when present2 lateral sinus shallow1 usually a notch2 teeth deep and wide4 ,flowers self-fertile1 open early1 stamens upright4 ,fruit mid-season4 ,clusters large1 cylindrical1 often heavily single-shouldered1 loose1 frequently with many undeveloped berries2 pedicel long and slender with small1 inconspicuous warts2 brush short1 pale green4 ,berries variable in size1 oval1 yellowish-green1 glossy with thin bloom1 persistent1 firm2 skin thin1 tough1 adherent1 faintly astringent2 flesh green1 transparent1 juicy1 tender1 vinous1 sweet2 good4 ,seeds free1 two to four1 wrinkled1 large1 long1 broad1 sharp-pointed1 yellowish-brown4 ,,king 7,labrusca7 ,king is similar to ,concord1 compared with which the vine is more vigorous and prolific1 time of ripening and length of season the same1 the clusters are one-fourth larger1 the grapes are more persistent1 the pulp is more tender1 the flavor nearly the same but more sprightly1 the seeds fewer in number1 the wood harder and of shorter joints and the pedicels larger4 ,king was found in the ,concord vineyard of ,w4 ,k4 ,munson1 ,grand ,rapids1 ,michigan1 in #ahib4 ,the vine was set for ,concord and is supposed to be a bud-sport of that variety4 ,vine very vigorous1 hardy1 productive4 ,canes large1 dark reddish-brown2 nodes enlarged1 slightly flattened2 internodes short2 tendrils continuous or intermittent1 trifid or bifid4 ,leaves unusually large1 thick2 upper surface green1 dull2 lower surface grayish-white changing to slight bronze1 pubescent2 lobes three when present1 terminal one acute2 teeth shallow1 narrow4 ,flowers self-fertile1 open in mid-season2 stamens upright4 ,fruit mid-season1 keeps well4 ,clusters large1 long1 broad1 irregularly tapering1 usually single-shouldered1 compact4 ,berries large1 round1 black with thin bloom1 persistent1 firm2 skin thick1 tough1 adherent1 astringent2 flesh pale green1 very juicy1 tough1 stringy and with some foxiness2 good4 ,seeds adherent1 few1 large1 short1 broad1 lightly notched if at all1 blunt1 plump1 light brown4 ,,lady 7,labrusca1 ,vinifera7 ,the vine of ,lady is much like that of ,concord1 its parent1 although not quite so vigorous nor productive1 but ripens its fruit fully two weeks earlier4 ,the fruit is much superior to that of ,concord in quality1 being richer1 sweeter and less foxy4 ,the grapes hang on the vines well but deteriorate rapidly after picking4 ,the term1 ironclad1 used by grape-growers to express hardiness and freedom from disease1 is probably as applicable to ,lady as to any other of the ,labrusca grapes4 ,the foliage is dense and of a deep glossy green1 neither scalding under a hot sun nor freezing until heavy frosts1 making it an attractive ornament in the garden4 ,lady is deservedly popular as a grape for the amateur and should be planted for near-by markets4 ,it succeeds wherever ,concord is grown1 and because of its early ripening is especially adapted to northern latitudes where ,concord does not always mature4 ,although the fruit ripens early1 the buds start late1 often escaping late spring frosts4 ,when ,lady was first heard of1 it was in the hands of a ,mr4 ,imlay1 ,muskingum ,county1 ,ohio4 ,george ,w4 ,campbell1 ,delaware1 ,ohio1 introduced it in #ahgd4 ,vine vigorous1 hardy1 medium in productiveness1 healthy4 ,canes short1 slender1 dark reddish-brown2 nodes flattened2 internodes short2 tendrils intermittent1 bifid or trifid4 ,leaves medium in size2 upper surface light green1 glossy1 rugose2 lower surface pale green1 pubescent2 lobes one to five with terminal one acuminate2 petiolar sinus shallow1 wide2 lateral sinus variable in depth and width2 teeth shallow4 ,flowers self-fertile1 open in mid-season2 stamens upright4 ,fruit early1 does not keep well4 ,clusters small1 short1 slender1 cylindrical1 sometimes single-shouldered1 compact2 pedicel thick1 smooth2 brush slender1 long1 greenish-white4 ,berries large1 round1 light green1 often with a tinge of yellow1 glossy with thin bloom1 persistent1 firm2 skin covered with small1 scattering1 dark dots1 thin1 tender1 adherent1 astringent2 flesh greenish-white1 translucent1 juicy1 tender1 aromatic2 very good4 ,seeds free1 few1 broad1 light brown4 ,,lady ,,washington 7,labrusca1 ,vinifera7 ,lady ,washington is in many respects a most excellent grape but falls short in quality and does not excel in vine characters4 ,the grapes make a good appearance1 keep and ship well and are tender1 juicy and sweet4 ,the vines are luxuriant1 hardy1 for a grape with ,vinifera blood1 and healthy although slightly susceptible to mildew4 ,as an exhibition grape1 few green varieties show better when grown with care than ,lady ,washington4 ,in the ,west and ,southwest1 the variety is said to succeed better than any other ,concord seedling4 ,lady ,washington is another of ,j4 ,h4 ,ricketts' fine seedlings1 this variety having come from seed of ,concord fertilized by ,allen's ,hybrid4 ,it was introduced in #ahgh4 ,vine vigorous1 productive4 ,canes long1 few1 thick1 dark brown2 nodes greatly enlarged1 variable in shape2 internodes long2 tendrils continuous1 long1 bifid or trifid4 ,leaves large1 thick2 upper surface dark green1 older leaves strongly rugose1 glossy2 lower surface pale green1 pubescent2 leaf entire with terminal acute2 petiolar sinus deep1 narrow1 frequently closed and overlapping2 basal sinus usually wanting2 lateral sinus shallow2 teeth shallow1 narrow4 ,flowers self-fertile1 open in mid-season2 stamens upright4 ,fruit late mid-season1 keeps and ships well4 ,clusters large1 broad1 irregularly cylindrical1 single-shouldered1 frequently double-shouldered1 loose2 pedicel short with numerous conspicuous warts2 brush very short1 greenish4 ,berries variable in size1 round-oblate1 yellow-amber1 glossy with thin bloom1 persistent2 skin thin1 tender1 adherent2 flesh pale green1 transparent1 juicy and tender1 stringy1 aromatic1 sweet2 very good4 ,seeds free1 one to four1 broad1 brown4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxx4--,winchell 7#b_/c74 ,,lenoir 7,bourquiniana7 ,alabama1 ,black ,el ,paso1 ,black ,july1 ,black ,spanish1 ,blue ,french1 ,burgundy1 ,cigar ,box ,grape1 ,devereaux1 ,jack1 ,jacques1 ,july ,sherry1 ,longworth's ,ohio1 ,mac,candless1 ,ohio1 ,springstein1 ,warren ,lenoir is a tender southern grape which has been used largely in ,france and ,california as a resistant stock and a direct producer4 ,the fruit is highly valued for its dark red wine and is very good for table use4 ,the vine is very resistant to phylloxera and withstands drouth well4 ,the origin of ,lenoir is unknown4 ,it was in cultivation in the ,south as long ago as the early part of the last century4 ,nicholas ,herbemont states in #ahbi that its name was given from a man named ,lenoir who cultivated it near ,stateburg1 ,south ,carolina4 ,vine vigorous1 thrifty1 semi-hardy1 productive4 ,canes numerous1 with some bloom at the nodes2 tendrils intermittent4 ,leaves from two to seven-lobed1 usually five1 with characteristic bluish-green color above and pale green below4 ,clusters variable1 medium to very large1 tapering1 usually shouldered4 ,berries small1 round1 dark bluish-purple1 nearly black with lilac bloom2 skin thick1 tough2 flesh juicy1 tender1 sweet1 very rich in coloring matter4 ,,lignan ,,blanc 7,vinifera7 ,white ,july1 ,luglienga1 ,joannenc ,at ,geneva1 ,new ,york1 ,lignan ,blanc ripens first of all grapes1 native or ,european4 ,it is not of highest quality but is better than any other early grape and makes a valuable addition to the home vineyard4 ,it is a favorite grape in ,europe and is rather commonly grown in ,california4 ,this variety offers excellent material for hybridization with native grapes4 ,vine vigorous1 medium productive2 buds open early2 opening leaves light green1 glossy1 tinged with red along the edges1 thinly pubescent4 ,leaves medium in size1 roundish1 somewhat dull green1 slightly rugose2 lower surface glabrous2 blade thick2 lobes usually five though sometimes three2 petiolar sinus medium in depth1 wide2 lower lateral sinus medium in depth1 narrow2 upper lateral sinus shallow1 narrow2 margin dentate2 teeth long1 narrow4 ,flowers appear early for a ,vinifera2 stamens upright4 ,fruit ripens the first of ,september and is a good keeper2 clusters above medium in size1 tapering1 medium compact2 berries medium to large1 oval1 yellowish-green1 with thin bloom2 skin thin1 tender1 neutral2 flesh greenish-white1 firm1 juicy1 meaty1 sweet2 quality good4 ,,lindley 7,labrusca1 ,vinifera7 ,by common consent1 ,lindley 7,plate ,,xxii7 is the best of the red grapes originated by ,rogers in his crosses between ,labrusca and ,vinifera4 ,the bunches are of only medium size and are loose1 but the berries are well-formed1 of uniform size and an attractive dark red color4 ,the flesh is firm1 fine-grained1 juicy1 tender with a peculiarly rich aromatic flavor4 ,the skin is thick and tough but is not objectionable in fruit fully ripe4 ,the fruit keeps and ships well1 and the berries neither crack nor shatter4 ,the vine is vigorous1 hardy for a ,vinifera hybrid1 healthy but1 as with most of its kind1 susceptible to mildew4 ,the chief defects of ,lindley are self-sterility1 precariousness in bearing and lack of adaptation to many soils4 ,lindley is a general favorite in the garden4 ,in #ahfi ,rogers gave this grape its name in honor of ,john ,lindley1 the ,english botanist4 ,vine vigorous1 usually hardy1 susceptible to mildew4 ,canes very long1 dark reddish-brown with thin bloom2 nodes enlarged1 usually flattened2 internodes long1 thick2 tendrils continuous1 long1 bifid or trifid4 ,leaves large1 thick2 upper surface light green1 dull1 slightly rugose2 lower surface grayish-white1 pubescent2 obscurely three-lobed with terminus acute2 petiolar sinus deep1 narrow1 often closed and overlapping2 teeth shallow4 ,flowers self-sterile1 open in mid-season2 stamens reflexed4 ,fruit mid-season1 keeps and ships well4 ,clusters long1 broad1 cylindrical1 frequently single-shouldered1 the shoulder being connected to the bunch by a long stem1 loose2 pedicel short1 slender1 smooth2 brush short1 pale green4 ,berries large1 round-oval1 dark-red with faint bloom2 skin tough1 adherent1 unpigmented1 strongly astringent2 flesh pale green1 translucent1 juicy1 fine-grained1 tender1 vinous2 good to best4 ,seeds adherent1 two to five1 notched1 brown4 ,,lucile 7,labrusca7 ,in vigor1 health1 hardiness and productiveness1 ,lucile 7,plate ,,xxii7 is not surpassed by any native grape4 ,unfortunately1 the fruit characters are not so desirable4 ,the size1 form and color of bunches and berries are good1 making a very attractive fruit1 but the grapes have an obnoxious1 foxy taste and odor and are pulpy and seedy4 ,lucile is earlier than ,concord1 the crop ripening with that of ,worden or preceding it a few days4 ,for an early variety1 the fruit keeps well and in spite of thin skin ships well4 ,the vine thrives in all grape soils4 ,lucile may be recommended where a hardy grape is desired and for localities in which the season is short4 ,j4 ,a4 ,putnam1 ,fredonia1 ,new ,york1 grew ,lucile4 ,the vine fruited first in #ahij4 ,it is a seedling of ,wyoming1 which it resembles in fruit and vine and surpasses in both4 ,vine vigorous1 hardy1 very productive4 ,canes long1 light brown2 nodes enlarged1 flattened2 internodes short2 tendrils continuous1 bifid or trifid4 ,leaves large1 firm2 upper surface light green1 glossy1 smooth2 lower surface pale green1 pubescent2 leaf with terminus acute2 petiolar sinus shallow1 narrow1 sometimes closed and overlapping2 basal sinus usually absent2 lateral sinus a notch when present2 teeth shallow4 ,flowers self-fertile1 open early2 stamens upright4 ,fruit early1 keeps well4 ,clusters large1 long1 slender1 cylindrical1 usually single-shouldered1 very compact2 pedicel short1 thick with few1 small1 inconspicuous warts2 brush light brown4 ,berries large1 round1 dark red with thin bloom1 persistent1 firm2 skin thin1 tender1 astringent2 flesh pale green1 translucent1 juicy1 tough1 stringy1 foxy2 fair in quality4 ,seeds adherent1 one to four1 small1 broad1 short1 blunt1 dark brown4 ,,lutie 7,labrusca7 ,lutie 7,plate ,,xxiii7 is chiefly valuable for its vine characters4 ,the vines are vigorous1 hardy1 healthy and fruitful1 although scarcely equaling ,lucile in any of these characters4 ,pomologists differ widely as to the merits of the fruit1 some claiming high quality for it and others declaring that it is no better than a wild ,labrusca4 ,the difference of opinion is due to a peculiarity of the fruit2 if eaten fresh1 the quality1 while far from being of the best1 is not bad1 but after being picked for several days it develops so much foxiness of flavor and aroma that it is scarcely edible4 ,lutie is a seedling found by ,l4 ,c4 ,chisholm1 ,spring ,hill1 ,tennessee4 ,it was introduced in #ahhe4 ,vine vigorous1 hardy1 healthy1 productive4 ,canes short1 slender1 dark reddish-brown2 nodes enlarged2 internodes short2 tendrils continuous1 short1 bifid4 ,leaves medium in size2 upper surface dark green1 rugose2 lower surface bronze or whitish-green1 pubescent2 leaf usually not lobed with terminus acute2 petiolar sinus deep1 wide2 basal sinus lacking2 lateral sinus shallow and narrow when present2 teeth shallow1 narrow4 ,flowers self-fertile1 early2 stamens upright4 ,fruit early1 does not keep well4 ,clusters medium in size1 short1 broad1 blunt1 cylindrical1 usually not shouldered1 compact2 pedicel short with small1 scattering warts2 brush slender1 pale green4 ,berries large1 round1 dark red1 dull with thin bloom1 drop badly from pedicel1 firm2 skin tender1 adherent1 astringent2 flesh pale green1 translucent1 juicy1 tough1 foxy2 fair in quality4 ,seeds adherent1 one to four1 large1 broad1 short and blunt1 dark brown4 ,,malaga 7,vinifera7 ,malaga is one of the favorite table-grapes in ,california and also a popular grape to ship to eastern markets4 ,in some parts of southern ,california1 where the ,muscats do not thrive1 it is much grown1 and in the ,san ,joaquin ,valley it is rather largely used in making raisins4 ,it requires a long season and probably could not be grown in eastern regions except in the most favored localities4 ,the description is compiled4 ,vine very vigorous1 healthy and productive2 wood reddish-brown1 short-jointed4 ,leaves of medium size1 smooth1 leathery2 light glossy green above1 lighter below2 deeply lobed4 ,bunches very large1 long1 loose1 shouldered1 sometimes scraggly2 stem long and flexible2 berries very large1 oval1 yellowish-green1 covered with light bloom2 skin thick2 flesh firm1 crisp1 sweet and rich2 quality good4 ,season late1 keeps and ships well4 ,mc,p,i,k,e 7,labrusca7 ,mc,pike is noteworthy because of the large size of the berries and bunches4 ,it is very similar to its parent1 ,worden1 differing in having fewer but larger berries1 grapes not as high in flavor and fewer and smaller seeds4 ,because of the thin1 tender skin1 the berries crack badly4 ,the grapes shell more or less1 and the vines are less productive than those of ,worden4 ,the faults named debar it from becoming a commercial grape and it is not high enough in quality to make it of value for the amateur4 ,this variety originated with ,h4 ,g4 ,mc,pike1 ,alton1 ,illinois1 from seed of ,worden planted in #ahij4 ,vine vigorous1 hardy1 very productive4 ,canes of medium length1 dull reddish-brown2 nodes enlarged1 flattened2 internodes very short2 tendrils continuous1 bifid or trifid4 ,leaves large1 thick2 upper surface light green1 dull1 rugose2 lower surface grayish-white1 heavily pubescent2 leaf entire with terminus acute2 petiolar sinus deep2 basal and lateral sinuses lacking4 ,flowers nearly self-fertile4 ,fruit mid-season1 keeps well4 ,clusters variable in size1 broad1 irregularly tapering1 usually not shouldered2 pedicel long1 thick1 smooth2 brush long1 slender1 green with brown tinge4 ,berries unusually large1 round1 purplish-black with heavy bloom1 firm2 skin cracks1 adherent to pulp1 astringent2 flesh pale green1 translucent1 juicy1 tender1 stringy1 vinous2 fair to good4 ,seeds adherent1 one to four1 short1 broad1 blunt1 plump1 light brown4 ,,marion 7,vulpina1 ,labrusca7 ,black ,german1 ,marion ,port ,marion so closely resembles ,clinton in botanical and horticultural characters as to be clearly of the same type4 ,the vine is vigorous and hardy1 but hardly sufficiently productive1 and is susceptible to mildew and leaf-hoppers4 ,the fruit is pleasantly sweet and spicy1 although not high enough in quality for a table-grape1 but makes a very good dark red wine4 ,the fruit colors early but ripens late1 hangs well on the vines and improves with a touch of frost4 ,marion was brought to notice by a ,mr4 ,shepherd1 ,marion1 ,ohio1 about #ahej4 ,vine vigorous1 hardy1 productive4 ,canes very long1 dark reddish-brown1 covered with bloom2 nodes enlarged1 flattened2 internodes very long2 tendrils continuous1 sometimes intermittent1 long1 bifid4 ,leaves very large2 upper surface dark green1 glossy2 lower surface pale green1 smooth2 leaf entire1 terminus acuminate2 petiolar sinus very deep1 narrow1 often closed and overlapping2 basal and lateral sinuses usually lacking2 teeth shallow1 wide4 ,flowers self-sterile1 open very early2 stamens reflexed4 ,fruit mid-season1 keeps well4 ,clusters medium in size1 short1 slender1 cylindrical1 single-shouldered1 compact2 pedicel short1 slender with a few inconspicuous warts2 brush very short1 wine-colored4 ,berries small1 round1 black1 glossy with heavy bloom1 persistent1 firm2 skin thin1 tough1 adherent with much wine-colored pigment1 astringent2 flesh dark green1 translucent1 juicy1 fine-grained1 tough1 sprightly1 spicy1 tart2 fair in quality4 ,seeds adherent1 one to five1 medium in size1 broad1 short1 very plump1 brown4 ,,martha 7,labrusca1 ,vinifera7 ,martha was at one time a popular green grape1 but the introduction of superior varieties has reduced its popularity until now it is but little grown4 ,it is a seedling of ,concord and resembles its parent1 differing chiefly as follows3 fruit green1 a week earlier1 bunch and berry smaller1 flavor far better1 being sweeter1 more delicate and less foxy4 ,the vine of ,martha is a lighter shade of green1 is less robust1 and the blossoms open a few days earlier than those of ,concord4 ,one of the defects of ,martha1 and the chief cause of its going out of favor1 is that it does not keep nor ship well4 ,the variety is still being planted in the ,south but is generally abandoned in the ,north4 ,samuel ,miller1 ,calmdale1 ,pennsylvania1 grew ,martha from seed of ,concord2 it was introduced about #ahfh4 ,vine hardy1 productive1 susceptible to attacks of mildew4 ,canes long1 dark reddish-brown1 surface with thin bloom1 roughened2 nodes enlarged1 slightly flattened2 tendrils continuous1 or intermittent1 bifid4 ,leaves large1 thick2 upper surface light green2 lower surface light bronze1 heavily pubescent2 lobes wanting or faint2 petiolar sinus shallow1 very wide2 teeth irregular4 ,flowers self-fertile1 open in mid-season2 stamens upright4 ,fruit early mid-season4 ,clusters medium in size1 tapering1 single-shouldered1 loose2 pedicel short1 slender2 brush very short1 green4 ,berries medium in size1 round1 light green with thin bloom1 persistent2 skin thin1 very tender1 adherent2 flesh pale green1 juicy1 tough1 fine-grained1 slightly foxy2 very good4 ,seeds few in number1 adherent1 broad1 blunt1 dark brown4 ,,massasoit 7,labrusca1 ,vinifera7 ,massasoit is distinguished as the earliest of ,rogers' hybrids1 ripening with ,delaware4 ,the grapes have the peculiarity of being best before full maturity1 developing1 after ripening1 a degree of foxiness which impairs the quality4 ,in shape and size of berry and bunch1 there is a striking resemblance to ,isabella1 but the color is that of ,catawba4 ,the texture of the fruit is especially good1 firm but tender and juicy1 while the flavor is rich and sweet4 ,the vine is vigorous1 hardy and productive but subject to mildew and rot4 ,massasoit is worth a place in the home vineyard and as an early grape of fine quality for local markets4 ,vine very vigorous1 hardy1 very productive1 subject to rot and mildew4 ,canes long1 thick1 dark brown with reddish tinge2 nodes enlarged1 flattened2 tendrils continuous1 long1 trifid or bifid4 ,leaves variable in size2 upper surface light green1 dull1 smooth2 lower surface pale green1 pubescent2 lobes three to five with terminus acute2 petiolar sinus deep1 narrow2 basal sinus shallow1 narrow1 obscure2 teeth shallow4 ,flowers self-sterile1 open late2 stamens reflexed4 ,fruit early1 keeps well4 ,clusters variable in size1 broad1 cylindrical1 frequently single-shouldered2 pedicel slender with a few indistinct warts2 brush pale green4 ,berries large1 round-oval1 dark brownish-red1 dull with thin bloom1 very persistent1 firm2 skin thin1 tender1 adherent1 astringent2 flesh pale green1 translucent1 juicy1 fine-grained1 soft1 stringy1 foxy2 good to very good4 ,seeds adherent1 one to five1 large1 broad1 distinctly notched1 plump1 blunt4 ,,maxatawney 7,labrusca1 ,vinifera7 ,while at one time very popular1 grape-growers now seldom hear of ,maxatawney4 ,it is a southern grape1 ripening its fruit in the ,north only occasionally4 ,the variety is interesting historically as being the first good green grape and as showing unmistakable ,vinifera characters1 another example of the fortuitous hybridization which gave so many valuable varieties before artificial hybridization of ,vinifera with native grapes had been tried4 ,in #ahdc1 a man living in ,eagleville1 ,pennsylvania1 received several bunches of grapes from ,maxatawney4 ,the seeds of these grapes were planted and one grew1 the resulting plant being the original vine of ,maxatawney4 ,vine vigorous1 doubtfully hardy1 variable in productiveness4 ,canes medium in length1 slender1 reddish2 nodes enlarged1 flattened2 internodes short2 tendrils continuous1 bifid4 ,leaves large1 dark green1 thick2 lower surface grayish-white with tinge of bronze1 heavily pubescent2 lobes three to five2 petiolar sinus narrow2 teeth shallow4 ,flowers self-sterile1 open in mid-season2 stamens upright4 ,fruit late1 keeps well4 ,clusters small to medium1 short1 slender1 cylindrical1 occasionally with a small1 single shoulder1 compact2 pedicel long1 slender1 warty2 brush long1 yellow4 ,berries variable in size1 oval1 pale red or dull green with amber tinge1 with thin bloom1 persistent2 skin tough1 astringent2 flesh tender1 foxy2 good to very good4 ,seeds free1 few1 large1 very broad1 blunt4 ,,memory 7,rotundifolia7 ,memory is one of the best of the ,rotundifolia grapes for the garden and local markets1 its fruits being especially good for dessert4 ,as yet1 however1 the variety has not been widely distributed even in ,north ,carolina where it originated4 ,the vine is given credit for being the most vigorous grower and the most productive of the grapes of its species4 ,memory is probably a seedling of ,thomas1 which it much resembles1 having been found in a vineyard of ,thomas grapes near ,whiteville1 ,north ,carolina1 by ,t4 ,s4 ,memory1 about #ahfh4 ,vine very vigorous1 healthy1 productive4 ,leaves large1 longer than broad1 thick1 smooth with coarsely serrate margins4 ,flowers perfect4 ,fruit ripens in ,september in ,north ,carolina2 clusters large1 with from four to twelve berries which hang unusually well for a variety of ,v4 ,rotundifolia4 ,berries very large1 round-oblong1 deep brownish-black1 almost jet black2 skin thick2 flesh tender1 juicy1 sweet2 good to best4 ,,merrimac 7,labrusca1 ,vinifera7 ,merrimac is often accredited as the best black grape among ,rogers' hybrids1 but an analysis of the characters of the several black varieties grown by ,rogers shows that it is surpassed by ,wilder1 ,herbert and possibly ,barry4 ,the vine is strong in growth1 productive1 hardy and exempt from fungal diseases2 but the grapes are not high in quality1 and flesh1 skin and seed characters are such that the fruit is not as pleasant to eat as the other black varieties named4 ,merrimac is worthy a place in collections for the sake of variety4 ,rogers gave this variety the name ,merrimac in #ahfi4 ,vine vigorous1 usually hardy1 productive4 ,canes slender1 dark brown1 surface roughened2 nodes enlarged1 flattened2 internodes short2 tendrils intermittent1 short1 bifid4 ,leaves large1 thin2 upper surface very light green1 glossy1 smooth2 lower surface pale green1 pubescent and cobwebby2 lobes three with terminal one obtuse2 petiolar sinus deep1 narrow1 sometimes closed and overlapping2 basal sinus usually lacking2 lateral sinus shallow1 narrow2 teeth shallow4 ,flowers self-sterile1 open in mid-season2 stamens reflexed4 ,fruit mid-season1 keeps and ships well4 ,clusters variable in size1 broad1 tapering2 pedicel slender1 covered with numerous inconspicuous warts2 brush wine-colored4 ,berries large1 round1 black1 glossy with abundant bloom1 persistent1 firm2 skin thick1 tough1 adherent1 astringent2 flesh light green1 translucent1 juicy1 fine-grained1 tender1 stringy2 good4 ,seeds adherent1 one to five1 broad1 long1 with enlarged neck1 brown4 ,,mills 7,labrusca1 ,vinifera7 ,the bunches and berries of ,mills are large and well-formed2 the berries are firm and solid1 with the skin adherent as in ,viniferas2 the flesh is juicy and parts readily from the seeds2 the flavor is rich1 sweet and vinous2 and the grapes are hardly surpassed in keeping quality4 ,but when the fruit characters of ,mills have been praised1 nothing further can be said in its favor4 ,the vines are neither vigorous1 hardy nor fruitful and are very subject to mildew2 neither wood nor roots ripen well in the ,north in average seasons2 and the variety is a most difficult one for nurserymen to grow4 ,mills is of doubtful commercial value1 but for the garden it is possible that the grower may be able to graft it to advantage on some variety with better vine characters4 ,william ,h4 ,mills1 ,hamilton1 ,ontario1 grew ,mills about #ahgj from seed of ,muscat ,hamburg fertilized by ,creveling4 ,vine medium in vigor1 hardiness and productiveness4 ,canes long1 thick1 light brown2 nodes enlarged1 flattened2 tendrils intermittent1 bifid or trifid4 ,leaves large1 thick2 upper surface dark green1 dull1 rugose2 lower surface pale green1 cobwebby2 lobes three to five with terminus acute2 petiolar sinus intermediate in depth and width2 basal and lateral sinuses deep and wide2 teeth deep4 ,flowers self-fertile1 open in mid-season2 stamens upright4 ,fruit mid-season1 keeps well4 ,clusters large1 long1 slender1 cylindrical1 often double-shouldered1 compact2 pedicel slender with numerous1 small warts2 brush long1 wine-colored4 ,berries large1 oval1 jet-black with abundant bloom1 persistent1 firm2 skin thick1 tough1 adherent2 flesh light green1 translucent1 juicy1 rich1 tender1 sprightly1 vinous1 sweet2 very good to best4 ,seeds free1 one to three1 large1 brown4 ,,mish 7,rotundifolia7 ,mish is a favorite ,rotundifolia in ,north ,carolina1 being planted extensively in some parts of that state4 ,its outstanding characters are vigor and productiveness in vine and high quality in the fruit4 ,mish is named by many as the best all-round ,rotundifolia1 being of value for dessert1 wine and grape-juice4 ,the variety was found by ,w4 ,m4 ,mish1 about #ahdf1 near ,washington1 ,north ,carolina4 ,vine very vigorous1 productive1 healthy1 open in growth2 canes somewhat trailing4 ,leaves large1 round1 thick1 smooth1 leathery with coarsely dentate margin4 ,flowers perfect4 ,fruit late1 does not ripen uniformly1 keeps and ships well4 ,clusters of medium size with from six to fifteen berries which cling well to the pedicel4 ,berries of medium size1 round-oval1 deep reddish-black with numerous conspicuous dots2 skin thin1 cracking in wet weather2 flesh tender1 juicy1 sweet1 exceptionally well flavored2 very good to best4 ,,mission 7,vinifera7 ,of all grapes1 ,mission has probably played the most important part in the vineyards of ,california4 ,grown from the earliest times at the old missions1 its source or its name has never been determined4 ,its viticultural value for table and wine-press was early appreciated by ,california grape-growers1 and its culture rapidly spread to every county in the state adapted to grape-growing4 ,with vines vigorous1 healthy and productive1 bearing grapes of delicious quality1 ,mission is a mainstay on the ,pacific slope1 surpassed by few vineyard varieties for general usefulness4 ,the description is compiled4 ,vine vigorous1 healthy1 productive2 wood short-jointed1 grayish-brown1 dull1 dark4 ,leaf medium to large1 slightly oblong1 with large1 deeply-cut compound teeth2 basal sinus widely opened1 primary sinuses narrow and shallow2 smooth on both sides with scattered tomentum below1 bright green above1 lighter below4 ,bunch divided into many small1 distinct lateral clusters1 shouldered1 loose1 sometimes very loose2 berries of medium size1 purple or almost black with heavy bloom2 skin thin2 flesh firm1 crisp1 juicy1 sweet1 rich and delicious4 ,seeds rather large and prominent2 season late4 ,,missouri ,,riesling 7,vulpina1 ,labrusca7 ,missouri ,riesling attains perfection only in the ,south4 ,the vines are hardy1 vigorous1 productive and healthy in the ,north1 as a rule1 but the fruit is lacking in quality4 ,in the ,south1 ,missouri ,riesling is a beautiful fruit when well grown and has many good qualities of fruit and vine4 ,it originated with ,nicholas ,grein1 ,hermann1 ,missouri1 about #ahgj1 probably from seed of ,taylor4 ,vine vigorous1 hardy1 productive4 ,canes very long1 numerous1 thick1 dark brown2 nodes enlarged2 internodes long2 tendrils continuous1 long1 trifid or bifid4 ,leaves large1 thick2 upper surface dark green1 glossy1 smooth2 lower surface pale green1 thinly pubescent2 lobes five with terminal one acuminate2 petiolar sinus deep1 narrow2 basal sinus shallow1 wide2 lateral sinus deep1 wide2 teeth deep1 wide4 ,flowers self-fertile1 open in mid-season2 stamens upright4 ,fruit late1 does not keep nor ship well4 ,clusters short1 cylindrical1 single-shouldered2 pedicel long with few small warts2 brush green4 ,berries of medium size1 round1 yellowish-green changing to light red with thin bloom1 persistent1 firm2 skin sprinkled with small brown dots1 thin1 tough1 adherent1 astringent2 flesh pale green1 translucent1 juicy1 tender1 fine-grained1 lacking in aroma1 mild2 fair in quality4 ,seeds adherent1 one to four1 surface rough1 dark brown4 ,,montefiore 7,vulpina1 ,labrusca7 ,montefiore is extensively grown in ,missouri and the ,southwest but is almost unknown in the ,north and ,east4 ,it is reported as succeeding in the ,lake ,district of ,ohio and1 with the exception that it is uncertain in bearing and not always productive1 it grows well in sections of ,new ,york4 ,while it is essentially a wine-grape1 yet it is pleasing in taste and texture of fruit and is far better in quality than many of the coarser ,labruscas commonly cultivated4 ,it keeps and ships well and presents an attractive appearance4 ,jacob ,rommel1 ,morrison1 ,missouri1 grew this variety about #ahge from seed of ,taylor fertilized by ,ives4 ,vine vigorous and hardy4 ,canes long1 thick1 dark brown with thin bloom2 nodes enlarged1 flattened2 internodes long2 tendrils continuous1 long1 bifid4 ,leaves thick2 upper surface light green1 dull1 smooth2 lower surface grayish-white1 pubescent2 lobes three when present with terminus acute2 petiolar sinus wide2 basal sinus lacking2 lateral sinus shallow when present2 teeth deep4 ,flowers semi-fertile1 open in mid-season2 stamens upright4 ,fruit mid-season1 keeps well4 ,clusters small1 short1 tapering1 single-shouldered1 the shoulder being connected to the bunch by a long stem1 compact2 pedicel short1 slender1 smooth2 brush red4 ,berries small1 oval1 often compressed1 black1 glossy with abundant bloom1 persistent1 firm2 skin thin1 tough1 adherent1 astringent2 flesh green1 translucent1 juicy1 fine-grained1 tender1 melting1 vinous1 sweet2 fair to good4 ,seeds free1 one to five1 small1 broad1 faintly notched1 short1 plump1 brown4 ,,moore ,,early 7,labrusca7 ,moore ,early 7,plate ,,xxiv7 is the standard grape of its season4 ,its fruit cannot be described better than as an early ,concord4 ,the vines are readily distinguishable from those of ,concord1 differing chiefly in being less productive4 ,to grow the variety satisfactorily1 the soil must be rich1 well-drained and loose1 must be frequently cultivated1 and the vines should be pruned severely4 ,the bunches of ,moore ,early are not as large as those of ,concord and are less compact2 the berries shell rather more easily1 and the skin cracks more readily4 ,the flesh characters and the flavor are essentially those of ,concord1 although the quality is not as high as in the older variety4 ,the quality is1 however1 much higher than that of ,champion and ,hartford1 its chief competitors1 and varieties which it should replace4 ,moore ,early is by no means an ideal grape for its season1 but until something better is introduced it will probably remain the best early commercial sort4 ,captain ,john ,b4 ,moore1 ,concord1 ,massachusetts1 originated this variety from seed of ,concord1 planted about #ahfh4 ,vine vigorous1 hardy1 unproductive4 ,canes short1 dark reddish-brown2 nodes enlarged1 flattened2 internodes short2 tendrils continuous1 bifid or trifid4 ,leaves large1 thick2 upper surface dark green1 dull2 lower surface tinged with bronze1 heavily pubescent2 leaf usually not lobed1 terminus acute2 petiolar sinus wide2 basal sinus lacking2 lateral sinus a notch when present2 teeth shallow1 narrow4 ,flowers fertile1 open in mid-season2 stamens upright4 ,fruit early1 does not keep well4 ,clusters medium in size1 length1 and breadth1 cylindrical1 sometimes single-shouldered1 loose2 pedicel short1 thick1 smooth2 brush short1 pale green4 ,berries large1 round1 purplish-black1 firm2 skin tender1 adherent2 flesh green1 translucent1 juicy1 fine-grained1 tough with slight foxiness2 fair to good4 ,seeds one to four1 large1 broad1 plump1 blunt1 brown with yellow tinge at tips4 ,,moscatello 7,vinifera7 ,moscatello ,nero4 ,black ,muscat ,beautiful in appearance and having a delicate ,muscat taste and aroma1 this variety is one of the good table-grapes of the ,pacific slope4 ,unfortunately it ripens so late that it is hardly worth trying in the ,east4 ,the variety has the reputation of being very productive4 ,the description is compiled4 ,vine vigorous1 healthy1 very productive4 ,leaves of medium size1 with deep upper and shallow lower sinuses2 glabrous above1 slightly downy below1 very hairy on the veins1 with long1 sharp teeth4 ,bunch large to very large1 long1 loose1 conico-cylindrical1 winged2 berries very large1 borne on long slender pedicels1 dark purple1 almost black2 skin thin but tough2 flesh rather soft1 juicy2 flavor sweet1 rich1 aromatic1 musky2 quality very good4 ,season late1 does not keep well4 ,,moyer 7,labrusca1 ,bourquiniana7 ,jordan1 ,moyer's ,early ,red ,moyer is almost a counterpart of its parent1 ,delaware4 ,were it not that the variety is from one to two weeks earlier than ,delaware1 and somewhat hardier1 hence better adapted for cold regions1 it could have no place in viticulture4 ,compared with ,delaware1 the vine is hardly as vigorous and is less productive1 but is freer from rot and mildew4 ,the bunches are much like those of ,delaware but have the fault of setting fruit imperfectly even when cross-pollination is assured2 the berries are a little larger1 of much the same color and of like flavor1 rich1 sweet1 with pure vinousness and without a trace of foxiness4 ,the fruit keeps well1 ships well and does not crack nor shell4 ,moyer is well established in ,canada1 proving perfectly hardy wherever ,concord is grown1 possibly standing even more cold4 ,w4 ,h4 ,read1 ,port ,dalhousie1 ,ontario1 raised the original vine of ,moyer1 about #ahhj1 from seed of ,delaware fertilized by ,miller's ,burgundy4 ,vine vigorous1 hardy1 healthy1 unproductive4 ,canes numerous1 slender1 dull1 dark reddish-brown2 nodes enlarged1 flattened2 internodes short2 tendrils continuous1 long1 bifid or trifid4 ,leaves small2 upper surface dark green1 dull1 smooth2 lower surface pale green or with faint blue tinge1 heavily pubescent2 lobes two to five with terminus acute2 petiolar sinus shallow2 basal sinus shallow when present2 lateral sinus shallow1 narrow2 teeth very shallow1 narrow4 ,flowers self-sterile1 open early2 stamens reflexed4 ,fruit early1 keeps well but loses color if kept too long4 ,clusters small1 short1 slender1 tapering1 sometimes single-shouldered2 pedicel short with small warts2 brush yellowish-green4 ,berries small1 oblate1 dark red with faint bloom1 persistent1 firm2 skin tough1 free1 astringent2 flesh translucent1 juicy1 tender1 fine-grained1 vinous2 good to very good4 ,seeds free1 one to four1 broad1 short1 very blunt1 brown with yellow tinge at tips4 ,,muscatel 7,vinifera7 ,white ,frontignan ,this old and standard sort is rather commonly grown in some of the grape regions of ,california to follow ,chasselas ,golden4 ,it might be tried with some show of success in favored grape regions in the ,east4 ,the description is compiled4 ,vine of medium size1 vigorous1 healthy2 canes strong1 spreading1 reddish-brown with short internodes4 ,leaves of medium size1 thin1 five-lobed2 glabrous except on the lower sides of the well-marked ribs where a few hairs show4 ,bunches long1 cylindrical1 regular1 compact2 berries round1 golden-yellow becoming amber2 flavor sweet1 rich1 aromatic1 peculiar2 quality very good4 ,season late mid-season1 keeps and ships well4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxxi4--,worden 7#b_/c74 ,,muscat ,,hamburg 7,vinifera7 ,muscat ,hamburg 7,plate ,,xxv7 is an old ,european grape well known in some parts of ,america in greenhouse graperies1 since it is one of the best for forcing4 ,all who know the beautiful fruits of this variety grown in forcing-houses will want to test it out of doors1 where at the ,geneva1 ,new ,york1 ,experiment ,station1 they have done well1 many clusters attaining a weight of a pound and a half to two pounds4 ,the accompanying plate1 the fruit much less than half natural size1 shows what a fine grape ,muscat ,hamburg is4 ,one is struck with wondering admiration at a vine laden with these grapes growing alongside ,concord1 ,niagara or ,delaware4 ,the quality is delectable1 the quintessence of the flavors and aromas which make the grape a favorite fruit4 ,the grapes keep long and retain their form1 size1 color and rich1 delicate flavor almost to the end4 ,this variety is a treasure to the amateur2 and the professional who wants another grape for local markets should try grafting over a few vines of some native to this sort1 following the directions given in ,chapter ,x in caring for the vines4 ,vines vigorous1 tender1 need protection during the winter2 canes long1 numerous1 slender to medium1 light brown1 darker at the nodes which are enlarged and flattened4 ,leaves medium to large1 intermediate in thickness2 upper surface light green1 dull2 lower surface pale green1 faintly pubescent1 densely hairy4 ,fruit ripens in ,october1 ships and keeps well2 clusters very large1 long1 broad1 tapering1 single or double-shouldered4 ,berries large1 firm1 oval1 very dark purplish-red1 covered with lilac bloom1 very persistent2 skin thick1 adheres strongly to the pulp2 flesh pale green1 translucent1 meaty1 very juicy1 tender1 vinous1 musky1 sweet1 rich2 very good to best2 seeds separating easily from the pulp1 large4 ,,muscat ,,of ,,alexandria ,this is possibly the leading table- and raisin-grape of the ,pacific slope4 ,from the literature or from a visit to vineyards1 one cannot make out whether one or several varieties are grown under the name4 ,probably there are several strains grown under the distinctive name ,muscat which applies to these sweet1 light yellow1 musky grapes4 ,this is one of the standard sorts to force indoors but requires too long a season for out of doors in the ,east4 ,the following description is compiled3 ,vine short1 straggling1 bushy1 sometimes forming a bush rather than a vine1 very productive2 wood gray with dark spots1 short-jointed4 ,leaf round1 five-lobed2 bright green above1 lighter green below4 ,bunches long and loose1 shouldered2 berry oblong1 light yellow and transparent when fully mature1 covered with white bloom2 flesh firm1 crisp2 flavor sweet and very musky2 quality good4 ,season late1 the laterals producing a second and sometimes even a third crop4 ,,niagara 7,labrusca1 ,vinifera7 ,niagara 7,plate ,,xxvi7 is the leading ,american green grape1 holding the rank among grapes of this color that ,concord maintains among black varieties4 ,it is1 however1 a less valuable grape than ,concord1 and it is doubtful whether it should be ranked much higher than several other green grapes4 ,in vigor and productiveness1 when the two grapes are on equal footing as to adaptability1 ,niagara and ,concord rank the same4 ,in hardiness of root and vine1 ,niagara falls short of ,concord2 it cannot be relied on without winter protection where the thermometer falls below zero4 ,niagara has much of the foxiness of the wild ,labrusca1 distasteful to many palates4 ,both bunches and berries of ,niagara are larger than those of ,concord and are better formed1 making a handsomer fruit if the colors are liked equally well4 ,the fruit shells as badly as that of ,concord and does not keep longer4 ,both vine and fruit of ,niagara are more susceptible to fungal diseases than those of ,concord1 especially to black-rot1 which proves a veritable scourge with this variety in unfavorable seasons4 ,niagara was produced by ,c4 ,l4 ,hoag and ,b4 ,w4 ,clark1 ,lockport1 ,new ,york1 from seed of ,concord fertilized by ,cassady planted in #ahfh4 ,vine vigorous1 lacking in hardiness1 very productive4 ,canes long1 thick1 reddish-brown deepening in color at the nodes which are enlarged and slightly flattened2 internodes long1 thick2 tendrils continuous1 long1 bifid or trifid4 ,leaves large1 thick2 upper surface glossy1 dark green1 smooth2 lower surface pale green1 pubescent2 lobes three to five with terminus acute2 petiolar sinus of medium depth and width2 basal sinus shallow1 wide1 often toothed2 lateral sinus wide1 frequently toothed2 teeth shallow1 variable in width4 ,flowers self-fertile1 open in mid-season2 stamens upright4 ,fruit mid-season1 keeps well4 ,clusters large1 long1 broad1 tapering1 frequently single-shouldered1 compact2 pedicel thick with a few1 small1 inconspicuous warts2 brush pale green1 long4 ,berries large1 oval1 pale yellowish-green with thin bloom1 persistent1 firm2 skin thin1 tender1 adherent1 astringent2 flesh light green1 translucent1 juicy1 fine-grained1 tender1 foxy2 good4 ,seeds free1 one to six1 deeply notched1 brown4 ,,noah 7,vulpina1 ,labrusca7 ,noah is little grown at present outside of ,missouri1 where it is still planted somewhat4 ,noah and ,elvira are often confused but there are very marked differences4 ,the clusters of ,elvira are smaller1 the berries are more foxy in taste1 and the skins are more tender and crack more readily than do those of ,noah4 ,the large1 dark1 glossy green leaves make the vines of this variety very handsome4 ,as with ,elvira and other varieties of this group1 ,noah is of little value in the ,north4 ,it originated with ,otto ,wasserzieher1 ,nauvoo1 ,illinois1 from seed of ,taylor planted in #ahfi4 ,vine vigorous1 doubtfully hardy1 productive4 ,canes long1 thick1 dark brown1 surface roughened2 nodes enlarged1 flattened2 tendrils continuous1 bifid or trifid4 ,leaves large2 upper surface dark green1 glossy1 smooth2 lower surface pale green1 thinly pubescent2 leaf usually not lobed with terminus acuminate2 petiolar sinus deep1 wide2 basal sinus lacking2 lateral sinus very shallow when present2 teeth shallow1 wide4 ,flowers semi-fertile1 open early2 stamens upright4 ,fruit late mid-season1 does not ship nor keep well4 ,clusters variable in size1 cylindrical1 single-shouldered1 compact2 pedicel short with a few small warts2 brush short1 brown4 ,berries small1 round1 light green tinged with yellow1 dull with thin bloom1 firm2 skin adherent to pulp2 flesh yellowish-green1 translucent1 juicy1 tough1 fine-grained1 vinous1 sprightly2 good4 ,seeds adherent1 one to four1 dark brown4 ,,northern ,,muscadine 7,labrusca7 ,that this variety1 together with ,lucile1 ,lutie and other grapes with the foxy taste strongly marked1 has not become popular1 in spite of good vine characters1 is evidence that the ,american public do not desire such grapes4 ,in appearance of fruit1 ,northern ,muscadine is much like ,lutie1 the two being distinguished from other grapes by an unmistakable odor4 ,a serious defect of the fruit is that the berries shatter badly as soon as they reach maturity4 ,taken as a whole1 the vine characters of this variety are very good and offer possibilities for the grape-breeder4 ,the variety originated at ,new ,lebanon1 ,new ,york1 and was brought to notice by ,d4 ,j4 ,hawkins and ,philemon ,stewart of the ,society of ,shakers about #aheb4 ,vine vigorous1 productive1 healthy1 hardy4 ,canes slender1 dark brown1 heavily pubescent2 tendrils continuous1 bifid1 dehisce early4 ,leaves large1 round1 thick2 upper surface dull1 rugose2 lower surface dark bronze1 heavily pubescent4 ,flowers self-fertile1 open in mid-season2 stamens upright4 ,fruit early mid-season1 does not keep well4 ,clusters medium in size1 short1 occasionally single-shouldered1 compact4 ,berries large1 oval1 dark amber with thin bloom1 drop badly from the pedicel2 skin tough1 adherent1 astringent2 flesh pale green1 juicy1 fine-grained1 tender1 soft1 very foxy1 sweet2 poor in quality4 ,seeds free1 numerous1 large1 broad1 faintly notched1 long1 brown4 ,,norton 7stivalis1 ,labrusca7 ,norton is one of the leading wine-grapes in eastern ,america1 the fruit having small value for any other purpose than wine or1 possibly1 grape-juice4 ,the vine is hardy but requires a long1 warm season to reach maturity so that it is seldom grown successfully north of the ,potomac4 ,norton thrives in rich alluvial clays1 gravels or sands1 the only requisite seemingly being a fair amount of fertility and soil warmth4 ,the vines are robust2 very productive1 especially on fertile soils2 as free1 or more so1 from fungal diseases as any other of our native grapes2 and are very resistant to phylloxera4 ,the bunches are of but medium size and the berries are small4 ,the grapes are pleasant eating when fully ripe1 rich1 spicy and pure-flavored but tart if not quite ripe4 ,the variety is difficult to propagate from cuttings and to transplant1 and the vines do not bear grafts well4 ,the origin of ,norton is uncertain1 but it has been under cultivation since before #ahcj1 when it was first described4 ,vine very vigorous1 healthy1 half-hardy1 productive4 ,canes long1 thick1 dark brown with abundant bloom2 nodes much enlarged2 internodes long2 tendrils intermittent1 occasionally continuous1 long1 bifid1 sometimes trifid4 ,leaves large1 irregularly round2 upper surface pale green1 dull1 rugose2 lower surface pale green1 pubescent2 leaf usually not lobed with terminus acute2 petiolar sinus deep1 narrow1 sometimes closed and overlapping2 basal sinus usually absent2 lateral sinus shallow or a mere notch when present4 ,flowers self-fertile1 late2 stamens upright4 ,fruit late1 keeps well4 ,clusters medium in size1 short1 broad1 tapering1 single-shouldered1 compact2 pedicel slender with a few warts2 brush dull1 wine-colored4 ,berries small1 round-oblate1 black1 glossy with heavy bloom1 persistent1 soft2 skin thin1 free with much dark red pigment2 flesh green1 translucent1 juicy1 tender1 spicy1 tart4 ,seeds free1 two to six1 small1 brown4 ,,oporto 7,vulpina1 ,labrusca7 ,oporto was at one time in demand as a wine grape because its wine resembled in color and flavor that from ,oporto4 ,the variety is now scarcely known1 being inferior in most of its horticultural characters to others of its species1 but might be valuable in breeding for some of its characters4 ,the vine is very hardy1 unusually free from fungal diseases1 is very resistant to phylloxera and has been used in ,france as a phylloxera-resistant grafting-stock4 ,the juice is very thick and dark1 a deep purple1 hence suitable for adding color to wine or grape-juice4 ,the origin of ,oporto is unknown4 ,it was brought into cultivation about #ahfj by ,e4 ,w4 ,sylvester1 ,lyons1 ,new ,york4 ,vine very vigorous1 hardy1 healthy1 variable in productiveness4 ,canes long1 reddish-brown2 nodes enlarged1 flattened2 internodes long1 diaphragm thin2 tendrils continuous1 bifid4 ,stamens reflexed4 ,fruit mid-season1 ships and keeps well4 ,clusters small1 cylindrical1 often single-shouldered4 ,berries medium in size1 round1 black1 glossy with abundant bloom1 persistent1 firm2 skin very thin1 tender1 with much dark wine-colored pigment2 flesh white1 sometimes with purple tinge1 juicy1 fine-grained1 solid1 sweet1 spicy2 fair quality4 ,seeds free1 numerous1 small1 broad1 faintly notched1 sharply pointed1 plump1 dark brown4 ,,othello 7,vinifera1 ,vulpina1 ,labrusca7 ,arnold's ,hybrid1 ,canadian ,hamburg1 ,canadian ,hybrid ,in ,france1 ,othello does remarkably well as a direct producer and is used also for a resistant stock4 ,while most of its characters are spoken of in the superlative by the ,french1 in ,america the variety is not so highly esteemed because of susceptibility to fungi4 ,moreover1 the fruit matures so late that it could never become a valuable variety for the ,north4 ,it is in no sense a table-grape but makes a well-colored1 pleasant wine4 ,charles ,arnold1 ,paris1 ,ontario1 grew ,othello from seed of ,clinton fertilized by ,black ,hamburg and planted in #ahei4 ,vine vigorous1 hardy1 productive4 ,canes long1 brown2 nodes enlarged1 flattened2 tendrils continuous1 sometimes intermittent1 bifid or trifid4 ,leaves of average size2 upper surface light green1 dull and smooth2 lower surface pale green1 pubescent2 lobes three to five with terminal lobe acute2 petiolar sinus deep1 very narrow1 frequently closed and overlapping2 basal sinus shallow1 narrow2 lateral sinus deep2 teeth deep1 wide2 stamens upright4 ,fruit late1 keeps fairly well4 ,clusters large1 long1 broad1 tapering1 frequently with a loose single shoulder1 compact2 pedicel long1 slender with numerous small warts2 brush short1 wine-colored4 ,berries large1 oval1 black1 glossy with abundant bloom1 very persistent2 skin thin1 tough1 adherent with red pigment2 flesh dark green1 very juicy1 fine-grained1 tough1 sprightly2 low in quality4 ,seeds free1 one to three1 neck sometimes swollen1 brown4 ,,ozark 7stivalis1 ,labrusca7 ,ozark belongs to the ,south and to ,missouri in particular4 ,its merits and demerits have been threshed out by the ,missouri grape-growers with the result that its culture is somewhat increasing4 ,it is a grape of low quality1 partly1 perhaps1 from over-bearing1 which it habitually does unless the fruit is thinned4 ,the vine is healthy and a very strong grower1 but is self-sterile1 which is against it as a market sort4 ,in spite of self-sterility and low quality1 ,ozark is a promising variety for the country south of ,pennsylvania4 ,ozark originated with ,j4 ,stayman1 ,leavenworth1 ,kansas1 from seed of unknown source4 ,the variety was introduced about #ahij4 ,vine very vigorous1 hardy1 productive4 ,canes long1 thick with thin bloom1 surface roughened2 nodes enlarged1 flattened2 internodes long2 tendrils intermittent1 usually bifid4 ,leaves dense1 large2 upper surface light green2 lower surface pale green1 thinly pubescent1 cobwebby2 lobes three to five2 petiolar sinus deep1 narrow2 serrations shallow1 narrow4 ,flowers self-sterile or nearly so1 open late2 stamens reflexed4 ,fruit late1 keeps well4 ,clusters large1 long1 usually with a long1 loose shoulder1 very compact2 pedicel short1 thick1 smooth2 brush long1 red4 ,berries variable in size1 dull black with abundant bloom1 persistent2 skin tough with much wine-colored pigment2 flesh tender1 mild2 fair in quality4 ,seeds free1 small4 ,,palomino 7,vinifera7 ,golden ,chasselas1 ,listan ,this variety seems to be grown in ,california under the three names given--while in ,france ,palomino is described as a bluish-black grape4 ,palomino seems to be grown commonly in ,california as a table-grape and is worth trying in eastern ,america4 ,the variety received under the name ,palomino from ,california at the ,new ,york ,experiment ,station has the following characters1 agreeing closely with those set down by ,californian viticulturists3 ,fruit ripens about the #bjth of ,october1 keeping qualities good2 clusters medium to large1 long1 single-shouldered1 tapering1 loose2 berries medium to small1 roundish1 pale greenish-yellow1 thin bloom2 skin and the adhering flesh medium tender and crisp1 flesh surrounding seeds melting2 flavor sweet1 vinous2 quality good4 ,,peabody 7,vulpina1 ,labrusca1 ,vinifera7 ,peabody is as yet a comparatively unimportant offspring of ,clinton4 ,the grapes are of excellent quality4 ,it appears to do better in the northern tier of states or in ,canada1 than farther south4 ,this variety was grown by ,j4 ,h4 ,ricketts about #ahgj4 ,vine vigorous1 hardy1 productive4 ,canes long1 numerous1 thick1 light brown with ash-gray tinge1 darker at nodes1 covered with thin bloom2 nodes enlarged1 flattened2 internodes short2 tendrils intermittent1 bifid or trifid4 ,leaves medium in size2 upper surface dark green1 thin2 lower surface pale green1 nearly glabrous2 lobes three1 acuminate2 petiolar sinus shallow1 wide2 serration deep1 narrow4 ,flowers semi-fertile1 mid-season2 stamens upright4 ,fruit early1 keeps well4 ,clusters large1 long1 usually with a shoulder connected to the bunch by a long stem1 compact2 pedicel short1 slender1 warty2 brush short1 green4 ,berries oval1 black1 glossy1 covered with thin bloom1 persistent2 skin thick1 tough2 flesh very juicy1 tender1 vinous1 spicy1 agreeably sweet at the skin1 tart at the center2 good4 ,seeds free1 broad4 ,,perfection 7,labrusca1 ,bourquiniana1 ,vinifera7 ,perfection is a seedling of ,delaware1 which it greatly resembles but does not equal in fruit2 its fruits being hardly as high in quality1 do not keep as well1 shrivel more before ripening1 and shell more readily4 ,in its vine characters1 it is much more like a ,labrusca than ,delaware1 suggesting that it is a ,delaware cross4 ,in the ,southwest1 ,perfection is considered a valuable early red grape4 ,j4 ,stayman1 ,leavenworth1 ,kansas1 grew ,perfection from seed of ,delaware2 it was sent out for testing about #ahij4 ,vine vigorous1 healthy1 injured in severe winters1 productive4 ,canes of medium length and number1 slender2 nodes enlarged1 flattened2 internodes short2 tendrils intermittent1 trifid or bifid4 ,leaves healthy1 medium in size2 upper surface light green2 lower surface grayish-white with a tinge of bronze1 heavily pubescent2 lobes wanting or three to five2 petiolar sinus shallow1 wide2 serration shallow4 ,flowers self-fertile or nearly so1 open in mid-season2 stamens upright4 ,fruit early4 ,clusters usually single-shouldered1 compact2 pedicel short1 slender1 smooth2 brush short1 yellow4 ,berries small1 round1 red but less brilliant than ,delaware with faint bloom1 inclined to drop from pedicel1 soft2 skin thin1 free from astringency2 flesh medium in juiciness and tenderness1 vinous1 mild1 sweet2 good in quality4 ,seeds adherent1 numerous1 small1 often with an enlarged neck4 ,,perkins 7,labrusca1 ,vinifera7 ,at one time ,perkins was grown largely as an early grape but has been discarded very generally on account of the poor quality of the fruit4 ,the pulp of the grape is hard and the flavor is that of ,wyoming and ,northern ,muscadine1 grapes characterized by disagreeable foxiness4 ,as with nearly all ,labruscas1 ,perkins is a poor keeper4 ,notwithstanding the faults of its fruit1 the variety may have value in regions where grape-growing is precarious2 for in fruiting it is one of the most reliable grapes cultivated1 the vines being hardy1 vigorous1 productive and free from fungal diseases4 ,perkins is an accidental seedling found about #ahcj in the garden of ,jacob ,perkins1 ,bridgewater1 ,massachusetts4 ,vine vigorous1 hardy1 healthy1 productive4 ,canes long1 numerous1 thick1 dark brown1 deepening in color at the nodes1 surface heavily pubescent2 nodes enlarged1 flattened2 internodes long2 tendrils continuous1 bifid or trifid4 ,leaves medium in size1 thick2 upper surface rugose2 lower surface heavily pubescent2 veins distinct2 lobes three2 petiolar sinus deep1 narrow2 serration shallow4 ,flowers self-fertile1 early2 stamens upright4 ,fruit early1 ships well4 ,clusters of medium size and length1 broad1 cylindrical1 often with a single shoulder1 compact2 pedicel short1 thick1 warty2 brush long1 yellow4 ,berries large1 oval1 pale lilac or light red with thin bloom1 inclined to drop from the pedicel1 soft2 skin thin1 tough1 without pigment2 flesh white1 juicy1 stringy1 fine-grained1 firm1 meaty1 very foxy2 poor in quality4 ,seeds adherent1 numerous1 medium in size1 notched4 ,,pocklington 7,labrusca7 ,before the advent of ,niagara1 ,pocklington 7,plate ,,xxii7 was the leading green grape4 ,the variety has the fatal fault1 however1 of ripening its crop late1 which with some minor defects has caused it to fall below ,niagara for northern grape districts4 ,pocklington is a seedling of ,concord and resembles its parent in vine characters2 the vines are fully equal to or surpass those of ,concord in hardiness1 but are of slower growth and not quite as healthy1 vigorous nor productive4 ,in quality1 the grapes are as good if not better than those of ,concord or ,niagara1 being sweet1 rich and pleasantly flavored1 although as with the other grapes named1 it has too much foxiness for critical consumers4 ,pocklington is not equal to several other grapes of its season in quality1 as ,iona1 ,jefferson1 ,diana1 ,dutchess and ,catawba1 but it is far above the average and for this reason should be retained4 ,john ,pocklington1 ,sandy ,hill1 ,new ,york1 grew ,pocklington from seed of ,concord about #ahgj4 ,vine medium in vigor1 hardy4 ,canes of medium length1 number and size1 dark reddish-brown2 nodes enlarged1 flattened2 tendrils continuous1 bifid or trifid4 ,leaves variable in size1 thick2 upper surface light green1 glossy2 lower surface tinged with bronze1 pubescent2 lobes one to three with terminus acuminate2 petiolar sinus deep1 wide2 teeth narrow4 ,flowers self-fertile1 mid-season2 stamens upright4 ,fruit late mid-season1 keeps and ships well4 ,clusters large1 cylindrical1 often single-shouldered1 compact2 pedicel short1 thick with a few small warts2 brush short1 green4 ,berries large1 oblate1 yellowish-green with tinge of amber1 with thin bloom1 firm2 skin with scattering russet dots1 thin1 tender1 adherent1 faintly astringent2 flesh light green with yellow tinge1 translucent1 juicy1 tough1 fine-grained1 slightly foxy2 good4 ,seeds adherent1 one to six1 of medium length and breadth4 ,,poughkeepsie 7,bourquiniana1 ,labrusca1 ,vinifera7 ,poughkeepsie has been known long on the ,hudson ,river1 yet it is now little grown there and has not been disseminated widely elsewhere4 ,in quality of fruit1 it is equal to the best ,american varieties1 but the vine characters are all poor and the variety is thus effectually debarred from common cultivation4 ,both vine and fruit resemble those of ,delaware1 but in neither does it quite equal the latter4 ,in particular1 the vine is more easily winter-killed and is less productive than that of ,delaware4 ,the grapes ripen a little earlier than those of the last named sort and this1 with their beauty and fine quality1 is sufficient to recommend it for the garden at least4 ,about #ahfe1 ,a4 ,j4 ,caywood1 ,marlboro1 ,new ,york1 grew ,poughkeepsie from seed of ,iona fertilized by mixed pollen of ,delaware and ,walter4 ,vine of medium vigor4 ,canes short1 thick1 dark reddish-brown2 tendrils intermittent1 frequently three in line1 bifid or trifid4 ,leaves small2 upper surface green1 glossy1 older leaves rugose2 lower surface grayish-green1 pubescent4 ,flowers self-fertile1 late2 stamens upright4 ,fruit early1 keeps and ships well4 ,clusters small1 tapering1 usually single-shouldered1 very compact4 ,berries small1 round1 pale red with thin bloom1 persistent1 firm2 skin thin1 tender1 without pigment2 flesh pale green1 very juicy1 tender1 melting1 fine-grained1 vinous1 sweet2 very good to best4 ,seeds free1 small1 broad1 with enlarged neck1 brown4 ,,prentiss 7,labrusca1 ,vinifera7 ,prentiss is a green grape of high quality1 once well known and generally recommended1 but now going out of cultivation because the vine is tender to cold1 lacks in vigor1 is unproductive1 uncertain in bearing and is subject to rot and mildew4 ,there are vineyards in which it does very well and in such it is a remarkably attractive green grape1 especially in form of cluster and in color of berry1 in these respects resembling the one-time favorite1 ,rebecca1 although not so high in quality as that variety4 ,its season is given as both before and after ,concord4 ,prentiss always must remain a variety for the amateur and for special localities4 ,it originated with ,j4 ,w4 ,prentiss1 ,pulteney1 ,new ,york1 about #ahgj from seed of ,isabella4 ,vine weak4 ,canes thick1 light to dark brown2 tendrils continuous1 bifid4 ,leaves small1 thick2 upper surface light green1 rugose in the older leaves2 lower surface pale green1 pubescent4 ,flowers self-fertile1 mid-season2 stamens upright4 ,fruit variable in season1 about with ,concord1 keeps well4 ,cluster medium in size1 tapering1 sometimes with a single shoulder1 compact4 ,berries medium in size1 oval1 light green with a yellow tinge1 thin bloom1 persistent1 firm2 skin tough1 without pigment2 flesh pale green1 juicy1 foxy2 good4 ,seeds adherent1 numerous1 notched1 short1 sharp-pointed1 dark brown4 ,,purple ,,cornichon 7,vinifera7 ,black ,cornichon ,by virtue of attractive appearance and excellent shipping qualities of the fruit1 this variety takes high place among the commercial grapes of ,california4 ,late ripening is another quality making it desirable1 while its curious1 long1 curved berries add novelty to its attractions4 ,the fruit does not take high rank in quality4 ,the description has been compiled4 ,vine very vigorous1 healthy and productive2 wood light brown striped with darker brown1 short-jointed4 ,leaves large1 longer than wide1 deeply five-lobed2 dark green above1 lighter and very hairy below2 coarsely toothed2 with short1 thick petiole4 ,bunches very large1 loose or sometimes scraggly1 borne on long peduncles2 berries large1 long1 more or less curved1 dark purple1 spotted1 thick-skinned1 borne on long pedicels2 flesh firm1 crisp1 sweet but not rich in flavor2 quality good but not high4 ,season late1 keeps and ships well4 ,,rebecca 7,labrusca1 ,vinifera7 ,in the middle of the last century1 when grape-growing was in the hands of the connoisseurs1 ,rebecca was one of the sterling green varieties4 ,it is wholly unsuited for commercial vineyards and for years has been disappearing gradually from cultivation4 ,the fruit is exceptionally fine1 consisting of well-formed bunches and berries1 the latter handsome yellowish-white and semi-transparent4 ,in quality1 the grapes are of the best1 with a rich1 sweet flavor and pleasing aroma4 ,but the vine characters condemn ,rebecca for any but the amateur4 ,the vines lack in hardiness and vigor1 are susceptible to mildew and other fungi and are productive only under the best conditions4 ,the original vine was an accidental seedling found in the garden of ,e4 ,m4 ,peake1 ,hudson1 ,new ,york1 and bore its first fruit in #aheb4 ,vine weak1 sometimes vigorous1 doubtfully hardy4 ,canes long1 numerous1 slender1 dull brown1 deepening in color at the nodes2 tendrils continuous or intermittent1 bifid or trifid4 ,leaves variable in size2 upper surface dark green1 dull1 rugose2 lower surface grayish-green1 pubescent4 ,flowers self-fertile2 stamens upright4 ,fruit late mid-season1 ships and keeps well4 ,clusters small1 short1 cylindrical1 rarely with a small1 single shoulder1 compact4 ,berries of medium size1 oval1 green with yellow tinge verging on amber1 thin gray bloom1 persistent1 firm2 skin thin1 without pigment2 flesh pale green1 very juicy1 tender1 melting1 vinous1 a little foxy1 sweet2 good to very good4 ,seeds free1 short1 narrow1 blunt1 brown4 ,,red ,,eagle 7,labrusca1 ,vinifera7 ,red ,eagle is a pure-bred seedling of ,black ,eagle which it resembles in all characters except color of fruit4 ,vine and fruit exhibit the characters found in ,rogers' hybrids4 ,it takes high rank as a grape of quality and can be recommended for the garden4 ,the variety originated with ,t4 ,v4 ,munson1 ,denison1 ,texas1 and was sent out in #ahhh4 ,vine medium in vigor and hardiness1 productive4 ,canes few1 slender1 dark brown with heavy bloom2 nodes prominent1 flattened2 tendrils continuous or intermittent1 long1 bifid4 ,leaves thick2 upper surface light green1 dull1 rugose2 lower surface grayish-green1 pubescent2 lobes three to five with terminus obtuse2 petiolar sinus deep1 narrow1 sometimes closed and overlapping2 basal sinus wide2 lateral sinus deep1 wide2 teeth deep1 wide4 ,flowers semi-fertile1 late2 stamens upright4 ,fruit early mid-season1 keeps well4 ,clusters small1 broad1 tapering1 single-shouldered1 sometimes double-shouldered1 loose with many abortive berries2 pedicel very long1 slender2 brush green with brown tinge4 ,berries variable in size1 round1 light to very dark red with heavy bloom1 persistent1 soft2 skin thick1 tender1 adherent with some red pigment2 flesh green1 transparent1 juicy1 very tender1 melting1 slightly foxy1 tart2 very good4 ,seeds free1 one to five1 large1 long1 blunt1 light brown4 ,,regal 7,labrusca1 ,vinifera7 ,regal is an offspring of ,lindley1 which it greatly resembles4 ,the fruit is attractive in appearance and high in quality4 ,a seemingly insignificant fault might make ,regal undesirable in a commercial vineyard2 the clusters are borne so close to the wood that it is difficult to harvest the fruit and avoid injury to the berries next to the wood4 ,the variety is worthy of extensive culture in vineyards and gardens4 ,regal originated with ,w4 ,a4 ,woodward1 ,rockford1 ,illinois1 in #ahgi4 ,vine vigorous1 hardy1 healthy1 very productive4 ,canes intermediate in length and size1 numerous1 dark reddish-brown4 ,tendrils intermittent1 bifid or trifid4 ,leaves large2 upper surface green1 glossy and rugose2 lower surface pale green with a bronze tinge1 strongly pubescent4 ,flowers self-fertile1 mid-season2 stamens upright4 ,fruit mid-season1 keeps well4 ,clusters small1 broad1 cylindrical1 usually with a short single shoulder1 sometimes double-shouldered1 very compact4 ,berries large1 round1 purplish-red with faint bloom1 persistent4 ,skin thin1 tough1 without pigment4 ,flesh pale green1 very juicy1 fine-grained1 tender1 musky2 good4 ,seeds free1 numerous1 long1 narrow1 notched1 blunt with a short neck1 brown4 ,,requa 7,labrusca1 ,vinifera7 ,this is one of ,rogers' hybrids which equals other grapes of its color and season4 ,the grapes are attractive in cluster and berry and are of very good quality but are subject to rot and ripen too late for northern regions4 ,the variety was named ,requa in #ahfi1 it having been previously known as ,no4 #bh4 ,vine vigorous1 hardy except in severe winters1 medium in productiveness4 ,canes long1 thick2 tendrils continuous or intermittent1 trifid or bifid4 ,leaves medium in size1 dark green1 often thick and rugose2 lower surface grayish-green1 pubescent4 ,flowers semi-fertile1 late2 stamens reflexed4 ,fruit late1 keeps long4 ,clusters large1 cylindrical1 often with a long1 single shoulder1 compact4 ,berries large1 oval1 dark1 dull red covered with thin bloom1 strongly adherent2 skin thin1 tough1 adherent2 flesh pale green1 tender1 stringy1 vinous1 foxy1 sweet2 good to very good4 ,seeds adherent1 medium in size and length1 broad1 blunt4 ,,rochester 7,labrusca1 ,vinifera7 ,the fruit of ,rochester is a large-clustered red grape1 handsome and very good in quality4 ,the vine is a strong grower1 productive and free from diseases4 ,the variety is difficult to propagate and1 therefore1 not in favor with nurserymen4 ,the grapes are sweet1 rich and vinous but should be used as soon as ripe1 as they do not keep well and the berries quickly shatter from the bunch4 ,as an attractive early red grape1 ,rochester is worth a place in the garden and in favored locations for a special market4 ,ellwanger and ,barry1 ,rochester1 ,new ,york1 in #ahfg grew ,rochester from mixed seed of ,delaware1 ,diana1 ,concord and ,rebecca4 ,vine vigorous1 hardy1 productive4 ,canes long1 dark reddish-brown2 nodes enlarged1 flattened2 internodes short2 tendrils intermittent1 long1 bifid or trifid4 ,leaves large2 upper surface light green1 glossy1 smooth2 lower surface grayish-green1 pubescent2 lobes one to three with terminus acute2 petiolar sinus deep2 basal sinus absent2 lateral sinus shallow2 teeth shallow4 ,flowers fertile1 mid-season2 stamens upright4 ,fruit does not keep well4 ,clusters large1 broad1 tapering1 usually single-shouldered1 compact2 pedicel short1 slender with few warts2 brush slender1 yellowish-brown4 ,berries medium1 oval1 purplish-red1 dull with thin1 lilac bloom1 drop from the pedicel1 soft2 skin thick1 tough1 inclined to crack1 free1 without pigment1 astringent2 flesh pale green1 transparent1 juicy1 tender1 fine-grained1 vinous1 sweet2 good to very good4 ,seeds free1 one to three1 large1 short1 broad1 dark brown4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxxii4--,wyoming 7#b_/c74 ,,rommel 7,labrusca1 ,vulpina1 ,vinifera7 ,rommel is rarely cultivated in the ,north1 because the vines lack in robustness1 hardiness and productiveness and are susceptible to the leaf-hopper2 and the grapes do not attain high quality and crack as they ripen4 ,the bunch and berry are attractive in form1 size and color4 ,at its best1 ,rommel is a good table-grape and makes a fine white wine4 ,it is worth growing in the ,south4 ,t4 ,v4 ,munson1 ,denison1 ,texas1 originated ,rommel in #ahhe1 from seed of ,elvira pollinated by ,triumph1 and introduced it in #ahhi4 ,vine vigorous in the ,south4 ,canes long1 numerous1 thick1 reddish-brown1 surface roughened2 nodes enlarged1 often flattened2 internodes short2 tendrils intermittent1 long1 bifid or trifid4 ,leaves medium in size1 round1 thick2 upper surface light green1 dull1 rugose2 lower surface pale green1 free from pubescence but slightly hairy2 leaf not lobed1 terminus acute to acuminate2 petiolar sinus deep1 narrow1 often closed and overlapping2 basal sinus lacking2 lateral sinus shallow when present2 teeth deep4 ,flowers semi-fertile1 late2 stamens upright4 ,fruit mid-season1 ships and keeps well4 ,clusters medium to short1 broad1 cylindrical1 single-shouldered1 compact2 pedicel slender1 smooth2 brush short1 pale green4 ,berries large1 roundish1 light green with a yellow tinge1 glossy1 persistent1 firm2 skin thin1 cracks badly1 tender1 adherent1 without pigment or astringency2 flesh greenish1 translucent1 juicy1 tender1 melting1 stringy1 sweet2 fair to good4 ,seeds free1 one to four1 broad1 sharp-pointed1 plump1 brown4 ,,rosaki 7,vinifera7 ,rosaki is a table-and raisin-grape of southeastern ,europe and ,asia ,minor4 ,according to some of the ,california nursery companies1 it is grown in that state under the name ,dattier de ,beyrouth1 although it would seem from ,french descriptions that there is a separate1 very late variety of the latter name4 ,rosaki is similar to ,malaga and there is a possibility that in some of the warmer parts of the ,east1 it may be grown commercially as a substitute for the latter4 ,the variety seems to be little grown on the ,pacific slope4 ,vines vigorous1 usually very productive4 ,leaves large1 roundish1 rugose1 usually five-lobed2 terminal lobe acuminate2 petiolar sinus moderately deep to deep1 medium broad2 lower lateral sinus shallow1 broad1 occasionally lacking2 upper lateral sinus shallow to medium1 broad2 margins broadly and bluntly dentate4 ,fruit ripens the third week in ,october1 keeping qualities excellent2 clusters large1 loose1 tapering1 shouldered2 berries large to very large1 oval to long-oval1 pale yellow-green2 flesh translucent1 tender1 meaty1 vinous1 sprightly2 quality good to very good4 ,,rose ,,of ,,peru 7,vinifera7 ,rose of ,peru is a favorite table-grape in ,california1 confused with and possibly the same as ,black ,prince4 ,its chief commendable characters are handsome appearance and high quality of fruit and very productive vines4 ,it is not adapted for shipping and does not enter plentifully into commerce4 ,its season is so late that the variety is hardly worth trying in the ,east1 and yet it has matured in favorable seasons at ,geneva1 ,new ,york4 ,the following description is compiled3 ,vine vigorous1 healthy1 productive2 wood short-jointed1 dark brown4 ,leaves of medium size2 deep green above1 lighter green and tomentose below4 ,bunches very large1 shouldered1 very loose1 often scraggly2 berry large1 round1 black with firm1 crackling flesh2 skin rather thin and tender2 flavor sweet and rich2 quality very good to best4 ,season late1 keeping rather well but not shipping well4 ,,salem 7,labrusca1 ,vinifera7 ,rogers' ,no4 #bb1 ,rogers' ,no4 #ec ,salem 7,plate ,,xxvii7 is the one of ,rogers' hybrids of which the originator is said to have thought most1 and to which he gave the name of his place of residence4 ,the two chief faults1 unproductiveness and susceptibility to mildew1 are not found in all localities1 and in these districts1 near good markets1 ,salem ought to rank high as a commercial fruit4 ,the vine is hardy1 vigorous and productive and bears handsome fruit of high quality4 ,this variety was christened ,salem by ,rogers in #ahfg1 two years earlier than his other hybrids were named4 ,vine vigorous1 hardy1 variable in productiveness4 ,canes long1 dark brown2 nodes enlarged2 tendrils continuous or intermittent1 long1 bifid or trifid4 ,leaves variable in size2 upper surface dark green1 dull2 lower surface pale green with slight bronze tinge1 pubescent2 lobes one to three with terminus acute2 petiolar sinus deep1 narrow1 often overlapping2 basal sinus lacking2 lateral sinus shallow1 narrow1 notched4 ,flowers sterile1 mid-season2 stamens reflexed4 ,fruit early1 keeps and ships well4 ,clusters large1 short1 broad1 tapering1 heavily shouldered1 compact2 pedicel short1 thick with small warts1 enlarged at point of attachment to berry2 brush short1 pale green4 ,berries large1 round1 dark red1 dull1 persistent1 soft2 skin thick1 adherent1 without pigment1 astringent2 flesh translucent1 juicy1 tender1 stringy1 fine-grained1 vinous1 sprightly2 good to very good4 ,seeds one to six1 large1 long and broad1 blunt1 brown4 ,,scuppernong 7,rotundifolia7 ,american ,muscadine1 ,bull1 ,bullace1 ,bullet1 ,fox ,grape1 ,green ,scuppernong1 ,green ,muscadine1 ,hickman1 ,muscadine1 ,roanoke ,scuppernong is preminently the grape of the ,south1 the chief representative of the great species1 ,v4 rotundifolia1 which runs riot in natural luxuriance from ,delaware and ,maryland to the ,gulf and westward from the ,atlantic to ,arkansas and ,texas4 ,scuppernong vines are found on arbors1 in gardens1 or half wild1 on trees and fences on nearly every farm in the ,south ,atlantic states4 ,as a rule1 these vines receive little cultivation1 are unpruned and are given no care of any kind2 but even under neglect they produce large crops4 ,the vines are almost immune to mildew1 rot1 phylloxera1 or other fungal or insect pests2 they give not only an abundance of fruit but on arbors and trellises are much prized for their shade and beauty4 ,the fruit1 to a palate accustomed to other grapes1 is not very acceptable1 having a musky flavor and a somewhat repugnant odor1 which1 however1 with familiarity becomes quite agreeable4 ,the pulp is sweet and juicy but is lacking in sprightliness4 ,the grapes are not suitable for the market since the berries drop from the bunch in ripening and become more or less smeared with juice so that their appearance is not appetizing4 ,vine vigorous1 not hardy in the ,north1 very productive4 ,canes long1 numerous1 slender1 ash-gray to grayish-brown2 surface smooth1 thickly covered with small1 light brown dots2 tendrils intermittent1 simple4 ,leaves small1 thin2 upper surface light green1 smooth2 lower surface very pale green1 pubescent along the ribs2 veins inconspicuous4 ,flowers very late2 stamens reflexed4 ,fruit late1 ripens unevenly1 berries drop as they mature4 ,clusters small1 round1 unshouldered1 loose4 ,berries few in a cluster1 large1 round1 dull green1 often with brown tinge1 firm2 skin thick1 tough with many small russet dots2 flesh pale green1 juicy1 tender1 soft1 fine-grained1 foxy1 sweet to agreeably tart2 fair to good4 ,seeds adherent1 large1 short1 broad1 unnotched1 blunt1 plump1 surface smooth1 brown4 ,,secretary 7,vinifera1 ,vulpina1 ,labrusca7 ,injured by mildew and rot which attack leaves1 fruit and young wood1 the vines of ,secretary are able to produce good grapes only in exceptional seasons and in favored localities4 ,the fruit characters of ,secretary1 however1 give the grapes exceptionally high quality1 the berries being meaty yet juicy1 fine-grained and tender1 with a sweet1 spicy1 vinous flavor4 ,the bunches are large1 well-formed1 with medium-sized1 purplish-black berries covered with thick bloom1 making a very handsome cluster4 ,while the vine and foliage somewhat resemble those of ,clinton1 one of its parents1 the variety is not nearly as hardy1 vigorous nor productive4 ,moreover1 in any but favored localities in the ,north1 its maturity is somewhat uncertain4 ,these defects keep ,secretary from becoming of commercial importance and make it of value only to the amateur4 ,secretary is one of the first productions of ,j4 ,h4 ,ricketts1 ,newburgh1 ,new ,york1 the original vine coming from seed of ,clinton fertilized by ,muscat ,hamburg1 planted in #ahfg4 ,vine vigorous1 doubtfully hardy1 variable in productiveness4 ,canes numerous1 light brown1 conspicuously darker at nodes1 surface covered with thin1 blue bloom2 tendrils intermittent1 bifid4 ,leaves small to medium1 thin2 upper surface light green1 dull1 smooth2 lower surface pale green1 glabrous4 ,flowers semi-fertile1 early2 stamens upright4 ,fruit ripens after ,concord1 keeps and ships well4 ,clusters large1 long1 cylindrical with a large1 single shoulder1 often loose and with many abortive fruits4 ,berries large1 round1 flattened at attachment to pedicel1 dark purplish-black1 glossy1 persistent1 firm2 skin tough with wine-colored pigment2 flesh green1 juicy1 fine-grained1 tender1 vinous1 sweet2 good4 ,seeds free1 large1 broad1 notched1 long1 dark brown4 ,,senasqua 7,labrusca1 ,vinifera7 ,the vine of ,senasqua lacks in vigor1 hardiness1 productiveness and health4 ,the grapes are of good quality1 and when well grown are up to the average fruits of the ,labrusca-,vinifera hybrids4 ,unfortunately the berries have a tendency to crack which is aggravated by the bunches being so compact as to crowd the berries4 ,senasqua is one of the latest grapes to open its buds and is1 therefore1 seldom injured by late frosts4 ,it can be recommended only for the garden for the sake of variety4 ,stephen ,w4 ,underhill of ,crown ,point1 ,new ,york1 originated ,senasqua from seed of ,concord pollinated by ,black ,prince4 ,vine weak and tender1 often unproductive4 ,canes short1 few1 reddish-brown2 nodes enlarged1 flattened2 tendrils intermittent1 long1 trifid or bifid4 ,leaves light green1 glossy1 rugose2 lower surface whitish-green1 pubescent2 leaf usually not lobed with terminus acute2 petiolar sinus narrow2 basal and lateral sinuses shallow and narrow when present4 ,flowers fertile1 late2 stamens upright4 ,fruit a little later than ,concord1 keeps well4 ,clusters large1 broad1 irregularly tapering1 usually with a small1 single shoulder1 very compact2 pedicel thick1 smooth1 enlarged at point of attachment2 brush short1 reddish4 ,berries large1 round1 reddish-black1 persistent1 firm2 skin thick1 tender1 cracks1 adherent1 contains some wine-colored pigment2 flesh green1 translucent1 juicy1 tender1 meaty1 vinous1 spicy2 good4 ,seeds free1 one to five1 long1 narrow1 one-sided1 light brown4 ,,sultana 7,vinifera7 ,this variety was formerly the standard seedless grape in ,california for home use and raisins1 but it is now outstripped by ,sultanina4 ,sultana is possibly better flavored than ,sultanina but the vines are hardly as vigorous or productive and the berries often have seeds4 ,the description is compiled4 ,vines vigorous1 upright1 productive4 ,leaves large1 five-lobed1 with large sinuses1 light in color1 coarsely toothed4 ,bunches large1 long1 cylindrical1 heavily shouldered1 sometimes not well filled1 often loose and scraggly2 berries small1 round1 firm and crisp1 golden-yellow1 sweet with considerable piquancy2 quality good4 ,,sultanina 7,vinifera7 ,thompson's ,seedless ,sultanina is one of the standard seedless grapes of the ,pacific slope1 grown both to eat out of hand and for raisins4 ,probably it can be grown in home plantations in favored parts of eastern ,america where the season is long and warm4 ,the following description is compiled from ,californian viticulturists3 ,vine very vigorous1 very productive2 trunk large with very long canes4 ,leaves glabrous on both sides1 dark yellow-green above1 light below2 generally three-lobed1 with shallow sinuses2 teeth short and obtuse4 ,bunch large1 conico-cylindrical1 well filled1 with herbaceous peduncles2 berries oval1 beautiful golden-yellow color2 skin moderately thick2 flesh of rather neutral flavor2 very good4 ,,taylor 7,vulpina1 ,labrusca7 ,bullitt ,while it is from the species to which ,taylor belongs that we must look for our hardiest vines1 nevertheless this grape and its offspring1 although not tender to cold1 do best in southern regions1 as they require a long warm summer to mature properly4 ,the quality of the fruit of ,taylor is fair to good1 the flavor being sweet1 pure1 delicate and spicy and the flesh tender and juicy2 but the bunches are small and the flowers are infertile so that the berries do not set well1 making very imperfect and unsightly clusters4 ,the skin is such1 also1 that it cracks badly1 a defect seemingly transmitted to many of the seedlings of the variety4 ,the vine is strong1 healthy1 hardy but not very productive4 ,the original vine of ,taylor was a wild seedling found in the early part of the last century on the ,cumberland ,mountains near the ,kentucky-,tennessee line by a ,mr4 ,cobb4 ,vine vigorous to rank1 healthy1 hardy1 variable in productiveness4 ,leaves small1 attractive in color1 smooth4 ,flowers bloom early2 stamens reflexed4 ,fruit ripens about two weeks before ,isabella4 ,clusters small to medium1 shouldered1 loose or moderately compact4 ,berries small to medium1 roundish1 pale greenish-white1 sometimes tinged with amber2 skin very thin2 pulp sweet1 spicy2 fair to good in quality4 ,,triumph 7,labrusca1 ,vinifera7 ,when quality1 color1 shape and size of bunch and berry are considered1 ,triumph 7,plate ,,xxviii7 is one of the finest dessert grapes of ,america4 ,at its best1 it is a magnificent bunch of golden grapes of highest quality1 esteemed even in southern ,europe where it must compete with the best of the ,viniferas4 ,in ,america1 however1 its commercial importance is curtailed by the fact that the fruit requires a long season for proper development4 ,triumph has1 in general1 the vine characters of the ,labrusca parent1 ,concord1 especially its habit of growth1 vigor1 productiveness and foliage characters1 falling short in hardiness1 resistance to fungal diseases and earliness of fruit1 the fruit maturing with or a little later than ,catawba4 ,while the vine characters of ,triumph are those of ,labrusca1 there is scarcely a suggestion of the coarseness1 or of the foxy odor and taste of ,labrusca1 and the objectionable seeds1 pulp and skin of the native grape give way to the far less objectionable structures of ,vinifera4 ,the flesh is tender and melting and the flavor rich1 sweet1 vinous1 pure and delicate4 ,the skins of the berries under unfavorable conditions crack badly1 the variety1 therefore1 neither shipping nor keeping well4 ,triumph was grown soon after the ,civil ,war by ,george ,w4 ,campbell1 ,delaware1 ,ohio1 from seed of ,concord fertilized by ,chasselas ,musque4 ,vine vigorous4 ,canes long1 dark brown with much bloom2 nodes enlarged2 tendrils intermittent1 long1 trifid1 sometimes bifid4 ,leaves large2 upper surface light green1 dull1 rugose2 lower surface grayish-white1 pubescent2 leaf usually not lobed with terminus obtuse2 petiolar sinus deep1 narrow1 often closed and overlapping2 basal sinus absent2 lateral sinus shallow and narrow when present2 teeth deep1 wide4 ,flowers self-fertile1 late2 stamens upright4 ,fruit very late4 ,clusters very large1 long1 broad1 cylindrical1 sometimes single-shouldered1 compact2 pedicel slender1 smooth2 brush short1 yellowish-green4 ,berries medium in size1 oval1 golden yellow1 glossy with heavy bloom1 persistent1 firm2 skin thin1 inclined to crack1 adherent1 without pigment1 slightly astringent2 flesh light green1 translucent1 juicy1 fine-grained1 tender1 vinous2 good to very good4 ,seeds free1 one to five1 small1 brown4 ,,ulster 7,labrusca1 ,vinifera7 ,the vines of ,ulster set too much fruit in spite of efforts to control the crop by pruning2 two undesirable results follow1 the bunches are small and the vines1 lacking vigor at best1 fail to recover from the overfruitfulness4 ,these defects keep the variety from becoming of importance commercially or even a favorite as a garden grape4 ,the quality of the fruit is very good1 being much like that of ,catawba1 and under favorable conditions it is an attractive green with a red tinge4 ,the fruit keeps well when the variety is grown under conditions suited to it4 ,ulster originated with ,a4 ,j4 ,caywood1 ,marlboro1 ,new ,york1 and was introduced by him about #ahhe4 ,its parents are said to be ,catawba pollinated by a wild stivalis4 ,both vine and fruit show traces of ,labrusca and ,vinifera1 but the stivalis characters1 if present1 are not apparent4 ,vine hardy1 productive1 overbears4 ,canes short1 slender1 dark brown1 surface roughened and covered with faint pubescence2 nodes enlarged and flattened2 internodes short2 tendrils intermittent1 bifid1 dehisce early4 ,leaves small1 thick2 upper surface light green1 glossy1 smooth2 lower surface grayish-white1 pubescent2 leaf usually not lobed with terminus acute2 petiolar sinus medium to wide2 basal sinus absent2 lateral sinus a notch when present2 teeth shallow1 wide4 ,flowers self-fertile1 early2 stamens upright4 ,fruit late mid-season4 ,clusters long1 cylindrical1 often single-shouldered1 compact2 pedicel slender1 with numerous warts2 brush short1 yellowish-green4 ,berries medium in size1 round1 dark dull red with thin bloom1 persistent2 skin thick1 tough1 adherent1 astringent2 flesh pale green1 translucent1 juicy1 tender1 fine-grained1 faintly aromatic1 slightly foxy2 good to very good4 ,seeds free1 one to six1 medium in size1 plump1 brown4 ,,verdal 7,vinifera7 ,aspiran ,blanc ,verdal is one of the standard late grapes of the ,pacific slope1 ripening among the last4 ,the grapes are seen seldom in distant markets and the quality is not quite good enough to make it a very great favorite for home plantations4 ,vigor and hardiness of vines commend it as do the large and handsome fruits1 and these qualities1 with late ripening1 will probably long keep it on grape lists in the far ,west4 ,the description is compiled4 ,vines vigorous1 hardy1 healthy and productive2 canes rather slender1 half erect4 ,leaves of medium size1 glabrous on both surfaces1 except below near the axis of the main nerve2 sinuses well marked and generally closed1 giving the leaf the appearance of having five holes2 teeth long1 unequal1 acuminate4 ,bunches large to very large1 irregular1 long-conical1 usually compact2 shoulders small or lacking2 berries large or very large1 yellowish-green2 skin thick but tender2 flesh crisp1 firm2 flavor agreeable but not rich2 quality good4 ,season very late1 keeping and shipping well4 ,,vergennes 7,labrusca7 ,the most valuable attribute of ,vergennes 7,plate ,,xxix7 is certainty in bearing4 ,the vine seldom fails to bear although it often overbears1 causing variability in size of fruits and time of ripening4 ,with a moderate crop1 the grapes ripen with ,concord1 but with a heavy load from one to two weeks later4 ,vergennes is somewhat unpopular with vineyardists because of the sprawling habit of the vines which makes them untractable for vineyard operations2 this fault is obviated by grafting on other vines4 ,the grapes are attractive1 the quality is good1 flavor agreeable1 the flesh tender1 and seeds and skin are not objectionable4 ,vergennes is the standard late-keeping grape for northern regions1 being very common in the markets as late as ,january4 ,the original vine was a chance seedling in the garden of ,william ,e4 ,greene1 ,vergennes1 ,vermont1 in #ahgd4 ,vine variable in vigor1 doubtfully hardy1 productive1 healthy4 ,canes long1 dark brown2 nodes enlarged1 strongly flattened2 tendrils continuous1 long1 bifid or trifid4 ,leaves large1 thin2 upper surface light green1 glossy1 rugose2 lower surface pale green1 very pubescent2 leaf usually not lobed with terminus broadly acute2 petiolar sinus wide2 teeth shallow4 ,flowers semi-sterile1 mid-season2 stamens upright4 ,fruit late1 keeps and ships well4 ,clusters of medium size1 broad1 cylindrical1 sometimes single-shouldered1 loose2 pedicel with numerous small warts2 brush slender1 short1 pale green4 ,berries large1 oval1 light and dark red with thin bloom1 persistent2 skin thick1 tough1 adherent1 astringent2 flesh pale green1 juicy1 fine-grained1 somewhat stringy1 tender1 vinous2 good to very good4 ,seeds free1 one to five1 blunt1 brown4 ,,walter 7,vinifera1 ,labrusca1 ,bourquiniana7 ,were it not almost impossible to grow healthy vines of ,walter1 the variety would rank high among ,american grapes4 ,but stunted by fungi which attack leaves1 young wood and fruit1 it is possible only in exceptionally favorable seasons satisfactorily to produce crops of this variety4 ,besides susceptibility to diseases1 the vines are fastidious to soils1 everywhere variable in growth and are injured in cold winters4 ,as if to atone for the faults of the vine1 the fruit of ,walter is almost perfect1 lacking only in size of bunch and berry4 ,the bunch and berry resemble those of ,delaware1 but the fruit is not as high in quality as that of its parents4 ,walter is adapted to conditions under which ,delaware thrives4 ,a4 ,j4 ,caywood1 ,modena1 ,new ,york1 grew this variety about #ahej from seed of ,delaware pollinated by ,diana4 ,vine vigorous4 ,canes medium in length and size1 dark reddish-brown with thin bloom2 nodes enlarged1 flattened2 tendrils intermittent1 bifid4 ,leaves thick2 upper surface dark green1 glossy1 smooth2 lower surface tinged with bronze1 heavily pubescent2 lobes one to three with terminus acute2 petiolar sinus narrow2 basal sinus lacking2 lateral sinus a notch if present4 ,flowers mid-season2 stamens upright4 ,fruit early1 keeps and ships well4 ,clusters medium in size1 broad1 cylindrical1 usually single-shouldered1 compact2 pedicel slender1 with small1 scattering warts2 brush short1 slender1 green with brown tinge4 ,berries small1 ovate1 red1 glossy with thin bloom1 persistent1 firm2 skin very tough1 adheres slightly1 unpigmented2 flesh pale green1 translucent1 juicy1 tough1 somewhat foxy1 vinous1 aromatic2 good to very good4 ,seeds adherent1 one to four1 small1 sharp-pointed1 light brown4 ,,wilder 7,labrusca1 ,vinifera7 ,the fruit of ,wilder is surpassed in quality and appearance by other of ,rogers' hybrids1 but the vine is the most reliable of any of these hybrid sorts1 being vigorous1 hardy1 productive1 and1 although somewhat susceptible to mildew1 as healthy as any4 ,wilder is not as well known in the markets as it should be1 and now that fungal diseases can be controlled by spraying should be more commonly planted in commercial vineyards1 especially for local markets4 ,wilder is one of the forty-five ,labrusca-,vinifera hybrids raised by ,e4 ,s4 ,rogers1 ,salem1 ,massachusetts1 having been described first in #aheh4 ,vine vigorous1 hardy1 productive1 susceptible to mildew4 ,canes long1 numerous1 reddish-brown1 darker at the nodes2 internodes long2 tendrils intermittent1 bifid or trifid4 ,leaves large1 irregularly round2 upper surface dark green1 glossy1 smooth2 lower surface pale green1 pubescent2 usually not lobed with terminus acute2 petiolar sinus deep1 narrow1 often closed and overlapping2 basal sinus lacking2 lateral sinus shallow1 narrow1 or a mere notch when present4 ,flowers self-sterile1 mid-season2 stamens reflexed4 ,fruit early mid-season1 keeps and ships well4 ,clusters variable in size1 short1 broad1 tapering1 heavily single-shouldered1 loose2 pedicel long1 thick with numerous warts2 brush thick1 green with tinge of red4 ,berries large1 oval1 purplish-black with heavy bloom1 persistent1 firm2 skin thick1 adherent to pulp1 with bright red pigment1 astringent2 flesh green1 translucent1 juicy1 tender2 good4 ,seeds adherent1 one to five1 long1 light brown4 ,,winchell 7,labrusca1 ,vinifera1 stivalis7 ,green ,mountain ,the vines of ,winchell 7,plate ,,xxx7 are vigorous1 hardy1 healthy1 productive1 and the fruit is early1 of high quality and ships well--altogether a most admirable early grape4 ,there are some minor faults which become drawbacks in the culture of ,winchell4 ,the berries1 and under some conditions the bunches1 are small and the bunch is loose with a large shoulder4 ,sometimes this looseness becomes so pronounced as to give a straggling1 poorly-formed cluster2 and the shoulder1 when as large as the cluster itself1 which often happens1 makes the cluster unsightly4 ,the grapes shell when fully ripe1 a serious fault4 ,again1 while the crop usually ripens evenly1 there are seasons when two pickings are needed because of the unevenness in ripening4 ,lastly1 the skin is thin and there is danger in unfavorable seasons of the berries cracking1 although this is seldom a serious fault4 ,these defects do not offset the several good characters of ,winchell which make it the standard early green grape1 deserving to rank with the best early grapes of any color4 ,the original vine was raised by ,james ,milton ,clough1 ,stamford1 ,vermont1 about #ahej from seed of an unknown purple grape4 ,vine vigorous1 hardy1 healthy1 very productive4 ,canes long1 numerous1 slender1 dark brown with thin bloom2 nodes enlarged1 flattened2 tendrils continuous1 sometimes intermittent1 bifid4 ,leaves large2 upper surface light green1 glossy1 smooth2 lower surface dull green1 tinged with bronze1 faintly pubescent2 lobes three to five with terminal lobe acute2 petiolar sinus deep2 basal sinus shallow2 teeth shallow1 wide4 ,flowers fertile1 mid-season2 stamens upright4 ,fruit early1 keeps and ships well4 ,clusters long1 slender1 cylindrical1 often with a long shoulder1 compact2 pedicel short1 slender with few inconspicuous warts2 brush greenish-white4 ,berries small1 round1 light green1 persistent1 soft2 skin marked with small1 reddish-brown spots1 thin1 tender1 slightly astringent2 flesh green1 translucent1 juicy1 tender1 fine-grained1 sweet2 very good to best4 ,seeds free1 one to four1 small1 plump1 wide and long1 blunt1 brown4 ,,woodruff 7,labrusca1 ,vinifera87 ,woodruff is a handsome1 showy1 brick-red grape with large clusters and berries1 but its taste belies its looks1 for the flesh is coarse and the flavor poor4 ,the variety would not be worth attention were it not for its excellent vine characters2 the vines are hardy1 productive and healthy4 ,the grapes ripen a little before ,concord and come on the market at a favorable time1 especially for a red grape4 ,woodruff originated from ,c4 ,h4 ,woodruff1 ,ann ,arbor1 ,michigan1 as a chance seedling which came up in #ahgd and fruited first in #ahgg4 ,vine very vigorous1 hardy4 ,canes dark brown2 nodes enlarged1 flattened2 tendrils continuous1 bifid or trifid4 ,leaves round2 upper surface light green1 dull1 rugose2 lower surface greenish-white1 pubescent2 leaf usually not lobed with terminus acute2 petiolar sinus wide2 basal sinus lacking2 lateral sinus shallow and narrow when present2 teeth shallow4 ,flowers semi-fertile1 early2 stamens upright4 ,fruit ripening before ,concord4 ,clusters broad1 widely tapering1 usually single-shouldered1 compact2 pedicel short1 thick1 smooth2 brush long1 pale green4 ,berries large1 round1 dark red1 dull1 firm2 skin thin1 tender1 adherent1 slightly astringent2 flesh pale green1 translucent1 juicy1 tough1 coarse1 very foxy2 fair in quality4 ,seeds adherent1 one to five1 broad1 short1 plump1 blunt1 brown4 ,,worden 7,labrusca7 ,of the many offspring of ,concord1 ,worden 7,plate ,,xxxi7 is best known and most meritorious4 ,the grapes differ chiefly from those of ,concord in having larger berries and bunches1 in having better quality and in being a week to ten days earlier4 ,the vine is equally hardy1 healthy1 vigorous and productive but is more fastidious in its adaptations to soil1 although now and then it does even better4 ,the chief fault of the variety is that the fruit cracks badly1 often preventing the profitable marketing of a crop4 ,besides this tenderness of skin1 the fruit-pulp of ,worden is softer than that of ,concord1 there is more juice1 and the keeping qualities are not as good1 so that the grapes hardly ship as well as those of the more commonly grown grape4 ,worden is very popular in northern grape regions both for commercial plantations and the garden4 ,it is a more desirable inhabitant of the garden1 because of higher quality of fruit than ,concord1 and under conditions well suited to it is better as a commercial variety1 as the fruit is handsomer as well as of better quality4 ,in the markets the fruit ought to sell for a higher price than ,concord if desired for immediate consumption1 and if it can be harvested promptly1 as it does not hang well on the vines4 ,its earlier season is against it for a commercial variety and1 with the defects mentioned1 will prevent its taking the place of ,concord to a great degree4 ,worden was originated by ,schuyler ,worden1 ,minetto1 ,oswego ,county1 ,new ,york1 from seed of ,concord planted about #ahfc4 ,vine vigorous1 hardy1 healthy1 productive4 ,canes large1 thick1 dark brown with reddish tinge2 nodes enlarged1 flattened2 tendrils continuous1 slender1 bifid1 sometimes trifid4 ,young leaves tinged on the under side and along the margins of upper side with rose-carmine4 ,leaves large1 thick2 upper surface dark green1 glossy1 smooth2 lower surface light bronze1 pubescent2 leaf usually not lobed2 petiolar sinus wide1 often urn-shaped2 teeth shallow4 ,flowers fertile1 mid-season2 stamens upright4 ,fruit early4 ,clusters large1 long1 broad1 tapering1 usually single-shouldered1 compact2 pedicel slender with a few small warts2 brush long1 light green4 ,berries large1 round1 dark purplish-black1 glossy with heavy bloom1 firm2 skin tender1 cracks badly1 adheres slightly1 contains dark red pigment1 astringent4 ,flesh green1 translucent1 juicy1 fine-grained1 tough1 foxy1 sweet1 mild2 good to very good4 ,seeds adherent1 one to five1 large1 broad1 short1 blunt1 brown4 ,,wyoming 7,labrusca7 ,hopkins ,early ,red1 ,wilmington ,red1 ,wyoming ,red ,such value as ,wyoming 7,plate ,,xxxii7 possesses lies in the hardiness1 productiveness and healthiness of the vine4 ,the appearance of the fruit is very good1 the bunches are well formed and composed of rich amber-colored berries of medium size4 ,the quality1 however1 is poor1 being that of the wild ,labrusca in foxiness of flavor and in flesh characters4 ,it is not nearly as valuable as some other of the red ,labruscas hitherto described and can hardly be recommended either for the garden or the vineyard4 ,wyoming was introduced by ,s4 ,j4 ,parker of ,ithaca1 ,new ,york1 who states that it came from ,pennsylvania in #ahfa4 ,vine vigorous1 hardy1 healthy1 productive4 ,canes numerous1 slender1 dark reddish-brown covered with blue bloom2 nodes enlarged1 frequently flattened2 tendrils continuous1 short1 bifid4 ,leaves of average size and thickness2 upper surface light green1 dull1 smooth2 lower surface dull green with tinge of bronze1 pubescent2 lobes one to three with terminus acute2 petiolar sinus shallow1 wide2 basal sinus usually wanting2 lateral sinus shallow and wide when present2 teeth shallow4 ,flowers sterile1 mid-season2 stamens reflexed4 ,fruit early1 keeps well4 ,clusters slender1 cylindrical1 compact2 pedicel short1 slender with small warts2 brush slender1 pale green with brown tinge4 ,berries medium1 round1 rich amber red with thin bloom1 persistent1 firm2 skin tender1 adherent1 astringent2 flesh pale green1 translucent1 juicy1 tough1 solid1 strongly foxy1 vinous2 poor in quality4 ,seeds adherent1 one to three1 slightly notched1 light brown4 ,,footnotes3 #a ,bioletti1 ,frederic ,t4 ,report of ,international ,congress of ,viticulture1 #hh4 #aiae4 #b ,anthony1 ,r4 ,d4 ,n4 ,y4 ,agr4 ,exp4 ,sta41 ,bul4 #fcb3 #hh4 #aiag4 #c ,bioletti1 ,frederic ,t4 ,calif4 ,exp4 ,sta41 ,bul4 #ahj3 #ace4 #aijf4 #d ,ibid41 #acf-ach4 #e ,bioletti1 ,frederic ,t4 ,calif4 ,exp4 ,sta41 ,bul4 #ahj3 #ajh-aab4 #f ,bioletti1 ,frederic ,t4 ,calif4 ,exp4 ,sta41 ,bul4 #ahj3 #aac-aah4 #g ,munson1 ,t4 ,v4 ,foundations of ,american ,grape ,culture1 #bag4 #aiji4 #h ,bioletti1 ,frederic ,t4 ,calif4 ,exp4 ,sta41 ,bul4 #ahj3 #if-ig4 #aijf4 #i ,for an account of this experiment1 see ,bul4 #cha of the ,n4 ,y4 ,agr4 ,exp4 ,sta41 ,geneva4 #aj ,quoted from ,bul4 ,no4 #cha1 ,n4 ,y4 ,agr4 ,exp4 ,sta4 #aa ,each weight is of #cjj green leaves1 #e from each of #fj vines4 ,the first leaf beyond the last cluster was selected4 #ab ,amount to the acre of wood pruned in fall4 #ac ,number to the acre4 #ad ,munson1 ,t4 ,v4 ,foundations of ,american ,grape ,culture3 #bbd-bbg4 #aiji4 #ae ,husmann1 ,george ,c41 and ,dearing1 ,charles4 ,muscadine ,grapes4 ,bul4 #gji1 ,u4 ,s4 ,dept4 ,agr43 #af-ai4 #aiaf4 #af ,the remainder of this chapter is republished by permission from ,bul4 #bdf1 ,calif4 ,exp4 ,sta41 ,vine ,pruning in ,california1 published in #aiaf by ,f4 ,t4 ,bioletti4 ,not all of the bulletin is reproduced1 but the parts republished are transcribed verbatim4 ,all of the illustrations in this chapter have been redrawn from ,professor ,bioletti's bulletin4 #ag ,the following account is founded on work carried on by the author at the ,n4 ,y4 ,agr4 ,exp4 ,sta41 accounts of which have been given before several horticultural societies in #aiaf1 #aiag and #aiah4 #ah ,husmann1 ,geo4 ,c41 and ,dearing1 ,charles4 ,the ,muscadine ,grapes1 ,u4 ,s4 ,dept4 ,agr4 ,bul4 #bgc3 #cc-cf4 #aiac4 #ai ,husmann1 ,george ,c4 ,u4 ,s4 ,dept4 ,agr4 ,farmers' ,bul4 ,no4 #fdd4 #bj ,husmann1 ,george ,c4 ,u4 ,s4 ,dept4 ,agr4 ,bul4 ,no4 #cdi4 #aiaf4 ,,index 7,names of species1 and synonyms of varietal names1 are in italics47 ,actoni1 #ccj4 ,adaptations of stocks1 #ff4 ,adlum1 ,john1 mentioned1 #eh4 ,admirable1 #cgc4 ,adoxus obscurus1 #baf4 stivalis grapes1 #aa4 ,affinity of stock and cion1 #fg4 ,agawam1 #cca4 ,air currents1 #bg4 ,alabama1 #dja4 ,alexander1 #e1 #f4 ,alexander1 #cia4 ,alicante1 for forcing1 #aih4 ,alleys1 #ge4 ,almeria1 #cca4 ,amadas ,barlowe1 mentioned1 #e4 ,america1 #ccb4 ,american ,muscadine1 #dce4 ,aminia1 #ccc4 ,anaheim disease1 #bbf4 ,anthony1 on grafting1 #dg4 ,anthracnose1 control of1 #bbc4 description of1 #bbc4 ,aramon ,rupestris1 #b1 #fd4 ,arbors1 training vines on1 #adb4 ,arkansas1 #cde1 #ceg4 ,arnold's ,hybrid1 #dbb4 ,aspiran ,blanc1 #ddb4 ,august ,giant1 #ccc4 ,bacchus1 #cbd4 ,bagging grapes1 #bic4 cost of1 #bid4 ,bakator1 #cce4 ,barbarossa1 for forcing1 #aig4 ,bark1 structure of1 #cjc4 ,barry1 #cce4 ,bartram1 on the ,alexander1 #g4 ,beach ,grape1 #cac4 ,beacon1 #ccf4 ,beaconsfield1 #cdf4 ,beak defined1 #cjh4 ,bench grafting1 #ej4 essentials of1 #ej4 operation of1 #ea4 preparing cuttings for1 #ea4 ,berckmans1 #ccg4 ,berry1 characters of1 #cjh4 ,bioletti1 on callusing beds1 #ef4 on grafting1 #dh1 #eb4 on pruning in ,california1 #aea4 on resistant stocks1 #fc4 quoted1 #ah4 ,bird ,grape1 #cab4 ,bitter-rot1 #bbe4 ,black ,cape1 #cia4 ,black ,cornichon1 #dbi4 ,black ,eagle1 #cch4 ,black ,el ,paso1 #dja4 ,black ,german1 #djf4 ,black ,hamburg1 for forcing1 #aig4 ,black ,july1 #dja4 ,black ,malvoise1 #cci4 ,black ,morocco1 #cci4 ,black ,muscat1 #dae4 ,black rot1 control of1 #cbj4 description of1 #cai4 ,black ,spanish1 #dja4 ,bloom defined1 #cja4 ,blooming dates of grapes1 #bhh4 ,blooming1 time of1 #cje4 ,blue ,french1 #dja4 ,blue ,grape1 #cah1 #cbb4 ,borders in graperies1 making1 #aie4 care of1 #aie4 ,bottsi1 #chb4 ,bowed canes1 #agd4 ,branches defined1 #cja4 ,brighton1 #cdj4 ,brilliant1 #cda4 ,brown1 #cdb4 ,brown ,french1 #chb4 ,brush defined1 #cjg4 ,buckland ,sweetwater1 for forcing1 #aig4 ,buds1 characters of1 #cjd4 defined1 #cjd4 ,bull1 #dce4 ,bull1 ,ephraim ,w41 mentioned1 #i4 ,bull ,grape1 #caj4 ,bullace1 #dce4 ,bullace ,grape1 #caj4 ,bullet1 #dce4 ,bullet ,grape1 #caj4 ,bullitt1 #dci4 ,bunch ,grape1 #cah4 ,burgundy1 #dja4 ,bush ,grape1 #cab4 ,bushy ,grape1 #caj4 ,by-products of the grape1 #bfi4 ,callusing bed1 #ef4 ,campbell ,early1 #cdb4 ,canada1 #cdc4 ,canadian ,hamburg1 #dbb4 ,canadian ,hybrid1 #dbb4 ,canandaigua1 #cdd4 ,canandaigua ,lake grape region1 #ba4 ,cane-renewal1 #aaf4 ,canes1 characters of1 #cjc4 defined1 #cja4 disposition of1 in pruning1 #abd4 ,care of young vines1 #hg4 ,carman1 #cdd4 ,catawba1 #cde4 history of1 #h4 ,catawba ,tokay1 #cde4 ,catch crops1 #hi1 #ij4 ,cato1 on grafting1 #de4 quoted1 #gf4 ,cayuga ,lake grape region1 #ba4 ,central ,lake grape region1 #bj4 ,chalaza defined1 #cjh4 ,champagne1 #bec4 ,champagne industry1 #ba4 ,champion1 #cdf4 ,chasselas ,golden1 #cdg4 ,chasselas ,dore1 #cdg4 ,chasselas ,rose1 #cdh4 ,chautauqua1 #cdh4 ,chautauqua grape-belt1 #ah4 ,chautauqua training1 #abe4 ,cherokee1 #cde4 ,chicken ,grape1 #cag1 #cah4 ,cigar ,box ,grape1 #dja4 ,clevener1 #cdi4 ,climate and grape-growing1 #bc4 ,clinton1 #ae1 #cej4 ,colerain1 #cea4 ,columbian ,imperial1 #cea4 ,columbian ,jumbo1 #cea4 ,commercial factors1 #cj4 ,concord1 #ceb4 history of1 #i4 ,constantia1 #cia4 ,coperative fertilizer experiments1 #ajb4 ,cordon pruning1 #aec4 ,cordons1 horizontal1 #agf4 vertical1 #age4 ,cottage1 #ced4 ,coulure1 #bbf4 ,cover-crops1 #hi1 #ia4 ,craponius inqualis1 #bag4 ,cream of tartar1 #bgj4 ,cross-pollination1 #bhd4 ,croton1 #cee4 ,crown-gall1 #bbe4 ,cryptosporella viticola1 #bbd4 ,cunningham1 #cef4 ,cuttings1 dormant1 #ch4 hard-wood1 #ch4 herbaceous1 #db4 planting1 #ci4 single-eye1 #dj4 time to make1 #ch4 ,cutting wood1 selecting1 #ch4 ,cut-worms on grapes1 #cae4 ,cynthiana1 #ceg4 ,dead-arm disease1 control of1 #cbd4 description of1 #cbd4 ,delaware1 #aa1 #ceh4 ,depth to plant1 #hf4 ,desmia funeralis1 #baf4 ,determinants of grape regions1 #bb4 ,devereaux1 #dja4 ,diamond1 #cei4 ,diana1 #cfj4 ,diaphragm1 characters of1 #cjc4 defined1 #cja4 ,digging holes1 #hc4 ,direct producers1 #ga4 ,direction of rows1 #gd4 ,distances in planting1 #ge4 ,dodrelabi1 #cgi4 ,dorchester1 #cia4 ,double-headed vines1 #agd4 ,double ,kniffin1 #ace4 ,downing1 #cfa4 ,downy mildew1 control of1 #bbb4 description of1 #bbj4 ,dracut ,amber1 #cfb4 ,drainage for grapes1 #bh1 #gg4 ,duck-shot ,grape1 #cah4 ,dunn1 #chb4 ,dutchess1 #cfb4 ,dynamite in digging holes1 #hd4 ,early ,champion1 #cdf4 ,early ,daisy1 #cfc4 ,early ,ohio1 #cfd4 ,early ,victor1 #cfd4 ,eaton1 #cfe4 ,eclipse1 #cff4 ,eden1 #cfg4 ,egg ,harbor grape region1 #bb4 ,eldorado1 #cfh4 ,elvira1 #cfi4 ,emasculating grape-flowers1 #bgi4 ,emperor1 #cfi4 ,empire ,state1 #cgj4 ,etta1 #cga4 ,eumelan1 #cga4 ,european grapes1 in eastern ,america1 #ahd4 grafting1 #ahf4 varieties for eastern ,america1 #aia4 ,everbearing ,grape1 #cab4 ,exposures for grapes1 #cd4 ,factors limiting yield1 #aje4 ,faith1 #cgb4 ,fall ,grape1 #cah4 ,fancher1 #cde4 ,fan-training1 #aca4 ,feher ,szagos1 #cgc4 ,fern1 #cgc4 ,fern ,munson1 #cgc4 ,fertilizers1 applying1 #ajf4 effects on leaves1 #ajb4 effects on vines1 #ajb4 effects on yield1 #aja1 #ajb4 experiment1 #ih4 necessity of1 #ig4 when needed1 #ajf4 ,fidia viticida1 #bjf4 ,fitting land1 #gh4 ,flame ,tokay1 #cgd4 ,flesh1 characters of1 #cjh4 ,florida ,grape1 #cab4 ,flowers1 #cgc4 ,flower1 characters of1 #cje4 ,fontainebleau1 #cdg4 ,fox ,grape1 #cag1 #cbd4 ,fox ,grape1 #dce4 ,fox grapes1 cultivation of1 #g4 ,foxiness defined1 #cjg4 ,french ,grape1 #ceh4 ,frost ,grape1 #cag4 ,frosts and grape-growing1 #be4 ,fruit-bearing1 manner of1 #aac4 ,fruit1 characters of1 #cjg4 parts of1 #cjg4 ,fungi1 determinants of grape regions1 #bi4 ,fungous diseases of the grape1 #bah4 ,gaertner1 #cge4 ,geneva1 #cgf4 ,gibbs ,grape1 #cia4 ,gladwin1 on ,chautauqua training1 #abf4 on ,keuka training1 #abi4 on vineyard returns1 #bdh4 ,glomerella rufomaculans1 #bbe4 ,go-devil1 #aai4 ,goethe1 #cgg4 ,gold ,coin1 #cgg4 ,golden ,chasselas1 #dbd4 ,grading grapes1 #bce4 ,grading land1 #gh4 ,grafting1 #de4 at ,new ,york ,station1 #df4 bundling grafts after1 #ee4 essentials of1 #de4 ,european grapes1 #ahf4 rooted cuttings1 #ef4 ,grafted vineyards1 care of1 #dh4 ,grafting wax1 #ed4 ,grafts1 care of1 in nursery1 #eh4 number made per hour1 #ef4 ,grape1 botany of1 #cjj4 by-products of1 #bfi4 domestication of1 #a4 habitats of1 #d4 habits of growth of1 #cjb4 mutations in the1 #fj4 number of species of1 #a4 organs of1 #cjj4 pests of1 #bjd4 products1 #bej4 ,grape-berry moth1 control of1 #bae4 life history of1 #bac4 ,grape-breeding1 #bgc4 results of1 #bhb4 ,grape-curculio1 #bag4 ,grape hawk-moth1 #bag4 ,grape-hybrids1 #bgd4 ,grape-juice1 commercial making1 #beh4 development of industry1 #beg4 making at home1 #bfb4 regions in which made1 #beg4 ,grape leaf-folder1 #baf4 ,grape leaf-hopper1 control of1 #bac4 life history of1 #baa4 ,grape regions1 determinants of1 #af4 in ,california1 #ah4 ,grape root-worm1 ,californian1 #baf4 eastern1 control of1 #bjf4 life history of1 #bjf4 ,grape seedlings1 #cg4 ,graperies1 #aic4 borders in1 #aie4 care of vines in1 #bja4 construction of1 #aic4 essentials of1 #aid4 heating1 #aid4 varieties for1 #aif4 ventilating1 #aid1 #bjb4 watering1 #bjb4 ,grapes1 ,american1 #d4 classified as to self-fertility1 #bif4 domestic use of1 #bga4 ,european1 #b4 forcing1 #aid4 immunity to disease1 #cjc4 immunity to insects1 #cjc4 propagation of1 #cg4 under glass1 #aib4 ,grape-vinegar1 #bfi4 ,grape-vine root-borer1 #bag4 ,grape-vine flea-beetle1 control of1 #bji4 life history of1 #bjh4 ,greeley1 ,horace1 mentioned1 #i4 ,green ,early1 #cgh4 ,green ,mountain1 #dde4 ,green ,scuppernong1 #dce4 ,grein ,golden1 #cgh4 ,grizzly ,frontignan1 for forcing1 #aig4 ,gros ,colman1 #cgi4 for forcing1 #aig4 ,guignardia ,bidwellii1 #bbj4 ,haltica chalybea1 #bji4 ,hardiness of grapes1 #cjb4 ,hartford1 #chj4 ,hartzell1 mentioned1 #bac4 ,harvesting1 in ,california1 #bdc4 in the ,east1 #bcj4 ,muscadine grapes1 #bdj4 ,hawkins1 ,captain ,john1 mentioned1 #e4 ,hayes1 #cha4 ,heading-back canes1 #aaf4 ,headlight1 #bha4 ,heart-leaved ,vitis1 #cag4 ,heating vineyards1 #be4 ,heeling-in vines1 #hb4 ,helene1 #cia4 ,herbaceous cuttings1 #db4 ,herbemont1 #ab1 #chb4 ,herbert1 #chc4 ,hercules1 #chd4 ,hermann grape region1 #bb4 ,hickman1 #dce4 ,hicks1 #bhe4 ,hidalgo1 #che4 ,highland1 #chf4 ,hilgarde1 #cgc4 ,hilum defined1 #cjh4 ,hopkins1 #chg4 ,hopkins ,early ,red1 #ddh4 ,horizontal cordons1 #agf4 ,hosford1 #chh4 ,hudson horizontal training1 #ada4 ,hudson ,river grape region1 #ba4 ,humidity in grape-growing1 #be4 ,hunt1 #chb4 ,husmann1 on making grape-juice1 #beh4 on raisin-making1 #bfd4 ,husmann ,dearing1 on harvesting ,muscadine grapes1 #bdj4 on pruning ,muscadine grapes1 #adc4 ,hybrid ,franc1 #chh4 ,hybridizing grapes1 #bgh4 ,hybrids1 secondary1 #bgf4 ,ideal1 #chi4 ,improved ,kniffin1 #ace4 ,inflorescences1 number of1 in species1 #cjd4 ,insect pests1 #bjd4 ,insects as determinants of grape regions1 #bi4 ,internodes defined1 #cja4 ,iona1 #cij4 ,irrigation1 #ie4 ,isabella1 #cij4 ,isabella1 #cia4 ,isabella ,seedling1 #cib4 ,israella1 #cib4 ,ives1 #cic4 ,jack1 #dja4 ,james1 #cid4 ,janesville1 #cid4 ,jaques1 #dja4 ,jarring ,muscadine grapes1 #bda4 ,jefferson1 #cie4 ,jefferson1 ,thomas1 on native grapes1 #e4 ,jessica1 #cif4 ,jewel1 #cig4 ,joannenc1 #djb4 ,jordan1 #dae4 ,july ,sherry1 #dja4 ,kay's ,seedling1 #chb4 ,keller's ,white1 #cde4 ,kensington1 #cih4 ,kentucky ,vineyard ,society1 #g4 ,keuka ,lake grape region1 #ba4 ,king1 #cii4 ,kittredge1 #cic4 ,kniffin1 ,wm41 mentioned1 #acb4 ,labels for packages1 #bch4 ,labor1 determinant of grape regions1 #cb4 ,ladies' ,choice1 #ceh4 ,lady1 #cii4 ,lady ,downs1 for forcing1 #aih4 ,lady ,washington1 #djj4 ,lake ,erie grape region1 #bb4 ,laterals defined1 #cja4 ,lawton grape region1 #bb4 ,layering1 #db4 dormant wood1 #dc4 essentials of1 #dc4 green wood1 #dd4 to fill vacancies1 #dd4 ,laying down vines1 #bie4 ,laying out vineyards1 #gd4 ,leaf-margins1 characters of1 #cjg4 ,leaf1 characters of1 #cjg4 parts of1 #cjf4 ,lebanon1 #cde4 ,legaux1 ,peter1 mentioned1 #g4 ,leif the ,lucky1 mentioned1 #e4 ,lenoir1 #ac1 #dja4 ,lignan ,blanc1 #djc4 ,lime1 effects of1 #aja1 #ajd4 ,lincoln1 #cde4 ,lindley1 #djb4 ,listan ,blanc1 #djb4 ,little ,grape1 #cah4 ,little ,winter ,grape1 #cah4 ,long1 #cef4 ,longworth1 ,nicholas1 mentioned1 #h4 ,lucile1 #djc4 ,luglienga1 #djb4 ,lutie1 #djd4 ,macrodactylus subspinosus1 #baj4 ,malaga1 #dje4 ,mammoth ,catawba1 #dce4 ,marion1 #djf4 ,marion ,port1 #djf4 ,marketing1 #bcj1 #bdf4 coperative1 #bdf4 ,markets1 accessibility1 #cj4 general versus local1 #ca4 ,marking for planting1 #gi4 ,martha1 #djg4 ,massasoit1 #djh4 ,maxatawney1 #dji4 ,mc,kee1 #chb4 ,mc,pike1 #dje4 ,mead's ,seedling1 #cde4 ,mealy-bug1 #bjb4 ,memory1 #dji4 ,memythrus polistiformis1 #bag4 ,mendel's laws1 #bha4 ,merceron1 #cde4 ,merrimac1 #daj4 ,michigan1 #cde4 ,mildew in graperies1 #bjc4 ,mills1 #daa4 ,mish1 #daa4 ,mission1 #dab4 ,missouri ,riesling1 #dac4 ,montefiore1 #dac4 ,moore ,early1 #dad4 ,moore1 ,jacob1 mentioned1 #bgf4 ,moscatello1 #dae4 ,moscatello ,black1 #dae4 ,mountain ,grape1 #cac1 #cah4 ,moyer1 #dae4 ,moyer's ,early ,red1 #dae4 ,muncy1 #cde4 ,munson1 mentioned1 #bgg4 on pruning1 #acf4 on resistant species1 #fc4 ,munson method of pruning1 #acf4 ,muscadine ,grape1 #caj4 ,muscadine1 #dce4 ,muscadine grapes for wine1 #bef4 ,muscatel1 #daf4 ,muscat ,hamburg1 #dag4 for forcing1 #aig4 ,muscat of ,alexandria1 #dah4 ,mustang ,grape1 #cbc4 of ,florida1 #cab4 ,mutations in improving grapes1 #bgg4 ,napoleon ,i1 mentioned1 #aif4 ,neal1 #chb4 ,niagara1 #dah4 ,niagara grape region1 #bj4 ,nitrogen1 benefits from1 #aja4 ,noah1 #dai4 ,nodes defined1 #cja4 ,nodosities1 #ff4 ,northern stivalis1 #cbb4 ,northern ,muscadine1 #dbj4 ,northern ,summer ,grape1 #cbb4 ,norton1 #dba4 ,norton1 ,dr4 ,d4 ,n41 mentioned1 #aa4 ,noyes1 ,dr41 mentioned1 #ae4 ,number of vines to the acre1 #gf4 ,ohio1 #dja4 ,ohio ,river grape region1 #bb4 ,oporto1 #dbb4 ,othello1 #dbb4 ,ozark1 #dbc4 ,packages for ,california1 #bde4 for eastern ,america1 #bcf4 for ,muscadine grapes1 #bdc4 ,packing houses1 #bcc4 construction of1 #bcd4 cost of1 #bcc4 ,packing1 in the ,east1 #bcg4 ,muscadine grapes1 #bda4 ,packing tables1 #bcd4 ,palomino1 #dbd4 ,paw ,paw grape region1 #bb4 ,payne's ,early1 #cia4 ,peabody1 #dbd4 ,pedicel defined1 #cje4 ,peduncle defined1 #cje4 ,perfection1 #dbe4 ,pergolas1 training vines on1 #adb4 ,perkins1 #dbf4 ,pests in graperies1 #bjb4 ,petiole1 characters of1 #cjg4 ,pholus achemon1 #bag4 ,phosphorus1 benefits from1 #aja4 ,phylloxera1 #ac1 #fa1 #bje4 control of1 #bjf4 ,phylloxera vastatrix1 #bje4 ,pickers1 #bca4 ,picking1 accounts for1 #bcb4 appliances1 #bcb4 time of1 #bca4 ,pigeon ,grape1 #cah4 ,pine-wood ,grape1 #cbj4 ,piquette1 making1 #bgj4 ,planting1 #hc1 #he4 distances1 #ge4 grafted vines1 #fh4 in graperies1 #aih4 ,plasmopara viticola1 #bbj4 ,pliny1 mentioned1 #b4 ,plowing the vineyard1 #id4 to combat pests1 #ie4 ,pocklington1 #dbf4 ,pollen1 characters of1 #cjf4 ,pollinating in hybridizing1 #bhj4 ,polychrosis viteana1 #bad4 ,pomace as a by-product1 #bgj4 ,possum ,grape1 #cag4 ,posts1 #aai4 bracing1 #abj4 material1 #aai4 setting1 #abj4 ,post-oak ,grape1 #cbj4 ,post-oak grapes1 #ac4 ,potassium1 benefits from1 #aja4 ,poughkeepsie1 #dbg4 ,powdery mildew1 control of1 #bbc4 description of1 #bbb4 ,powell1 #ceh4 ,pre-cooling grapes1 #bde4 ,prentiss1 #dbh4 ,preparation for planting1 #gf1 #hb4 ,preparing vines for planting1 #hj1 #ha4 ,prince ,edward1 #cef4 ,prince1 ,w4 ,r41 mentioned1 #bgd4 ,profits from fertilizers1 #aja4 ,pruning1 before planting1 #afj4 cordon method1 #aec4 ,european grapes in eastern ,america1 #ajg4 fan-shaped1 #aec1 #agb4 first summer1 #afj4 first winter1 #afa4 for fruit1 #aab4 for wood1 #aab4 in eastern ,america1 #ajh4 ,muscadine grapes1 #adc4 on the ,pacific slope1 #aej4 principles of1 #aaa4 second summer1 #afa4 second winter1 #afc4 single vertical cordon1 #aeg4 summer1 #aae4 third summer1 #afg4 third winter1 #afh4 to regulate the crop1 #aaj4 to regulate the vine1 #aaa4 unilateral horizontal cordon1 #aeh4 vase-form1 #aec4 winter1 #aad4 work of1 #aah4 ,pruning and training distinguished1 #aji4 ,prunings1 collecting1 #aah4 ,purple ,cornichon1 #dbi4 ,quality defined1 #cjg4 ,raffia1 in grafting1 #ed4 ,raisin industry1 seat of1 #bfc4 ,raisin-making1 account of1 #bfd4 ,raisin output1 value of1 #bfc4 ,raisins1 classes of1 #bff4 dipping and scalding1 #bfd4 packing1 #bfe4 seeded1 #bfg4 varieties for1 #bfc4 ,randall1 #cca4 ,raphe defined1 #cjh4 ,rating as to resistance to phylloxera1 #ff4 ,rattling1 #bbd4 ,rebecca1 #dbi4 ,reciprocal influence of stock and cion1 #fh4 ,red ,eagle1 #dcj4 ,red ,river1 #ceg4 ,red-spider in graperies1 #bjb4 ,refrigerator cars for grapes1 #bde4 ,regal1 #dca4 ,rejuvenating old vines1 #adg4 ,renewal by canes1 #aaf4 by spurs1 #aag4 ,renewing fruiting wood1 #aaf4 ,requa1 #dca4 ,returns from ,muscadine grapes1 #bdb4 ,ricketts1 ,j4 ,h41 mentioned1 #bgd4 ,ringing grape vines1 #bhi4 operation of1 #bij4 results of1 #bia4 theory of1 #bij4 ,riparia ,gloire1 #fd1 #fe4 ,riparia grande glabre1 #fd1 #fe4 ,riparia ,solonis1 #fd4 ,ripening dates for grapes1 #bif4 ,ripe-rot1 control of1 #bbe4 description of1 #bbe4 ,river ,grape1 #cad4 ,riverbank ,grape1 #cad4 ,riverbank grapes1 #ac4 ,riverside ,grape1 #cad4 ,roanoke1 #dce4 ,robins1 depredations of1 #bic4 ,rochester1 #dcb4 ,rock ,grape1 #cac4 ,rogers1 ,e4 ,s41 mentioned1 #bgd4 ,rommel1 #dcc4 ,rommel1 ,jacob1 mentioned1 #bgf4 ,root1 its parts named1 #cja4 ,root-forms of grapes1 #fg4 ,rootlets defined1 #cja4 ,root-tip defined1 #cja4 ,rosaki1 #dcc4 ,rose chafer1 control of1 #baa4 life history of1 #baj4 ,rose of ,peru1 #dcd4 ,rose of ,tennessee1 #cde4 ,rotundifolia grapes1 #i4 ,ruff1 #ceh4 ,rupestris ,st4 ,george1 #fd4 ,salem1 #dce4 ,sand ,grape1 #cac4 ,sandusky grape region1 #bb4 ,sanitation in the vineyard1 #bbg4 ,saratoga1 #cde4 ,scuppernong1 #caj1 #dce4 ,seasonal sum of heat1 #bd4 ,secretary1 #dcf4 ,seedlings1 selecting1 #cg4 ,seeds1 as by-products1 #bga4 characters of1 #cjh4 parts of1 #cjh4 ,selecting vines1 #ha4 ,selection in improving grapes1 #bgg4 ,self-sterility in grapes1 #bhe4 cause of1 #bhf4 remedy for1 #bhg4 ,senasqua1 #dcg4 ,seneca ,lake grape region1 #ba4 ,shelling1 #dbd4 ,shipping from ,california1 #bde4 ,shoots1 characters of1 #cjc4 defined1 #cja4 disposition of1 in training1 #abc4 drooping1 in training1 #acb4 horizontal1 in training1 #ada4 upright1 in training1 #abe4 ,single-eye cuttings1 #dj4 making1 #da4 planting1 #da4 ,single-stem1 ,four-cane ,kniffin1 #acb4 ,singleton1 #cde4 ,single vertical cordon1 #aeg4 ,sites for vineyards1 #bf1 #cb4 ,skin1 characters of1 #cjh4 ,smith1 ,captain ,john1 mentioned1 #e4 ,smudging vineyards1 #be4 ,soil adaptations1 #bi4 fertility1 #bh4 ,soils for grapes1 #bg4 ideal1 #bh4 over-rich1 #ajg4 uneven1 #aje4 ,sour ,winter ,grape1 #cag4 ,southern stivalis1 #cba4 ,southern ,fox ,grape1 #caj4 ,spanish ,grape1 #cah4 ,species1 conspectus of1 #caj4 resistant to phylloxera1 #fb4 ,sphaceloma ampelinum1 #bbc4 ,sports in improving grapes1 #bgg4 ,spraying suggestions1 #bbh4 ,springstein1 #dja4 ,spurs defined1 #cja4 ,spur-renewal1 #aag4 ,staking vines1 #afb4 ,stamens1 characters of1 #cjf4 ,stem defined1 #cja4 its parts named1 #cja4 ,stocks1 resistant to phylloxera1 #fa4 for ,american grapes1 #fi4 for ,european grapes1 #fi4 ,storage-room for grapes1 #bci4 ,storing grapes1 #bch4 ,stripping1 #aah4 ,suckers defined1 #cja4 ,sugar ,grape1 #cac4 ,sultana1 #dch4 ,sultanina1 #dch4 ,summer ,grape1 #cah4 ,summer grapes1 #aa4 ,summer pruning1 #aae4 ,swamp ,grape1 #cah4 ,sweet-scented ,grape1 #cad4 ,sweetwater1 #cdg4 ,syrian1 for forcing1 #aih4 ,talman's ,seedling1 #cdf4 ,tap-root defined1 #cja4 ,taylor1 #dci4 ,tekomah1 #cdc4 ,tendrils1 characters of1 #cjd4 defined1 #cja4 ,theophrastus1 on grafting1 #de4 ,thinning in graperies1 #bja4 ,thompson's ,seedless1 #dch4 ,thrips1 #baa4 in graperies1 #bjb4 ,tillage1 #ib4 methods1 #ic4 time to cease1 #ie4 tools for1 #ic4 ,time to plant1 #hd4 ,tokay1 #cde4 ,tongue grafting1 #eb4 ,training1 ,chautauqua method1 #abe4 classification of methods1 #abe4 in eastern ,america1 #abc4 fan-method1 #aca4 in graperies1 #aih4 ,keuka method1 #aci4 ,trellises1 #aai4 ,triumph1 #ddj4 ,tuberosities1 caused by phylloxera1 #ff4 ,turkey ,grape1 #cbj4 ,two-trunk ,kniffin1 #ace4 ,tying1 #abb4 ,typhlocyba comes1 #baa4 ,ulster1 #dda4 ,umbrella ,kniffin1 #acd4 ,uncinula necator1 #bbb4 ,unilateral horizontal cordon1 #aeh4 ,valk1 ,dr41 mentioned1 #bgd4 ,varieties of ,european grapes for eastern ,america1 #aia4 ,varieties resistant to phylloxera1 #fb4 ,verdal1 #ddb4 ,vergennes1 #ddb4 ,vertical canes1 #agd4 cordons1 #age4 ,vinegar from grapes1 #bfi4 ,vines1 nursery versus home grown1 #ei4 pedigreed1 #ei4 rejuvenating old1 #adg4 resistant to phylloxera1 #fa4 young1 care of1 #hg4 ,vineyard grafting1 in eastern ,america1 #de4 on ,pacific slope1 #dh4 ,vineyard1 management1 #gc4 returns in the ,east1 #bdg4 sanitation1 #bbg4 sites1 #cb4 ,vintage1 time of1 #bed4 ,virgil1 on soils1 #bh4 quoted1 #ca1 #cd1 #cg4 ,virginia ,amber1 #cde4 ,vitis1 genus defined1 #cjh4 ,vitis stivalis1 #aa1 #cah4 ,bourquiniana1 #aa1 #cba4 glauca1 #cba4 ,lincecumii1 #ac1 #cbj4 ,berlandieri1 #cah4 bicolor1 #cbb4 candicans1 #cbc4 cordifolia1 #cag4 ,labrusca1 #g1 #cbd4 ,munsoniana1 #cab4 riparia1 #cad4 7,syn4 of ,v4 vulpina47 rotundifolia1 #i1 #caj4 rupestris1 #cac4 vinifera1 #b1 #cbh4 vulpina1 #cad4 ,vulpina grapes1 #ac4 as direct producers1 #ac4 ,wakeman1 ,elbert1 mentioned1 #acf4 ,walter1 #ddc4 ,warren1 #chb1 #dja4 ,warrenton1 #chb4 ,washington1 #cga4 ,water1 influence of1 on climate1 #bc4 ,watering1 at planting1 #hf4 in graperies1 #bjb4 ,water sprouts defined1 #cja4 ,weather data and grape-growing1 #bf4 ,white ,july1 #djb4 ,white ,nice1 for forcing1 #aih4 ,white ,frontignan1 #daf4 ,wilder1 #ddd4 ,wilmington ,red1 #ddh4 ,winchell1 #dde4 ,windbreaks in grape-growing1 #be1 #bg4 ,wine1 aging1 #bec4 crushing grapes for1 #beb4 fermentation of1 #bec4 fining1 #bec4 kinds of1 #bea4 racking1 #bec4 yeasts for1 #bec4 ,wine-grapes1 prices paid for1 #bee4 ,wine-making1 #beb4 ,wire for trellises1 #aba4 ,wire grafting1 #ed4 ,winter ,grape1 #cad1 #cag1 #cah4 ,winter-killing1 #bf4 precautions against1 #bie4 ,winter protection of grapes1 #ahg1 #bid4 cost of1 #bif4 ,winter-pruning1 #aad4 ,woodruff1 #ddf4 ,woodward1 #cia4 ,worden1 #ddf4 ,worthington1 #ae1 #cej4 ,wyoming1 #ddh4 ,wyoming ,red1 #ddh4 ,yields in fertilizer experiments1 #ajj1 #aja4 ,y-trunk ,kniffin training1 #acf4 ,printed in the ,united ,states of ,america4 ,the following pages contain advertisements of a few of the ,macmillan books on kindred subjects4 ,a ,,new ,,rural ,,manual ,,edited ,,by ,l4 ,h4 ,,bailey ,manual of ,tree ,diseases ,,by ,w4 ,,howard ,,rankin1 ,a4,b41 ,,ph4,d4 ,assistant ,professor of ,plant ,pathology ,new ,york ,state ,college of ,agriculture1 at ,cornell ,university ,illustrated1 #abmo1 #b4ej ,the diseases of the more common trees of the ,united ,states are treated in this volume4 ,the discussions of these diseases are grouped into chapters under the common name of the trees affected1 and the chapters are arranged alphabetically4 ,in a general chapter are included discussions of the diseases common to all kinds of trees1 such as samping-off of seedlings1 temperature injuries to leaves and woody parts1 smoke and gas injuries1 wood-rots1 and the like4 ,the species of trees affected1 the geographic distribution1 destructiveness1 and symptoms of the different diseases are presented in full4 ,the aim of the authors has been to furnish a descriptive guide for the diagnosis of tree diseases and the general methods of their control4 ,,contents ,seedling ,diseases and ,injuries2 ,leaf ,diseases and ,injuries2 ,body and ,branch ,diseases and ,injuries2 ,root ,diseases and ,injuries2 ,diseases of3 ,alder2 ,arbor-,vit2 ,ash2 ,bald ,cypress2 ,basswood2 ,beech2 ,birch2 ,buckeye2 ,butternut2 ,catalpa2 ,cedar2 ,chestnut2 ,elm2 ,fir2 ,hackberry2 ,hemlock2 ,hickory2 ,juniper2 ,larch2 ,locust2 ,maple2 ,oak2 ,pine2 ,poplar2 ,spruce2 ,sycamore2 ,walnut2 ,willow4 ,tree ,surgery2 ,spraying and ,dusting for ,leaf ,diseases4 ,,the ,,macmillan ,,company ,publishers #fd-ff ,fifth ,avenue ,new ,york ,a ,,new ,,rural ,,manual ,,edited ,,by ,l4 ,h4 ,,bailey ,manual of ,vegetable-,garden ,insects ,,by ,,cyrus ,,richard ,,crosby ,,and ,,mortimer ,,demarest ,,leonard ,of the ,new ,york ,state ,college of ,agriculture1 at ,cornell ,university ,illustrated1 #abmo1 #b4ej ,this is a practical account of the principal insects which attack truck and vegetable crops1 including cabbages1 cauliflowers1 cucumbers and melons1 asparagus1 potatoes1 tomatoes1 celery and parsnips1 lettuce1 peas1 beans1 beets1 spinach1 sweet-potatoes1 and sweet corn4 ,the life-history and habits of each insect are given1 its injuries described and the methods of control are discussed4 ,a chapter on insecticides gives an account of the more important materials now employed1 with directions for their preparation and use4 ,,contents ,i4 ,general ,considerations4 ,,ii4 ,insects ,injurious to ,cabbage and ,related ,crops4 ,,iii4 ,pea and ,bean ,insects4 ,,iv4 ,beet and ,spinach ,insects4 ,v4 ,insects ,injurious to ,cucumber1 ,squash1 and ,melon4 ,,vi4 ,potato ,insects4 ,,vii4 ,tomato ,insects4 ,,viii4 ,eggplant ,insects4 ,,ix4 ,insects ,injurious to ,carrot1 ,celery1 ,parsnip1 etc4 ,x4 ,asparagus ,insects4 ,,xi4 ,corn ,insects4 ,,xii4 ,sweet ,potato ,insects4 ,,xiii4 ,onion ,insects4 ,,xiv4 ,insects ,injurious to ,minor ,vegetable ,crop4 ,,xv4 ,cut-worms and ,army ,worms4 ,,xvi4 ,blister-,beetles4 ,,xvii4 ,flea-,beetles4 ,,xviii4 ,unclassified ,pests4 ,,xix4 ,insects and ,insecticides4 ,,the ,,macmillan ,,company ,publishers #fd-ff ,fifth ,avenue ,new ,york ,a ,,new ,,volume ,,in ,,the ,,rural ,,science ,,series ,,edited ,,by ,l4 ,h4 ,,bailey ,peach-,growing ,,by ,h4 ,p4 ,,gould ,pomologist in charge of ,fruit ,production ,investigations ,bureau of ,plant ,industry1 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture ,illustrated1 #abmo1 #b4jj ,here is a book which covers the general field of growing peaches and placing them within reach of the consumer4 ,it is practical4 ,it is detailed4 ,it is a handbook for peach-growers of ,north and ,east1 as well as ,south and ,west4 ,peach literature has been notably limited1 except for experiment station bulletins and reports4 ,this book gathers into one compact1 fully illustrated volume the principles and practice of successful peach production4 ,,contents ,i4 ,historical ,notes4 ,,ii4 ,economic ,status and ,extent of the ,peach ,industry4 ,,iii4 ,location and ,site of the ,orchard4 ,,iv4 ,propagation of ,peach ,trees4 ,v4 ,details of ,planting an ,orchard4 ,,vi4 ,orchard ,management4 ,,vii4 ,the ,tillage of ,peach ,orchards4 ,,viii4 ,inter-planted ,crops4 ,,ix4 ,fertilizers for ,peach ,orchards4 ,x4 ,pruning ,peach ,trees4 ,,xi4 ,insect and ,disease ,control4 ,,xii4 ,thinning the ,fruit4 ,,xiii4 ,irrigating ,peaches4 ,,xiv4 ,a ,consideration of ,adverse ,temperatures4 ,,xv4 ,annual ,cost ,factors in ,growing ,peaches4 ,,xvi4 ,peach ,varieties1 ,botany and ,classification4 ,,xvii4 ,picking and ,packing the ,fruit4 ,,xviii4 ,transportation1 ,storage1 ,marketing4 ,,the ,,macmillan ,,company ,publishers #fd-ff ,fifth ,avenue ,new ,york ,the ,standard ,cyclopedia of ,horticulture ,,edited ,,by ,l4 ,h4 ,,bailey ,,with ,,the ,,assistance ,,of ,,over #ejj ,,collaborators ,new edition1 entirely rewritten and enlarged1 with many new features2 with #bd plates in color1 #if full-page half tones1 and over #d1jjj text illustrations4 ,complete in six volumes4 ,sold only in sets4 ,set cloth1 #cf4jj ,leather1 #fj4jj ,the ,standard ,cyclopedia of ,horticulture1 pronounced by experts to be an absolute necessity for every horticulturist and of tremendous value to every type of gardener1 professional and amateur1 is completed4 ,an indispensable work of reference to every one interested in the land and its products1 whether commercially or professionally1 as a student or an amateur1 is the ,boston ,transcript's characterization of it1 while ,horticulture adds that it is very live literature for any one engaged in any department of the horticultural field4 ,this really monumental performance will take rank as a standard in its class4 ,illustrations and text are admirable4444 ,our own conviction is that while the future may bring forth amplified editions of the work1 it will probably never be superseded4 ,recognizing its importance1 the publishers have given it faultless form4 ,the typography leaves nothing to be desired1 the paper is calculated to stand wear and tear1 and the work is at once handsomely and attractively bound4--,new ,york ,daily ,tribune4 ,,the ,,macmillan ,,company ,publishers #fd-ff ,fifth ,avenue ,new ,york