material from the ,google ,print        
project47      ,illustration3 ,dr4      
,maria ,montessori                      
,,dr4 ,,montessori',s                   
,,own ,,handbook                        
,,by                 ,,maria            
,,montessori      ,,author ,,of ,,the   
,,montessori ,,method ,,and             
,,pedagogical ,,anthropology            
,,with ,,forty-,,three ,,illustrations  
,,new ,,york          ,,frederick ,a4   
,,stokes ,,company                      
,,publishers                 ,copyright1
 #aiad1 by          ,,frederick ,a4     
,,stokes ,,company     ,all rights      
reserved1 including that of             
translation into foreign languages      
,,fasc ,may1 #aiad                      
,,to ,,my ,,dear ,,friend               
,,donna ,,maria ,,maraini               
,,marchioness ,,guerrieri-,,gonzaga     
,,who          ,,devotedly ,,and ,,with 
,,sacrifice             ,,has           
,,generously ,,upheld   ,,this ,,work   
,,of ,,education ,,brought ,,to ,,birth 

,,in              ,,our ,,beloved       
,,country                  ,,but        
,,offered          ,,to ,,the ,,children
 ,,of ,,humanity     ,,note ,,by ,,the  
,,author     ,as a result of the        
widespread interest that has been taken 
in my method of child education1 certain
 books have been   issued1 which may    
appear to the general reader to be      
authoritative expositions of the        
,montessori system4 ,i wish   to state  
definitely that the present work1 the   
,english   translation of which has been
 authorised and approved by   me1 is the
 only authentic manual of the           
,montessori method1   and that the only 
other authentic or authorised works of  
mine in the ,english language are ,the  
,montessori ,method1   and ,pedagogical 
,anthropology4                          
,signed3 ,maria ,montessori             
,,preface   ,if a preface is a light    
which should serve to illumine the      
contents of a volume1 ,i choose1 not    
words1 but human figures to illustrate  

this little book intended to enter      
families where children are growing up4 
,i therefore recall here1 as an eloquent
 symbol1 ,helen ,keller and ,mrs4 ,anne 
,sullivan ,macy1 who are1 by their      
example1 both teachers to myself--and1  
before the world1 living documents of   
the miracle in education4  ,in fact1    
,helen ,keller is a marvelous example of
 the phenomenon common to all human     
beings3 the possibility of the          
liberation of the imprisoned spirit of  
man by the education of the senses4     
,here lies the basis of the method of   
education of which the book gives a     
succinct idea4  ,if one only of the     
senses sufficed to make of ,helen       
,keller a woman of exceptional culture  
and a writer1 who better than she proves
 the potency of that method of education
 which builds on the senses8 ,if ,helen 
,keller attained through exquisite      
natural gifts to an elevated conception 
of the world1 who better than she proves
 that in the inmost self of man lies the

 spirit ready to reveal itself8  ,helen1
 clasp to your heart these little       
children1 since they1 above all others1 
will understand you4 ,they are your     
younger brothers3 when1 with bandaged   
eyes and in silence1 they touch with    
their little hands1 profound impressions
 rise in their consciousness1 and they  
exclaim with a new form of happiness3 ,i
 see with my hands4 ,they alone1 then1  
can fully understand the drama of the   
mysterious privilege your soul has      
known4 ,when1 in darkness and in        
silence1 their spirit left free to      
expand1 their intellectual energy       
redoubled1 they become able to read and 
write without having learnt1 almost as  
it were by intuition1 they1 only they1  
can understand in part the ecstasy which
 ,god granted you on the luminous path  
of learning4  ,,maria ,,montessori4     
,,contents                              
,,page  ,,preface                       
vii  ,,introductory ,,remarks           
#a  ,a ,,children',s ,,house            

#i  ,,the ,,method                      
#ag      ,didactic ,material for the    
,education of the ,senses               
#ah      ,didactic ,material for the    
,preparation of ,writing          and   
,arithmetic                             
#ai  ,,motor ,,education                
#bj  ,,sensory ,,education              
#bi  ,,language ,,and ,,knowledge ,,of  
,,the ,,world                           
#fi  ,,freedom                          
#gg  ,,writing                          
#hj      ,exercises for the ,management 
of the ,instrument of          ,writing 
#hf      ,exercises for the ,writing of 
,alphabetical ,signs                #ib 
,,the ,,reading ,,of ,,music            
#ih  ,,arithmetic                       
#ajb  ,,moral ,,factors                 
#aad     ,,illustrations    ,dr4 ,maria 
,montessori                             
,frontispiece   ,,fig4                  
,,facing ,,page   #a4  ,cupboard with   
,apparatus                              
#ab   #b4  ,the ,montessori ,pdometer   

#ac   #c4  ,frames for ,lacing and      
,buttoning                              
#bb   #d4  ,child ,buttoning ,on ,frame 
#bc   #e4  ,cylinders ,decreasing in    
,diameter only                          
#cj   #f4  ,cylinders ,decreasing in    
,diameter and ,height                   
#cj   #g4  ,cylinders ,decreasing in    
,height only                            
#cj   #h4  ,child using ,case of        
,cylinders                              
#ca   #i4  ,the ,tower                  
#ca  #aj4  ,child ,playing with ,tower  
#ca  #aa4  ,the ,broad ,stair           
#cf  #ab4  ,the ,long ,stair            
#cf  #ac4  ,board with ,rough and       
,smooth ,surfaces                       
#cg  #ad4  ,board with ,gummed ,strips  
of ,paper                               
#cg  #ae4  ,wood ,tablets ,differing in 
,weight                              #dg
       ,color ,spools                   
#db  #af4  ,cabinet with ,drawers to    
hold ,geometrical ,insets               
#dd  #ag4  ,set of ,six ,circles        

#dd  #ah4  ,set of ,six ,rectangles     
#de  #ai4  ,set of ,six ,triangles      
#de  #bj4  ,set of ,six ,polygons       
#df  #ba4  ,set of ,six ,irregular      
,figures                                
#df  #bb4  ,set of ,four ,blanks and    
,two ,irregular ,figures                
#dg  #bc4  ,frame to hold ,geometrical  
,insets                              #dh
  #bd4  ,child ,touching the ,insets    
#di  #be4  ,series of ,cards with       
,geometrical ,forms                     
#ed  #bf4  ,sound ,boxes                
#ee  #bg4  ,musical ,bells              
#fj  #bh4  ,sloping ,boards to ,display 
,set of ,metal ,insets                  
#ij  #bi4  ,single ,sandpaper ,letter   
#ij  #cj4  ,groups of ,sandpaper        
,letters                                
#ia  #ca4  ,box of ,movable ,letters    
#id  #cb4  ,the ,musical ,staff         
#ih  #cc4  ,didactic ,material for      
,musical ,reading                       
#ajj  #cd4  ,didactic ,material for     
,musical ,reading                       

#ajj  #ce4  ,didactic ,material for     
,musical ,reading                       
#ajj  #cf4  ,didactic ,material for     
,musical ,reading                       
#aja  #cg4  ,didactic ,material for     
,musical ,reading                       
#aja  #ch4  ,didactic ,material for     
,musical ,reading                       
#aja  #ci4  ,dumb ,keyboard             
#ajb  #dj4  ,diagram ,illustrating ,use 
of ,numerical ,rods                     
#ajg  #da4  ,counting ,boxes            
#aaj  #db4  ,arithmetic ,frame          
#aaj     ,,dr4 ,,montessori',s ,,own    
,,handbook   ,recent years have seen a  
remarkable improvement in the conditions
 of child life4 ,in all civilized       
countries1 but especially in ,england1  
statistics show a decrease in infant    
mortality4  ,related to this decrease in
 mortality a corresponding improvement  
is to be seen in the physical           
development of children2 they are       
physically finer and more vigorous4 ,it 
has been the diffusion1 the             

popularization of science1 which has    
brought about such notable advantages4  
,mothers have learned to welcome the    
dictates of modern hygiene and to put   
them into practice in bringing up their 
children4 ,many new social institutions 
have sprung up and have been perfected  
with the object of assisting children   
and protecting them during the period of
 physical growth4  ,in this way what is 
practically a new race is coming into   
being1 a race more highly developed1    
finer and more robust2 a race which will
 be capable of offering resistance to   
insidious disease4  ,what has science   
done to effect this8 ,science has       
suggested for us certain very simple    
rules by which the child has been       
restored as nearly as possible to       
conditions of a natural life1 and an    
order and a guiding law have been given 
to the functions of the body4 ,for      
example1 it is science which suggested  
maternal feeding1 the abolition of      
swaddling clothes1 baths1 life in the   

open air1 exercise1 simple short        
clothing1 quiet and plenty of sleep4    
,rules were also laid down for the      
measurement of food adapting it         
rationally to the physiological needs of
 the child's life4  ,yet with all this1 
science made no contribution that was   
entirely new4 ,mothers had always nursed
 their children1 children had always    
been clothed1 they had breathed and     
eaten before4  ,the point is1 that the  
same physical acts which1 performed     
blindly and without order1 led to       
disease and death1 when ordered         
rationally were the means of giving     
strength and life4                    99
       99       99       99       99    
,the great progress made may perhaps    
deceive us into thinking that everything
 possible has been done for children4   
,we have only to weigh the matter       
carefully1 however1 to reflect3 ,are our
 children only those healthy little     
bodies which to-day are growing and     
developing so vigorously under our eyes8

 ,is their destiny fulfilled in the     
production of beautiful human bodies8   
,in that case there would be little     
difference between their lot and that of
 the animals which we raise that we may 
have good meat or beasts of burden4     
,man's destiny is evidently other than  
this1 and the care due to the child     
covers a field wider than that which is 
considered by physical hygiene4 ,the    
mother who has given her child his bath 
and sent him in his perambulator to the 
park has not fulfilled the mission of   
the mother of humanity4 ,the hen which  
gathers her chickens together1 and the  
cat which licks her kittens and lavishes
 on them such tender care1 differ in no 
wise from the human mother in the       
services they render4  ,no1 the human   
mother if reduced to such limits devotes
 herself in vain1 feels that a higher   
aspiration has been stifled within her4 
,she is yet the mother of man4          
,children must grow not only in the body
 but in the spirit1 and the mother longs

 to follow the mysterious spiritual     
journey of the beloved one who to-morrow
 will be the intelligent1 divine        
creation1 man4  ,science evidently has  
not finished its progress4 ,on the      
contrary1 it has scarcely taken the     
first step in advance1 for it has       
hitherto stopped at the welfare of the  
body4 ,it must continue1 however1 to    
advance2 on the same positive lines     
along which it has improved the health  
and saved the physical life of the      
children1 it is bound in the future to  
benefit and to reenforce their inner    
life1 which is the real human life4 ,on 
the same positive lines science will    
proceed to direct the development of the
 intelligence1 of character1 and of     
those latent creative forces which lie  
hidden in the marvelous embryo of man's 
spirit4                    99       99  
99       99       99  ,as the child's   
body must draw nourishment and oxygen   
from its external environment1 in order 
to accomplish a great physiological     

work1 the work of growth1 so also the   
spirit must take from its environment   
the nourishment which it needs to       
develop according to its own laws of    
growth4 ,it cannot be denied that the   
phenomena of development are a great    
work in themselves4 ,the consolidation  
of the bones1 the growth of the whole   
body1 the completion of the minute      
construction of the brain1 the formation
 of the teeth1 all these are very real  
labors of the physiological organism1 as
 is also the transformation which the   
organism undergoes during the period of 
puberty4  ,these exertions are very     
different from those put forth by       
mankind in so-called external work1 that
 is to say1 in social production1       
whether in the schools where man is     
taught1 or in the world where1 by the   
activity of his intelligence1 he        
produces wealth and transforms his      
environment4  ,it is none the less true1
 however1 that they are both work4 ,in  
fact1 the organism during these periods 

of greatest physiological work is least 
capable of performing external tasks1   
and sometimes the work of growth is of  
such extent and difficulty that the     
individual is overburdened1 as with an  
excessive strain1 and for this reason   
alone becomes exhausted or even dies4   
,man will always be able to avoid       
external work by making use of the labor
 of others1 but there is no possibility 
of shirking that inner work4 ,together  
with birth and death it has been imposed
 by nature itself1 and each man must    
accomplish it for himself4 ,this        
difficult1 inevitable labor1 this is the
 work of the child4  ,when we say then  
that little children should rest1 we are
 referring to one side only of the      
question of work4 ,we mean that they    
should rest from that external visible  
work to which the little child through  
his weakness and incapacity cannot make 
any contribution useful either to       
himself or to others4  ,our assertion1  
therefore1 is not absolute2 the child in

 reality is not resting1 he is          
performing the mysterious inner work of 
his autoformation4 ,he is working to    
make a man1 and to accomplish this it is
 not enough that the child's body should
 grow in actual size2 the most intimate 
functions of the motor and nervous      
systems must also be established and the
 intelligence developed4  ,the functions
 to be established by the child fall    
into two groups3 7#a7 the motor         
functions by which he is to secure his  
balance and learn to walk1 and to       
coordinate his movements2 7#b7 the      
sensory functions through which1        
receiving sensations from his           
environment1 he lays the foundations of 
his intelligence by a continual exercise
 of observation1 comparison and         
judgment4 ,in this way he gradually     
comes to be acquainted with his         
environment and to develop his          
intelligence4  ,at the same time he is  
learning a language1 and he is faced not
 only with the motor difficulties of    

articulation1 sounds and words1 but also
 with the difficulty of gaining an      
intelligent understanding of names and  
of the syntactical composition of the   
language4  ,if we think of an emigrant  
who goes to a new country ignorant of   
its products1 ignorant of its natural   
appearance and social order1 entirely   
ignorant of its language1 we realize    
that there is an immense work of        
adaptation which he must perform before 
he can associate himself with the active
 life of the unknown people4 ,no one    
will be able to do for him that work of 
adaptation4 ,he himself must observe1   
understand1 remember1 form judgments1   
and learn the new language by laborious 
exercise and long experience4  ,what is 
to be said then of the child8 ,what of  
this emigrant who comes into a new      
world1 who1 weak as he is and before his
 organism is completely developed1 must 
in a short time adapt himself to a world
 so complex8  ,up to the present day the
 little child has not received rational 

aid in the accomplishment of this       
laborious task4 ,as regards the         
psychical development of the child we   
find ourselves in a period parallel to  
that in which the physical life was left
 to the mercy of chance and             
instinct--the period in which infant    
mortality was a scourge4  ,it is by     
scientific and rational means also that 
we must facilitate that inner work of   
psychical adaptation to be accomplished 
within the child1 a work which is by no 
means the same thing as any external    
work or production whatsoever4  ,this is
 the aim which underlies my method of   
infant education1 and it is for this    
reason that certain principles which it 
enunciates1 together with that part     
which deals with the technique of their 
practical application1 are not of a     
general character1 but have special     
reference to the particular case of the 
child from three to seven years of age1 
i4e41 to the needs of a formative period
 of life4  ,my method is scientific1    

both in its substance and in its aim4   
,it makes for the attainment of a more  
advanced stage of progress1 in          
directions no longer only material and  
physiological4 ,it is an endeavor to    
complete the course which hygiene has   
already taken1 but in the treatment of  
the physical side alone4  ,if to-day we 
possessed statistics respecting the     
nervous debility1 defects of speech1    
errors of perception and of reasoning1  
and lack of character in normal         
children1 it would perhaps be           
interesting to compare them with        
statistics of the same nature1 but      
compiled from the study of children who 
have had a number of years of rational  
education4 ,in all probability we should
 find a striking resemblance between    
such statistics and those to-day        
available showing the decrease in       
mortality and the improvement in the    
physical development of children4     ,a
 ,,children',s ,,house   ,the           
,children's ,house is the environment   

which is offered to the child that he   
may be given the opportunity of         
developing his activities4 ,this kind of
 school is not of a fixed type1 but may 
vary according to the financial         
resources at disposal and to the        
opportunities afforded by the           
environment4 ,it ought to be a real     
house2 that is to say1 a set of rooms   
with a garden of which the children are 
the masters4 ,a garden which contains   
shelters is ideal1 because the children 
can play or sleep under them1 and can   
also bring their tables out to work or  
dine4 ,in this way they may live almost 
entirely in the open air1 and are       
protected at the same time from rain and
 sun4  ,the central and principal room  
of the building1 often also the only    
room at the disposal of the children1 is
 the room for intellectual work4 ,to    
this central room can be added other    
smaller rooms according to the means and
 opportunities of the place3 for        
example1 a bathroom1 a dining-room1 a   

little parlor or common-room1 a room for
 manual work1 a gymnasium and rest-room4
  ,the special characteristic of the    
equipment of these houses is that it is 
adapted for children and not adults4    
,they contain not only didactic material
 specially fitted for the intellectual  
development of the child1 but also a    
complete equipment for the management of
 the miniature family4 ,the furniture is
 light so that the children can move it 
about1 and it is painted in some light  
color so that the children can wash it  
with soap and water4 ,there are low     
tables of various sizes and             
shapes--square1 rectangular and round1  
large and small4 ,the rectangular shape 
is the most common as two or more       
children can work at it together4 ,the  
seats are small wooden chairs1 but there
 are also small wicker armchairs and    
sofas4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4           
#a4--;,,cupboard ,,with ,,apparatus4    
,in the working-room there are two      
indispensable pieces of furniture4 ,one 

of these is a very long cupboard with   
large doors4 7,fig4 #a47 ,it is very low
 so that a small child can set on the   
top of it small objects such as mats1   
flowers1 etc4 ,inside this cupboard is  
kept the didactic material which is the 
common property of all the children4    
,the other is a chest of drawers        
containing two or three columns of      
little drawers1 each of which has a     
bright handle 7or a handle of some color
 to contrast with the background71 and a
 small card with a name upon it4 ,every 
child has his own drawer1 in which to   
put things belonging to him4  ,round the
 walls of the room are fixed blackboards
 at a low level1 so that the children   
can write or draw on them1 and pleasing1
 artistic pictures1 which are changed   
from time to time as circumstances      
direct4 ,the pictures represent         
children1 families1 landscapes1 flowers 
and fruit1 and more often ,biblical and 
historical incidents4 ,ornamental plants
 and flowering plants ought always to be

 placed in the room where the children  
are at work4  ,another part of the      
working-room's equipment is seen in the 
pieces of carpet of various colors--red1
 blue1 pink1 green and brown4 ,the      
children spread these rugs upon the     
floor1 sit upon them and work there with
 the didactic material4 ,a room of this 
kind is larger than the customary       
class-rooms1 not only because the little
 tables and separate chairs take up more
 space1 but also because a large part of
 the floor must be free for the children
 to spread their rugs and work upon     
them4  ,in the sitting-room1 or         
club-room1 a kind of parlor in which the
 children amuse themselves by           
conversation1 games1 or music1 etc41 the
 furnishings should be especially       
tasteful4 ,little tables of different   
sizes1 little armchairs and sofas should
 be placed here and there4 ,many        
brackets of all kinds and sizes1 upon   
which may be put statuettes1 artistic   
vases or framed photographs1 should     

adorn the walls2 and1 above all1 each   
child should have a little flower-pot1  
in which he may sow the seed of some    
indoor plant1 to tend and cultivate it  
as it grows4 ,on the tables of this     
sitting-room should be placed large     
albums of colored pictures1 and also    
games of patience1 or various geometric 
solids1 with which the children can play
 at pleasure1 constructing figures1 etc4
 ,a piano1 or1 better1 other musical    
instruments1 possibly harps of small    
dimensions1 made especially for         
children1 completes the equipment4 ,in  
this club-room the teacher may sometimes
 entertain the children with stories1   
which will attract a circle of          
interested listeners4  ,the furniture of
 the dining-room consists1 in addition  
to the tables1 of low cupboards         
accessible to all the children1 who can 
themselves put in their place and take  
away the crockery1 spoons1 knives and   
forks1 table-cloth and napkins4 ,the    
plates are always of china1 and the     

tumblers and water-bottles of glass4    
,knives are always included in the table
 equipment4  ,the ,dressing-room4 ,here 
each child has his own little cupboard  
or shelf4 ,in the middle of the room    
there are very simple washstands1       
consisting of tables1 on each of which  
stand a small basin1 soap and           
nail-brush4 ,against the wall stand     
little sinks with water-taps4 ,here the 
children may draw and pour away their   
water4 ,there is no limit to the        
equipment of the ,children's ,houses    
because the children themselves do      
everything4 ,they sweep the rooms1 dust 
and wash the furniture1 polish the      
brasses1 lay and clear away the table1  
wash up1 sweep and roll up the rugs1    
wash a few little clothes1 and cook     
eggs4 ,as regards their personal toilet1
 the children know how to dress and     
undress themselves4 ,they hang their    
clothes on little hooks1 placed very low
 so as to be within reach of a little   
child1 or else they fold up such        

articles of clothing1 as their little   
serving-aprons1 of which they take great
 care1 and lay them inside a cupboard   
kept for the household linen4           
99       99       99       99       99  
,in short1 where the manufacture of toys
 has been brought to such a point of    
complication and perfection that        
children have at their disposal entire  
dolls' houses1 complete wardrobes for   
the dressing and undressing of dolls1   
kitchens where they can pretend to cook1
 toy animals as nearly lifelike as      
possible1 this method seeks to give all 
this to the child in reality--making him
 an actor in a living scene4            
99       99       99       99       99  
,illustration3 ,,fig #b4--,,the         
,,montessori ,,paedometer4  ,my         
pedometer forms part of the equipment of
 a ,children's ,house4 ,after various   
modifications ,i have now reduced this  
instrument to a very practical form4    
7,fig4 #b47  ,the purpose of the        
pedometer1 as its name shows1 is to     

measure the children4 ,it consists of a 
wide rectangular board1 forming the     
base1 from the center of which rise two 
wooden posts held together at the top by
 a narrow flat piece of metal4 ,to each 
post is connected a horizontal metal    
rod--the indicator--which runs up and   
down by means of a casing1 also of      
metal4 ,this metal casing is made in one
 piece with the indicator1 to the end of
 which is fixed an india-rubber ball4   
,on one side1 that is to say1 behind one
 of the two tall vertical wooden posts1 
there is a small seat1 also of wood4    
,the two tall wooden posts are          
graduated4 ,the post to which the seat  
is fixed is graduated from the surface  
of the seat to the top1 whilst the other
 is graduated from the wooden board at  
the base to the top1 i4e4 to a height of
 #a4e meters4 ,on the side containing   
the seat the height of the child seated 
is measured1 on the other side the      
child's full stature4 ,the practical    
value of this instrument lies in the    

possibility of measuring two children at
 the same time1 and in the fact that the
 children themselves cooperate in taking
 the measurements4 ,in fact1 they learn 
to take off their shoes and to place    
themselves in the correct position on   
the pedometer4 ,they find no difficulty 
in raising and lowering the metal       
indicators1 which are held so firmly in 
place by means of the metal casing that 
they cannot deviate from their          
horizontal position even when used by   
inexpert hands4 ,moreover they run      
extremely easily1 so that very little   
strength is required to move them4 ,the 
little india-rubber balls prevent the   
children from hurting themselves should 
they inadvertently knock their heads    
against the metal indicator4  ,the      
children are very fond of the pedometer4
 ,shall we measure ourselves8 is one of 
the proposals which they make most      
willingly and with the greatest         
likelihood of finding many of their     
companions to join them4 ,they also take

 great care of the pedometer1 dusting   
it1 and polishing its metal parts4 ,all 
the surfaces of the pedometer are so    
smooth and well polished that they      
invite the care that is taken of them1  
and by their appearance when finished   
fully repay the trouble taken4  ,the    
pedometer represents the scientific part
 of the method1 because it has reference
 to the anthropological and             
psychological study made of the         
children1 each of whom has his own      
biographical record4 ,this biographical 
record follows the history of the       
child's development according to the    
observations which it is possible to    
make by the application of my method4   
,this subject is dealt with at length in
 my other books4 ,a series of           
cinematograph pictures has been taken of
 the pedometer at a moment when the     
children are being measured4 ,they are  
seen coming of their own accord1 even   
the very smallest1 to take their places 
at the instrument4     ,,the ,,method   

,the technique of my method as it       
follows the guidance of the natural     
physiological and psychical development 
of the child1 may be divided into three 
parts3    ,motor education4   ,sensory  
education4   ,language4  ,the care and  
management of the environment itself    
afford the principal means of motor     
education1 while sensory education and  
the education of language are provided  
for by my didactic material4  ,the      
didactic material for the education of  
the senses consists of3    7a7 ,three   
sets of solid insets4   7b7 ,three sets 
of solids in graduated sizes1           
comprising3         7#a7 ,pink cubes4   
7#b7 ,brown prisms4         7#c7 ,rods3 
7a7 colored green2 7b7 colored          
alternately             red and blue4   
7c7 ,various geometric solids 7prism1   
pyramid1 sphere1 cylinder1              
cone1 etc474   7d7 ,rectangular tablets 
with rough and smooth surfaces4   7e7 ,a
 collection of various stuffs4   7f7    
,small wooden tablets of different      

weights4   7g7 ,two boxes1 each         
containing sixty-four colored tablets4  
7h7 ,a chest of drawers containing plane
 insets4   7i7 ,three series of cards on
 which are pasted geometrical forms     
in paper4   7k7 ,a collection of        
cylindrical closed boxes 7sounds74   7l7
 ,a double series of musical bells1     
wooden boards on which are              
painted the lines used in music1 small  
wooden discs for           the notes4   
,didactic ,material for the ,preparation
 for ,writing and ,arithmetic    7m7    
,two sloping desks and various iron     
insets4   7n7 ,cards on which are pasted
 sandpaper letters4   7o7 ,two alphabets
 of colored cardboard and           of  
different sizes4   7p7 ,a series of     
cards on which are pasted sandpaper     
figures 7#a1 #b1 #c1 etc474   7q7 ,a    
series of large cards bearing the same  
figures in smooth paper for the         
enumeration           of numbers above  
ten4   7r7 ,two boxes with small sticks 
for counting4   7s7 ,the volume of      

drawings belonging specially            
to the method1 and colored pencils4     
7t7 ,the frames for lacing1 buttoning1  
etc41 which           are used for the  
education of the movements           of 
the hand4     ,,motor ,,education   ,the
 education of the movements is very     
complex1 as it must correspond to all   
the coordinated movements which the     
child has to establish in his           
physiological organism4 ,the child1 if  
left without guidance1 is disorderly in 
his movements1 and these disorderly     
movements are the special characteristic
 of the little child4 ,in fact1 he never
 keeps still1 and touches everything4   
,this is what forms the child's         
so-called unruliness and naughtiness4   
,the adult would deal with him by       
checking these movements1 with the      
monotonous and useless repetition keep  
still4 ,as a matter of fact1 in these   
movements the little one is seeking the 
very exercise which will organize and   
coordinate the movements useful to man4 

,we must1 therefore1 desist from the    
useless attempt to reduce the child to a
 state of immobility4 ,we should rather 
give order to his movements1 leading    
them to those actions towards which his 
efforts are actually tending4 ,this is  
the aim of muscular education at this   
age4 ,once a direction is given to them1
 the child's movements are made towards 
a definite end1 so that he himself grows
 quiet and contented1 and becomes an    
active worker1 a being calm and full of 
joy4 ,this education of the movements is
 one of the principal factors in        
producing that outward appearance of    
discipline to be found in the           
,children's ,houses4 ,i have already    
spoken at length on this subject in my  
other books4  ,muscular education has   
reference to3    ,the primary movements 
of everyday life 7walking1 rising1      
sitting1     handling objects74   ,the  
care of the person4   ,management of the
 household4   ,gardening4   ,manual     
work4   ,gymnastic exercises4           

,rhythmic movements4  ,illustration3    
,,fig4 #c4--;,,frames ,,for ,,lacing    
,,and ,,buttoning4  ,in the care of the 
person the first step is that of        
dressing and undressing4 ,for this end  
there is in my didactic material a      
collection of frames to which are       
attached pieces of stuff1 leather1 etc4 
,these can be buttoned1 hooked1 tied    
together--in fact1 joined in all the    
different ways which our civilization   
has invented for fastening our clothing1
 shoes1 etc4 7,fig4 #c47 ,the teacher1  
sitting by the child's side1 performs   
the necessary movements of the fingers  
very slowly and deliberately1 separating
 the movements themselves into their    
different parts1 and letting them be    
seen clearly and minutely4  ,for        
example1 one of the first actions will  
be the adjustment of the two pieces of  
stuff in such a way that the edges to be
 fastened together touch one another    
from top to bottom4 ,then1 if it is a   
buttoning-frame1 the teacher will show  

the child the different stages of the   
action4 ,she will take hold of the      
button1 set it opposite the buttonhole1 
make it enter the buttonhole completely1
 and adjust it carefully in its place   
above4 ,in the same way1 to teach a     
child to tie a bow1 she will separate   
the stage in which he ties the ribbons  
together from that in which he makes the
 bows4  ,in the cinematograph film there
 is a picture which shows an entire     
lesson in the tying of the bows with the
 ribbons4 ,these lessons are not        
necessary for all the children1 as they 
learn from one another1 and of their own
 accord come with great patience to     
analyze the movements1 performing them  
separately very slowly and carefully4   
,the child can sit in a comfortable     
position and hold his frame on the      
table4 7,fig4 #d47 ,as he fastens and   
unfastens the same frame many times over
 with great interest1 he acquires an    
unusual deftness of hand1 and becomes   
possessed with the desire to fasten real

 clothes whenever he has the            
opportunity4 ,we see the smallest       
children wanting to dress themselves and
 their companions4 ,they go in search of
 amusement of this kind1 and defend     
themselves with all their might against 
the adult who would try to help them4   
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4--;,,child     
,,buttoning ,,on ,,frame4 7,,photo      
,,taken ,,at ,,mr4 ,,hawker',s ,,school 
,,at ,,runton47  ,in the same way for   
the teaching of the other and larger    
movements1 such as washing1 setting the 
table1 etc41 the directress must at the 
beginning intervene1 teaching the child 
with few or no words at all1 but with   
very precise actions4 ,she teaches all  
the movements3 how to sit1 to rise from 
one's seat1 to take up and lay down     
objects1 and to offer them gracefully to
 others4 ,in the same way she teaches   
the children to set the plates one upon 
the other and lay them on the table     
without making any noise4  ,the children
 learn easily and show an interest and  

surprising care in the performance of   
these actions4 ,in classes where there  
are many children it is necessary to    
arrange for the children to take turns  
in the various household duties1 such as
 housework1 serving at table1 and       
washing dishes4 ,the children readily   
respect such a system of turns4 ,there  
is no need to ask them to do this work1 
for they come spontaneously--even little
 ones of two and a half years old--to   
offer to do their share1 and it is      
frequently most touching to watch their 
efforts to imitate1 to remember1 and1   
finally1 to conquer their difficulty4   
,professor ,jacoby1 of ,new ,york1 was  
once much moved as he watched a child1  
who was little more than two years old  
and not at all intelligent in           
appearance1 standing perplexed1 because 
he could not remember whether the fork  
should be set at the right hand or the  
left4 ,he remained a long while         
meditating and evidently using all the  
powers of his mind4 ,the other children 

older than he watched him with          
admiration1 marveling1 like ourselves1  
at the life developing under our eyes4  
,the instructions of the teacher consist
 then merely in a hint1 a touch--enough 
to give a start to the child4 ,the rest 
develops of itself4 ,the children learn 
from one another and throw themselves   
into the work with enthusiasm and       
delight4 ,this atmosphere of quiet      
activity develops a fellow-feeling1 an  
attitude of mutual aid1 and1 most       
wonderful of all1 an intelligent        
interest on the part of the older       
children in the progress of their little
 companions4 ,it is enough just to set a
 child in these peaceful surroundings   
for him to feel perfectly at home4 ,in  
the cinematograph pictures the actual   
work in a ,children's ,house may be     
seen4 ,the children are moving about1   
each one fulfilling his own task1 whilst
 the teacher is in a corner watching4   
,pictures were taken also of the        
children engaged in the care of the     

house1 that is1 in the care both of     
their persons and of their surroundings4
 ,they can be seen washing their faces1 
polishing their shoes1 washing the      
furniture1 polishing the metal          
indicators of the pedometer1 brushing   
the carpets1 etc4 ,in the work of laying
 the table the children are seen quite  
by themselves1 dividing the work among  
themselves1 carrying the plates1 spoons1
 knives and forks1 etc41 and1 finally1  
sitting down at the tables where the    
little waitresses serve the hot soup4   
,again1 gardening and manual work are a 
great pleasure to our children4         
,gardening is already well known as a   
feature of infant education1 and it is  
recognized by all that plants and       
animals attract the children's care and 
attention4 ,the ideal of the ,children's
 ,houses in this respect is to imitate  
the best in the present usage of those  
schools which owe their inspiration more
 or less to ,mrs4 ,latter4  ,for manual 
instruction we have chosen clay work1   

consisting of the construction of little
 tiles1 vases and bricks4 ,these may be 
made with the help of simple            
instruments1 such as molds4 ,the        
completion of the work should be the aim
 always kept in view1 and1 finally1 all 
the little objects made by the children 
should be glazed and baked in the       
furnace4 ,the children themselves learn 
to line a wall with shining white or    
colored tiles wrought in various        
designs1 or1 with the help of mortar and
 a trowel1 to cover the floor with      
little bricks4 ,they also dig out       
foundations and then use their bricks to
 build division walls1 or entire little 
houses for the chickens4  ,among the    
gymnastic exercises that which must be  
considered the most important is that of
 the line4 ,a line is described in chalk
 or paint upon a large space of floor4  
,instead of one line1 there may also be 
two concentric lines1 elliptical in     
form4 ,the children are taught to walk  
upon these lines like tight-rope        

walkers1 placing their feet one in front
 of the other4 ,to keep their balance   
they make efforts exactly similar to    
those of real tight-rope walkers1 except
 that they have no danger with which to 
reckon1 as the lines are only drawn upon
 the floor4 ,the teacher herself        
performs the exercise1 showing clearly  
how she sets her feet1 and the children 
imitate her without any necessity for   
her to speak4 ,at first it is only      
certain children who follow her1 and    
when she has shown them how to do it1   
she withdraws1 leaving the phenomenon to
 develop of itself4  ,the children for  
the most part continue to walk1 adapting
 their feet with great care to the      
movement they have seen1 and making     
efforts to keep their balance so as not 
to fall4 ,gradually the other children  
draw near and watch and also make an    
attempt4 ,very little time elapses      
before the whole of the two ellipses or 
the one line is covered with children   
balancing themselves1 and continuing to 

walk round1 watching their feet with an 
expression of deep attention on their   
faces4  ,music may then be used4 ,it    
should be a very simple march1 the      
rhythm of which is not obvious at first1
 but which accompanies and enlivens the 
spontaneous efforts of the children4    
,when they have learned in this way to  
master their balance the children have  
brought the act of walking to a         
remarkable standard of perfection1 and  
have acquired1 in addition to security  
and composure in their natural gait1 an 
unusually graceful carriage of the body4
 ,the exercise on the line can          
afterwards be made more complicated in  
various ways4 ,the first application is 
that of calling forth rhythmic exercise 
by the sound of a march upon the piano4 
,when the same march is repeated during 
several days1 the children end by       
feeling the rhythm and by following it  
with movements of their arms and feet4  
,they also accompany the exercises on   
the line with songs4  ,little by little 

the music is understood by the children4
 ,they finish1 as in ,miss ,george's    
school at ,washington1 by singing over  
their daily work with the didactic      
material4 ,the ,children's ,house1 then1
 resembles a hive of bees humming as    
they work4  ,as to the little gymnasium1
 of which ,i speak in my book on the    
,method1 one piece of apparatus is      
particularly practical4 ,this is the    
fence1 from which the children hang by  
their arms1 freeing their legs from the 
heavy weight of the body and            
strengthening the arms4 ,this fence has 
also the advantage of being useful in a 
garden for the purpose of dividing one  
part from another1 as1 for example1 the 
flower-beds from the garden walks1 and  
it does not detract in any way from the 
appearance of the garden4     ,,sensory 
,,education   ,illustration3 ,,fig4     
#e4--;,,cylinders ,,decreasing ,,in     
,,diameter ,,only4  ,illustration3      
,,fig4 #f4--;,,cylinders ,,decreasing   
,,in ,,diameter ,,and ,,height4         

,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g4--;,,cylinders 
,,decreasing ,,in ,,height ,,only4  ,my 
didactic material offers to the child   
the means for what may be called sensory
 education4  ,in the box of material the
 first three objects which are likely to
 attract the attention of a little child
 from two and a half to three years old 
are three solid pieces of wood1 in each 
of which is inserted a row of ten small 
cylinders1 or sometimes discs1 all      
furnished with a button for a handle4   
,in the first case there is a row of    
cylinders of the same height1 but with a
 diameter which decreases from thick to 
thin4 7,fig4 #e47 ,in the second there  
are cylinders which decrease in all     
dimensions1 and so are either larger or 
smaller1 but always of the same shape4  
7,fig4 #f47  ,lastly1 in the third case1
 the cylinders have the same diameter   
but vary in height1 so that1 as the size
 decreases1 the cylinder gradually      
becomes a little disc in form4 7,fig4   
#g47  ,the first cylinders vary in two  

dimensions 7the section72 the second in 
all three dimensions2 the third in one  
dimension 7height74 ,the order which ,i 
have given refers to the degree of ease 
with which the child performs the       
exercises4  ,the exercise consists in   
taking out the cylinders1 mixing them   
and putting them back in the right      
place4 ,it is performed by the child as 
he sits in a comfortable position at a  
little table4 ,he exercises his hands in
 the delicate act of taking hold of the 
button with the tips of one or two      
fingers1 and in the little movements of 
the hand and arm as he mixes the        
cylinders1 without letting them fall and
 without making too much noise and puts 
them back again each in its own place4  
,in these exercises the teacher may1 in 
the first instance1 intervene1 merely   
taking out the cylinders1 mixing them   
carefully on the table and then showing 
the child that he is to put them back1  
but without performing the action       
herself4 ,such intervention1 however1 is

 almost always found to be unnecessary1 
for the children see their companions at
 work1 and thus are encouraged to       
imitate them4  ,they like to do it      
alone2 in fact1 sometimes almost in     
private for fear of inopportune help4   
7,fig4 #h47  ,illustration3 ,,fig4      
#h4--;,,child ,,using ,,case ,,of       
,,cylinders4  ,but how is the child to  
find the right place for each of the    
little cylinders which lie mixed upon   
the table8 ,he first makes trials2 it   
often happens that he places a cylinder 
which is too large for the empty hole   
over which he puts it4 ,then1 changing  
its place1 he tries others until the    
cylinder goes in4 ,again1 the contrary  
may happen2 that is to say1 the cylinder
 may slip too easily into a hole too big
 for it4 ,in that case it has taken a   
place which does not belong to it at    
all1 but to a larger cylinder4 ,in this 
way one cylinder at the end will be left
 out without a place1 and it will not be
 possible to find one that fits4 ,here  

the child cannot help seeing his mistake
 in concrete form4 ,he is perplexed1 his
 little mind is faced with a problem    
which interests him intensely4 ,before1 
all the cylinders fitted1 now there is  
one that will not fit4 ,the little one  
stops1 frowning1 deep in thought4 ,he   
begins to feel the little buttons and   
finds that some cylinders have too much 
room4 ,he thinks that perhaps they are  
out of their right place and tries to   
place them correctly4 ,he repeats the   
process again and again1 and finally he 
succeeds4 ,then it is that he breaks    
into a smile of triumph4 ,the exercise  
arouses the intelligence of the child2  
he wants to repeat it right from the    
beginning and1 having learned by        
experience1 he makes another attempt4   
,little children from three to three and
 a half years old have repeated the     
exercise up to forty times without      
losing their interest in it4  ,if the   
second set of cylinders and then the    
third are presented1 the change of shape

 strikes the child and reawakens his    
interest4  ,the material which ,i have  
described serves to educate the eye to  
distinguish difference in dimension1 for
 the child ends by being able to        
recognize at a glance the larger or the 
smaller hole which exactly fits the     
cylinder which he holds in his hand4    
,the educative process is based on this3
 that the control of the error lies in  
the material itself1 and the child has  
concrete evidence of it4  ,the desire of
 the child to attain an end which he    
knows1 leads him to correct himself4 ,it
 is not a teacher who makes him notice  
his mistake and shows him how to correct
 it1 but it is a complex work of the    
child's own intelligence which leads to 
such a result4  ,hence at this point    
there begins the process of             
auto-education4  ,the aim is not an     
external one1 that is to say1 it is not 
the object that the child should learn  
how to place the cylinders1 and that he 
should know how to perform an exercise4 

,the aim is an inner one1 namely1 that  
the child train himself to observe2 that
 he be led to make comparisons between  
objects1 to form judgments1 to reason   
and to decide2 and it is in the         
indefinite repetition of this exercise  
of attention and of intelligence that a 
real development ensues4                
99       99       99       99       99  
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #i4--,,the        
,,tower4  ,the series of objects to     
follow after the cylinders consists of  
three sets of geometrical solid forms3  
7#a7 ,ten wooden cubes colored pink4    
,the sides of the cubes diminish from   
ten centimeters to one centimeter4      
7,fig4 #i47  ,with these cubes the child
 builds a tower1 first laying on the    
ground 7upon a carpet7 the largest cube1
 and then placing on the top of it all  
the others in their order of size to the
 very smallest4 7,fig4 #aj47 ,as soon as
 he has built the tower1 the child1 with
 a blow of his hand1 knocks it down1 so 
that the cubes are scattered on the     

carpet1 and then he builds it up again4 
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aj4--;,,child    
,,playing ,,with ,,tower4 7,,photo      
,,taken ,,at ,,mr4 ,,hawker',s ,,school 
,,at ,,runton47  ,illustration3 ,,fig4  
#aa4--,,the ,,broad ,,stair4            
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ab4--,,the ,,long
 ,,stair4  7#b7 ,ten wooden prisms1     
colored brown4 ,the length of the prisms
 is twenty centimeters1 and the square  
section diminishes from ten centimeters 
a side to the smallest1 one centimeter a
 side4 7,fig4 #aa47  ,the child scatters
 the ten pieces over a light-colored    
carpet1 and then beginning sometimes    
with the thickest1 sometimes with the   
thinnest1 he places them in their right 
order of gradation upon a table4  7#c7  
,ten rods1 colored green1 or alternately
 red and blue1 all of which have the    
same square section of four centimeters 
a side1 but vary by ten centimeters in  
length from ten centimeters to one      
meter4 7,fig4 #ab47  ,the child scatters
 the ten rods on a large carpet and     

mixes them at random1 and1 by comparing 
rod with rod1 he arranges them according
 to their order of length1 so that they 
take the form of a set of organ pipes4  
,as usual1 the teacher1 by doing the    
exercises herself1 first shows the child
 how the pieces of each set should be   
arranged1 but it will often happen that 
the child learns1 not directly from her1
 but by watching his companions4 ,she   
will1 however1 always continue to watch 
the children1 never losing sight of     
their efforts1 and any correction of    
hers will be directed more towards      
preventing rough or disorderly use of   
the material than towards any error     
which the child may make in placing the 
rods in their order of gradation4 ,the  
reason is that the mistakes which the   
child makes1 by placing1 for example1 a 
small cube beneath one that is larger1  
are caused by his own lack of education1
 and it is the repetition of the        
exercise which1 by refining his powers  
of observation1 will lead him sooner or 

later to correct himself4 ,sometimes it 
happens that a child working with the   
long rods makes the most glaring        
mistakes4 ,as the aim of the exercise1  
however1 is not that the rods be        
arranged in the right order of          
gradation1 but that the child should    
practise by himself1 there is no need to
 intervene4  ,one day the child will    
arrange all the rods in their right     
order1 and then1 full of joy1 he will   
call the teacher to come and admire     
them4 ,the object of the exercise will  
thus be achieved4  ,these three sets1   
the cubes1 the prisms1 and the rods1    
cause the child to move about and to    
handle and carry objects which are      
difficult for him to grasp with his     
little hand4 ,again1 by their use1 he   
repeats the training of the eye to the  
recognition of differences of size      
between similar objects4 ,the exercise  
would seem easier1 from the sensory     
point of view1 than the other with the  
cylinders described above4  ,as a matter

 of fact1 it is more difficult1 as there
 is no control of the error in the      
material itself4 ,it is the child's eye 
alone which can furnish the control4    
,hence the difference between the       
objects should strike the eye at once2  
for that reason larger objects are used1
 and the necessary visual power         
presupposes a previous preparation      
7provided for in the exercise with the  
solid insets74                    99    
99       99       99       99           
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ac4--;,,board    
,,with ,,rough ,,and ,,smooth           
,,surfaces4  ,during the same period the
 child can be doing other exercises4    
,among the material is to be found a    
small rectangular board1 the surface of 
which is divided into two parts--rough  
and smooth4 7,fig4 #ac47 ,the child     
knows already how to wash his hands with
 cold water and soap2 he then dries them
 and dips the tips of his fingers for a 
few seconds in tepid water4 ,graduated  
exercises for the thermic sense may also

 have their place here1 as has been     
explained in my book on the ,method4    
,after this1 the child is taught to pass
 the soft cushioned tips of his fingers 
as lightly as possible over the two     
separate surfaces1 that he may          
appreciate their difference4 ,the       
delicate movement backwards and forwards
 of the suspended hand1 as it is brought
 into light contact with the surface1 is
 an excellent exercise in control4 ,the 
little hand1 which has just been        
cleansed and given its tepid bath1 gains
 much in grace and beauty1 and the whole
 exercise is the first step in the      
education of the tactile sense1 which   
holds such an important place in my     
method4  ,when initiating the child into
 the education of the sense of touch1   
the teacher must always take an active  
part the first time2 not only must she  
show the child how it is done1 her      
interference is a little more definite  
still1 for she takes hold of his hand   
and guides it to touch the surfaces with

 the finger-tips in the lightest        
possible way4 ,she will make no         
explanations2 her words will be rather  
to encourage the child with his hand to 
perceive the different sensations4      
,when he has perceived them1 it is then 
that he repeats the act by himself in   
the delicate way which he has been      
taught4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4          
#ad4--;,,board ,,with ,,gummed ,,strips 
,,of ,,paper4  ,after the board with the
 two contrasting surfaces1 the child is 
offered another board on which are      
gummed strips of paper which are rough  
or smooth in different degrees4 7,fig4  
#ad47  ,graduated series of sandpaper   
cards are also given4 ,the child        
perfects himself by exercises in        
touching these surfaces1 not only       
refining his capacity for perceiving    
tactile differences which are always    
growing more similar1 but also          
perfecting the movement of which he is  
ever gaining greater mastery4           
,following these is a series of stuffs  

of every kind3 velvets1 satins1 silks1  
woolens1 cottons1 coarse and fine       
linens4 ,there are two similar pieces of
 each kind of stuff1 and they are of    
bright and vivid colors4  ,the child is 
now taught a new movement4 ,where before
 he had to touch1 he must now feel the  
stuffs1 which1 according to the degree  
of fineness or coarseness from coarse   
cotton to fine silk1 are felt with      
movements correspondingly decisive or   
delicate4 ,the child whose hand is      
already practised finds the greatest    
pleasure in feeling the stuffs1 and1    
almost instinctively1 in order to       
enhance his appreciation of the tactile 
sensation he closes his eyes4 ,then1 to 
spare himself the exertion1 he          
blindfolds himself with a clean         
handkerchief1 and as he feels the       
stuffs1 he arranges the similar pieces  
in pairs1 one upon the other1 then1     
taking off the handkerchief1 he         
ascertains for himself whether he has   
made any mistake4  ,this exercise in    

touching and feeling is peculiarly      
attractive to the child1 and induces him
 to seek similar experiences in his     
surroundings4 ,a little one1 attracted  
by the pretty stuff of a visitor's      
dress1 will be seen to go and wash his  
hands1 then to come and touch the stuff 
of the garment again and again with     
infinite delicacy1 his face meanwhile   
expressing his pleasure and interest4   
99       99       99       99       99  
,a little later we shall see the        
children interest themselves in a much  
more difficult exercise4  ,illustration3
 ,,fig4 #ae4--,,wood ,,tablets          
,,differing ,,in ,,weight4  ,there are  
some little rectangular tablets which   
form part of the material4 7,fig4 #ae47 
,the tablets1 though of identical size1 
are made of wood of varying qualities1  
so that they differ in weight and1      
through the property of the wood1 in    
color also4  ,the child has to take a   
tablet and rest it delicately on the    
inner surfaces of his four fingers1     

spreading them well out4 ,this will be  
another opportunity of teaching delicate
 movements4  ,the hand must move up and 
down as though to weigh the object1 but 
the movement must be as imperceptible as
 possible4 ,these little movements      
should diminish as the capacity and     
attention for perceiving the weight of  
the object becomes more acute and the   
exercise will be perfectly performed    
when the child comes to perceive the    
weight almost without any movement of   
the hands4 ,it is only by the repetition
 of the attempts that such a result can 
be obtained4  ,once the children are    
initiated into it by the teacher1 they  
blindfold their eyes and repeat by      
themselves these exercises of the baric 
sense4 ,for example1 they lay the       
heavier wooden tablets on the right and 
the lighter on the left4  ,when the     
child takes off the handkerchief1 he can
 see by the color of the pieces of wood 
if he has made a mistake4               
99       99       99       99       99  

,a long time before this difficult      
exercise1 and during the period when the
 child is working with the three sorts  
of geometrical solids and with the rough
 and smooth tablets1 he can be          
exercising himself with a material which
 is very attractive to him4  ,this is   
the set of tablets covered with bright  
silk of shaded colors4 ,the set consists
 of two separate boxes each containing  
sixty-four colors2 that is1 eight       
different tints1 each of which has eight
 shades carefully graded4 ,the first    
exercise for the child is that of       
pairing the colors2 that is1 he selects 
from a mixed heap of colors the two     
tablets which are alike1 and lays them  
out1 one beside the other4 ,the teacher 
naturally does not offer the child all  
the one hundred and twenty-eight tablets
 in a heap1 but chooses only a few of   
the brighter colors1 for example1 red1  
blue and yellow1 and prepares and mixes 
up three or four pairs4 ,then1 taking   
one tablet--perhaps the red one--she    

indicates to the child that he is to    
choose its counterpart from the heap4   
,this done1 the teacher lays the pair   
together on the table4 ,then she takes  
perhaps the blue and the child selects  
the tablet to form another pair4 ,the   
teacher then mixes the tablets again for
 the child to repeat the exercise by    
himself1 i4e41 to select the two red    
tablets1 the two blue1 the two yellow1  
etc41 and to place the two members of   
each pair next to one another4  ,then   
the couples will be increased to four or
 five1 and little children of three     
years old end by pairing of their own   
accord ten or a dozen couples of mixed  
tablets4  ,illustration3 ,,color        
,,spools  ,when the child has given his 
eye sufficient practise in recognizing  
the identity of the pairs of colors1 he 
is offered the shades of one color only1
 and he exercises himself in the        
perception of the slightest differences 
of shade in every color4 ,take1 for     
example1 the blue series4 ,there are    

eight tablets in graduated shades4 ,the 
teacher places them one beside another1 
beginning with the darkest1 with the    
sole object of making the child         
understand what is to be done4  ,she    
then leaves him alone to the interesting
 attempts which he spontaneously makes4 
,it often happens that the child makes a
 mistake4 ,if he has understood the idea
 and makes a mistake1 it is a sign that 
he has not yet reached the stage of     
perceiving the differences between the  
graduations of one color4 ,it is        
practise which perfects in the child    
that capacity for distinguishing the    
fine differences1 and so we leave him   
alone to his attempts6  ,there are two  
suggestions that we can make to help    
him4 ,the first is that he should always
 select the darkest color from the pile4
 ,this suggestion greatly facilitates   
his choice by giving it a constant      
direction4  ,secondly1 we can lead him  
to observe from time to time any two    
colors that stand next to each other in 

order to compare them directly and apart
 from the others4 ,in this way the child
 does not place a tablet without a      
particular and careful comparison with  
its neighbor4  ,finally1 the child      
himself will love to mix the sixty-four 
colors and then to arrange them in eight
 rows of pretty shades of color with    
really surprising skill4 ,in this       
exercise also the child's hand is       
educated to perform fine and delicate   
movements and his mind is afforded      
special training in attention4 ,he must 
not take hold of the tablets anyhow1 he 
must avoid touching the colored silk1   
and must handle the tablets instead by  
the pieces of wood at the top and       
bottom4 ,to arrange the tablets next to 
one another in a straight line at       
exactly the same level1 so that the     
series looks like a beautiful shaded    
ribbon1 is an act which demands a manual
 skill only obtained after considerable 
practise4                    99       99
       99       99       99  ,these     

exercises of the chromatic sense lead1  
in the case of the older children1 to   
the development of the color memory4 ,a 
child having looked carefully at a      
color1 is then invited to look for its  
companion in a mixed group of colors1   
without1 of course1 keeping the color he
 has observed under his eye to guide    
him4 ,it is1 therefore1 by his memory   
that he recognizes the color1 which he  
no longer compares with a reality but   
with an image impressed upon his mind4  
,the children are very fond of this     
exercise in color memory2 it makes a    
lively digression for them1 as they run 
with the image of a color in their minds
 and look for its corresponding reality 
in their surroundings4 ,it is a real    
triumph for them to identify the idea   
with the corresponding reality and to   
hold in their hands the proof of the    
mental power they have acquired4        
99       99       99       99       99  
,another interesting piece of material  
is a little cabinet containing six      

drawers placed one above another4 ,when 
they are opened they display six square 
wooden frames in each4 7,fig4 #af47     
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #af4--;,,cabinet  
,,with ,,drawers ,,to ,,hold            
,,geometrical ,,insets4  ,almost all the
 frames have a large geometrical figure 
inserted in the center1 each colored    
blue and provided with a small button   
for a handle4 ,each drawer is lined with
 blue paper1 and when the geometrical   
figure is removed1 the bottom is seen to
 reproduce exactly the same form4  ,the 
geometrical figures are arranged in the 
drawers according to analogy of form4   
7#a7 ,in one drawer there are six       
circles decreasing in diameter4 7,fig4  
#ag47  ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ag4--,,set
 ,,of ,,six ,,circles4  7#b7 ,in another
 there is a square1 together with five  
rectangles in which the length is always
 equal to the side of the square while  
the breadth gradually decreases4 7,fig4 
#ah47  ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ah4--,,set
 ,,of ,,six ,,rectangles4  7#c7 ,another

 drawer contains six triangles1 which   
vary either according to their sides or 
according to their angles 7the          
equilateral1 isosceles1 scalene1 right  
angled1 obtuse angled1 and acute        
angled74 7,fig4 #ai47  ,illustration3   
,,fig4 #ai4--,,set ,,of ,,six           
,,triangles4  7#d7 ,in another drawer   
there are six regular polygons          
containing from five to ten sides1 i4e41
 the pentagon1 hexagon1 heptagon1       
octagon1 nonagon1 and decagon4 7,fig4   
#bj47  ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bj4--,,set
 ,,of ,,six ,,polygons4  7#e7 ,another  
drawer contains various figures3 an     
oval1 an ellipse1 a rhombus1 and a      
trapezoid4 7,fig4 #ba47  ,illustration3 
,,fig4 #ba4--,,set ,,of ,,six           
,,irregular ,,figures4  7#f7 ,finally1  
there are four plain wooden tablets1    
i4e41 without any geometrical inset1    
which should have no button fixed to    
them2 also two other irregular          
geometrical figures4 7,fig4 #bb47       
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bb4--,,set ,,of  

,,four ,,blanks ,,and ,,two ,,irregular 
,,figures4  ,connected with this        
material there is a wooden frame        
furnished with a kind of rack which     
opens like a lid1 and serves1 when shut1
 to keep firmly in place six of the     
insets which may be arranged on the     
bottom of the frame itself1 entirely    
covering it4 7,fig4 #bc47               
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bc4--;,,frame    
,,to ,,hold ,,geometrical ,,insets4     
,this frame is used for the preparation 
of the first presentation to the child  
of the plane geometrical forms4  ,the   
teacher may select according to her own 
judgment certain forms from among the   
whole series at her disposal4  ,at first
 it is advisable to show the child only 
a few figures which differ very widely  
from one another in form4 ,the next step
 is to present a larger number of       
figures1 and after this to present      
consecutively figures more and more     
similar in form4  ,the first figures to 
be arranged in the frame will be1 for   

example1 the circle and the equilateral 
triangle1 or the circle1 the triangle   
and the square4 ,the spaces which are   
left should be covered with the tablets 
of plain wood4 ,gradually the frame is  
completely filled with figures2 first1  
with very dissimilar figures1 as1 for   
example1 a square1 a very narrow        
rectangle1 a triangle1 a circle1 an     
ellipse and a hexagon1 or with other    
figures in combination4  ,afterwards the
 teacher's object will be to arrange    
figures similar to one another in the   
frame1 as1 for example1 the set of six  
rectangles1 six triangles1 six circles1 
varying in size1 etc4  ,this exercise   
resembles that of the cylinders4 ,the   
insets are held by the buttons and taken
 from their places4 ,they are then mixed
 on the table and the child is invited  
to put them back in their places4 ,here 
also the control of the error is in the 
material1 for the figure cannot be      
inserted perfectly except when it is put
 in its own place4 ,hence a series of   

experiments1 of attempts which end in   
victory4 ,the child is led to compare   
the various forms2 to realize in a      
concrete way the differences between    
them when an inset wrongly placed will  
not go into the aperture4 ,in this way  
he educates his eye to the recognition  
of forms4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4        
#bd4--;,,child ,,touching ,,the         
,,insets4 7,,montessori ,,school1       
,,runton47  ,the new movement of the    
hand which the child must coordinate is 
of particular importance4 ,he is taught 
to touch the outline of the geometrical 
figures with the soft tips of the index 
and middle finger of the right hand1 or 
of the left as well1 if one believes in 
ambidexterity4 7,fig4 #bd47 ,the child  
is made to touch the outline1 not only  
of the inset1 but also of the           
corresponding aperture1 and1 only after 
having touched them1 is he to put back  
the inset into its place4  ,the         
recognition of the form is rendered much
 easier in this way4 ,children who      

evidently do not recognize the          
identities of form by the eye and who   
make absurd attempts to place the most  
diverse figures one within the other1 do
 recognize the forms after having       
touched their outlines1 and arrange them
 very quickly in their right places4    
,the child's hand during this exercise  
of touching the outlines of the         
geometrical figures has a concrete guide
 in the object4 ,this is especially true
 when he touches the frames1 for his two
 fingers have only to follow the edge of
 the frame1 which acts as an obstacle   
and is a very clear guide4 ,the teacher 
must always intervene at the start to   
teach accurately this movement1 which   
will have such an importance in the     
future4 ,she must1 therefore1 show the  
child how to touch1 not only by         
performing the movement herself slowly  
and clearly1 but also by guiding the    
child's hand itself during his first    
attempts1 so that he is sure to touch   
all the details--angles and sides4 ,when

 his hand has learned to perform these  
movements with precision and accuracy1  
he will be really capable of following  
the outline of a geometrical figure1 and
 through many repetitions of the        
exercise he will come to coordinate the 
movement necessary for the exact        
delineation of its form4  ,this exercise
 could be called an indirect but very   
real preparation for drawing4 ,it is    
certainly the preparation of the hand to
 trace an enclosed form4 ,the little    
hand which touches1 feels1 and knows how
 to follow a determined outline is      
preparing itself1 without knowing it1   
for writing4  ,the children make a      
special point of touching the outlines  
of the plane insets with accuracy4 ,they
 themselves have invented the exercise  
of blindfolding their eyes so as to     
recognize the forms by touch only1      
taking out and putting back the insets  
without seeing them4                    
99       99       99       99       99  
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #be4--,,series    

,,of ,,cards ,,with ,,geometrical       
,,forms4  ,corresponding to every form  
reproduced in the plane insets there are
 three white cards square in shape and  
of exactly the same size as the wooden  
frames of the insets4 ,these cards are  
kept in three special cardboard boxes1  
almost cubic in form4 7,fig4 #be47  ,on 
the cards are repeated1 in three series1
 the same geometrical forms as those of 
the plane insets4 ,the same measurements
 of the figures also are exactly        
reproduced4  ,in the first series the   
forms are filled in1 i4e41 they are cut 
out in blue paper and gummed on to the  
card2 in the second series there is only
 an outline about half a centimeter in  
width1 which is cut out in the same blue
 paper and gummed to the card2 in the   
third series1 however1 the geometrical  
figures are instead outlined only in    
black ink4  ,by the use of this second  
piece of the material1 the exercise of  
the eye is gradually brought to         
perfection in the recognition of plane  

forms4 ,in fact1 there is no longer the 
concrete control of error in the        
material as there was in the wooden     
insets1 but the child1 by his eye alone1
 must judge of identities of form when1 
instead of fitting the wooden forms into
 their corresponding apertures1 he      
simply rests them on the cardboard      
figure4  ,again1 the refinement of the  
eye's power of discrimination increases 
every time the child passes from one    
series of cards to the next1 and by the 
time that he has reached the third      
series1 he can see the relation between 
a wooden object1 which he holds in his  
hand1 and an outline drawing2 that is1  
he can connect the concrete reality with
 an abstraction4 ,the line now assumes  
in his eyes a very definite meaning2 and
 he accustoms himself to recognize1 to  
interpret and to judge of forms         
contained by a simple outline4  ,the    
exercises are various2 the children     
themselves invent them4 ,some love to   
spread out a number of the figures of   

the geometric insets before their eyes1 
and then1 taking a handful of the cards 
and mixing them like playing cards1 deal
 them out as quickly as possible1       
choosing the figures corresponding to   
the pieces4 ,then as a test of their    
choice1 they place the wooden pieces    
upon the forms on the cards4 ,at this   
exercise they often cover whole tables1 
putting the wooden figures above1 and   
beneath each one in a vertical line1 the
 three corresponding forms of the       
cardboard series4  ,another game        
invented by the children consists in    
putting out and mixing all the cards of 
the three series on two or three        
adjoining tables4 ,the child then takes 
a wooden geometrical form and places it1
 as quickly as possible1 on the         
corresponding cards which he has        
recognized at a glance among all the    
rest4  ,four or five children play this 
game together1 and as soon as one of    
them has found1 for example1 the        
filled-in figure corresponding to the   

wooden piece1 and has placed the piece  
carefully and precisely upon it1 another
 child takes away the piece in order to 
place it on the same form in outline4   
,the game is somewhat suggestive of     
chess4  ,many children1 without any     
suggestion from any one1 touch with the 
finger the outline of the figures in the
 three series of cards1 doing it with   
seriousness of purpose1 interest and    
perseverance4  ,we teach the children to
 name all the forms of the plane insets4
  ,at first ,i had intended to limit my 
teaching to the most important names1   
such as square1 rectangle1 circle4 ,but 
the children wanted to know all the     
names1 taking pleasure in learning even 
the most difficult1 such as trapezium1  
and decagon4 ,they also show great      
pleasure in listening to the exact      
pronunciation of new words and in their 
repetition4 ,early childhood is1 in     
fact1 the age in which language is      
formed1 and in which the sounds of a    
foreign language can be perfectly       

learned4  ,when the child has had long  
practise with the plane insets1 he      
begins to make discoveries in his       
environment1 recognizing forms1 colors1 
and qualities already known to him--a   
result which1 in general1 follows after 
all the sensory exercises4 ,then it is  
that a great enthusiasm is aroused in   
him1 and the world becomes for him a    
source of pleasure4 ,a little boy1      
walking one day alone on the roof       
terrace1 repeated to himself with a     
thoughtful expression on his face1 ,the 
sky is blue6 the sky is blue6 ,once a   
cardinal1 an admirer of the children of 
the school in ,via ,guisti1 wished      
himself to bring them some biscuits and 
to enjoy the sight of a little          
greediness among the children4 ,when he 
had finished his distribution1 instead  
of seeing the children put the food     
hastily into their mouths1 to his great 
surprise he heard them call out1 ,a     
triangle6 a circle6 a rectangle6 ,in    
fact1 these biscuits were made in       

geometrical shapes4  ,in one of the     
people's dwellings at ,milan1 a mother1 
preparing the dinner in the kitchen1    
took from a packet a slice of bread and 
butter4 ,her little four-year-old boy   
who was with her said1 ,rectangle4 ,the 
woman going on with her work cut off a  
large corner of the slice of bread1 and 
the child cried out1 ,triangle4 ,she put
 this bit into the saucepan1 and the    
child1 looking at the piece that was    
left1 called out more loudly than       
before1 ,and now it is a trapezium4     
,the father1 a working man1 who was     
present1 was much impressed with the    
incident4 ,he went straight to look for 
the teacher and asked for an            
explanation4 ,much moved1 he said1 ,if  
,i had been educated in that way ,i     
should not be now just an ordinary      
workman4  ,it was he who later on       
arranged for a demonstration to induce  
all the workmen of the dwellings to take
 an interest in the school4 ,they ended 
by presenting the teacher with a        

parchment they had painted themselves1  
and on it1 between the pictures of      
little children1 they had introduced    
every kind of geometrical form4  ,as    
regards the touching of objects for the 
realization of their form1 there is an  
infinite field of discovery open to the 
child in his environment4 ,children have
 been seen to stand opposite a beautiful
 pillar or a statue and1 after having   
admired it1 to close their eyes in a    
state of beatitude and pass their hands 
many times over the forms4 ,one of our  
teachers met one day in a church two    
little brothers from the school in ,via 
,guisti4 ,they were standing looking at 
the small columns supporting the altar4 
,little by little the elder boy edged   
nearer the columns and began to touch   
them1 then1 as if he desired his little 
brother to share his pleasure1 he drew  
him nearer and1 taking his hand very    
gently1 made him pass it round the      
smooth and beautiful shape of the       
column4 ,but a sacristan came up at that

 moment and sent away those tiresome    
children who were touching everything4  
,the great pleasure which the children  
derive from the recognition of objects  
by touching their form corresponds in   
itself to a sensory exercise4  ,many    
psychologists have spoken of the        
stereognostic sense1 that is1 the       
capacity of recognizing forms by the    
movement of the muscles of the hand as  
it follows the outlines of solid        
objects4 ,this sense does not consist   
only of the sense of touch1 because the 
tactile sensation is only that by which 
we perceive the differences in quality  
of surfaces1 rough or smooth4           
,perception of form comes from the      
combination of two sensations1 tactile  
and muscular1 muscular sensations being 
sensations of movement4 ,what we call in
 the blind the tactile sense is in      
reality more often the stereognostic    
sense4 ,that is1 they perceive by means 
of their hands the form of bodies4  ,it 
is the special muscular sensibility of  

the child from three to six years of age
 who is forming his own muscular        
activity which stimulates him to use the
 stereognostic sense4 ,when the child   
spontaneously blindfolds his eyes in    
order to recognize various objects1 such
 as the plane and solid insets1 he is   
exercising this sense4  ,there are many 
exercises which he can do to enable him 
to recognize with closed eyes objects of
 well defined shapes1 as1 for example1  
the little bricks and cubes of ,froebel1
 marbles1 coins1 beans1 peas1 etc4 ,from
 a selection of different objects mixed 
together he can pick out those that are 
alike1 and arrange them in separate     
heaps4  ,in the didactic material there 
are also geometrical solids--pale blue  
in color--a sphere1 a prism1 a pyramid1 
a cone1 a cylinder4 ,the most attractive
 way of teaching a child to recognize   
these forms is for him to touch them    
with closed eyes and guess their names1 
the latter learned in a way which ,i    
will describe later4 ,after an exercise 

of this kind the child when his eyes are
 open observes the forms with a much    
more lively interest4 ,another way of   
interesting him in the solid geometrical
 forms is to make them move4 ,the sphere
 rolls in every direction2 the cylinder 
rolls in one direction only2 the cone   
rolls round itself2 the prism and the   
pyramid1 however1 stand still1 but the  
prism falls over more easily than the   
pyramid4                    99       99 
99       99       99  ,illustration3    
,,fig4 #bf4--,,sound ,,boxes4  ,little  
more remains of the didactic material   
for the education of the senses4 ,there 
is1 however1 a series of six cardboard  
cylinders1 either closed entirely or    
with wooden covers4 7,fig4 #bf47  ,when 
these cases are shaken they produce     
sounds varying in intensity from loud to
 almost imperceptible sounds1 according 
to the nature of the objects inside the 
cylinder4  ,there is a double act of    
these1 and the exercise consists1 first1
 in the recognition of sounds of equal  

intensity1 arranging the cylinders in   
pairs4 ,the next exercise consists in   
the comparison of one sound with        
another2 that is1 the child arranges the
 six cylinders in a series according to 
the loudness of sound which they        
produce4 ,the exercise is analogous to  
that with the color spools1 which also  
are paired and then arranged in         
gradation4 ,in this case also the child 
performs the exercise seated comfortably
 at a table4 ,after a preliminary       
explanation from the teacher he repeats 
the exercise by himself1 his eyes being 
blindfolded that he may better          
concentrate his attention4  ,we may     
conclude with a general rule for the    
direction of the education of the       
senses4 ,the order of procedure should  
be3  7#a7 ,recognition of identities    
7the pairing of similar objects and the 
insertion of solid forms into places    
which fit them74  7#b7 ,recognition of  
contrasts 7the presentation of the      
extremes of a series of objects74  7#c7 

,discrimination between objects very    
similar to one another4  ,to concentrate
 the attention of the child upon the    
sensory stimulus which is acting upon   
him at a particular moment1 it is well1 
as far as possible1 to isolate the      
sense2 for instance1 to obtain silence  
in the room for all the exercises and to
 blindfold the eyes for those particular
 exercises which do not relate to the   
education of the sense of sight4  ,the  
cinematograph pictures give a general   
idea of all the sense exercises which   
the children can do with the material1  
and any one who has been initiated into 
the theory on which these are based will
 be able gradually to recognize them as 
they are seen practically carried out4  
,it is very advisable for those who wish
 to guide the children in these sensory 
exercises to begin themselves by working
 with the didactic material4 ,the       
experience will give them some idea of  
what the children must feel1 of the     
difficulties which they must overcome1  

etc41 and1 up to a certain point1 it    
will give them some conception of the   
interest which these exercises can      
arouse in them4 ,whoever makes such     
experiments himself will be most struck 
by the fact that1 when blindfolded1 he  
finds that all the sensations of touch  
and hearing really appear more acute and
 more easily recognized4 ,on account of 
this alone no small interest will be    
aroused in the experimenter4            
99       99       99       99       99  
,for the beginning of the education of  
the musical sense1 we use in ,rome a    
material which does not form part of the
 didactic apparatus as it is sold at    
present4 ,it consists of a double series
 of bells forming an octave with tones  
and semitones4 ,these metal bells1 which
 stand upon a wooden rectangular base1  
are all alike in appearance1 but1 when  
struck with a little wooden hammer1 give
 out sounds corresponding to the notes  
doh1 re1 mi1 fah1 soh1 lah1 ti1 doh1 doh
 sharp1 re sharp1 fah sharp1 soh sharp1 

lah sharp4  ,illustration3 ,musical     
,scale 7,chromatic7  ,illustration3     
,,fig4 #bg4--,,musical ,,bells4  ,one   
series of bells is arranged in chromatic
 order upon a long board1 upon which are
 painted rectangular spaces which are   
black and white and of the same size as 
the bases which support the bells4 ,as  
on a pianoforte keyboard1 the white     
spaces correspond to the tones1 and the 
black to the semitones4 7,fig4 #bg47    
,at first the only bells to be arranged 
upon the board are those which          
correspond to the tones2 these are set  
upon the white spaces in the order of   
the musical notes1 doh1 re1 mi1 fah1    
soh1 lah1 ti1 doh4  ,to perform the     
first exercise the child strikes with a 
small hammer the first note of the      
series already arranged 7doh74 ,then    
among a second series of corresponding  
bells which1 arranged without the       
semitones1 are mixed together upon the  
table1 he tries1 by striking the bells  
one after the other1 to find the sound  

which is the same as the first one he   
has struck 7doh74 ,when he has succeeded
 in finding the corresponding sound1 he 
puts the bell thus chosen opposite the  
first one 7doh7 upon the board4 ,then he
 strikes the second bell1 re1 once or   
twice2 then from among the mixed group  
of bells he makes experiments until he  
recognizes re1 which he places opposite 
the second bell of the series already   
arranged4 ,he continues in the same way 
right to the end1 looking for the       
identity of the sounds and performing an
 exercise of pairing similar to that    
already done in the case of the         
sound-boxes1 the colors1 etc4  ,later1  
he learns in order the sounds of the    
musical scale1 striking in rapid        
succession the bells arranged in order1 
and also accompanying his action with   
his voice--doh1 re1 mi1 fah1 soh1 lah1  
ti1 doh4 ,when he is able to recognize  
and remember the series of sounds1 the  
child takes the eight bells and1 after  
mixing them up1 he tries by striking    

them with the hammer1 to find doh1 then 
re1 etc4 ,every time that he takes a new
 note1 he strikes from the beginning all
 the bells already recognized and       
arranged in order--doh1 re1 doh1 re1 mi2
 doh1 re1 mi1 fah2 doh1 re1 mi1 fah1    
soh1 etc4 ,in this way he succeeds in   
arranging all the bells in the order of 
the scale1 guided only by his ear1 and  
having succeeded1 he strikes all the    
notes one after the other up and down   
the scale4 ,this exercise fascinates    
children from five years old upwards4   
,if the objects which have been         
described constitute the didactic       
material for the beginnings of a        
methodical education of the auditory    
sense1 ,i have no desire to limit to    
them an educational process which is so 
important and already so complex in its 
practise1 whether in the long           
established methods of treatment for the
 deaf1 or in modern physiological       
musical education4 ,in fact1 ,i also use
 resonant metal tubes1 small bars of    

wood which emit musical notes1 and      
strings 7little harps71 upon which the  
children seek to recognize the tones    
they have already learned with the      
exercise of the bells4 ,the pianoforte  
may also be used for the same purpose4  
,in this way the difference in timbre   
comes to be perceived together with the 
differences in tone4 ,at the same time  
various exercises1 already mentioned1   
such as the marches played on the piano 
for rhythmic exercises1 and the simple  
songs sung by the children themselves1  
offer extensive means for the           
development of the musical sense4       
99       99       99       99       99  
,to quicken the child's attention in    
special relation to sounds there is a   
most important exercise which1 contrary 
to all attempts made up to this time in 
the practise of education1 consists not 
in producing but in eliminating1 as far 
as possible1 all sounds from the        
environment4 ,my lesson of silence has  
been very widely applied1 even in       

schools where the rest of my method has 
not found its way1 for the sake of its  
practical effect upon the discipline of 
the children4  ,the children are taught 
not to move2 to inhibit all those motor 
impulses which may arise from any cause 
whatsoever1 and in order to induce in   
them real immobility1 it is necessary to
 initiate them in the control of all    
their movements4 ,the teacher1 then1    
does not limit herself to saying1 ,sit  
still1 but she gives them the example   
herself1 showing them how to sit        
absolutely still2 that is1 with feet    
still1 body still1 arms still1 head     
still4 ,the respiratory movements should
 also be performed in such a way as to  
produce no sound4  ,the children must be
 taught how to succeed in this exercise4
 ,the fundamental condition is that of  
finding a comfortable position1 i4e41 a 
position of equilibrium4 ,as they are   
seated for this exercise1 they must     
therefore make themselves comfortable   
either in their little chairs or on the 

ground4 ,when immobility is obtained1   
the room is half-darkened1 or else the  
children close their eyes1 or cover them
 with their hands4  ,it is quite plain  
to see that the children take a great   
interest in the ,silence2 they seem to  
give themselves up to a kind of spell3  
they might be said to be wrapped in     
meditation4 ,little by little1 as each  
child1 watching himself1 becomes more   
and more still1 the silence deepens till
 it becomes absolute and can be felt1   
just as the twilight gradually deepens  
whilst the sun is setting4  ,then it is 
that slight sounds1 unnoticed before1   
are heard2 the ticking of the clock1 the
 chirp of a sparrow in the garden1 the  
flight of a butterfly4 ,the world       
becomes full of imperceptible sounds    
which invade that deep silence without  
disturbing it1 just as the stars shine  
out in the dark sky without banishing   
the darkness of the night4 ,it is almost
 the discovery of a new world where     
there is rest4 ,it is1 as it were1 the  

twilight of the world of loud noises and
 of the uproar that oppresses the       
spirit4 ,at such a time the spirit is   
set free and opens out like the corolla 
of the convolvulus4  ,and leaving       
metaphor for the reality of facts1 can  
we not all recall feelings that have    
possessed us at sunset1 when all the    
vivid impressions of the day1 the       
brightness and clamor1 are silenced8 ,it
 is not that we miss the day1 but that  
our spirit expands4 ,it becomes more    
sensitive to the inner play of emotions1
 strong and persistent1 or changeful and
 serene4      ,it was that hour when    
mariners feel longing1      ,and hearts 
grow tender4                7,dante1    
trans4 ,longfellow47  ,the lesson of    
silence ends with a general calling of  
the children's names4 ,the teacher1 or  
one of the children1 takes her place    
behind the class or in an adjoining     
room1 and calls the motionless children1
 one by one1 by name2 the call is made  
in a whisper1 that is1 without vocal    

sound4 ,this demands a close attention  
on the part of the child1 if he is to   
hear his name4 ,when his name is called 
he must rise and find his way to the    
voice which called him2 his movements   
must be light and vigilant1 and so      
controlled as to make no noise4  ,when  
the children have become acquainted with
 silence1 their hearing is in a manner  
refined for the perception of sounds4   
,those sounds which are too loud become 
gradually displeasing to the ear of one 
who has known the pleasure of silence1  
and has discovered the world of delicate
 sounds4 ,from this point the children  
gradually go on to perfect themselves2  
they walk lightly1 take care not to     
knock against the furniture1 move their 
chairs without noise1 and place things  
upon the table with great care4 ,the    
result of this is seen in the grace of  
carriage and of movement1 which is      
especially delightful on account of the 
way in which it has been brought about4 
,it is not a grace taught externally for

 the sake of beauty or regard for the   
world1 but one which is born of the     
pleasure felt by the spirit in          
immobility and silence4 ,the soul of the
 child wishes to free itself from the   
irksomeness of sounds that are too loud1
 from obstacles to its peace during     
work4 ,these children1 with the grace of
 pages to a noble lord1 are serving     
their spirits4  ,this exercise develops 
very definitely the social spirit4 ,no  
other lesson1 no other situation1 could 
do the same4 ,a profound silence can be 
obtained even when more than fifty      
children are crowded together in a small
 space1 provided that all the children  
know how to keep still and want to do   
it2 but one disturber is enough to take 
away the charm4  ,here is demonstration 
of the cooperation of all the members of
 a community to achieve a common end4   
,the children gradually show increased  
power of inhibition2 many of them1      
rather than disturb the silence1 refrain
 from brushing a fly off the nose1 or   

suppress a cough or sneeze4 ,the same   
exhibition of collective action is seen 
in the care with which the children move
 to avoid making a noise during their   
work4 ,the lightness with which they run
 on tiptoe1 the grace with which they   
shut a cupboard1 or lay an object on the
 table1 these are qualities that must be
 acquired by all1 if the environment is 
to become tranquil and free from        
disturbance4 ,one rebel is sufficient to
 mar this achievement2 one noisy child1 
walking on his heels or banging the     
door1 can disturb the peaceful          
atmosphere of the small community4      
,,language ,,and ,,knowledge ,,of ,,the 
,,world   ,the special importance of the
 sense of hearing comes from the fact   
that it is the sense organ connected    
with speech4 ,therefore1 to train the   
child's attention to follow sounds and  
noises which are produced in the        
environment1 to recognize them and to   
discriminate between them1 is to prepare
 his attention to follow more accurately

 the sounds of articulate language4 ,the
 teacher must be careful to pronounce   
clearly and completely the sounds of the
 word when she speaks to a child1 even  
though she may be speaking in a low     
voice1 almost as if telling him a       
secret4 ,the children's songs are also a
 good means for obtaining exact         
pronunciation4 ,the teacher1 when she   
teaches them1 pronounces slowly1        
separating the component sounds of the  
word pronounced4  ,but a special        
opportunity for training in clear and   
exact speech occurs when the lessons are
 given in the nomenclature relating to  
the sensory exercises4 ,in every        
exercise1 when the child has recognized 
the differences between the qualities of
 the objects1 the teacher fixes the idea
 of this quality with a word4 ,thus1    
when the child has many times built and 
rebuilt the tower of the pink cubes1 at 
an opportune moment the teacher draws   
near him1 and taking the two extreme    
cubes1 the largest and the smallest1 and

 showing them to him1 says1 ,this is    
large2 ,this is small4 ,the two words   
only1 large and small1 are pronounced   
several times in succession with strong 
emphasis and with a very clear          
pronunciation1 ,this is large1 large1   
large2 after which there is a moment's  
pause4 ,then the teacher1 to see if the 
child has understood1 verifies with the 
following tests3 ,give me the large one4
 ,give me the small one4 ,again1 ,the   
large one4 ,now the small one4 ,give me 
the large one4 ,then there is another   
pause4 ,finally1 the teacher1 pointing  
to the objects in turn asks1 ,what is   
this8 ,the child1 if he has learned1    
replies rightly1 ,large1 ,small4 ,the   
teacher then urges the child to repeat  
the words always more clearly and as    
accurately as possible4 ,what is it8    
,large4 ,what8 ,large4 ,tell me nicely1 
what is it8 ,large4  ,large and small   
objects are those which differ only in  
size and not in form2 that is1 all three
 dimensions change more or less         

proportionally4 ,we should say that a   
house is large and a hut is small4 ,when
 two pictures represent the same objects
 in different dimensions one can be said
 to be an enlargement of the other4     
,when1 however1 only the dimensions     
referring to the section of the object  
change1 while the length remains the    
same1 the objects are respectively thick
 and thin4 ,we should say of two posts  
of equal height1 but different          
cross-section1 that one is thick and the
 other is thin4 ,the teacher1 therefore1
 gives a lesson on the brown prisms     
similar to that with the cubes in the   
three periods which ,i have described3  
,period #a4 ,naming4 ,this is thick4    
,this is thin4  ,period #b4             
,recognition4 ,give me the thick4 ,give 
me the thin4  ,period #c4 ,the          
,pronunciation of the ,word4 ,what is   
this8  ,there is a way of helping the   
child to recognize differences in       
dimension and to place the objects in   
correct gradation4 ,after the lesson    

which ,i have described1 the teacher    
scatters the brown prisms1 for instance1
 on a carpet1 says to the child1 ,give  
me the thickest of all1 and lays the    
object on a table4 ,then1 again1 she    
invites the child to look for the       
thickest piece among those scattered on 
the floor1 and every time the piece     
chosen is laid in its order on the table
 next to the piece previously chosen4   
,in this way the child accustoms himself
 always to look either for the thickest 
or the thinnest among the rest1 and so  
has a guide to help him to lay the      
pieces in gradation4  ,when there is one
 dimension only which varies1 as in the 
case of the rods1 the objects are said  
to be long and short1 the varying       
dimension being length4 ,when the       
varying dimension is height1 the objects
 are said to be tall and short2 when the
 breadth varies1 they are broad and     
narrow4  ,of these three varieties we   
offer the child as a fundamental lesson 
only that in which the length varies1   

and we teach the differences by means of
 the usual three periods1 and by asking 
him to select from the pile at one time 
always the longest1 at another always   
the shortest4  ,the child in this way   
acquires great accuracy in the use of   
words4 ,one day the teacher had ruled   
the blackboard with very fine lines4 ,a 
child said1 ,what small lines6 ,they are
 not small1 corrected another2 they are 
thin4  ,when the names to be taught are 
those of colors or of forms1 so that it 
is not necessary to emphasize contrast  
between extremes1 the teacher can give  
more than two names at the same time1   
as1 for instance1 ,this is red4 ,this is
 blue4 ,this is yellow4 ,or1 again1     
,this is a square4 ,this is a triangle4 
,this is a circle4 ,in the case of a    
gradation1 however1 the teacher will    
select 7if she is teaching the colors7  
the two extremes dark and light1 then   
making choice always of the darkest and 
the lightest4  ,many of the lessons here
 described can be seen in the           

cinematograph pictures2 lessons on      
touching the plane insets and the       
surfaces1 in walking on the line1 in    
color memory1 in the nomenclature       
relating to the cubes and the long rods1
 in the composition of words1 reading1  
writing1 etc4  ,by means of these       
lessons the child comes to know many    
words very thoroughly--large1 small2    
thick1 thin2 long1 short2 dark1 light2  
rough1 smooth2 heavy1 light2 hot1 cold2 
and the names of many colors and        
geometrical forms4 ,such words do not   
relate to any particular object1 but to 
a psychic acquisition on the part of the
 child4 ,in fact1 the name is given     
after a long exercise1 in which the     
child1 concentrating his attention on   
different qualities of objects1 has made
 comparisons1 reasoned1 and formed      
judgments1 until he has acquired a power
 of discrimination which he did not     
possess before4 ,in a word1 he has      
refined his senses2 his observation of  
things has been thorough and            

fundamental2 he has changed himself4    
,he finds himself1 therefore1 facing the
 world with psychic qualities refined   
and quickened4 ,his powers of           
observation and of recognition have     
greatly increased4 ,further1 the mental 
images which he has succeeded in        
establishing are not a confused medley2 
they are all classified--forms are      
distinct from dimensions1 and dimensions
 are classed according to the qualities 
which result from the combinations of   
varying dimensions4  ,all these are     
quite distinct from gradations4 ,colors 
are divided according to tint and to    
richness of tone1 silence is distinct   
from non-silence1 noises from sounds1   
and everything has its own exact and    
appropriate name4 ,the child then has   
not only developed in himself special   
qualities of observation and of         
judgment1 but the objects which he      
observes may be said to go into their   
place1 according to the order           
established in his mind1 and they are   

placed under their appropriate name in  
an exact classification4  ,does not the 
student of the experimental sciences    
prepare himself in the same way to      
observe the outside world8 ,he may find 
himself like the uneducated man in the  
midst of the most diverse natural       
objects1 but he differs from the        
uneducated man in that he has special   
qualities for observation4 ,if he is a  
worker with the microscope1 his eyes are
 trained to see in the range of the     
microscope certain minute details which 
the ordinary man cannot distinguish4 ,if
 he is an astronomer1 he will look      
through the same telescope as the       
curious visitor or dilettante1 but he   
will see much more clearly4 ,the same   
plants surround the botanist and the    
ordinary wayfarer1 but the botanist sees
 in every plant those qualities which   
are classified in his mind1 and assigns 
to each plant its own place in the      
natural orders1 giving it its exact     
name4 ,it is this capacity for          

recognizing a plant in a complex order  
of classification which distinguishes   
the botanist from the ordinary gardener1
 and it is exact and scientific language
 which characterizes the trained        
observer4  ,now1 the scientist who has  
developed special qualities of          
observation and who possesses an order  
in which to classify external objects   
will be the man to make scientific      
discoveries4 ,it will never be he who1  
without preparation and order1 wanders  
dreaming among plants or beneath the    
starlit sky4  ,in fact1 our little ones 
have the impression of continually      
making discoveries in the world about   
them2 and in this they find the greatest
 joy4 ,they take from the world a       
knowledge which is ordered and inspires 
them with enthusiasm4 ,into their minds 
there enters the ,creation instead of   
the ,chaos2 and it seems that their     
souls find therein a divine exultation4 
,,freedom   ,the success of these       
results is closely connected with the   

delicate intervention of the one who    
guides the children in their            
development4 ,it is necessary for the   
teacher to guide the child without      
letting him feel her presence too much1 
so that she may be always ready to      
supply the desired help1 but may never  
be the obstacle between the child and   
his experience4  ,a lesson in the       
ordinary use of the word cools the      
child's enthusiasm for the knowledge of 
things1 just as it would cool the       
enthusiasm of adults4 ,to keep alive    
that enthusiasm is the secret of real   
guidance1 and it will not prove a       
difficult task1 provided that the       
attitude towards the child's acts be    
that of respect1 calm and waiting1 and  
provided that he be left free in his    
movements and in his experiences4  ,then
 we shall notice that the child has a   
personality which he is seeking to      
expand2 he has initiative1 he chooses   
his own work1 persists in it1 changes it
 according to his inner needs2 he does  

not shirk effort1 he rather goes in     
search of it1 and with great joy        
overcomes obstacles within his capacity4
 ,he is sociable to the extent of       
wanting to share with every one his     
successes1 his discoveries1 and his     
little triumphs4 ,there is therefore no 
need of intervention4 ,wait while       
observing4 ,that is the motto for the   
educator4  ,let us wait1 and be always  
ready to share in both the joys and the 
difficulties which the child            
experiences4 ,he himself invites our    
sympathy1 and we should respond fully   
and gladly4 ,let us have endless        
patience with his slow progress1 and    
show enthusiasm and gladness at his     
successes4 ,if we could say3 ,we are    
respectful and courteous in our dealings
 with children1 we treat them as we     
should like to be treated ourselves1 we 
should certainly have mastered a great  
educational principle and undoubtedly be
 setting an example of good education4  
,what we all desire for ourselves1      

namely1 not to be disturbed in our work1
 not to find hindrances to our efforts1 
to have good friends ready to help us in
 times of need1 to see them rejoice with
 us1 to be on terms of equality with    
them1 to be able to confide and trust in
 them--this is what we need for happy   
companionship4 ,in the same way children
 are human beings to whom respect is    
due1 superior to us by reason of their  
innocence and of the greater            
possibilities of their future4 ,what we 
desire they desire also4  ,as a rule1   
however1 we do not respect our children4
 ,we try to force them to follow us     
without regard to their special needs4  
,we are overbearing with them1 and above
 all1 rude2 and then we expect them to  
be submissive and well-behaved1 knowing 
all the time how strong is their        
instinct of imitation and how touching  
their faith in and admiration of us4    
,they will imitate us in any case4 ,let 
us treat them1 therefore1 with all the  
kindness which we would wish to help to 

develop in them4 ,and by kindness is not
 meant caresses4 ,should we not call    
anyone who embraced us at the first time
 of meeting rude1 vulgar and ill-bred8  
,kindness consists in interpreting the  
wishes of others1 in conforming one's   
self to them1 and sacrificing1 if need  
be1 one's own desire4 ,this is the      
kindness which we must show towards     
children4  ,to find the interpretation  
of children's desires we must study them
 scientifically1 for their desires are  
often unconscious4 ,they are the inner  
cry of life1 which wishes to unfold     
according to mysterious laws4 ,we know  
very little of the way in which it      
unfolds4 ,certainly the child is growing
 into a man by force of a divine action 
similar to that by which from nothing he
 became a child4  ,our intervention in  
this marvelous process is indirect2 we  
are here to offer to this life1 which   
came into the world by itself1 the means
 necessary for its development1 and     
having done that we must await this     

development with respect4  ,let us leave
 the life free to develop within the    
limits of the good1 and let us observe  
this inner life developing4 ,this is the
 whole of our mission4 ,perhaps as we   
watch we shall be reminded of the words 
of ,him who was absolutely good1 ,suffer
 the little children to come unto ,me4  
,that is to say1 ,do not hinder them    
from coming1 since1 if they are left    
free and unhampered1 they will come4    
,,writing   ,the child who has completed
 all the exercises above described1 and 
is thus prepared for an advance towards 
unexpected conquests1 is about four     
years old4  ,he is not an unknown       
quantity1 as are children who have been 
left to gain varied and casual          
experiences by themselves1 and who      
therefore differ in type and            
intellectual standard1 not only         
according to their natures1 but         
especially according to the chances and 
opportunities they have found for their 
spontaneous inner formation4  ,education

 has determined an environment for the  
children4 ,individual differences to be 
found in them can1 therefore1 be put    
down almost exclusively to each one's   
individual nature4 ,owing to their      
environment which offers means adapted  
and measured to meet the needs of their 
psychical development1 our children have
 acquired a fundamental type which is   
common to all4 ,they have coordinated   
their movements in various kinds of     
manual work about the house1 and so have
 acquired a characteristic independence 
of action1 and initiative in the        
adaptation of their actions to their    
environment4 ,out of all this emerges a 
personality1 for the children have      
become little men1 who are self-reliant4
  ,the special attention necessary to   
handle small fragile objects without    
breaking them1 and to move heavy        
articles without making a noise1 has    
endowed the movements of the whole body 
with a lightness and grace which are    
characteristic of our children4 ,it is a

 deep feeling of responsibility which   
has brought them to such a pitch of     
perfection4 ,for instance1 when they    
carry three or four tumblers at a time1 
or a tureen of hot soup1 they know that 
they are responsible not only for the   
objects1 but also for the success of the
 meal which at that moment they are     
directing4 ,in the same way each child  
feels the responsibility of the silence1
 of the prevention of harsh sounds1 and 
he knows how to cooperate for the       
general good in keeping the environment1
 not only orderly1 but quiet and calm4  
,indeed1 our children have taken the    
road which leads them to mastery of     
themselves4  ,but their formation is due
 to a deeper psychological work still1  
arising from the education of the       
senses4 ,in addition to ordering their  
environment and ordering themselves in  
their outward personalities1 they have  
also ordered the inner world of their   
minds4  ,the didactic material1 in fact1
 does not offer to the child the content

 of the mind1 but the order for that    
content4 ,it causes him to distinguish  
identities from differences1 extreme    
differences from fine gradations1 and to
 classify1 under conceptions of quality 
and of quantity1 the most varying       
sensations appertaining to surfaces1    
colors1 dimensions1 forms and sounds4   
,the mind has formed itself by a special
 exercise of attention1 observing1      
comparing1 and classifying4  ,the mental
 attitude acquired by such an exercise  
leads the child to make ordered         
observations in his environment1        
observations which prove as interesting 
to him as discoveries1 and so stimulate 
him to multiply them indefinitely and to
 form in his mind a rich content of     
clear ideas4  ,language now comes to fix
 by means of exact words the ideas which
 the mind has acquired4 ,these words are
 few in number and have reference1 not  
to separate objects1 but rather to the  
order of the ideas which have been      
formed in the mind4 ,in this way the    

children are able to find themselves1   
alike in the world of natural things and
 in the world of objects and of words   
which surround them1 for they have an   
inner guide which leads them to become  
active and intelligent explorers instead
 of wandering wayfarers in an unknown   
land4  ,these are the children who1 in a
 short space of time1 sometimes in a few
 days1 learn to write and to perform the
 first operations of arithmetic4 ,it is 
not a fact that children in general can 
do it1 as many have believed4 ,it is not
 a case of giving my material for       
writing to unprepared children and of   
awaiting the miracle4  ,the fact is that
 the minds and hands of our children are
 already prepared for writing1 and ideas
 of quantity1 of identity1 of           
differences1 and of gradation1 which    
form the bases of all calculation1 have 
been maturing for a long time in them4  
,one might say that all their previous  
education is a preparation for the first
 stages of essential culture--writing1  

reading1 and number1 and that knowledge 
comes as an easy1 spontaneous1 and      
logical consequence of the              
preparation--that it is in fact its     
natural conclusion4  ,we have already   
seen that the purpose of the word is to 
fix ideas and to facilitate the         
elementary comprehension of things4 ,in 
the same way writing and arithmetic now 
fix the complex inner acquisitions of   
the mind1 which proceeds henceforward   
continually to enrich itself by fresh   
observations4                    99     
99       99       99       99  ,our     
children have long been preparing the   
hand for writing4 ,throughout all the   
sensory exercises the hand1 whilst      
cooperating with the mind in its        
attainments and in its work of          
formation1 was preparing its own future4
 ,when the hand learned to hold itself  
lightly suspended over a horizontal     
surface in order to touch rough and     
smooth1 when it took the cylinders of   
the solid insets and placed them in     

their apertures1 when with two fingers  
it touched the outlines of the          
geometrical forms1 it was coordinating  
movements1 and the child is now         
ready--almost impatient to use them in  
the fascinating synthesis of writing4   
,the direct preparation for writing also
 consists in exercises of the movements 
of the hand4 ,there are two series of   
exercises1 very different from one      
another4 ,i have analyzed the movements 
which are connected with writing1 and ,i
 prepare them separately one from the   
other4 ,when we write1 we perform a     
movement for the management of the      
instrument of writing1 a movement which 
generally acquires an individual        
character1 so that a person's           
handwriting can be recognized1 and1 in  
certain medical cases1 changes in the   
nervous system can be traced by the     
corresponding alterations in the        
handwriting4 ,in fact1 it is from the   
handwriting that specialists in that    
subject would interpret the moral       

character of individuals4  ,writing has1
 besides this1 a general character1     
which has reference to the form of the  
alphabetical signs4  ,when a man writes 
he combines these two parts1 but they   
actually exist as the component parts of
 a single product and can be prepared   
apart4   ,exercises for the ,management 
of the ,instrument of ,writing  7,,the  
,,individual ,,part7  ,in the didactic  
material there are two sloping wooden   
boards1 on each of which stand five     
square metal frames1 colored pink4 ,in  
each of these is inserted a blue        
geometrical figure similar to the       
geometrical insets and provided with a  
small button for a handle4 ,with this   
material we use a box of ten colored    
pencils and a little book of designs    
which ,i have prepared after five years'
 experience of observing the children4  
,i have chosen and graduated the designs
 according to the use which the children
 made of them4  ,the two sloping boards 
are set side by side1 and on them are   

placed ten complete insets1 that is to  
say1 the frames with the geometrical    
figures4 7,fig4 #bh47 ,the child is     
given a sheet of white paper and the box
 of ten colored pencils4 ,he will then  
choose one of the ten metal insets1     
which are arranged in an attractive line
 at a certain distance from him4 ,the   
child is taught the following process3  
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bh4--,,sloping   
,,boards ,,to ,,display ,,set ,,of      
,,metal ,,insets4  ,he lays the frame of
 the iron inset on the sheet of paper1  
and1 holding it down firmly with one    
hand1 he follows with a colored pencil  
the interior outline which describes a  
geometrical figure4 ,then he lifts the  
square frame1 and finds drawn upon the  
paper an enclosed geometrical form1 a   
triangle1 a circle1 a hexagon1 etc4 ,the
 child has not actually performed a new 
exercise1 because he had already        
performed all these movements when he   
touched the wooden plane insets4 ,the   
only new feature of the exercise is that

 he follows the outlines no longer      
directly with his finger1 but through   
the medium of a pencil4 ,that is1 he    
draws1 he leaves a trace of his         
movement4  ,the child finds this        
exercise easy and most interesting1 and1
 as soon as he has succeeded in making  
the first outline1 he places above it   
the piece of blue metal corresponding to
 it4 ,this is an exercise exactly       
similar to that which he performed when 
he placed the wooden geometrical figures
 upon the cards of the third series1    
where the figures are only contained by 
a simple line4  ,this time1 however1    
when the action of placing the form upon
 the outline is performed1 the child    
takes another colored pencil and draws  
the outline of the blue metal figure4   
,when he raises it1 if the drawing is   
well done1 he finds upon the paper a    
geometrical figure contained by two     
outlines in colors1 and1 if the colors  
have been well chosen1 the result is    
very attractive1 and the child1 who has 

already had a considerable education of 
the chromatic sense is keenly interested
 in it4  ,these may seem unnecessary    
details1 but1 as a matter of fact1 they 
are all-important4 ,for instance1 if1   
instead of arranging the ten metal      
insets in a row1 the teacher distributes
 them among the children without thus   
exhibiting them1 the child's exercises  
are much limited4 ,when1 on the other   
hand1 the insets are exhibited before   
his eyes1 he feels the desire to draw   
them all one after the other1 and the   
number of exercises is increased4  ,the 
two colored outlines rouse the desire of
 the child to see another combination of
 colors and then to repeat the          
experience4 ,the variety of the objects 
and the colors are therefore an         
inducement to work and hence to final   
success4  ,here the actual preparatory  
movement for writing begins4 ,when the  
child has drawn the figure in double    
outline1 he takes hold of a pencil like 
a pen for writing1 and draws marks up   

and down until he has completely filled 
the figure4 ,in this way a definite     
filled-in figure remains on the paper1  
similar to the figures on the cards of  
the first series4 ,this figure can be in
 any of the ten colors4 ,at first the   
children fill in the figures very       
clumsily without regard for the         
outlines1 making very heavy lines and   
not keeping them parallel4 ,little by   
little1 however1 the drawings improve1  
in that they keep within the outlines1  
and the lines increase in number1 grow  
finer1 and are parallel to one another4 
,when the child has begun these         
exercises1 he is seized with a desire to
 continue them1 and he never tires of   
drawing the outlines of the figures and 
then filling them in4 ,each child       
suddenly becomes the possessor of a     
considerable number of drawings1 and he 
treasures them up in his own little     
drawer4 ,in this way he organizes the   
movement of writing1 which brings him to
 the management of the pen4 ,this       

movement in ordinary methods is         
represented by the wearisome pothook    
connected with the first laborious and  
tedious attempts at writing4  ,the      
organization of this movement1 which    
began from the guidance of a piece of   
metal1 is as yet rough and imperfect1   
and the child now passes on to the      
filling in of the prepared designs in   
the little album4 ,the leaves are taken 
from the book one by one in the order of
 progression in which they are arranged1
 and the child fills in the prepared    
designs with colored pencils in the same
 way as before4 ,here the choice of the 
colors is another intelligent occupation
 which encourages the child to multiply 
the tasks4 ,he chooses the colors by    
himself and with much taste4 ,the       
delicacy of the shades which he chooses 
and the harmony with which he arranges  
them in these designs show us that the  
common belief1 that children love bright
 and glaring colors1 has been the result
 of observation of children without     

education1 who have been abandoned to   
the rough and harsh experiences of an   
environment unfitted for them4  ,the    
education of the chromatic sense becomes
 at this point of a child's development 
the lever which enables him to become   
possessed of a firm1 bold and beautiful 
handwriting4  ,the drawings lend        
themselves to limiting1 in very many    
ways1 the length of the strokes with    
which they are filled in4 ,the child    
will have to fill in geometrical        
figures1 both large and small1 of a     
pavement design1 or flowers and leaves1 
or the various details of an animal or  
of a landscape4 ,in this way the hand   
accustoms itself1 not only to perform   
the general action1 but also to confine 
the movement within all kinds of limits4
  ,hence the child is preparing himself 
to write in a handwriting either large  
or small4 ,indeed1 later on he will     
write as well between the wide lines on 
a blackboard as between the narrow1     
closely ruled lines of an exercise book1

 generally used by much older children4 
,the number of exercises which the child
 performs with the drawings is          
practically unlimited4 ,he will often   
take another colored pencil and draw    
over again the outlines of the figure   
already filled in with color4 ,a help to
 the continuation of the exercise is to 
be found in the further education of the
 chromatic sense1 which the child       
acquires by painting the same designs in
 water-colors4 ,later he mixes colors   
for himself until he can imitate the    
colors of nature1 or create the delicate
 tints which his own imagination        
desires4 ,it is not possible1 however1  
to speak of all this in detail within   
the limits of this small work4          
,exercises for the ,writing of          
,alphabetical ,signs  ,illustration3    
,,fig4 #bi4--,,single ,,sandpaper       
,,letter4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4        
#cj4--;,,groups ,,of ,,sandpaper        
,,letters4  ,in the didactic material   
there are series of boxes which contain 

the alphabetical signs4 ,at this point  
we take those cards which are covered   
with very smooth paper1 to which is     
gummed a letter of the alphabet cut out 
in sandpaper4 7,fig4 #bi47 ,there are   
also large cards on which are gummed    
several letters1 grouped together       
according to analogy of form4 7,fig4    
#cj47  ,the children have to touch over 
the alphabetical signs as though they   
were writing4 ,they touch them with the 
tips of the index and middle fingers in 
the same way as when they touched the   
wooden insets1 and with the hand raised 
as when they lightly touched the rough  
and smooth surfaces4 ,the teacher       
herself touches the letters to show the 
child how the movement should be        
performed1 and the child1 if he has had 
much practise in touching the wooden    
insets1 imitates her with ease and      
pleasure4 ,without the previous         
practise1 however1 the child's hand does
 not follow the letter with accuracy1   
and it is most interesting to make close

 observations of the children in order  
to understand the importance of a remote
 motor preparation for writing1 and also
 to realize the immense strain which we 
impose upon the children when we set    
them to write directly without a        
previous motor education of the hand4   
,the child finds great pleasure in      
touching the sandpaper letters4 ,it is  
an exercise by which he applies to a new
 attainment the power he has already    
acquired through exercising the sense of
 touch4 ,whilst the child touches a     
letter1 the teacher pronounces its      
sound1 and she uses for the lesson the  
usual three periods4 ,thus1 for example1
 presenting the two vowels i1 o1 she    
will have the child touch them slowly   
and accurately1 and repeat their        
relative sounds one after the other as  
the child touches them1 i1 i1 i6 o1 o1  
o6 ,then she will say to the child3     
,give me i6 ,give me o6 ,finally1 she   
will ask the question3 ,what is this8   
,to which the child replies1 i1 o4 ,she 

proceeds in the same way through all the
 other letters1 giving1 in the case of  
the consonants1 not the name1 but only  
the sound4 ,the child then touches the  
letters by himself over and over again1 
either on the separate cards or on the  
large cards on which several letters are
 gummed1 and in this way he establishes 
the movements necessary for tracing the 
alphabetical signs4 ,at the same time he
 retains the visual image of the letter4
 ,this process forms the first          
preparation1 not only for writing1 but  
also for reading1 because it is evident 
that when the child touches the letters 
he performs the movement corresponding  
to the writing of them1 and1 at the same
 time1 when he recognizes them by sight 
he is reading the alphabet4  ,the child 
has thus prepared1 in effect1 all the   
necessary movements for writing2        
therefore he can write4 ,this important 
conquest is the result of a long period 
of inner formation of which the child is
 not clearly aware4 ,but a day will     

come--very soon--when he will write1 and
 that will be a day of great surprise   
for him--the wonderful harvest of an    
unknown sowing4                    99   
99       99       99       99           
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ca4--;,,box ,,of 
,,movable ,,letters4  ,the alphabet of  
movable letters cut out in pink and blue
 cardboard1 and kept in a special box   
with compartments1 serves for the       
composition of words4 7,fig4 #ca47  ,in 
a phonetic language1 like ,italian1 it  
is enough to pronounce clearly the      
different component sounds of a word    
7as1 for example1 m-a-n-o71 so that the 
child whose ear is already educated may 
recognize one by one the component      
sounds4 ,then he looks in the movable   
alphabet for the signs corresponding to 
each separate sound1 and lays them one  
beside the other1 thus composing the    
word 7for instance1 mano74 ,gradually he
 will become able to do the same thing  
with words of which he thinks himself2  
he succeeds in breaking them up into    

their component sounds1 and in          
translating them into a row of signs4   
,when the child has composed the words  
in this way1 he knows how to read them4 
,in this method1 therefore1 all the     
processes leading to writing include    
reading as well4  ,if the language is   
not phonetic1 the teacher can compose   
separate words with the movable         
alphabet1 and then pronounce them1      
letting the child repeat by himself the 
exercise of arranging and rereading     
them4  ,in the material there are two   
movable alphabets4 ,one of them consists
 of larger letters1 and is divided into 
two boxes1 each of which contains the   
vowels4 ,this is used for the first     
exercises1 in which the child needs very
 large objects in order to recognize the
 letters4 ,when he is acquainted with   
one half of the consonants he can begin 
to compose words1 even though he is     
dealing with one part only of the       
alphabet4  ,the other movable alphabet  
has smaller letters and is contained in 

a single box4 ,it is given to children  
who have made their first attempts at   
composition with words1 and already know
 the complete alphabet4  ,it is after   
these exercises with the movable        
alphabet that the child is able to write
 entire words4 ,this phenomenon         
generally occurs unexpectedly1 and then 
a child who has never yet traced a      
stroke or a letter on paper writes      
several words in succession4 ,from that 
moment he continues to write1 always    
gradually perfecting himself4 ,this     
spontaneous writing takes on the        
characteristics of a natural phenomenon1
 and the child who has begun to write   
the first word will continue to write in
 the same way as he spoke after         
pronouncing the first word1 and as he   
walked after having taken the first     
step4 ,the same course of inner         
formation through which the phenomenon  
of writing appeared is the course of his
 future progress1 of his growth to      
perfection4 ,the child prepared in this 

way has entered upon a course of        
development through which he will pass  
as surely as the growth of the body and 
the development of the natural functions
 have passed through their course of    
development when life has once been     
established4  ,for the interesting and  
very complex phenomena relating to the  
development of writing and then of      
reading1 see my larger works4     ,,the 
,,reading ,,of ,,music   ,illustration3 
,,fig4 #cb4--,,the ,,musical ,,staff4,a 
-----    ,a ,the single staff is used in
 the ,conservatoire of ,milan and       
utilized in the ,perlasca method4  -----
  ,when the child knows how to read1 he 
can make a first application of this    
knowledge to the reading of the names of
 musical notes4  ,in connection with the
 material for sensory education1        
consisting of the series of bells1 we   
use a didactic material1 which serves as
 an introduction to musical reading4    
,for this purpose we have1 in the first 
place1 a wooden board1 not very long1   

and painted pale green4 ,on this board  
the staff is cut out in black1 and in   
every line and space are cut round      
holes1 inside each of which is written  
the name of the note in its reference to
 the treble clef4  ,there is also a     
series of little white discs which can  
be fitted into the holes4 ,on one side  
of each disc is written the name of the 
note 7doh1 re1 mi1 fah1 soh1 lah1 ti1   
doh74  ,the child1 guided by the name   
written on the discs1 puts them1 with   
the name uppermost1 in their right      
places on the board and then reads the  
names of the notes4 ,this exercise he   
can do by himself1 and he learns the    
position of each note on the staff4     
,another exercise which the child can do
 at the same time is to place the disc  
bearing the name of the note on the     
rectangular base of the corresponding   
bell1 whose sound he has already learned
 to recognize by ear in the sensorial   
exercise described above4               
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ci4--;,,dumb     

,,keyboard4  ,following this exercise   
there is another staff made on a board  
of green wood1 which is longer than the 
other and has neither indentures nor    
signs4 ,a considerable number of discs1 
on one side of which are written the    
names of the notes1 is at the disposal  
of the child4 ,he takes up a disc at    
random1 reads its name and places it on 
the staff1 with the name underneath1 so 
that the white face of the disc shows on
 the top4 ,by the repetition of this    
exercise the child is enabled to arrange
 many discs on the same line or in the  
same space4 ,when he has finished1 he   
turns them all over so that the names   
are outside1 and so finds out if he has 
made mistakes4 ,after learning the      
treble clef the child passes on to learn
 the bass with great ease4  ,to the     
staff described above can be added      
another similar to it1 arranged as is   
shown in the figure4 7,fig4 #cb47 ,the  
child beginning with doh1 lays the discs
 on the board in ascending order in     

their right position until the octave is
 reached3 doh1 re1 mi1 fah1 soh1 lah1   
ti1 doh4 ,then he descends the scale in 
the same way1 returning to doh1 but     
continuing to place the discs always to 
the right3 soh1 fah1 mi1 re1 doh4 ,in   
this way he forms an angle4 ,at this    
point he descends again to the lower    
staff1 ti1 lah1 soh1 fah1 mi1 re1 doh1  
then he ascends again on the other side3
 re1 mi1 fah1 soh1 lah1 ti1 and by      
forming with his two lines of discs     
another angle in the bass1 he has       
completed a rhombus1 the rhombus of the 
notes4  ,after the discs have been      
arranged in this way1 the upper staff is
 separated from the lower4 ,in the lower
 the notes are arranged according to the
 bass clef4 ,in this way the first      
elements of musical reading are         
presented to the child1 reading which   
corresponds to sounds with which the    
child's ear is already acquainted4  ,for
 a first practical application of this  
knowledge we have used in our schools a 

miniature pianoforte keyboard1 which    
reproduces the essentials of this       
instrument1 although in a simplified    
form1 and so that they are visible4 ,two
 octaves only are reproduced1 and the   
keys1 which are small1 are proportioned 
to the hand of a little child of four or
 five years1 as the keys of the common  
piano are proportioned to those of the  
adult4 ,all the mechanism of the key is 
visible4 7,fig4 #ci47 ,on striking a key
 one sees the hammer rise1 on which is  
written the name of the note4 ,the      
hammers are black and white1 like the   
notes4  ,with this instrument it is very
 easy for the child to practise alone1  
finding the notes on the keyboard       
corresponding to some bar of written    
music1 and following the movements of   
the fingers made in playing the piano4  
,the keyboard in itself is mute1 but a  
series of resonant tubes1 resembling a  
set of organ-pipes1 can be applied to   
the upper surface1 so that the hammers  
striking these produce musical notes    

corresponding to the keys struck4 ,the  
child can then pursue his exercises with
 the control of the musical sounds4     
,,didactic ,,material ,,for ,,musical   
,,reading4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cc4  
,on the wooden board1 round spaces are  
cut out corresponding to the notes4     
,inside each of the spaces there is a   
figure4 ,on one side of each of the     
discs is written a number and on the    
other the name of the note4 ,they are   
fitted by the child into the            
corresponding places4  ,illustration3   
,,fig4 #cd4  ,the child next arranged   
the discs in the notes cut out on the   
staff1 but there are no longer numbers  
written to help him find the places4    
,instead1 he must try to remember the   
place of the note on the staff4 ,if he  
is not sure he consults the numbered    
board 7,fig4 #cc74  ,illustration3      
,,fig4 #ce4  ,the child arranged on the 
staff the semitones in the spaces which 
remain where the discs are far apart3   
do-re1 re-mi1 fah-soh1 soh-la1 la-ti4   

,the discs for the semitones have the   
sharp on one side and the flat on the   
other1 e4g41 resharp-miflat are written 
on the opposite sides of the same disc4 
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cf4  ,the        
children take a large number of discs   
and arrange them on the staff1 leaving  
uppermost the side which is blank1 i4e41
 the side on which the name of the note 
is not written4 ,then they verify their 
work by turning the discs over and      
reading the name4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4
 #cg4  ,the double staff is formed by   
putting the two staves together4 ,the   
children arrange the notes in the form  
of a rhombus4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4    
#ch4  ,the two boards are then separated
 and the notes remain arranged according
 to the treble and bass clefs4 ,the     
corresponding key signatures are then   
placed upon the two different staves4   
,,arithmetic   ,the children possess all
 the instinctive knowledge necessary as 
a preparation for clear ideas on        
numeration4 ,the idea of quantity was   

inherent in all the material for the    
education of the senses3 longer1        
shorter1 darker1 lighter4 ,the          
conception of identity and of difference
 formed part of the actual technique of 
the education of the senses1 which began
 with the recognition of identical      
objects1 and continued with the         
arrangement in gradation of similar     
objects4 ,i will make a special         
illustration of the first exercise with 
the solid insets1 which can be done even
 by a child of two and a half4 ,when he 
makes a mistake by putting a cylinder in
 a hole too large for it1 and so leaves 
one cylinder without a place1 he        
instinctively absorbs the idea of the   
absence of one from a continuous series4
 ,the child's mind is not prepared for  
number by certain preliminary ideas1    
given in haste by the teacher1 but has  
been prepared for it by a process of    
formation1 by a slow building up of     
itself4  ,to enter directly upon the    
teaching of arithmetic1 we must turn to 

the same didactic material used for the 
education of the senses4  ,let us look  
at the three sets of material which are 
presented after the exercises with the  
solid insets1 i4e41 the material for    
teaching size 7the pink cubes71         
thickness 7the brown prisms71 and length
 7the green rods74 ,there is a definite 
relation between the ten pieces of each 
series4 ,in the material for length the 
shortest piece is a unit of measurement 
for all the rest2 the second piece is   
double the first1 the third is three    
times the first1 etc41 and1 whilst the  
scale of length increases by ten        
centimeters for each piece1 the other   
dimensions remain constant 7i4e41 the   
rods all have the same section74  ,the  
pieces then stand in the same relation  
to one another as the natural series of 
the numbers #a1 #b1 #c1 #d1 #e1 #f1 #g1 
#h1 #i1 #aj4  ,in the second series1    
namely1 that which shows thickness1     
whilst the length remains constant1 the 
square section of the prisms varies4    

,the result is that the sides of the    
square sections vary according to the   
series of natural numbers1 i4e41 in the 
first prism1 the square of the section  
has sides of one centimeter1 in the     
second of two centimeters1 in the third 
of three centimeters1 etc41 and so on   
until the tenth1 in which the square of 
the section has sides of ten            
centimeters4 ,the prisms therefore are  
in the same proportion to one another as
 the numbers of the series of squares   
7#a1 #d1 #i1 etc471 for it would take   
four prisms of the first size to make   
the second1 nine to make the third1 etc4
 ,the pieces which make up the series   
for teaching thickness are therefore in 
the following proportion3 #a 3 #d 3 #i 3
 #af 3 #be 3 #cf 3 #di 3 #fd 3 #ha 3    
#ajj4  ,in the case of the pink cubes   
the edge increases according to the     
numerical series1 i4e41 the first cube  
has an edge of one centimeter1 the      
second of two centimeters1 the third of 
three centimeters1 and so on1 to the    

tenth cube1 which has an edge of ten    
centimeters4 ,hence the relation in     
volume between them is that of the cubes
 of the series of numbers from one to   
ten1 i4e41 #a 3 #h3 #bg 3 #fd3 #abe 3   
#baf 3 #cdc 3 #eab 3 #gbi 3 #ajjj4 ,in  
fact1 to make up the volume of the      
second pink cube1 eight of the first    
little cubes would be required2 to make 
up the volume of the third1 twenty-seven
 would be required1 and so on4          
,illustration3         -----    -----   
,a ----------  ,b    ----------         
---------------    ---------------      
--------------------                    
--------------------                    
-------------------------      #a       
#a    #b      #a    #b    #c      #a    
#b    #c    #d      #a    #b    #c    #d
    #e      #a    #b    #c    #d    #e  
#f      #a    #b    #c    #d    #e    #f
    #g      #a    #b    #c    #d    #e  
#f    #g    #h      #a    #b    #c    #d
    #e    #f    #g    #h    #i      #a  
#b    #c    #d    #e    #f    #g    #h  

#i    #aj    ,,fig4 #dj4--;,,diagram    
,,illustrating ,,use ,,of ,,numerical   
,,rods4  ,the children have an intuitive
 knowledge of this difference1 for they 
realize that the exercise with the pink 
cubes is the easiest of all three and   
that with the rods the most difficult4  
,when we begin the direct teaching of   
number1 we choose the long rods1        
modifying them1 however1 by dividing    
them into ten spaces1 each ten          
centimeters in length1 colored          
alternately red and blue4 ,for example1 
the rod which is four times as long as  
the first is clearly seen to be composed
 of four equal lengths1 red and blue2   
and similarly with all the rest4  ,when 
the rods have been placed in order of   
gradation1 we teach the child the       
numbers3 one1 two1 three1 etc41 by      
touching the rods in succession1 from   
the first up to ten4 ,then1 to help him 
to gain a clear idea of number1 we      
proceed to the recognition of separate  
rods by means of the customary lesson in

 three periods4  ,we lay the three first
 rods in front of the child1 and        
pointing to them or taking them in the  
hand in turn1 in order to show them to  
him we say3 ,this is one4 ,this is two4 
,this is three4 ,we point out with the  
finger the divisions in each rod1       
counting them so as to make sure1 ,one1 
two3 this is two4 ,one1 two1 three3 this
 is three4 ,then we say to the child3   
,give me two4 ,give me one4 ,give me    
three4 ,finally1 pointing to a rod1 we  
say1 ,what is this8 ,the child answers1 
,three1 and we count together3 ,one1    
two1 three4  ,in the same way we teach  
all the other rods in their order1      
adding always one or two more according 
to the responsiveness of the child4     
,the importance of this didactic        
material is that it gives a clear idea  
of number4 ,for when a number is named  
it exists as an object1 a unity in      
itself4 ,when we say that a man         
possesses a million1 we mean that he has
 a fortune which is worth so many units 

of measure of values1 and these units   
all belong to one person4  ,so1 if we   
add #g to #h 7#g  #h71 we add a number  
to a number1 and these numbers for a    
definite reason represent in themselves 
groups of homogeneous units4  ,again1   
when the child shows us the #i1 he is   
handling a rod which is inflexible--an  
object complete in itself1 yet composed 
of nine equal parts which can be        
counted4 ,and when he comes to add #h to
 #b1 he will place next to one another1 
two rods1 two objects1 one of which has 
eight equal lengths and the other two4  
,when1 on the other hand1 in ordinary   
schools1 to make the calculation easier1
 they present the child with different  
objects to count1 such as beans1        
marbles1 etc41 and when1 to take the    
case ,i have quoted 7#h  #b71 he takes a
 group of eight marbles and adds two    
more marbles to it1 the natural         
impression in his mind is not that he   
has added #h to #b1 but that he has     
added #a  #a  #a  #a  #a  #a  #a  #a to 

#a  #a4 ,the result is not so clear1 and
 the child is required to make the      
effort of holding in his mind the idea  
of a group of eight objects as one      
united whole1 corresponding to a single 
number1 #h4  ,this effort often puts the
 child back1 and delays his             
understanding of number by months or    
even years4  ,the addition and          
subtraction of numbers under ten are    
made very much simpler by the use of the
 didactic material for teaching lengths4
 ,let the child be presented with the   
attractive problem of arranging the     
pieces in such a way as to have a set of
 rods1 all as long as the longest4 ,he  
first arranges the rods in their right  
order 7the long stair72 he then takes   
the last rod 7#a7 and lays it next to   
the #i4 ,similarly1 he takes the last   
rod but one 7#b7 and lays it next to the
 #h1 and so on up to the #e4  ,this very
 simple game represents the addition of 
numbers within the ten3 #i  #a1 #h  #b1 
#g  #c1 #f  #d4 ,then1 when he puts the 

rods back in their places1 he must first
 take away the #d and put it back under 
the #e1 and then take away in their turn
 the #c1 the #b1 the #a4 ,by this action
 he has put the rods back again in their
 right gradation1 but he has also       
performed a series of arithmetical      
subtractions1 #aj - #d1 #aj - #c1 #aj - 
#b1 #aj - #a4  ,the teaching of the     
actual figures marks an advance from the
 rods to the process of counting with   
separate units4 ,when the figures are   
known1 they will serve the very purpose 
in the abstract which the rods serve in 
the concrete2 that is1 they will stand  
for the uniting into one whole of a     
certain number of separate units4  ,the 
synthetic function of language and the  
wide field of work which it opens out   
for the intelligence is demonstrated1 we
 might say1 by the function of the      
figure1 which now can be substituted for
 the concrete rods4  ,the use of the    
actual rods only would limit arithmetic 
to the small operations within the ten  

or numbers a little higher1 and1 in the 
construction of the mind1 these         
operations would advance very little    
farther than the limits of the first    
simple and elementary education of the  
senses4  ,the figure1 which is a word1 a
 graphic sign1 will permit of that      
unlimited progress which the            
mathematical mind of man has been able  
to make in the course of its evolution4 
,in the material there is a box         
containing smooth cards1 on which are   
gummed the figures from one to nine1 cut
 out in sandpaper4 ,these are analogous 
to the cards on which are gummed the    
sandpaper letters of the alphabet4 ,the 
method of teaching is always the same4  
,the child is made to touch the figures 
in the direction in which they are      
written1 and to name them at the same   
time4  ,in this case he does more than  
when he learned the letters2 he is shown
 how to place each figure upon the      
corresponding rod4 ,when all the figures
 have been learned in this way1 one of  

the first exercises will be to place the
 number cards upon the rods arranged in 
gradation4 ,so arranged1 they form a    
succession of steps on which it is a    
pleasure to place the cards1 and the    
children remain for a long time         
repeating this intelligent game4  ,after
 this exercise comes what we may call   
the emancipation of the child4 ,he      
carried his own figures with him1 and   
now using them he will know how to group
 units together4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4 
#da4--;,,counting ,,boxes4  ,for this   
purpose we have in the didactic material
 a series of wooden pegs1 but in        
addition to these we give the children  
all sorts of small objects--sticks1 tiny
 cubes1 counters1 etc4  ,the exercise   
will consist in placing opposite a      
figure the number of objects that it    
indicates4 ,the child for this purpose  
can use the box which is included in the
 material4 7,fig4 #da47 ,this box is    
divided into compartments1 above each of
 which is printed a figure and the child

 places in the compartment the          
corresponding number of pegs4  ,another 
exercise is to lay all the figures on   
the table and place below them the      
corresponding number of cubes1 counters1
 etc4  ,this is only the first step1 and
 it would be impossible here to speak of
 the succeeding lessons in zero1 in tens
 and in other arithmetical              
processes--for the development of which 
my larger works must be consulted4 ,the 
didactic material itself1 however1 can  
give some idea4 ,in the box containing  
the pegs there is one compartment over  
which the #j is printed4 ,inside this   
compartment nothing must be put1 and    
then we begin with one4  ,zero is       
nothing1 but it is placed next to one to
 enable us to count when we pass beyond 
#i--thus1 #aj4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4   
#db4--;,,arithmetic ,,frame4  ,if1      
instead of the piece #a1 we were to take
 pieces as long as the rod #aj1 we could
 count #aj1 #bj1 #cj1 #dj1 #ej1 #fj1    
#gj1 #hj1 #ij4 ,in the didactic material

 there are frames containing cards on   
which are printed such numbers from #aj 
to #ij4 ,these numbers are fixed into a 
frame in such a way that the figures #a 
to #i can be slipped in covering the    
zero4 ,if the zero of #aj is covered by 
#a the result is #aa1 if with #b it     
becomes #ab1 and so on1 until the last  
#i4 ,then we pass to the twenties 7the  
second ten71 and so on1 from ten to ten4
 7,fig4 #db47  ,for the beginning of    
this exercise with the cards marking the
 tens we can use the rods4 ,as we begin 
with the first ten 7#aj7 in the frame1  
we take the rod #aj4 ,we then place the 
small rod #a next to rod #aj1 and at the
 same time slip in the number #a1       
covering the zero of the #aj4 ,then we  
take rod #a and figure #a away from the 
frame1 and put in their place rod #b    
next to rod #aj1 and figure #b over the 
zero in the frame1 and so on1 up to #i4 
,to advance farther we should need to   
use two rods of #aj to make #bj4  ,the  
children show much enthusiasm when      

learning these exercises1 which demand  
from them two sets of activities1 and   
give them in their work clearness of    
idea4                    99       99    
99       99       99  ,in writing and   
arithmetic we have gathered the fruits  
of a laborious education which consisted
 in coordinating the movements and      
gaining a first knowledge of the world4 
,this culture comes as a natural        
consequence of man's first efforts to   
put himself into intelligent            
communication with the world4  ,all     
those early acquisitions which have     
brought order into the child's mind1    
would be wasted were they not firmly    
established by means of written language
 and of figures4 ,thus established1     
however1 these experiences open up an   
unlimited field for future education4   
,what we have done1 therefore1 is to    
introduce the child to a higher         
level--the level of culture--and he will
 now be able to pass on to a school1 but
 not the school we know to-day1 where1  

irrationally1 we try to give culture to 
minds not yet prepared or educated to   
receive it4  ,to preserve the health of 
their minds1 which have been exercised  
and not fatigued by the order of the    
work1 our children must have a new kind 
of school for the acquisition of        
culture4 ,my experiments in the         
continuation of this method for older   
children are already far advanced4      
,,moral ,,factors   ,a brief description
 such as this1 of the means which are   
used in the ,children's ,house1 may     
perhaps give the reader the impression  
of a logical and convincing system of   
education4 ,but the importance of my    
method does not lie in the organization 
itself1 but in the effects which it     
produces on the child4 ,it is the child 
who proves the value of this method by  
his spontaneous manifestations1 which   
seem to reveal the laws of man's inner  
development4,b ,psychology will perhaps 
find in the ,children's ,houses a       
laboratory which will bring more truths 

to light than thus hitherto recognized2 
for the essential factor in             
psychological research1 especially in   
the field of psychogenesis1 the origin  
and development of the mind1 must be the
 establishment of normal conditions for 
the free development of thought4  ----- 
,b ,see the chapters on ,discipline in  
my larger works4  -----  ,as is well    
known1 we leave the children free in    
their work1 and in all actions which are
 not of a disturbing kind4 ,that is1 we 
eliminate disorder1 which is bad1 but   
allow to that which is orderly and good 
the most complete liberty of            
manifestation4  ,the results obtained   
are surprising1 for the children have   
shown a love of work which no one       
suspected to be in them1 and a calm and 
an orderliness in their movements which1
 surpassing the limits of correctness   
have entered into those of grace4 ,the  
spontaneous discipline1 and the         
obedience which is seen in the whole    
class1 constitute the most striking     

result of our method4  ,the ancient     
philosophical discussion as to whether  
man is born good or evil is often       
brought forward in connection with my   
method1 and many who have supported it  
have done so on the ground that it      
provides a demonstration of man's       
natural goodness4 ,very many others1 on 
the contrary1 have opposed it1          
considering that to leave children free 
is a dangerous mistake1 since they have 
in them innate tendencies to evil4  ,i  
should like to put the question upon a  
more positive plane4  ,in the words good
 and evil we include the most varying   
ideas1 and we confuse them especially in
 our practical dealings with little     
children4  ,the tendencies which we     
stigmatize as evil in little children of
 three to six years of age are often    
merely those which cause annoyance to us
 adults when1 not understanding their   
needs1 we try to prevent their every    
movement1 their every attempt to gain   
experience for themselves in the world  

7by touching everything1 etc474 ,the    
child1 however1 through this natural    
tendency1 is led to coordinate his      
movements and to collect impressions1   
especially sensations of touch1 so that 
when prevented he rebels1 and this      
rebellion forms almost the whole of his 
naughtiness4  ,what wonder is it that   
the evil disappears when1 if we give the
 right means for development and leave  
full liberty to use them1 rebellion has 
no more reason for existence8  ,further1
 by the substitution of a series of     
outbursts of joy for the old series of  
outbursts of rage1 the moral physiognomy
 of the child comes to assume a calm and
 gentleness which make him appear a     
different being4  ,it is we who provoked
 the children to the violent            
manifestations of a real struggle for   
existence4 ,in order to exist according 
to the needs of their psychic           
development they were often obliged to  
snatch from us the things which seemed  
necessary to them for the purpose4 ,they

 had to move contrary to our laws1 or   
sometimes to struggle with other        
children to wrest from them the objects 
of their desire4  ,on the other hand1 if
 we give children the means of          
existence1 the struggle for it          
disappears1 and a vigorous expansion of 
life takes its place4 ,this question    
involves a hygienic principle connected 
with the nervous system during the      
difficult period when the brain is still
 rapidly growing1 and should be of great
 interest to specialists in children's  
diseases and nervous derangements4 ,the 
inner life of man and the beginnings of 
his intellect are controlled by special 
laws and vital necessities which cannot 
be forgotten if we are aiming at health 
for mankind4  ,for this reason1 an      
educational method1 which cultivates and
 protects the inner activities of the   
child1 is not a question which concerns 
merely the school or the teachers2 it is
 a universal question which concerns the
 family1 and is of vital interest to    

mothers4  ,to go more deeply into a     
question is often the only means of     
answering it rightly4 ,if1 for instance1
 we were to see men fighting over a     
piece of bread1 we might say3 ,how bad  
men are6 ,if1 on the other hand1 we     
entered a well-warmed eating-house1 and 
saw them quietly finding a place and    
choosing their meal without any envy of 
one another1 we might say3 ,how good men
 are6 ,evidently1 the question of       
absolute good and evil1 intuitive ideas 
of which guide us in our superficial    
judgment1 goes beyond such limitations  
as these4 ,we can1 for instance1 provide
 excellent eating-houses for an entire  
people without directly affecting the   
question of their morals4 ,one might    
say1 indeed1 that to judge by           
appearances1 a well-fed people are      
better1 quieter1 and commit less crime  
than a nation that is ill-nourished2 but
 whoever draws from that the conclusion 
that to make men good it is enough to   
feed them1 will be making an obvious    

mistake4  ,it cannot be denied1 however1
 that nourishment will be an essential  
factor in obtaining goodness1 in the    
sense that it will eliminate all the    
evil acts1 and the bitterness caused by 
lack of bread4  ,now1 in our case1 we   
are dealing with a far deeper need--the 
nourishment of man's inner life1 and of 
his higher functions4 ,the bread that we
 are dealing with is the bread of the   
spirit1 and we are entering into the    
difficult subject of the satisfaction of
 man's psychic needs4  ,we have already 
obtained a most interesting result1 in  
that we have found it possible to       
present new means of enabling children  
to reach a higher level of calm and     
goodness1 and we have been able to      
establish these means by experience4    
,the whole foundation of our results    
rests upon these means which we have    
discovered1 and which may be divided    
under two heads--the organization of    
work1 and liberty4  ,it is the perfect  
organization of work1 permitting the    

possibility of self-development and     
giving outlet for the energies1 which   
procures for each child the beneficial  
and calming satisfaction4 ,and it is    
under such conditions of work that      
liberty leads to a perfecting of the    
activities1 and to the attainment of a  
fine discipline which is in itself the  
result of that new quality of calmness  
that has been developed in the child4   
,freedom without organization of work   
would be useless4 ,the child left free  
without means of work would go to waste1
 just as a new-born baby1 if left free  
without nourishment1 would die of       
starvation4 ,the organization of the    
work1 therefore1 is the corner-stone of 
this new structure of goodness2 but even
 that organization would be in vain     
without the liberty to make use of it1  
and without freedom for the expansion of
 all those energies which spring from   
the satisfaction of the child's highest 
activities4  ,has not a similar         
phenomenon occurred also in the history 

of man8 ,the history of civilization is 
a history of successful attempts to     
organize work and to obtain liberty4 ,on
 the whole1 man's goodness has also     
increased1 as is shown by his progress  
from barbarism to civilization1 and it  
may be said that crime1 the various     
forms of wickedness1 cruelty and        
violence have been gradually decreasing 
during this passage of time4  ,the      
criminality of our times1 as a matter of
 fact1 has been compared to a form of   
barbarism surviving in the midst of     
civilized peoples4 ,it is1 therefore1   
through the better organization of work 
that society will probably attain to a  
further purification1 and in the        
meanwhile it seems unconsciously to be  
seeking the overthrow of the last       
barriers between itself and liberty4    
,if this is what we learn from society1 
how great should be the results among   
little children from three to six years 
of age if the organization of their work
 is complete1 and their freedom         

absolute8 ,it is for this reason that to
 us they seem so good1 like heralds of  
hope and of redemption4  ,if men1       
walking as yet so painfully and         
imperfectly along the road of work and  
of freedom1 have become better1 why     
should we fear that the same road will  
prove disastrous to the children8  ,yet1
 on the other hand1 ,i would not say    
that the goodness of our little ones in 
their freedom will solve the problem of 
the absolute goodness or wickedness of  
man4 ,we can only say that we have made 
a contribution to the cause of goodness 
by removing obstacles which were the    
cause of violence and of rebellion4     
,let us render1 therefore1 unto ,csar   
the things that are ,csar's1 and unto   
,god the things that are ,god's4        
,,the ,,end     ,transcriber's ,note3   
,illustrations have been moved closer to
 their relevant paragraphs4    ,the page
 numbers in the ,list of ,illustrations 
do not reflect the new   placement of   
the illustrations1 but are as in the    

original4    ,the list of didactic      
material for the education of the senses
 on   pages #ah-ai is missing item 7j7  
as in the original4    ,author's archaic
 and variable spelling is preserved4    
,author's punctuation style is          
preserved4    ,passages in italics      
indicated by underscores4    ,passages  
in bold indicated by equal signs4       
,typographical problems have been       
changed and are listed below4           
,transcriber's ,changes3    ,page vii3  
,was 'marvellous' ,in fact1 ,helen      
,keller is a marvelous                  
example of the phenomenon common to all 
human beings    ,page #df3 ,was 'anvles'
 which vary either according to their   
sides or            according to their  
angles 7the equilateral1 isosceles1     
scalene1 right angled1 obtuse angled1   
and acute7    ,page #fc3 ,added commas  
recognized and arranged in order--doh1  
re1            doh1 re1 mi2 doh1 re1 mi1
 fah2 doh1 re1 mi1 fah1            soh1 
etc4 ,in this way he succeeds in        

arranging all the    ,fig4 #ce caption3 
,was 'si' the spaces which remain where 
the discs            are far apart3     
do-re1 re-mi1 fah-soh1 soh-la1 la-ti4   
,the            discs for the semitones