,,six ,,centuries ,,of ,,painting ,illustration2 ,,vittore ,,pisano 7,,called ,,pisanello7 ,,st ,,anthony ,,and ,,st ,,george ,national ,gallery1 ,london ,,six ,,centuries ,,of ,,painting ,,by ,,randall ,,davies ,illustration ,,london3 ,t4 ,c4 ,e4 ,c4 ,,jack #fg ,,long ,,acre1 ,w4,c41 ,,and ,,edinburgh ,,contents ,,tuscan ,,schools-- ,,page ,i4 ,,giovanni ,,cimabue #a ,,ii4 ,,giotto ,,di ,,bondone #aj ,,iii4 ,,the ,,earlier ,,quattrocentists #ah ,,iv4 ,,the ,,later ,,quattrocentists #bf ,v4 ,,leonardo ,,da ,,vinci #cc ,,vi4 ,,michelangelo ,,buonarroti #dj ,,vii4 ,,raffaello ,,di ,,santi #dg ,,venetian ,,schools-- ,i4 ,,the ,,vivarini ,,and ,,bellini #ei ,,ii4 ,,tiziano ,,vecellio #gh ,,iii4 ,,paolo ,,veronese ,,and ,,il ,,tintoretto #ii ,,spanish ,,school #aji ,,flemish ,,school-- ,i4 ,,hubert ,,and ,,jan ,,van ,,eyck #aba ,,ii4 ,,peter ,,paul ,,rubens #adc ,,iii4 ,,the ,,pupils ,,of ,,rubens #aeg ,,dutch ,,school-- ,i4 ,,frans ,,hals #afe ,,ii4 ,,rembrandt ,,van ,,ryn #aga ,,iii4 ,,painters ,,of ,,genre #ahc ,,iv4 ,,painters ,,of ,,animals #aia ,v4 ,,painters ,,of ,,landscape #bjb ,,german ,,schools #baa ,,french ,,school-- ,i4 ,,the ,,seventeenth ,,century #bbe ,,ii4 ,,the ,,eighteenth ,,century #bce ,,the ,,english ,,school-- ,i4 ,,the ,,early ,,portrait ,,painters #bea ,,ii4 ,,william ,,hogarth #beh ,,iii4 ,,sir ,,joshua ,,reynolds ,,and ,,thomas ,,gainsborough #bfg ,,iv4 ,,the ,,close ,,of ,,the ,,eighteenth ,,century #bie ,,the ,,nineteenth ,,century-- ,i4 ,,the ,,spirit ,,of ,,revolt #cje ,,ii4 ,,eug,,ne ,,delacroix #cji ,,iii4 ,,ruskin ,,against ,,the ,,philistines #cac ,,iv4 ,,manet ,,and ,,whistler ,,against ,,the ,,world #cbd ,v4 ,,the ,,royal ,,academy #cbi ,,index #cce ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations ,,vittore ,,pisano 7called ,,pisanello7--,st ,anthony and ,st ,george ,frontispiece ,national ,gallery1 ,london ,,plate ,,facing ,,page ,i4 ,,filippo ,,lippi--,the ,annunciation #bb ,national ,gallery1 ,london ,,ii4 ,,sandro ,,botticelli787--,the ,virgin and ,child #bf ,national ,gallery1 ,london ,,iii4 ,,sandro ,,botticelli--,portrait of a ,young ,man #bh ,national ,gallery1 ,london ,,iv4 ,,sandro ,,botticelli--,the ,nativity #cb ,national ,gallery1 ,london ,v4 ,,leonardo ,,da ,,vinci--,the ,virgin of the ,rocks #cf ,national ,gallery1 ,london ,,vi4 ,,pietro ,,perugino--,central ,portion of ,altar-,piece #ej ,national ,gallery1 ,london ,,vii4 ,,raphael--,the ,ansidei ,madonna #eb ,national ,gallery1 ,london ,,viii4 ,,raphael--,la ,belle ,jardinire #eb ,louvre1 ,paris ,,ix4 ,,raphael--,portrait of ,baldassare ,castiglione #ef ,louvre1 ,paris ,x4 ,,correggio--,mercury1 ,cupid1 and ,venus #eh ,national ,gallery1 ,london ,,xi4 ,,andrea ,,mantegna--,the ,madonna della ,vittoria #fh ,louvre1 ,paris ,,xii4 ,,giovanni ,,bellini--,the ,doge ,loredano #gb ,national ,gallery1 ,london ,,xiii4 ,,giorgione--,venetian ,pastoral #gh ,louvre1 ,paris ,,xiv4 ,,titian--,portrait said to be of ,ariosto #hd ,national ,gallery1 ,london ,,xv4 ,,titian--,the ,holy ,family #hf ,national ,gallery1 ,london ,,xvi4 ,,titian--,the ,entombment #hh ,louvre1 ,paris ,,xvii4 ,,tintoretto--,st ,george and the ,dragon #ajb ,national ,gallery1 ,london ,,xviii4 ,,velazquez--,the ,infante ,philip ,prosper #aab ,imperial ,gallery1 ,vienna ,,xix4 ,,velazquez--,the ,rokeby ,venus #aah ,national ,gallery1 ,london ,,xx4 ,,murillo--,a ,boy ,drinking #abj ,national ,gallery1 ,london ,,xxi4 ,,jan ,,van ,,eyck--,jan ,arnolfini and ,his ,wife #abh ,national ,gallery1 ,london ,,xxii4 ,,jan ,,van ,,eyck--,portrait of the ,painter's ,wife #acb ,town ,gallery1 ,bruges ,,xxiii4 ,,jan ,,mabuse--,portrait of ,jean ,carondelet #acf ,louvre1 ,paris ,,xxiv4 ,,sir ,,peter ,,paul ,,rubens--,portrait of ,hlne ,fourment1 the ,artist's ,second ,wife1 and two of ,her ,children #aej ,louvre1 ,paris ,,xxv4 ,,frans ,,hals--,portrait of a ,lady #afh ,louvre1 ,paris ,,xxvi4 ,,rembrandt--,portrait of ,hendrickje ,stoffels #agf ,louvre1 ,paris ,,xxvii4 ,,rembrandt--,portrait of an ,old ,lady #ahb ,national ,gallery1 ,london ,,xxviii4 ,,terborch--,the ,concert #ahf ,louvre1 ,paris ,,xxix4 ,,gabriel ,,metsu--,the ,music ,lesson #ahh ,national ,gallery1 ,london ,,xxx4 ,,pieter ,,de ,,hooch--,interior of a ,dutch ,house #aij ,national ,gallery1 ,london ,,xxxi4 ,,jan ,,vermeer--,the ,lace ,maker #aib ,louvre1 ,paris ,,xxxii4 ,,the ,,master ,,of ,,st ,,bartholomew--,two ,saints #bab ,national ,gallery1 ,london ,,xxxiii4 ,,hans ,,holbein--,portrait of ,christina1 ,duchess of ,milan #bbd ,national ,gallery1 ,london ,,xxxiv4 ,,antoine ,,watteau--,l',indiffrent #bcf ,louvre1 ,paris ,,xxxv4 ,,jean-,,baptiste ,,greuze--,the ,broken ,pitcher #bdd ,louvre1 ,paris ,,xxxvi4 ,,jean ,,honor ,,fragonard--,l'tude #bdh ,louvre1 ,paris ,,xxxvii4 ,,hans ,,holbein--,anne of ,cleves #bef ,louvre1 ,paris ,,xxxviii4 ,,william ,,hogarth--,the ,shrimp ,girl #bfj ,national ,gallery1 ,london ,,xxxix4 ,,sir ,,joshua ,,reynolds--,lady ,cockburn and ,her ,children #bgd ,national ,gallery1 ,london ,,xl4 ,,sir ,,joshua ,,reynolds--,the ,age of ,innocence #bhd ,national ,gallery1 ,london ,,xli4 ,,thomas ,,gainsborough--,the ,market ,cart #bij ,national ,gallery1 ,london ,,xlii4 ,,george ,,romney--,the ,parson's ,daughter #bih ,national ,gallery1 ,london ,,xliii4 ,,george ,,romney--,mrs ,robinson--,perdita #cjj ,hertford ,house1 ,london ,,xliv4 ,,jacques ,,louis ,,david--,portrait of ,mme4 ,rcamier #cjf ,louvre1 ,paris ,,xlv4 ,,eug,,ne ,,delacroix--,dante and ,virgil #caj ,louvre1 ,paris ,,xlvi4 ,,john ,,constable--,the ,hay ,wain #cab ,national ,gallery1 ,london ,,xlvii4 ,j4 ,m4 ,w4 ,,turner--,crossing the ,brook #caf ,national ,gallery of ,british ,art1 ,london ,,xlviii4 ,,douard ,,manet--,olympia #cbf ,louvre1 ,paris ,,xlix4 ,j4 ,m4 ,,whistler--,lillie in ,our ,alley #cbh ,in the possession of ,john ,j4 ,cowan1 ,esq4 ,,introductory ,so far as it concerns pictures painted upon panel or canvas in tempera or oils1 the history of painting begins with ,cimabue1 who worked in ,florence during the latter half of the thirteenth century4 ,that the art was practised in much earlier times may readily be admitted1 and the life-like portraits in the vestibule at the ,national ,gallery taken from ,greek tombs of the second or third century are sufficient proofs of it2 but for the origin of painting as we are now generally accustomed to understand the term we need go no further back than to ,cimabue and his contemporaries1 from whose time the art has uninterruptedly developed throughout ,europe until the present day4 ,oddly enough it is to the ,christian ,church1 whose early fathers put their heaviest ban upon all forms of art1 that this development is almost wholly due4 ,the reaction against paganism began to die out when the ,christian religion was more firmly established1 and representations of ,christ and the ,saints executed in mosaic became more and more to be regarded as a necessary1 or at any rate a regular embellishment of the numerous churches which were built4 ,for these mosaics panel paintings began in time to be substituted2 but it was long before any of the human feeling of art was to be found in them4 ,the influence of ,s4 ,francis of ,assisi was needed to prepare the way1 and it was only towards the close of the thirteenth century that the breath of life began to be infused into these conventional representations1 and painting became a living art4 ,as it had begun in ,italy1 under the auspices of the ,church1 so it chiefly developed in that country2 at first in ,florence and ,siena1 later in ,rome1 whither its greatest masters were summoned by the ,pope1 and in ,venice1 where1 farther from the ecclesiastical influence1 it flourished more exuberantly1 and so became more capable of being transplanted to other countries4 ,in ,germany1 however1 and the ,low ,countries it had appeared early enough to be considered almost as an independent growth1 though not till considerably later were the northern schools capable of sustaining the reputation given them by the ,van ,eycks and ,roger ,van der ,weyden4 ,but for the effects of the ,renaissance in ,italy in the fifteenth century it is questionable whether painting would ever have spread as it did in the sixteenth and seventeenth to ,spain and ,france4 ,but by the close of the fifteenth century such enormous progress had been made by the ,italian painters towards the realisation of human action and emotion in pictures1 that from being merely an accessory of religious establishments1 painting had become as much a part of the recognised means of intellectual enjoyment of everyday life as music1 sculpture1 or even the refinements of food and clothing4 ,portraiture1 in particular1 had gradually advanced to a foremost place in painting4 ,originally it was used exclusively for memorials of the dead--as we have seen in the case of the paintings from the ,greek tombs--and on coins and medals4 ,but gradually the practice arose1 as painters became more skilful in representing the appearance of the model1 of introducing the features and figures of actual personages into religious pictures1 in the character of donors1 and as these increased in importance1 the sacred personages were gradually relegated to the background1 and ultimately dispensed with altogether4 ,at the beginning of the sixteenth century we find ,hans ,holbein 7as an example7 recommended by ,erasmus to ,sir ,thomas ,more as a portrait painter who wished to try his fortunes in ,england2 and during the rest of his life painting practically nothing but portraits4 ,by the end of the sixteenth century1 if not earlier1 painting had become almost as much a business as an art1 not only in ,italy but in most other countries in ,europe1 and was established in each country more or less independently4 ,so that making every allowance for the various foreign influences that affected each different country1 it is convenient to trace the development of painting in each country separately1 and we arrange our chapters accordingly under the titles of ,tuscan and ,venetian 7the two main divisions of ,italian painting71 ,spanish1 ,flemish1 ,dutch1 ,german1 ,french1 and ,british ,schools4 ,in each country1 as might be expected--and especially in ,italy--there are subdivisions2 but1 broadly speaking1 the lover of pictures will be quite well enough equipped for the enjoyment of them if he is able to recognise their country1 and roughly their period1 without troubling about the particular district or personal influence of their origin4 ,for while it is undoubtedly true that the more one knows about the history of painting in general the greater will be the appreciation of the various excellences which tend to perfection1 it is absolutely ridiculous to suppose that only the learned in such matters are capable of deriving enjoyment from a beautiful picture1 or of expressing an opinion upon it4 ,in the first place1 the picture is intended for the public1 and the public have therefore the best right to say whether it pleases them or not--and why4 ,and it may be noted as a positive fact that whenever the public1 in any country1 have a free choice in matters of art1 that choice generally turns out to be right1 and is ultimately endorsed by the best critics4 ,most of the vulgar art to be found in advertisements and the illustrated papers is put there by ignorant and vulgar providers1 who imagine that the whole public are as ignorant and vulgar as themselves2 whereas whenever a better standard of taste is given an opportunity1 it never fails to find a welcome4 ,until ,sir ,henry ,wood inaugurated the present rgime1 the ,promenade ,concerts at ,covent ,garden were popularly supposed to represent the national taste in music4 ,until the ,temple ,classics and ,every ,man's ,library were published it was commonly supposed that the people at large cared for nothing but ,bow ,bells1 the ,penny ,novelette1 or such unclassical if alluring provender4 ,in the domain of painting1 the ,royal ,academy has such a firm and ancient hold on the popular imagination of the ,english that its influence is difficult to dispel2 but there are many signs that its baneful ascendency is at length on the decline2 and it is well known that the ,national ,gallery is attracting more and more visitors and ,burlington ,house less and less as the years go on4 ,in the following attempt at a general survey of the history of painting--imperfect or ill-proportioned as it may appear to this or that specialist or lover of any particular school--,i have thought it best to assume a fair amount of ignorance of the subject on the part of the reader1 though without1 ,i hope1 taking any advantage of it1 even if it exists2 and ,i have therefore drawn freely upon several old histories and handbooks for both facts and opinions concerning the old masters and their works4 ,in some cases1 ,i think1 a dead lion is decidedly better than a live dog4 ,r4 ,d4 ,,chelsea1 #aiad4 ,,tuscan ,,schools ,i ,,giovanni ,,cimabue ,by the will of ,god1 in the year #abdj1 we are told by ,vasari1 ,,giovanni ,,cimabue1 of the noble family of that name1 was born in the city of ,florence1 to give the first light to the art of painting4 ,vasari's ,lives of the ,painters was first published in ,florence in #aeej1 and with all its defects and all its inaccuracies1 which have afforded so much food for contention among modern critics1 it is still the principal source of our knowledge of the earlier history of painting as it was revived in ,italy in the thirteenth century4 ,making proper allowance for ,vasari's desire to glorify his own city1 and to make a dignified commencement to his work by attributing to ,cimabue more than was possibly his due1 we need not be deterred by the very latest dicta of the learned from accepting the outlines of his life of ,cimabue as an embodiment of the tradition of the time in which he lived--two centuries and a quarter after ,cimabue--and1 until contradicted by positive evidence1 as worthy of general credence4 ,in the popular mind ,cimabue still remains ,the ,father of modern painting1 and though his renown may have attracted more pictures and more legends to his name than properly belong to him1 it is certain that ,dante1 his contemporary1 wrote of him thus3-- ,credette ,cimabue nella pintura ,tener lo campo1 ed ora ha ,giotto il grido ,si che la fama di colui s'oscura4 ,this is at least as important as anything written by a contemporary of ,william ,shakespeare2 and even if we are required to believe that some of his most important works are by another hand1 his influence on the history of art is beyond question4 ,let us then follow ,vasari a little further1 and we shall find1 at any rate1 what is typical of the development of genius4 ,this youth1 ,vasari continues1 being considered by his father and others to give proof of an acute judgment and a clear understanding1 was sent to ,santa ,maria ,novella to study letters under a relation who was then master in grammar to the novices of that convent4 ,but ,cimabue1 instead of devoting himself to letters1 consumed the whole day in drawing men1 horses1 houses1 and other various fancies on his books and different papers--an occupation to which he felt himself impelled by nature4 ,this is exactly what is recorded of ,reynolds1 it may be noted1 and very much the same as in the case of ,gainsborough1 ,benjamin ,west--and many a modern painter4 ,this natural inclination was favoured by fortune1 for the governors of the city had invited certain ,greek 7probably ,byzantine7 painters to ,florence1 for the purpose of restoring the art of painting1 which had not merely degenerated but was altogether lost4 ,these artists1 among other works1 began to paint the chapel of the ,gondi in ,santa ,maria ,novella1 and ,cimabue1 often escaping from the school1 and having already made a commencement of the art he was so fond of1 would stand watching these masters at their work4 ,his father1 and the artists themselves1 therefore concluded that he must be well endowed for painting1 and thought that much might be expected from him if he devoted himself to it4 ,giovanni was accordingly1 much to his delight1 placed with these masters1 whom he soon greatly surpassed both in design and colouring4 ,for they1 caring little for the progress of art1 executed their works not in the excellent manner of the ancient ,greeks1 but in the rude modern style of their own day4 ,wherefore1 though ,cimabue imitated them1 he very much improved the art1 relieving it greatly from their uncouth manner and doing honour to his country by the name that he acquired and by the works which he performed4 ,of this we have evidence in ,florence from the pictures which he painted there--as for example the front of the altar of ,saint ,cecilia and a picture of the ,virgin1 in ,santa ,croce1 which was and still is 7i4e4 in #aeej7 attached to one of the pilasters on the right of the choir4 ,unfortunately the very first example cited pulls us up short alongside the official catalogue of the ,uffizi ,gallery 7where the picture was placed in #ahda71 in which it is catalogued 7,no4 #bj7 as ,unknown 444 ,vasari erroneously attributes it to ,cimabue4 ,tiresome as it may seem to be thus distracted1 at the very outset1 by the question of authenticity1 it is nevertheless desirable to start with a clear understanding that in surveying in a general way the history and development of painting1 it will be quite hopeless to wait for the final word on the supposed authorship of every picture mentioned4 ,in this instance1 as it happens1 there is no reason to question the modern catalogue1 though that is by no means the same thing as denying that ,cimabue painted the picture which existed in the church of ,s4 ,cecilia in ,vasari's time4 ,is it more likely1 it may be asked1 that ,vasari1 who is accused of unduly glorifying ,cimabue1 would attribute to him a work not worthy of his fame1 or that during the three centuries since ,vasari wrote a substitution was effected8 ,the other picture1 the ,madonna and ,child ,enthroned1 which found its way into our ,national ,gallery in #aheg1 is still officially catalogued as the work of ,cimabue1 and it is to be hoped that this precious relic1 together with the ,madonnas in the ,louvre1 the ,florence ,academy1 and in the lower church at ,assisi1 may be long spared to us by the authority of the critics as genuine productions of the beloved master4 ,on the general question1 however1 let me reassure the reader by stating that so far as possible ,i have avoided the mention of any pictures1 in the following pages1 about which there is any grave doubt1 save in a few cases where tradition is so firmly established that it seems heartless to disturb it until final judgment is entered--of which the following examples of ,cimabue's reputed work may be taken as types4 ,the latest criticism seeks to deprive him of every single existing picture he is believed to have painted2 those mentioned by ,vasari which have perished may be considered equally unauthentic1 but1 as before mentioned1 his account of them gives us as well as anything else the story of the beginnings of the art4 ,having afterwards undertaken1 ,vasari continues1 to paint a large picture in the ,abbey of the ,santa ,trinit in ,florence for the monks of ,vallombrosa1 he made great efforts to justify the high opinion already formed of him and showed greater powers of invention1 especially in the attitude of the ,virgin1 whom he depicted with the child in her arms and numerous angels around her1 on a gold ground4 ,this is the picture now in the ,accademia in ,florence4 ,the frescoes next described are no longer in existence3-- ,cimabue next painted in fresco at the hospital of the ,porcellana at the corner of the ,via ,nuova which leads into the ,borgo ,ogni ,santi4 ,on the front of this building1 which has the principal door in the centre1 he painted the ,virgin receiving the ,annunciation from the angel1 on one side1 and ,christ with ,cleophas and ,luke on the other1 all the figures the size of life4 ,in this work he departed more decidedly from the dry and formal manner of his instructors1 giving more life and movement to the draperies1 vestments and other accessories1 and rendering all more flexible and natural than was common to the manner of those ,greeks whose work were full of hard lines and sharp angles as well in mosaic as in painting4 ,and this rude unskilful manner the ,greeks had acquired not so much from study or settled purpose as from having servilely followed certain fixed rules and habits transmitted through a long series of years by one painter to another1 while none ever thought of the amelioration of his design1 the embellishment of his colouring1 or the improvement of his invention4 ,after describing ,cimabue's activities at ,pisa and ,assisi with equal circumstance1 ,vasari passes to the famous ,rucellai ,madonna1 now supposed to be by the hand of ,duccio of ,siena4 ,however doubtful the story may appear in the light of modern criticism1 historical or artistic1 it certainly forms part of the history of painting--for its spirit if not for its accuracy--and as such it can never be too often quoted3-- ,he afterwards painted the picture of the ,virgin for the ,church of ,santa ,maria ,novella1 where it is suspended on high between the chapel of the ,rucellai family and that of the ,bardi4 ,this picture is of larger size than any figure that had been painted down to those times1 and the angels surrounding it make it evident that although ,cimabue still retained the ,greek manner1 he was nevertheless gradually approaching the mode of outline and general method of modern times4 ,thus it happened that this work was an object of so much admiration to the people of that day--they having never seen anything better--that it was carried in solemn procession1 with the sound of trumpets and other festal demonstration1 from the house of ,cimabue to the ,church1 he himself being highly rewarded and honoured for it4 ,it is further reported1 and may be read in certain records of old painters1 that while ,cimabue was painting this picture in a garden near the gate of ,s4 ,pietro1 ,king ,charles the ,elder of ,anjou passed through ,florence1 and the authorities of the city1 among other marks of respect1 conducted him to see the picture of ,cimabue4 ,when this work was thus shown to the ,king1 it had not before been seen by anyone2 wherefore all the men and women of ,florence hastened in great crowds to admire it1 making all possible demonstration of delight4 ,now whether or not ,vasari was right in crediting ,cimabue with these honours in ,florence instead of ,duccio in ,siena1 makes little difference in the story of the origin and early development of the art of painting4 ,one may doubt the accuracy of the mosaic account of the ,creation1 the authorship of the ,fourth ,gospel or the ,shakespearean poems1 or the list of names of the ,normans who are recorded to have fought with ,william the ,conqueror4 ,but what if one may8 ,the ,creation1 the poems and plays of ,shakespeare and the battle of ,hastings are all of them historic facts1 and neither science1 nor literature1 nor history is a penny the worse for the loose though perfectly understandable conditions under which these facts have been handed down to us4 ,when we come down to times nearer to our own the accuracy of data is more easily ascertainable1 though the confusion arising out of them often obscures their real significance2 but in looking for origins we are content to ignore the details1 provided we can find enough general information on which to form an idea of them4 ,to these first chapters of ,vasari1 then1 we need not hesitate to resort for the main sources of the earlier history of painting4 ,even so far as we have gone we have learnt several important facts as to the nature of the foundations on which the glorious structure was to be raised4 ,first of all1 it is apparent that the practice of painting1 though strictly forbidden by the earliest ,fathers of the ,church1 was used by the faithful in the ,eastern churches for purposes of decoration1 and was introduced into ,italy--we may safely say ,tuscany--for the same purpose4 ,second1 that being transplanted into this new soil1 it put forth such wonderful blossoms that it came to be cultivated with much more regard2 and from being merely a necessary or conventional ornament of certain portions of the church1 was soon accounted its greatest glory4 ,third1 that it was accorded popular acclamation4 ,fourth1 that its most attractive feature in the eyes of beholders was its life-like representation of the human form and other natural objects4 ,prosaic as these considerations may appear1 they are nevertheless the fundamental principles that underlie the whole of the subsequent development of painting2 and unless every picture in the world were destroyed1 and the art of painting wholly lost for at least a thousand years1 there could not be another picture produced which would not refer back through continuous tradition to one or every one of them4 ,first1 the basis of religion4 ,second1 the development peculiar to the soil4 ,third1 the imitation of nature4 ,fourth1 the approbation of the public--there we have the four cardinal points in the chart of painting4 ,it would be easy enough to contend that painting had nothing whatever to do with religion--if only by reference to the godless efforts of some of the modernists2 but such a contention could only be based on the imperfect recognition of what religion actually means4 ,in ,italy in the thirteenth century1 as in ,spain in the seventeenth1 it meant the ,church of ,rome4 ,in ,germany of the sixteenth1 as in ,england in the eighteenth1 it meant something totally different4 ,to put it a little differently1 all painting that is worth so calling has been done to the glory of ,god2 and after making due allowance for human frailties of every variety1 it is hard to say that among all the hundreds of great and good painters there has ever been one who was not a good man4 ,as for the influence of environment1 or nationality1 this is so universally recognised that the term school more often means locality than tuition4 ,we talk generally of the ,french1 ,english1 or ,dutch schools1 and more particularly of the ,paduan1 ,venetian1 or ,florentine4 ,it is only when we hesitate to call our national treasure a ,botticelli or a ,bellini that we add the words school of to the name of the master who is fondly supposed to have inspired its author4 ,the difference between a wood block of the early eighteenth century executed in ,england and ,japan respectively may be cited as an extreme instance of the effect of locality on idea1 when the method is identical4 ,with reference to the imitation of nature1 at the mere mention of which modernists become so furious1 it is worth recalling that the earliest story about painting relates to ,zeuxis1 who is said to have painted a bunch of grapes with such skill that the birds ignored the fruit and pecked at the picture4 ,in later times we hear of ,rembrandt being the butt of his pupils1 who1 knowing his love of money1 used to paint coins on the floor2 and there are plenty of stories of people painting flies and other objects so naturally as to deceive the unwary spectator4 ,vasari is continually praising his compatriots for painting like the life4 ,lastly1 the approbation1 or if possible the acclamation1 of the public has seldom if ever been unconsidered by the artist4 ,where it has1 it has only been the greatest genius that has been able to exist without it4 ,a man who has anything to say must have somebody to say it to2 and though a painter may seem to be wasting the best part of his life in trying to make the people understand what he has to say in his language instead of talking to them in their own common tongue1 it is rarely that he fails in the end1 even if1 alas for him1 the understanding comes too late to be of any benefit to himself4 ,cimabue's last work is said to be a figure1 which was left unfinished1 of ,s4 ,john1 in mosaic1 for the ,duomo at ,pisa4 ,this was in #acjb1 which is supposed to be the date of his death1 though ,vasari puts it two years earlier1 at the time he was engaged with the architect ,arnolfo ,lapi in superintending the building of the ,duomo in ,florence1 where he is buried4 ,,ii ,,giotto ,,di ,,bondone ,while according all due honour1 and probably more1 to ,cimabue as the originator of modern painting1 it is to his pupil1 ,,giotto1 that we are accustomed to look for the first developments of its possibilities4 ,had ,cimabue's successors been as conservative as his instructors1 we might still be not very much better off than if he had never lived4 ,for much as there is to admire in ,cimabue's painting1 it is only the first flush of the dawn which it heralded1 and though containing the germ of the future development of the art1 is yet without any of the glory which in the fulness of time was to result from it4 ,to ,giotto1 ,vasari considers1 is due the gratitude which the masters in painting owe to ,nature1 seeing that he alone succeeded in resuscitating art and restoring her to a path that may be called the true one2 and that the art of design1 of which his contemporaries had little if any knowledge1 was by his means effectually recalled to life4 ,this seems to detract in some degree from his eulogies of ,cimabue2 but it is to the last sentence that our attention should be directed1 which implies that in profiting by the master's example he succeeded in extending the possibilities of the new art beyond its first limits4 ,cimabue1 we may believe1 drew his ,virgins and ,saints from living models1 whereas his predecessors had merely repeated formulas laid down for them by long tradition4 ,giotto went further1 and extended his scope to the world at large4 ,for the plain gold background he substituted the landscape1 thus breaking down1 as it were1 a great wall1 and seeing beyond it4 ,nor was this innovation merely a technical one--it was the man's nature that effected it and made his art a living thing4 ,giotto1 who was born in #abgf1 was the son of a simple husbandman1 who lived at ,vespignano1 about fourteen miles from ,florence4 ,cimabue chanced upon the boy when he was only about ten years old1 tending his father's sheep1 and was astonished to find that he was occupied in making a drawing of one of them upon a smooth piece of rock with a sharp stone4 ,he was so pleased with this that he asked to be allowed to take him back to ,florence1 and the boy proved so apt a pupil that before very long he was regularly employed in painting4 ,his influence was not confined to ,florence1 or even to ,tuscany1 but the whole of ,italy was indebted to him for a new impulse in art1 and he is said to have followed ,pope ,clement ,v4 to ,avignon and executed many pictures there4 ,giotto was not only a painter1 but his name is also famous in the history of architecture3 the wonderful ,campanile adjoining the ,duomo in ,florence was designed by him1 and the foundations laid and the building erected under his instructions4 ,on sculpture too he exercised a considerable influence1 as may be seen in the panels and statues which adorn the lower part of the tower1 suggested if not actually designed by ,giotto1 and carved by ,andrea ,pisano4 ,chief of the earlier works of ,giotto are his frescoes in the under church at ,assisi1 and in these may be seen the remarkable fertility of invention with which he endowed his successors4 ,instead of the conventional ,madonna and ,child1 and groups of saints and angels1 we have here whole legends represented in a series of pictures of almost dramatic character4 ,in the four triangular compartments of the groined vaulting are the three vows of the ,franciscan ,order1 namely1 ,poverty1 ,chastity1 and ,obedience1 and in the fourth the glorification of the saint4 ,in the first1 the ,vow of ,poverty1 it is significant to find that he has taken his subject from ,dante4 ,poverty appears as a woman whom ,christ gives in marriage to ,s4 ,francis3 she stands among thorns2 in the foreground are two youths mocking her1 and on either side a group of angels as witnesses of the holy union4 ,on the left is a youth1 attended by an angel1 giving his cloak to a poor man2 on the right are the rich and great1 who are invited by an angel to approach1 but turn scornfully away4 ,the other designs appear to be ,giotto's own invention4 ,chastity1 as a young woman1 sits in a fortress surrounded by walls1 and angels pay her devotion4 ,on one side are laymen and churchmen led forward by ,s4 ,francis1 and on the other ,penance1 habited as a hermit1 driving away earthly love and impurity4 ,s4 ,francis in glory is more conventional1 as might be expected from the nature of the subject4 ,in the ancient ,basilica of ,s4 ,peter in ,rome ,giotto made the celebrated mosaic of the ,navicella1 which is now in the vestibule of ,s4 ,peter's4 ,it represents a ship1 in which are the disciples1 on a stormy sea4 ,according to the early ,christian symbolisation the ship denoted the ,church4 ,in the foreground on the right the ,saviour1 walking on the waves1 rescues ,peter4 ,opposite sits a fisherman in tranquil expectation1 typifying the confident hope of the simple believer4 ,this mosaic has frequently been moved1 and has undergone so much restoration that only the composition can be attributed to ,giotto4 ,of the paintings of scriptural history attributed to ,giotto very few remain1 and the greater part of those have in recent times been pronounced to be the work of his followers4 ,foremost1 however1 among the undoubted examples are paintings in the ,chapel of the ,madonna dell',arena at ,padua1 which was erected in #acjc4 ,in thirty-eight pictures1 extending in three rows along the wall1 is contained the life of the ,virgin4 ,the ground of the vaulting is blue studded with gold stars1 among which appear the heads of ,christ and the prophets1 while above the arch of the choir is the ,saviour in a glory of angels4 ,combined with these sacred scenes and personages are introduced fitting allusions to the moral state of man1 the lower part of the side walls containing1 in medallions painted in monochrome1 allegorical figures of the virtues and vices--the former feminine and ideal1 the latter masculine and individual--while the entrance wall is covered with the wonderful ,last ,judgment4 ,here1 as in his allegorical pieces1 ,giotto appears as a great innovator1 a number of situations suggested by the ,scriptures being now either represented for the first time or seen in a totally new form4 ,well-known subjects are enriched with numerous subordinate figures1 making the picture more truthful and more intelligible2 as in the ,flight into ,egypt1 where the ,holy ,family is accompanied by a servant1 and three other figures are introduced to complete the composition4 ,in the ,raising of ,lazarus1 too1 the disciples behind the ,saviour on the one side and the astonished multitude on the other form two choruses1 an arrangement which is followed1 but with considerable modification1 in ,ouwater's unique picture of the same subject now in the ,kaiser ,friedrich ,museum at ,berlin4 ,this approach to dramatic reality sometimes assumes a character which1 as ,kugler puts it1 oversteps the strict limits of the higher ecclesiastical style4 ,it is worth noting1 however1 that the early ,netherlandish school--as we shall see in a later chapter--developed this characteristic to a far greater extent1 continuing the tradition handed down1 quite independently of ,giotto1 through illuminated manuscripts1 and with less of that expression of the highest religious or moral feeling which is so evident in ,giotto4 ,the few existing altar-pieces of ,giotto are less important than his frescoes1 inasmuch as they do not admit of the exhibition of his higher and most original gifts4 ,two signed examples are a ,coronation of the ,virgin in ,santa ,croce at ,florence1 and a ,madonna1 with saints and angels on the side panels1 originally in ,s4 ,maria degli ,angeli at ,bologna1 and now in the ,brera at ,milan4 ,the latter1 however1 is not now recognised as his4 ,the earliest authentic example is the so-called ,stefaneschi altar-piece1 painted in #abih for the same patron who commissioned the ,navicella4 ,giotto's highest merit consists especially in the number of new subjects which he introduced1 in the life-like and spiritual expression with which he heightened all familiar occurrences and scenes1 and in the choice of the moment of representation4 ,in all these no earlier ,christian painter can be compared with him4 ,another and scarcely less important quality he possessed is in the power of conveying truth of character4 ,the faces introduced into some of his compositions bear an inward guarantee of their lively resemblance to some living model1 and this characteristic seems to have been eagerly seized upon by his immediate followers for emulation1 as is noticeable in two of the principal works--in the ,bargello at ,florence1 and in the church of the ,incoronata at ,naples--formerly attributed to him but now relegated to his pupils4 ,the portrait of ,dante in a fresco on the wall of the ,bargello shows a deep and penetrating mind1 and in the ,sacraments at ,naples we find heads copied from life with obvious fidelity and such a natural conception of particular scenes as brings them to the mind of the spectator with extraordinary distinctness4 ,of ,giotto's numerous followers in the fourteenth century it is impossible in the present work to give any particular account1 but of his influence at large on the practice as on the treatment and conception of painting at this stage of its development1 one or two examples may be cited as typical of the progress he urged1 such as the frescoes in the ,campo ,santo at ,pisa4 ,this wonderful cloister1 which measures four hundred feet in length and over a hundred in width--traditionally the dimensions of ,noah's ark--was founded by the ,archbishop ,ubaldo1 before #abjj1 on his return from ,palestine bringing fifty-three ships laden with earth from the ,holy ,land4 ,on this soil it was erected1 and surrounded by high walls in #abgh4 ,the whole of these walls were afterwards adorned with paintings1 in two tiers4 ,so far as concerns the history of painting1 the question of the authorship of these frescoes--which are by several distinct hands--is altogether subordinate to that of the subjects depicted and the manner in which they are treated1 and we shall learn more from a general survey of them than by following out the fortunes of particular painters4 ,the earliest are those on the east side1 near the chapel1 but more important are those on the north1 of about the middle of the fourteenth century1 which show a decided advance1 both in feeling and execution1 beyond ,giotto4 ,the first is ,the ,triumph of ,death1 in which the supernatural is tempered with representations of what is mortal to an extent that already shows that painting was not to be confined to religious uses alone4 ,all the pleasures and sorrows of life are here represented1 on the earth2 it is only in the sky that we see the demons and angels4 ,on one side is a festive company of ladies and cavaliers1 with hawks and dogs1 seated under orange trees1 with rich carpets at their feet1 all splendidly dressed4 ,a troubadour and a singing girl amuse them with songs1 amorini flutter around them and wave their torches4 ,on the other side is another group1 also a hunting party1 on splendidly caparisoned horses1 and accompanied by a train of attendants4 ,on the mountains in the background are several hermits1 who in contrast to the votaries of pleasure have attained in a life of contemplation and abstinence the highest term of human existence4 ,many of the figures are traditionally supposed to be portraits4 ,the centre foreground is devoted to the less fortunate on earth1 the beggars and cripples1 and also corpses of the mighty2 and with these we may turn to the allegorical treatment of the subject4 ,to the first group descends the angel of death1 swinging a scythe1 and to her the unfortunate are stretching out their arms in supplication for an end to their sorrows4 ,the second group1 it will be seen1 are tracing a path which leads to three open coffins in which lie the bodies of three princes in different stages of decay1 while a monk on crutches--intended for ,s4 ,macarius--is pointing to them4 ,the air is filled with angels and demons1 some of whom receive the souls of the dead4 ,a second picture is ,the ,last ,judgment1 and a third ,hell1 the resemblance between which and the great altar-piece in the ,strozzi ,chapel in ,santa ,maria ,novella at ,florence1 painted by ,andrea ,orcagna in #aceg1 was formerly considered proof of the same authorship4 ,they are now attributed to an unknown disciple of ,pietro ,lorenzetti1 who was painting in ,siena between #acjf and #acdh1 and is assumed to have been a pupil of ,duccio4 ,the fourth picture1 apparently by another hand--possibly that of ,lorenzetti himself--is ,the ,life of the ,hermits in the wilderness of ,thebais1 composed of a number of single groups in which the calm life of contemplation is represented in the most varied manner4 ,in front flows the ,nile1 and a number of hermits are seen on its banks still subjected to earthly occupations2 they catch fish1 hew wood1 carry burdens to the city1 etc4 ,higher up1 in the mountains1 they are more estranged from the world1 but the ,tempter follows them in various disguises1 sometimes frightful1 sometimes seducing4 ,as a whole this composition is constructed in the ancient manner--as in ,byzantine art--several series rising one above the other1 each of equal size1 and without any pretension to perspective3 the single groups1 at the same time1 are executed with much grace and feeling4 ,next to this are six pictures of the history of ,s4 ,ranieri1 and as many of the lives of ,s4 ,efeso and ,s4 ,potito4 ,the latter are known to have been painted in #acib by ,spinello of ,arezzo1 or ,spinello ,aretino as he is called1 of whose work we have some fragments in the ,national ,gallery--alas too few6 ,two of these fragments are from his large fresco ,the ,fall of the ,rebellious ,angels1 painted for the church of ,s4 ,maria degli ,angeli at ,arezzo1 which after being whitewashed over were rescued on the conversion of the church to secular uses4 ,vasari relates that when ,spinello had finished this work the devil appeared to him in the night as horrible and deformed as in the picture1 and asked him where he had seen him in so frightful a form1 and why he had treated him so ignominiously4 ,spinello awoke from his dream with horror1 fell into a state of abstraction1 and soon afterwards died4 ,on the third part of the south wall is represented the history of ,job1 in a series of paintings which were formerly attributed to ,giotto himself1 though it is now recognised that they cannot be of an earlier date than about #acgj4 ,the ,temptation of ,job is by ,taddeo ,gaddi1 and the others1 painted in #acgb1 are probably by ,francesco da ,volterra--not to be confused with the sixteenth century painter ,daniele da ,volterra4 ,the paintings on the west wall are of inferior workmanship1 while those on the north were the crowning achievement of ,benozzo ,gozzoli a century later4 ,,iii ,,the ,,earlier ,,quattrocentists ,,coming to the second period in the development of the new art--roughly1 that is to say1 from #adjj to #adej--,vasari observes that even where there is no great facility displayed1 yet the works evince great care and thought2 the manner is more free and graceful1 the colouring more varied and pleasing2 more figures are employed in the compositions1 and the drawing is more correct inasmuch as it is closer to nature4 ,it was ,masaccio1 he says1 who during this period superseded the manner of ,giotto in regard to the painting of flesh1 draperies1 buildings1 etc41 and also restored the practice of foreshortening and brought to light that modern manner which has been followed by all artists4 ,more natural attitudes1 and more effectual expression of feeling in the gestures and movements of the body resulted1 as art seeking to approach the truth of nature by more correct drawing and to exhibit so close a resemblance to the face of the living person that each figure might at once be recognised4 ,thus these masters constantly endeavoured to reproduce what they beheld in nature and no more2 their works became consequently more carefully considered and better understood4 ,this gave them courage to lay down rules for perspective and to carry the foreshortenings precisely to the point which gives an exact imitation of the relief apparent in nature and the real form4 ,minute attention to the effects of light and shade and to various technical difficulties ensued1 and efforts were made towards a better order of composition4 ,landscapes also were attempted2 tracts of country1 trees1 shrubs1 flowers1 clouds1 the air1 and other natural objects were depicted with some resemblance to the realities represented2 insomuch that the art might be said not only to have become ennobled1 but to have attained to that flower of youth from which the fruit afterwards to follow might reasonably be looked for4 ,foremost among the painters of this period was ,,fra ,,angelico1 or to give him his proper title1 ,frate ,giovanni da ,fiesole1 who was born in #achg not far from ,florence1 and died in #adee4 ,when he was twenty years old he joined the order of the preaching friars1 and all his painting is devoted to religious subjects4 ,he was a man of the utmost simplicity1 and most holy in every act of his life4 ,he disregarded all worldly advantages4 ,kindly to all1 and temperate in all his habits1 he used to say that he who practised the art of painting had need of quiet1 and should live without cares and anxious thoughts2 adding that he who would do the work of ,christ should perpetually remain with ,christ4 ,he was most humble and modest1 and in his painting he gave evidence of piety and devotion as well as of ability1 and the saints that he painted have more of the air of sanctity than have those of any other master4 ,it was the custom of ,fra ,angelico to abstain from retouching or improving any painting once finished4 ,he altered nothing1 but left all as it was done the first time1 believing1 as he said1 that such was the will of ,god4 ,it is also affirmed that he would never take his brushes in hand until he had first offered a prayer1 and he is said never to have painted a crucifix without tears streaming from his eyes1 and in the countenance and attitude of his figures it is easy to perceive proof of his sincerity1 his goodness1 and the depth of his devotion to the religion of ,christ4 ,this is well seen in the picture of the ,coronation of the ,virgin1 which is now in the ,louvre 7,no4 #abij74 ,superior to all his other works1 ,vasari says of this masterpiece1 and one in which he surpassed himself1 is a picture in the ,church of ,san ,domenico at ,fiesole2 in this work he proves the high quality of his powers as well as the profound intelligence he possessed of the art he practised4 ,the subject is the ,coronation of the ,virgin by ,jesus ,christ2 the principal figures are surrounded by a choir of angels1 among whom are a vast number of saints and holy personages1 male and female4 ,these figures are so numerous1 so well executed in attitudes1 so various1 and with expressions of the head so richly diversified1 that one feels infinite pleasure and delight in regarding them4 ,nay1 one is convinced that those blessed spirits can look no otherwise in heaven itself1 or1 to speak under correction1 could not if they had forms appear otherwise2 for all the saints male and female assembled here have not only life and expression most delicately and truly rendered1 but the colouring also of the whole work would seem to have been given by the hand of a saint or of an angel like themselves4 ,it is not without sufficient reason therefore that this excellent ecclesiastic is always called ,frate ,giovanni ,angelico4 ,the stories from the life of ,our ,lady and of ,san ,domenico which adorn the predella1 moreover1 are in the same divine manner2 and ,i for myself can affirm with truth that ,i never see this work but it appears something new1 nor can ,i ever satisfy myself with the sight of it or have enough of beholding it4 ,no less beautiful are the five compartments of the predella to the altar-piece still in ,san ,domenico at ,fiesole--which were purchased for the ,national ,gallery in #ahfj at the then alarming price of #cejj--with no less than two hundred and sixty little figures of saintly personages1 so beautiful1 as ,vasari says1 that they appear to be truly beings of ,paradise4 ,,fra ,,filippo ,,lippi1 born in ,florence about #adjf1 and dying there in #adfi1 was the exact antithesis of ,fra ,angelico1 both in his private life and in the method of his painting4 ,he was just as earthly in both respects as ,fra ,angelico was heavenly4 ,as a child he was put with the ,carmelites1 and as he showed an inclination for drawing rather than for study1 he was allowed every facility for studying the newly painted chapel of the ,branacci1 and followed the manner of ,masaccio so closely that it was said that the spirit of that master had entered into his body4 ,it is only fair to ,masaccio to add that this means his artistic spirit1 for ,filippo's moral character was by no means exemplary4 ,the story of one of his best-known works1 ,the ,nativity1 which is now in the ,louvre 7,no4 #acdc71 is thus related by ,vasari3--,having received a commission from the nuns of ,santa ,margherita1 at ,prato1 to paint a picture for the high altar of their church1 he chanced one day to see the daughter of ,francesco ,buti1 a citizen of ,florence1 who had been sent to the convent as a novice4 ,filippo1 after a glance at ,lucrezia--for that was her name--was so taken with her beauty that he prevailed upon the nuns to allow him to paint her as the ,virgin4 ,this resulted in his falling so violently in love with her that he induced her to run away with him4 ,resisting every effort of her father and of the nuns to make her leave ,filippo1 she remained with him1 and bore him a son who lived to be almost as famous a painter as his father4 ,he was called ,filippino ,lippi4 ,the picture of ,s4 ,john and six saints in the ,national ,gallery 7,no4 #fgg7 also recalls the story of his wildness1 inasmuch as it came from the ,palazzo ,medici1 where ,filippo worked for the great ,cosimo di ,medici4 ,it was well known that ,filippo paid no attention to his work when he was engaged in the pursuit of his pleasures1 and so ,cosimo shut him up in the palace so that he might not waste his time in running about while working for him4 ,but ,filippo after a couple of days' confinement made a rope out of his bed clothes1 and let himself down from the window1 and for several days gave himself up to his own amusements4 ,when ,cosimo found that he had disappeared1 he had search made for him1 and at last ,filippo returned2 after which ,cosimo was afraid to shut him up again in view of the risk he had run in descending from the window4 ,vasari considers that ,filippo excelled in his smaller pictures--,in these he surpassed himself1 imparting to them a grace and beauty than which nothing finer could be imagined4 ,examples of this may be seen in the predellas of all the works painted by him4 ,he was indeed an ,illustration3 ,,plate ,i4--,,filippo ,,lippi ,,the ,,annunciation ,national ,gallery1 ,london artist of such power that in his own time he was surpassed by none2 therefore it is that he has not only been always praised by ,michelangelo1 but in many particulars has been imitated by him4 ,as a contributor to the progress of the art of painting he is credited by ,vasari with two innovations1 which may be seen in his paintings in the church of ,san ,domenico at ,prato1 namely 7#a7 the figures being larger than life1 and thereby forming an example to later artists for giving true grandeur to large figures2 and 7#b7 certain figures clothed in vestments but little used at that time1 whereby the minds of other artists were awakened and began to depart from that sameness which should rather be called obsolete monotony than antique simplicity4 ,it is noticeable that despite his bad character--which is said to have been the cause of his death by poison--all his work was in religious subjects4 ,he was painting the chapel in the ,church of ,our ,lady at ,spoleto when1 in #adfi1 he died4 ,,paolo ,,uccello1 as he was called1 was born at ,florence in #acig1 and died there in #adge4 ,his real name was ,paolo di ,dono1 but he was so fond of painting animals and birds--especially the latter--that he officially signed himself as ,paolo ,uccello4 ,he devoted so much of his time1 however1 to the study of perspective1 that both his life and his work suffered thereby4 ,his wife used to relate that he would stand the whole night through beside his writing table1 and when she entreated him to come to bed1 would only say1 ,oh1 what a delightful thing is this perspective6 ,donatello1 the sculptor1 is said to have told him that in his ceaseless study of perspective he was leaving the substance for the shadow2 but ,donatello was not a painter4 ,before his time the painters had not studied the question of perspective scientifically4 ,giotto had made no attempt at it1 and ,masaccio only came nearer to realising it by chance4 ,brunelleschi1 the architect1 laid down its first principles1 but it was ,uccello who first put these principles into practice in painting1 and thereby paved the way for his successors to walk firmly upon4 ,how he struggled with the difficulties of this vitally important subject may be seen in the large battle-piece at the ,national ,gallery1 and however crude and absurd this fine composition may seem at first sight to those who are only accustomed to looking at modern pictures1 it must be remembered that ,uccello is here struggling1 as it were1 with a savage monster which to succeeding painters has1 through his efforts1 been a submissive slave4 ,this picture is one of four panels executed for the ,bartolini family4 ,one of the others is in the ,louvre1 and a third in the ,uffizi4 ,another--or indeed almost the only other--work of ,uccello which is now to be seen is the colossal painting in monochrome 7terra-verde7 on the wall of the cathedral at ,florence4 ,strangely enough1 this equestrian portrait commemorates an ,englishman1 ,sir ,john ,hawkwood1 whose name is ,italianized in the inscription into ,giovanni ,acuto4 ,he was born at ,sible ,hedingham in ,essex1 the son of a tanner1 and adventuring under ,edward ,,iii4 into ,france1 found his way to ,florence1 where he served the ,state so well that they interred him1 on his death in #acic1 at the public expense1 and subsequently commissioned ,uccello to execute his monument4 ,with all his devotion to science1 the artist has committed the strange mistake of making the horse stand on two legs on the same side1 the other two being lifted4 ,,to ,,masaccio1 born in or about #adjj1 and dying in #addc1 we owe a great step in art towards realism4 ,it was he1 says ,vasari1 who first attained the clear perception that painting is only the close imitation1 by drawing and colouring simply1 of all the forms presented by nature showing them as they are produced by her1 and that whoever shall most perfectly effect this may be said to have most nearly approached the summit of excellence4 ,the conviction of this truth1 he adds1 was the cause of ,masaccio's attaining so much knowledge by means of perpetual study that he may be accounted among the first by whom art was in a measure delivered from rudeness and hardness2 it was he who led the way to the realisation of beautiful attitudes and movements which were never exhibited by any painter before his day1 while he also imparted a life and force to his figures1 with a certain roundness and relief which render them truly characteristic and natural4 ,possessing great correctness of judgment1 ,masaccio perceived that all figures not sufficiently foreshortened to appear standing firmly on the plane whereon they are placed1 but reared up on the points of their feet1 must needs be deprived of all grace and excellence in the most important essentials4 ,it is true that ,uccello1 in his studies of perspective1 had helped to lessen this difficulty1 but ,masaccio managed his foreshortenings with much greater skill 7though doubtless with less science7 and succeeded better than any artist before him4 ,moreover1 he imparted extreme softness and harmony to his paintings1 and was careful to have the carnations of the heads and other nude parts in accordance with the colours of the draperies1 which he represented with few and simple folds as they are seen in real life4 ,masaccio's principal remaining works are his frescoes in the famous ,branacci ,chapel at the ,carmine convent in ,florence4 ,the work of decorating the chapel was begun by ,masolino1 but finished by ,masaccio and ,filippo ,lippi4 ,vasari states it as a fact that all the most celebrated sculptors and painters had become excellent and illustrious by studying ,masaccio's work in this chapel1 and there is good reason to believe that ,michelangelo and ,raphael profited by their studies there1 without mentioning all the names enumerated by ,vasari4 ,seeing how important the influence of ,masaccio was destined to become1 ,i have ventured to italicise ,vasari's opinions on the causes which operated in creating the ,florentine style and in raising the art of painting to heights undreamt of by its earliest pioneers4 ,,iv ,,the ,,later ,,quattrocentists ,,three names stand out conspicuously from the ranks of ,florentine painters in the latter half of the fifteenth century4 ,but progress being one of the essential characteristics of the art at this period1 as in all others1 it is not surprising that the order of their fame coincides 7inversely7 pretty nearly with that of their date4 ,first1 ,,antonio ,,pollaiuolo2 second1 ,,sandro ,,botticelli2 and lastly1 ,,leonardo ,,da ,,vinci4 ,it is important to note that ,pollaiuolo was first apprenticed to a goldsmith1 and attained such proficiency in that craft that he was employed by ,lorenzo ,ghiberti in the carving of the gates of the ,baptistry1 and subsequently set up a workshop for himself4 ,in competition with ,finiguerra he executed various stories1 says ,vasari1 wherein he fully equalled his competitor in careful execution1 while he surpassed him in beauty of design4 ,the guild of merchants1 being convinced ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,ii4--,,sandro ,,botticelli 787 ,,the ,,virgin ,,and ,,child ,national ,gallery1 ,london of his ability1 resolved to employ him to execute certain stories in silver for the altar of ,san ,giovanni1 and he performed them so excellently that they were acknowledged to be the best of all those previously executed by various masters4444 ,in other churches also in ,florence and ,rome1 and other parts of ,italy1 his miraculous enamels are to be seen4 ,now whether or not ,antonio1 like others1 continued to exercise this craft1 the account given by ,vasari1 as follows1 of his learning to paint is extremely significant as showing how painting was regarded in relation to the kindred arts so widely practised in ,florence3--,eventually1 considering that this craft did not secure a long life to the work of its masters1 ,antonio1 desiring for his labours a more enduring memory1 resolved to devote himself to it no longer2 and his brother ,piero being a painter1 he joined himself to him for the purpose of learning the modes of proceeding in painting4 ,he then found this to be an art so different from that of the goldsmith that he wished he had never addressed himself to it4 ,but being impelled by shame rather than any advantage to be obtained1 he acquired a knowledge of the processes used in painting in the course of a few months1 and became an excellent master4 ,as early as #adfj he had painted the three large canvases of ,hercules for ,lorenzo de',medici1 now no longer existing1 but probably reflected in the two small panels of the same subject in the ,uffizi4 ,these alone are enough to mark him as one of the greatest artists of his time4 ,the magnificent ,david1 at ,berlin1 soon followed1 and the little ,daphne and ,apollo in our ,national ,gallery4 ,these were all accomplished unaided1 but a little later he worked in concert with his brother ,piero1 to whom we are told to attribute parts of the painting of the large ,s4 ,sebastian in the ,national ,gallery1 painted in #adge for ,antonio ,pucci1 from whose descendant it was purchased4 ,for the chapel of the ,pucci in the church of ,san ,sebastian1 says ,vasari1 ,antonio painted the altar-piece--a remarkable and wonderfully executed work with numerous horses1 many nude figures1 and singularly beautiful foreshortenings4 ,also the portrait of ,s4 ,sebastian taken from life1 that is to say1 from ,gino di ,ludovico ,capponi4 ,this picture has been more extolled than any by ,antonio4 ,he has evidently copied nature to the utmost of his power1 as we see more especially in one of the archers1 who1 bending towards the ground1 and resting his bow against his breast1 is employing all his force to prepare it for action2 the veins are swelling1 the muscles strained1 and the man holds his breath as he applies all his strength to the effort4 ,all the other figures in the diversity of their attitudes clearly prove the artist's ability and the labour he has bestowed on the work4 ,it is in his superb rendering of the figure1 especially in the nude1 that ,antonio ,pollaiuolo marks a decisive step in the progress of painting1 and is entitled to be regarded as the first modern artist to master expression of the human form1 its spirit1 and its action4 ,but for him we should miss much of the strength and vigour that distinguishes the real from the false ,botticelli4 ,in the same time with the illustrious ,lorenzo de ,medici1 the elder1 ,vasari writes1 which was truly an age of gold for men of talent1 there flourished a certain ,alessandro1 called after our custom ,sandro1 and further named di ,botticello1 for a reason which we shall presently see4 ,his father1 ,mariano ,filipepi1 a ,florentine citizen1 brought him up with care2 but although the boy readily acquired whatever he had a mind to learn1 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,iii4--,,sandro ,,botticelli ,,portrait ,,of ,a ,,young ,,man ,national ,gallery1 ,london yet he was always discontented1 nor would he take any pleasure in reading1 writing1 or accounts2 so that his father turned him over in despair to a friend of his called ,botticello1 who was a goldsmith4 ,there was at that time a close connection and almost constant intercourse between the goldsmiths and the painters1 wherefore ,sandro1 who had remarkable talent and was strongly disposed to the arts of design1 became enamoured of painting and resolved to devote himself entirely to that vocation4 ,he acknowledged his purpose forthwith to his father1 who accordingly took him to ,fra ,filippo4 ,devoting himself entirely to the vocation he had chosen1 ,sandro so closely followed the directions and imitated the manner of his master1 that ,filippo conceived a great love for him1 and instructed him so effectually that ,sandro rapidly attained a degree in art that none could have predicted for him4 ,the influence of the ,giottesque tradition which was thus handed on to the youthful ,botticelli by ,filippo ,lippi is traceable in the beautiful little ,adoration of the ,magi--the oblong1 not the tondo--in the ,national ,gallery 7,no4 #eib74 ,this was formerly attributed to ,filippino ,lippi1 but is now universally recognised as one of ,sandro's very earliest productions1 when still under the immediate influence of ,filippo1 and prior to the ,fortitude1 painted before #adgj1 which is now in the ,uffizi1 and is the first picture mentioned by ,vasari1 thus--,while still a youth he painted the figure of ,fortitude among those pictures of the virtues which ,antonio and ,pietro ,pollaiuolo were executing in the ,mercatanzia or ,tribunal of ,commerce in ,florence4 ,in ,santo ,spirito 7,vasari continues1 naming a picture which is probably ,the ,virgin ,enthroned1 now at ,berlin 7,no4 #ajf771 he painted a picture for the ,bardi family2 this work he executed with great diligence1 and finished it very successfully1 depicting the olive and palm trees with extraordinary care4 ,the influence of ,pollaiuolo is more evident in his two next productions1 the two small panels of ,holofernes and the ,portrait of a ,man with a ,medal1 in the ,uffizi1 and again in the ,s4 ,sebastian now at ,berlin1 which was painted in #adgc4 ,about #adgf the second ,adoration of the ,magi in the ,national ,gallery was painted1 and a year or two later the famous and more splendid picture of the same subject which is in the ,uffizi4 ,with this he established his reputation1 showing himself unmistakably as an artist of profound feeling and noble character besides being a skilful painter4 ,it was commissioned for the church of ,santa ,maria ,novella4 ,in the face of the oldest of the kings1 says ,vasari1 there is the most lively expression of tenderness as he kisses the foot of the ,saviour1 and of satisfaction at the attainment of the purpose for which he had undertaken his long journey4 ,this figure is the portrait of ,cosimo de',medici1 the most faithful and animated likeness of all now known of him4 ,the second of the kings is the portrait of ,giuliano de' ,medici1 father of ,pope ,clement ,,vii41 and he is presenting his gift with an expression of the most devout sincerity4 ,the third1 who is likewise kneeling1 seems to be offering thanksgiving as well as adoration2 this is the likeness of ,giovanni1 the son of ,cosimo4 ,the beauty which ,sandro has imparted to these heads cannot be adequately described2 all the figures are in different attitudes1 some seen full face1 others in profile1 some almost entirely turned away1 others bent down2 and to all the artist has given an appropriate expression1 whether old or young1 showing numerous peculiarities1 which prove the mastery he possessed over his art4 ,he has even distinguished the followers of each king1 so that one can see which belong to one and which to another4 ,it is indeed a most wonderful work2 the composition1 the colouring1 and the design are so beautiful that every artist to-day is amazed at it1 and at the time it acquired so great a fame for ,sandro that ,pope ,sixtus ,,iv4 appointed him superintendent of the painting of the chapel he had built in ,rome4 ,the visit to ,rome was in #adha1 and meantime ,botticelli had produced the wayward ,primavera1 and the more stern and harsh ,s4 ,augustine in the church of ,ognissanti4 ,of his frescoes in the ,pope's chapel nearly all have survived1 including ,moses slaying the ,egyptian1 ,the ,temptation1 and ,the ,destruction of ,korah's ,company1 besides such of the heads of the ,popes as were not painted by ,domenico ,ghirlandaio and his other assistants in the work4 ,returning to ,florence in #adhb1 he was for twenty years without a rival in the city--after the departure of ,leonardo to ,milan--and he appears to have been subjected to no new influences1 but steadily to have developed the immense forces within him4 ,before #adib may be dated the two examples in the ,national ,gallery1 the ,portrait of a ,youth and the fascinating ,mars and ,venus1 which was probably intended as a decoration for some large piece of furniture4 ,the beautiful and extraordinarily life-like frescoes in the ,louvre 7the only recognised works of the master in that ,gallery7 from the ,villa ,lemmi1 representing ,giovanna ,tornabuoni with ,venus and the ,graces1 and ,lorenzo ,tornabuoni with the ,liberal ,arts1 are assigned to #adhf4 ,of this period are also the more familiar ,birth of ,venus2 ,the ,tondo of the ,pomegranate and the ,annunciation in the ,uffizi1 and the ,san ,marco altar-piece1 the ,coronation of the ,virgin in the ,florence ,academy4 ,to the influence of ,savonarola1 however great or little that may have been1 is attributed the seriousness of his latest work4 ,professor ,muther characterises ,botticelli as the ,jeremiah of the ,renaissance1 but whether or not this is a rhetorical overstatement1 the tendency to impassioned and feverish action1 so evident in the famous ,calumny of ,apelles1 reflects1 no doubt1 the agitation of his spiritual stress4#a ,this is the latest of ,sandro's works which are in public galleries1 and there is every probability that the last years of his life were not very productive4 ,this master is said to have had an extraordinary love for those whom he knew to be zealous students in art1 ,vasari tells us1 and is affirmed to have gained considerable sums of money1 but being a bad manager and very careless1 all came to nothing4 ,finally1 having become old1 unfit for work1 and helpless1 he was obliged to go on crutches1 being unable to stand upright1 and so died1 after long illness and decrepitude1 in his seventy-eighth year4 ,he was buried at ,florence1 in the church of ,ognissanti in the year #aeaj4 ,the large and beautiful ,assumption of the ,virgin1 with the circles of saints and angels1 in the ,national ,gallery1 which has only of late years been taken out of the catalogue of ,botticelli's works1 is now said to have been executed by his early pupil ,,francesco ,,botticini 7c4 #addf-adig7 in #adgj or thereabouts4 ,in the church of ,san ,pietro1 ,vasari writes of ,botticelli1 he executed a picture for ,matteo ,palmieri1 with a very large number of figures4 ,the subject is the ,assumption of our ,lady1 and the zones or circles of heaven are ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,iv4--,,sandro ,,botticelli ,,the ,,nativity ,national ,gallery1 ,london there painted in their order4 ,the patriarchs1 prophets1 apostles1 evangelists1 martyrs1 confessors1 doctors1 virgins1 and the hierarchies2 all of which was executed by ,sandro according to the design furnished to him by ,matteo1 who was a very learned and able man4 ,the whole work was conducted and finished with the most wonderful skill and care2 at the foot were the portraits of ,matteo and his wife kneeling4 ,but although this picture is exceedingly beautiful1 and ought to have put envy to shame1 yet there were certain malevolent and censorious persons who1 not being able to fix any other blame upon it1 declared that ,matteo and ,sandro had fallen into grievous heresy4 ,it is apparent that the picture has suffered intentional injury1 and it is known that in consequence of this supposed heresy the altar which it adorned was interdicted and the picture covered up4 ,in view of all the circumstances it is certain that it was designed by ,botticelli1 and very possibly executed under his immediate supervision and with some assistance from him4 ,if we do not see the real ,botticelli in it1 we see his influence and his power far more clearly than in the numerous tondi of ,madonna and ,child that have been assigned to him in less critical ages than our own4 ,for the real ,botticelli was something very real indeed1 and though it was easy enough to imitate his mannerisms1 neither the style nor the spirit of his work were ever within reach of his closest followers4 ,v ,,leonardo ,,da ,,vinci ,twelve years younger than ,botticelli was ,,leonardo ,,da ,,vinci 7#adeb-aebj71 whose career as a painter commenced in the workshop of ,andrea ,verrocchio1 goldsmith1 painter1 and sculptor4 ,that so extraordinary a genius should have fixed upon painting for his means of expression rather than any of his other natural gifts is the most telling evidence of the pre-eminence earned for that art by the efforts of those whose works we have been considering4 ,for once we may go all the way with ,vasari1 and accept his estimate of him as even moderate in comparison with those of modern writers4 ,the richest gifts1 he writes1 are sometimes showered1 as by celestial influence1 on human creatures1 and we see beauty1 grace1 and talent so united in a single person that whatever the man thus favoured may turn to1 his every action is so divine as to leave all other men far behind him1 and to prove that he has been specially endowed by the hand of ,god himself1 and has not obtained his pre-eminence by human teaching4 ,this was seen and acknowledged by all men in the case of ,leonardo da ,vinci1 in whom1 to say nothing of the beauty of his person1 which was such that it could never be sufficiently extolled1 there was a grace beyond expression which was manifested without thought or effort in every act and deed1 and who besides had so rare a gift of talent and ability that to whatever subject he turned1 however difficult1 he presently made himself absolute master of it4 ,extraordinary strength was in him joined with remarkable facility1 a mind of regal boldness and magnanimous daring4 ,his gifts were such that his fame extended far and wide1 and he was held in the highest estimation not in his own time only1 but also and even to a greater extent after his death2 and this will continue to be in all succeeding ages4 ,truly wonderful indeed and divinely gifted was ,leonardo4 ,to his activities in directions other than painting1 ,i need not allude except to say that they account in a great measure for the scarcity of the pictures he has left us1 and to emphasise the significance of his having painted at all4 ,to a man of such supreme genius the circumstances in which he found himself1 rather than any particular technical facility1 determined the course of his career1 and in another age and another country he might have been a ,pheidias or a ,newton1 a ,shakespeare or a ,beethoven4 ,but if the pictures he has left us are few in number--according to the present estimate not more than a dozen--they are altogether greater than anything else in the realm of painting1 and with their marvellous beauty and subtlety have probably had a wider influence1 both on painters and on lovers of painting1 than those of any other master4 ,they seem to be endowed with a spirit of something beyond painting itself1 and in the presence of ,the ,last ,supper or the ,mona ,lisa the babble of conflicting opinions on questions of style1 technique1 and what not is silenced4 ,similarly1 in writing of ,leonardo's pictures1 every one of which is a masterpiece1 it seems superfluous to say even a word about what the whole world already knows so well4 ,all that can be usefully added is a little of the tradition1 where it is sufficiently authenticated1 relating to the circumstances under which they came into existence1 and such of the circumstances of his life as concern their production4 ,when still quite a youth ,leonardo was apprenticed to ,andrea ,verrocchio1 and the story goes that it was the marvellous painting of the angel1 by the pupil1 in the master's ,baptism in the ,academy at ,florence1 that induced ,verrocchio to abandon painting and devote himself entirely to sculpture4 ,this angel has been attributed to the hand of ,leonardo from the earliest times1 but can hardly be taken1 at any rate in its present condition1 as a decided proof of the genius that was to be displayed in manhood4 ,more certain are the ,s4 ,jerome in the ,vatican1 and the ,adoration of the ,kings in the ,uffizi1 though neither is carried beyond the earlier stages of under-painting4 ,a few finished portraits are now assigned with tolerable certainty to his earlier years2 but for his famous masterpieces we must jump to the year #adhb1 when he left ,florence and went to ,milan1 where for the next sixteen years he was intermittently engaged in the execution of the great equestrian statue1 which was destroyed by the ,french mercenaries before it was actually completed4 ,it appears that he was recommended by ,lorenzo de',medici to ,lodovico il ,moro1 ,duke of ,milan1 probably for the very purpose of executing this statue4 ,however that may be1 it is now certain that in #adhc he was commissioned by the ,franciscan monks to paint a picture of the ,virgin and ,child for their church of the ,conception1 and that between #adia and #adid ,leonardo and his assistant1 ,ambrogio di ,predis1 petitioned the ,duke for an arbitration as to price4 ,this was the famous ,virgin of the ,rocks1 now in the ,louvre1 and the similar1 and though not precisely identical1 composition in our ,national ,gallery is generally supposed to be a replica1 painted by ,ambrogio under the supervision of1 and possibly with some assistance from1 ,leonardo himself4 ,between #adie and #adih ,leonardo was engaged on the painting of ,the ,last ,supper4 ,in the ,forster ,library at the ,victoria and ,albert ,museum is a notebook which contains his first memoranda for the wonderful design of this masterpiece4 ,at ,windsor are studies for the heads of ,s4 ,matthew1 ,s4 ,philip1 and ,illustration3 ,,plate ,v4--,,leonardo ,,da ,,vinci ,,the ,,virgin ,,of ,,the ,,rocks ,national ,gallery1 ,london ,judas1 and for the right arm of ,s4 ,peter4 ,that of the head of the ,christ in the ,brera at ,milan has been so much restored that it can hardly be regarded as ,leonardo's work4 ,vasari's account of the delays in the completion of the painting is better known1 and probably less trustworthy1 than one or two notices of about the same date1 quoted by ,mr ,h4 ,p4 ,horne1 in translating and commenting on ,vasari4 ,in ,june #adig1 when the work had been in progress over two years1 ,duke ,lodovico wrote to his secretary to urge ,leonardo1 the ,florentine1 to finish the work of the ,refectory which he has begun1 444 and that articles subscribed by his hand shall be executed which shall oblige him to finish the work within the time that shall be agreed upon4 ,matteo ,bandello1 in the prologue to one of his ,novelle1 describes how he saw him actually at work--,leonardo1 as ,i have more than once seen and observed him1 used often to go early in the morning and mount the scaffolding 7for ,the ,last ,supper is somewhat raised above the ground71 and from morning till dusk never lay the brush out of his hand1 but1 oblivious of both eating and drinking1 paint without ceasing4 ,after that1 he would remain two1 three1 or four days without touching it3 yet he always stayed there1 sometimes for one or two hours1 and only contemplated1 considered1 and criticised1 as he examined with himself the figures he had made4 ,vasari's story of the ,prior's head serving for that of ,judas is related with less colour1 but probably more truth1 in the ,discourses of ,g4 ,b4 ,giraldi1 who says that when ,leonardo had finished the painting with the exception of the head of ,judas1 the friars complained to the ,duke that he had left it in this state for more than a year4 ,leonardo replied that for more than a year he had gone every morning and evening into the ,borghetto1 where all the worst sort of people lived1 yet he could never find a head sufficiently evil to serve for the likeness of ,judas3 but he added1 ,if perchance ,i shall not find one1 ,i will put there the head of this ,father ,prior who is now so troublesome to me1 which will become him mightily4 ,in #aejj ,leonardo was back again in ,florence1 and his next important work was the designing1 though probably not the actual painting1 of the beautiful picture in the ,louvre1 ,the ,virgin and ,child with ,s4 ,anne1 the commission for which had been given to ,filippino ,lippi1 but resigned by him on ,leonardo's return4 ,in #aeja ,isabella d',este wrote to know whether ,leonardo was still in ,florence1 and what he was doing1 as she wished him to paint a picture for her in the palace at ,mantua1 and in the reply of the ,vicar-,general of the ,carmelites we have a valuable account of the artist and his work4 ,as far as ,i can gather1 he writes1 the life of ,leonardo is extremely variable and undetermined4 ,since his arrival here he has only made a sketch in a cartoon4 ,it represents a ,christ as a little child of about a year old1 reaching forward out of his mother's arms towards a lamb4 ,the mother1 half rising from the lap of ,s4 ,anne1 catches at the child as though to take it away from the lamb1 the animal of sacrifice signifying the ,passion4 ,s4 ,anne1 also rising a little from her seat1 seems to wish to restrain her daughter from separating the child from the lamb2 which perhaps is intended to signify the ,church1 that would not wish that the ,passion of ,christ should be hindered4 ,these figures are as large as life1 but they are all contained in a small cartoon1 since all of them sit or are bent2 the figure of the ,virgin is somewhat in front of the other1 turned towards the left4 ,this sketch is not yet finished4 ,he has not executed any other work1 except that his two assistants paint portraits and he1 at times1 lends a hand to one or another of them4 ,he gives profound study to geometry1 and grows most impatient of painting4 ,the history of this cartoon--as indeed of the ,louvre picture--is somewhat obscure1 but it is certain that the beautiful cartoon of the same subject in the possession of the ,royal ,academy is not the one above described4 ,lastly1 there is the famous--or1 may we say1 now more famous than ever--portrait of ,mona ,lisa4 ,whoever wishes to know how far art can imitate nature1 ,vasari writes1 may do so in this head1 wherein every detail that could be depicted by the brush has been faithfully reproduced4 ,the eyes have the lustrous brightness and watery sheen that is seen in life1 and around them are all those rosy and pearly tints which1 like the eyelashes too1 can only be rendered by means of the deepest subtlety2 the eyebrows also are painted with the closest exactitude1 where fuller and where more thinly set1 in a manner that could not be more natural4 ,the nose1 with its beautiful and delicately roseate nostrils1 seems to be alive4 ,the mouth1 wonderful in its outline1 shows the lips perfectly uniting the rose tints of their colour with that of the face1 and the carnation of the cheek appears rather to be flesh and blood than only painted4 ,looking at the pit of the throat one can hardly believe that one cannot see the beating of the pulse1 and in truth it may be said that the whole work is painted in a manner well calculated to make the boldest master tremble4 ,mona ,lisa was exceedingly beautiful1 and while ,leonardo was painting her portrait he kept someone constantly near her to sing or play1 to jest or otherwise amuse her1 so that she might continue cheerful1 and keep away the melancholy that painters are apt to give to their portraits4 ,in this picture there is a smile so pleasing that the sight of it is a thing that appears more divine than human1 and it has ever been considered a marvel that it is not actually alive4 ,it is worth observing that while these rapturous expressions of wonder at the life-like qualities of the portrait may seem somewhat tame and childish in comparison with the appreciation accorded to ,leonardo's work in these times--notably that of ,walter ,pater in this case--they are in reality at the root of all criticism4 ,if ,vasari1 as ,i have already pointed out1 pitches upon this quality of life-likeness and direct imitation of nature for his particular admiration1 it is only because the first and foremost object of the earlier painters was in fact to represent the life2 and though in the rarefied atmosphere of modern talk about art these nave criticisms may seem out of date1 it is significant that between ,vasari and ourselves there is little1 if any1 difference of opinion as to which masters were the great ones1 and which were not4 ,truly divine is a phrase in which he sums up the impressions created in his mind by the less material qualities of some of the greatest1 but before even the greatest could create such an impression they must have learnt the rudiments of the art in the school of nature4 ,,vi ,,michelangelo ,,buonarroti ,,in the opening years of the sixteenth century the art of painting had attained such a pitch of excellence that unless carried onward by a supreme genius it could hardly hope to escape from the common lot of all things in nature1 and begin to decline4 ,after ,botticelli and ,leonardo1 the works of ,andrea del ,sarto1 the perfect painter as he has been called1 fall rather flat2 and no less a prodigy than ,michelangelo was capable of excelling his marvellous predecessors1 or than ,raphael of rivalling them4 ,vasari prefaces his life to ,,andrea ,,del ,,sarto 7#adhf-aeca7 with something more definite than his usual rhetorical flourishes4 ,at length we have come1 he says1 after having written the lives of many artists distinguished for colour1 for design1 or for invention1 to that of the truly excellent ,andrea del ,sarto1 in whom art and nature combined to show all that may be done in painting when design1 colouring1 and invention unite in one and the same person4 ,had he possessed a somewhat bolder and more elevated mind1 had he been distinguished for higher qualifications as he was for genius and depth of judgment in the art he practised1 he would beyond all doubt have been without an equal4 ,but there was in his nature a certain timidity of mind1 a sort of diffidence and want of strength1 which prevented those evidences of ardour and animation which are proper to the highest characters from ever appearing in him which1 could they have been added to his natural advantages1 would have made him truly a divine painter1 so that his works are wanting in that grandeur1 richness1 and force which are so conspicuous in those of many other masters4 ,his figures are well drawn1 and entirely free from errors1 and perfect in all their proportions1 and for the most part are simple and chaste4 ,his airs of heads are natural and graceful in women and children1 while both in youth and old men they are full of life and animation4 ,his draperies are marvellously beautiful4 ,his nudes are admirably executed1 simple in drawing1 exquisite in colouring--nay1 they are truly divine4 ,and yet8 ,well1 let us turn to ,michelangelo4 ,while the best and most industrious artists1 says ,vasari1 were labouring by the light of ,giotto and his followers to give the world examples of such power as the benignity of their stars and the varied character of their fantasies enabled them to command1 and while desirous of imitating the perfection of ,nature by the excellence of ,art1 they were struggling to attain that high comprehension which many call intelligence1 and were universally toiling1 but for the most part in vain1 the ,ruler of ,heaven was pleased to turn the eyes of his clemency towards earth1 and perceiving the fruitlessness of so many labours1 the ardent studies pursued without any result1 and the presumptuous self-sufficiency of men which is farther from truth than is darkness from light1 he resolved1 by way of delivering us from such great errors1 to send to the world a spirit endowed with universality of power in each art1 and in every profession1 one capable of showing by himself alone what is the perfection of art in the sketch1 the outline1 the shadows1 or the lights2 one who could give relief to painting and with an upright judgment could operate as perfectly in sculpture2 nay1 who was so highly accomplished in architecture also1 that he was able to render our habitations secure and commodious1 healthy and cheerful1 well-proportioned1 and enriched with the varied ornaments of art4 ,a more prosaic passage follows presently1 occasioned by the innuendoes of ,condivi as to ,vasari's intimacy with ,michelangelo and his knowledge of the facts of his life at first hand4 ,vasari meets this accusation by quoting the following document relating to the apprenticeship of ,michelangelo to ,domenico ,ghirlandaio when fourteen years old4 #adhh4 ,i acknowledge and record this first day of ,april that ,i1 ,lodovico di ,buonarroti1 have engaged ,michelangelo my son to ,domenico and ,david di ,tommaso di ,currado for the three years next to come1 under the following conditions3 ,that the said ,michelangelo shall remain with the above named all the said time1 to the end that they may teach him to paint and to exercise their vocation1 and that the above named shall have full command over him paying him in the course of these three years twenty-four florins as wages4444 ,besides this teaching in his earliest youth1 it is considered probable that in #adid1 when he visited ,bologna1 he came under influences which resulted in the execution at about that time of the unfinished ,entombment and the ,holy ,family1 which are two of our greatest treasures in the ,national ,gallery4 ,as he took to sculpture1 however1 before he was out of ,ghirlandaio's hands1 there are few traces of any activity in painting until #aejf1 when he was engaged on the designs for the great battle-piece for the ,council ,hall at ,florence4 ,the one easel picture of which ,vasari makes any mention1 the tondo in the ,uffizi1 is the only one besides those already noted which is known to exist4 ,the ,florentine citizen1 ,angelo ,doni1 ,vasari says1 desired to have some work from his hand as he was his friend2 wherefore ,michelangelo began a circular painting of ,our ,lady for him4 ,she is kneeling1 and presents the ,divine ,child to ,joseph4 ,here the artist has finely expressed the delight with which the ,mother regards the beauty of her ,son1 as is clearly manifest in the turn of her head and fixedness of her gaze2 equally evident is her wish that this contentment shall be shared by that pious old man who receives the babe with infinite tenderness and reverence4 ,nor was this enough for ,michelangelo1 since the better to display his art he has grouped several undraped figures in the background1 some upright1 some half recumbent1 and others seated4 ,the whole work is executed with so much care and finish that of all his pictures1 which indeed are but few1 this is considered the best4 ,after relating the story of the artist's quarrel with his friend over the price of this masterpiece 7for which he at first only asked sixty ducats71 ,vasari goes on to describe the now lost cartoons for the great fresco in the ,council ,hall at ,florence1 in substance as follows3-- ,when ,leonardo was painting in the great hall of the ,council1 ,piero ,soderini1 who was then ,gonfaloniere1 moved by the extraordinary ability which he perceived in ,michelangelo he calls him in a letter a young man who stands above all his calling in ,italy2 nay1 in all the world1 caused him to be entrusted with a portion of the work1 and our artist began a very large cartoon representing the ,battle of ,pisa4 ,it represented a vast number of nude figures bathing in the ,arno1 as men do on hot days1 when suddenly the enemy is heard to be attacking the camp4 ,the soldiers spring forth in haste to arm themselves4 ,one is an elderly man1 who to shelter himself from the heat has wreathed a garland of ivy round his head1 and1 seated on the ground1 is labouring to draw on his hose1 hindered by his limbs being wet4 ,hearing the sound of the drums and the cries of the soldiers he struggles violently to get on one of his stockings2 the action of the muscles and distortion of the mouth evince the zeal of his efforts4 ,drummers and others hasten to the camp with their clothes in their arms1 all in the most singular attitudes2 some standing1 others kneeling or stooping2 some falling1 others springing high into the air and exhibiting the most difficult foreshortenings4444 ,the artists were amazed as they realised that the master had in this cartoon laid open to them the very highest resources of art2 nay1 there are some who still declare that they have never seen anything to equal it1 either from his hand or any other1 and they do not believe that genius will ever more attain to such perfection4 ,nor is this an exaggeration1 for all who have designed from it and copied it--as it was the habit for both natives and strangers to do--have become excellent in art1 amongst whom were ,raphael1 ,andrea del ,sarto1 ,franciabigio1 ,pontormo1 and ,piero del ,vaga4 ,in #aejh ,michelangelo began to prepare the cartoons for the ceiling of the ,sistine ,chapel4 ,space forbids me to attempt any description of these1 but the story of their completion as related by ,vasari can hardly be omitted4 ,when half of them were nearly finished1 he says1 ,pope ,julius1 who had gone more than once to see the work--mounting the ladders with the artist's help--insisted on having them opened to public view without waiting till the last touches were given1 and the chapel was no sooner open than all ,rome hastened thither1 the ,pope being first1 even before the dust caused by removing the scaffold had subsided4 ,then it was that ,raphael1 who was very prompt in imitation1 changed his manner1 and to give proof of his ability immediately executed the frescoes with the ,prophets and ,sibyls in the church of the ,pace4 ,bramante 7the architect7 also laboured to convince the ,pope that he would do well to entrust the second half to ,raphael4444 ,but ,julius1 who justly valued the ability of ,michelangelo1 commanded that he should continue the work1 judging from what he saw of the first half that he would be able to improve the second4 ,michelangelo accordingly finished the whole in twenty months1 without help4 ,it is true that he often complained that he was prevented from giving it the finish he would have liked owing to the ,pope's impatience1 and his constant inquiries as to when it would be finished1 and on one occasion he answered1 ,it will be finished when ,i shall have done all that ,i believe necessary to satisfy art4 ,and we command1 replied ,julius1 that you satisfy our wish to have it done quickly1 adding finally that if it were not at once completed he would have ,michelangelo thrown headlong from the scaffolding4 ,hearing this1 the artist1 without taking time to add what was wanting1 took down the remainder of the scaffolding1 to the great satisfaction of the whole city1 on ,all ,saints' ,day1 when the ,pope went into his chapel to sing ,mass4 ,michelangelo had much wished to retouch some portions of the work a secco1 as had been done by the older masters who had painted the walls2 and to add a little ultramarine to some of the draperies1 and gild other parts1 so as to give a richer and more striking effect4 ,the ,pope1 too1 would now have liked these additions to be made1 but as ,michelangelo thought it would take too long to re-erect the scaffolding1 the pictures remained as they were4 ,the ,pope would sometimes say to him1 ,let the chapel be enriched with gold and bright colours2 it looks poor4 ,to which ,michelangelo would reply1 ,holy ,father1 the men of those days did not adorn themselves with gold2 those who are painted here less than any2 for they were none too rich4 ,besides1 they were holy men1 and must have despised riches and ornaments4 ,,vii ,,raffaello ,,di ,,santi ,the character and the influence of ,,raphael are well expressed in the following sentences with which ,vasari concludes his biography3--,o happy and blessed spirit6 every one speaks with interest of thee2 celebrates thy deeds2 admires thee in thy works6 ,well might ,painting die when this noble artist ceased to live2 for when his eyes were closed she remained in darkness4 ,for us who survive him it remains to imitate the excellent method which he has left for our guidance2 and as his great qualities deserve1 and our duty bids us1 to cherish his memory in our hearts1 and keep it alive in our discourse by speaking of him with the high respect which is his due4 ,for through him we have the art in all its extent carried to a perfection which could hardly have been looked for2 and in this universality let no human being ever hope to surpass him4 ,and1 beside this benefit which he conferred on ,art as her true friend1 he neglected not to show us how every man should conduct himself in all the relations of life4 ,among his rare gifts there is one which especially excites my wonder2 ,i mean1 that ,heaven should have granted him to infuse a spirit among those who lived around him so contrary to that which is prevalent among professional men4 ,the painters--,i do not allude to the humble-minded only1 but to those of an ambitious turn1 and many of this sort there are--the painters who worked in company with ,raphael lived in perfect harmony1 as if all bad feelings were extinguished in his presence1 and every base1 unworthy thought had passed from their minds4 ,this was because the artists were at once subdued by his obliging manners and by his surpassing merit1 but more than all by the spell of his natural character1 which was so full of affectionate kindness1 that not only men1 but even the very brutes1 respected him4 ,he always had a great number of artists employed for him1 helping them and teaching them with the kindness of a father to his children1 rather than as a master directing his scholars4 ,for which reason it was observed he never went to court without being accompanied from his very door by perhaps fifty painters who took pleasure in thus attending him to do him honour4 ,in short1 he lived more as a sovereign than as a painter4 ,and thus1 ,o ,art of ,painting6 thou too1 then1 could account thyself most happy1 since an artist was thine1 who1 by his skill and by his moral excellence exalted thee to the highest heaven6 ,raphael was the son of ,giovanni ,sanzio1 or di ,santi1 of ,urbino4 ,he received his first education as an artist from his father1 whom1 however1 he lost in his eleventh year4 ,as early as #adie probably1 he entered the school of ,pietro ,perugino1 at ,perugia1 where he remained till about his twentieth year4 ,the ,umbrian ,school1 in which ,raphael received his first education1 and in which he is accordingly placed1 is distinguished from the ,florentine1 of which it may be said to have been an offshoot1 by several well-defined characteristics4 ,chief of these are1 first1 the more sentimental expression of religious feeling1 and second1 the greater attention paid to distance as compared with the principal figures2 both of which are explainable on the ground of local circumstances4 ,they reflect the difference between the bustling intellectual activity of ,florence and the dreamy existence but broader horizon of the dwellers in the upper valley of the ,tiber4 ,in the beautiful ,nativity of ,,piero ,,della ,,francesca 7,no4 #ijh in the ,national ,gallery7 we see something akin to the ,florentine pictures1 and yet something more besides4 ,piero shared with ,paolo ,uccello the eager desire to discover the secrets of perspective2 but in addition he seems to have been influenced by the study of nature herself1 in the open air1 as ,uccello never was4 ,his pupil1 ,,luca ,,signorelli 7#adda-aebc71 was more formal and less naturalistic1 as may be seen by a comparison between the ,circumcision 7,no4 #aabh in the ,national ,gallery7 and ,piero's ,baptism of ,christ on the opposite wall4 ,,pietro ,,perugino 7#addf-aebc7--;his real name was ,vannucci--was influenced both by ,signorelli and by ,verrocchio4 ,in the studio of the latter he had probably worked with ,leonardo and ,lorenzo di ,credi1 so that in estimating the influences which went to form the art of ,raphael we need not insist too strongly on the distinction between ,umbrian and ,florentine4 ,raphael's first independent works 7about #aejj7 are entirely in ,perugino's style4 ,they bear the general stamp of the ,umbrian ,school1 but in its highest beauty4 ,his youthful efforts are essentially youthful1 and seem to contain the earnest of a high development4 ,two are in the ,berlin ,museum4 ,in the one 7,no4 #ada7 called the ,madonna ,solly1 the ,madonna reads in a book2 the ,child on her lap holds a goldfinch4 ,the other 7,no4 #ade71 with heads of ,s4 ,francis and ,s4 ,jerome1 is better4 ,similar to it1 but much more finished and developed1 is a small round picture1 the ,madonna ,casa ,connestabile1 now at ,st4 ,petersburg4 ,a more important picture of this time is the ,coronation of the ,virgin1 painted for the church of ,s4 ,francesco at ,perugia in #aejc1 but now in the ,vatican4 ,in the upper part1 ,christ and the ,madonna are throned on clouds and surrounded by angels with musical instruments2 underneath1 the disciples stand around the empty tomb4 ,in this lower part of the picture there is a very evident attempt to give the figures more life1 motion1 and enthusiastic expression than was before attempted in the school4 ,after this1 ,raphael appears to have quitted the school of ,perugino1 and to have commenced an independent career3 he executed at this time some pictures in the neighbouring town of ,citt di ,castello4 ,with all the features of the ,umbrian ,school1 they already show the freer impulse of his own mind1--a decided effort to individualize4 ,the most excellent of these1 and the most interesting example of this first period of ,raphael's development1 is the ,marriage of the ,virgin 7,lo ,sposalizio71 inscribed with his name and the date #aejd1 now in the ,brera at ,milan4 ,with much of the stiffness and constraint of the old school1 the figures are noble and dignified2 the countenances1 of the sweetest style of beauty1 are expressive of a tender1 enthusiastic melancholy1 which lends a peculiar charm to this subject4 ,in #aejd ,raphael painted the two little pictures in the ,louvre1 ,s4 ,george and ,s4 ,michael 7,nos4 #aeja-b7 for the ,duke of ,urbino4 ,the ,knight ,dreaming1 a small picture1 now in the ,national ,gallery 7,no4 #bac71 is supposed to have been painted a year earlier4 ,in the autumn of #aejd ,raphael went to ,florence4 ,tuscan art had now attained its highest perfection1 and the most celebrated artists were there contending for the palm4 ,from this period begins his emancipation ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,vi4--,,pietro ,,perugino ,,central ,,portion ,,of ,,altar-,,piece ,national ,gallery1 ,london from the confined manner of ,perugino's school2 the youth ripens into manhood and acquires the free mastery of form4 ,to this time belong the celebrated ,madonna del ,granduca1 now in the ,pitti ,gallery1 and another formerly belonging to the ,duke of ,terra ,nuova1 and now at ,berlin 7,no4 #bdg;a74 ,in the next year we find him employed on several large works in ,perugia2 these show for the first time the influence of ,florentine art in the purity1 fullness1 and intelligent treatment of form2 at the same time many of the motives of the ,peruginesque school are still apparent4 ,the famous ,cowper ,madonna1 recently sold to an ,american for #adj1jjj1 also belongs to the year #aeje1 when the blending of the two influences resulted in a picture which has been extolled by the sanest of critics as the loveliest of ,raphael's ,virgins4 ,an altar-piece1 executed for the church of the ,serviti at ,perugia1 inscribed with the date #aejf1 is the famous ,madonna dei ,ansidei1 purchased for the ,national ,gallery from the ,duke of ,marlborough4 ,besides the dreamy religious feeling of the ,school of ,perugia1 we perceive here the aim at a greater freedom1 founded on deeper study4 ,raphael was soon back in ,florence1 where he remained until #aejh4 ,the early paintings of this period betray1 as might be expected1 many reminiscences of the ,peruginesque school1 both in conception and execution2 the later ones follow in all essential respects the general style of the ,florentines4 ,one of the earliest is the ,virgin in the ,meadow1 in the ,belvedere ,gallery at ,vienna4 ,two others show a close affinity with this composition2 one is the ,madonna del ,cardellino1 in the ,tribune of the ,uffizi1 in which ,s4 ,john presents a goldfinch to the infant ,christ4 ,the other is the so-called ,belle ,jardinire1 inscribed #aejg1 in the ,louvre4 ,it is interesting to observe ,raphael's progress in the smaller pictures which he painted in ,florence--half-figures of the ,madonna and ,child4 ,here again the earliest are characterised by the tenderest feeling1 while a freer and more cheerful enjoyment of life is apparent in the later ones4 ,the ,madonna della ,casa ,tempi1 at ,munich1 is the first of this series4 ,in the picture from the ,colonna ,palace at ,rome1 now in the ,berlin ,museum 7,no4 #bdh71 the same childlike sportiveness1 the same maternal tenderness1 are developed with more harmonious refinement4 ,a larger picture1 belonging to the middle time of his ,florentine period1 is in the ,munich ,gallery--the ,madonna ,canignani1 which presents a peculiar study of artificial grouping1 in a pyramidal shape4 ,among the best pictures of the latter part of this ,florentine period are the ,s4 ,catherine1 now in the ,national ,gallery1 formerly in the ,aldobrandini ,gallery at ,rome1 and two large altar-pieces4 ,one of these is the ,madonna del ,baldacchino1 in the ,pitti ,gallery4 ,the other1 ,the ,entombment1 painted for the church of ,s4 ,francesco at ,perugia1 is now in the ,borghese ,gallery at ,rome4 ,this is the first of ,raphael's compositions in which an historical subject is dramatically developed2 but in this respect the task exceeded his powers4 ,the composition lacks repose and unity of effect2 the movements are exaggerated and mannered2 but the figure of the ,saviour is extremely beautiful1 and may be placed among the greatest of the master's creations4 ,about the middle of the year #aejh1 when only in his twenty-fifth year1 ,raphael was invited by ,pope ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,vii4--,,raphael ,,the ,,ansidei ,,madonna ,national ,gallery1 ,london ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,viii4--,,raphael ,,la ,,belle ,,jardini,,re ,louvre1 ,paris ,julius ,,ii4 to decorate the state apartments in the ,vatican4 ,with these works commences the third period of his development1 and in these he reached his highest perfection4 ,the subjects1 more important than any in which he had hitherto been occupied1 gave full scope to his powers2 and the proximity of ,michelangelo1 who at this time began the painting of the ,sistine ,chapel1 excited his emulation4 ,at this period1 just before the ,reformation1 the ,papal power had reached its proudest elevation4 ,to glorify this power--to represent ,rome as the centre of spiritual culture--were the objects of the paintings in the ,vatican4 ,they cover the ceilings and walls of three chambers and a large saloon1 which now bear the name of the ,stanze of ,raphael4 ,the execution of these paintings principally occupied ,raphael to the time of his death1 and were only completed by his scholars4 ,in #aeac and #aead ,raphael also executed designs for the ten tapestries intended to adorn the ,sistine ,chapel1 representing events from the lives of the apostles4 ,seven of these magnificent cartoons are now in the ,south ,kensington ,museum4 ,beside these important commissions executed for the ,papal court1 during twelve years1 many claims were made on him by private persons4 ,two frescoes executed for ,roman churches may be mentioned4 ,one1 in ,s4 ,maria della ,pace1 represents four ,sibyls surrounded by angels1 which it is interesting to compare with the ,sibyls of ,michelangelo4 ,in each we find the peculiar excellence of the two great masters2 ,michelangelo's figures are grand1 sublime1 profound1 while the fresco of the ,pace exhibits ,raphael's serene and ingenious grace4 ,in a second fresco1 the prophet ,isaiah and two angels1 in the church of ,s4 ,agostino at ,rome1 the comparison is less favourable to ,raphael1 the effort to rival the powerful style of ,michelangelo being rather too obvious4 ,like all other artists1 ,raphael is at his best when1 undisturbed by outside influences1 he follows the free original impulse of his own mind4 ,his peculiar element was grace and beauty of form1 in so far as these are the expression of high moral purity4 ,the following works of his third period are especially deserving of mention4 ,the ,aldobrandini ,madonna1 now in the ,national ,gallery--in which the ,madonna is sitting on a bench1 and bends down to the little ,s4 ,john1 her left arm round him4 ,the ,madonna of the ,duke of ,alba1 in the ,hermitage at ,st4 ,petersburg4 ,la ,vierge au voile1 in the ,louvre2 the ,madonna is seated in a kneeling position1 lifting the veil from the sleeping ,child in order to show him to the little ,s4 ,john4 ,the ,madonna della ,seggiola1 in the ,pitti at ,florence 7painted about #aeaf71 a circular picture4 ,the ,madonna della ,tenda at ,munich2 a composition similar to the last1 except that the ,child is represented in more lively action1 and looking upwards4 ,a series of similar1 but in some instances more copious compositions1 belong to a still later period2 they are in a great measure the work of his scholars1 painted after his drawings1 and only partly worked upon by ,raphael himself4 ,indeed many pictures of this class should perhaps be considered altogether as the productions of his school1 at a time when that school was under his direct superintendence1 and when it was enabled to imitate his finer characteristics in a remarkable degree4 ,in this class are the ,madonna dell',impannata1 in the ,pitti1 which takes its name from the oiled-paper window in the background4 ,the large picture of a ,holy ,family in the ,louvre1 painted in #aeah1 for ,francis ,i41 is peculiarly excellent4 ,the whole has a character of cheerfulness and joy3 an easy and delicate play of graceful lines1 which unite in an intelligible and harmonious whole4 ,giulio ,romano assisted in the execution4 ,with regard to the large altar-pieces of his later period in which several ,saints are assembled round the ,madonna1 it is to be observed that ,raphael has contrived to place them in reciprocal relation to each other1 and to establish a connection between them2 while the earlier masters either ranged them next to one another in simple symmetrical repose1 or disposed them with a view to picturesque effect4 ,of these the ,madonna di ,foligno1 in the ,vatican1 is the earliest4 ,in the upper part of the picture is the ,madonna with the ,child1 enthroned on the clouds in a glory1 surrounded by angels4 ,underneath1 on one side1 kneels the donor1 behind him stands ,s4 ,jerome4 ,on the other side is ,s4 ,francis1 kneeling1 while he points with one hand out of the picture to the people1 for whom he entreats the protection of the ,mother of ,grace2 behind him is ,s4 ,john the ,baptist1 who points to the ,madonna1 while he looks at the spectator as if inviting him to worship her4 ,the second1 the ,madonna del ,pesce has much more repose and grandeur as whole1 and unites the sublime and abstract character of sacred beings with the individuality of nature in the happiest manner4 ,it is now in ,madrid1 but was originally painted for ,s4 ,domenico at ,naples1 about #aeac4 ,it represents the ,madonna and ,child on a throne2 on one side is ,s4 ,jerome2 on the other the guardian angel with the young ,tobias who carries a fish 7whence the name of the picture74 ,the artist has imparted a wonderfully poetic character to the subject4 ,s4 ,jerome1 kneeling on the steps of the throne1 has been reading from a book to the ,virgin and ,child1 and appears to have been interrupted by the entrance of ,tobias and the ,angel4 ,the infant ,christ turns towards them1 but at the same time lays his hand on the open book1 as if to mark the place4 ,the ,virgin turns towards the ,angel1 who introduces ,tobias2 while the latter dropping on his knees1 looks up meekly to the ,divine ,infant4 ,s4 ,jerome looks over the book to the new-comers1 as if ready to proceed with his occupation after the interruption4 ,but the most important is the famous ,madonna di ,san ,sisto1 at ,dresden4 ,here the ,madonna appears as the queen of the heavenly host1 in a brilliant glory of countless angel-heads1 standing on the clouds1 with the eternal ,son in her arms2 ,s4 ,sixtus and ,s4 ,barbara kneel at the sides4 ,both of them seem to connect the picture with the real spectators4 ,this is a rare example of a picture of ,raphael's later time1 executed entirely by his own hand4 ,two large altar pictures still claim our attention2 they also belong to ,raphael's later period4 ,one is the ,christ ,bearing the ,cross1 in ,madrid1 known by the name of ,lo ,spasimo di ,sicilia1 from the convent of ,santa ,maria dello ,spasimo at ,palermo1 for which it was painted4 ,here1 as in the tapestries1 we again find a finely conceived development of the event1 and an excellent composition4 ,the other is the ,transfiguration1 now in the ,vatican1 formerly in ,s4 ,pietro at ,montorio4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,ix4--,,raphael ,,portrait ,,of ,,baldassare ,,castiglione ,louvre1 ,paris ,this was the last work of the master 7left unfinished at his death72 the one which was suspended over his coffin1 a trophy of his fame1 for public homage4 ,i cannot believe myself in ,rome1 wrote ,count ,castiglione1 on the death of the master1 now that my poor ,raphael is no longer here4 ,men regarded his works with religious veneration as if ,god had revealed himself through ,raphael as in former days through the prophets4 ,his remains were publicly laid out on a splendid catafalque1 while his last work1 the ,transfiguration1 was suspended over his head4 ,he was buried in the ,pantheon1 under an altar adorned by a statue of the ,holy ,virgin1 a consecration offering from ,raphael himself4 ,doubts having been raised as to the precise spot1 a search was made in the ,pantheon in #ahcc1 and ,raphael's bones were found2 the situation agreeing exactly with ,vasari's description of the place of interment4 ,on the #ahth of ,october1 in the same year1 the relics were reinterred in the same spot with great solemnities4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the schools of ,lombardy and the ,emilia1 which derive their characteristics from ,florentine rather than from ,venetian influences1 may here be briefly mentioned before turning to the consideration of the ,venetian ,school4 ,in #adhb1 it will be remembered1 ,leonardo went to ,milan1 where he remained till the end of the century2 and the extent of his influence may be judged from many of the productions of ,,bernadino ,,luini 7#adge-aecb7 and ,,giovanni ,,antonio ,,bazzi1 known as ,,sodoma 7#adgg-aedi74 ,of ,,ambrogio ,,di ,,predis we have already heard in connection with the painting of our version of ,leonardo's ,virgin of the ,rocks4 ,,giovanni ,,antonio ,,boltraffio 7#adfg-aeaf7 was a pupil of ,,vincenzo ,,foppa1 but he soon abandoned the manner of the old ,lombard ,school1 and came under the influence of the great ,florentine1 of whom he became a most enthusiastic disciple4 ,more independent--indeed1 he is officially characterised as an isolated phenomenon in ,italian ,art--was ,,antonio ,,allegri1 commonly called ,,correggio1 from the place of his birth4 ,in #aeah he settled at ,parma1 where he remained till #aecj1 so that he is usually catalogued as of the ,school of ,parma1 which for an isolated phenomenon serves as well as any other4 ,of late years his popularity has been somewhat diminished by the increasing demands of private collectors for works which are purchasable1 and most of ,correggio's are in public galleries4 ,at ,dresden are some of the most famous1 notably the ,nativity1 called ,la ,notte1 from its wonderful scheme of illumination1 and two or three large altar-pieces4 ,the ,venus ,mercury and ,cupid in our ,national ,gallery1 though sadly injured1 is still one of his masterpieces4 ,it was purchased by ,charles ,i4 with the famous collection of the ,duke of ,mantua4 ,our ,ecce ,homo is entitled to rank with it1 as is also the little ,madonna of the ,basket4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,x4--,,correggio ,,mercury1 ,,cupid1 ,,and ,,venus ,national ,gallery1 ,london ,,venetian ,,schools ,i ,,the ,,vivarini ,,and ,,bellini ,in ,venice the ,byzantine style appears to have offered a more stubborn resistance to the innovators than in ,tuscany1 or1 in fact1 in any other part of ,italy4 ,few1 if any1 of the allegorical subjects with which ,giotto and his scholars decorated whole buildings are to be found here1 and the altar pictures retain longer than anywhere else the gilt canopied compartments and divisions1 and the tranquil positions of single figures4 ,it was not until a century after the death of ,cimabue and ,duccio that the real development of the ,venetian ,school was manifested1 so that when things did begin to move the conditions were not the same1 and the results accordingly were something substantially different4 ,the influence of the ,byzantine style still hangs heavily over the work of ,,nicolo ,,semitecolo1 who was working in ,venice in the middle of the fourteenth century1 as may be seen in the great altar-piece ascribed to him in the ,academy--the ,coronation of the ,virgin with fourteen scenes from the life of ,christ4 ,in this work there is little of the general advancement visible in other parts of ,italy4 ,it corresponds most nearly with the work of ,duccio of ,siena1 though without attaining his excellence2 while the gold hatchings and olive brown tones are still ,byzantine4 ,an altar-piece1 by ,,michele ,,giambono1 also in the ,academy1 painted during the first half of the fifteenth century1 shows a more decided advance1 and even anticipates some of the later excellences of the ,venetian ,school4 ,the drapery is in the long and easy lines which we see in the ,tuscan pictures of the period1 and what is especially significant1 in view of the subsequent development of ,venetian painting1 the colouring is rich1 deep1 and transparent1 and the flesh tints unusually soft and warm4 ,this is signed by ,giambono1 and is one of his most important works1 as well as the most complete1 as it exists in its original state as an ancona or altar-piece divided into compartments by canopies of joiners' work4 ,it is unusual in form1 inasmuch as the central panel1 though slightly larger than the pair on either side1 contains but a single figure4 ,this figure was generally supposed to be the ,saviour1 but it has recently been pointed out that it is ,s4 ,james the ,great1 the others being ,,ss4 ,john the ,evangelist1 ,philip ,benizi1 ,michael1 and ,louis of ,toulouse4 ,some of ,giambono's finest work was in mosaic1 and the walls and roof of the ,cappella de',mascoli in ,s4 ,mark's may be regarded as the highest achievement in mosaic of the early ,venetian ,school4 ,while this species of decoration had given place to fresco painting elsewhere1 it was here1 in #adcj1 brought to a pitch of perfection by ,giambono which entitles this work to a prominent place in the history of painting4 ,but the two chief pioneers of the early fifteenth century were ,giovanni1 or ,,johannes ,,alamanus1 and ,,antonio ,,da ,,murano4 ,the former appears from his surname to have been of ,german origin1 the latter belonged to the family of ,,vivarini1 and they used to work together on the same pictures4 ,two excellent examples of this combination are in the ,academy at ,venice4 ,the one1 dated #addj1 is a ,coronation of the ,virgin1 with many figures1 including several boys1 and numerous saints seated4 ,in the heads of the saints we may trace the hand of ,alamanus1 in the ,germanic type of countenance which recalls the style of ,stephen of ,cologne4 ,a repetition of this1 if it is not actually the original1 is in ,s4 ,pantalone at ,venice4 ,the other picture1 dated #addf1 of enormous dimensions1 represents the ,virgin enthroned1 beneath a canopy sustained by angels1 with the four ,fathers of the ,church at her side4 ,the colouring is fully as flowing and splendid as that of ,giambono4 ,we do not recognise here1 as ,kugler rightly observes1 the influence of the school of ,giotto1 but rather the types of the ,germanic style gradually assuming a new character1 possibly owing to the social condition of ,venice itself4 ,there was something perhaps in the nature of a rich commercial aristocracy of the middle ages calculated to encourage that species of art which offered the greatest splendour and elegance to the eye2 and this also1 if possible1 in a portable form2 thus preferring the domestic altar or the dedication picture to wall decorations in churches4 ,the contemporary ,flemish paintings1 under similar conditions1 exhibit analogous results4 ,with regard to colour1 the depth and transparency observable in the works of the old ,venetian ,school had long been a distinguishing feature in the ,byzantine paintings on wood1 and may therefore be traceable to this source without assuming an influence on the part of ,padua1 or from the north through ,giovanni ,alamanus4 ,the two side panels of an altar-piece1 representing severally ,,ss4 ,peter and ,jerome1 and ,,ss4 ,francis and ,mark1 now in the ,national ,gallery 7,nos4 #gfh and #abhd71 are ascribed to ,antonio ,vivarini alone1 though the centre panel1 the ,virgin and ,child1 now in the ,poldi ,pezzoli collection at ,milan is said to be the joint work of ,alamanus and ,antonio4 ,however that may be1 there is no longer any dispute about the fascinating ,adoration of the ,kings in the ,kaiser ,friedrich ,museum at ,berlin1 formerly supposed to be the work of ,gentile da ,fabriano1 but now catalogued as that of ,antonio4 ,in #adej the name of ,alamanus disappears altogether1 and that of ,,bartolommeo ,,vivarini1 ,antonio's younger brother1 replaces it in an inscription upon the great altar-piece commissioned by ,pope ,nicholas ,v4 in commemoration of ,cardinal ,albergati1 now in the ,pinacoteca of ,bologna4 ,the change is noticeable as introducing the ,paduan influence of ,squarcione1 under whom ,bartolommeo had studied1 instead of the northern influence of ,alamanus1 into ,antonio's workshop1 and while this work of #adej1 as might be supposed1 bears a general resemblance to that of #addf1 the change of partnership is at least perceptible1 and had a determining influence on the development of the ,venetian style4 ,a slightly earlier work of ,bartolommeo alone is a ,madonna and ,child belonging to ,sir ,hugh ,lane1 signed and dated #addh4 ,an altar-piece in the ,venice ,academy is dated #adfd1 a ,madonna and ,four ,saints1 in the ,frari1 #adhb1 and ,s4 ,barbara1 in the ,academy1 #adij4 ,bartolommeo is supposed to have died in #adii4 ,,alvise1 or ,,luigi1 ,,vivarini was the son of ,antonio1 and though he worked under him and his uncle ,bartolommeo1 as well as under ,giovanni ,bellini1 the ,paduan influence is apparent in his work4 ,he was born in #addg1 and his first dated work is an altar-piece at ,montefiorentino1 in #adge4 ,in the ,academy at ,venice is a ,madonna dated #adhj1 and at ,naples a ,madonna with ,,ss4 ,francis and ,bernard1 #adhe4 ,another ,madonna at ,vienna is dated #adhi1 and the large altar-piece in the ,basilica at the ,kaiser ,friedrich ,museum in ,berlin is assigned to about the same time4 ,this is the first of his works in which the influence of ,bellini rather than that of his family is traceable1 while of the ,redentore ,madonna at ,venice1 of about five years later1 ,mr ,bernhard ,bernson says that1 ,as a composition no work of the kind by ,giovanni ,bellini even rivals it4 ,in #adih he had advanced so far as to be spoken of as anticipating ,giorgione and ,titian1 in the effect of light and in the roundness and softness of the figures of the ,resurrection1 at ,bragora4 ,his last work1 the altar-piece at the ,frari1 was completed after his death in #aejd by his pupil ,basaiti4 ,bartolommeo ,montagna1 ,jacopo da ,valenza and ,lorenzo ,lotto were the chief of his other pupils4 ,in connection with the ,vivarini must be mentioned ,,carlo ,,crivelli1 who studied with ,bartolommeo under ,antonio and ,squarcione4 ,but there was something fierce and uncongenial about ,crivelli which takes him out of the main body of ,venetian painters1 and seems to have given him more pride in being made a knight than in his pictorial achievements1 remarkable as they were4 ,in his ornamentation of every detail with gold and jewels he recalls the style of ,antonio ,vivarini1 but while the master used it as accessory merely1 ,crivelli positively revelled in it4 ,an inventory of the precious stones1 ornaments1 fruits and flowers1 and other detached items in the great ,demidoff ,altar-,piece in the ,national ,gallery would fill several pages4 ,of the eight examples in this gallery the earliest is probably the ,dead ,christ1 presumably painted in #adgb4 ,the ,demidoff altar-piece is dated #adgf4 ,the ,annunciation 7,no4 #gci71 which may be considered his masterpiece1 was ten years later4 ,in #adij ,crivelli was knighted by ,prince ,ferdinand of ,capua1 and from that date onward he was careful to add to his signature the title ,miles--as appears in our ,madonna and ,child ,enthroned1 with ,,ss4 ,jerome and ,sebastian--called the ,madonna della ,rondine3---- ,,carolus ,,crivellus ,,venetus ,,miles ,,pinxit4 ,this was painted for the ,odoni ,chapel in ,s4 ,francesco at ,matelica1 the coat of arms of the family being painted on the step4 ,our ,annunciation was executed for the convent of the ,santissima ,annunziata at ,ascoli1 and is dated #adhf4 ,three coats of arms on the front of the step at the bottom of the picture are those of the ,bishop of ,ascoli1 ,pope ,innocent ,,vii41 the reigning ,pontiff1 and the ,city of ,ascoli4 ,between these are the words ,libertas ,ecclesiastica1 in allusion to the charter of self-government given in #adhb by the ,pope to the citizens of ,ascoli4 ,the patron saint of the city1 ,s4 ,emidius1 is represented as a youth kneeling beside the ,archangel1 holding in his hands a model of it4 ,the ,virgin is seen through the open door of a house1 and in an open loggia above are peacocks and other birds4 ,amid all the rich detail1 the significance of the group of figures at the top of a flight of steps must not be missed1 amongst which a child and a poet are the only two who are represented as noticing the mystic event4 ,another painter of the earlier half of the fourteenth century may be mentioned here1 though as he was more famous as a medallist his influence on the main course of painting is not observable4 ,,vittore ,,pisano1 called ,,pisanello1 was born in ,verona before #adjj1 and died in #adee4 ,of the few pictures attributed to him we are fortunate in having two such beautiful examples as the ,,ss4 ,anthony and ,george and ,the ,vision of ,s4 ,eustace in the ,national ,gallery4 ,both exhibit his two most noticeable characteristics1 namely1 the minute care and exquisite feeling that made him the most famous of medallists1 and his wonderful drawing of animals4 ,the latter1 it is worth remarking1 was attributed by a former owner to ,albert ,drer4 ,the other is signed ,pisanus2 in the frame are inserted casts of two of his medals1 representing ,leonello d',este1 his patron1 and a profile of himself4 ,another very considerable factor in the development of ,venetian painting was the influence of ,,gentile ,,da ,,fabriano 7c4 #acfj-adcj71 who settled in ,venice in the latter part of his life1 and there formed the closest intimacy with ,antonio ,vivarini4 ,the remarkable ,adoration of the ,kings in the ,berlin ,museum was until lately given to ,gentile1 though it is now catalogued as the work of ,antonio4 ,of ,gentile's education little is known1 and of the numerous works which he executed at ,fabriano1 in ,rome and in ,venice very few have survived4 ,from those that exist1 however1 we can form an estimate of his talents and of the difference between his earlier and later styles4 ,to the first belong a fresco of the ,madonna in the ,cathedral at ,orvieto1 and the beautiful picture of the ,madonna and saints which is now in the ,kaiser ,friedrich ,museum at ,berlin4 ,also the fine ,adoration of the ,kings1 inscribed with his name and the date #adbc1 formerly in the sacristy of ,s4 ,trinit at ,florence1 and now in the ,accademia4 ,this1 his masterpiece1 is one of the finest conceptions of the subject as well as one of the most excellent productions of the schools descended from ,giotto4 ,of his later period the ,coronation of the ,virgin 7called the ,quadro della ,romita7 in the ,brera gallery at ,milan is one of the finest4 ,in many respects his work is like that of ,fra ,angelico1 and was aptly characterised by ,michelangelo when he said that ,gentile's pictures were like his name4 ,apart from the influence of the ,paduan ,school1 which will next be noticed1 the ,venetian owed most to ,gentile da ,fabriano1 if only as the master of ,jacopo ,bellini1 whose son1 ,giovanni ,bellini1 may be regarded as the real head of the ,venetian ,school as developed by his pupils ,giorgione and ,titian at the opening of the sixteenth century4 ,whether or not ,giotto left any actual pupils in ,padua after completing the frescoes in the chapel of the arena there1 it must be admitted that the older school of painting in ,padua1 which centred round the church containing the body of ,s4 ,anthony1 was an offshoot of the ,florentine1 and that as ,giotto was the great leader in ,florence he must be considered the same here2 though his followers differ so much from each other in style that beyond their indebtedness to their founder they have no distinctive feature in common4 ,but with the opening of the fifteenth century one particular tendency was developed under the fostering influence of ,,francesco ,,squarcione1 born in #acid1 which affected in a very sensible degree the style of the great painters of the next generation in ,venice4 ,this1 in a word1 was the cult of the antique4 ,among the ,florentines1 as we have seen1 the study of form was chiefly pursued on the principle of direct reference to nature1 the especial object in view being an imitation in two dimensions of the actual appearances and circumstances of life existing in three4 ,in the ,paduan ,school it now came to be very differently developed1 namely1 by the study of the masterpieces of antique sculpture1 in which the common forms of nature were already raised to a high ideal of beauty4 ,this school has consequently the merit1 as ,kugler points out1 of applying the rich results of an earlier1 long-forgotten excellence in art to modern practice4 ,of a real comprehension of the idealising principle of classic art there does not appear any trace2 what the ,paduans borrowed from the antique was limited primarily to mere outward beauty4 ,accordingly in the earliest examples we find the drapery treated according to the antique costume1 and the general arrangement more resembling bas-relief than rounded groups4 ,the accessories display in like manner a special attention to antique models1 particularly in the architecture1 and the frequent introduction of festoons of fruit2 while the exaggerated sharpness in the marking of the forms due to the combined influence of the study of the antique and the naturalising tendency of the time1 sometimes borders on excess4 ,the immediate cause of this almost sudden outbreak of the cult of the antique--whatever natural forces were behind it--was the visit of ,squarcione to ,greece1 and ,southern ,italy1 to collect specimens of the remains of ancient art4 ,on his return to ,padua his collection soon attracted a great number of pupils anxious to avail themselves of the advantages it offered2 and by these pupils1 who poured in from all parts of ,italy1 the manner of the school was afterwards spread throughout a great portion of the country4 ,squarcione himself is better known as a teacher than as an artist1 the few of his remaining works being of no great importance4 ,there is no example in the ,national ,gallery1 but of the work of his great pupil1 ,mantegna1 we have as much1 at any rate1 as will serve to commemorate the master4 ,,andrea ,,mantegna was born at ,vicenza in #adca1 and when no more than ten years old was inscribed in the guild of ,padua as pupil and adopted son of ,squarcione4 ,as early as #addh he had painted an altar-piece for ,santa ,sophia1 now lost1 and in #adeb the fresco in ,san ,antonio4 ,in #adee he was engaged with ,nicolo ,pizzolo 7,donatello's assistant71 and others1 on the six frescoes in the ,eremitani ,church at ,padua4 ,the whole of the left side of the chapel of ,,ss4 ,james and ,christopher--the life of ,s4 ,james--and the martyrdom of ,s4 ,christopher are his1 and in these1 his earliest remaining works1 we already see the result of pedantic antiquarianism combined with his extraordinary individuality4 ,in #adfj he went to ,mantua1 where he remained for the greater part of his life1 visiting ,florence in #adff and ,rome in #adhh4 ,among his earlier works are the small ,adoration of the ,kings in the ,uffizi at ,florence1 the ,death of the ,virgin and the ,s4 ,george in the ,venice ,academy4 ,from #adhd to #adid he was intermittently engaged on the nine great cartoons of ,the ,triumph of ,csar1 which are now at ,hampton ,court1 having been acquired by ,charles ,i4 with many other gems from the ,duke of ,mantua's collection4 ,on the completion of these he painted the celebrated ,madonna della ,vittoria1 now in the ,louvre--a large altar-piece representing a ,madonna surrounded by saints1 with ,francesco ,gonzaga1 ,duke of ,mantua1 and his wife1 kneeling at her feet4 ,it is a dedication picture for a victory obtained over ,charles ,,viii4 of ,france in #adie4 ,it is no less remarkable for its superb execution than for a softer treatment of the flesh than is usual in ,mantegna's work4 ,two other pictures in the ,louvre are1 however1 distinguished by similar qualities--the ,parnassus1 painted in #adig1 and the ,triumph of ,virtue4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xi4--,,andrea ,,mantegna ,,the ,,madonna ,,della ,,vittoria ,louvre1 ,paris ,in our own collection we have ,the ,agony in the ,garden1 painted in #adei--to which ,i shall refer presently--two monochrome paintings 7,nos4 #aabe and #aade71 the beautiful ,virgin and ,child ,enthroned1 with ,,ss4 ,mary ,magdalen and ,john the ,baptist1 which is comparable with the more famous ,louvre ,madonna1 and1 lastly1 the ,triumph of ,scipio1 in monochrome1 painted for ,francesco ,cornaro1 a ,venetian nobleman1 completed in #aejf1 only a few months before the painter's death4 ,in this we see that ,mantegna's antiquarianism was not simply a youthful phase1 but lasted till the very end of his career4 ,the subject is the reception of the ,phrygian mother of the gods among the recognised divinities of the ,roman ,state1 as is indicated on the plinth by the inscription4 ,in the centre is ,claudia ,quinta about to kneel before the bust of the goddess4 ,behind is ,scipio1 and in the background are monuments to his family4 ,the composition includes twenty-two figures4 ,it is significant that the subject and its treatment are so entirely classic as only to be appreciated by references to ,latin literature4 ,another significance attaches to the ,agony in the ,garden above mentioned1 which is one of the very earliest1 as the ,scipio is the very latest1 of ,mantegna's pictures1 being painted before he left ,padua to go to ,mantua4 ,in this we find that the original suggestion for the design appears to have been taken from a drawing in the sketch-book of his father-in-law1 ,jacopo ,bellini1 which is now in the ,british ,museum2 and the same design appears to have served ,giovanni ,bellini in the composition of the picture in our gallery 7,no4 #gbf74 ,this takes us back to ,venice1 and accounts for the ,paduan influence traceable in the works of the ,bellini family and their pupils4 ,,jacopo ,,bellini1 whose considerable talents have been somewhat obscured by the fame of his two sons1 ,gentile and ,giovanni1 was originally a pupil of ,gentile da ,fabriano1 after whom he named his eldest son4 ,he was working in ,padua in the middle of the fifteenth century1 in rivalry with ,squarcione1 and in #adec his daughter ,nicolosia married ,andrea ,mantegna4 ,thus it happened that both of his sons came under the influence of ,mantegna1 and evidently1 too1 of the sculptor ,donatello1 when working at ,padua between #adej and #adfj4 ,very few authentic pictures by ,jacopo are known to us4 ,a ,crucifixion 7much repainted7 was in the sacristy of the ,episcopal ,palace at ,verona2 and another1 which recalls the treatment of his master1 ,gentile da ,fabriano1 at ,lovere1 near ,bergamo4 ,in the sketch-book above mentioned1 the contents of which consist of sacred subjects1 and studies from the antique1 both in architecture and in costume1 we see the peculiar tendency of the ,paduan ,school expressed in the most complete and comprehensive manner4 ,these drawings constitute the most remarkable link of connection between ,mantegna and the sons of ,jacopo ,bellini1 all three of whom must have studied from them4 ,the book was inherited by ,gentile on his mother's death1 and bequeathed by him to his brother on condition that he should finish the picture of ,s4 ,mark1 on which ,gentile was engaged at the time of his death4 ,,giovanni ,,bellini was born in #adbh or #adcj and lived to #aeaf4 ,albert ,drer1 writing from ,venice in #aejf1 says that he is very old1 but is still the best in painting4 ,the greater number of ,bellini's pictures are to be found in the galleries and churches in ,venice1 all of those which are dated being the work of his old age4 ,of his earlier pictures we are fortunate in having two fine examples in the ,national ,gallery1 ,christ's ,agony in the ,garden 7,no4 #gbf7 and ,the ,blood of the ,redeemer 7,no4 #abcc74 ,in both of these the influence of his famous brother-in-law ,andrea ,mantegna1 is traceable1--the former being till lately attributed to him4 ,both ,giovanni and ,gentile worked in ,padua1 where ,mantegna was established1 in #adfj or thereabouts1 and where another influence1 that of the sculptor ,donatello1 must have had its effect on the young brothers4 ,similar in character1 and even more beautiful in some respects1 is the ,redeemer1 a single half figure in a landscape1 recently acquired for the ,louvre--the first authentic example of the master in that collection4 ,in #adfd1 ,giovanni had returned to ,venice1 and it was some years before the severe ,paduan influence melted before the sensuous feeling of the true ,venetian temperament4 ,in #adge1 however1 the arrival of ,antonello da ,messina in ,venice1 bringing with him the practice of painting in oil1 effected a revolution1 in which ,giovanni1 if not one of the foremost1 was certainly one of the most successful in adopting the new method4 ,his later works1 so far from showing any diminution of power1 may be said to anticipate the ,venetian style of the sixteenth century in the clearest manner4 ,one of the chief1 dated #adhh1 is the large altar-piece in the sacristy of ,s4 ,maria di ,frari1 a ,madonna ,enthroned with two angels and four saints4 ,the two little angels are of the utmost beauty2 the one is playing on a lute1 and listens with head inclined to hear whether the instrument is in tune2 the other is blowing a pipe4 ,the whole is perfectly finished and of a splendid effect of colour4 ,to the year #adhf belongs a ,madonna ,enthroned with ,six ,saints1 now in the ,academy at ,venice4 ,the famous head of the ,doge ,loredano in the ,national ,gallery must have been painted in or after #aeja4 ,in #aejg1 he completed the large picture of ,s4 ,mark ,preaching at ,alexandria1 now in the ,brera ,gallery at ,milan1 begun by his brother ,gentile4 ,within three years of his death1 namely in #aeac1 he could produce such a masterwork as the altar-piece in ,s4 ,giovanni ,crisostomo4 ,his last work1 the landscape in which was finished by ,titian1 is dated #aead4 ,this is the famous ,bacchanal now in the collection of the ,duke of ,northumberland4 ,the influence of ,bellini on the ,venetian ,school was paramount1 and his noble example helped more than anything else to develop the excellences observable in the works of ,cimada ,conegliano1 ,vincenzo ,catena1 ,lorenzo ,lotto1 ,palma ,vecchio and ,basaiti1 to say nothing of his great pupils ,titian and ,giorgione4 ,it is impossible to conjecture what course the genius of this younger generation would have taken without his guidance1 but when we consider that in #aejj ,bellini was seventy years old1 and had stored within his mind the experience of his early association with his brother-in-law ,andrea ,mantegna in ,padua1 the introduction of the use of oil paints by ,antonello da ,messina in #adge1 since which date he had sedulously developed the new practice2 when we also take into account the dignity and gravity of his own works1 and the indication they afford of the man himself1 it is not difficult to judge how much his pupils and successors owed to him4 ,the works of ,,gentile ,,bellini1 the elder brother of ,giovanni1 are of less importance1 but of considerable interest1 especially in view of his journey to ,constantinople in #adgi at the request of the ,sultan1 whose portrait he painted there in the following year4 ,a replica ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xii4--,,giovanni ,,bellini ,,the ,,doge ,,loredano ,national ,gallery1 ,london of this portrait has been bequeathed to the ,national ,gallery by ,sir ,henry ,layard1 and it is to be hoped that the difficulties raised by the ,italian government as to its removal from ,venice will shortly be overcome4 ,the picture of ,s4 ,mark ,preaching at ,alexandria already mentioned as having been finished by ,giovanni1 is remarkable for the ,oriental costumes of all the figures in it4 ,gentile's pictures are often ascribed to his brother2 in two examples at the ,national ,gallery 7,nos4 #hjh and #addj7 there is actually a false signature on a cartellino4 ,in the latter instance ,messrs ,ludwig and ,molmenti are still of opinion that the picture is the work of ,giovanni4 ,,vincenzo ,,catena 7c4 #adgj-aecj7 is not known to have been a pupil of ,bellini1 but he began by so modelling his style upon him that one of his works in the ,national ,gallery was until quite lately officially ascribed to him1 namely the ,s4 ,jerome in his ,study4 ,another1 a later work1 ,a ,warrior ,adoring the ,infant ,christ was similarly ascribed to ,giorgione4 ,this is a proof that ,catena was very susceptible to various influences1 and was an artist of extraordinary suppleness of mind1 never too old to learn or to appreciate new ideals and new sentiments4 ,in a manner more his own is the ,madonna with ,four ,saints in the ,berlin ,gallery 7,no4 #ai74 ,the ,s4 ,jerome and the ,warrior are among the most popular pictures in the ,national ,gallery--partly perhaps on account of their supposed illustrious parentage1 but by no means entirely4 ,a painter who could so absorb the characteristics of two such masters must needs be a master himself4 ,,cima ,,da ,,conegliano1 so called from his birthplace in ,friuli--the rocky height of which serves as a background in some of his pictures--settled in ,venice in #adij1 when he was about thirty years old4 ,the influence of ,bellini may be seen in the temperamental as well as the technical qualities of his work1 which is distinguished by sound drawing and proportion1 fine and brilliant colour1 as well as by sympathetic types of countenance4 ,one of his best and earliest pictures is the ,s4 ,john the ,baptist with four other saints1 in ,santa ,maria del ,orto in ,venice4 ,another is the ,madonna with ,s4 ,jerome and ,s4 ,louis1 now in the ,vienna ,gallery4 ,a smaller but peculiarly attractive piece is the ,s4 ,anianus of ,alexandria healing a shoemaker's wounded hand1 at ,berlin1 distinguished for its beautiful clear colours and the life-like character of the heads4 ,,andrea ,,previtali1 born in ,bergamo in #adhj1 came to ,venice to study under ,bellini1 whom he succeeded in imitating with remarkable success4 ,the ,mystic ,marriage of ,s4 ,catherine 7,no4 #adji7 in the ,national ,gallery was formerly attributed to ,bellini4 ,if he had not the originality to carry the art any farther1 his pictures are nevertheless a decided and very agreeable proof of the advance that was being made in it at the beginning of the sixteenth century1 before the full splendour of ,giorgione and ,titian had unfolded4 ,,marco ,,basaiti1 though probably not a pupil of ,bellini1 nevertheless acquired many of his characteristics4 ,the picture in the ,national ,gallery known as ,the ,madonna of the ,meadow was until lately assigned to ,bellini1 and another of his1 in the ,giovanelli ,palace at ,venice1 which is identical in technique1 tone1 and general effect with this one1 is still so ascribed4 ,whether or not he learnt from ,bellini1 he was certainly an assistant to ,alvise ,vivarini1 on whose death he completed the large altar-piece in the ,church of ,s4 ,maria de ,friari at ,venice1 representing ,s4 ,ambrose surrounded by ,saints4 ,his ,christ on the ,mount of ,olives and ,the ,calling of ,zebedee1 both dated #aeaj1 are now in the ,academy at ,venice1 and together with the ,portrait of a ,man1 dated #aeba1 in the ,bergamo ,gallery1 and ,the ,assumption in ,s4 ,pietro ,martire at ,murano1 may be considered his best performances4 ,more remote from ,bellini1 yet not so far as to be entirely free from his influence in some of their more important compositions1 was the school formed by ,,lazzaro ,,di ,,bastiani or ,,sebastiani1 of which the chief ornament was ,vittore ,carpaccio1 and among the lesser ones ,giovanni ,mansueti and ,benedetto ,diana4 ,the history of this independent group of painters has only of late years been elucidated2 ,kugler1 after a page devoted to ,carpaccio1 dismissed them with the remark that ,mansueti and ,bastiani were both pupils of ,carpaccio1 and that ,benedetto ,diana was less distinguished4 ,our national collection was without any example until #ahif1 when ,mansueti's ,symbolic representation of the ,crucifixion was purchased4 ,in #aije the ,national ,art-,collections ,fund secured ,bastiani's ,virgin and ,child1 and in #aiaj ,sir ,claude ,phillips presented ,diana's ,christ ,blessing4 ,alas6 that we are still without anything from the hand of ,vittore ,carpaccio4 ,seven portraits by ,moroni do not fill a gap like this4 ,the name of ,lazzaro de ,bastiani first occurs in ,venice as a witness to his brother's will in #addi1 and as early as #adfj he was painting an altar-piece for the ,church of ,san ,samuele4 ,ten years later1 the brothers of the ,scuolo di ,san ,marco ordered a picture of the ,story of ,david from him1 promising him the same payment as they gave to ,jacobo ,bellini1 who had been working for them with his two sons ,gentile and ,giovanni4 ,in #adgd1 another proof of his rank and repute as a painter is afforded by a letter from a gentleman in ,constantinople1 asking for a picture by him1 but that ,giovanni ,bellini should paint it in the event of ,bastiani being already dead4 ,he was thus1 it would seem1 preferred to ,bellini1 though it will be remembered that five years later1 when the ,sultan expressed the wish that a distinguished portrait-painter should be sent him from ,venice1 it was ,gentile ,bellini who was nominated4 ,all the same1 ,gentile was a portrait-painter1 and ,bastiani was not2 and it is fairly evident that the latter was at least in the front rank4 ,one of his best-known pictures the ,vergine dai begli occhi in the ,ducal ,palace at ,venice used to be attributed to ,giovanni ,bellini2 but though he appears to have drawn inspiration for his larger and more important compositions from ,jacobo ,bellini1 his style was chiefly developed through that of ,giambono4 ,his most important work is now in the ,academy at ,vienna--an altar-piece painted for the ,church of ,corpus ,domini1 ,venice1 ,s4 ,veneranda ,enthroned4 ,in the ,imperial ,gallery at ,vienna are a ,last ,communion and ,funeral of ,s4 ,girolamo4 ,in the ,academy at ,venice are ,s4 ,anthony of ,padua1 seated between the branches of a walnut-tree1 with ,cardinal ,bonaventura and ,brother ,leo on either side1 a large picture of a ,miracle of the ,holy ,cross1 and a remarkable rendering of ,the ,madonna ,kneeling1 the child being laid under an elaborate canopy4 ,an ,entombment in the ,church of ,s4 ,antonino at ,venice is reminiscent of ,giovanni ,bellini at his best4 ,in #aejh1 the name of ,,vittore ,,carpaccio occurs with that of ,bastiani in connection with the frescoes of ,giorgione upon the faade of the ,fondaco de ,tedeschi1 about which there was a dispute4 ,to ,carpaccio we are indebted for the most vivid realization of the contemporary life of ,venice2 for although his subjects were nominally taken from sacred history or legend1 they are treated in a thoroughly secular fashion1 giving the clearest idea of the buildings1 people1 and costume of the ,venice of his time1 with the greatest variety and richest development4 ,his object is not only to represent single events1 but a complete scene1 and while we observe this characteristic in one or two pictures by the ,bellini1 ,carpaccio not only shows it much oftener1 but carries it to a much fuller development--possibly influenced by the ,netherlandish masters4 ,many of his works are in the ,academy at ,venice2 eight large pictures1 painted between #adij and #adie1 represent the history of ,s4 ,ursula and the eleven thousand virgins4 ,such a wealth of charming material might have embarrassed a less capable painter1 but the monotonous incident which forms the groundwork of many of them1 as ,kugler coldly puts it1 is throughout varied and elevated by a free style of grouping and by happy moral allusions4 ,another series is that of the ,miracles of the ,holy ,cross1 among which may be especially noticed the cure of a man possessed by a devil2 the scene is laid in the loggia of a ,venetian palace1 and is watched from below by a varied group of figures on the ,canal and its banks4 ,larger and broader treatment may be seen in the ,presentation in the ,temple1 painted in #aeaj1 which is also in the ,academy1 and in the altar-piece of ,s4 ,vitale1 dated #aead4 ,this last brings ,carpaccio into closer comparison with the later ,venetian painters1 being in the nature of a ,santa ,conversazione1 where the holy personages are grouped in some definite relation to each other1 and not independent figures4 ,,palma ,,vecchio 7#adhj-aebh71 so called to distinguish him from ,giacomo ,palma the younger--,palma ,giovane1--was so much influenced by ,giorgione and ,titian that his indebtedness to ,bellini appears to have been comparatively slight4 ,the beautiful ,portrait of a ,poet in the ,national ,gallery has been attributed both to ,giorgione and to ,titian4 ,the number of pictures which are now permitted by the experts to be called ,giorgione's is so small1 that we may learn more about him as an influence on the work of other painters--especially ,titian--than from the meagre materials available for his own biography4 ,the only unquestioned examples of his work are three pictures at the ,uffizi1 ,the ,trial of ,moses1 ,the ,judgment of ,solomon1 and ,the ,knight of ,malta2 the ,venus at ,dresden2 ,the ,three ,philosophers at ,vienna2 and the famous ,concert ,champtre in the ,louvre4 ,but until the critics deprive him even of these1 we are able to agree that his capital achievement was the invention of the modern spirit of lyrical passion and romance in pictorial art1 and his magical charm has never been equalled4 ,,ii ,,tiziano ,,vecellio ,,titian occupies almost1 if not quite1 as important a place in the history of painting as does ,shakespeare in that of literature4 ,his fame1 his popularity1 the wide range as well as the immense quantity of his works1 entitle him to be ranked with our poet1 if only for the ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xiii4--,,giorgione ,,venetian ,,pastoral ,louvre1 ,paris enormous influence they have both exercised on posterity3 and without carrying the parallel farther than the limits imposed by the difference of their circumstances and their method of expression1 it may fairly be said that ,titian1 in painting1 stands for us to-day much as ,shakespeare stands for in letters4 ,titian1 says ,m4 ,caro ,delvaille1#b is the father of modern painting4 ,as the blood of the patriarchs of old infused the veins of a whole race1 so the genius of the most productive of painters was destined to infuse those of artists through all the ages even to the present day4 ,he bequeathed1 in his enormous oeuvre1 a heritage in which generations of painters have participated4 ,not only was he the father of modern painting1 but he was himself the first modern painter1 just as ,shakespeare was1 to all present intents and purposes1 the first modern writer4 ,among a thousand readers of ,shakespeare1 there is possibly not more than one who has ever read a line of ,chaucer1 or who has ever heard of any of his other predecessors4 ,so it is with ,titian4 ,to the connoisseur1 ,titian is one of the latest painters2 to the public he is the earliest4 ,in certain of his portraits1 we read in the ,national ,gallery ,catalogue1 he ranks with the supreme masters2 in certain other aspects he is seen as the greatest academician1 as perhaps he was the first4 ,as it happens1 too1 ,titian stands in much the same relation to ,giorgione as ,shakespeare did to ,marlowe4 ,giorgione was really the great innovator1 and ,giorgione died young1 leaving ,titian to carry on the work4 ,it has always been supposed that ,titian and ,giorgione1 like ,marlowe and ,shakespeare1 were born within the same year2 but in this respect the parallel is no longer admissible1 as ,mr ,herbert ,cook has shown to the verge of actual proof that the story of ,titian being born in #aegg1 and having lived to be ninety-nine years old1 is unworthy of acceptance4 ,if this were merely a question of biography1 it would not be worth dwelling upon2 but as it seriously affects the whole study of early ,venetian painting1 it is necessary to point out that the probability1 according to a critical study of all the evidence available1 is that ,titian was not born till #adhh or #adhi1 and was thus really the pupil rather than the contemporary of ,giorgione1 and therefore more slightly influenced by ,giovanni ,bellini than has been generally supposed4 ,without going into all the evidence adduced by ,mr ,cook 7,reviews and ,appreciations1 ,heinemann1 #aiac7 it is nevertheless pretty evident that in the account given by his friend and contemporary1 ,lodovico ,dolce1 published in #aeeg1 we have the most authentic story of ,titian's early years1 and from this it is quite clear that ,titian was considerably younger than ,giorgione4 ,being born at ,cadore1 he writes1 of honourable parents1 he was sent1 when a child of nine years old1 by his father to ,venice1 to the house of his father's brother1 in order that he might be put under some proper master to study painting2 his father having perceived in him even at that tender age strong marks of genius towards the art4444 ,his uncle directly carried the child to the house of ,sebastanio1 father of the gentilissimo ,valerio and of ,francesco ,zuccati 7distinguished masters of the art of mosaic1 4447 to learn the principles of the art4 ,from them he was removed to ,gentile ,bellini1 brother of ,giovanni1 but much inferior to him1 who at that time was at work with his brother in the ,grand ,council ,chamber4 ,but ,titian1 impelled by nature to greater excellence and perfection in his art1 could not endure following the dry and laboured manner of ,gentile1 but designed with boldness and expedition4 ,whereupon ,gentile told him he would make no progress in painting because he diverged so much from the old style4 ,thereupon ,titian left the stupid ,gentile and found means to attach himself to ,giovanni ,bellini2 but not perfectly pleased with his manner1 he chose ,giorgio da ,castel ,franco4 ,titian1 then1 drawing and painting with ,giorgione1 as he was called1 became in a short time so accomplished in art that when ,giorgione was painting 7in #aejg-h7 the faade of the ,fondaco de',tedeschi1 or ,exchange of the ,german merchants1 which looks towards the ,grand ,canal1 ,titian was allotted the other side which faces the market place1 being at the time scarcely twenty years old4 ,here he represented a ,judith of wonderful design and colour1 so remarkable indeed1 that when the work came to be uncovered it was commonly thought to be the work of ,giorgione1 and all the latter's friends congratulated him 7,giorgione7 as being by far the best thing he had produced4 ,whereupon ,giorgione1 in great displeasure1 replied that the work was from the hand of his pupil1 who showed already how he could surpass his master and 7what is more7 ,giorgione shut himself up for some days at home1 as if in despair1 seeing that a young 7i4e4 younger7 man knew more than he did4 ,again1 in speaking of the famous altar-piece--the ,assumption1 now in the ,academy at ,venice--painted by ,titian in #aeaf1 ,dolce mentions him twice as giovinetto4 ,not long afterwards he was commissioned to paint a large picture for the high altar of the ,church of the ,frate ,minori1 where ,titian1 quite a young man1 painted in oil the ,virgin ascending to ,heaven4444 ,this was the first public work which he painted in oil1 and he did it in a very short time1 and while still a young man4 ,vasari's account of ,titian's early years is substantially the same1 but unfortunately opens with the statement that he was born in the year #adhj4 ,this might easily have been a slip of the pen or a printer's mistake for #adhh or #adhi1 and subsequent passages in the life bear out this supposition4 ,but partly because ,titian was a ,venetian and not a ,florentine1 and partly1 no doubt1 because he was still alive1 and had been producing picture after picture for over sixty years at the time ,vasari published his second edition in #aefh1 the whole account is so confused and inaccurate that its credit has been severely shaken by modern critics1 with the result that it is hardly nowadays considered authentic in any respect4 ,the following extracts1 however1 there seems no reason to question3---- ,about the year #aejg1 ,giorgione not being satisfied with the old-fashioned methods of ,bellini and others began to give his works an unwonted softness and relief1 painting them in a very beautiful manner4 ,and a little later ,having seen the manner of ,giorgione1 ,titian early resolved to abandon that of ,gian ,bellino1 although well grounded therein4 ,he now1 therefore1 devoted himself to this purpose1 and in a short time so closely imitated ,giorgione that his pictures were sometimes taken for those of this master1 as will be related below4 ,increasing in age1 judgment and facility of hand1 our young artist executed numerous works in fresco4444 ,at the time when he began to adopt the manner of ,giorgione1 being then not more than eighteen1 he took the portrait of a gentleman of the ,barberigo family1 who was his friend1 and this was considered very beautiful1 the colouring being true and natural1 the hair so distinctly painted that each one could be counted1 as might also the stitches in a satin doublet painted in the same work2 in a word1 it was so well and carefully done that it would have been taken for a work of ,giorgione if ,titian had not written his name on the dark ground4 ,with this we may leave the question of ,titian's birth date1 and consider the exceptional interest attaching to the question of this ,barberigo portrait4 ,according to ,mr4 ,cook1 and also1 under reserve1 to several other eminent authorities1 it is no other than the so-called ,ariosto1 which was purchased for the ,national ,gallery in #aijd4 ,the chief difficulties in deciding the question are1 first1 whether it is possible that a youth of eighteen could have painted such a masterpiece1 second1 that the signature ,titianus is supposed not to have been used by the artist before about #aebj1 and lastly1 that the head1 at any rate1 is decidedly more in the manner of ,giorgione than that of ,titian4 ,this last1 of course1 did not trouble ,vasari1 and his testimony is therefore all the more valuable2 but all difficulties vanish if we accept ,mr4 ,cook's theory that the portrait was begun by ,giorgione in #aejh1 was left incomplete at his sudden death in #aeaj1 and finished by ,titian in #aebj4 ,that is to say1 the head and general design is that of ,giorgione1 the marvellous finish of the sleeve and other parts that of ,titian4 ,of works left unfinished at a master's death and completed by a pupil there are numerous instances2 the famous ,bacchanal at ,alnwick is one which takes us a step further in ,titian's career4 ,this was begun by ,giovanni ,bellini1 and ,titian was invited by the ,duke of ,ferrara1 in #aeaf1 to finish it4 ,the landscape is entirely his4 ,to complete the decoration of the apartment in which the picture was hung1 he was called upon to paint two others of the same size1 one the ,triumph of ,bacchus1 or as it is usually called ,bacchus and ,ariadne 7now in the ,national ,gallery7 and the other a similar subject1 the ,bacchanal1 now in the ,prado 7,no4 #dah1 formerly #dej74 ,ridolfi1 in his life of ,titian characterises our picture as one to whose unparalleled merits he is inadequate to do justice2 ,there is1 he says1 such a graceful expression in the figure of ,ariadne1 such beauty in the children--so strongly marked both in the looks and attitudes is the joyous character of the licentious votaries of ,bacchus--the roundness and correct drawing of the man entwined with snakes1 the magnificence of the sky and landscape1 the sporting play of the leaves and branches of the most vivid tints1 and the detailed herbage on the ground tending to enliven the scene1 and the rich tone of colour throughout1 form altogether such a whole that hardly any other work of ,titian can stand in competition with it4 ,in the composition of the second picture1 ,the ,bacchanal at ,madrid1 a number of the votaries of ,bacchus are assembled on the bank of a rivulet1 flowing with red wine from a hill in the distance2 some of them are distributing the liquor to their associates1 while a nymph and two men are dancing4 ,the nymph is supposed to be a portrait of ,violante1 ,titan's mistress1 as he has painted1 in allusion to her name1 a violet on her breast and his own name round her arm4 ,her light drapery is raised by the breeze1 and discovers the beautiful form and morbidezza of her limbs4 ,in the foreground ,ariadne lies asleep1 her head resting on a rich vase in place of a pillow4#c ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xiv4--,,titian ,,portrait ,,said ,,to ,,be ,,of ,,ariosto ,national ,gallery1 ,london ,cumberland says that ,raphael ,mengs1 who lived long at ,madrid at the time when this picture was in the reception room of the ,new ,palace1 was of opinion that ,titian's superior taste was nowhere more strikingly displayed1 and remarks that he himself could never pass by it without surprise and admiration1 more particularly excited by the beauty of the sleeping ,ariadne in the foreground4 ,respecting the merits of both pictures the testimony of ,agostino ,carracci should not be omitted2 when he viewed them in the possession of the ,duke of ,ferrara he declared that he considered them the first in the world1 and that no one could say he was acquainted with the most marvellous works of art without having seen them4 ,commenting upon another picture of ,titian's early period1 ,sir ,joshua ,reynolds delivers himself of the following criticisms on ,titian as compared with ,raphael1 ,it is to ,titian that we must turn1 he says1 to find excellence in regard to colour1 and light and shade in the highest degree4 ,he was both the first and the greatest master of this art2 by a few strokes he knew how to mark the general image and character of whatever object he attempted1 and produced by this alone a truer representation of nature than his master1 ,giovanni ,bellini1 or any of his predecessors1 who finished every hair4 ,his greatest object was to express the general colour1 to preserve the masses of light and shade1 and to give by opposition the idea of that solidity which is inseparable from natural objects4444 ,raphael and ,titian seemed to have looked at nature for different purposes2 they both had the power of extending their view to the whole1 but one looked only at the general effect as produced by form1 the other as produced by colour4 ,we cannot refuse ,titian the merit of attending to the general form of the object1 as well as colour2 but his deficiency lay--a deficiency at least when he is compared with ,raphael--in not possessing the power1 like him1 of correcting the form of his model by any general idea of beauty in his own mind4 ,of this his ,st4 ,sebastian with other ,saints 7in the ,vatican7 is a particular instance4 ,this figure appears to be a most exact representation both of the form and colour of the model which he then happened to have before him1 and has all the force of nature1 and the colouring of flesh itself2 but unluckily the model was of a bad form1 especially the legs4 ,titian has with much care preserved these defects1 as he has imitated the beauty and brilliancy of the colouring4444 ,of the ,sebastian1 ,vasari says very much the same as ,reynolds4 ,he is nude1 he writes1 and has been exactly copied from the life without the slightest admixture of art1 no efforts for the sake of beauty have been sought in any part--trunk or limbs2 all is as nature left it1 so that it might seem to be a sort of cast from the life4 ,it is nevertheless considered very fine1 and the figure of our ,lady with the infant in her arms1 whom all the other figures are looking at1 is also accounted most beautiful4 ,two more of the pictures of ,titian's earliest period are in the ,national ,gallery--the ,christ appearing to ,mary ,magdalen 7,no4 #bgj71 and the ,holy ,family 7,no4 #d74 ,the former is ascribed to about the year #aead1 partly on the ground that the group of buildings in the landscape is identical1 line for line1 with that in the ,dresden ,venus painted by ,giorgione but completed by ,titian after his death4 ,the same landscape also occurs in the beautiful little ,cupid in the ,vienna ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xv4--,,titian ,,the ,,holy ,,family ,national ,gallery1 ,london ,academy1 and1 as ,mr ,herbert ,cook suggests1 possibly represents some cherished spot in ,titian's memory connected with his mountain home at ,pieve di ,cadore4 ,the ,holy ,family1 above mentioned1 is a most charming example of the sacra conversazione as developed by ,titian from the somewhat formal and austere conception of ,bellini and his contemporaries into something eminently characteristic of the secular side of his genius4 ,the very titles of two of his most beautiful and most famous pictures of this sort proclaim the hold they have taken on the popular mind4 ,the one is the ,madonna of the ,cherries1 in the ,vienna ,gallery4 ,the other is the ,madonna with the ,rabbit1 in the ,louvre4 ,in our picture the distinguishing feature is the kneeling shepherd1 with his little water-cask slung on his belt1 who puts us at once in touch with the whole scene by the simple appeal to our common human experience4 ,raphael could move our religious feelings to revere the godhead in the child1 but could seldom1 like ,titian1 stir our human emotions and bring home to us that ,christ was born on earth for our sakes4 ,if this particular characteristic of ,titian were confined to the pastoral setting of these ,holy ,conversations1 it might be taken as merely accidental1 and without further significance than should be accorded to a youthful fancy4 ,but in the wonderful ,entombment1 now in the ,louvre1 in which he displays the full splendour of his early maturity1 the human element is such an important factor in the presentment of the divine tragedy that even a painter1 ,m4 ,caro-,delvaille1 must postpone his description of the picture to sentences like these3--,sur un ciel tourment1 he writes1 in phrases which it is impossible to render adequately in ,english1 se profile le groupe tragique4 ,aucun geste superflu2 le drame est intrieur4 ,la ,douleur plane dans l'air alourdi du crpuscule1 comme une aile fatale--,jsus est mort6 ,le grand cadavre livide1 que les aptres angoisss soutiennent1 n'a rien dans sa robustesse inerte de la dpouille macie des ,christs mystiques4 ,le fils de ,dieu semble un patriarche douloureusement frapp par le dcret d'en haut4 ,une pret primitive1 o les larmes se cachent comme une faiblesse1 communique a l'oeuvre un pathtique si poignant que le mystre de la mort s'tend jusqu' nous4 ,la ,vierge et la ,madeleine sont l4 ,elle1 la ,mre1 doute de la ralit1 tant elle souffre6 ,son regard fixe sur le corps chri1 elle ne peut croire que tout est consomm4 ,la pcheresse pitoyable la prend dans ses bras pour essayer de l'arracher l'horreur de cette vision4 ,drame humain et divin6 ne sont-ce point des fils qui ramnent le cadavre de leur pre la poussire8 ,tous ceux qui passrent par ces preuves se souviennent de ce deuil qui semble se prolonger dans la nature entire4 ,titian's first period may be said to end in #aecj1 by which time he had completed the famous ,peter ,martyr1 which was destroyed by fire in #ahfg4 ,in #aecj1 too1 ,titian's wife died4 ,this event of itself need not be supposed to have greatly influenced his career1 as there is no evidence of her having appealed to his artistic nature as did his daughter ,lavinia4 ,as it happened1 however1 a more certain influence was nearly coincident with this event--the arrival in ,venice of the notorious ,aretine1 who1 chiefly as it appears1 with an eye to business1 entered into the most intimate relations with ,titian4 ,the accession of the sculptor ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xvi4--,,titian ,,the ,,entombment ,louvre1 ,paris ,sansovino to the comradeship earned for the group the name of the ,triumvirate4 ,so far from ,titian being corrupted by the society of ,aretine1 there is direct evidence in one of the poet's letters to him that he was not4 ,you must come to our feast to-night1 he writes1 but ,i may as well warn you that you had better leave early1 as ,i know how particular you are about certain things4 ,nor is there anything in the artist's works of this next period--which we may roughly date from #aecj to #aeej1 that betrays a more serious devotion to the sensual side of life than can be accounted for by the demands of the high and mighty patrons that ,aretine was soon to find for him4 ,as an artist he looked upon woman as a beautiful creature1 as a man he most probably never troubled about her1 or was troubled by her4 ,there is no proof that any of his pictures are rightly called ,titian's mistress1 and we may conclude that he was as good a husband and a father as was ,rubens1 who revelled in painting woman1 or ,velasquez1 who seems to have frankly disliked it4 ,like ,rowlandson1 whom the general public only know as a caricaturist1 but who when he once got away from ,london was the most pure minded and poetical artist1 so ,titian1 when once dissociated from the demands of corrupt patrons1 like ,philip ,,ii41 never reveals himself as having fallen under the influence of ,aretine--if indeed at all4 ,the ,dana and the ,venus and a ,musician at the ,prado are the only examples it is possible to cite--unless it be the ,venus1 to which popular opinion would hardly deny its place of honour in the ,tribune at the ,uffizi4 ,at the same time the difference in circumstances1 the fuller1 richer life that he must have led in these years of patronage and prosperity1 accounts for a certain shallowness and complacency which distinguishes his work during this period as sharply from that which preceded as from that which followed it2 and fine as is his accomplishment during these years1 especially in portraiture1 it includes fewer of those masterpieces which appeal to the heart as much as to the eye4 ,to #aech belongs the large and beautiful picture of the ,presentation of the ,virgin ,mary in the ,temple1 painted for the ,scuola della ,carit in ,venice1 which is now occupied by the ,academy1 where it still hangs1 as is said1 in its original place4 ,it is twenty-two feet in length1 and contains several portraits1 among which are those of his daughter ,lavinia 7the ,virgin1 as is supposed71 ,andrea ,franchescini1 grand chancellor of ,venice1 in a scarlet robe2 next him1 in black1 ,lazzaro ,crasso1 a lawyer1 and certain monks of the convent following them4 ,we now find ,titian employed by the ,duke of ,urbino on some of the principal works of this period4 ,among these were the ,uffizi ,venus1 said to be a portrait of the ,duchess herself4 ,the ,girl in a ,fur ,mantle at ,vienna1 portraits of the ,duke and of the ,duchess 7#aecg71 and the so-called ,la ,bella at the ,uffizi4 ,the so-called ,duke of ,norfolk at the ,pitti1 supposed to represent the young ,duke ,guidobaldo of ,urbino4 ,also the ,isabella d',este at ,vienna1 and somewhat earlier1 the ,cardinal ,ippolito in ,hungarian dress1 at the ,pitti2 and the ,daughter of ,robert ,strozzi1 at ,berlin4 ,the large ,ecce ,homo in the ,vienna ,gallery1 dated #aedc1 measuring #aa ft4 #c in4 by #g ft4 #g in4 was for some years in ,london1 and with better fortune might still be in this country if not in our national collection4 ,it was one of the nineteen pictures by ,titian in the wonderful collection of ,rubens1 which the ,duke of ,buckingham persuaded him to sell to him for a fabulous price4 ,the collection was shipped to ,england in #afbe1 when the pictures were taken to ,york ,house in the ,strand1 and the statues and gems to ,chelsea4 ,in #afdi a portion of the collection was sold at ,brussels1 and the ,ecce ,homo was purchased there by the ,archduke ,leopold for his gallery at ,prague1 which now forms part of that at ,vienna4 ,the ,earl of ,arundel offered the ,duke of ,buckingham #gjjj for it--an unheard of price1 especially when we remember the greater value of money at that time4 ,with another masterpiece--fortunately still preserved in the ,prado1 though not entirely uninjured by fire--we may close the second period4 ,this is the magnificent equestrian portrait of ,the ,emperor ,charles ,v4 which was painted at ,augsburg in #aedh4 ,a few years later the ,emperor abdicated in favour of his egregious son1 ,philip ,,ii41 of whom ,titian painted three portraits in succession4 ,the second of these1 now in the ,prado1 has an especial interest for us1 inasmuch as it was painted for the benefit or the enticement of ,queen ,mary before her marriage to ,philip4 ,as might be expected1 it is a highly flattering likeness1--in white and gold1 in half armour4 ,to quote ,m4 ,caro-,delvaille1 this king of auto da fs and sunken galleys is here nothing more than a gallant cavalier--neurasthenic but elegant4 ,for ,england was also painted the ,venus and ,adonis1 in #aeed2 but unfortunately the original is now in ,madrid1 and only a copy in our ,national ,gallery4 ,however1 the remains of ,philip are there too1 and not in ,westminster ,abbey6 ,a copy of another famous picture painted by ,titian for the ,emperor ,charles ,v4 was also in the collection of the ,duke of ,buckingham1 who probably brought it with him when he returned from his madcap expedition with ,prince ,charles to ,madrid4 ,it is described in his catalogue as ,one great ,piece of the ,emperor ,charles1 a copy called ,titian's ,glory1 being the principal in ,spain1 now in the ,escurial4 ,this was the great ,paradise1 or ,apotheosis of ,charles ,v4 which ,charles took with him into ,spain at the time of his abdication and placed in the monastery of ,st4 ,juste1 in ,estramadura1 to which he retired4 ,after his death it was removed by ,philip ,,ii4 to ,madrid4 ,of the two versions of ,the ,crowning with ,thorns1 the earlier one at the ,louvre1 painted in #aefj1 is more familiar to1 and probably more popular with1 the general public than the much later one at ,munich painted in #aega4 ,but for the real merits of the two we need not hesitate to accept ,m4 ,caro-,delvaille's judgment1 since if he had any bias it would be in favour of his own country's treasure4 ,the former he characterises as an incoherent composition1 in which useless gesticulation diminishes the dramatic effect1 while striving to force it2 and adds that all the false romanticism of painting comes from this sort of theatrical pathos4 ,of the other he writes ,it was the picture at the ,louvre which shocked me with its violent declamation and its forced blows that never hit anything4 ,but here at ,munich a mystery so profound broods over the drama that the melodramatic element disappears4 ,the scene becomes tragic1 lamentable1 hopelessly sad4 ,the great artist with a brush that trembles in his aged hands paints but the sentiment of it1 to exhale from his work like a plaintive sigh4 ,the veil of death descends and spreads over life4444 ,titian might seem to have painted it as an offering to ,rembrandt when he1 too1 should feel the approach of death4 ,another of his latest pictures1 the ,adam and ,eve in ,paradise1 is in the ,prado 7,no4 #dbi1 formerly #def74 ,this was copied1 or one might almost say travestied1 by ,rubens when he was at ,madrid in #afbi1 and his work was hung in the same room with it4 ,as the colouring is of a lower tone than is usual with ,titian1 and the attitudes of the figures extremely simple and natural1 the contrast is all the more marked1 and was well expressed by ,cumberland1 who said that when we contemplate ,titian's picture of ,adam and ,eve we are convinced they never wore clothes2 turn to the copy1 and the same persons seem to have laid theirs aside4 ,a more generous comparison between these two painters is made by ,reynolds in a note on du ,fresnoy's poem on ,painting respecting the qualities of regularity and uniformity4 ,an instance occurs to me where those two qualities are separately exhibited by two great painters1 ,rubens and ,titian3 the picture of ,rubens is in the ,church of ,s4 ,augustine at ,antwerp1 the subject 7if that may be called a subject where no story is represented7 is the ,virgin and ,infant ,christ placed high in the picture on a pedestal with many saints about them and as many below them1 with others on the steps to serve as a link to unite the upper and lower part of the picture4 ,the composition of this picture is perfect in its kind2 the artist has shown the greatest skill in composing and contrasting more than twenty figures without confusion and without crowding2 the whole appearing as much animated and in motion as it is possible where nothing is to be done4 ,the picture of ,titian which we would oppose to this is in the ,church of the ,s4 ,frari at ,venice 7the ,pesaro ,madonna1 where the two donors kneel below the ,virgin enthroned74 ,one peculiar character of this piece is grandeur and simplicity1 which proceed in a great measure from the regularity of the composition1 two of the principal figures being represented kneeling directly opposite to each other1 and nearly in the same attitude4 ,this is what few painters would have had the courage to venture2 ,rubens would certainly have rejected so unpicturesque a mode of composition had it occurred to him4 ,both these pictures are excellent in their kind1 and may be said to characterize their respective authors4 ,there is a bustle and animation in the work of ,rubens1 a quiet solemn majesty in that of ,titian4 ,the excellence of ,rubens is the picturesque effect he produces2 the superior merit of ,titian is in the appearance of being above seeking after any such artificial excellence4 ,the most important artist besides ,titian who was a pupil of ,giorgione was ,,sebastiano ,,del ,,piombo1 as he was called--his father's name was ,,luciani4 ,but as two other notable influences determined his career1 he is not to be taken as typical of the ,venetian ,school in general or that of ,giorgione in particular4 ,born in ,venice about the year #adhe1 he first studied under ,giovanni ,bellini1 as appears from the signature as well as from the style of a ,piet by him in the ,layard collection1 which we may hope soon to see in the ,national ,gallery4 ,of his ,giorgionesque period there is only one important picture known to us1 the beautiful altar-piece in ,s4 ,giovanni ,crisostomo in ,venice1 which is not far removed from the richness of ,titian's earlier work4 ,the picture represents the mild and dignified ,s4 ,chrysostom seated1 reading aloud at a desk in an open hall2 ,s4 ,john the ,baptist leaning on his cross is looking attentively at him2 behind him are two male and on the left two female saints listening devoutly1 and in the foreground the ,virgin looking majestically out of the picture at the spectator--a splendid type of the full and grand ,venetian ideal of female beauty of that time4 ,the true expression of a ,santa ,conversazione could not be more worthily given than in the relation in which the listeners stand to the reader1 and in glow of colour this work is not inferior to the best of ,giorgione's or ,titian's4 ,as early as #aeaj1 however1 he not only left ,venice1 but also his ,venetian manner4 ,he was invited to ,rome by the rich banker and patron of the arts1 ,agostino ,chigi1 where he met ,raphael1 and with astonishing versatility succeeded as well in emulating the excellences of that master as he had those of ,bellini and ,giorgione4 ,the half-length ,daughter of ,herodias bequeathed to the ,national ,gallery by ,george ,salting is dated #aeaj1 and in #aeab he painted the famous ,fornarina in the ,uffizi1 which until the middle of the last century was supposed to be a chef d'oeuvre of ,raphael4 ,to this period also belongs the ,s4 ,john in the ,desert1 at the ,louvre4 ,within the next seven years a still mightier influence found him1 that of ,michelangelo1 and how far he was capable of responding to it may be judged by our great ,raising of ,lazarus1 painted at ,rome in #aeag-ai for ,giulio de',medici1 afterwards ,pope ,clement ,,vii41 to be placed with ,raphael's ,transfiguration in the ,cathedral of ,narbonne4 ,both pictures were publicly exhibited in ,rome1 and by some people ,sebastiano's was preferred to ,raphael's4 ,according to ,waagen the whole composition was designed by ,michelangelo1 with whom ,sebastiano had entered into the closest intimacy2 and ,kugler states that the group of ,lazarus and those around him was actually drawn by the master4 ,however that may be1 we can hardly fail to see how entirely the ,venetian influence is obscured by that of the great ,florentine1 and to recognise the extraordinary genius of a painter who could do something more than imitate from such masters as ,bellini1 ,giorgione1 ,raphael and ,michelangelo4 ,the last traces of the ,vivarini influence are to be seen in the earlier works of ,,lorenzo ,,lotto7#adhj-aeef71 who was a pupil of ,alvise1 though his pictures after #aejh1 when he had left ,venice1 ,treviso and ,reccanti1 where he had been employed1 show the effect of his changed surroundings4 ,to this date is assigned the ,portrait of a ,young ,man1 at ,hampton ,court4 ,at ,rome in #aeji he was painting with ,raphael in the ,vatican1 and in his next dated work1 the ,entombment1 at ,jesi1 the echoes of ,raphael's ,disputation and the ,school of ,athens are clear4 ,the ,dresden ,madonna and ,child with ,s4 ,john was probably painted at ,bergamo in #aeah1 and the ,madonna and ,saints1 lately bequeathed to the ,national ,gallery1 is dated #aeba4 ,at ,madrid is a picture by him of ,a ,bride and ,bridegroom dated #aebc1 to which year probably belongs the ,family ,group in the ,national ,gallery4 ,these are early instances of the comparatively rare inclusion of more than a single figure in a pure portrait4 ,in our example the father and mother and two children are composed into a delightful picture1 in which for once we may see the actual people of the time in something like their natural surroundings1 instead of being posed1 however effectively1 to assist in the representation of some historic or legendary scene4 ,in #aebg ,lotto was back again in ,venice1 and was probably influenced by ,palma ,vecchio when he painted the superb portrait of the sculptor ,odoni1 which is at ,hampton ,court4 ,a little later the influence of ,titian is more visible4 ,two other portraits are in our ,national ,gallery1 those of the ,protonotary ,juliano and of ,agostino and ,niccolo della ,torre4 ,,bonifazio ,,di ,,pitati 7#adhg-aeec71 sometimes called ,bonifazio ,veronese or ,veneziano1 was born at ,verona1 but studied in ,venice under ,palma ,vecchio4 ,the influence of his native city distinguishes his work in some degree from the pure ,venetian1 as it did that of the more famous ,paolo in later years2 but the atmosphere created by ,giorgione was so strong as to cause ,bonifazio's masterpiece 7if we except the ,dives and ,lazarus at the ,academy in ,venice7 to be attributed until quite lately to ,giorgione4 ,it is thus described by ,kugler3--,a picture in the ,brera in ,milan1 very deserving of notice1 is perhaps one of ,giorgione's most beautiful works2 it is historic in subject1 but romantic in conception4 ,the subject is the finding of ,moses2 all the figures are in the rich costume of ,giorgione's time4 ,in the centre the princess sits under a tree1 and looks with surprise at the child who is brought to her by a servant4 ,the seneschal of the princess1 with knights and ladies1 stand around4 ,on one side are seated two lovers on the grass1 on the other side musicians and singers1 pages with dogs1 a dwarf with an ape1 etc4 ,it is a picture in which the highest earthly splendour and enjoyment are brought together1 and the incident from ,scripture only gives it a more pleasing interest4 ,the costume1 however inappropriate to the story1 disturbs the effect as little as in other ,venetian pictures of the same period1 since it refers more to a poetic than to a mere historic truth1 and the period itself was rich in poetry2 its costume too assists the display of a romantic splendour4 ,this picture1 with all its glow of colour1 is softer than the earlier works of the master1 and reminds us of ,titian4444 ,the beautiful ,santa ,conversazione in the ,national ,gallery1 again1 which was formerly in the ,casa ,terzi at ,bergamo1 was there attributed to ,palma ,vecchio4 ,here the ,virgin in a rose-coloured mantle is the centre of the composition1 with the ,child on her knee1 whose foot the little ,s4 ,john is bending to kiss4 ,on the right is ,s4 ,catherine and on the left ,s4 ,james the ,less and ,s4 ,jerome4 ,in the landscape are seen a shepherd lying beside his flock1 while other shepherds are fleeing from a lion who has seized their dog4 ,a copy of this composition is in the ,academy at ,venice4 ,oddly enough it was a pupil of ,bonifazio who employed the grand ,venetian manner in the humbler and more commonplace walks of life1 and neglecting alike the ,sacra ,conversazione and the pompous scenes of festivity1 developed into the first ,italian painter of genre4 ,this was ,,jacopo ,,da ,,ponte1 called from his birthplace ,,bassano1 who was working in ,venice under ,bonifazio as early as #aece4 ,he afterwards returned to ,bassano1 and selecting those scenes in which he could most extensively introduce cottages1 peasants1 and animals1 he connected them with events from sacred history or mythology4 ,a peculiar feature by which his pictures may be known is the invariable and apparently intentional hiding of the feet of his figures1 for which purpose sheep and cattle and household utensils are introduced4 ,he confines himself to a bold1 straightforward imitation of familiar objects1 united1 however1 with pleasing composition1 colour1 and chiaroscuro4 ,his colours1 indeed1 sparkle like gems1 particularly the greens1 in which he displays a brilliancy quite peculiar to himself4 ,his lights are boldly infringed on the objects1 and are seldom introduced except on prominent parts of the figures4 ,in accordance with this treatment his handling is spirited and peculiar1 somewhat in the manner of ,rembrandt2 and what on close inspection appears dark and confused1 forms at a distance the very strength and magic of his colouring4 ,the picture of the ,good ,samaritan in the ,national ,gallery is a good example1 and was formerly in the collection of ,reynolds1 who it is said always kept it in his studio4 ,the ,portrait of a ,man 7,no4 #agc7 is excelled by that of an ,old ,man at ,berlin4 ,,iii ,,paolo ,,veronese ,,and ,,il ,,tintoretto ,it cannot be said that the ,venetian artists of the second half of the sixteenth century equalled in their collective excellence the great masters of the first1 but in single instances they are frequently entitled to rank beside them4 ,at the head of these is ,,jacopo ,,robusti 7#aeah-aeid71 called ,,il ,,tintoretto 7the dyer71 in allusion to his father's trade4 ,he was one of the most vigorous painters in all the history of art2 one who sought rather than avoided the greatest difficulties1 and who possessed a true feeling for animation and grandeur4 ,if his works do not always charm1 it should be imputed to the foreign and non-,venetian element which he adopted1 but never completely mastered2 and also to the times in which he lived1 when ,venetian art had fallen somewhat into the mistaken way of colossal and rapid productiveness4 ,his off-hand style1 as ,kugler calls it1 is always full of grand and significant detail1 and with a few patches of colour he sometimes achieves the liveliest forms and expressions4 ,but he fails in that artistic arrangement of the whole and in that nobility of motives in the parts which are necessary exponents of a really high ideal4 ,his compositions are achieved less by finely studied degrees of participation in the principal action than by great masses of light and shade4 ,attitudes and movements are taken immediately from common life1 not chosen from the best models4 ,with ,titian the highest ideal of earthly happiness in existence is expressed by beauty2 with ,tintoretto in mere animal strength1 sometimes of an almost rude character4 ,for a short time he was a pupil of ,titian1 but for some unknown reason he soon left him1 and struck out for himself4 ,in the studio which he occupied in his youth he had inscribed1 as a definition of the style he professed1 ,the drawing of ,michelangelo1 the colouring of ,titian4 ,he copied the works of the latter1 and also designed from casts of ,florentine and antique sculpture1 particularly by lamplight--as did ,romney a couple of centuries later--to exercise himself in a more forcible style of relief4 ,he also made models for his works1 which he lighted artificially1 or hung up in his room1 in order to master perspective4 ,by these means he united great strength of shadow with the ,venetian colouring1 which gives a peculiar character to his pictures1 and is very successful when limited to the direct imitation of nature4 ,but apart from the impossibility of combining two such totally different excellences as the colouring of ,titian and the drawing of ,michelangelo1 it appears that ,tintoretto's acquaintance with the works of the latter only developed his tendency to a naturalistic style4 ,that which with ,michelangelo was the symbol of a higher power in nature was adopted by ,tintoretto in its literal form4 ,most of his defects1 it is probable1 arose from his indefatigable vigour1 which earned for him the nickname of ,il ,furioso4 ,sebastian del ,piombo said that ,tintoretto could paint as much in two days as would occupy him two years4 ,other sayings were that he had three brushes1 one of gold1 one of silver1 and a third of brass1 and that if he was sometimes equal to ,titian he was often inferior to ,tintoretto6 ,in this last category ,kugler puts two of his earliest works1 the enormous ,last ,judgment1 and ,the ,golden ,calf1 in the church of ,s4 ,maria dell',orto1 while on his much later ,last ,supper he is still more severe4 ,nothing more utterly derogatory1 he writes1 both to the dignity of art and to the nature of the subject can be imagined4 ,s4 ,john is seen with folded arms1 fast asleep1 while others of the ,apostles with the most burlesque gestures are asking1 ',lord1 is it ,i8' ,another ,apostle is uncovering a dish which stands on the floor without remarking that a cat has stolen in and is eating from it4 ,a second is reaching towards a flask2 a beggar sits by1 eating4 ,attendants fill up the picture4 ,to judge from an overthrown chair the scene appears to have been a revel of the lowest description4 ,it is strange that a painter should venture on such a representation of this subject scarcely a hundred years after the creation of ,leonardo da ,vinci's ,last ,supper4 ,it was in #aedh1 when but thirty years old1 that ,tintoretto first became famous1 with the large ,miracle of ,s4 ,mark1 now in the ,venice ,academy4 ,this is perhaps his finest as well as his most celebrated work2 but the greatest monument to his industry and general ability is the ,scuola di',san ,rocco1 where he began to work in #aefj under a contract to produce three pictures a year for an annuity of a hundred ducats4 ,in all there are sixty-two of his pictures in this building1 the greater part of them very large1 the figures throughout being of the size of life4 ,the ,crucifixion1 painted in #aefe1 is the most extensive of them1 and on the whole the most perfect4 ,in #aeij1 four years before his death1 he completed the enormous ,paradise in the ,sala del ,gran ,consiglio1 measuring seventy-four feet in length and thirty in height4 ,in the ,national ,gallery we have three characteristic examples1 fortunately on a smaller scale1 namely1 the ,s4 ,george on a white horse1 which1 with its greyish flesh tones and the blue of the princess's mantle1 is cooler in tone than the generality of his pictures2 ,christ washing the ,disciples' ,feet1 and the very beautiful and radiant ,origin of the ,milky ,way1 purchased from ,lord ,darnley in #ahij4 ,at ,hampton ,court a still finer example1 ,the ,nine ,muses1 is so discoloured by age and hung in such a difficult light that it is impossible to enjoy its full beauty4 ,,paolo ,,caliari1 better known as ,,veronese1 was born ten years later than ,tintoretto1 and died six years before him 7#aebh-aehh74 ,he studied in his native city of ,verona till he was twenty1 and after working for some time at ,mantua he came to ,venice in #aeee1 where he was quickly recognised by ,titian and by ,sansovino1 the sculptor and ,director of ,public ,buildings1 and was commissioned in that year to paint a ,coronation of the ,virgin and other works in the church of ,s4 ,sebastian4 ,the ,martyrdom of ,s4 ,giustino1 now in the ,uffizi1 and the ,madonna and ,child in the ,louvre are also among his earlier works4 ,as early as #aefb he was at work on the enormous ,feast at ,cana1 now in the ,louvre1 and a similar work at ,dresden is of the same date4 ,in #aefd he went to ,rome1 where he studied the works of ,raphael and ,michelangelo4 ,on his return to ,venice in ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xvii4--,,tintoretto ,,st ,,george ,,and ,,the ,,dragon ,national ,gallery1 ,london #aefe--;after visiting ,verona1 where he painted in his parish church1 and also married--he was employed to decorate the ,ducal ,palace1 but much of his best work there was destroyed by fire4 ,two of his most important works completed before #aegc are in the ,academy at ,venice1 ,the ,battle of ,lepanto and the ,feast in the ,house of ,levi4 ,in this last he incurred strictures from the ,inquisition more severe than those of ,kugler upon ,tintoretto's ,last ,supper1 and possibly with as much reason1 it being objected that the introduction of ,german soldiery1 buffoons1 and a parrot was irreligious4 ,his ,family of ,darius1 now in the ,national ,gallery1 was one of his latest works4 ,veronese1 even more than ,titian1 whom in colouring he sought to emulate1 and ,tintoretto1 whom in this respect he certainly excelled1 expresses the spirit of the ,venetians of his time--a powerful and noble race of human beings1 as ,kugler calls them1 elate with the consciousness of existence1 and in full enjoyment of all that renders earth attractive4 ,by the splendour of his colour1 assisted by rich draperies and other materials1 by a very clear and transparent treatment of the shadows1 he infused a magic into his great canvases which surpasses almost all the other masters of the ,venetian ,school4 ,never had the pomp of colour1 on a large scale1 been so exalted and glorified as in his works4 ,this1 his peculiar quality1 is most decidedly and grandly developed in scenes of worldly splendour2 he loved to paint festive subjects for the refectories of rich convents1 suggested of course from particular passages in the ,scriptures1 but treated with the greatest freedom1 especially as regards the costume1 which is always of his own time4 ,instead1 therefore1 of any religious sentiment1 we are presented with a display of the most cheerful human scenes and the richest worldly splendour4 ,that which distinguishes him from ,tintoretto1 and which in his later period1 after the death of ,titian and ,michelangelo1 earned for him the rank of the first living master1 was that beautiful vitality1 that poetic feeling1 which as far as it was possible he infused into a declining period of art4 ,at the same time it becomes more and more evident1 as our attention is turned to the deeper and nobler spirit of the earlier masters in ,venice1 that the beauty of his figures is more addressed to the senses than to the soul1 and that his naturalistic tendencies are often allowed to run wild4 ,the most celebrated1 and as it happens the most historically interesting1 of his great pictures is the ,feast at ,cana1 in the ,louvre1 measuring thirty feet wide and twenty feet high4 ,this was formerly in the refectory of ,s4 ,giorgio ,maggiore in ,venice4 ,the scene is a brilliant atrium1 surrounded by majestic pillars4 ,the tables at which the guests are seated form three sides of a parallelogram4 ,the guests are supposed to be almost entirely contemporary portraits1 so that the figures of ,christ and ,his mother1 of themselves insignificant enough1 lose even more in the general interest of the subject4 ,servants occupy the foreground1 while on the raised balustrades and the balconies of distant houses are innumerable onlookers4 ,the most remarkable feature of the whole composition is a group of musicians in the centre of the foreground1 which are portraits of the artist himself and ,tintoretto1 playing on violon-cellos1 and ,titian1 in a red robe1 with the contra-bass4 ,christ in the ,house of ,simon1 the ,magdalen washing ,his feet1 is another scarcely less gigantic picture in the ,louvre2 but it is much simpler in arrangement1 and is distinguished by the fineness of the heads1 especially that of the ,christ4 ,an interesting piece of technical criticism on the ,feast at ,cana occurs in ,reynolds's ,eighth ,discourse3-- ,another instance occurs to me1 he says1 where equal liberty may be taken in regard to the management of light4 ,though the general practice is to make a large mass about the middle of the picture surrounded by shadow1 the reverse may be practised1 and the spirit of rule may still be preserved4444 ,in the great composition of ,paul ,veronese1 the ,marriage at ,cana1 the figures are for the most part in half shadow2 the great light is in the sky2 and indeed the general effect of this picture1 which is so striking1 is no more than what we often see in landscapes1 in small pictures of fairs and country feasts2 but those principles of light and shadow1 being transferred to a large scale1 to a space containing near a hundred figures as large as life1 and conducted to all appearance with as much facility and with an attention as steadily fixed upon the whole together as if it were a small picture immediately under the eye1 the work justly excites our admiration2 the difficulty being increased as the extent is enlarged4 99 99 99 99 99 ,with the death of the great ,venetians1 ,titian1 ,tintoretto1 and ,paul ,veronese1 in the last quarter of the sixteenth century1 the history of ,italian painting of the first rank comes to an end4 ,in ,florence1 the imitation of ,michelangelo was the chief object striven after1 and1 as might be expected1 the attempt was not eminently successful4 ,the greater number of the ,italian painters of the early seventeenth century who attained any fame are known by the name of ,eclectics1 from their having endeavoured1 instead of imitating any one of their great predecessors1 to select and unite the best qualities of each1 without1 however1 excluding the direct study of nature4 ,the fallacy of this aim1 when carried to an extreme1 is1 of course1 that the greatness of the earlier masters consisted really in their individual and peculiar qualities1 and to endeavour to unite characteristics essentially different involves a contradiction4 ,the most important of the ,eclectic schools was that of the ,carracci1 at ,bologna1 which was founded by ,,lodovico ,,carracci 7c4 #aeee-afai71 a scholar of ,prospero ,fontana and ,passignano at ,florence4 ,in his youth he was nicknamed the ox1 partly from his slowness1 but possibly also for his study of long-forgotten methods1 by which he arrived at the decision that reform was necessary to counteract the independence of the mannerists4 ,he therefore obtained the assistance of his two nephews1 ,,agostino and ,,annibale ,,carracci1 sons of a tailor1 and in concert with them opened an academy at ,bologna in #aehi4 ,this he furnished with casts1 drawings1 and engravings1 and provided living models and gave instruction in perspective1 anatomy1 etc4 ,in spite of opposition this academy became more and more popular1 and before long all the other schools of art in ,bologna were closed4 ,the principles of their teaching was succinctly expressed in a sonnet written by ,agostino1 in substance as follows3--,let him who wishes to be a good painter acquire the design of ,rome1 ,venetian action and chiaroscuro1 the dignified colouring of ,lombardy 7that is to say1 of ,leonardo da ,vinci71 the terrible manner of ,michelangelo1 ,titian's truth and nature1 the sovereign purity of ,correggio1 and the perfect symmetry of ,raphael4 ,the decorum and well-grounded study of ,tibaldi1 the invention of the learned ,primaticcio1 and a little of the grace of ,parmigiano4 ,this patchwork ideal1 as ,kugler calls it1 was1 however1 but a transition step in the history of the ,carracci and their art4 ,in the prime of their activity they threw off a great deal of their eclecticism1 and attained an independence of their own4 ,the merit of ,lodovico is chiefly that of a reformer and a teacher1 and the pictures by ,agostino are few and of no great account4 ,but in ,annibale we find much more than imitation of the characteristics of great masters4 ,in his earlier works there are rather obvious traces of ,correggio and ,paul ,veronese1 but under the influence of the works of ,raphael and ,michelangelo and of the antique1 as he understood it1 he developed a style of his own4 ,though in recent years he is a little out of fashion with the public1 there is no question about his having a place among the greater artists4 ,to show how opinion can change1 ,i venture to quote a passage from a letter written to me on the subject of ,carracci's ,the ,three ,maries1 lately presented to the ,national ,gallery by the ,countess of ,carlisle3--,i saw the gallery at ,castle ,howard in #ahej4 ,the ,three ,maries was then still regarded as one of the great pictures of the world2 and they told the story of how ,lord ,carlisle and ,lord ,ellesmere and ,lord----1 who shared the ,paris purchases after the ,peace of #ahae between them1 had to cast lots for this1 because it was thought to be worth more than all the rest of the spoil4 ,the most important1 or at any rate one of the most popular1 of the pupils of ,carracci was ,,domenico ,,zampieri1 commonly called ,,domenichino 7#aeha-afda74 ,if we are less enthusiastic about him at the present1 it may still be remembered that ,constable particularly admired him1 but it is significant that the four examples in the ,national ,gallery are numbered #dh1 #ge1 #gg and #he--there is no more recent acquisition4 ,he had great facility1 and his compositions--not always original--are treated with great charm if with no real depth4 ,his most famous picture1 the ,communion of ,s4 ,jerome1 now in the ,vatican1 is closely imitated from ,agostino ,carracci's4 ,,guido ,,reni 7#aege-afdb71 even more popular in the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries than ,domenichino1 was as skilful in some respects1 but hardly as admirable4 ,the ,ecce ,homo1 bequeathed by ,samuel ,rogers to the ,national ,gallery1 is an excellent example of his ability to charm the sentimentalist1 and if ever there should be a popular revival of taste in the direction of the now neglected school of the ,carracci1 he will possibly resume all the honour formerly paid to him4 ,the same can hardly be predicted for the far inferior ,carlo ,maratti1 ,guercino1 and ,carlo ,dolce4 ,space forbids me more than the bare mention in these pages of the brilliant revival of painting in ,venice during the earlier part of the eighteenth century by ,,antonio ,,canale 7#afig-agfh71 ,,giovanni ,,battista ,,tiepolo 7#afib-agfi71 ,,pietro ,,longhi 7#agjb-aghe71 and ,,francesco ,,guardi 7#agab-agic74 ,charming as their excellent accomplishments were1 they must give place to more important claims awaiting our attention in other countries4 ,,spanish ,,school ,one of the sensations of the ,exhibition of ,spanish ,old ,masters at the ,grafton ,gallery in the autumn of #aiac was an altar panel1 dated #abej1 which was acquired by ,mr ,roger ,fry in ,paris1 and catalogued as of the ,early ,catalan ,school4 ,in view of the fact that this picture is certainly to be regarded as one of the very oldest of primitive pictures painted on wood in any country 444 a decade earlier than the picture by ,margaritone in the ,national ,gallery1 it seems somewhat dogmatic to assert that while retaining a strongly ,byzantine character the style is distinctly that of ,catalonia4 ,what was the style of ,catalonia8 ,so far as the history of the art is concerned1 the chapter on ,spain is1 with one exception1 a very short and a singularly uninteresting one1 whether ,mr ,fry's panel was painted in ,catalonia or whether it was not2 and in spite of every effort to find in this uncongenial country that expansion of painting that might reasonably have been expected to flow from ,italy and moisten its barren soil for the production of so wonderful a genius as ,velasquez1 there is positively nothing earlier than ,velasquez1 and not very much after him1 that has more than what we may call a documentary interest4 ,while in ,italy or the ,netherlands the names of scores of painters earlier than the seventeenth century are endeared to us by the recollection of the works they have left us1 the enumeration of those of the few ,spaniards of whom we have any knowledge awakens no such thrill1 and if we have ever heard of them1 their works mean little more to us than their names4 ,only when we come within touch of ,velasquez does our interest awaken--as in the case of ,ribera and ,zurbaran--and that is less because of them than because of ,velasquez4 ,el ,greco was not a ,spaniard by birth1 but a ,cretan2 and if he were ranged with the ,italians1 to whom he more properly belongs1 he would scarcely be more famous than some ,bolognese masters whose names are now--or perhaps we ought to say1 at the present moment--almost forgotten4 ,the announcement that one of his portraits has been sold to an ,american for #cj1jjj is of commercial rather than of artistic interest4 ,if one had to sum up the career and the art of ,velasquez in a sentence1 it might be done by calling him a ,court painter who never flattered4 ,after recording his life from the time when he left his master ,pacheco to enter the service of ,philip ,,iv4 to the day that he died in it1 we shall find that only a bare percentage of his work was not commissioned by the king2 and in all his pictures which were not simply portraits there is little if anything to be found which is not as literal and truthful a presentment of the model in front of him as the life-like representations of ,philip and those about his ,court1 of which the supreme quality is that of living resemblance1 or to put it in more general terms1 vivid realism4 ,gifted as he must have been with an extraordinary vision and a still rarer1 if not unique1 ability to put down on canvas what he saw1 he confined himself entirely within the limits of actuality1 and thereby attained to heights which his great contemporaries ,rubens and ,rembrandt in their noblest flights of imagination never reached4 ,velasquez was baptised on the #fth of ,june #aeii1 in the church of ,s4 ,peter at ,seville4 ,he was the son of well-to-do parents2 his father1 a native of ,seville1 was named ,juan ,rodriguez de ,silva1 his mother ,geronima ,velasquez4 ,at thirteen years old he had displayed so strong an inclination towards painting that he was put to study under ,francisco de ,herrera1 then the most considerable painter in ,spain 7his son1 also ,francisco1 was the painter of the ,christ ,disputing with the ,doctors1 in the ,national ,gallery71 but owing to ,herrera's violent temper ,velasquez was shortly transferred to the studio of ,francisco ,pacheco1 whose daughter he eventually married4 ,pacheco who was1 besides being an accomplished artist1 a man of literary tastes1 and much sought after in ,seville by the more intellectual class of society1 was exceedingly proud of his pupil1 and said of him that he was induced to bestow the hand of his daughter upon him by the rectitude of his conduct1 the purity of his morals1 and his great talents1 and from the high expectation he entertained of his natural abilities and transcendent genius1 adding that the honour of having been his instructor was far greater than that of being his father-in-law1 and that he felt it no demerit to be surpassed by so brilliant a pupil4 ,in #afdi ,pacheco published a book on painting1 in which we are told that the first attempts of ,velasquez were studies in still life1 or simple compositions of actual figures1 called bodegones in ,spanish1 of which we have a fair example at the ,national ,gallery in the ,christ at the ,house of ,martha4 ,sir ,frederick ,cook1 at ,richmond1 has another1 an ,old ,woman ,frying ,eggs1 and the ,duke of ,wellington two more1 of which ,the ,water ,carrier of ,seville is probably the summit of the young painter's achievement before he left ,seville1 in #afbc1 and entered the service of ,philip ,,iv4 as ,court painter4 ,his first portrait of the king was the magnificent whole length in the ,prado ,gallery1 now numbered #aahb1 standing in front of a table with a letter in his right hand4 ,no4 #aahc is the head of the same portrait1 possibly done as a study for it4 ,philip was so pleased with this that he ordered all existing portraits of himself to be removed from the palace1 and appointed ,velasquez exclusively as his painter4 ,another of his earliest successes at ,court was the whole length portrait of the king's brother1 ,don ,carlos1 holding a glove in his right hand2 and the picture now in the ,museum at ,rouen of ,a ,geographer is probably of this date4 ,in #afbh1 when ,velasquez was still quite young1 and had fallen under no influence save that of ,pacheco and the school of ,seville1 he was charged by the king to entertain ,rubens1 who came to the ,spanish ,court on a diplomatic mission1 and show him all the treasures in the palace4 ,if any one could influence ,velasquez1 we might suppose it would have been ,rubens1 who was not only a great painter1 but a man of the most captivating manners and disposition1 ever ready to help younger artists4 ,but not only did he have no perceptible effect on the style of ,velasquez1 but in the picture of ,the ,topers1 which must have been painted while ,rubens was at ,madrid1 or very shortly after he left1 we can almost see a determination not to be influenced by him2 for the subject was a favourite one of ,rubens's1 and yet there is nothing in this most realistic presentment of ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xviii4--,,velazquez ,,the ,,infante ,,philip ,,prosper ,imperial ,gallery1 ,vienna actual figures under the title of ,bacchus and his votaries which has anything at all in common with the florid and imaginative compositions of the ,flemish painter4 ,velasquez had begun as a realist1 and a realist he was to continue till the end of his days4 ,shortly after painting this picture he left his native country for the first time1 and visited ,venice and ,rome4 ,at ,venice he made copies of ,tintoretto's ,last ,supper and ,crucifixion2 but little if any of ,tintoretto's influence is to be seen in the two pictures he painted in ,rome--,the ,forge of ,vulcan and ,joseph's ,coat1 both of which are still as realistic as ever in treatment1 though showing great advances in technical skill4 ,soon after his return to ,spain in #afca1 he probably painted the magnificent whole length ,philip ,,iv4 in the ,national ,gallery1 which compares so well1 on examination with the more popular and showy ,admiral ,pulido ,pareja purchased some years ago from ,longford ,castle4 ,senor ,beruete1 who has studied the work of ,velasquez more closely and more intelligently than any one else1 considers that whereas there is not a single touch upon the former that is not from the brush of ,velasquez1 the latter cannot be properly attributed to him at all--any more than can another popular favourite1 the ,alexandro del ,borro in the ,berlin ,gallery1 now given to ,bernard ,strozzi4 ,to this period may be also assigned the ,christ at the ,column in the ,national ,gallery1 a picture which though not at first sight attractive1 is nevertheless as fine in technique1 and in sentiment1 as any other picture in the ,spanish room1 and deserves far more attention than is usually given to it4 ,its simple realism and its pathetic sweetness are qualities which are wanting in many a more showy or sensational composition1 and the more it is studied the nearer we find we are getting to the real excellences that distinguish ,velasquez from any painter who has ever lived4 ,the ,crucifixion at the ,prado is perhaps more wonderful1 but the familiar subject helps the imagination of the spectator to admire it1 whereas the unfamiliar setting of our picture is apt at first sight to repel4 ,the most important composition undertaken by ,velasquez in this middle period of his career--that is to say between his two visits to ,italy in #afbi and #afdi--;is the famous ,surrender of ,breda1 or1 as it is sometimes called1 ,the ,lances4 ,soon after his arrival in ,madrid he had once painted an historical subject1 ,the ,expulsion of the ,moors1 in competition with his rivals who had asserted that he could paint nothing but heads4 ,in this competition the prize was awarded to him1 but as the picture has perished we are unable to judge of its merits for ourselves4 ,but apart from this1 and such unimportant groups of figures as we have mentioned1 he had been occupied wholly in painting single portraits1 and it is a marvellous proof of his genius that he should produce such a masterpiece of composition as ,the ,lances with so little practice in this branch of his art4 ,here1 at least1 we might have expected to trace the influence of ,rubens1 but there is actually no sign of it2 and if he sought any inspiration at all from other painters1 it was from what he recalled of ,tintoretto's work which he had seen and studied in ,venice4 ,in the king's eldest boy1 ,baltazar ,carlos1 who was born in #afbi1 ,velasquez found a model for two or three of his most charming pictures4 ,one is at ,castle ,howard2 a second the equestrian portrait1 on a galloping pony1 at the ,prado2 and a third the full length hunting portrait1 also at the ,prado1 in which we see the little prince standing under a tree1 gun in hand1 with an enormous dog lying beside him4 ,another is at ,vienna1 representing him as of about eleven years old1 full length1 with his hand resting on the back of a chair4 ,all of these owe some of their charm to the youth and attractive personality of the subject2 but if we want to see the power of ,velasquez without any outside element to help us to appreciate it1 there is the portrait of the sculptor ,martinez ,montanes at the ,prado4 ,the head is wonderful in its colour and its modelling1 writes ,senor ,beruete2 and what a lesson in technique6 ,the eyes1 lightly touched with colour1 are set deep in their sockets1 and surmounted by a strongly marked forehead4 ,the high lights are of a rich impasto1 manipulated with extraordinary skill2 the greyer tones of the flesh1 so true and so delicate1 are painted in a way that brings out with marvellous truth1 both the soft parts of the cheeks and the harder structure of the face1 under which one can follow the bones of the nose and forehead4444 ,everything in the picture is spontaneous1 and one can see that it is a pledge of friendship given by one artist to another2 there is nothing here of that artificial arrangement that spoils commissioned portraits even when they are the work of a painter as independent as ,velasquez was4 ,one feels here the assurance of an artist who knows that his work will be understood by his friend in the spirit in which it was executed4 ,m4 ,lefort1 the ,french critic1 is even more enthusiastic4 ,ah6 these redoubtable neighbours1 he exclaims1 seeing it surrounded by the works of other painters at the ,prado4 ,this canvas makes them look like mere imitations--dead conventional likenesses4 ,van ,dyck is dull1 ,rubens oily1 ,tintoret yellow2 it is ,velasquez alone who can give us the illusion of life in all its fulness6 ,in #afdi ,velasquez paid his second visit to ,rome1 where he painted the famous portrait of ,his ,holiness1 ,pope ,innocent ,x4 which is now in the ,doria palace4 ,this is exceptional in treatment1 inasmuch as it is the only portrait by ,velasquez in which the subject is seated--excepting of course equestrian portraits--and instead of the usual quiet tones of grey and brown which he was so fond of employing1 the picture of the ,pope is a radiant harmony of rose red and white4 ,in its realism it is even more surprising than most of the other portraits1 considering how ugly the face had to be made to resemble nature1 although the sitter was of a still higher rank than ,velasquez's royal master4 ,returning to ,madrid in #afea1 ,velasquez never again left ,spain1 and the remaining twenty years of his life may be considered the third period of his artistic development1 inasmuch as no special influence was exerted upon him outside the ordinary and somewhat tedious course of his employment at the ,court4 ,to this period are assigned twenty-six pictures--,senor ,beruete only admits the authenticity of eighty-three in all1 it may be mentioned--twelve of which are royal portraits1 seven those of buffoons and dwarfs1 three mythological and two sacred subjects1 and the two famous pieces of real life1 ,las ,meninas and ,las ,hilanderas4 ,of the royal portraits those of the ,infanta ,margarita are among the most fascinating1 no less from their technical excellence than on account of the youthful charm of the little ,princess4 ,the one at ,vienna represents her as about three years old1 dressed in red1 standing by a little table4 ,of this1 ,senor ,beruete says that it is one of the most beautiful inspirations of ,velasquez1 and perhaps one that reveals better than any other his power as a colourist2 it is a flower1 perfumed with every infantine grace4 ,another standing portrait1 though only a half length1 when she was not many years older1 is that in the ,salon ,carr at the ,louvre1 which is more familiar to us being nearer home and more often reproduced4 ,m4 de ,wyczewa praises it thus3--,the perfect chefs-d'oeuvre collected in this glorious salon pale in the presence of this child portrait2 not one of them can bear comparison with this simple yet powerful painting1 which seems to aim only at external resemblance and without other effort to attain a mysterious beauty of form and colour4 ,at ,frankfort again is a charming picture of the little ,princess1 whole length1 at the age of six or seven--a replica of which is at ,vienna4 ,she is dressed in greyish white with trimmings of black1 and her hoop skirt is so enormous that her arms have to be stretched out straight to allow her hands to reach the edge of her coat4 ,of the three mythological subjects two are in the ,prado1 namely the ,mars and the ,mercury and ,argus1 while the third and most beautiful is the ,venus at the ,mirror recently purchased for our national collection4 ,these were all of them painted for the decoration of the royal palaces1 and we may therefore suppose that the artist was not entirely at liberty either in the choice of his subject or in his method of treating it4 ,certainly he does not seem to have been fond of painting the nude1 unless with men1 and it is noticeable that he has posed his model in this case with more modesty and reserve than is to be observed in the pictures of ,rubens and ,titian4 ,the ,holy ,church was sternly averse to this class of painting1 in which1 accordingly1 none of the ,spanish school indulged2 but at the same time the royal galleries did not exclude the most exuberant fancies of ,rubens1 ,titian1 ,tintoretto1 and others1 and ,velasquez was in all probability commissioned by ,philip to paint this ,venus--and another which has perished--along with the ,mars and ,mercury without regard to the ecclesiastical authorities4 ,but it is hardly surprising if ,velasquez availed himself less fully of the privilege than a ,flemish or ,italian painter would no doubt have done1 and has given us so chaste and beautiful a realisation of the goddess4 ,having regard to the scepticism with which this masterpiece was received in ,england at the time of its purchase for the nation it is worth quoting ,senor ,beruete's remarks upon it in that connection4 ,the authenticity of this work1 he writes has found numerous doubters in ,spain1 less on account of its subject--being the only nude female figure in the whole oeuvre of ,velasquez--than because so few people ever suspected its existence2 but after it was exhibited at ,manchester in #aheg and in ,london in #ahij1 it was recognised that its attribution to ,velasquez was well founded4 ,at the sight of the canvas all doubt vanishes4 ,there1 indeed1 is the style1 the inimitable technique of ,velasquez4 ,this1 from the connoisseur who has devoted years of study to the work of the master1 and who rejects such well established examples as the ,dulwich ,philip ,,iv4 and the ,admiral ,pulido ,pareja1 is surely more conclusive than the academic pedantry of ignorance masquerading as authority4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,bartolom ,,est,,ban ,,murillo 7#afag-afhb7 has always been accounted the most popular of the ,spanish painters1 and it is only in recent times that his popularity has faded into comparative insignificance on the fuller recognition and understanding of the genius of ,velasquez4 ,the intensely ,anglican feeling in this country during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xix4--,,velazquez ,,the ,,rokeby ,,venus ,national ,gallery1 ,london seems to have found peculiar relief in the sentimental aspirations of the followers of ,raphael in the rendering of religious subjects from the ,romish point of view4 ,at the present time we are readier to estimate ,murillo's justly high place in the annals of painting by such a picture as his own portrait1 lent by ,lord ,spencer to the recent ,exhibition1 than to allow it on the strength of our recollection of the ,madonnas and ,holy ,families1 ,immaculate ,conceptions and ,assumptions1 of which there exist so many copies in the dining rooms of country rectories4 ,the ,boy ,drinking1 which is here reproduced1 if it is the least important of the four examples in the ,national ,gallery1 is certainly not the least excellent4 ,from the miserable state into which ,spain had fallen by the end of the seventeenth century1 it could hardly be expected that anything further in the nature of art would result1 and it was not until towards the end of the eighteenth that another genius arose1 in the person of ,,francisco ,,goya 7#agdf-ahbh74 ,of this extraordinary phenomenon in the firmament of art it is impossible to say more than a very few words in this place4 ,like a meteor1 he is rather to be pointed at than talked about1 when there are so many stars and planets whose regular courses have to be observed and recorded4 ,he was like a sharp knife drawn across the face of ,spain1 gashing it here and there1 but for the most part just touching it lightly enough to sting and to leave a mark4 ,as a ,court painter he was an unqualified success1 his salary under ,charles ,,iv4 rising in ten years from #ae1jjj to #ej1jjj reals2 but his official productions are not the less devoid of interest on that account1 and are sometimes the more satirical from the necessity for concealment4 ,in his more outspoken works1 such as the ,disasters of ,war1 and the series of prints called ,los ,caprichos and ,tauromachia1 he is too brutal not to affect the ordinary observer's judgment upon his artistic qualities4 ,velasquez himself could scarcely stop short enough1 when painting dwarfs and idiots and cripples1 to let us admire his genius unhampered by shivers of repulsion4 ,goya1 being exactly the opposite of ,velasquez in temperament1 had no scruples about expressing the utmost of his subject2 and even in decorating a church was reproved for falling short of the standard of chastity required4 ,but between the extremes of brutality and conventionalism there is such a wide expanse of pure joy of painting that nothing can diminish the reputation of ,goya1 however much it is likely to be enhanced4 ,to the modern ,spanish painter he is probably as fixed a beacon as ,velasquez4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xx4--,,murillo ,a ,,boy ,,drinking ,national ,gallery1 ,london ,,flemish ,,school ,i ,,hubert ,,and ,,jan ,,van ,,eyck ,in #achc1 on the death of ,louis de ,maele1 his son-in-law ,philip the ,hardy1 ,duke of ,burgundy1 assumed the government of ,flanders4 ,in the same year ,philip founded the ,carthusian ,convent at ,dijon and employed a ,flemish painter named ,melchin ,broederlam to embellish two great shrines within it4 ,to the strong-handed policy of ,philip and his successors during the ensuing century may be attributed the rise of ,netherlandish art which1 though existing before their time1 required their vigorous repression of intestine feuds to give it an opportunity of developing4 ,under ,louis and his predecessors ,flanders and its cities had risen to great commercial importance1 but its rulers had neither the strength nor the prestige to keep the turbulent spirit of their subjects in due bounds4 ,the school of painting which now arose so rapidly to perfection under the ,dukes of ,burgundy thus owed a portion of its progress to the wealth and independence of the commercial classes4 ,the taste1 power1 and cultivation of a ,court gave it an additional spur2 and the clergy throwing in their weight1 added their support in aid of art4 ,two wings of one of the ,dijon shrines are still preserved in the museum there1 and in these ,messrs ,crowe and ,cavalcaselle observe the characteristics of much that was to follow3--,although ,melchior's style was founded on the study of the painters of the ,rhine1 his composition was similar to the later productions of the ,flemish school4 ,a tendency to realism already marks this early ,fleming1 and is the distinctive feature of a manner in which the painter strives to imitate nature in its most material forms4 ,idealism and noble forms are lacking1 but ,broederlam is a fair imitator of the truth4 ,distinctive combination and choice of colours in draperies1 and vigorous tone1 characterise him as they do the early works at ,bruges and other cities of the ,netherlands which may be judged by his standard4 ,and again1 the painter evidently struggled between the desire to give a material imitation1 and the inspirations of graceful teachers like those of ,cologne4444 ,penetrated with similar ideas the early ,flemings might under similar circumstances have risen to a sweet and dignified conception of nature2 and if we fail to discover that they attained this aim we must attribute the failure to causes peculiar to ,flanders4 ,amongst these we may class the social status of the ,flemish painters1 whose positions in the household of princes subjected them perhaps to caprices unfavourable to the development of high aspirations1 or the contemplation and free communion with self which are the soul of art4 ,it is interesting to compare these observations1 so far as they refer to the realism which characterises ,netherlandish painting1 with those of ,dr ,waagen1 who it will be seen explains it on the broader grounds of national temperament4 ,early ,netherlandish painting1 he contends1 in its freedom from all foreign influence1 exhibits the contrast between the natural feeling of the ,greek and the ,german races respectively in the department of art--these two races being the chief representatives of the cultivation of the ancient and the modern world4 ,in this circumstance consists the high significance of this school when considered in reference to the general history of art4 ,while it is characteristic of the ,greek feeling--from which was derived the ,italian--to idealise1--and to idealise1 be it observed1 not only the conceptions of the ideal world but even such material objects as portraits1--by the simplification of forms and the prominence given to the more important parts of a work of art1 the early ,netherlanders1 on the other hand1 conferred a portrait-like character upon the most ideal personifications of the ,virgin1 the ,apostles1 ,prophets1 and ,martyrs1 and in actual portraiture aimed at rendering even the most accidental peculiarities of nature1 like warts and wrinkles1 with excruciating fidelity4 ,while the ,greeks expressed the various features of outward nature--such as rivers1 fountains1 hills1 trees1 etc4--under abstract human forms1 the ,netherlanders endeavoured to express them as they had seen them in nature1 and with a truth which extended to the smallest details4 ,in opposition to the ideal1 and what may be called the personifying tendency of the ,greeks1 the ,netherlanders developed a purely realistic and landscape school4 ,in this respect the other ,teutonic nations are found to approach them most nearly1 the ,germans first1 and then the ,english4 ,but whatever may have been the causes which produced the distinguishing features of ,netherlandish painting1 we have still to enquire the origin from which the practice of painting in northern ,europe proceeded4 ,for in taking ,melchior ,broederlam as a starting-point we are only going as far back--with the exception of certain rude wall paintings--as the earliest examples take us2 and having seen how in ,italy the whole history of the art is traceable to ,cimabue1 ,duccio1 and ,giotto1 through the ,byzantines1 at least a century before ,broederlam comes under our notice1 we might naturally conclude that it was from ,italy that it spread to ,cologne1 and from ,cologne to the ,netherlands4 ,so far as is known1 however1 this was not the case1 and we must look elsewhere than to ,italy for the influences which formed this school4 ,nevertheless it was a collateral branch of the same stock--,byzantine art--and the family resemblance comes out none the less strongly from the two branches having developed under different circumstances4 ,in ,italy1 as we have seen1 the ,byzantine seed1 sown in such fertile soil1 attained suddenly a great luxuriance4 ,in the north1 transplanted by ,charlemagne to ,aix-la-,chapelle in the ninth century1 it grew slowly and more timidly1 but none the less surely1 under the cover of ,monasticism1 in the manuscripts illuminated with miniatures2 and thus when it did burst forth into fuller blossom1 the boldness of the ,italian masters1 who worked at large in fresco1 was wanting1 and a detailed and almost meticulous realism was its chief characteristic4 ,another point worth noticing is that though primarily introduced for religious purposes1 as in ,italy1 namely the decoration of the cathedral erected by ,charlemagne at ,aix-la-,chapelle1 the paintings in his palace showed forth events in his own life1 such as his campaigns in ,spain1 seiges of towns and feats of arms by ,frankish warriors4 ,at ,upper ,ingelheim1 likewise1 his chapel was adorned with scenes from the ,old and ,new ,testaments1 while the banqueting hall exhibited on one wall the deeds of great ,pagan rulers1 such as ,cyrus1 ,hannibal1 and ,alexander1 and on the other those of ,constantine and ,theodosius1 the seizure of ,acquitaine by ,pepin1 and ,charlemagne's own conquest over the ,saxons and finally himself enthroned as conqueror4 ,although no trace remains of these paintings1 contemporary manuscripts executed by his order are still in existence in the libraries of ,paris1 ,trves1 and elsewhere from which we can form some idea of the style in which they were rendered and of the source from which they were derived4 ,of these we need only mention the ,vulgate decorated by ,,john ,,of ,,bruges1 painter to ,king ,charles ,v4 of ,france1 in #acga1 which contains a portrait of the king in profile with a figure kneeling before him1 and a few small historical subjects4 ,from these it is evident that the art of painting1 at any rate in little1 had made considerable progress in the ,netherlands at that date1 and the express designation of pictor applied to ,john of ,bruges1 while the ordinary miniaturist was called illuminator1 shows the probability of his having painted pictures on a larger scale4 ,the high development of realistic feeling as it first appears to us in the pictures of ,hubert and ,jan van ,eyck is thus partly accounted for1 especially when we also consider the wholesale destruction of larger works of art that took place in the disturbed condition of the ,netherlands in the sixteenth century4 ,the main points1 however1 to be borne in mind is that whereas ,cimabue and ,duccio started painting on walls under the influence of ,byzantine teachers1 ,hubert van ,eyck1 a century later1 began painting on wooden panels under that of illuminators and painters in books4 ,to these1 nevertheless1 there must be added another scarcely less important1 namely1 that the early ,italians were ignorant of the use of what we now call oil paints1 and worked entirely in tempera--that is to say1 there was no admixture of oil or varnish with their pigments4 ,to ,hubert van ,eyck is attributed the invention of the modern practice1 as ,vasari relates with more colour than historic truth in his life of ,antonello da ,messina1 who is supposed to have carried it into ,italy4 ,be that as it may1 the works of the van ,eycks and their successors are all in oils1 and there is no doubt that the employment of this medium from the first considerably influenced the style1 colour1 and execution of all the works of this school4 ,,hubert ,,van ,,eyck who according to the common acceptation was born in the year #acff at ,maaseyck1 a small town not far from ,maestricht1 must have been settled before the year #adab in ,bruges1 when we hear of him as a member of the ,brotherhood of the ,virgin with ,rays4 ,there can be little doubt that ,hubert van ,eyck was acquainted with the work of this ,john of ,bruges1 and that it had a considerable influence on him4 ,but while on the one hand he carried the realistic tendencies of such works to an extraordinary pitch of excellence1 it is evident that in many essential respects he was actuated by a more ideal feeling and imparted to the realism of his contemporaries1 by means of his far richer powers of representation1 greater distinctness1 truth to nature1 and variety of expression4 ,throughout his works is seen an elevated and highly energetic conception of the stern import of his labours in the service of the ,church4 ,the prevailing arrangement of his subjects is symmetrical1 holding fast to the earliest rules of ecclesiastical art4 ,his heads appear to aim at an ideal beauty and dignity only combined with actual truth to nature4 ,his draperies exhibit the purest taste and softness of folds1 the realistic principle being apparent in that greater attention to detail which a delicate indication of the material of the drapery necessitates4 ,nude figures are studied from nature with the utmost fidelity2 undraped portions of figures are also given with much truth1 especially the hands4 ,but what is the principal distinguishing characteristic of his art is the hitherto unprecedented power1 depth1 transparency and harmony of his colouring4 ,whatever want of exact truth there may be in the story as related by ,vasari's story of the discovery of oil painting1 there is no doubt that ,hubert ,van ,eyck succeeded in preparing so transparent a varnish that he could apply it without disadvantage to all colours4 ,the chief work by ,hubert ,van ,eyck is the large altar-piece painted for the cathedral of ,s4 ,bavon at ,ghent2--parts of this have been removed and are now in the ,berlin ,gallery1 and supplemented with excellent copies of the rest1 the whole of the wonderful composition may there be well studied2 a large photograph of the whole altar piece may also be seen in the library at the ,victoria and ,albert ,museum1 which shows how the work was originally designed4 ,it was painted for ,jodocus ,vyts1 ,burgomaster of ,ghent1 and his wife ,elizabeth1 for their mortuary chapel in the cathedral4 ,the subject of the three central panels of the upper portion is the ,deity seated between the ,virgin and ,s4 ,john the ,baptist4 ,underneath these1 of the same width1 is the famous ,adoration of the ,lamb4 ,these together formed the back of the altar-piece1 and were covered by wings which opened out on hinges on either side4 ,the three large figures of the upper part are designed with all the dignity and statuesque repose belonging to an earlier style1 and they are painted on a ground of gold and tapestry1 as was constantly the practice in earlier times3 but united with the traditional type we already find a successful representation of life and nature in all their truth4 ,they stand as it were on the frontier of two different styles1 and from the excellence of both form a wonderful and most impressive whole4 ,the ,heavenly ,father sits directly fronting the spectator1 in all the solemnity of ancient dignity1 ,his right hand raised to give the benediction to the ,lamb and to all the multitude of figures below2 in ,his left hand is a crystal sceptre2 on ,his head the triple crown1 the emblem of the ,trinity4 ,the features are such as are ascribed to ,christ by the traditions of the ,church1 but noble and well proportioned2 the expression is forcible1 though passionless4 ,the tunic and the mantle of this figure are of a deep red1 the latter being fastened over the breast by a clasp1 and falling down in ample folds over the feet4 ,behind1 as high as the head1 is a hanging of green tapestry which is ornamented with a golden pelican--a symbol of the ,redeemer4 ,behind the head the ground is gold1 and on it in a semicircle are three inscriptions describing the ,trinity as almighty1 all-good1 and all-bountiful4 ,the figures of ,s4 ,john and of the ,virgin display equal majesty2 both are reading holy books1 as they turn towards the centre figure4 ,the countenance of ,s4 ,john expresses ascetic seriousness1 but in that of the ,virgin we find a serene grace and a purity of form which approach very nearly to the happier effects of ,italian art4 ,the arrangement of the lower central picture1 the worship of the ,lamb1 is strictly symmetrical1 as the mystic nature of the allegorical subject might seem to ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxi4--,,jan ,,van ,,eyck ,,jan ,,arnolfini ,,and ,,his ,,wife ,national ,gallery1 ,london have demanded2 but there is such beauty in the landscape1 in the pure atmosphere1 in the bright green of the grass1 in the masses of trees and flowers--even in single figures which stand out from the four principal groups--that we no longer perceive either hardness or severity in this symmetry4 ,the landscape of this composition and that part of it containing the patriarchs and prophets are generally supposed to have been completed by ,,jan ,,van ,,eyck 7c4 #ache-adda71 whose name till within a comparatively recent period had almost obscured that of ,hubert4 ,for although there is little doubt that the elder brother was the first to develop the new method of painting1 yet the fame of it did not extend beyond ,belgium and across the ,alps until after the death of ,hubert1 when the celebrity it so speedily acquired throughout ,europe was transferred to ,jan ,van ,eyck4 ,within fifteen years after his death1 #adee1 ,jan was commemorated in ,italy as the greatest painter of the century1 while the name of ,hubert was not even mentioned4 ,it was ,jan van ,eyck to whom ,antonello da ,messina is said by ,vasari to have resorted in ,bruges in order to learn the new style of painting2 he alone also is mentioned in ,vasari's first edition of #aeej1 ,hubert not until the second edition in #aefh1 and then only incidentally4 ,fortunately there are in existence various authentic pictures by ,jan ,van ,eyck in which his original powers are more easily recognised than in the part he took in the execution of the great altar-piece at ,ghent1 in which he doubtless accommodated himself with proper fraternal piety both to the composition and to the style of his elder brother--who was also his master4 ,in these we can see that he possessed neither the enthusiasm for the rich imagery and symbolism of the ecclesiastical art of the ,middle ,ages1 nor that feeling for beauty in human forms or in drapery which belonged to his elder brother4 ,his feeling1 on the other hand1 led him to the closest and truest conception of individual nature4 ,where he had to paint portraits only--a task which was most congenial to the tendency of his mind--he attained a life-like truth of form and colouring in every part1 extending even to the minutest details1 such as no other artist of his time could rival1 and which art in general has seldom produced4 ,in his actual brush work he shows greater facility than was ever attained by ,hubert1 by which he was enabled to render the material of every substance with marvellous fidelity4 ,what little we know of the personal history of ,jan ,van ,eyck is of exceptional interest1 inasmuch as we find him employed on diplomatic errands to foreign countries1 like his great successor ,rubens2 and as it happens he landed in ,england1 though not intentionally1 in the course of one of these voyages1 being driven into ,shoreham and ,falmouth by adverse weather4 ,it was in #adbe that he was taken into the service of ,philip ,,iii41 ,duke of ,burgundy1 as painter and varlet de chambre1 shortly after which he went to ,lille4 ,in the following year he was sent on a pilgrimage as the ,duke's proxy1 and again on two secret missions4 ,in #adbh he went with the ,duke's ,embassy to the ,king of ,portugal which was to sue for the hand of ,isabella1 the ,portuguese princess4 ,it was on this occasion that he was driven on to our shores4 ,arriving at ,lisbon he painted two portraits of ,isabella1 one of which was sent home by sea and the other overland4 ,after a happy and successful career he died in #adda at ,bruges1 where he had married and settled down on his return from ,portugal4 ,the most beautiful example of ,jan ,van ,eyck's work in ,england is the portrait of ,jean ,arnolfini and ,jeanne de ,chenany his wife1 now in the ,national ,gallery 7,no4 #ahf74 ,this is dated with the charming inscription1 ,johannes de ,eyck fuit hic #adcd--that is to say1 instead of simply signing the picture1 he writes1 ,jan ,van ,eyck was here1 #adcd4 ,no other picture shows so high a development of the master's extraordinary power and charm4 ,besides every other quality peculiar to him1 we observe here a perfection of tone and of chiaroscuro which no other specimen of this whole period affords4 ,it is recorded that ,princess ,mary1 sister of ,charles ,v4 and ,governess of the ,netherlands1 purchased this picture from a barber to whom it belonged at the price of a post worth a hundred gulden a year4 ,among its subsequent possessors were ,don ,diego de ,guevara1 majordomo of ,joan1 ,queen of ,castile1 by whom it was presented to ,margaret of ,austria4 ,in #aecj it was acquired by ,mary of ,hungary1 and later it returned to ,spain4 ,in #aghi it was in the palace at ,madrid1 and soon after it was taken by one of the ,french ,generals1 in whose quarters ,major-,general ,hay found it after the battle of ,waterloo4 ,two other portraits in the ,national ,gallery bear the signature of ,jan ,van ,eyck4 ,no4 #bbb1 ,an elderly man1 head and shoulders1 on the frame of which is the painter's motto1 als ich can1 and his signature1 ,johannes de ,eyck me fecit anno #adcc1 #ba ,octobris4 ,the other1 ,no4 #bij1 is a younger man1 half length1 standing inside an open window1 on the sill of which is inscribed ,greek3 ,timotheos1 and ,lal ,souvenir1 and below the date and signature1 ,actum anno domini #adcb1 #aj die ,octobris a ,iohanne de ,eyck4 ,among the ,netherlandish scholars and followers of the ,van ,eycks of whom any record has been preserved some appear to have been gifted with considerable powers1 though none attained the excellence of their great precursors4 ,although a number of works representing this school still exist in the various countries of ,europe1 yet compared with the actual abundance of them at one time they constitute but a scanty remnant4 ,though not actually a pupil of ,jan ,van ,eyck1 ,,roger ,,van ,,der ,,weyden acquired after him the greatest celebrity4 ,as early as #adcf he filled the honourable post of official painter to the city of ,brussels4 ,the chief work executed by him in this capacity was an altar-piece for the ,chamber of ,justice in ,htel de ,ville4 ,according to the custom of the time1 it set forth in the most realistic fashion examples of stern observance of the law for the admonition of those placed in authority4 ,the principal picture showed how ,herkenbald1 a judge in the eleventh century1 executed his own nephew 7convicted of a grave crime1 but who would otherwise have escaped the penalty of the law7 with his own hands2 and how the sacramental wafer which1 on the plea of murder1 was denied to him by the priest1 reached the lips of the upright judge by means of a miracle4 ,the wings contained an example of the justice of the ,emperor ,trajan4 ,these pictures are unfortunately no longer in existence1 having probably been burned when ,brussels was besieged in #afie4 ,in the ,museum of the ,hospital at ,beaune is one of the most important of his works still in existence1 ,the ,last ,judgment1 though in this it is generally supposed he was assisted by ,dirk ,bouts and ,hans ,memling4 ,it contains several portraits1 notably those of the ,pope1 ,eugenius ,,iv41 who stands behind the ,apostles in the right wing1 and next to him ,philip the ,good4 ,the crowned female in the opposite wing is probably ,philip's ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxii4--,,jan ,,van ,,eyck ,,portrait ,,of ,,the ,,painter',s ,,wife ,town ,gallery1 ,bruges second wife1 ,isabella of ,portugal1 whose portrait ,jan ,van ,eyck went to ,lisbon to paint before her marriage4 ,on the outer sides are excellently painted portraits of the founder of the ,hospital1 ,nicolas ,rolin1 and his wife4 ,this work has been classed with the ,van ,eycks' ,adoration of the ,lamb1 and the ,adoration of the ,shepherds by ,hugo ,van der ,goes1 as crystallizing the finest expression of early northern painting4 ,in #adej he visited ,italy1 where he painted the beautiful little altar-piece which is now in the ,stdel ,institute at ,frankfort1 for ,piero and ,giovanni de',medici4 ,another very fine example of his work is the triptych1 now in the ,berlin ,museum1 executed for ,pierre ,bladelin4 ,in the centre is the ,nativity1 with a portrait of ,bladelin kneeling1 and angels4 ,on the one side is the annunciation of the ,redeemer to the ruler of the ,west--the ,emperor ,augustus--by the agency of the ,tiburtine ,sibyl2 on the other to those of the ,east--the ,three ,kings--who are keeping watch on a mountain1 where the child appears to them in a star4 ,one of the largest as well as of the finest of the master's works is a triptych in the ,munich ,gallery--the ,adoration of the ,kings1 with the ,annunciation and the ,presentation in the ,temple in the wings4 ,the figure of the ,virgin in the ,presentation is particularly pleasing for its simple and unaffected realism4 ,s4 ,luke painting the ,virgin1 also in the ,munich ,gallery1 is ascribed to ,roger4 ,no painter of this school1 the ,van ,eycks even not excepted1 exercised so great and widely extended an influence as ,roger ,van der ,weyden4 ,not only were ,hans ,memling--the greatest master of the next generation in ,belgium--and his own son1 also named ,roger1 his pupils1 but innumerable works other than pictures were produced1 such as miniatures1 block-books1 and engravings1 in which his form of art is recognisable4 ,it was under his auspices that the realistic tendency of the ,van ,eycks pervaded all ,germany2 for it was only after the death of ,jan ,van ,eyck1 in #adda1 that the widespread fame of ,roger ,van der ,weyden induced ,germans to visit his studio at ,brussels4 ,martin ,schongauer1 one of the greatest ,german masters of the sixteenth century1 is known to have been his pupil1 and it is certain that there must have been many others4 ,it is in ,,hans ,,memling 7c4 #adce-adid71 whom ,vasari states to have been the pupil of ,roger1 that the early ,netherlandish ,school attains the highest delicacy of artistic development4 ,his poetical and profoundly human qualities had a special attraction for the ,pre-,raphaelite ,brotherhood inaugurated by ,rossetti and ,holman ,hunt in the middle of the nineteenth century4 ,this unusual tenderness of feeling is probably also the origin of the legend that ,memling was taken into the ,hospital of ,s4 ,john at ,bruges--where he painted most of his masterpieces--as a sick soldier after the battle of ,nancy4 ,in feeling for beauty and grace he was more gifted than any painter except ,hubert ,van ,eyck1 and this quality1 conspicuous amid the somewhat ugly realism of most of his contemporaries1 has ensured him perhaps a little more popularity than is rightly his share4 ,compared with the works of his master1 ,roger ,van der ,weyden1 his figures are certainly of better proportions and less meagreness of form2 his hands and feet truer to nature2 the heads of his women are sweeter1 and those of his men less severe4 ,his outlines are softer1 and in the modelling of his flesh parts more delicacy of half tones is observable4 ,his colours are still more luminous and transparent4 ,on the other hand he is inferior to ,van der ,weyden in the carrying out of detail1 such as the materials of his draperies or the rendering of the full brilliancy of gold4 ,in #adfg ,memling was a master painter at ,bruges1 and painted the portrait of the medallist1 ,nicolas ,spinelli1 which is now in the ,royal ,museum at ,antwerp1 and a small altar-piece now at ,chatsworth4 ,his most famous works1 those in the ,hospital at ,bruges1 belong to a somewhat later date1 the ,shrine of ,s4 ,ursula not being completed till #adhi4 ,the ,adoration of the ,kings and the altar-piece were some ten years earlier4 ,the famous shrine of ,s4 ,ursula is about four feet in length1 and the whole of the outside is adorned with painting4 ,on each side of the cover are three medallions1 a large one in the centre and two smaller at the sides4 ,the latter contain angels playing on musical instruments2 in the centre on one side is a ,coronation of the ,virgin1 on the other the ,glorification of ,s4 ,ursula and her companions1 with two figures of ,bishops4 ,on the gable-ends are the ,virgin and ,child with two sisters of the hospital kneeling before them1 and ,s4 ,ursula with the arrow1 the instrument of her martyrdom1 and virgins seeking protection under her mantle4 ,on the longer sides of the reliquary itself1 in six rather larger compartments1 is painted the history of ,s4 ,ursula4 ,of about the same period1 possibly a little earlier1 is the ,marriage of ,s4 ,catherine1 which is also in ,s4 ,john's ,hospital at ,bruges4 ,the central figure is that of the ,virgin1 seated under a porch1 with tapestry hanging down behind it2 two angels hold a crown over her head3 beside her is ,s4 ,catherine kneeling1 whose head is one of the finest ever painted by ,memling4 ,behind her is an angel playing on the organ1 and further back ,s4 ,john the ,baptist4 ,on the other side kneels ,s4 ,barbara1 reading3 behind her another angel holds a book to the ,virgin1 and still further back is ,s4 ,john the ,evangelist1 a figure of great beauty1 and of a singularly mild and thoughtful character4 ,through the arcades of the porch we look out1 on either side of the throne1 on a rich landscape1 in which are represented scenes from the lives of the two ,s4 ,johns4 ,the panel on the right contains the beheading of the ,baptist1 on the left the ,evangelist in the ,isle of ,patmos1 where the vision of the ,apocalypse appears to him--the ,almighty on a throne in a glory of dazzling light1 encompassed with a rainbow4 ,the whole forms a work strikingly poetical and most impressive in character2 it is highly finished1 both in drawing and composition4 ,,ian ,,gossaert 7c4 #adgb-aece71 called ,,jan ,,van ,,mabuse from his native town of ,maubeuge1 was the son of a bookbinder who worked for the ,abbey of ,sainte-,aldegonde4 ,it is possible therefore that he might have formed an early acquaintance with illuminated manuscripts before studying the art of painting in the studio of a master4 ,memling1 ,gerard1 ,david1 and ,quentin ,massys have been suggested as his instructors1 but it is not known for certain that he was actually a pupil of any of them4 ,in #aejh he went to ,italy1 where he appears to have been greatly influenced both by the work of the ,renaissance painters and by the antique4 ,the ,adoration of the ,kings1 which was lately purchased from ,castle ,howard for the ,national ,gallery for #dj1jjj1 was painted before he went to ,italy4 ,towards the end of the fifteenth century1 in consequence of the transfer of commerce from ,bruges to ,antwerp1 this latter city first became and long continued the centre of art1 and especially of ,netherlandish painting4 ,here it is that we find ,,quentin ,,massys1 the greatest ,belgian painter of this later time4 ,he was born ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxiii4--,,jan ,,mabuse ,,portrait ,,of ,,jean ,,carondelet ,louvre1 ,paris probably in #adff4 ,his father is said to have been a blacksmith and clockmaker1 and there is a tradition that ,quentin only forsook the hammer for the brush at instigation of a tender passion for a beautiful lady4 ,be that as it may1 he is an important figure in the history of ,belgian art4 ,he distinguishes1 broadly speaking1 the close of the last period and the beginning of the next4 ,a number of pictures representing sacred subjects exhibit1 with little feeling for real beauty of form1 such delicacy of features1 beauty and earnestness of feeling1 tenderness and clearness of colouring and skill in finish1 as worthily recall the religious painting of the ,middle ,ages1 though at the very end of them4 ,in his draperies1 especially1 we observe a charm which is peculiar to ,massys4 ,at the same time1 in the subordinate figures introduced into sacred subjects1 such as the executioners1 etc41 he seems to take pleasure in coarse and tasteless caricatures4 ,in subjects taken from common life1 such as money changers1 loving couples1 or ugly old women1 he uses his brush with evident zest1 and with great success4 ,the pictures of his later period are also distinguished from those of other painters by the large size of the figures1 which for the first time in his country are of three-quarters or even actual life size4 ,among his most original and attractive pictures are the half-length figures of ,christ and the ,virgin4 ,these must have been very popular in his own time1 for he has left several repetitions of them4 ,two heads of this class are at ,antwerp1 and two others of equal beauty are in the ,national ,gallery in one frame 7,no4 #bie74 ,the most celebrated of his subject pictures is that known by the name of ,the ,misers1 or ,the ,money ,changers1 at ,windsor ,castle--of which there are numerous copies1 and this is not supposed to be the original4 ,the ,money ,changer and ,his ,wife at the ,louvre is undoubtedly his4 ,,lucas ,,van ,,leyden1 as he was called 7his real name being ,luc ,jacobez71 was born in #adid1 and died in #aecc4 ,he was a pupil of a little known artist1 ,cornelis ,engelbrechstein1 who was a follower if not a pupil of ,memling4 ,lucas was an artist of multifarious powers and very early development4 ,he painted admirably--though his authenticated works are very scarce--drew1 and engraved4 ,he pursued the path of realism in the treatment of sacred subjects1 but with less beauty or elevation of mind4 ,his heads are generally of a very ugly character4 ,at the same time his form of expression found sympathy in the feeling of the period1 and by the skill with which it was expressed1 especially in his engravings1 attracted a number of followers4 ,in scenes from common life he is full of truth and delicate observation of nature1 though showing now and then a somewhat coarse sense of humour4 ,one of his most important works is a large composition of ,the ,last ,judgment1 which is at ,leyden4 ,very early in the sixteenth century--beginning in fact1 as we have seen1 with ,jan ,mabuse in #aejh--the ,netherlandish and ,german artists made it the fashion to repair to ,italy1 attracted by the reputation of the great masters2 so that from this time onwards their work ceases to exhibit the purely northern characteristics of their predecessors4 ,for it appears that precisely those qualities most opposed to their own native feeling for art made the deepest impression on their minds2 more especially such general qualities as grandeur1 beauty1 simplicity of forms1 drawing of the nude1 unrestrained freedom1 boldness1 and grace of movement--in short1 all that is comprised in art under the term ideal4 ,but the attempt to appropriate all these qualities could lead to no successful result4 ,being based on no inherent want on the part of their own original feeling for art1 it became only the outward imitation of something foreign to themselves1 and they never therefore succeeded in mastering the complete understanding of form1 or in adopting the true feeling for beauty of line or grace of movement2 and in aiming at them they only degenerated into artificiality1 exaggeration in drawing1 and violence in attitude4 ,the pictures of this class1 even of religious subjects1 have accordingly but little to attract the eye1 and when they selected scenes from ancient mythology1 and allegories decked out with an ostentation of learning1 the result is positively disagreeable4 ,the most satisfactory productions of this period will be found in the department of portrait painting1 which1 by its nature1 threw the artist upon the exercise of his own original feeling for art4 ,as in every other respect this epoch is far more important as a link in the chain of history than from any pleasure arising from its own works1 it will be sufficient to mention only the more important painters and a few of their principal pictures4 ,the first painter who deserted his native style of art was1 as before mentioned1 ,jan ,mabuse4 ,after the large ,adoration of the ,kings in the ,national ,gallery the most important picture of his pre-,italian period is the ,christ in the ,garden of ,gethsemane at ,berlin4 ,nearly all his works subsequent to #aeab1 by which time he had settled in ,brussels1 are characterised by all the faults above mentioned4 ,their redeeming quality is their masterly treatment4 ,among those of religious subjects the smallest are as a rule the best4 ,the ,ecce ,homo at ,antwerp1 so frequently copied by contemporary painters1 is a specimen of masterly modelling and vigorous colour4 ,he is less successful with his life-size ,adam and ,eve1 of which there are repetitions at ,brussels1 ,hatfield1 ,hampton ,court and ,berlin4 ,but his most unpleasing efforts are the mythological subjects such as the ,dana at ,munich1 and the ,neptune and ,amphitrite at ,berlin4 ,on the other hand1 his portraits are attractive both from being more original1 and less influenced by his acquired mannerisms of style ,four of these are in the ,national ,gallery1 and the ,girl weighing ,gold ,pieces1 in the ,berlin gallery1 is also worthy of mention4 ,,bernard ,,van ,,orley1 born at ,brussels in #adga1 is characterised in the catalogue of the ,national ,gallery as taking his place after ,massys and ,mabuse on the downward slope of ,netherlandish painting4 ,he has been immortalised by the fine portrait head of him by ,albert ,drer which is now in the ,dresden ,gallery4 ,he was ,court painter to ,margaret of ,austria1 ,governess of the ,low ,countries1 and retained the same post under her successor1 ,mary of ,hungary4 ,he is said to have visited ,rome in #aeji1 and there made the acquaintance of ,raphael1 whose influence is certainly apparent1 though hardly his inspiration1 in the ,holy ,family in the ,louvre4 ,a more ,netherlandish work1 both in feeling and in treatment1 is the ,piet in the ,gallery at ,brussels4 ,,ian ,,scorel1 born in #adie1 was a pupil of ,mabuse1 and appears to have been the first to introduce the ,italian style into his native country--,holland4 ,when on a pilgrimage to ,palestine he happened to pass through ,rome at the time his countryman was raised to the papal dignity as ,adrian ,,vi41 and after painting his portrait he was appointed overseer of the art treasures of the ,vatican4 ,returning to ,utrecht1 where he died1 he painted the picture of the ,virgin and ,child1 with donors1 which is now in the ,town ,hall4 ,a fine portrait by ,scorel of ,cornelius ,aerntz van der ,dussen is in the ,berlin ,gallery4 ,the decided and strongly realistic style in which ,quentin ,massys had painted scenes from common life1 as for instance the ,misere or ,money ,changers1 became the model for various painters in their treatment of similar subjects4 ,first among these was his son1 ,,jan ,,massys1 born about #aejj1 who followed closely but rather clumsily in his father's footsteps1 and need only be mentioned for carrying on the tradition4 ,more interesting were the ,breughels1 namely1 ,,pieter ,,breughel the elder1 born about #aebj1 called ,peasant ,breughel1 and his two sons ,pieter and ,jan4 ,old ,breughel is best studied at ,vienna1 where there are good examples of his various subjects1 notably a ,crucifixion and ,the ,tower of ,babel--both dated #aefc--;and secular scenes like ,a ,peasant ,wedding and a ,fight between ,carnival and ,lent1 which are full of clever and droll invention4 ,his elder son1 ,pieter1 was called ,hell ,breughel1 from his choice of subject4 ,he is far inferior to his father or to his younger brother ,jan1 called ,velvet ,breughel1 born in #aefh4 ,though more especially a landscape painter1 ,jan also takes an important place in the development of subject pictures1 which1 though seldom rising above a somewhat coarse reality1 are of a lively character1 and worthy forerunners of the more accomplished productions of ,teniers1 ,ostade1 and ,brouwer4 ,it is in portrait painting1 however1 that the ,netherlandish ,school chiefly distinguished itself during its decline in the seventeenth century1 and had all its sons remained in the country to enhance its glory1 it is probable that the effect on the general practice of painting would have been more than beneficial4 ,but portrait painters have not always been content to sit at home and wait for sitters to come to them1 especially when the state of society in which they happen to find themselves makes waiting rather a long and tedious process4 ,from the ,reformation onwards1 for over two centuries1 there was a steady demand for portrait painters in ,england1 and after the foundation of a really ,english school of painting by ,reynolds in the middle of the eighteenth century1 the stream of foreign1 especially ,netherlandish1 talent never entirely ceased to flow4 ,but confining ourselves for the present to the sixteenth century1 we find that all the considerable ,netherlandish portrait painters were employed for the most part outside their own country4 ,typical of these is ,,joos ,,van ,,cleef1 of ,antwerp1 who died in #aedj4 ,according to ,vasari he visited ,spain and painted portraits for the ,court of ,france4 ,at all events it is certain that he worked for a time in ,england1 where the great success of ,sir ,antonio ,mor is said to have disordered his brain4 ,the few pictures that can be assigned to him with any certainty thoroughly justify the high reputation he enjoyed in his time--the two male portraits for example at ,berlin and ,munich1 the portraits of himself and his wife at ,windsor1 and his own at ,althorp4 ,his style may be classed as between that of ,holbein and ,antonio ,mor4 ,his well-drawn forms are decided without being hard1 and his warm and transparent colouring recalls the great masters of the ,venetian ,school4 ,,ii ,,peter ,,paul ,,rubens ,dr ,waagen thus summarises the history of painting in the ,netherlands during the interval of about a century and a half that elapsed between the death of ,jan van ,eyck in #addj and the birth of ,,peter ,,paul ,,rubens in #aegg4 ,the great school of the brothers van ,eyck1 he writes1 which united with a profound and genuine enthusiasm for religious subjects a pure and healthy feeling for nature1 and a talent for portraying her minutest details with truth and fidelity1 had continued till the end of the fifteenth century1 and in some instances even later1 to produce the most admirable works1 combining the utmost technical perfection in touch and finish with most vivid and beautiful colouring4 ,to this original school1 however1 had succeeded a perverted rage for imitating the ,italian masters1 which had been introduced into the ,netherlands by a few painters of talent1 particularly by ,jean ,mabuse and ,bernard van ,orley4 ,to display their science by throwing their figures into forced and difficult positions and strongly marking the muscles1 by which they thought to emulate the grandeur of ,michel ,angelo1 and to exhibit their learning by the choice of mythological and allegorical subjects1 became the aim of succeeding painters1 and before these false and artificial views of art1 the spirit of religious enthusiasm and the pure1 nave perception of the truth and beauty of nature gradually disappeared4 ,in proportion as the ,flemish painters lost the proper conception of form1 and the feeling for delicacy and beauty of outline1 it followed of course that they became more and more removed from nature in their desire to rival each other in the forced attitudes of their figures1 and in the exhibition of nudity1 until at last such disgusting caricatures were produced as we find in the works of ,martin ,heemskirk or ,franz ,floris1 artists who were even deficient in good colouring1 the old inheritance of the school4 ,some few painters1 however1 whose feeling for truth and nature repelled them instinctively from a path so far removed from both1 took to portraying scenes of real life with considerable humour and vivacity2 or they delineated nature in her commonest aspects with great minuteness of detail2 and thus tableaux de genre and landscape originated4 ,although a few isolated efforts to introduce a better state of things were visible towards the end of the sixteenth century1 it was reserved for a mind of no common power to bring about a complete revolution4 ,that ,rubens was possessed of a mind of no common power will be readily admitted4 ,he was an extraordinary person1 in whom were combined such a variety of excellent qualities that there seems to have been no room left in him for any of the inferior ones which are usually necessary1 as one must almost admit1 for an alloy that will harden the finer metal for the practical purposes of success4 ,with all his feeling for religion1 he was seldom prudish2 his amazing vitality never led him into excess or intemperance4 ,his intense patriotism was all for peace2 classical learning never made him dry or bumptious1 nor the favour of kings servile4 ,as fine a gentleman as ,buckingham1 he had no enemies4 ,something more than temperament and natural ability1 however1 was necessary to make ,rubens exactly what he turned out to be1 and that was environment4 ,had he remained in ,flanders all his life we should have been deprived of much that is most characteristic in his art4 ,he was too big1 that is to say1 for the flower pot4 ,he needed to be bedded out1 so that his exuberant natural genius might have the proper opportunities for expanding under suitable conditions4 ,it was in ,venice and ,mantua1 in ,florence and ,rome that he found himself1 and took his measure from the giants4 ,rubens was born in #aegg at ,cologne1 where his father1 a jurist of considerable attainments1 had taken refuge from the disturbances at ,antwerp in #aeff4 ,he was christened ,peter ,paul in honour of the saints on whose festival his birthday fell--#bith ,june4 ,at the age of sixteen he was placed as a page in the household of the widowed ,countess of ,lalaing1 but as he showed a remarkable love for drawing he was apprenticed first to ,tobias ,verhaegt1 a landscape painter1 and then to ,adam ,van ,oort4 ,the latter was so unsuitable a master1 however1 that ,rubens was soon committed to the care of ,otto ,vennius1 at that time ,court painter to the ,infanta ,isabella and the ,archduke ,albert1 her husband2 he prospered so well that in #afjj ,vennius advised him to go to ,italy to finish his education as a painter4 ,rubens was now in his twenty-third year1 and besides being proficient in painting he was so well grounded in the classics and in general education and manners that he was recommended by the ,archduke to ,vincenzio1 ,duke of ,gonzaga1 whose palace at ,mantua was famous for containing an immense collection of art treasures1 a great part of which within the next quarter of a century were purchased by ,king ,charles1 the ,duke of ,buckingham1 and the ,earl of ,arundel4 ,the influence exerted on the young painter by surroundings like these is exemplified in a note by ,waagen3-- ,rubens during his residence at ,mantua was so pleased with the ,triumph of ,julius ,csar by ,mantegna 7the large cartoons now at ,hampton ,court ,palace71 that he made a free copy of one of them4 ,his love for the fantastic and pompous led him to choose that with the elephants carrying the candelabra2 but his ardent imagination1 ever directed to the dramatic1 could not be contented with this4 ,instead of a harmless sheep1 which1 in ,mantegna1 is walking by the side of the foremost elephant1 ,rubens has introduced a lion and a lioness1 which growl angrily at the elephant4 ,the latter is looking furiously round1 and is on the point of striking the lion a blow with his trunk4 ,that ,rubens should have been so specially attracted by ,mantegna may seem a little surprising1 until we remember that both were lovers and students of classical antiquities--a fact that is often forgotten in recalling only the principal achievements of either4 ,but it is important to know what sort of foundations underlie the most splendid erections if we wish to understand how they came into existence and what their place is in the history of the arts4 ,a glance through ,lemprire's ,dictionary may furnish a modern ,academician with a subject for a popular picture1--but that is stucco rather than foundation4 ,the roots of tall trees go deep4 ,rubens when he was in ,rome studied the antiquities of the place with the utmost diligence and zeal1 as is evidenced by a book published by his brother ,philip in #afjh4 ,it was in the autumn of this year that he received the news1 when at ,genoa1 of his mother's illness1 which induced him to return to ,antwerp forthwith4 ,on his arrival he found she had died before the messenger had reached ,genoa4 ,after four months of mourning he was ready to return to ,flanders2 his sojourn of eight years in ,italy had so far influenced him that he might have remained there indefinitely had it not been for the ,archduke and the ,infanta pressing him to remain at ,brussels and attach himself to their ,court4 ,another circumstance may possibly have weighed with him2 for within a year we find him married to ,elizabeth ,brant1 the daughter of a magistrate of ,antwerp1 and it was not at ,brussels1 but at ,antwerp1 that he took up his quarters4 ,here he proceeded to build a wonderful house--said to have cost him #fj1jjj florins--after designs of his own in the ,italian style1 which he filled with the treasures he had collected in ,italy4 ,rubens's first pictures were nearly all of them religious subjects4 ,before he went to ,italy he had painted an ,adoration of the ,kings1 a ,holy ,trinity1 and the ,dead ,christ in the ,arms of ,god the ,father1 which was engraved by ,bolswert4 ,when ,vincenzio sent him to ,rome to copy pictures there for him1 he found time to execute a commission which he received from the ,archduke ,albert to paint three pictures for the ,church of ,santa ,croce di ,gerusalamme1 namely1 the ,crowning with ,thorns1 the ,crucifixion1 and the ,finding of the ,cross4 ,a year later--after returning from a journey to ,madrid--he painted the altar-piece for the ,church of ,santa ,maria in ,vallicella1 in which the influence of ,paul ,veronese is conspicuous4 ,at ,genoa1 he painted the ,circumcision and ,s4 ,ignatius for the church of the ,jesuits4 ,one of the first pictures which he painted on his return to ,antwerp was an altar-piece for the private chapel of the ,archduke ,albert1 of the ,holy ,family4 ,this picture was so much admired that the members of the fraternity of ,s4 ,ildefonso1 at the head of which was the ,archduke ,albert1 commissioned him to paint an altar-piece for the ,chapel of the ,order of ,s4 ,james near ,brussels4 ,this picture1 which is now at ,vienna1 represents the ,virgin enthroned1 surrounded by four female saints1 putting the ,cloak of the ,order on the shoulders of ,s4 ,ildefonso4 ,on the wings are the portraits of the ,archduke and ,isabella1 with their patron saints4 ,thus we find that1 like the earliest painters in his own country as well as in ,italy1 the beginning of ,rubens's art was under the influence of the ,church4 ,further1 we find that the most celebrated work of his earlier period1 the ,descent from the ,cross1 in the cathedral at ,antwerp1 was undertaken in circumstances which abundantly show how thoroughly he was imbued with the principles of the religion he professed4 ,the story is that when preparing the foundations of his new house he had unwittingly trespassed upon a piece of ground belonging to the ,company of ,arquebusiers at ,antwerp4 ,a lawsuit was threatened1 and ,rubens1 with all the vivacity of his nature1 prepared measures of resistance4 ,but when his friend ,rockox1 a lawyer1 had proved him that he was in the wrong1 he immediately drew back1 and offered to paint a picture by way of compensation4 ,the offer was accepted1 and the ,arquebusiers asked for a representation of their patron1 ,s4 ,christopher1 to be placed in his chapel in the cathedral4 ,in the magnificent spirit which always distinguished the man1 he presented to his adversaries not merely the figure of the great ,saint1 but an elaborate and significant illustration of his name 7,christ-bearer74 ,thus1 in the centre1 the disciples are lifting the ,saviour from the ,cross2 in the wings the ,visitation--,s4 ,simeon with ,christ in his arms1 ,s4 ,christopher with ,christ on his shoulders1 and an old hermit bearing a light4 ,among the earlier examples of secular pictures one of the most famous is the portrait of himself and his bride1 which is now in the ,munich ,gallery4 ,this was painted in #afji1 when ,rubens was over thirty years old4 ,in #afbg ,rubens went to ,madrid on a diplomatic errand1 but still as a painter1 as we shall see when discussing his relations with ,velasquez4 ,towards the end of the year #afbi he was sent on another diplomatic mission1 this time to ,england4 ,the choice of an ambassador could not have fallen on anyone better calculated to suit the personal character of ,charles ,i41 who was a passionate lover of art and easily captivated by men of cultivated intellect and refined manners4 ,rubens therefore1 in whom the most admirable and attractive qualities were united to the rarest genius as an artist1 soon succeeded in winning the attention and regard of the king4 ,at ,paris1 too1 ,rubens had made friends with ,buckingham1 who had purchased his whole collection of statues1 paintings1 and other works of art for about ten thousand pounds4 ,it was during his stay in ,london that he painted the picture now in the ,national ,gallery1 called ,peace and ,war 7,no4 #df74 ,this was intended as an allegory representing the blessings of peace and the horrors of war1 which he presented to the king as a tangible recommendation of the pacific measures which he had come to propose4 ,after the dispersion of the ,royal ,collection during the ,commonwealth this picture was acquired by the ,doria family at ,genoa1 where it was called1 oddly enough1 ,rubens's ,family4 ,as a matter of fact the children are those of ,balthazar ,gerbier4 ,he also painted the ,s4 ,george and the ,dragon1 which is now at ,windsor ,castle1 and made the sketches for the nine pictures on the ceiling of the ,banqueting ,hall--now the ,united ,service ,institution ,museum--in ,whitehall4 ,it was on this occasion1 too1 that he received the honour of knighthood from ,charles ,i41 who is said to have presented him with his own sword4 ,in the following year1 #afcj1 ,rubens married his second wife1 ,helena ,fourment1 who was only sixteen years old--he was now fifty-two or fifty-three4 ,she belonged to one of the richest and most respectable families in ,antwerp1 and was by no means unworthy of the compliment of being painted in the character of the ,virgin receiving instruction from ,s4 ,anne1 in the picture which is still at ,antwerp4 ,in #afcc his painting was again interrupted by a diplomatic mission1 this time to ,holland2 and his remaining years were subject to more distressing interruptions1 from the gout1 to which he finally succumbed in #afdj4 ,when we come to consider the ,english ,school of painting we shall see how much of its revival in the middle of the eighteenth century was due to the personality as well as to the genius of ,sir ,joshua ,reynolds4 ,in the ,netherlands1 likewise1 it was not merely a great painter that was required to raise the art to life1 but a great personality as well2 and to the influence of ,rubens may be attributed much if not all of the extraordinary fertility of the ,flemish and ,dutch ,schools of the seventeenth century4 ,making every allowance for the difference in the times in which the ,van ,eycks and ,rubens were working1 there is no doubt that the former lived in too rarefied an atmosphere ever to influence their fellows1 and with the exception of ,hans ,memling they left no ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxiv4--,,rubens ,,portrait ,,of ,h,l,,ne ,,fourment1 ,,the ,,artist',s ,,second ,,wife1 ,,and ,,two ,,children ,louvre1 ,paris one worthy to carry on their tradition4 ,rubens showed his contemporaries that art was a mistress who could be served in many ways that were yet unthought of1 and that she did not by any means disdain the tribute of other than religious votaries4 ,beginning1 as we have pointed out1 with sacred subjects1 ,rubens soon turned to the study of the classics1 and found in them not so much the classical severity that ,mantegna had sought for as the pagan spirit of fulness and freedom4 ,i am convinced that to reach the highest perfection as a painter1 he himself writes it is necessary1 not only to be acquainted with the ancient statues1 but we must be inwardly imbued with the thorough comprehension of them4 ,an insight into the laws which pertain to them is necessary before they can be turned to any real account in painting4 ,this will prevent the artist from transferring to the canvas that which in sculpture is dependent on the material employed--marble1 for instance4 ,many inexperienced and indeed experienced painters do not distinguish the material from the form which it expresses--the stone from the figure which is carved in it2 that which the artist forces from the dead marble1 from the universal laws of art which are independent of it4 ,one leading rule may be laid down1 that inasmuch as the best statues of antiquity are of great value for the painter1 the inferior ones are not only worthless but mischievous3 for while beginners fancy they can perform wonders if they can borrow from these statues1 and transfer something hard1 heavy1 with sharp outlines and an exaggerated anatomy to their canvas1 this can only be done by outraging the truth of nature1 since instead of representing flesh with colours1 they do but give colour to marble4 ,in studying even the best of the antique statues1 the painter must consider and avoid many things which are not connected with the art of the sculptor1 but solely with the material in which he worked4 ,i may mention particularly the difference in the shading4 ,in nature1 owing to the transparency of the flesh1 the skin1 and the cartilages1 the shading of many parts is moderated1 which in sculpture appear hard and abrupt1 for the shadows become doubled1 as it were1 owing to the natural and unavoidable thickness of the stone4 ,to this must be added that certain less important parts which lie on the surface of the human body1 as the veins1 folds of the skin1 etc41 which change their appearance with every movement1 and which owing to the pliancy of the skin become easily extended or contracted1 are not expressed at all in the works of sculptors in general--though it is true that sculptors of high talent have marked them in some degree4 ,the painter1 however1 must never omit to introduce them--with proper discretion4 ,in the manner in which lights fall1 too1 statues are totally different from nature2 for the natural brilliancy of marble1 and its own light1 throws out the surface far more strongly than in nature1 and even dazzles the eye4 ,i have quoted rather more of this passage 7from ,mrs ,jameson's translation7 than ,i at first intended1 because it discloses one of the most important secrets of the successful painting of figures1 by other artists besides ,rubens himself--,george ,romney for example4 ,the advantages of a classical education at our ,english public schools and universities are questioned1 and there can be no doubt that for the bulk of the pupils they are questionable4 ,but ,rubens shows that the case is exactly the same for painters studying classical art as for scholars acquainting themselves with classical literature4 ,a superficial study of the antique1 just because it is antique1 is of no use at all1 but rather a hindrance4 ,but if the study is properly undertaken1 there is no surer foundation1 in art or literature1 on which to build4 ,it makes no difference what is built2 the foundation is there1 beneath the surface1 and whatever is placed upon it will stand for all time4 ,the remarkable freedom and originality of ,rubens's treatment of classical subjects is thus accounted for4 ,under the surface is his familiarity with the antique1 but instead of carrying this above ground1 he builds on it a palace in accordance with the times and circumstances in which he lived4 ,the principles of classical art underlie the modern structure4 ,among his numerous works of classical mythology the picture at ,munich of ,castor and ,pollux carrying off the daughters of ,leucippus is worthy of being first mentioned4 ,the ,dioscuri mounted on spirited steeds1 one of which is wildly rearing1 are in the act of capturing the two damsels4 ,the calm expression of strength in the male1 and the violent but fruitless resistance of the female figures1 form a striking contrast4 ,although the former are merely represented as two coarse and powerful men1 and the women have only common and rather redundant forms and ,flemish faces1 yet the picture produces as a whole such a striking effect1 owing to the admirable manner in which the subject is conceived1 the power of imagination which it displays1 and the exquisite colouring and tone1 that it would never occur to any unprejudiced spectator to regret the absence of antique forms and character4 ,two other pictures of this class are singled out for description by ,waagen as masterpieces4 ,one is the ,rape of ,proserpine1 at ,blenheim1--,pluto in his car1 drawn by fiery brown steeds1 is carrying off the goddess1 who is struggling in his arms4 ,the other is the ,battle of the ,amazons1 in the ,munich ,gallery1 which was painted by ,rubens for ,van der ,geest4 ,with great judgment he has chosen the moment when the ,amazons are driven back by the ,greeks over the river ,thermodon3 the battle takes place upon a bridge1 and thus the horror of the scene is carried to the highest pitch4 ,both in ,flanders and in ,italy ,rubens had been brought into close contact with all the magnificence and splendour which belonged to those gorgeous times1 and he delighted in representing the pomp of worldly state and everything connected with it4 ,of all sacred subjects none afforded such a rich field for display as the ,adoration of the ,kings2 he has painted this subject no less than twelve times1 and his fancy appears quite inexhaustible in the invention of the rich offerings of the eastern sages4 ,among the subjects of a secular character the history of ,marie de',medici1 the triumph of the ,emperor ,charles ,v41 and the ,sultan at the head of his ,army1 gave him abundant opportunities of portraying ,oriental and ,european pageantry1 with rich arms and regalia1 and all the pomp and circumstance of war4 ,profusion--pouring forth of abundance1 that was one of ,rubens's most salient characteristics4 ,exuberance1 plenty1 fatness4 ,as a painter of animals1 again1 ,rubens opened out a new field for the energy of his fellow-countrymen1 which was tilled so industriously by ,frans ,snyders and ,jan ,fyt1 and in a lesser degree by the ,dutchmen ,jan ,weenix1 father and son1 and ,hondecoeter4 ,that the nave instincts1 agility1 and vivacity of animals must have had a great attraction for ,rubens is easily understood4 ,those which are remarkable for their courage1 strength1 intelligence1 swiftness--as lions1 tigers1 wild boars1 wolves1 horses1 dogs--particularly interested him4 ,he paid special attention to animals1 seized every opportunity of studying them from nature1 and attained the most wonderful skill and facility in painting them4 ,it is related that he had a remarkably fine and powerful lion brought to his house in order to study him in every variety of attitude1 and that on one occasion observing him yawn1 he was so pleased with the action that he wished to paint it4 ,he therefore desired the keeper to tickle the animal under the chin to make him repeatedly open his jaws3 at length the lion became savage at this treatment1 and cast such furious glances at his keeper1 that ,rubens attended to his warning and had the beast removed4 ,the keeper is said to have been torn to pieces by the lion shortly afterwards3 apparently the animal had never forgotten the affront put upon him4 ,by such means--though it is to be hoped not always with such lamentable results--,rubens succeeded in seizing and portraying the peculiar character and instinct of animals--their quick movements and manifestations of strength--with such perfect truth and energy that not one among the modern painters has approached him in this respect--certainly not ,landseer1 as ,mrs ,jameson would ask us to believe4 ,the celebrated ,wolf ,hunt1 in the collection of ,lord ,ashburton1 was one of the earliest1 painted in #afab for the ,spanish ,general ,legranes only three years after ,rubens's return from ,italy4 ,in this picture1 his bold creative fancy and dramatic turn of mind are remarkably conspicuous--even at this early stage in his career4 ,catherine ,brant1 his first wife1 on a brown horse1 with a falcon in her hand1 is near her husband2 a second huntsman on horseback1 three on foot1 another old wolf and three young ones1 with several dogs1 complete the composition1 which is most carefully painted in a clear and powerful tone throughout4 ,of scenes of peasant life1 one of his earliest1 and yet the most famous1 is the ,kermesse1 which is now in the ,louvre4 ,a boisterous1 merry party of about seventy persons are assembled in front of a country ale-house2 several are wildly dancing in a circle1 others are drinking and shouting2 others1 again1 are making love4 ,the ,garden of ,love1 equally famous1 was one of ,rubens's latest pictures4 ,of this there are several versions in existence1 of which those at ,dresden and ,madrid may be considered as originals4 ,several loving couples in familiar conversation are lingering before the entrance of a grotto1 the front of which is ornamented with a rustic portico4 ,amongst them we recognise the portraits of ,rubens and his second wife1 his pupil ,van ,dyck1 and ,simon de ,vos4 ,as ,rubens united to such great and various knowledge the disposition to communicate it to others in the most friendly and candid manner1 it was natural that young painters of talent who were admitted into his atelier should soon attain a high degree of skill and cultivation4 ,at the ,house in the ,wood1 not far from the ,hague1 there is a salon decorated entirely by the pupils of ,rubens4 ,the principal picture1 which is one of the largest oil paintings in the world1 is by ,jacob ,jordaens1 and represents the triumph of ,prince ,frederick ,henry--the object of the whole scheme being the glorification of the ,house of ,orange1 in #afdi4 ,most of the other pictures are of ,theodore van ,thulden1 who in these works has emulated his illustrious master in the force and brilliance of his colouring4 ,but it is not in any particular salon or palace that we must look for the effects of ,rubens' influence2 it was far wider than to be able to be contained within four walls4 ,in portraiture he gave us ,van ,dyck2 in historical subjects1 ,jacob ,jordaens2 in animal painting and still life1 ,frans ,snyders1 ,jan ,fyt1 and the brothers ,weenix4 ,in pictures of everyday life he gave us ,adrian ,brouwer and ,david ,teniers2 in landscape1 ,everdingen1 ,ruisdael and ,waterloo4 ,thus was the art of painting in the ,netherlands remodelled in every department1 says ,waagen in the concluding sentence of his memoir1 by the energies of a single great and gifted mind4 ,thus was ,rubens the originator of its second great epoch1 to which we are indebted for such numerous and masterly performances in every branch of the art4 ,,iii ,,the ,,pupils ,,of ,,rubens ,,david ,,teniers the elder1 who was born at ,antwerp in #aehb1 received the first rudiments of his art from ,rubens1 who soon perceived in him the happy advances towards excelling in his profession that raised him to the head of his school4 ,the prejudice in favour of his son1 ,david ,teniers the younger1 is so great that the father is generally esteemed but a middling painter2 and his pictures not worth the inquiry of a collector4 ,his hand is so little distinguished1 however1 that the paintings of the father are often taken for those of the son4 ,the father was certainly the inventor of the manner1 which the son1 who was his pupil1 only improved with what little was wanting to perfection4 ,rubens was astonished at his early success1 and though he followed the manner of ,adrian ,brouwer1 looked on him as his most deserving pupil by the brightness of genius that he showed4 ,he soon saved enough money to undertake the journey to ,italy1 and when at ,rome he established himself with ,adam ,elsheimer1 who was then in great vogue4 ,in ,elsheimer's manner he soon became a perfect master1 without neglecting at the same time the study of other and greater masters1 endeavouring to penetrate into the deepest mysteries of their practice4 ,an abode of ten years in ,italy1 and the influence of ,elsheimer combined with that of ,rubens1 formed him into what he became4 ,when he returned to his own country he employed himself entirely in painting small pictures filled with figures of people drinking and merry-making1 and numbers of peasants and country women4 ,he displayed so much taste in these that the demand for them was universal4 ,even ,rubens thought them an ornament to his collection4 ,teniers drew his own character in his pictures1 and in the subjects he usually expressed everything tends to joy and pleasure4 ,always employed in copying after nature whatsoever presented itself1 he taught his two sons1 ,david and ,abraham1 to follow his example1 and accustomed them to paint nothing but from that infallible model1 by which means they both became excellent painters4 ,these were his only disciples1 and he died at ,antwerp in #afdi4 ,the only distinction between his works and those of his son1 ,david ,teniers the younger1 is that in the latter you discover a finer touch1 a fresher brush1 a greater choice of attitudes1 and a better disposition of the figures4 ,the father1 too1 retained something of the tone of ,italy in his colouring1 which was stronger than his son's2 but his pictures have less harmony and union--though to tell the truth1 when the father took pains to finish his picture1 he very nearly resembled his son4 ,the latter1 ,,david ,,teniers the younger1 was born in #afaj4 ,he was nicknamed the ,ape of painting1 from his powers of imitation4 ,the ,archduke ,leopold ,william made him a gentleman of his bedchamber1 and he made copies of all his pictures4 ,he came to ,england to buy several ,italian pictures for ,count ,fuensaldegna1 who on his return heaped favours upon him4 ,don ,john of ,austria and the ,king of ,spain set so great a value upon his pictures that they built a gallery set apart to preserve them--there are no less than fifty-two in the ,prado ,gallery to-day4 ,his principal talent was landscape adorned with small figures4 ,he painted men drinking and smoking1 alchemists1 corps de garde1 temptations of ,s4 ,anthony1 and country fairs and merry-makings4 ,his small pictures are superior to his large ones4 ,his execution displays the greatest ease2 the leafing of his trees is light1 his skies are admirable3 his small figures have an exquisite expression and a most lively touch1 and the characters are marked out with the greatest truth4 ,from the thinness of the colours his works seem to have been finished at once2 they are generally clear in all their parts1 and ,teniers had the art1 without dark shades1 to relieve his lights by other lights1 so well managed as to produce the effect he wanted1 an art which few besides himself have attained4 ,he died at ,antwerp in #afid4 ,,frans ,,snyders was born at ,antwerp in the year #aehg1 ten years later1 that is to say1 than ,rubens4 ,he received his first instruction in the art of painting from ,henry van ,balen4 ,his genius at first displayed itself only in painting fruit4 ,he afterwards attempted animals1 in which kind of study he succeeded so well that he surpassed all that had ever excelled before him4 ,he stayed for some time in ,italy1 and the works he met with there by ,castiglione proved a spur to his genius to attempt outdoing him in painting animals4 ,when he returned to ,flanders he fixed his ordinary abode at ,brussels1 where he was made painter to the ,archduke and ,duchess1 and became attached to the house of ,spain4 ,twenty-two of his pictures are in the ,prado ,gallery4 ,when ,snyders required large figures in his compositions both ,rubens and ,jordaens took pleasure in assisting him1 and ,rubens in turn borrowed the assistance of ,snyders to paint the ground of his pictures2 thus they mutually assisted each other in their labours1 while ,snyders' manly and vigorous manner was quite able to hold its own even when joined with that of the great master4 ,,anthony ,,van ,,dyck was born at ,antwerp in #aeii1 less than three months before ,velasquez at ,seville4 ,both became so famous in their capacity of ,court painters that the rest of their achievement is popularly regarded as little more than a bye-product4 ,in the case of ,van ,dyck there is the more excuse for the ,english public1 inasmuch as1 like ,holbein before him1 he was exclusively employed while in this country in the production of portraits2 and as his works are so frequent in ,england1 as ,horace ,walpole observes in the opening sentence of his memoir in the ,anecdotes of ,painting1 that the generality of our people can scarce avoid thinking him their countryman1 it is easy enough to forget that he only spent the last nine years of his life here4 ,again1 the insatiable craze of the ,english and ,american public for portraits has helped to obscure the extent of ,van ,dyck's capabilities in other directions1 and while the ,national ,gallery contains not a single subject-piece from his hand1 more and more thousands are continually spent in the acquisition of more and more portraits4 ,the bewitching ,cupid and ,psyche in ,queen ,mary's closet at ,hampton ,court1 painted a year before his death1 is scarcely known to exist6 ,at the same time it would be useless to deny that ,van ,dyck's principal claim to his place among the greatest masters rests chiefly upon portraiture4 ,the point ,i wish to make is that portrait painting never yet made a great master1 but that none but a great master ever became a great portrait painter2 and so long as we are only permitted to see the particular achievement of the artist in our public galleries1 so long is it likely that we shall continue to be flooded with mediocre likenesses of fashionable people by painters whose highest or whose only achievement they constitute4 ,anyone can write a short story for the cheaper sort of modern journal2 only writers like ,hardy1 ,stevenson1 or ,kipling can give us a masterpiece in little4 ,it was said that ,rubens advised ,van ,dyck to devote himself to portraiture out of jealousy3 but that is hardly in accordance with what we know of his generous nature4 ,if the advice was given at all we may be sure that it was given in a friendly spirit4 ,but there was something in the temperament of ,van ,dyck which peculiarly fitted him for the ,court1 apart from any question as to his excellence in any particular branch of his art1 and it is evident that the personality of ,rubens1 and his connection with the rich and mighty of the earth1 influenced him almost as much as did his art4 ,how much he owed to ,rubens1 and how much ,rubens owed to him in painting is a matter that is arguable4 ,he had been several years with ,van ,balen before he entered the studio of ,rubens1 when eighteen years old1 not as a pupil but as an assistant4 ,here he not only had the practical task of painting ,rubens's compositions for him1 in company with numerous others1 but had also the advantage of studying the works of ,titian and other of the great ,italian masters in ,rubens's famous collection4 ,if the hand of ,van ,dyck is traceable in some of the pictures of ,rubens at this period1 so the spirit of ,rubens is very obvious in those of ,van ,dyck4 ,the chief thing to be remembered is that in these early days he was not painting portraits4 ,his earliest works1 in which the influence of ,titian is perceptible as well as that of ,rubens1 are the ,christ bearing the ,cross1 in ,s4 ,paul's at ,antwerp1 painted in #afah2 the ,s4 ,sebastian at ,munich1 and the ,christ ,mocked1 at ,berlin4 ,the familiar portrait of ,cornelius van der ,geest in the ,national ,gallery1 is one of his very earliest1 probably before #afbj4 ,again1 on his first visit to ,genoa1 in #afba1 on the advice of ,rubens1 his ambition was not to paint portraits1 as on his second visit some years later1 but to rival ,rubens in the composition of great historical pieces4 ,it was not until #afbg1 when he left behind him in ,genoa the superb series of ,balbi1 ,brignole-,sala1 ,cattaneo1 and ,lomellini portraits1 and returned to ,antwerp to undertake those such as the ,le ,roys at ,hertford ,house1 or the ,beatrice de ,cusance at ,windsor1 that he had really become a portrait painter4 ,even then1 he was still determined not to yield to ,rubens at ,antwerp1 and painted1 amongst other subjects1 the ,rinaldo and ,armida for ,charles ,i4 ,it was only at the solicitation of ,george ,geldorp1 a schemer as well as a painter1 that he consented at length1 in #afcb1 to come to ,england2 and it was only the welcome afforded to him by ,charles that induced him to settle here4 ,two considerations of personal vanity may be suggested as actuating ,charles to be specially indulgent to ,van ,dyck--an indulgence of which the results posterity should not omit to credit to the sad account of the martyr--first1 that his father had failed to retain the painter in his service1 and second1 that ,velasquez1 who had made a sketch of him on his mad visit to ,madrid in #afbc1 was then immortalising ,philip4 ,velasquez being out of the question1 why not ,van ,dyck6 ,an excellent idea6 ,especially when instead of dwarfs1 buffoons1 and idiots1 the ,english ,court contained some exceedingly fine material besides the royal family for the artist to exercise his talent upon4 ,after this1 ,flanders knew ,van ,dyck no more1 save for a year or two's sojourn from #afcc-afce when he painted one or two magnificent portraits1 and then returned to ,england1 where he died in #afda4 ,with the death of ,rubens the year before1 ,flemish painting had suffered another eclipse2 and though ,snyders lived till #afeg1 and ,jordaens and the younger ,teniers continued till late in the century1 no fresh seedlings appeared1 and the soil again became barren4 ,rubens and ,van ,dyck were both too big for the little garden--their growth overspread ,europe4 ,,dutch ,,school ,i ,frans ,hals ,meantime we must turn our attention to ,holland1 where ,,frans ,,hals1 who was born only three years later than ,rubens1 namely in #aehj1 was the forerunner of ,rembrandt1 ,van der ,helst1 ,bol1 ,lely1 and a host more of greater or less painters1 who made their country as famous in the seventeenth century for art as their fathers had made it in the sixteenth for arms4 ,without going into the complications of the political history of the ,netherlands at this period1 it is important nevertheless to remember that while the ,flemish provinces remained ,catholic under ,spain1 the northern states1 after heroic struggles1 formed themselves into a ,republic2 so that while it is difficult to draw a hard and fast line between what was ,dutch and what was ,flemish in estimating the influence of one particular painter upon another1 there is no question at all as to vital difference between the conditions which led to the production of the pictures of the two schools4 ,the ,flemish pictures were for the ,church and for the ,court1 the ,dutch for the house1 the ,guildhall1 or the bourgeoisie4 ,the former were aristocratic1 the latter democratic4 ,rubens and ,van ,dyck were aristocrats1 ,hals and ,rembrandt democrats4 ,rubens painted altar-pieces1 for the great churches or cathedrals or for the chapels of his patrons4 ,rembrandt painted ,bible stories for whoever would purchase them4 ,van ,dyck painted the portraits of kings and nobles4 ,hals painted the rough soldiers and sailors1 singly1 or in the great groups into which they formed themselves as ,guilds4 ,for the first time in the history of painting1 neither ,church nor ,court were its patrons4 ,in any age or under any circumstances ,frans ,hals would have seemed a remarkable painter1 but to measure his extraordinary genius to its full height we must try to realise what those times and those circumstances were4 ,in ,florence and ,venice1 as we have seen1 there were great schools of painting1 and in ,florence especially1 the whole city existed in an atmosphere of art4 ,there was no escape from it4 ,in ,haarlem1 where ,hals spent his youth 7he was born in ,antwerp71 there was no such state of affairs4 ,there were no chapels to be decorated1 no courtiers to be flattered4 ,the country was seething with the effects of war1 and the whole population were ready for it again at a moment's notice4 ,there were plenty of heroes--every man was one--but not of the romantic sort4 ,they were all bluff1 hardy fellows1 who wanted to get on with their business4 ,who would have thought that they wanted to have their portraits painted8 ,and who1 accordingly1 could have induced them to do so except a bluff1 roystering genius like ,hals1 who slashed them down on canvas before they had time to stop him8 ,once it got wind that ,hals was such a good fellow1 and that he dashed off a portrait to the life in as little time as it took to pass the time of day with him1 he had plenty of business1 and from painting single portraits he was commissioned to glorify the ,guilds by depicting their banquets1 which he did with almost as much speed and considerably more fidelity than the limelight man at a ,city dinner in these times4 ,his first great group--,the ,archers of ,s4 ,george1 at ,haarlem--has all the appearance of being painted instantaneously as the banqueters stood around the table before dispersing4 ,when we think of the cultured ,rubens1 brought up in the atmosphere of ,courts1 and studying for years among the finest paintings and painters in ,italy1 and compare him with this low1 ignorant fellow1 who had never been outside the ,netherlands1 do we not find his genius still more amazing8 ,nowadays we see a portrait by ,hals surrounded with the finest works of the greatest painters in all times and in all lands1 and see how well it stands the comparison4 ,but our admiration must be increased a hundredfold1 when we know that he was without any of the training or tradition of a great artist1 and that it must have been by sheer character and genius alone that he forced his art upon his commercial1 though heroic public4 ,one thing especially it is interesting to notice about the ,dutch portraits of the early ,republican period1 namely1 that they are obviously inspired by the pleasure of having a living1 speaking likeness rather than by pride and ostentation4 ,bluff and swaggering as some of ,hals's portraits of men appear to be--notably ,the ,laughing ,cavalier1 at ,hertford ,house--that is only because the subjects were bluff and swaggering fellows--swaggering1 that is to say1 in the consciousness of their ability and their readiness to defend their country and their homes again1 if need be1 against the tyrant4 ,but these swaggerers are the exception1 and the prevailing impression conveyed is that of honest1 if determined1 bluffness4 ,they are not posing1 these jolly ,dutchmen1 they are sitting or standing1 for ,hals to paint them just as they would sit or stand to be measured for a suit of clothes4 ,look at the heads of the man and the woman in the ,national ,gallery4 ,could anything be more natural and unassuming8 ,look at the ,laughing ,cavalier1 and ask if it is not the man himself1 as ,hals saw and knew him1 not a faked up hero8 ,hals caught him in his best clothes1 that is all4 ,he did not put them on to be painted in--he was out on a jaunt4 ,look at ,hals's women1 how pleased they are to be painted1 just as they are4 ,poor ,hals1 he was a good1 honest fellow1 though sadly given to drink and low company4 ,but for sheer genius he has never had an equal4 ,the vast number of his paintings--many of which now only exist in copies--shows that with every predilection to ease and comfort1 he could not help painting--it simply welled out of him4 ,it was a natural gift which seems to have needed no labour and no study4 ,it is certain that this fecundity was a very potent factor in the development of the ,dutch ,school of painting4 ,had ,hals confined his talent to painting the portraits of the highest in the land1 which would never have been seen by the public at large1 it is improbable that such a business-like community would have produced many painters4 ,but ,hals must have popularised painting much more than we generally suppose4 ,an example occurs to me in the picture of ,the ,rommelpot ,player1 of which no less than thirteen versions are enumerated by ,de ,groot1 none of which can claim to be the original4 ,one is at ,wilton1 another in ,sir ,frederick ,cook's gallery at ,richmond1 and a third at ,arthingworth ,hall in ,northamptonshire4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxv4--,,frans ,,hals ,,portrait ,,of ,a ,,lady ,louvre1 ,paris ,the subject is an old beggar man playing in front of the door of a cottage on a ridiculous instrument consisting of an earthen pot covered over like a jampot with a lid of parchment1 on which he makes a rude noise with a stick1 to the intense delight of a group of children4 ,a picture like this1 then1 it is evident1 instead of hanging in solitary confinement in the house of a great person1 was so widely popular that it was copied on all sides1 and must have been seen by thousands of people4 ,next to ,hals1 in point of time1 was ,,hendrik ,,gerritz ,,pot1 who was born1 probably at ,haarlem1 in #aehe4 ,it is to him rather than to ,ostade1 who was a quarter of a century later1 that we must trace the origin of smaller genre pictures of the ,dutch ,school which in later years became its principal product4 ,pot's works are neither very important nor very numerous1 but as a portrait painter he is represented in the ,louvre by a portrait of ,charles ,i41 which was probably painted when he was in ,england in #afca or thereabouts2 while at ,hampton ,court is a beautiful little piece by him which is catalogued under the title of ,a ,startling ,introduction4 ,this belonged to ,charles ,i41 for his cypher is branded on the back of the panel on which it is painted1 and it was sold by the ,commonwealth as a souldier making a strange posture to a ,dutch lady by ,bott4 ,the painter's monogram ,h4,p4 appears on the large chimney piece before which the soldier is standing4 ,,gerard ,,honthorst1 born at ,utrecht in #aeij1 can hardly be said to belong to the ,dutch ,school at all4 ,when he was only twenty he went to ,rome1 where his devotion to painting effects of candle-light earned him the sobriquet of ,gherardo della ,notte4 ,in #afbh he was elected ,dean of the ,guild of ,st4 ,luke at ,utrecht1 but he was in no sense a national painter1 and neither took nor gave anything in the way of national influence4 ,he was in ,england for a few months in #afbh1 to which chance we are indebted for the picture of the ,duke of ,buckingham and his family which is in the ,national ,portrait ,gallery1 and another group of the ,cavendish family which is at ,chatsworth4 ,pictures of the nobility1 or of celebrities like ,harvey1 the discoverer of the circulation of the blood1 were more in his line than those of his republican patriots1 and consequently he plays no part in the development of the school we are now considering4 ,,bartholomew ,,van ,,der ,,helst1 born in ,amsterdam1 #afac1 died there #afgj4 ,he is by far the most renowned of the ,dutch portrait-painters of this period4 ,although nothing is known as regards the master under whom he studied1 it is probable that if ,hals was not actually his teacher1 his works were the models whence ,van der ,helst formed himself4 ,we see this in the portrait of ,vice-,admiral ,kortenaar at ,amsterdam1 where the conception of forms1 and the unscumbled character of the strokes of the brush1 recall ,hals4 ,the same may be observed in two larger pictures with archers in the ,town ,hall at ,haarlem1 where the inartistic arrangement and monotony of the otherwise warm flesh tones point to the earlier time of the painter4 ,by about the year #afdj his character was more fully developed4 ,his arrangement of portrait-pieces with numerous figures became very artistic and easy1 his tone excellent1 and his drawing masterly4 ,this standard of excellence he retained till about #affj4 ,the following are principal pictures of this period3--,a scene from the ,archery ,guild of ,amsterdam in #afci1 including thirty figures4 ,the celebrated picture inscribed #afdh1 an ,archery ,festival commemorating the ,peace of ,westphalia1 and consisting of a party of twenty-four persons1 at ,amsterdam4 ,the chief charm of this work consists in the strong and truthful individuality of every part1 both in form and colour2 in the capital drawing1 which is especially conspicuous in the hands2 in the powerful and clear colouring2 and finally1 in a kind of execution which observes a happy medium between decision and softness4 ,in #afeg he executed the picture of the ,archery ,guild known by the name het ,doelenstck at ,amsterdam ,gallery4 ,this work represents three of the overseers of the ,guild1 with golden prize vases1 and a fourth supposed to be the painter himself4 ,it is almost surpassed by a replica on a smaller scale executed in the following year1 which is now in the ,louvre4 ,at all events1 this picture is in better preservation1 and offers one of the most typical examples of portrait-painting that the ,dutch ,school produced4 ,,ii ,,rembrandt ,,van ,,ryn ,but the greatest of all the ,dutch painters1 in some ways the greatest painter that has ever lived1 was ,,rembrandt ,,van ,,ryn 7#afjf-affi74 ,beside him all the rest seem merely commonplace1 and their works the product of this or that demand1 according to their different times and circumstances1 executed with more or less skill4 ,for ,rembrandt there seems no place among them all--he must stand somewhere alone2 and there is no standard by which to judge his perfections and imperfections except the man himself4 ,perhaps the greatest difference between ,rembrandt and any other painter is that he never seems to have tried to please the public1 but only painted to please himself4 ,it is for this reason1 no doubt1 that he was never popular with the public1 and is never likely to be2 but just as ,beethoven is only understandable by the really musical soul1 so ,rembrandt's appeal is to those who have the feeling for something in painting beyond the mere representation of familiar or heroic scenes and persons on canvas4 ,for the public it is enough that one of his landscapes should be sold for #ajj1jjj1 and they all flock to see it2 but put a fine ,rembrandt portrait in a shop-window without a name to it1 and there would be little fear of the pavement being blocked4 ,this failure of ,rembrandt to please the public of his own day brings out the truth that the practice of painting had up to then subsisted only so long as it supplied a popular demand2 and when we come to consider what that demand was1 we find that it is for nothing else but a pleasing representation of natural objects1 which may or may not embody some sentimental or historical association1 but must first and foremost be a fair representation of more or less familiar things4 ,the oldest story about pictures is that of ,zeuxis and the bunch of grapes1 which relates that he painted the fruit so like nature that the birds came and pecked at the painting--some versions1 ,i believe1 adding that the fruit itself was there but they preferred the painting4 ,similar stories with innumerable variations are told of later artists4 ,rembrandt himself is said to have been deceived by his pupils who1 knowing he was careful about collecting money in small quantities1 however extravagant he might be in spending it1 painted coins on the floor of the studio1 and enjoyed the joke of seeing him stoop to pick them up4 ,we have heard1 too1 of flies painted with surprising skill in conspicuous places to deceive the unwary4 ,but apart from these little pleasantries1 one has only to remember how the earlier writers on painting have expressed themselves to see how much importance1 consciously or unconsciously1 was attached to life-like resemblance to the object painted4 ,vasari is constantly using phrases in which he extols the painter for having made a figure look like the life1 as though that were the real thing to be aimed at4 ,we remember ,ben ,jonson's lines under ,shakespeare's portrait---- ,wherein the graver had a strife ,with nature to outdo the life4 ,and though ,ben ,jonson was not a critic1 and if he had been there was little enough art in his time in ,england for him to criticize1 still he expresses the general feeling of the public for any work of art4 ,with the ,dutch people this was most certainly the case1 and the popularity of the painters of scenes of everyday life is a proof of it4 ,that ,hals1 ,brouwer1 or ,ostade were great painters was not half so important to them1 if indeed they thought of it all1 as that they were capable of turning out pictures which reflected their everyday life like a mirror4 ,so long as ,rembrandt painted portraits like those of the ,pellicornes and their offspring--the two pictures at ,hertford ,house--or a plain straightforward group like ,dr ,tulp's ,anatomy ,lesson 7though in this he was already getting away from convention71 he was tolerated4 ,and it was not so much his freedom in living and his extravagant notions of the pleasures of life that brought about his downfall1 as his failure to realize that when he took the money subscribed for the group of ,captain ,banning ,cocq's ,company1 the subscribers expected something else for their money than a picture 7,the ,night ,watch7 which might be a masterpiece according to the painter's notions1 but was certainly not a portrait group of the subscribers4 ,here1 then1 for the first time in the history of painting1 we find an artist definitely at issue with the public4 ,i do not say that this was the first time that an artist had failed to please the public1 but it is the first occasion on which it was decided that if a painter was to undertake commissions1 he must consider the wishes of the patron1 or starve4 ,it was something new for a painter of ,rembrandt's repute to be told that not he1 but the persons who commissioned the work1 were to be the judges of whether or not it was satisfactory4 ,the consequences were important4 ,for ,rembrandt1 instead of taking the matter as a man of business1 devoted the rest of his life to being an artist1 and leaving the business of painting to men like ,backer1 ,helst1 and others1 betook himself seriously to developing his art irrespective of what the public might or might not think of it4 ,as a result1 we have in the later work of ,rembrandt something that the world--,i mean the artistic part of it--would be very sorry to do without4 ,now the meaning of this is1 not that ,rembrandt was ill-advised in deserting his patrons1 or in suffering them to desert him1 but that for the first time in the history of painting an artist had the personality--,i will not say the conscious determination--to realize that his art was something quite apart from the affairs of this world1 and that what he could express on canvas was not merely a representation of natural objects designed to please his contemporaries1 but something more than human1 something that would appeal to humanity for all time4 ,that many before him had felt that of their art1 to a lesser or greater degree1 is unquestionable--but none of them had ever realised it4 ,drer1 certainly1 may be cited as an exception1 especially when contrasted with his phlegmatic and business-like compatriot ,holbein4 ,but then ,drer1 a century before1 and in totally different circumstances1 was never assured of regular patronage as was ,rembrandt4 ,rembrandt was the son of a miller named ,harmann ,geritz1 who called himself ,van ,ryn1 from the hamlet on the arm of the ,rhine which runs through ,leyden4 ,his mother was the daughter of a baker4 ,he was entered as a student at the ,university of ,leyden1 his parents being comfortably off2 but he showed so little taste for the study of the law1 for which they intended him1 that he was allowed to follow his own bent of painting1 in the studio of a now forgotten painter1 ,jacob van ,swanenburg4 ,here he studied for about three years1 after which he went to ,amsterdam and was for a short time with another painter named ,lastman1 who was a clever but superficial imitator of the ,italian ,school then flourishing in ,rome4 ,returning to ,leyden1 ,rembrandt set up his easel and remained there painting till #afca1 when he went to ,amsterdam4 ,his works during this first period are not very well known in this country1 but at ,windsor and at ,edinburgh are portraits of his mother1 which must belong to it4 ,the next decade was the happiest and most prosperous in ,rembrandt's career4 ,at ,amsterdam he soon found favour with wealthy patrons1 and his happiness and success were completed by his marrying ,saskia van ,ulenburgh1 the sister of a wealthy connoisseur and art dealer1 with whom ,rembrandt had formed an intimate friendship4 ,to this period belong the numerous portraits of himself and ,saskia1 alone or together1 most of which are characterized by a barbaric splendour of costume1 utterly different from the profusion of ,rubens1 but far more intense4 ,living among the wealthiest ,jews in ,amsterdam1 he seems to have been strongly attracted by their orientalism1 and while ,rubens gloried in natural abundance of every sort1 and painted the bounty of nature in the full sunlight1 ,rembrandt chose out the treasures of art1 and painted costume and jewels gleaming out of the darkness4 ,the portraits of himself in a cap at ,hertford ,house 7,no4 #eb71 and of the ,old ,lady in the ,national ,gallery 7,no4 #gge71 both painted in #afcd1 are notable examples of this period1 though they have none of the orientalism to be seen in the various portraits of ,saskia1 or in ,the ,turk at ,munich4 ,the two double portraits at ,hertford ,house of ,jean ,pellicorne and his wife with their son and daughter respectively1 were among the commissions which he received after he set up at ,amsterdam1 and are therefore less interesting as self-revelations4 ,prosperity is not always the best condition under which to produce the highest work1 and the temperament of ,rembrandt was so peculiar that there is little wonder that the prim ,dutchmen were not entirely captivated by his exuberant sensuality1 or that we ourselves reserve our admiration principally for the more sombre and mysterious products of his later years after misfortune began to fall upon him4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxvi4--,,rembrandt ,,portrait ,,of ,,hendrickje ,,stoffels ,louvre1 ,paris ,in #afdb the beloved ,saskia died1 leaving an only child1 ,titus1 whose features are familiar to us in the portrait at ,hertford ,house4 ,as though this were not affliction enough1 ,rembrandt had the mortification of offending his patrons over the commission to paint ,captain ,banning ,cocq's ,company4 ,from this time onward1 as the world and ,rembrandt drifted farther and farther apart1 his work becomes more and more wonderful4 ,dr ,muther1 in his ,history of ,painting1 observes that perhaps it is only possible to understand ,rembrandt by interpreting his pictures not as paintings but as psychological documents4 ,a picture by ,rembrandt in the ,dresden ,gallery1 he says1 represents ,samson ,putting ,riddles to the ,philistines2 and ,rembrandt's entire activity1 a riddle to the philistines of his time1 has remained puzzling to the present day4444 ,as no other man bore his name1 so the artist1 too1 is something unique1 mocks every historical analysis1 and remains what he was1 a puzzling1 intangible1 ,hamlet nature--,rembrandt4 ,the author's theory of the psychological document is hardly a solution of the admitted puzzle1 though it is interesting to follow him in tracing it out in ,rembrandt's religious pictures1 from the ,samson already mentioned to his last dated work1 in #affh1 the ,darmstadt ,crucifixion4 ,what distinguishes ,rembrandt from all painters up to1 and considerably later than his time1 and in particular from those of his own school1 is the mental1 as compared with the physical activity that his pictures represent4 ,perhaps this is only another way of stating ,dr ,muther's theory of the psychological documents1 but it enables us to test that theory by comparing his work with that of others4 ,in technical skill ,beruete claims a far higher place for ,velasquez1 going so far as to say that the ,lesson in ,anatomy is not a lesson in painting4 ,but the difference between the two is not as great as that in technique1 though infinitely wider in the mental process which led to the production of a picture4 ,a reproduction of the ,portrait of an ,old ,pole1 at ,s4 ,petersburg1 is in front of me1 as it happens1 as ,i am writing2 and ,i see in this no inferiority in firmness and precision1 in truth and vigour1 to any portrait by ,velasquez4 ,in their technical ability to present the life-like portrait of a real man1 we can place ,rembrandt1 ,velasquez1 ,hals1 and ,van ,dyck on pretty much of a level2 if we had ,van der ,geest1 ,montanes1 the ,old ,pole and the ,laughing ,cavalier all in a row1 we should find there was not much to choose between them for downright realization4 ,but while in the work of ,velasquez we see the working of a fine and sensitive appreciation of his friend's personality1 and the most exquisite realization of what was before him1 in that of ,rembrandt we seem to see less of the ,pole and more of ,rembrandt himself4 ,it is as though he were singing softly to himself while he was painting1 thinking his own thoughts3 while ,velasquez was simply concerned with the appearance and the thoughts of his model4 ,that ,rembrandt's pictures are self-revelations1 or psychological documents1 is certainly true2 and a proof of it is in the extraordinary number of portraits of himself4 ,the famous ,dresden picture of himself with ,saskia on his knee can only be regarded in that light1 and that brings into the category all the numerous pictures of ,saskia and of ,hendrike ,stoffels1 who formed so great a part of his life4 ,if to these we add1 with ,dr ,muther1 his ,biblical subjects1 we find that there is not so very much left1 and when we turn to the life's work of ,rubens1 ,titian1 ,velasquez1 or in fact any of the great painters1 the difference is at once apparent4 ,so that in the pictures of ,rembrandt we may expect to find less of what we look for in those of others in the way of display1 but infinitely more of the qualities which1 to whatever extent they exist in other artists1 are bound to be sacrificed to display4 ,when we are asked to a feast1 we find the room brilliantly lit1 and our host the centre of an assemblage for whom he has felt it his duty to make a display consistent with his means and his station4 ,if we were to peep into his house one night we might find him in a room illumined only with his reading-lamp1 absorbed in his favourite study2 but instead of only exchanging a few conventional phrases with him1 and passing on to mingle with his guests and to enjoy his hospitality1 we might sit and talk with him into the small hours4 ,that is the difference between the success of ,hals with his ,feast of ,s4 ,george1 and the failure of ,rembrandt with ,the ,night ,watch4 ,hals was at the feast1 and of it4 ,rembrandt was wrapped up in himself1 and didn't enter into the spirit of the company--he was carried away by his own4 ,that is why his pictures are so dark--not of deliberate technical purpose1 like those of the ,tenebrosi1 but because to him a subject was felt within him rather than seen as a picture on so many square feet of canvas4 ,when we call up in our own minds the recollection of some event of more than usually deep significance in our past1 we only see the deathbed1 the two combatants1 the face of the beloved1 or whatever it may be2 the accessories are nothing1 unless our imagination is stronger than the sentiment evoked1 and sets to work to supply them4 ,it is this characteristic which so sharply distinguishes the work of ,rembrandt from that of his closest imitators4 ,there is a large picture in the ,national ,gallery1 ,christ ,blessing the ,children1 catalogued as ,school of ,rembrandt1 in which we see as near an approach to his manner as to justify the attribution1 but that is all4 ,i do not know why it has never been suggested that this is the work of ,,nicolas ,,maes1 who was actually his pupil1 and who was one of the few ,dutch artists to paint life-sized groups1 as he is known to have done in his earlier days when still under the influence of ,rembrandt4 ,the ,card ,players1 close beside it1 has marked affinities in style1 and especially in the very natural characterization of the faces1 which is also apparent in that of the child in the other picture1 and another on the extreme left of the picture4 ,that it cannot be ,rembrandt's is quite evident2 the grouping and the lighting of it proclaim the picture seen on the canvas1 and not felt within the artist's own consciousness4 ,the realistic tendency which1 as has already been pointed out1 was so characteristic of the whole art of the ,netherlands1 showed the most remarkable and original results in the work of an idealist like ,rembrandt4 ,sandrart1 one of the earliest writers on painting1 says that ,rembrandt usually painted things of a simple and not thoughtful character1 but which were pleasing to the eyes1 and picturesque--schilderachtig1 as the ,netherlanders called it4 ,this combination of realism and picturesqueness1 assisted by his marvellous technical power1 put him far above and apart from all his compeers4 ,in the absence of any pictures by his masters ,van ,swanenburg and ,pinas1 it is difficult to ascertain what1 if anything1 he learnt from them4 ,from ,peter ,lastman we may be sure he learnt nothing in the way of technique4 ,kugler--who in these paragraphs is my principal authority--suggests that it is highly probable that in this respect he formed himself from the pictures of ,frans ,hals1 with which he must have been early acquainted in the neighbouring town of ,haarlem4 ,at all events unexampled freedom1 spirit1 and breadth of his manner is comparable with that of no other earlier ,dutch master4 ,but all these admirable qualities would offer no sufficient compensation for the ugly and often vulgar character of his heads and figures1 and for the total subversion of all the traditional rules of art in costume and accessory1 and would fail to account for the great admiration which his works enjoy1 if he had not been possessed1 besides1 of an intensely artistic individuality4 ,in his earliest pictures his touch is already masterly and free1 but still careful1 while the colour of the flesh is warm and clear and the light full4 ,dr ,tulp's ,anatomy1 painted in #afcb1 is the most famous of this period4 ,in ,the ,night ,watch1 at ,amsterdam1 dated #afdb1 the light is already restricted1 falling only on isolated objects2 the local tone of the flesh is more golden2 the touch more spirited and distinct4 ,later1 that is to say from about #afed onwards1 the golden flesh tones become still more intense1 passing sometimes into a brown of less transparency1 and accompanied frequently with grey and blackish shadows and sometimes with rather cool lights4 ,the chief picture of this epoch1 dated #affa1 is ,the ,syndics1 also at ,amsterdam1 a group of six men4 ,this1 in the depth of the still transparent golden tone1 in the animation of the heads1 and in body and breadth of handling1 is a true masterpiece4 ,with respect to his treatment of ,biblical subjects1 two older writers1 ,kolloff and ,guhl1 accord him an honour which1 as we shall see1 ,kugler gives to ,drer a century earlier1 namely that of being the painter of the true spirit of the ,reformed ,church4 ,though it is certain1 ,kugler admits1 that no other school of painting in ,rembrandt's time--neither that of ,rubens1 nor that of the ,carracci1 nor the ,french nor ,spanish schools--rendered the spiritual import of ,biblical subjects with the purity and depth exhibited by the great ,dutch master4 ,here the kindly element of deep sentiment combines most happily with his feeling for composition1 as in the ,descent from the ,cross1 at ,munich1 in ,the ,holy ,family1 in the ,louvre1 and above all in ,the ,woman taken in ,adultery1 in the ,national ,gallery4 ,in this last1 a touching truthfulness and depth of feeling1 with every other grand quality peculiar to ,rembrandt1 are seen in their highest perfection4 ,of hardly less excellence1 also1 is our ,descent from the ,cross4 ,endowed with so many admirable qualities1 it follows that ,rembrandt was a portrait painter of the highest order1 while his peculiar style of lighting1 his colouring and treatment1 distinguish his portraits from those by all other masters4 ,even the works of his most successful pupils1 who followed his style in this respect1 are far behind him in energy of conception and execution4 ,the number of his admirable portraits is so large that it is difficult to know which to mention as most characteristic4 ,no other artist ever painted his own portrait so frequently1 and some of these may first be mentioned4 ,that in the ,louvre1 dated #afcc1 represents him in youthful years1 fresh and full of hope4 ,it is spiritedly painted in the bright tone of his earlier period4 ,another in the same gallery1 of the year #affj1 painted with extraordinary breadth and certainty of hand of that later period1 shows a man weighed down with the cares of life1 with grey hair and deeply furrowed forehead4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxvii4--,,rembrandt ,,portrait ,,of ,,an ,,old ,,lady ,national ,gallery1 ,london ,the one at ,hertford ,house1 already mentioned1 and two in the ,national ,gallery1 fall between these extremes4 ,of other portraits we have already mentioned the two ,pellicorne groups in the ,wallace ,collection2 and another of this earliest period1 the very popular ,old ,woman1 in the ,national ,gallery1 dated #afcd4 ,this is of greater interest as showing1 if anything does1 whether it is fair to attribute any of his training to the influence of ,hals4 ,at any rate this picture is a highly important proof that at the early age of twenty-six1 the painter was already in the full possession of that energy and animation of conception1 and of that decision of the broad and marrowy touch which are so characteristic of him4 ,of his later period--probably about #afeg--;a fine example is ,the ,jewish ,rabbi1 and of his latest the ,old ,man1 both in the ,national ,gallery4 ,,iii ,,painters ,,of ,,genre ,the painters of genre1 by the number1 quality1 and diversity of whose pictures the ,dutch ,school is specially distinguished1 may be roughly divided into three classes2 namely1 those who studied the upper1 the middle1 and the lower classes respectively4 ,but as ,holland was a republic1 and the great stream of its art welled up from the earth and was not showered upon it from above1 it will be found convenient to reverse the social order in considering them1 and begin with the immediate successors of ,frans ,hals1 whose influence was without doubt a very considerable factor in the development of ,adrian ,brouwer and ,adrian and ,isaac ,ostade4 ,,adrian ,,brouwer1 now generally classed under the ,flemish ,school1 was born at ,oudenarde in #afjf4 ,but he went early to ,haarlem1 and it was not until about #afcj that he settled at ,antwerp1 where he died in #afda4 ,he was a pupil of ,frans ,hals1 and acquired from him not only his spirited and free touch1 but also a similar mode of life4 ,his pictures1 which for the most part represent the lower orders eating and drinking1 often in furious strife1 are extraordinary true and life-like in character1 and display a singularly delicate and harmonious colouring1 which inclines to the cool scale1 an admirable individuality1 and a sfumato of surface in which he is unrivalled2 so that we can well understand the high esteem in which ,rubens held them4 ,owing to his mode of life1 and to its early close1 the number of his works is not large1 and they are now seldom met with4 ,no gallery is so rich in them as ,munich1 which possesses nine1 six of which are masterpieces4 ,a ,party of ,peasants at a ,game of ,cards1 affords an example of the brightness and clearness of those cool tones in which he evidently became the model of ,teniers4 ,spanish ,soldiers ,throwing ,dice1 is equally harmonious1 in a subdued brownish tone4 ,a ,surgeon ,removing the ,plaster from the ,arm of a ,peasant is not only most masterly and animated in expression1 but is a type of his bright1 clear1 and golden tone1 and is singularly free and light in touch4 ,card-players ,fighting1 is in every respect one of his best pictures4 ,the momentary action in each figure1 all of them being individualized with singular accuracy even as regards the kind of complexion1 is incomparable1 the tenderness of the harmony astonishing1 and the execution of extraordinary delicacy4 ,the only example in the ,national ,gallery is the ,three ,boors ,drinking1 bequeathed by ,george ,salting in #aiaj2 and at ,hertford ,house the ,boor ,asleep1 though of this we may without hesitation accept the description in the catalogue1 our painting is of the highest quality1 and in the audacity of its realism rises almost to grandeur4 ,,adrian ,,van ,,ostade1 said to have been born at ,lubeck1 was baptized in #afaj at ,haarlem1 where he studied under ,frans ,hals1 and he formed a very good taste in colouring4 ,nature guided his brush in everything he undertook2 he devoted himself almost entirely to painting peasants and drunkards1 whose gestures and most trifling actions were the subject of his most serious meditation4 ,the subjects of his little pictures are not more elevated than those of ,brouwer1 and considerably less than those of ,teniers--they are nearly always alehouses or kitchens4 ,he is perhaps one of the ,dutch masters who best understood chiaroscuro4 ,his figures are very lively1 and he sometimes put them into the pictures of the best painters among his countrymen4 ,nothing can excel his pictures of stables1 in which the light is spread so judiciously that all one could wish is a lighter touch in his drawing1 and a little more height in his figures4 ,many of his brother ,isaak's pictures are improperly attributed to him1 which1 though painted in the same manner1 are never of the real excellence of ,adrian's4 ,the ,interior with ,peasants at ,hertford ,house1 and ,the ,alchymist at the ,national ,gallery are a characteristic pair of his pictures1 which were sold in the collection of ,m4 de ,jully in #agfi for #afd1 the former being purchased by the third ,marquess of ,hertford and the latter passing into the ,peel ,collection4 ,buying ,fish1 at ,hertford ,house1 dated #affi--when the artist was nearly sixty years old1 is remarkable for its breadth of effect and brilliancy of colour4 ,,jan ,,steen1 born at ,leyden about the year #afbf1 died #afgi4 ,he first received instruction under ,nicolas ,knupler2 and afterwards it is said worked with ,jan van ,goyen1 whose daughter he married4 ,an extraordinary genius for painting was unfortunately co-existent in ,jan ,steen with jovial habits of no moderate kind4 ,the position of tavern-keeper in which he was placed by his family1 gave both the opportunity of indulging his propensities and also that of depicting the pleasures of eating and drinking1 of song1 card-playing and love-making directly from nature4 ,he must have worked with amazing facility1 for in spite of the time consumed in this mode of life1 to which his comparatively early death may be attributed1 the number of his pictures is very great4 ,his favourite subjects were groups like the ,family ,jollification2 the ,feast of the ,bean ,king2 and that form of diversion illustrating the proverb1 ,so wie die ,alten sungen1 so pfeifen auch die ,jungen2 fairs1 weddings1 etc42 he also treated other scenes1 such as the ,doctor's ,visit1 the ,schoolmaster with a generally very unmanageable set of boys--of which is a charming example at ,dublin4 ,the ludicrous ways of children seem especially to have attracted him2 accordingly1 he depicts with great zest the old ,dutch custom on ,st4 ,nicholas's ,day1 ,september #crd1 of rewarding the good1 and punishing the naughty child2 or shows a mischievous little urchin teasing the cat1 or stealing money from the pockets of their1 alas6--drunken progenitors4 ,jan ,steen is the most genial painter of the whole ,dutch ,school4 ,his humour has made him so popular with the ,english1 that at least two-thirds of his pictures are in their possession4 ,a peculiar cluster of masters1 belonging to the ,dutch ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxviii4--,,terborch ,,the ,,concert ,louvre1 ,paris ,school1 was formed by ,gerard ,dou4 ,however careful in execution were such painters as ,terburg1 ,metsu1 and ,netscher1 yet ,gerard ,dou and his scholars and imitators surpassed them in the development of that technical finish with which they rendered the smallest detail with meticulous exactitude4 ,,gerard ,,dou was born at ,leyden on the #gth ,april #afac1 died there #afhj4 ,he entered ,rembrandt's school at fifteen years of age1 and in three years had attained the position of an independent artist4 ,he devoted himself at first to portraiture1 and1 like his master1 made his own face frequently his subject4 ,afterwards he treated scenes from the life chiefly of the middle classes4 ,he took particular pleasure in the representation of hermits2 he also painted scriptural events and occasionally still life4 ,his lighting is frequently that of lanterns and candles4 ,most of his pictures contain only from one to three figures1 and do not exceed about #b ft4 high and #a ft4 #c in4 wide1 being often smaller4 ,his pictures seldom attain even an animated moral import1 and may be said to be limited usually to a certain kindliness of sentiment4 ,on the other hand1 he possessed a trace of his master's feeling for the picturesque1 and for chiaroscuro4 ,notwithstanding the incalculable minuteness of his execution1 the touch of his brush is free and soft1 and his best pictures look like ,nature seen through the camera-obscura4 ,his works were so highly estimated in his own time1 that the ,president van ,spiring1 at the ,hague1 offered him #ajjj florins a year for the right of pre-emption of his pictures4 ,considering the time which such finish required1 and the early age at which he died1 the number of his pictures--,smith enumerates about #bjj--;is remarkable4 ,in the ,louvre are the following3--,an old woman seated at a window1 reading the ,bible to her husband2 this is one of the best among the many representations by ,dou of a similar kind1 being of warm sunny effect1 and marvellous finish4 ,also the ,woman with the ,dropsy1 which is accounted his chef-d'oeuvre4 ,among the scholars of ,gerard ,dou1 ,,frans ,,van ,,mieris1 born at ,leyden #afce1 died #afha1 takes the first place4 ,in chiaroscuro1 and in delicacy of execution he is not inferior to his master4 ,although his pictures are generally very small1 yet with their extraordinary minuteness of execution it is surprising that1 in a life extended only to forty-six years1 he should have produced so many4 ,the ,munich ,gallery has most1 then ,dresden1 ,vienna1 ,florence1 and ,st4 ,petersburg4 ,the date1 #afef1 on a picture in the ,vienna ,gallery1 ,the ,doctor1 shows the painter to have attained the summit of his art at twenty-one years of age4 ,another dated #affj1 in the same gallery1 executed for the ,archduke ,leopold1 is one of his best4 ,the scene is a shop with a young woman showing a gentleman1 who has taken her by the chin1 various handkerchiefs and stuffs4 ,in the ,munich ,gallery is ,a ,soldier1 dated #affb1 of admirable transparency and softness4 ,also ,a ,lady in a yellow satin dress fainting in the presence of the doctor4 ,in the ,hague ,gallery is ,a ,boy ,blowing ,soap-bubbles1 dated #affc4 ,this is a charming little picture of great depth of the brownish tone4 ,also ,the ,painter and ,his ,wife1 whose little shock dog he is teasing2 very nave and lively in the heads1 and most delicately treated in a subdued but clear tone4 ,in the ,dresden ,gallery are ,mieris again and his wife before her portrait4 ,this is one of his most successful pictures for chiaroscuro1 tone1 and spirited handling4 ,,nicolas ,,maes1 already mentioned1 born at ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxix4--,,gabriel ,,metsu ,,the ,,music ,,lesson ,national ,gallery1 ,london ,dordrecht #afcb1 died #afic1 was actually a pupil of ,rembrandt4 ,his much prized and rare genre pictures treat very simple subjects1 and consist seldom of more than two or three figures1 generally of women4 ,the navete and homeliness of his feeling1 with the addition sometimes of a trait of kindly humour2 the admirable lighting1 and a touch resembling ,rembrandt in impasto and vigour1 render his pictures very attractive4 ,in the ,national ,gallery1 besides ,the ,card ,players1 are ,the ,cradle1 ,the ,dutch ,mnage1 dated #afee2 and ,the ,idle ,servant3 all these are admirable1 and the last-named a chef-d'oeuvre4 ,,peter ,,de ,,hoogh 7#afbi-afgg7 decidedly belongs to the numerous artistic posterity of ,rembrandt1 possibly through ,karel ,fabritius1 and stands nearer to ,vermeer and to ,maes1 than to any other painter4 ,his biography can only be gathered from the occasional dates on his pictures1 extending from #afeh to #afgj4 ,although he impresses the eye by the same effects as ,maes1 yet he is also very different from him4 ,he has not his humour1 and seldom his kindliness1 and his figures1 which are either playing cards1 smoking or drinking1 or engaged in the transaction of some household duty1--with faces that say but little--have generally only the interest of a peaceful or jovial existence4 ,if ,maes takes the lead in warm lighting1 ,peter de ,hoogh may be considered par excellence the painter of full and clear sunlight4 ,if1 again1 ,maes shows us his figures almost exclusively in interiors1 ,peter de ,hoogh places them most frequently in the open air--in courtyards4 ,in the representation of the poetry of light1 and in that marvellous brilliancy and clearness with which he calls it forth in various distances till the background is reached1 which is generally illumined by a fresh beam1 no other master can compare with him4 ,his prevailing local colour is red1 repeated with greater delicacy in various planes of distance4 ,this colour fixes the rest of the scale4 ,his touch is of great delicacy2 his impasto admirable4 ,,gerard ,,terburg1 born at ,zwol #afjh1 died #afha1 learned painting under his father1 and when still young visited ,germany and ,italy1 painting numerous portraits on a small scale1 and occasionally the size of life4 ,but his place in the history of art is owing principally to a number of pictures1 seldom representing more than three1 and often only one figure1 taken from the wealthier classes1 in which great elegance of costume1 and of all accompanying circumstances1 is rendered with the finest keeping1 and with a highly delicate but by no means over-smooth execution4 ,he may be considered as the originator of this class of pictures1 in which1 after his example1 several other ,dutch painters distinguished themselves4 ,with him the chief mass of light is generally formed by the white satin dress of a lady1 which gives the tone for the prevailing cool harmony of the picture4 ,among his pictures we occasionally find some which1 taken successively1 represent several different moments of one scene4 ,thus in the ,dresden ,gallery1 there are two good pictures3 the one of an officer writing a letter1 while a trumpter waits for it2 the other of a girl in white satin washing her hands in a basin held before her by a maid-servant2 while at ,munich1 is another fine work1 in which the trumpeter is offering the young lady the letter1 who owing to the presence of the maid1 who evidently disapproves1 is uncertain whether to take the missive4 ,finally1 in the ,amsterdam ,gallery1 the celebrated picture known by the title of ,conseil paternel1 furnishes ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxx4--,,pieter ,,de ,,hooch ,,interior ,,of ,a ,,dutch ,,house ,national ,gallery1 ,london the closing scene4 ,the maid has betrayed the affair to the father1 and he is delivering a lecture to the young lady1 in whom by turning her back on the spectator1 the painter has happily expressed the feeling of shame2 good repetitions are in the ,berlin ,museum1 and in the ,bridgewater ,gallery4 ,but ,terburg's perfection as regards the clearness and harmony of his silvery tone is shown in a picture at ,cassel1 representing a young lady in white satin sitting playing the lute at a table4 ,,jan ,,vermeer ,,of ,,delft 7#afcb-afge7 was certainly a pupil of ,fabritius1 and thus grandson of ,rembrandt4 ,to class him with painters of genre seems almost a profanation of the exquisite sense of beauty with which1 almost alone among the ,dutch painters1 he seems to have been endowed4 ,it is like classing ,walter ,pater with art critics4 ,but as ,vermeer had to express himself in some form1 it is perhaps fortunate that the school had developed this kind of poetic portraiture1 under ,terburg1 ,metsu and others1 to a point where a genius like ,vermeer could use it as the vehicle of his fascinating self-revelations4 ,in landscape we have the ,view of ,delft1 at the ,hague1 which has shown the nineteenth century painters more than they could ever see in their more famous predecessors2 but it is in the simple compositions like ,the ,letter ,reader at ,amsterdam1 ,the ,proposal1 at ,dresden1 or the ,lady at the ,virginals1 in the ,national ,gallery1 that he displays his greatest power and charm4 ,,iv ,,painters ,,of ,,animals ,as a link between the painters of genre and the landscapists1 we may here mention some of the numerous artists who either made landscape the background for groups of figures and animals1 or peopled their landscapes with groups--it matters not which way we put it4 ,among these we shall find several of the most famous1 or at any rate the most popular artists of the ,dutch ,school4 ,,philips ,,wouverman 7#afai-affh71 whose reputation during the last century was greater than that of almost any of the ,dutch painters except ,rembrandt and ,dou1 is said to have studied under ,hals1 but it is more certain that the master from whom he learnt most1 if not all1 was ,jan ,wynants at ,haarlem1 whose whole manner in landscape he quickly succeeded in acquiring1 and surpassed him in his facility with horsemen and other figures4 ,wouverman's works have all the excellences that may be expected from high finishing1 correctness1 agreeable composition and colouring4 ,it does not appear that he was ever in ,italy1 or even quitted the city of ,haarlem1 though it would seem probable that his more elaborate compositions owed something to other influences than those of ,hals or ,wynants4 ,in his earlier pictures there are no horses1 but later in his career he generally subordinated his landscapes to the groups or subjects for which he is most famous4 ,in the ,national ,gallery1 among eleven examples1 are a ,halt of ,officers1 ,interior of a ,stable1 ,a ,battle1 ,the ,bohemians1 and ,shoeing a ,horse1 all of which contain numerous figures1 mounted and unmounted--and there is nearly always a white horse4 ,with all his success1 he died a poor man1 and it is related that in his last hours he burned a box filled with his studies and drawings1 saying1 ,i have been so ill repaid for all my labours1 that ,i would not have ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxxi4--,,jan ,,vermeer ,,the ,,lace ,,maker ,louvre1 ,paris those designs engage my son to embrace so miserable a profession as mine4 ,this son followed his advice1 and became a ,chartreux friar4 ,peter and ,jan ,wouverman were his brothers4 ,the former painted hawking scenes1 and his horses1 though well designed1 were not equal to those of ,philips4 ,the latter is represented in the ,national ,gallery by a landscape in which the spirit of ,wynant's1 rather than that of ,philips's1 is discernible4 ,at ,hertford ,house1 out of seven examples1 two are of more than usual excellence1 and well represent his earlier and later manners4 ,the ,afternoon ,landscape with a ,white ,horse 7,no4 #bbf in ,room ,,xiii71 which ,smith 7in his ,catalogue ,raisonn71 characterizes as possessing unusual freedom of pencilling1 and powerful effect1 dates from the transition from the early to the middle period1 and is a very effective picture1 as well as being very characteristic4 ,the ,horse ,fair 7,no4 #fe1 in ,room ,,xvi71 is not only much larger than the other--it measures #be x #ce inches--but is a really important picture4 ,lord ,hertford paid #cbjj for it in #ahed4 ,it was engraved by ,moyrean1 for his series of a hundred prints after ,wouverman1 under the title of ,le ,grand ,march aux ,chevaux4 ,it is thus described by ,smith3--,this very capital picture exhibits an open country divided in the middle distance by a river whose course is lost among the distant mountains4 ,the principal scene of activity is represented along the front and second grounds1 on which may be numbered about twenty-four horses1 exhibiting that noble animal in every variety of action1 and nearly fifty persons4 ,on the right of the picture is a coach1 drawn by four fine grey horses1 and in front of this object are a grey and a bay horse1 on the latter of which are mounted a man and a boy4 ,in advance of them is a group of four horses and several persons1 among whom may be noticed a cavalier and a lady observing the paces of a horse which a jockey and his master are showing off4 ,a gentleman on a black horse seems also to be watching the action of the animal4 ,near this person is a mare lying down1 and a foal standing by it which a boy is approaching4 ,on the opposite side of the picture is a gentleman on a cream-coloured horse1 near two spirited greys1 one of which is kicking1 and a woman1 a man and a boy are escaping from its heels4 ,from thence the eye looks over an open space occupied by men and horses1 receding in succession to the bank of the river1 along which are houses and tents concealed in part by trees4 ,this picture is painted throughout with great care and delicacy in what is termed the last manner of the master1 remarkable for the prevalent grey or silvery hues of colouring4 ,,albert ,,cuyp1 born at ,dortrecht #afbj1 died there about #afgb4 ,of the life of this great painter little more is known with any certainty than that he was the scholar of his father1 ,jacob ,gerritsz ,cuyp4 ,cattle form a prominent feature in many of his works1 though never so highly finished as in those of ,paul ,potter or ,adrian van de ,velde2 indeed1 in many of ,cuyp's pictures1 they are quite subordinate4 ,his favourite subjects1 a landscape with a river1 with cattle lying or standing on its banks1 and landscapes with horsemen in the foreground1 were suggested to him no doubt by the country about ,dortrecht and the river ,maas3 but he also painted winter landscapes1 and especially views of rivers where the broad extent of water is animated by vessels4 ,sometimes1 too1 with great perfection1 fowls as large as life1 hens1 ducks1 etc41 and still life4 ,he also painted portraits1 though less successfully4 ,however great the skill displayed in the composition of his works1 their principal charm lies in the beauty and truthfulness of their peculiar lighting4 ,no other painter1 with the exception of ,claude1 has so well understood the cool freshness of morning1 the bright but misty light of a hot noon1 or the warm glow of a clear sunset4 ,the effect of his pictures is further enhanced by the skill with which he avails himself of the aid of contrasts2 as for example1 dark1 rich colours of the reposing cattle as seen against the bright sky4 ,in his own country no picture of his1 till the year #agej1 ever sold for more than thirty florins4 ,indeed1 ,kugler was informed by a ,dutch friend1 that in past times1 when a picture found no bidder1 the auctioneer would offer to throw in a little ,cuyp in order to induce a sale4 ,the merit of having first given him his due rank belongs to the ,english1 who as early as #aghe1 gave at the sale of ,linden van ,slingelandt's collection at ,dortrecht high prices for ,cuyp's works2 ,about nine-tenths of his pictures are consequently to be found in ,england4 ,one of his finest works is the landscape1 in bright1 warm1 morning light1 with two cows reposing in the foreground1 and a woman conversing with a horseman1 in the ,national ,gallery 7,no4 #ec74 ,the whole picture breathes a cheerful and rural tranquillity4 ,in his mature time1 these admirable qualities are seen in higher development4 ,in the ,louvre 7,no4 #ajd71 is another fine example--a scene with six cows1 a shepherd blowing the horn1 and two children listening to him4 ,this is admirably arranged1 of greater truthfulness as regards the form and colouring of the cattle than usual1 and with the warm lighting of the sky executed with equal decision and softness4 ,this picture is one of the master's chief productions1 being also about #d ft4 high by #f ft4 wide4 ,another with three horsemen1 and a servant carrying partridges1 and in the centre a meadow with cattle1 is also in the ,louvre4 ,this is less attractive in subject1 but ranks equally high as a work of art4 ,in ,buckingham ,palace are two pictures1 one with three cows reposing1 and one standing by a clear stream1 near them a herdsman and a woman2 other cows are in water near the ruins of a castle4 ,in this picture1 we see ,cuyp in every respect at his culminating point of excellence4 ,not less fine1 and of singular force of colour1 is the landscape1 with a broad river running through it1 and a horseman under a tree in conversation with a countryman4 ,,paul ,,potter1 born at ,enckhuysen #afbe1 died at ,amsterdam #afed4 ,although the scholar of his father1 ,pieter ,potter1 who was but a mediocre painter1 he made such astonishing progress as to rank at the age of #ae as a finished artist4 ,he removed very early to the ,hague1 where his talents met with universal recognition1 including that of ,prince ,maurice of ,orange1 and where he married4 ,in the year #afeb1 however1 he removed to ,amsterdam at the instance of one of his chief patrons1 the ,burgomaster ,tulp4 ,of the masters who have striven pre-eminently after truth he is1 beyond all question1 one of the greatest that ever lived4 ,in order to succeed in this aim1 he acquired a correctness of drawing1 a kind of modelling which imparts an almost plastic effect to his animals1 an extraordinary execution of detail in the most solid impasto1 and a truth of colouring which harmonises astonishingly with the time of day4 ,in his landscapes1 which generally consist of a few willows in the foreground1 and of a wide view over meadows1 the most delicate graduation of arial perspective is seen4 ,with few exceptions1 his animals are small1 and his pictures proportionately moderate in size4 ,by the year #afdg he had attained his full perfection4 ,of this date is the celebrated group called ,the ,young ,bull1 in the ,hague ,gallery4 ,all the figures in this are as large as life1 and so extraordinarily true to nature as not only to appear real at a certain distance1 but even to keep up the illusion when seen near4 ,a picture dated #afdi1 now in ,buckingham ,palace1 of two cows and a young bull in a pasture1 combines with his customary fidelity to nature a more than common power of effect1 and breadth and freedom of treatment4 ,to the same year belongs also ,the ,farmyard1 formerly in the ,cassel ,gallery1 now in that of ,s4 ,petersburg1 which1 according to ,smith1 fully deserves its celebrity both for the clearness and warmth of the sunset effect1 as well as for its masterly execution4 ,to #afej belongs the picture of ,orpheus1 charming the animal world by the strains of his lyre1 in the ,amsterdam ,museum4 ,here we see that the master had also studied wild animals4 ,he is most successful in the bear4 ,in the same gallery is another chef-d'oeuvre of the same year--a hilly landscape with a shepherdess singing to her child1 a shepherd playing on the bagpipe1 and oxen1 sheep1 and goats around4 ,the names of ,weenix and ,hondecoeter are so inseparably associated in the popular mind as painters of birds1 whose respective works are not readily distinguishable moreover by the casual observer1 that a short excursion into their family histories is advisable1 for the purpose of showing how it was that this particular branch of the art was so successfully practised by the two4 ,moreover1 as there were three ,hondecoeters and two ,weenixes who were painters1 it is necessary to say something about each of them4 ,,melchior ,,hondecoeter1 the best known1 was of an ancient and noble family4 ,he was instructed till the age of seventeen by his father ,gysbert1 who was a tolerable painter4 ,giles ,hondecoeter1 his grandfather1 painted live birds admirably1 but chiefly cocks and hens in the taste of ,savery and ,vincaboom4 ,melchior was born in #afcf1 and studied for a time with his father2 but meantime his aunt ,josina had married ,jan ,baptist ,weenix1 and a son was born to them1 ,jan ,weenix1 who inherited from old ,giles ,hondecoeter1 his grandfather1 his talent for painting poultry1 and from his father1 ,jan ,baptist ,weenix1 he acquired the benefit of several influences which were not shared by his cousin ,melchior4 ,,jan ,,baptist ,,weenix1 who was nicknamed ,rattle1 was born at ,amsterdam about #afba4 ,his father was an architect1 who bred his son up to that profession1 but he was afterwards put to study painting under ,abraham ,bloemart4 ,soon after his marriage with ,josina he was seized with the desire to visit ,italy1 and he set off alone to ,rome1 promising to return in four months4 ,in ,rome1 however1 he was so well received that he stayed there four years1 and ,italianized himself to an extent that may be seen in a picture in the ,wallace ,collection1 a ,coast ,scene with ,classic ,ruins1 which he signs ,gio4 ,batta4 ,weenix4 ,though he returned to ,holland and settled near ,utrecht1 his manner was sensibly modified by his sojourn in ,rome4 ,,jan ,,weenix1 who was born at ,amsterdam in #afdi1 though he succeeded in so far assimilating his father's style that his earlier works are often confused with those of ,giovanni ,battista1 did not acquire the energy or the dramatic force displayed by ,melchior ,hondecoeter in representing live birds and animals1 though he sometimes surpassed him in the finish and the harmony of his decorative arrangements of dead game and still life4 ,accordingly the one usually painted dead and the latter live birds4 ,in other respects there is not much to distinguish their works4 ,,nicholas ,,berchem was the only other pupil of ,jan ,baptist ,weenix of whom we know anything4 ,berchem had other masters1 beginning with his father1 who was a painter of fish and tables covered with plates1 china dishes1 and such like4 ,having given his son the first rudiments of his art he found himself unequal to the task of cultivating the excellent disposition he observed in him1 and therefore placed him with ,van ,goyen1 ,nicholas ,moyaert1 ,peter ,grebber1 ,jan ,wils1 and lastly with ,jan ,baptist ,weenix1 all of whom had the honour of assisting to form so excellent a painter4 ,indefatigable at his easel1 ,berchem acquired a manner both easy and expeditious2 to see him work1 painting appeared a mere diversion to him4 ,his wife was the daughter of his instructor1 ,jan ,wils1 and was so avaricious that she allowed him no rest4 ,busy as he was by nature1 she used to sit under his studio1 and when she neither heard him sing nor stir1 she struck upon the ceiling to rouse him4 ,she got from him all the money he earned by his labour1 so that he was obliged to borrow from his scholars when he wanted money to buy prints that were offered him1 which was the only pleasure he had4 ,the ,musical ,shepherdess at ,hertford ,house is a good example of his style1 and the description of it in ,smith's catalogue shows in what estimation the artist was held in early ,victorian days3--,this beautiful pastoral scene represents a bold rocky coast under the appearance of the close of day4 ,the rustics have ended their labours and are recreating with music and dancing4 ,a group composed of two peasants and a like number of women occupies the foreground2 one of the latter1 attired in a blue mantle1 is gaily striking a tambourine1 and dancing to the music2 her companion in a yellow dress sits near her2 the shepherds also are seated1 and one of them appears to have just ceased playing a pipe which he holds4 ,the goats are browsing near them4 ,painted in the artist's most fascinating style4 ,that ,berchem had been to ,italy is pretty certain1 and though no authentic account of his visit is recorded1 there is a story that when ,jacob ,ruisdael went to ,rome as a young man1 ,nicholas ,berchem was the first acquaintance he met1 and that their friendship was of long standing4 ,their frequent walks round about ,rome gave them the opportunity of working together from ,nature1 and one day a cardinal seeing them at work1 inquired what they were doing4 ,his eminence was agreeably impressed with their drawings1 and invited them to visit him in ,rome4 ,the painters returned to their work1 where they met with a second rencontre of a very different nature2 a gang of thieves robbed and stripped them of their clothes4 ,they returned in their shirts to the city1 and called on the cardinal1 who took pity upon them1 ordered them clothes1 and afterwards employed them in several considerable works in his palace4 ,berchem at one time took up his abode in the ,castle of ,bentheim1 and as both he and ,ruisdael have left several pictures of this castle it may be inferred that they worked there together1 as at ,rome4 ,apart from personal friendship there is nothing to connect ,berchem with ,ruisdael1 the popularity of the former being derived from qualities of a totally different nature from those which raise ,ruisdael far above any of his contemporaries as a landscape painter4 ,,jan ,,van ,,huysum was born at ,amsterdam in #afhb4 ,his father1 ,justus ,van ,huysum1 who dealt in pictures1 was himself a middling painter in most kinds of painting4 ,he taught his son to paint screens1 figures and vases on wood1 landscape1 and sometimes flowers2 but the son being arrived at a reasoning age perceived that to work in every branch of his art was the way to excel in none1 therefore he confined himself to flowers1 fruit1 and landscape1 and quitting his father's school set up for himself4 ,no one before ,van ,huysum attained so perfect a manner of representing the beauty of flowers and the down and bloom of fruit2 for he painted with greater freedom than ,velvet ,breughel and ,mignon1 with more tenderness and nature than ,mario di ,fiori1 ,andrea ,belvedere1 ,michel de ,campidoglio or ,daniel ,seghers2 with more mellowness than de ,heem1 and with more vigour of colouring than ,baptist ,monoyer4 ,his pictures of flowers and fruit pleasing an ,english gentleman1 he introduced them into his own country1 where they came into vogue and yielded a high price4 ,to express the motions of the smallest insects with justice he used to contemplate them through the microscope with great attention4 ,at the times of the year when the flowers were in bloom1 and the fruit in perfection1 he used to design them in his own garden1 and the ,sieur ,gulet and ,voorhelm sent him the most beautiful productions in those kinds they could pick up4 ,his reputation rose to such a height that all the curious in painting sought his works with great eagerness1 which encouraged him to raise his prices so high that his pictures at last grew out of the reach of any but princes and men of the greatest fortune4 ,he was the first flower painter that ever thought of laying them on light grounds1 which requires much greater art than to paint them on dark ones4 ,van ,huysum died at ,amsterdam in #agdi4 ,he never had any pupil but a young woman named ,haverman1 and his brother ,michael4 ,two other brothers have distinguished themselves in painting1 one named ,justus1 who painted battles1 and died at twenty-two years old1 the other named ,james1 who ended his days in ,england in #agdj4 ,he copied the pictures of his brother ,john so well as to deceive the connoisseurs3 he had usually #bj for each copy4 ,for the originals1 it may be noted1 from a thousand to fourteen hundred florins was paid4 ,v ,,painters ,,of ,,landscape ,coming now to the landscape painters we find that ,,jan ,,van ,,goyen1 born at ,leyden in #aeif1 was destined to exert a really powerful influence1 inasmuch as he was the founder1 as is generally acknowledged1 of the ,dutch school of homely native landscape4 ,beginning with figure subjects1 he discovered in their landscape backgrounds his real mtier1 and seems only to have realized his great gifts when he looked further into nature than was possible when painting a foreground picture4 ,he appears to have been by nature or by inclination long-sighted1 and he is never so happy as when painting distance1 either along the banks of a river or looking out to sea4 ,this extended gaze taught him something of atmosphere that few painters beside himself ever acquired1 and helped him to the mastery of tone which appears to have influenced so many of his followers1 as for example ,van de ,velde in the painting of sea-pieces4 ,,jan ,,wynants1 born at ,haarlem about #afbj1 and still living in #afgg1 was the first master who applied all the developed qualities of the ,dutch ,school to the treatment of landscape painting4 ,in general his prevailing tone is clear and bright1 more especially in the green of his trees and plants1 which in many cases1 merges into blue4 ,one of his characteristics is a fallen tree trunk in the foreground1 as may be seen in three out of the six examples in the ,national ,gallery4 ,the carefulness of his execution explains how it was that in so long a life he only produced a moderate number of pictures4 ,smith's catalogue contains about #bad4 ,these differ much according to their different periods4 ,in his first manner peasants' cottages or ruins play an important part1 and the view is more or less shut in by trees of a heavy dark green1 the execution solid and careful4 ,in his middle time he generally paints open views of a rather uneven country1 diversified by wood and water4 ,that ,wynants retained his full skill even in advanced life is proved by a picture dated #afgb1 in the ,munich ,gallery1 representing a road leading to a fenced wood and a sandhill1 near which in the foreground are some cows 7by ,lingelbach7 being driven along4 ,in his last manner a heavy uniformly brown tone is often observable4 ,it is his genuine feeling for nature that makes ,wynant's pictures so popular in ,england1 where we meet with a considerable number of his best works4 ,,jacob ,,ruisdael 7born at ,haarlem #afbh1 died there #afhb7 is supposed to have developed under the influence of a school there that was opposing ,van ,goyen's tone treatment by local colour4 ,though not always the most charming1 ,ruisdael is certainly the greatest and the most profound of the ,dutch landscape painters4 ,his wide expanses of sky1 earth or sea1 with their tender gradations of arial perspective1 diversified here and there by alternations of sunshine and shadow1 attract us as much by the pathos as by the picturesqueness of their character4 ,his scenes of mountainous districts with foaming waterfalls2 or bare piles of rock and sombre lakes are imbued with a feeling of melancholy4 ,ruisdael's work may be well studied in the six examples at ,hertford ,house1 and the fourteen in the ,national ,gallery4 ,among his finer works in ,continental collections the following are some of those selected by ,kugler for description4 ,at the ,hague is one of his wide expanses--a view of the country around ,haarlem1 the town itself looking small on the horizon1 under a lofty expanse of cloudy sky in the foreground a bleaching-ground and some houses reminding us1 by the manner in which they are introduced1 of ,hobbema4 ,the prevailing tone is cool1 the sky singularly beautiful1 and the execution wonderfully delicate4 ,a flat country with a road leading to a village1 and fields with wheatsheaves1 is in the ,dresden ,gallery4 ,this is temperate in colouring and beautifully lighted4 ,equally fine is an extensive view over a hilly but bare country1 through which a river runs2 in the ,louvre4 ,the horseman and beggar on a bridge are by ,wouvermans3 here the grey-greenish harmony of the tone is in fine accordance with the poetic grandeur of the subject4 ,a hill covered with oak woods1 with a peasant hastening to a hut to escape the gathering shower1 is in the ,munich ,gallery4 ,the golden warmth of the trees and ground1 and the contrast between the deep clear chiaroscuro and soft rain-clouds1 and the bright gleam of sunshine1 render this picture one of the finest by this master4 ,the peculiar charm which is seen in ,holland by the combination of lofty trees and calm water is fully represented in the following works3--,the ,chase2 in the ,dresden ,gallery4 ,here in the still water in the foreground--through which a stag-hunt 7by ,adrian van de ,velde7 is passing--clouds1 warm with morning sunlight1 appear reflected4 ,in this picture1 remarkable as it is for size1 being #c ft4 #aj-a_/b in4 high1 by #e ft4 #b in4 wide1 the sense even of the fresh morning is not without a tinge of gentle melancholy4 ,a noble wood of oaks1 beeches and elms1 about the size of the last-mentioned picture1 is in the ,louvre4 ,in the centre1 through an opening in the woods1 are seen distant hills4 ,the cattle and figures upon a flooded road are by ,berchem4 ,in power1 warmth1 and treatment1 this is also nearly allied to the preceding work4 ,of his waterfalls1 the most remarkable are--,a picture at the ,hague1 which is particularly striking for its warm lighting1 and careful execution4 ,another with ,bentheim ,castle1 so often repeated by ,ruisdael1 is at ,amsterdam4 ,in the same collection is a landscape1 with rocks1 woods1 and a larger waterfall4 ,this has a grandly poetic character which1 with the broad and solid handling1 plainly shows the influence of ,everdingen4 ,the same remark may be applied to the waterfall1 ,no4 #cbh1 in the ,munich ,gallery4 ,here the dark1 rainy sky1 enhances the sublime impression made by the foaming torrent that rushes down the rocky masses4 ,another work worthy to rank with the fore-going is ,the ,jewish ,cemetry1 in the ,dresden ,gallery3 a pallid sunbeam lights up some of the tombstones1 between which a torrent impetuously flows4 ,the ,landscape with ,waterfall at ,hertford ,house is a good example2 the ,landscape with a ,farm in the same collection is another1 though in this the figures and cattle are by ,adrian ,van der ,velde4 ,ostade and ,wouverman are also said to have helped him with his figures1 and it is possible that one or other of them ought to have some of the credit for the beautiful ,view on the ,shore at ,scheveningen in the ,national ,gallery 7,no4 #acij74 ,the ,landscape with ,ruins 7,no4 #gdf7 is perhaps the finest of the others there4 ,,willem ,,van ,,de ,,velde1 the younger1 born at ,amsterdam #afcc1 died at ,greenwich #agjg4 ,his first master was his father1 ,willem van de ,velde the elder1 but his principal instructor was ,simon de ,vlieger4 ,the earlier part of his professional life was spent in ,holland1 where1 besides numerous pictures of the various aspects of marine scenery1 he painted several well-known sea-fights in which the ,dutch had obtained the victory over the ,english4 ,he afterwards followed his father to ,england1 where he was greatly patronized by ,charles ,,ii4 and ,james ,,ii4 for whom1 in turn1 he painted the naval victories of the ,english over the ,dutch4 ,he was also much employed by amateurs of art among the ,english nobility and gentry4 ,there is no question that ,willem van de ,velde the younger is the greatest marine painter of the whole ,dutch ,school4 ,his perfect knowledge of lineal and arial perspective1 and the incomparable technique which he inherited from his school1 enabled him to represent the sea and the sky with the utmost truth of form1 atmosphere and colour1 and to enliven the scene with the purest feeling for the picturesque1 with the most natural incidents of sea-faring life4 ,two of his pictures at ,amsterdam are particularly remarkable2 representing the ,english flagship ,the ,prince ,royal striking her colours in the fight with the ,dutch fleet of #afff2 and its companion1 four ,english men-of-war brought in as prizes at the same fight4 ,here the painter has represented himself in a small boat1 from which he actually witnessed the battle4 ,this accounts for the extraordinary truth with which every particular of the scene is rendered in such small pictures1 which1 combined with their delicate greyish tone1 and the mastery of the execution1 render them two of his finest works4 ,a view of the city of ,amsterdam1 dated #afhf1 taken from the river1 is an especially good specimen of his large pictures4 ,it is about #e ft4 high by #aj ft4 wide4 ,the vessels in the river are arranged with great feeling for the picturesque1 and the treatment of details is admirable4 ,his greatest successes1 however1 are in the representation of calm seas1 as may be seen in a small picture at ,munich4 ,in the centre of the middle distance is a frigate1 and in the foreground smaller vessels4 ,the fine silvery tone in which the whole is kept finds a sufficient counter-balance of colour in the yellowish sun-lit clouds1 and in the brownish vessels and their sails4 ,nothing can be more exquisite than the tender reflections of these in the water4 ,of almost similar beauty is a picture of about the same size1 with four vessels1 in the ,cassel ,gallery1 which is signed and dated #afec4 ,as a contrast to this class of works1 may be mentioned ,the ,gathering ,tempest1 in the ,munich ,gallery4 ,this is brilliantly lighted1 and of great delicacy of tone in the distance1 though the foreground has somewhat darkened4 ,,meindert ,,hobbema 7#afch-agji7 was a friend as well as a pupil of ,jacob ,ruisdael4 ,the fact that such distinguished painters as ,adrian van de ,velde1 ,wouvermans1 ,berchem1 and ,lingelbach1 executed the figures and animals in his pictures proves the esteem in which he was held by his contemporaries2 nevertheless it is evident that the public was slow in conceding to him the rank which he deserved1 for his name is not found for more than a century after his death in any even of the most elaborate dictionaries of art1 while the catalogues of the most important picture sales in ,holland make no mention of him at all up to the year #agci2 when a picture by him1 although much extolled1 was sold for only #ga florins1 and even in #agfh one of his masterpieces only fetched #cjj florins4 ,the ,english were the first to discover his merits4 ,the peculiar characteristics of this master1 who next to ,ruisdael1 is confessedly at the head of landscape painters of the ,dutch ,school1 will be best appreciated by comparing him with his rival4 ,in two most important qualities--fertility of inventive genius1 and poetry of feeling--he is decidedly inferior3 the range of his subjects being far narrower4 ,his most frequent scenes are villages surrounded by trees1 such as are frequently met with in the districts of ,guelderland1 with winding pathways leading from house to house4 ,a water-mill occasionally forms a prominent feature4 ,often1 too1 he represents a slightly uneven country1 diversified by groups or rows of trees1 wheat-fields1 meadows1 and small pools4 ,occasionally he gives us a view of part of a town1 with its gates1 canals with sluices1 and quays with houses2 more rarely1 the ruins of an old castle1 with an extensive view of a flat country1 or some stately residence4 ,in the composition of all these pictures1 however1 we do not find that elevated and picturesque taste which characterises ,ruisdael2 on the contrary they have a thoroughly portrait-like appearance1 decidedly prosaic1 but always surprizingly truthful4 ,the greater number of ,hobbema's pictures are as much characterized by a warm and golden tone as those of ,ruisdael by the reverse2 his greens being yellowish in the lights and brownish in the shadows--both of singular transparency4 ,in pictures of this kind the influence of ,rembrandt is perhaps perceptible1 and they are superior in brilliancy to any work by ,ruisdael4 ,while these works chiefly present us with the season of harvest and sunset-light1 there are others in a cool1 silvery1 morning lighting1 and with the bright green of spring1 that surpass ,ruisdael's in clearness4 ,his woods also1 owing to the various lights that fall on them1 are of greater transparency4 ,as almost all the galleries on the ,continent were formed at a period when the works of ,hobbema were little prized 7,ticcozzi's ,dictionary1 in #ahah1 does not include his name71 they either possess no specimens1 or some of an inferior class1 so that no adequate idea can be formed of him4 ,the most characteristic example to be met with on the ,continent is a landscape in the ,berlin ,museum1 ,no4 #hhf1 an oak wood1 with scattered lights1 a calm piece of water in the foreground1 and a sun-lit village in the distance4 ,of the eight pictures in the ,national ,gallery from his hand1 most are good1 and one world-famous--,the ,avenue1 ,middelharnis1 which may be called his masterpiece4 ,this was painted in #afhi1 when he had reached the age of fifty4 ,his diploma picture1 painted in #affc1 is at ,hertford ,house1 together with four other interesting examples1 all of which repay careful study4 ,,german ,,schools ,the origins of the ,german ,schools of painting are obscure1 but it is fairly certain that ,cologne was the first place in which the art was soonest established to any considerable extent4 ,here1 as in the ,netherlands1 we cannot find any traces of immediate ,italian influences4 ,the first painter who can be identified with any certainty is ,,wilhelm ,,von ,,herle1 called ,,meister ,,wilhelm1 whose activity is not traceable earlier than about #aceh4 ,most of the pictures formerly attributed to him have1 however1 been assigned to his pupil ,,hermann ,,wynrich ,,von ,,wesel1 who on the death of his master in #acgh married his widow and continued his practice1 until his death somewhere about #adad4 ,his most important works were six panels of the ,high ,altar of the ,cathedral1 the so-called ,madonna of the ,pea ,blossoms and two ,crucifixions at ,cologne1 and the ,s4 ,veronica at ,munich1 dated #adaj4 ,more important was ,,stephen ,,lochner1 who died at ,cologne in #adea4 ,his influence was widespread and his school apparently numerous1 until1 in #adej1 ,roger van der ,weyden1 returning from ,italy1 stopped at ,cologne and painted his large triptych1 which eclipsed ,lochner4 ,from this time onwards the school of ,cologne is represented by painters whose names are not known1 and who are accordingly distinguished by the subjects of their works2 such as ,the ,master of the ,glorification of the ,virgin1 ,the ,master of ,s4 ,bartholomew1 etc41 until we come to ,bartel ,bruyn 7c4 #adic-aeec71 a portrait painter who is represented at ,berlin1 and by a picture of ,dr ,fuchsius bequeathed to the ,national ,gallery by ,george ,salting4 ,in other parts of ,germany1 particularly in ,nuremberg1 ,ulm1 ,augsburg1 and ,basle1 various names of painters of the latter half of the fourteenth century have survived1 but their works are of little interest except to the connoisseur as showing the influence under which the two great artists of the sixteenth century1 ,albert ,drer and ,hans ,holbein1 and one or two lesser lights like ,lucas ,cranach1 ,albert ,altdorfer1 and ,adam ,elsheimer1 were formed4 ,in ,germany the taste for the fantastic in art peculiar to the ,middle ,ages1 though it engendered clever and spirited works such as those of ,quentin ,massys and ,lucas van ,leyden1 was still unfavourable to the cultivation of pure beauty1 scenes from the ,apocalypse1 ,dances of ,death1 etc41 being among the favourite subjects for art4 ,on the other hand1 the pictorial treatment of antique literature1 a world so suggestive of beautiful forms1 was so little comprehended by the ,german mind that they only sought to express it through the medium of those fantastic ideas with very childish and even tasteless results4 ,we must also remember that that average education of the various classes of society which the fine arts require for their protection stood on a very low footing in ,germany4 ,in ,italy the favour with which works of art was regarded was far more widely extended4 ,this again gave rise to a more elevated personal position on the part of the artist1 which in ,italy was not only one of more consideration1 but of incomparably greater independence4 ,in this latter respect ,germany was so ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxxii4 ,,the ,,master ,,of ,,st ,,bartholomew ,,two ,,saints ,national ,gallery1 ,london deficient that the genius of ,albert ,drer and ,holbein was miserably cramped and hindered in development by the poverty and littleness of surrounding circumstances4 ,it is known that of all the ,german princes no one but the ,elector ,frederick the ,wise ever gave ,albert ,drer a commission for pictures1 while a writing addressed by the great painter to the magistracy of ,nuremberg tells us that his native city never gave him employment even to the value of #ejj florins4 ,at the same time his pictures were so meanly paid1 that for the means of subsistence1 as he says himself1 he was compelled to devote himself to engraving4 ,how far more such a man as ,drer would have been appreciated in ,italy or in the ,netherlands is further evidenced in the above-mentioned writing1 where he states that he was offered #bjj ducats a year in ,venice and #cjj ,philips-gulden in ,antwerp1 if he would settle in either of those cities4 ,and ,holbein fared still worse3 there is no evidence whatever that any ,german prince ever troubled himself at all about the great painter while at ,basle1 and his art was so little cared for that necessity compelled him to go to ,england1 where a genius fitted for the highest undertakings of historical painting was limited to the sphere of portraiture4 ,the crowning impediments finally1 which hindered the progress of ,german art1 and perverted it from its true aim1 were the ,reformation1 which narrowed the sphere of ecclesiastical works1 and the pernicious imitation of the great ,italian masters which ensued4 ,,lucas ,,cranach1 born in #adgb1 received his first instructions in art from his father1 his later teaching probably from ,matthew ,grunewald4 ,in some instances he attained to the expression of dignity1 earnestness and feeling1 but generally his characteristics are a nave and childlike cheerfulness and a gentle and almost timid grace4 ,the impression produced by his style of representation reminds one of the ,volksbcher and ,volkslieder4 ,many of his church pictures have a very peculiar significance3 in these he stands forth properly speaking as the painter of the ,reformation4 ,intimate both with ,luther and ,melanchthon1 he seizes on the central aim of their doctrine1 viz41 the insufficiency of good works and the sole efficacy of faith4 ,his mythological subjects appeal directly to the eye like real portraits2 and sometimes also by means of a certain grace and navet of motive4 ,we may cite as an instance the ,diana seated on a stag in a small picture at ,berlin1 ,no4 #efd4 ,the ,fountain of ,youth1 also at ,berlin1 ,no4 #eic1 is a picture of peculiar character2 a large basin surrounded by steps and with a richly adorned fountain forms the centre4 ,on one side1 where the country is stony and barren1 a multitude of old women are dragged forward on horses1 waggons or carriages1 and with much trouble are got into the water4 ,on the other side of the fountain they appear as young maidens splashing about and amusing themselves with all kinds of playful mischief2 close by is a large pavilion into which a herald courteously invites them to enter and where they are arrayed in costly apparel4 ,a feast is prepared in a smiling meadow1 which seems to be followed by a dance2 the gay crowd loses itself in a neighbouring grove4 ,the men unfortunately have not become young1 and retain their grey beards4 ,the picture is of the year #aedf1 the seventy-fourth of ,cranach's age4 ,,albert ,,altdorfer was born #adhh at ,altdorf1 near ,landshuth1 in ,bavaria1 and settled at ,ratisbon1 where he died #aebh4 ,he invested the fantastic tendency of the time with a poetic feeling--especially in landscape--and he developed it so as to attain a perfection in this sort of romantic painting that no other artist had reached4 ,in his later period he was strongly influenced by ,italian art4 ,altdorfer's principal work is in the ,munich ,gallery1 and is thus described by ,schlegel3-- ,it represents the ,victory of ,alexander the ,great over ,darius2 the costume is that of the artist's own day1 as it would be treated in the chivalrous poems of the middle ages--man and horse are sheathed in plate and mail1 with surcoats of gold or embroidery2 the chamfrons upon the heads of the horses1 the glittering lances and stirrups1 and the variety of the weapons1 form altogether a scene of indescribable splendour and richness4444 ,it is1 in truth1 a little world on a few square feet of canvas2 the hosts of combatants who advance on all sides against each other are innumerable1 and the view into the background appears interminable4 ,in the distance is the ocean1 with high rocks and a rugged island between them2 ships of war appear in the offing and a whole fleet of vessels--on the left the moon is setting--on the right the sun rising--both shining through the opening clouds--a clear and striking image of the events represented4 ,the armies are arranged in rank and column without the strange attitudes1 contrasts1 and distortions generally exhibited in so-called battle-pieces4 ,how indeed would this have been possible with such a vast multitude of figures8 ,the whole is in the plain and severe1 or it may be the stiff manner of the old style4 ,at the same time the character and execution of these little figures is most masterly and profound4 ,and what variety1 what expression there is1 not merely in the character of the single warriors and knights1 but in the hosts themselves6 ,here crowds of black archers rush down troop after troop from the mountain with the rage of a foaming torrent2 on the other side high upon the rocks in the far distance a scattered crowd of flying men are turning round in a defile4 ,the point of the greatest interest stands out brilliantly from the centre of the whole--,alexander and ,darius both in armour of burnished gold2 ,alexander on ,bucephalus with his lance in rest advances before his men and presses on the flying ,darius1 whose charioteer has already fallen on his white horses1 and who looks back upon his conqueror with all the despair of a vanquished monarch4 ,,albert ,d,,rer 7#adga-aebh71 by his overpowering genius1 may be called the sole representative of ,german art of his period4 ,he was gifted with a power of conception which traced nature through all her finest shades1 and with a lively sense1 as well for the solemn and the sublime1 as for simple grace and tenderness2 above all1 he had an earnest and truthful feeling in art united with a capacity for the most earnest study4 ,these qualities were sufficient to place him by the side of the greatest artists whom the world has ever seen4 ,one of the earliest portraits by ,albert ,drer known to us is that of his father1 ,albert ,drer1 the goldsmith1 dated #adig1 in our ,national ,gallery4 ,in the year #afdd1 another version of this picture1 which was engraved by ,hollar1 was in the collection of the ,earl of ,arundel1 and is now in that of the ,duke of ,northumberland1 at ,syon ,house4 ,of about the same time--that is to say1 before #aejj--;are the portraits of ,oswald ,krell1 at ,munich1 of ,frederick the ,wise1 at ,berlin1 and of himself1 at the ,prado4 ,several of ,albert ,drer's pictures of the year #aejj are known to us4 ,the first and most important is his own portrait in the ,munich ,gallery1 which represents him full face with his hand laid on the fur trimming of his robe4 ,his finest picture of the year #aejd is an ,adoration of the ,kings1 originally painted for ,frederick the ,wise1 ,elector of ,saxony1 subsequently presented by the ,elector ,christian ,,ii4 to the ,emperor ,rudolph ,,ii41 and finally1 on the occasion of an exchange of pictures1 transferred from ,vienna to ,florence1 where it now hangs in the ,tribune of the ,uffizi4 ,the heads are of thoroughly realistic treatment2 the ,virgin a portrait from some model of no attractive character2 the second ,king a portrait of the painter himself4 ,the landscape background exactly resembles that in the well-known engraving of ,s4 ,eustace1 the period of which is thus pretty nearly defined4 ,it is carefully painted in a fine body of colour4 ,in #aeje ,drer made a second journey into ,upper ,italy1 and remained a considerable time at ,venice4 ,of his occupations in this city the letters written to his friend ,wilibald ,pirckheimer which have come down to us give many interesting particulars4 ,he there executed for the ,german ,company a picture known as ,the ,feast of ,rose ,garlands1 which brought him great fame1 and by its brilliant colouring silenced the assertion of his envious adversaries that he was a good engraver1 but knew not how to deal with colours4 ,in the centre of a landscape is the ,virgin seated with the ,child and crowned by two angels2 on her right is a ,pope with priests kneeling2 on her left the ,emperor ,maximilian ,i4 with knights2 various members of the ,german ,company are also kneeling2 all are being crowned with garlands of roses by the ,virgin1 the ,child1 ,s4 ,dominick--who stands behind the ,virgin--and by angels4 ,the painter and his friend ,pirckheimer are seen standing in the background on the right2 the painter holds a tablet with the inscription1 ,albertus ,drer ,germanus1 ,,mdvi4 ,this picture1 which is one of his largest and finest1 was purchased from the church at a high price by the ,emperor ,rudolph ,,ii4 for his gallery at ,prague1 where it remained until sold in #aghb by the ,emperor ,joseph ,,ii4 ,it then became the property of the ,prmonstratensian monastery of ,stratow at ,prague1 where it still exists1 though in very injured condition and greatly over-painted4 ,in the ,imperial ,gallery at ,vienna may be seen an old copy which conveys a better idea of the picture than the original4 ,with these productions begins the zenith of this master's fame1 in which a great number of works follow one another within a short period4 ,of these we first notice a picture of #aejh1 in the ,imperial ,gallery at ,vienna1 painted for ,duke ,frederick of ,saxony1 and which afterwards adorned the gallery of the ,emperor ,rudolph ,,ii4 ,it represents ,the ,martyrdom of the ,ten ,thousand ,saints4 ,in the centre of the picture stand the master and his friend ,pirckheimer as spectators1 both in black dresses4 ,drer has a mantle thrown over his shoulder in the ,italian fashion1 and stands in a firm attitude4 ,he folds his hands and holds a small flag1 on which is inscribed1 ,iste faciebat anno domini #aejh ,albertus ,drer ,alemanus4 ,there are a multitude of single groups exhibiting every species of martyrdom1 but there is a want of general connection of the whole4 ,the scenes in the background1 where the ,christians are led naked up the rocks1 and are precipitated down from the top1 are particularly excellent4 ,the whole is very minute and miniature-like2 the colouring is beautifully brilliant1 and it is painted 7the accessories particularly7 with extraordinary care4 ,to #aeaa belongs also one of his most celebrated pictures1 ,the ,adoration of the ,trinity1 which is also at ,vienna1 painted for the chapel of the ,landauer ,brderhaus in ,nuremberg4 ,above in the centre of the picture are seen the ,first ,person1 who holds the ,saviour in his arms1 while the ,holy ,spirit is seen above2 some angels spread out the priestly mantle of the ,almighty1 whilst others hover near with the instruments of ,christ's passion4 ,on the left hand a little lower down is a choir of females with the ,virgin at their head2 on the right are the male saints with ,st ,john the ,baptist4 ,below all these kneel a host of the blessed of all ranks and nations extending over the whole of this part of the picture4 ,underneath the whole is a beautiful landscape1 and in a corner of the picture the artist himself richly clothed in a fur mantle1 with a tablet next him with the words1 ,albertus ,drer ,noricus faciebat anno a ,virginis partu1 #aeaa4 ,it may be assumed beyond doubt that he held in particular esteem those pictures into which he introduced his own portrait4 ,in the ,vienna ,gallery is also a picture of the year #aeab1 the ,virgin holding the naked ,child in her arms4 ,she has a veil over her head and blue drapery4 ,her face is of the form usual with ,albert ,drer1 but of a soft and maidenly character2 the ,child is beautiful--the countenance particularly so4 ,it is painted with exceeding delicacy of finish4 ,two altar-pieces of his earliest period must be mentioned4 ,one is in the ,dresden ,gallery1 consisting of three pictures painted in tempera on canvas1 representing the ,virgin1 ,s4 ,anthony1 and ,s4 ,sebastian respectively4 ,although this is probably one of his very earliest works1 it is remarkable for the novelty of its treatment and its independence of tradition4 ,the other1 a little later1 is in the ,munich ,gallery 7,nos4 #bdj-c71 painted at the request of the ,paumgartner family1 for ,s4 ,catherine's ,church at ,nuremberg1 was brought to ,munich in #afab by ,maximilian ,i4 ,the subject of the middle picture is the ,nativity2 the ,child is in the centre1 surrounded by little angels1 whilst the ,virgin and ,joseph kneel at the side4 ,the wings contain portraits of the two donors under the form of ,s4 ,george and ,s4 ,eustace represented as knights in steel armour1 each with his standard1 and the former holding the slain dragon4 ,the year #aebf was distinguished by the two pictures of the four ,apostles3 ,john and ,peter1 ,mark and ,paul2 the figures are the size of life4 ,these1 which are the master's grandest work1 and the last of importance executed by him1 are now in the ,munich ,gallery4 ,we know with certainty that they were presented by ,albert ,drer himself to the council of his native city in remembrance of his career as an artist1 and at the same time as conveying to his fellow-citizens an earnest and lasting exhortation suited to that stormy period4 ,in the year #afbg1 however1 the pictures were allowed to pass into the hands of the ,elector ,maximilian ,i4 of ,bavaria4 ,the inscriptions selected by the painter himself might have given offence to a ,catholic prince1 and were therefore cut off and joined to the copies by ,john ,fischer1 which were intended to indemnify the city of ,nuremberg for the loss of the originals4 ,these copies are still in the collection of the ,landauer ,brderhaus at ,nuremberg4 ,these pictures are the fruit of the deepest thought which then stirred the mind of ,albert ,drer1 and are executed with overpowering force4 ,finished as they are1 they form the first complete work of art produced by ,protestantism4 ,as the inscription taken from the ,gospels and ,epistles of the ,apostles contains pressing warnings not to swerve from the word of ,god1 nor to believe in the doctrines of false prophets1 so the figures themselves represent the steadfast and faithful guardians of that holy ,scripture which they bear in their hands4 ,there is also an old tradition1 handed down from the master's own times1 that these figures represent the four temperaments4 ,this is confirmed by the pictures themselves2 and though at first sight it may appear to rest on a mere accidental combination1 it serves to carry out more completely the artist's thought1 and gives to the figures greater individuality4 ,it shows how every quality of the human mind may be called into the service of the ,divine ,word4 ,thus in the first picture1 we see the whole force of the mind absorbed in contemplation1 and we are taught that true watchfulness in behalf of the ,scripture must begin by devotion to its study4 ,s4 ,john stands in front1 the open book in his hand2 his high forehead and his whole countenance bear the impress of earnest and deep thought4 ,this is the melancholic temperament1 which does not shrink from the most profound inquiry4 ,behind him ,s4 ,peter bends over the book1 and gazes earnestly at its contents--a hoary head1 full of meditative repose4 ,this figure represents the phlegmatic temperament1 which reviews its own thoughts in tranquil reflection4 ,the second picture shows the outward operation of the conviction thus attained and its relation to daily life4 ,s4 ,mark in the background is the man of sanguine temperament2 he looks boldly round1 and appears to speak to his hearers with animation1 earnestly urging them to share those advantages which he has himself derived from the ,holy ,scriptures4 ,s4 ,paul1 on the contrary1 in the foreground1 holds the book and sword in his hands2 he looks angrily and severely over his shoulder1 ready to defend the ,word1 and to annihilate the blasphemer with the sword of ,god's power4 ,he is the representative of the choleric temperament4 ,we know of no important work of a later date than that just described4 ,his portrait in a woodcut of the year #aebg represents him earnest and serious in demeanour1 as would naturally follow from his advancing age and the pressure of eventful times4 ,his head is no longer adorned with those richly flowing locks1 on which in his earlier days he had set so high a value1 as we learn from his pictures and from jests still recorded of him4 ,with the departure of ,hans ,holbein to ,england in #aebh and the death of ,albert ,drer in the same year1 that excellence to which they had raised ,german art passed away1 and centuries saw no sign of its revival4 ,of ,,hans ,,holbein1 born at ,augsburg in #adih1 we shall have more to say in a later chapter1 when considering the origins of ,english portraiture4 ,but as in the case of ,van ,dyck1 and in fact of every great portrait painter1 his excellence in this particular branch of his art was but one result of his being a born artist and first exercising his talents in a much wider field4 ,in ,holbein the realistic tendency of the ,german ,school attained its highest development1 and he may1 next to ,drer1 be pronounced the greatest master in it4 ,while ,drer's art exhibits a close affinity with the religious ideas of the ,middle ,ages1 ,holbein appears to have been imbued with more modern and more material sentiments1 and accordingly we find him excelling ,drer in closeness and delicacy of observation in the delineation of nature4 ,a proof of this is afforded by the evidence of ,erasmus1 who said that as regards the portraits painted of him by both these artists1 that by ,holbein was the most like4 ,in feeling for beauty of form1 also in grace of movement1 in colouring1 and in the actual art of painting--in which his father had thoroughly instructed him--,holbein is to be placed above ,drer4 ,that he did not rival the great ,italians of his time in historical painting can only be ascribed to the circumstances of his life in ,germany1 where such subjects were not in fashion4 ,of his pictures executed before he left his native country the greater number are at ,basle and ,augsburg1 and are therefore less familiar to the general public than his later works4 ,a notable exception is the famous ,meyer ,madonna1 the original of which is at ,darmstadt1 but a version now relegated1 somewhat harshly1 to the copyist is in the ,dresden ,gallery1 and certainly exhibits as much of the spirit of the master as will serve for an example of his powers4 ,it represents the ,virgin as ,queen of ,heaven1 standing in a niche1 with the ,child in her arms1 and with the family of the ,burgomaster ,jacob ,meyer of ,basle kneeling on either side of her4 ,with the utmost life and truth to nature1 which brings these kneeling figures actually into our presence1 says ,kugler1 there is combined in a most exquisite degree an expression of great earnestness1 as if the mind were fixed on some lofty object4 ,this is shown not merely by the introduction of divine beings into the circle of human sympathies1 but particularly in the relation so skilfully indicated between the ,holy ,virgin and her worshippers1 and in her manifest desire to communicate to those who are around her the sacred peace and tranquillity expressed in her own countenance and attitude1 and implied in the infantine grace of the ,saviour4 ,in the direct union of the divine with the human1 and in their reciprocal harmony1 there is involved a devout and earnest purity of feeling such as only the older masters were capable of representing4 ,another of his most beautiful pictures painted in ,germany is the portrait of ,erasmus1 dated #aebc4 ,this was sent by ,erasmus to ,sir ,thomas ,more1 at ,chelsea1 with a letter recommending ,holbein to his care1 and as it is still in this country--in the collection of the ,earl of ,radnor at ,longford ,castle--it is not perhaps too much to hope that it may one of these days find its way into the ,national ,gallery--perhaps when the alterations to the front entrance are completed4 ,this picture has for a very long time been regarded as one of ,holbein's very finest portraits4 ,mr ,w4 ,barclay ,squire1 in the sumptuous catalogue of the ,radnor collection compiled by him1 quotes the opinion of ,sir ,william ,musgrave1 written in #aghe1 ,i am not sure whether it is not the finest ,i have seen2 and that of ,dr ,waagen1 ,alone worth a pilgrimage to ,longford4 ,seldom has a painter so fully succeeded in bringing to view the whole character of so original a mind as in this instance4 ,in the mouth and small eyes may be seen the unspeakable studies of a long life 444 the face also expresses the sagacity and knowledge of a life gained by long experience 444 the masterly and careful execution extends to every portion 444 yet the face surpasses everything else in delicacy of modelling4 ,cruel1 indeed1 was ,england to have transplanted the one artist who might have saved ,germany from the artistic destitution from which she has suffered ever since6 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxxiii4--,,hans ,,holbein ,,portrait ,,of ,,christina1 ,,duchess ,,of ,,milan ,national ,gallery1 ,london ,,french ,,school ,i ,,the ,,seventeenth ,,century ,when we consider the peculiar beauty of the architecture and ecclesiastical sculpture in ,france during the ,middle ,ages and the period of the renaissance1 and of the enamels1 ivories1 and other small works of art1 it is wrong to regret that painting was not also practised by the ,french as assiduously as it was in ,italy4 ,for there can be no doubt that in being confined to one channel the artistic impulses of a people cut deeper than if dissipated in various directions4 ,we may suppose1 indeed1 that if those of the ,french had found their outlet in painting alone1 we should have pictures of wonderful beauty1 of a beauty moreover of a markedly different kind from that of the ,italian or ,spanish or ,netherlandish pictures4 ,but on the other hand we should have perhaps lost the amazing fascination of ,chartres1 and the delights of ,limoges enamel and ivories4 ,as it happens1 the earliest mention to be made of painting in ,france is the arrival of ,leonardo da ,vinci at ,amboise in #aeaf1 whither he had come from ,milan in the train of the young king ,franois ,i4 ,unfortunately he was by this time sixty-four years old1 and in less than three years he died4 ,at about the same time there was a court painter in the employment of ,franois--under the official designation of varlet de chambre--named ,,jehan ,,clouet1 who is supposed to have been of ,flemish extraction4 ,nothing very definite is known about him or his work1 but he had a son ,,fran,,ois ,,clouet1 who seems to have been born at about the time of ,leonardo's arrival1 and who succeeded to his father's office4 ,at the funeral of ,franois ,i4 in #aedg he was ordered to make an effige du dict feu roy1 and he continued to be the official court painter to ,henri ,,ii4 7whose posthumous portrait he was also ordered to paint71 ,franois ,,ii41 and ,charles ,,ix4 ,he died in #aegb4 ,every portrait of this period is attributed to him1 just as was the case with ,holbein in ,england4 ,neither of the two examples at the ,national ,gallery can be safely ascribed to him4 ,the little head of the ,emperor ,charles ,v41 king of ,spain1 at ,hereford ,house1 is identical in style and in dimensions with that of ,francis ,i41 king of ,france1 in the ,museum at ,lyons1 which is attributed to ,jean ,clouet4 ,both may have been painted when ,charles ,v4 passed through ,paris in #aeci1 but whether by ,jean or one of his disciples cannot be said with certainty4 ,not until the very end of the sixteenth century were born ,claude ,gelle and ,nicholas ,poussin1 the only two ,frenchmen who were painters of considerable importance before the close of the seventeenth4 ,nor did either of these two contribute anything to the glory of their country by practice or by precept within its confines1 both of them passing most of their lives and painting their best works in ,italy and under ,italian influence4 ,,nicholas ,,poussin was born at ,villiers near ,les ,andelys on the banks of the ,seine1 in #aeid1 where he studied for some time under ,quentin ,varin till he was eighteen4 ,after this he was in ,paris1 but in #afbd he went to ,rome where he lived with ,du ,quesnoy4 ,his first success was obtained by the execution of two historical pieces which were commissioned by ,cardinal ,barberini on his return from an ,embassy to ,france4 ,these were ,the ,death of ,germanicus and ,the ,capture of ,jerusalem4 ,his next works were ,the ,martyrdom of ,s4 ,erasmus1 ,the ,plague at ,ashdod1 of which a replica is in the ,national ,gallery1 and ,the ,seven ,sacraments now at ,belvoir ,castle4 ,by these he acquired such fame that on his return to ,paris in #afdj1 ,louis ,,xiii4 appointed him royal painter1 and in order to keep him at home provided him with apartments in the ,tuileries and a salary of #abj a year4 ,within two years1 however1 ,poussin was back in ,rome1 and after twenty-three years' unbroken success died there in #affe in his seventy-second year4 ,poussin was a most conscientious painter1 devoting himself seriously in his earlier years to the study both of the antique and of practical anatomy4 ,besides being the intimate friend of ,du ,quesnoy1 he was a devout pupil of ,domenichino1 for whom he had the greatest reverence4 ,it is not surprising therefore to find in his earlier works1 such as the ,plague at ,ashdod1 a certain academic dulness and lack of spontaneity4 ,he was not the forerunner of a new epoch1 but one of the last upholders of the old4 ,he was trying to arrest decay1 to infuse a healthier spirit into a declining art1 so that he errs on the side of correctness4 ,the influence of ,titian1 however1 was too strong for him to remain long within the narrowest limits1 as may be seen in the ,bacchanalian ,dance1 ,no4 #fb in the ,national ,gallery1 which was probably one of a series painted for ,cardinal ,richelieu during the short time that ,poussin was in ,paris in #afda4 ,in this and in ,no4 #db1 the ,bacchanalian ,festival as well as in ,the ,shepherds in ,arcadia1 in the ,louvre1 we get a surprisingly strong reminiscence of ,titian1 more especially in the brown tones of the flesh and the deep blue of the sky4 ,as the result of conscientious study of the human body the figures in these pictures are full of life--for correctness of drawing is the first requisite of lively painting without which all the others are useless4 ,the fact that over two hundred prints have been engraved after his pictures is a proof of his popularity at one time or another1 and though at the present time his reputation is not as widely recognised as in former years1 it is certainly as high among those whose judgment is independent of passing fashions4 ,as evidence of the soundness of his principles1 the following is perhaps worth quoting3-- ,there are nine things in painting1 ,poussin wrote in a letter to ,m4 de ,chambrai1 the author of a treatise on painting1 which can never be taught and which are essential to that art4 ,to begin with1 the subject of it should be noble1 and receive no quality from the person who treats it2 and to give opportunity to the painter to show his talents and his industry it must be chosen as capable of receiving the most excellent form4 ,a painter should begin with disposition 7or as we should say1 composition71 the ornament should follow1 their agreement of the parts1 beauty1 grace1 spirit1 costume1 regard to nature and probability2 and above all1 judgment4 ,this last must be in the painter himself and cannot be taught4 ,it is the golden bough of ,virgil that no one can either find or pluck unless his lucky star conducts him to it4 ,,gaspar ,,poussin1 whose name was really ,gaspard ,dughet1 was brother-in-law of ,nicholas1 and acquired his name from being his pupil4 ,he was nineteen years his junior1 and survived him by ten years4 ,he was born in ,rome of ,french parents1 and died there in #afge1 and though he travelled a good deal in ,italy he never appears to have visited ,france4 ,his ,italian landscapes are very beautiful1 and we are fortunate in the possession of one which is considered his best1 ,no4 #ca in the ,national ,gallery1 ,landscape with ,figures1 ,abraham and ,isaac4 ,scarcely less fine is the ,calling of ,abraham1 ,no4 #aaei1 especially in the middle and far distance4 ,the sacred figures1 it may as well be said1 are of little concern in the compositions1 though useful for purposes of identifying the pictures4 ,,claude ,,gell,e1 nowadays usually spoken of as ,claude1 was born at ,chamagne in ,lorraine in #afjj4 ,accordingly he has been styled ,claude ,lorraine1 le ,lorraine1 de ,lorrain1 ,lorrain1 or ,claudio ,lorrenese with wonderful persistency through the ages1 though there was no mystery about his surname and it would have served just as well4 ,he was brought up in his father's profession of pastrycook1 and in that capacity he went to ,rome seeking for employment4 ,as it happened he found it in the house of a landscape painter1 ,agostino ,tassi1 who had been a pupil of ,paul ,bril1 and he not only cooked for him but mixed his colours as well1 and soon became his pupil4 ,later he was studying under a ,german painter1 ,gottfried ,wals1 at ,naples4 ,a more important influence on him1 however1 was that of ,joachim ,sandrart1 one of the best of the later ,german painters1 whom he met in ,rome4 ,claude's earliest pictures of any importance were two which were painted for ,pope ,urban ,,vii4 in #afci1 when he was just upon forty years old4 ,these are the ,village ,dance and the ,seaport1 now in the ,louvre4 ,the ,seaport at ,sunset and ,narcissus and ,echo in the ,national ,gallery 7,nos4 #e and #ai7 are dated #afdd--the former on the canvas and the latter on the sketch for it in the ,liber ,veritatis1 where it is stated that it was painted for an ,english patron4 ,the ,liber ,veritatis1 it should be observed1 is the title given to a portfolio of over two hundred drawings in pen and bistre1 or ,indian ink1 which is now in the possession of the ,duke of ,devonshire4 ,most of these were made from pictures which had been painted1 not as sketches or designs preparatory to painting them1 and in some instances there are notes on the back of them giving the date1 purchaser1 and other particulars relating to them4 ,so great was the vogue for ,claude's landscapes in ,england during the eighteenth century that as early as #agcj or #agdj a good many of his drawings1 which had been collected by ,jonathan ,richardson1 ,dr4 ,mead and others1 were engraved by ,arthur ,pond and ,john ,knapton2 and in #aggg a series of about two hundred of the ,duke of ,devonshire's drawings was published by ,alderman ,boydell1 which had been etched and mezzotinted by ,richard ,earlom1 under the title of ,liber ,veritatis4 ,this was the model on which ,turner founded the publication of his own sketches under the title of ,liber ,studiorum4 ,thus1 if ,claude exerted little influence on the art of his own country1 it can hardly be said that he exerted none elsewhere1 for ,turner was by no means the first ,englishman to fall under his spell4 ,richard ,wilson1 the first ,english landscape painter1 was undoubtedly influenced by him1 both from an acquaintance with his drawings in ,english collections and from the study of his works when in ,rome4 ,in this connection we may consider the two landscapes1 numbered #ab and #ad in the ,national ,gallery ,catalogue1 as our most important examples by this master1 for ,turner bequeathed to the nation his two most important pictures ,the ,sun ,rising ,through a ,vapour and ,dido ,building ,carthage1 on condition that they should be hung between these two by ,claude4 ,the ,court of ,chancery could annul the condition1 but they could not nullify the effect of ,claude's influence on ,turner or alter the judgment of posterity with regard to the relations of the two painters to each other and to art in general1 and the ,director has wisely observed the wishes of ,turner in still hanging the four pictures together1 the ,court of ,chancery notwithstanding4 ,both of ,claude's are inscribed1 besides being signed and dated1 as follows3 ,no4 #ab4 ,mariage d',isaac avec ,rebeca1 ,claudio ,gil4 inv4 ,romae #afdh4 ,no4 #ad4 ,la ,reine de ,saba va trover ,salomon4 ,clavde ,gil4 inv4 faict pour son altesse le duc de ,buillon ,roma #afdh4 ,both pictures are familiar in various engravings of them1 and though the present fashion leads many people in other directions1 there can be no doubt that the appreciation of ,claude in this country is never likely to die out1 and is only waiting for a turn of the wheel to revive with increased vigour4 ,meantime1 however1 ,france was not entirely destitute of painters1 and though without ,claude1 ,poussin or ,dughet1 who preferred to exercise their art in ,rome1 she anticipated ,england by over a century in that most important step1 the foundation of an ,academy of ,painting4 ,not many of the names of its original members ever became famous--as may be said in our own country--but among them was ,,sebastien ,,bourdon 7#afaf-afga71 whose work was so much admired by ,sir ,joshua ,reynolds4 ,bourdon1 also1 wandered away from ,france2 within four years after the foundation of the ,academy1 namely1 in #afeb1 he went to ,stockholm1 and was appointed principal painter to ,queen ,christina4 ,on her abdication1 however1 in #affc1 he returned to ,paris1 and enjoyed a great success in painting landscapes1 and historical subjects4 ,the ,return of the ,ark from ,captivity1 ,no4 #fd in the ,national ,gallery ,catalogue1 was presented by that distinguished patron of the arts1 ,sir ,george ,beaumont1 to whom it was bequeathed by ,sir ,joshua ,reynolds1 as being one of his most treasured possessions4 ,i cannot quit this subject1 he writes in the fourteenth ,discourse1 alluding to poetry in landscape1 without mentioning two examples1 which occur to me at present1 in which the poetical style of landscape may be seen happily executed2 the one is ,jacob's ,dream1 by ,salvator ,rosa1 and the other1 ,the ,return of the ,ark from ,captivity1 by ,sebastian ,bourdon4 ,with whatever dignity those histories are presented to us in the language of scripture1 this style of painting possesses the same power of inspiring sentiments of grandeur and sublimity1 and is able to communicate them to subjects which appear by no means adapted to receive them4 ,a ladder against the sky has no very promising appearance of possessing a capacity to excite any heroic ideas1 and the ,ark in the hands of a second-rate master would have little more effect than a common waggon on the highway2 yet those subjects are so poetically treated throughout1 the parts have such a correspondence with each other1 and the whole and every part of the scene is so visionary1 that it is impossible to look at them without feeling in some measure the enthusiasm which seems to have inspired the painters4 ,,eustache ,,le ,,sueur1 born in the same year as ,sebastien ,bourdon 7#afaf71 was another of the original members of the ,academy1 and was employed by the ,king at the ,louvre4 ,his most famous work was the decorations of the cloister at the monastery of ,la ,chartreuse 7now in the ,louvre7 of which ,horace ,walpole speaks so ecstatically in the preface to the last volume of the ,anecdotes of ,painting4 ,the last scene of ,s4 ,bruno expiring 7he writes7 in which are expressed all the stages of devotion from the youngest mind impressed with fear to the composed resignation of the ,prior1 is perhaps inferior to no single picture of the greatest master4 ,if ,raphael died young1 so did ,le ,sueur2 the former had seen the antique1 the latter only prints from ,raphael2 yet in the ,chartreuse1 what airs of heads6 ,what harmony of colouring6 ,what arial perspective6 ,how ,grecian the simplicity of architecture and drapery6 ,how diversified a single quadrangle though the life of a hermit be the only subject1 and devotion the only pathetic6 ,,philippe ,,de ,,champaigne was another of the original members4 ,he was born at ,brussels in #afjb1 and did not come to ,paris till #afba1 where he was soon afterwards employed in the decoration of the ,luxembourg ,palace4 ,but he was chiefly a portrait painter1 his principal works being the fine full-length of ,cardinal ,richelieu1 and another of his daughter as a nun of ,port ,royal1 both of which are in the ,louvre4 ,there are four in the ,wallace ,collection1 but perhaps the most familiar to the ,english public is the canvas at the ,national ,gallery 7,no4 #gih71 painted for the ,roman sculptor ,mocchi1 to make a bust from1 with a full face and two profiles of ,richelieu4 ,as a portrait this is exceedingly interesting1 the more so from having an inscription over one of the heads1 de ces deux profiles cecy est le meilleur4 ,the full length of the ,cardinal presented by ,mr4 ,charles ,butler in #ahie 7,no4 #addi71 is a good example1 which cannot however but suffer by juxtaposition with more accomplished works4 ,but it was not until the close of the seventeenth century that portrait painting in ,france became anything like a fine art1 and even then it did not get beyond being formal and magnificent4 ,the two principal exponents were ,,hyacinthe ,,rigaud and ,,nicolas ,,largilli,,re1 both of whose works have a sort of grandeur but little subtlety or charm4 ,rigaud was born in #afei1 at ,perpignan in the extreme south of ,france1 and studied at ,montpelier in his youth1 then at ,lyons on his way to ,paris--much as a ,scottish artist might have studied first at ,glasgow1 then at ,birmingham on his way to ,london4 ,on the advice of ,lebrun he devoted himself specially to portrait painting1 which he did with such success that in #agjj he was elected a member of the ,academy4 ,he painted ,louis ,,xiv4 more often than ,largillire or any other painter1 and in his later years 7he lived till #agdc7 ,louis ,,xv4 his great-grandson4 ,he is said to have shared with ,kneller the distinction1 such as it may be1 of having painted at least five monarchs4 ,rigaud is best known in these days by the fine prints after his portraits by the ,french engravers4 ,of his brushwork we are only able to judge by the two doubtful versions at the ,national ,gallery and the ,wallace ,collection respectively1 of the fine portrait at ,versailles of ,cardinal ,fleury4 ,the group of ,lulli and the ,musicians of the ,french ,court1 which was purchased for the ,national ,gallery in #aijf is not by him1 and it is difficult to understand why the public money should have been wasted on it1 or at least on the inscription attributing it to him4 ,nicolas de ,largillire was three years older than ,rigaud and survived him by another three4 ,he was born in ,paris in #afef and died six months before completing his ninetieth year4 ,early in life he went as a pupil to ,antwerp1 under ,antoine ,goubeau1 and he is said to have worked in ,england as an assistant to ,sir ,peter ,lely during the later years of that master4 ,on his return to ,france he was received into the ,royal ,academy--in #afhf4 ,in the ,wallace ,collection is an interesting example of his work1 the large group of the ,french ,royal ,family1 in which four living generations are portrayed and the bronze effigies of two more4 ,henri ,,iv4 and ,louis ,,xiii41 the grandfather and father of the reigning monarch1 ,louis ,,xiv41 the ,dauphin his son1 the ,duc de ,bourgogne his grandson1 and the ,duc d',anjou1 his great-grandson--afterwards ,louis ,,xv41 are all included in this formal group1 which is a useful lesson in history as well as in painting4 ,,ii ,,the ,,eighteenth ,,century ,,antoine ,,watteau was born at ,valenciennes in #afhd1 and died near there about thirty-seven years later of consumption4 ,valenciennes really belonged to ,flanders1 and had only lately been annexed to ,france1 so that ,watteau owed something of his art to ,flemish rather than to ,french sources4 ,at the same time it cannot be said that his development would have been the same if he had gone to ,brussels or ,antwerp instead of to ,paris to study1 for though the works of ,rubens and ,van ,dyck were from his earliest years his chief attraction1 the influence of the ,french artist ,claude ,gillot1 as well as that of ,audran1 the keeper of the ,luxembourg ,palace1 without doubt exerted a very decided help in determining the future course of his work4 ,when living with ,audran1 ,watteau had every opportunity for studying the works of the older masters1 especially those of ,rubens1 whose decorations1 executed for ,marie de ,medici1 had not at that time been removed to the ,louvre4 ,besides copying from these older pictures1 ,watteau was employed by ,audran in the execution of designs for wall decorations1 etc4 ,watteau's two earliest pictures still in existence are supposed to be the ,dpart de ,troupe and the ,halte d',arme1 which were the first of a series of military pictures on a small scale4 ,to an early period also belong the ,accorde de ,village1 at the ,soane ,museum in ,lincoln's ,inn ,fields1 the ,marie de ,village at ,potsdam1 and the ,wedding ,festivities in the ,dublin ,national ,gallery4 ,in #agab other influences began to work upon him4 ,in this year he came into contact with ,crozat1 the famous collector1 in whose house he became familiar with a fresh batch of the ,flemish and ,italian masterpieces4 ,it was at this time that he was approved by the ,royal ,academy1 though he took five years over his ,diploma picture1 ,embarquement pour l'le de ,cythre1 which is now in the ,louvre4 ,meantime the influence of ,rubens and the ,italian masters--especially the ,venetians1 had greatly widened and deepened his art1 and these influences1 acting on his peculiarly sensitive temperament and poetical spirit1 had a magical effect1 transforming the actual scenes of ,paris and ,versailles1 which he painted into enchanted places in ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxxiv4--,,antoine ,,watteau ,l',,indiff,,rent ,louvre1 ,paris fairyland1 as he transformed the formal actual painting of the period of ,louis ,,xiv4 into the romantic school of the eighteenth century in ,france4 ,the setting of the famous pictures in the ,wallace ,collection1 catalogued as ,the ,music-,party or ,les ,charnes de la ,vie 7,no4 #daj71 is a view of the ,champs ,elyses taken from the gallery of the ,tuileries4 ,who would have thought it8 ,and what does it matter1 except to show how entirely ,watteau revolutionized the pompous and prosaic methods of his time by investing the actual with poetry and romance4 ,two other pictures at ,hertford ,house1 ,nos4 #chi and #cia1 were painted in the ,champs ,elyses1 and the figures are1 for the most part1 the same in both1 all three of these pictures are fine examples of the artist's power of broad and spirited treatment1 combined with extreme delicacy and refinement of conception4 ,three other pictures at ,hertford ,house are equally delightful examples of another class of subject1 namely groups of figures dressed in the parts of actors in ,italian comedy4 ,from a note in the ,catalogue we learn that a company of ,italian comedians were in ,paris in the sixteenth century1 but were banished by ,louis ,quatorze in #afig for a supposed affront to ,madame de ,maintenon4 ,in #agaf1 however1 they were recalled by the ,regent1 the ,duc d',orlans1 and became once more the delight of ,paris4 ,several of the figures in the ,italian comedy had already passed into ,french popular drama1 and in ,watteau's time there seems to have been a fluctuating company1 according as one actor or actress or another developed a part1 and to ,pantalone1 ,arlecchino1 ,dottore and ,columbina were now added ,pierrot--or ,gilles--,mezetin1 a sort of double of ,pierrot1 ,scaramouche and ,scapin4 ,the vague web of courtship1 dalliance1 intrigue and jealousy called up by these characters attracted ,watteau to employ them in his compositions1 and to make them also the medium of the more sincere sentiments of conjugal love and friendship1--as in ,the ,music ,lesson1 ,gilles and his ,family and ,harlequin and ,columbine1 at ,hertford ,house4 ,all of these three were engraved in ,watteau's life-time or shortly after his death1 and the verses sub-joined to the engravings are a charming rendering of the sentiment underlying the pictures4 ,in ,the ,music ,lesson we see the half length figures of a lady1 seated1 reading a music book1 and of a man playing a lute opposite to her4 ,another man looks at the book over the lady's shoulder1 and two little children's faces appear at her knee4 ,the verses are as follows3-- ,pour nous prouver que cette belle ,trouve l'hymen un noeud fort doux ,le peintre nous la peint fidelle suivre le ton d'un poux4 ,les enfants qui sont autour d'elle ,sont les fruits de son tendre amour ,dont ce beau joueur de prunelle ,pouvait bien goter quelque jour4 ,in ,gilles and his ,family we have a three-quarter length full-face portrait of le ,sieur de ,sirois1 a friend of ,watteau1 with these verses under the engraving3-- ,sous un habit de mezzetin ,ce gros brun au riant visage ,sur la guitarre avec sa main ,fait un aimable badinage4 ,par les doux accords de sa voix ,enfants d'une bouche vermeille ,du beau sexe tant la fois ,il charme les yeux et l'oreille4 ,in the little ,lady at her ,toilet 7,no4 #dci7 we see the influence of ,paul ,veronese1 though it is probable that this was not painted until he visited ,london in the later part of his short life4 ,for there is a similar piece called ,la ,toilette du ,matin which was engraved by a ,french artist who had settled in ,england1 ,philip ,mercier1 and on whose work the influence of ,watteau is very noticeable4 ,le ,rendez-vous de ,chasse 7,no4 #daf71 which is of the same size1 and in character similar to ,les ,amusements ,champtres 7,no4 #cia71 is the last by ,watteau of which we have any certain knowledge4 ,it was painted in #agbj1 the year before his death1 when his health prevented him from making any sustained effort4 ,it is said to have been a commission from his friends ,m4 and ,mme4 de ,julienne1 in whose shooting-box at ,saint ,maur1 between the woods of ,vincennes and the river1 he went to repose from time to time4 ,,nicholas ,,lancret was only by six years ,watteau's junior1 so that he can hardly be considered as a pupil or even a disciple1 but only as an imitator of ,watteau4 ,he was the pupil of ,claude ,gillot1 and afterwards his assistant1 and it was not unnatural that a close friendship should have been formed between ,lancret and ,watteau1 or that it should have been dissolved by the deliberate imitation by the former of the latter's style--seeing how successful the imitation was4 ,two of the pictures by ,lancret at ,hertford ,house1 ,nos4 #dbb1 ,conversation ,galante and #ddj1 ,fte in a ,wood1 are fair examples of how close1 at one period of his career1 the imitation became4 ,the latter is the ,bal dans un ,bois which was exhibited at the ,place ,dauphin1 and was complained of by ,watteau on account of its close resemblance to his own work4 ,another in the ,wallace ,collection belongs to the same early period of ,watteau's influence4 ,the ,italian ,comedians by a ,fountain 7,no4 #dfe71 being attributed to ,watteau in the sale1 in #ahec1 at which it was bought for ,lord ,hertford4 ,his lordship was particularly anxious to secure this picture1 ,between you and ,i1 he writes1 with the quaint regardlessness of grammar peculiar to the ,victorian nobility1 7and to no other person but you should ,i make this confidence71 ,i must have the ,lancret called ,watteau in the ,standish ,collection4 ,so ,i depend upon you for getting it for me4 ,i need not beg you not to mention a word about this to anybody1 either before or after the sale4 ,and again1 ,i depend upon your getting the ,lancret 7,watteau in the ,catalogue7 for me4 ,i have no doubt it will sell for a good sum1 most likely more than it is worth1 but we must have it 444 ,i leave it to you1 but ,i must have it1 unless by some unheard of chance it was to go beyond #cjjj guineas4 ,he was fortunate indeed in getting it for #gce4 ,mademoiselle ,camargo ,dancing 7,no4 #cic71 and ,la ,belle ,grecque 7,no4 #dej71 in the ,wallace ,collection1 are good examples of the ,comedian motive treated with more actuality1 yet with no less grace4 ,the four little allegorical pieces in the ,national ,gallery1 ,the ,four ,ages of ,man1 are more lively if less romantic1 being composed more for the characters illustrating the subject than for poetical setting4 ,,jean ,,baptise ,,joseph ,,pater was actually a pupil of ,watteau4 ,he was ten years his junior1 but was equally unhappy on account of his health1 and died at forty4 ,like ,lancret1 he incurred ,watteau's displeasure for a similar reason1 though in his case it was rather the fear of what he would do than what he did that was the cause of ,watteau's displeasure4 ,at the same time1 the names of both ,lancret and ,pater are inseparable from that of ,watteau in the history of painting1 and1 both in their choice of subject and their treatment of it1 they are hardly distinguishable to the casual observer4 ,watteau1 it need hardly be said1 was far above the other two1 but it was fortunate indeed that his romantic genius had two such gifted imitators as ,lancret and ,pater--or to put it the other way1 that they had such a master to imitate1 without whom neither their work nor their influence would have been nearly as great as it was4 ,,fran,,ois ,,boucher1 though doubtless influenced by ,watteau1 more especially at the outset of his brilliant career1 was nevertheless independent of him in carrying forward the art painting in his country1 choosing rather to revert to the patronage of the ,court like his predecessors ,le ,brun1 ,rigaud1 and ,largillire than to devote himself to the expression of his own ideas and feelings4 ,being a pupil of ,franois ,le ,moine1 whose principal work was the decoration of ,versailles1 it is not unnatural that ,boucher should have succumbed to the influence of ,royalty1 especially when exerted in his favour by as charming and as powerful an agent as ,madame de ,pompadour4 ,another early influence which shaped his artistic tendencies as well as his fortunes was that of ,carle van ,loo1 in whose honour his countrymen coined the verb vanlotiser--to frivol agreeably--- on account of the popularity which he achieved as a painter of elegant trifles4 ,there is a picture by ,carle van ,loo in the ,wallace ,collection entitled ,the ,grand ,turk giving a ,concert to his ,mistress 7,no4 #dea71 painted in #agcg1 which is a fair example of his proficiency in this direction1 and there are one or two portraits scattered about the country which he painted when over here for a few months towards the end of his life4 ,he died in ,paris on the #aeth ,july #agfe1 and ,boucher was immediately appointed his successor as principal painter to ,louis ,,xv4 ,madame de ,pompadour was more than a patron to him1 she was a matron6 ,she made an intimate friend and adviser of him1 and it is to her that he owed most of his advancement at ,court1 which continued after her death4 ,the full-length portrait of her at ,hertford ,house 7,no4 #dah7 was commissioned by her in #agei1 and remained in her possession till her death in #agfd4 ,it was purchased by ,lord ,hertford in #ahfh for #bh1jjj francs4 ,in the ,jones ,collection at the ,south ,kensington ,museum is another portrait of her1 and a third in the ,national ,gallery at ,edinburgh1 not to mention those in private collections4 ,the two magnificent cartoons on the staircase at ,hertford ,house1 called the ,rising and ,setting of the ,sun1 she begged from the king4 ,these were ordered in #agdh as designs to be executed in tapestry at the ,manufacture ,royale des ,gobelins1 by ,cozette and ,audran1 according to the catalogue of the ,salon in #agec when they were exhibited4 ,they are characterised by the brothers de ,goncourt as le plus grand effort du peintre1 les deux grandes machines de son oeuvre2 and the writer of the catalogue of ,madame de ,pompadour's pictures when they were sold in #agff testifies thus to the artist's own opinion of them3 ,j'ai entendu plusieurs fois dire par l'auteur qu'ils taient du nombre de ceux dont il tait le plus satisfait4 ,they were then sold for #ihjj livres1 and ,lord ,hertford paid #bj1bjj francs for them in #ahee4 ,even without these chefs d'oeuvre the ,wallace ,collection is richer than any other gallery in the works of ,boucher1 with twenty-four examples 7in all71 of which few if any are of inferior quality4 ,but it must be confessed that the abundance of ,boucher's work does not enhance its artistic value1 and we have to think of him1 in comparison with ,watteau and his school1 rather as a great decorator than a great painter4 ,with all his skill and charm1 that is to say1 there is not one of his canvases that we could place beside a picture by ,watteau on anything like equal terms4 ,superficially it may be equally or possibly more attractive1 but inwardly there is no comparison4 ,let us hear what ,sir ,joshua ,reynolds has to say of him3-- ,our neighbours1 the ,french1 are much in this practice of extempore invention1 and their dexterity is such as even to excite admiration1 if not envy2 but how rarely can this praise be given to their finished pictures6 ,the late ,director of their ,academy1 ,boucher1 was eminent in this way4 ,when ,i visited him some years since in ,france1 ,i found him at work on a very large picture without drawings or models of any kind4 ,on my remarking this particular circumstance1 he said1 when he was young1 studying his art1 he found it necessary to use models1 but he had left them off for many years4444 ,however1 in justice1 ,i cannot quit this painter without adding that in the former part of his life1 when he was in the habit of having recourse to nature1 he was not without a considerable degree of merit--enough to make half the painters of his country his imitators3 he had often grace and beauty1 and good skill in composition1 but ,i think all under the influence of a bad taste2 his imitators are1 indeed1 abominable4 ,twenty-one years elapsed between the birth of ,boucher and the next painter of anything like his ability1 namely1 ,,jean ,,baptiste ,,greuze4 ,he was a native of ,tournous1 near ,macon1 and lived to see the century out1 dying in #ahje1 at the age of seventy-eight4 ,his popularity is nowadays due chiefly to his heads of young girls1 which he painted in his later life with admirable skill1 but with a sentimentality that almost repels4 ,the famous example in the ,national ,gallery is more free from the sickly sweetness that spoils most of them1 and reminds us that he could paint more serious works1 and paint them exceedingly well4 ,he first came into notice by pictures like ,la ,lecture du ,bible1 ,la ,maldiction ,paternelle1 or ,le ,fils ,puni1 which are now to be seen--though generally passed by--at the ,louvre1 and his style was imitated in later years in ,england by ,wheatley and others of that school with more or less success4 ,it was a great blow to him1 and one which seriously affected his career when the ,academy censured his ,diploma picture1 ,the ,emperor ,severus reproaching ,caracalla4 ,but for this we might have had more than these sentimental young ladies from a hand that was undoubtedly worthy of better things4 ,however1 as ,lord ,hertford admired them sufficiently to include no less than twenty-one of them in his collection1 we ought not to be severe in criticising them1 and we may quote the description of ,the ,souvenir 7,no4 #cih7 given by ,john ,smith1 in his ,catalogue ,raisonn in #ahcg1 as showing the esteem in which it was held4 ,the ,souvenir4 ,an interesting female1 about fifteen years of age1 pressing fondly to her bosom a little red and white spaniel dog2 the pet animal appears to remind her of some favourite object1 for whose safety and return she is breathing an earnest wish2 her fair oval countenance and melting eyes are directed upwards1 and her ruby lips are slightly open2 her light hair falls negligently on her shoulder1 and is tastefully braided ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxxv4--,,jean-,,baptiste ,,greuze ,,the ,,broken ,,pitcher ,louvre1 ,paris with a crimson riband and pearls4 ,she is attired in a morning dress1 consisting of a loose gown and a brownish scarf1 the latter of which hangs across her arm4 ,upon a tree behind her is inscribed the name of the painter4 ,this beautiful production of art abounds in every attractive charm which gives interest to the master's works4 ,very different1 and far superior to ,greuze1 was ,,jean ,,honor ,,fragonard1 born at ,grasse1 in the ,alpes ,maritimes1 in #agcb4 ,in ,england his name was almost unknown until within quite recent years1 and the ,national ,gallery has only one picture by him1 which was bequeathed by ,george ,salting in #aiaj4 ,fortunately he is well represented in the ,wallace ,collection1 three at least of the nine examples being in his most brilliant manner4 ,fragonard's father was a glover4 ,in #agej the family moved to ,paris1 and the boy was put into a notary's office4 ,the usual signs of disinclination for office work and a passion for art having duly appeared1 he was sent to ,boucher1 who advised him to go and study under ,chardin4 ,this he did for a short time1 but finding it dull--for ,chardin was not as great a teacher as he was a painter--he went back to ,boucher as an assistant4 ,in #ageb he won the ,prix de ,rome1 although he had never attended the ,academy ,schools1 and in #agef started for ,italy4 ,reynolds had just returned from ,rome at the date of ,fragonard's capture of the opportunity of going there1 and we know from the ,discourses how he spent his time there and what direction his studies took4 ,fragonard pursued an exactly opposite course1 being advised thereto by ,boucher1 who said to him1 ,if you take ,michelangelo and ,raphael seriously1 you are lost4 ,feeling that the advice was suitable to himself1 if not sound on general principles1 ,fragonard devoted himself to the lighter and more sparkling works of ,tiepolo and others of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries4 ,he also made a tour in ,south ,italy and ,sicily with ,hubert ,robert1 the landscape painter1 and the ,abb ,saint ,non1 the latter of whom published a number of etchings he made after ,fragonard's drawings1 under the title of ,voyages de ,naples et de ,sicile4 ,on returning to ,paris in #agfa his first success was the large composition of ,callirho and ,coresus1 which was exhibited at the ,salon in #agfe1 and is now in the ,louvre4 ,but he soon abandoned the grand style1 chiefly1 it is probable1 owing to the patronage of the idle or industrious rich who showered commissions upon him1 for smaller and more sociable pictures with which to adorn and enliven their houses4 ,the beautiful1 but exceedingly improper picture at ,hertford ,house1 called ,the ,swing--or in ,french1 ,les ,hazards heureux de l',escarpolette1 appears to have been commissioned by the ,baron de ,st4 ,julien1 within the next year or two1 for in the memoirs of ,cott a conversation is recorded which shows that the ,baron had asked another painter1 ,doyen1 to paint it4 ,who would have believed1 says the indignant ,doyen1 that within a few days of my picture of ,ste4 ,genevive being exhibited at the ,salon1 a nobleman would have sent for me to order a picture on a subject like this4 ,he then goes on to relate how the ,baron explained to him exactly what he required4 ,we cannot entirely acquit ,fragonard of all blame in accepting such a commission1 but he was a young man1 just starting as a professional artist1 with the example of ,boucher before him1 and it would hardly have seemed wise to begin his career by offending a noble patron4 ,the whole incident throws a glaring light on the conditions under which the art of ,france flourished in the ,louis ,quinze period1 when ,boucher was everybody and ,chardin nobody4 ,for the real ,fragonard we may turn to ,le ,chiffre d',amour1 or the ,lady carving an initial1 as the prosaic diction of the ,wallace ,collection has it 7,no4 #chb74 ,in this the equal delicacy of the sentiment and of the painting combine to effect a little masterpiece of ,louis ,quinze art4 ,it is simple and natural1 and entirely free from the besetting sins of so slight a picture triviality1 affectation1 empty prettiness1 or simply silliness4 ,in its way it is perfect1 and for that perfection is for ever reserved the popularity which we find temporarily accorded to pictures like ,frith's ,dolly ,varden or ,millais' ,bubbles4 ,another of the ,hertford ,house examples1 the portrait of a ,boy as ,pierrot1 is equally entitled to be popular for all time1 and like ,reynolds's ,strawberry ,girl1 might well be called one of the half-dozen original things which no artist ever exceeded in his life's work4 ,a comparison between the two pictures1 which were probably painted within a few years of each other1 will serve to show the difference between the ,english and ,french ,schools at this period4 ,on the one hand--to put it very shortly indeed--we see ,fragonard influenced by ,tiepolo1 ,france1 and ,louis ,,xv42 on the other1 ,sir ,joshua1 influenced by ,michelangelo and ,raphael1 ,england1 and ,george ,,iii4 ,the mention of ,,jean ,,baptiste ,,simeon ,,chardin among this brilliant and frivolous galaxy seems almost out of place4 ,he is not so much an eighteenth-century ,french artist1 ,lady ,dilke says of him1 as a ,french artist of pure race and type4 ,though he treated subjects of the humblest and most unpretentious class1 he brought to their rendering not only deep feeling and a penetration which divined the innermost truths of the simplest forms of life1 but a perfection of workmanship by which everything he handled was clothed with beauty4 ,that the ,wallace ,collection includes no work from his hand is perhaps regrettable1 but truly ,chardin was someone apart from all the magnificence that dazzles us there4 ,his was the treasure of the humble4 ,the effects of the ,revolution upon ,french painting were as surprising as they were great4 ,that the gay and frivolous art of ,boucher and ,fragonard should have suddenly ceased might have been considered inevitable2 but whereas in ,holland1 when the ,spanish yoke had been thrown off1 and a ,republic proclaimed1 a vigorous democratic school arose under ,frans ,hals2 and in ,england during the ,commonwealth the artistic influence which was beginning to be spread by ,charles ,i4 and ,buckingham utterly ceased2 in ,france an artistic ,dictator arose1 as we may well call him1 in the person of ,,jacques ,,louis ,,david1 who not only made painting a part of the revolutionary propaganda1 but succeeded under the ,emperor ,napoleon also in maintaining his position as painter to the ,government1 and thereby imposing on his country a style of art which had a great influence on the whole course of ,french painting for many years to come4 ,but the most remarkable thing was that it was to the classics that this revolutioniser went for inspiration4 ,the explanation is to be found in the fact that he was bitterly aggrieved by the attitude of the ,academy to him as a young man1 and in the accident of his famous picture of ,brutus synchronising with the events of #aghi4 ,he was at once hailed as a deliverer1 and made1 as it were1 painter to the ,revolution4 ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxxvi4--,,fragonard ,l',,tude ,louvre1 ,paris ,but what was even more important in the influence he exerted at this time was his actual appointment as ,president of the ,convention1 which gave him the power to revenge himself upon the ,academy1 which he did by extinguishing it in #agic1 and to remove any inconvenient rivals by indicting them as aristocrats4 ,of the older painters1 ,fragonard and ,greuze were the only important ones left1 and as they could not under the altered circumstances be considered as rivals to the classical ,david1 they both saw the century out4 ,fragonard simply ceased painting for want of patrons1 and ,david was good enough to procure him a post in the ,museum des ,arts1 or he would have starved4 ,unfortunately he attempted to adapt himself to the new style1 and was promptly ejected from his post--ostensibly on his previous connection with royalty--and was wise enough to fly to his native town in the south4 ,during the first quarter of the nineteenth century the dictatorship of ,david was supreme4 ,how it was finally overthrown we shall see in another chapter4 ,,the ,,english ,,school ,i ,,the ,,early ,,portrait ,,painters ,in the preface to the ,anecdotes of ,painting written in #agfb1 ,horace ,walpole observes that this country had not a single volume to show on the works of its painters4 ,in truth1 he continues1 it has very rarely given birth to a genius in that profession4 ,flanders and ,holland have sent us the greatest men that we can boast4 ,this very circumstance may with reason prejudice the reader against a work1 the chief business of which must be to celebrate the art of a country which has produced so few good artists4 ,this objection is so striking1 that instead of calling it ,the ,lives of ,english ,painters1 ,i have simply given it the title of ,anecdotes of ,painting in ,england4 ,as ,walpole's work was merely a compilation from the voluminous notes of ,george ,vertue1 a painstaking antiquary who had collected every scrap of information he could acquire in the early years of the eighteenth century1 his conclusions can hardly be questioned1 and the foundation of the ,english school of painting is therefore generally assumed to have been effected by ,reynolds4 ,but as ,wren's ,cathedral replaced an older one which was destroyed by the fire of ,london1 and as that was reared on the foundation of a ,roman temple1 so we find that the art of painting in ,england was certainly practised in earlier times1 and but for certain circumstances much more of it would have survived than is now to be found4 ,in other countries1 as we have seen1 the ,church was in earlier times the greatest if not the only patron of the arts1 and there is plenty of evidence to show that in ,england1 too1 from the reign of ,henry ,,iii4 onwards till the ,reformation1 our churches were decorated with frescoes4 ,this evidence is of two kinds2 first1 entries in royal and other accounts1 directing payment for specified work2 and secondly1 the remains of fresco painting in our cathedrals and churches4 ,the former is of little interest except to the antiquary4 ,the latter has suffered so much from neglect or actual destruction as to be considered unworthy of the attention of either the artist in search of inspiration or the critic in pursuit of anything to criticise2 but when every inconsiderable production in the little world of ,english art has had its bulky quarto written upon it1 it is curious that no one has yet discovered what a splendid harvest awaits the investigation of these old frescoes all over the country4 ,as it is1 we have only to note that as religion was so important an influence on painting in other countries so was it in ,england1 only unfortunately as a destroying and not a cherishing influence4 ,granting the probability that there were few1 if any1 of our ,english frescoes which would be comparable in artistic interest with those in ,italy1 where the art was so sedulously cultivated1 it must nevertheless be remembered that only a fragment remains here and there out of all the work which must have been produced1 and that after the ,reformation even those works which did survive were treated with positive as well as negative obloquy1 so that where they have been preserved at all it is only by having been whitewashed over or otherwise hidden and damaged4 ,even worse than the ,reformation in #aecj1 was the ,puritan outburst a century later1 which not only destroyed works of art1 but extinguished all hope of their being created4 ,is it to be wondered at1 then1 that the foundation of the ,english ,school of painting should have been postponed for a century more8 ,at the same time it is interesting to note that the little painting which did creep into ,england in the sixteenth century1 was of the very kind that formed the chief feature of the ,english ,school when it was finally established1 namely portraiture4 ,here again we see the influence of religion2 for to the reformed church1 at least as interpreted by the ,english temperament1 the second commandment was and is still second only in number1 not in importance4 ,to ,protestant or ,puritan the idea of a picture in a church was anathema4 ,as late as #agff1 when ,benjamin ,west offered to decorate ,st4 ,paul's ,cathedral with a painting of ,moses receiving the tables of the law on ,mount ,sinai1 the ,bishop exclaimed1 ,i have heard of the proposition1 and as ,i am head of the ,cathedral of the ,metropolis1 ,i will not suffer the doors to be opened to introduce popery4 ,the painting of a portrait1 however1 was a very different matter1 and from the earliest times appears to have appealed with peculiar strength to the vanity of ,britons4 ,loudly as they protested against the iniquity of bowing down to and worshipping the likeness of anything in heaven above or in the earth beneath or in the waters under the earth1 they were never averse to giving others an opportunity of bowing down to and worshipping the likenesses of themselves2 and while religion fostered the arts in other countries1 self-importance kept them alive in this4 ,the portrait of ,richard ,,ii4 in ,westminster ,abbey1 if not actually an instance of this1 certainly happens to seem like one4 ,with the exception of ,jan de ,mabuse1 who is said to have been in ,england for a short time during the reign of ,henry ,,vii41 the first painter of any importance in this country was ,hans ,holbein4 ,hearing that money was to be made by painting portraits at the ,english ,court1 he forsook his native town1 his religious art1 and his wife1 and came to stay with ,sir ,thomas ,more at ,chelsea1 with an introduction from ,erasmus4 ,arriving in #aebg1 he started business by making a sketch in pen and ink of ,more's entire family1 with which marvellous work1 still preserved in the ,museum at ,basle1 the history of modern ,english painting may fairly be said to have begun2 for though it was long before a native of ,england was forthcoming who was of sufficient force to carry on the tradition1 the seed was sown1 and in due course the plant appeared1 and after many vicissitudes1 at last flourished4 ,the immediate effect may be noted by mentioning here the names of ,,guillim ,,streetes1 who was possibly ,english born1 and ,,john ,,bettes who certainly was4 ,to the former is attributed the large whole-length portrait at ,hampton ,court of ,thomas ,howard1 ,earl of ,surrey1 in a suit of bright red4 ,another portrait of ,howard belongs to the ,duke of ,norfolk1 having been presented to his ancestor by ,sir ,robert ,walpole4 ,both were exhibited at the ,tudor ,exhibition in #ahib4 ,streetes was painter to ,king ,edward ,,vi41 and according to ,stype he was paid fifty marks1 in #aeea1 for recompense of three great tables whereof two were the pictures of his ,highness sent to ,sir ,thomas ,hoby and ,sir ,john ,mason 7ambassadors abroad71 the third a picture of the late ,earl of ,surrey attainted1 and by the ,councils' commandment fetched from the said ,guillim's house4 ,horace ,walpole was under the impression that this was the ,duke of ,norfolk's picture1 but the ,hampton ,court ,catalogue claims the other one as the work of ,streetes4 ,in the ,national ,gallery is a bust portrait of ,edmund ,butts1 physician to ,henry ,,viii41 which is inscribed faict par ,johan ,bettes ,anglois1 and with the date #aede4 ,in this the influence of ,holbein is certainly discernible1 though not all pervading4 ,there were two brothers1 ,,thomas and ,,john ,,bettes who are mentioned by ,meres with several other ,english painters in ,palladis ,tamia1 published in #aeih--;,as ,greece had moreover their painters1 so in ,england we have also these1 ,william and ,francis ,segar1 brethren1 ,thomas and ,john ,bettes1 ,lockie1 ,lyne1 ,peake1 ,peter ,cole1 ,arnolde1 ,marcus 7,mark ,garrard71 etc4 ,walpole1 quoting this1 adds1 ,i quote this passage to prove to those who learn one or two names by rote that every old picture you see is not by ,holbein4 ,at the same time it must be admitted that until some considerable fund of information concerning these early days of painting is brought to light1 there is very little to be said about any one except ,holbein till almost the end of the sixteenth century4 ,that ,holbein was a wonderful artist1 as ,more wrote to ,erasmus1 is not to be denied4 ,but in placing him among the very greatest1 we must not forget that his range was somewhat limited4 ,we might nowadays call him a specialist1 for in ,england he painted nothing but portraits1 and very few of his pictures contained anything besides the single figure1 or head1 of the subject4 ,the famous exception is the large picture called ,the ,ambassadors1 which was purchased at an enormous price from the ,longford ,castle collection1 and is now in the ,national ,gallery4 ,important and interesting as this is as showing us how ,holbein could fill a large canvas1 there is no doubt that he is far happier in simple portraiture1 and that the #fj1jjj expended on ,christina ,duchess of ,milan was1 relatively1 a better investment for the nation4 ,in the famous half-lengths like the ,george ,gisze at ,berlin 7which was painted in ,london7 and the ,man with the ,hawk1 where the portrait is surrounded by accessories1 ,holbein is perhaps at his very best2 but it is as a painter of heads1 simply1 that he influenced the ,english ,school1 and set an example which1 alas6 has never been attainable since4 ,for one thing1 which is apart altogether from talent or genius1 ,holbein's method was never followed in later times1 namely1 the practice of making carefully finished drawings in crayon before painting a portrait in oils4 ,he was a wonderful draughtsman1 and in the series of over eighty drawings at ,windsor we have even more life-like images of the persons represented than their finished portraits4 ,i am not aware that any portrait drawings exists of ,holbein's contemporaries or successors in ,england earlier than one or two by ,van ,dyck4 ,there are a good many belonging to the seventeenth century1 but with one or two exceptions they are little more than sketches4 ,and though sketches have only survived by accident1 as it were1 not being intended for anything more than the artist's own purposes1 finished drawings would have been kept1 like ,holbein's1 with much greater care4 ,in a word1 then1 ,holbein's first and chief business was in rendering the likeness of the sitter4 ,being a ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxxvii4--,,hans ,,holbein ,,anne ,,of ,,cleves ,louvre1 ,paris born genius1 he accomplished far more than this2 but it is important in tracing the development of the ,english ,school of painting to remember that its origin was not in the idealization of religious sentiment1 but in the realization of the human features4 ,from the time of the first great genius to that of the next1 exactly a century later1 there is hardly a portrait in existence that is valued for anything but its historic or personal interest4 ,between ,holbein and ,van ,dyck is a great gap1 in which the only names of ,englishmen are those of the miniaturists1 ,hilliard and ,oliver1 who were veritably of the seed of ,holbein1 but only in little4 ,van ,dyck struck deeper into the ,english soil1 and loosened it sufficiently for the growth of larger stuff1 if still somewhat coarse1 like the work of ,william ,dobson and ,robert ,walker4 ,to ,van ,dyck succeeded ,peter ,lely1 who boldly and worthily assumed the mantle of ,van ,dyck1 and kept ,english portraiture alive throughout the dismal period of the ,commonwealth4 ,after the ,restoration he was still in power1 and under him flourished one or two painters of ,english birth1 like ,greenhill and ,riley1 who in turn gave way to others under ,kneller without ceding the monopoly to foreigners4 ,from these came ,jervas1 ,richardson1 and1 most important1 ,hudson1 who was ,reynolds's master1 and so we arrive at the beginning of what is now generally known as the ,english ,school4 ,another source1 however1 must here be mentioned as joining the main stream1 and contributing a solid body of water to it1 chiefly below the surface1 namely the art of ,,william ,,hogarth4 ,being essentially ,english1 and without any artistic forefathers1 it is not surprising that he left less perceptible impressions on his immediate successors than the more accomplished and educated ,reynolds2 but the solid force of his character1 as exemplified in his career and his works1 is hardly a less important factor in the development of the ,english ,school1 while from his outspoken opinions on the state of the arts in his time he is one of the most valuable sources of its history4 ,,ii ,,william ,,hogarth ,,william ,,hogarth occupies a curious position in the history of ,english painting4 ,there was nothing ever quite like him in any country--except ,greuze in ,france2 for though a comparison between two such opposites1 seems at first sight absurd1 it must be remembered that ,french and ,english painting in the middle of the eighteenth century were no less far apart4 ,both ,greuze and ,hogarth1 in their own fashion1 tried to preach moral lessons in paint1 the one in the over-refined atmosphere of ,french surroundings1 the other in the coarse language of ,england in his time4 ,hogarth's chief characteristic was his blunt1 honest1 bull-dog ,englishness1 which at the particular moment of his appearance on the artistic stage was a quality which was eminently serviceable to ,english painting4 ,though of humble parents1 his honest and forceful character won for him the daughter of ,sir ,james ,thornhill in marriage 7by elopement7 and his sturdy talent in painting secured for him his father-in-law's forgiveness and encouragement4 ,thornhill came of a good1 old ,wiltshire family1 and had been knighted by ,george ,i4 for his sterling merits as much as for his skill in painting and decorating the royal palaces and the houses of noblemen4 ,his place among ,english artists is not a very high one1 but he deserves the credit of having stood out against the monopoly that was being established by foreigners in this country in every department of artistic work1 and in this sense he is a still earlier forerunner of the great ,english painters1 than his more forcible son-in-law4 ,if ,hogarth had been content to follow the beaten track of portraiture as his main pursuit1 and let the country's morals take care of themselves1 he would in all probability have attained much greater heights as a painter4 ,but his nature would not allow him to do this4 ,his character was too strong and his originality too uncontrollable4 ,there is enough evidence among the works which have survived him1 especially in those which were never finished1 to show that his accomplishments in oil painting were of a very high order indeed4 ,i need only refer to the famous head in the ,national ,gallery known as ,the ,shrimp ,girl to explain what ,i mean4 ,in this surprisingly vivacious and charming sketch we see something that is not inferior to ,hals1 in its broad truth and its quick seizure of the essentials of what had to be rendered4 ,in another unfinished piece1 which is now in the ,south ,london ,art ,gallery at ,camberwell1 we see the same powerful qualities differently exhibited1 for it is not a single head this time1 but a sketch of a ballroom where everybody is dancing1 except one gentleman who is even more vivid than the rest1 in the act of mopping his head at the open window4 ,there is nothing grotesque in this picture1 but it is all perfectly life-like and wonderfully sketched in4 ,in his finished pictures ,hogarth does not appear to such great advantage--,i mean as a painter2 but it must be remembered that in his day there was little example for him to follow in the higher departments of his art4 ,nor had he ever been out of ,england to see fine pictures on the ,continent4 ,not only this1 but as his work was intended especially to appeal to ordinary people1 it is hardly to be expected that he would express himself in terms other than might most quickly appeal to them4 ,his most famous works1 indeed1 were executed as well as designed for the engraver1 namely ,the ,harlot's ,progress1 ,the ,rake's ,progress1 ,marriage la ,mode1 and ,the ,election1 each of which consisted of a series of several minutely finished pictures4 ,in portraiture he showed finer qualities1 it is true2 but even in these he was thinking more of getting the most out of his model1 according to his forcible character1 than of any technical refinements for which he might be handed down to posterity as a great painter4 ,it was easy enough for ,reynolds to sneer at ,hogarth for his vulgarity1 when he was trying to impress upon his pupils the importance of painting in the grand style4 ,as for the various departments of painting1 he says in his third ,discourse1 which do not presume to make such high pretensions1 they are many4 ,none of them are without their merit1 though none enter into competition with this universal presiding idea of the art4 ,the painters who have applied themselves more particularly to low and vulgar characters1 and who express with precision the various shades of passion as they are exhibited by vulgar minds 7such as we see in the works of ,hogarth71 deserve great praise2 but as their genius has been employed on low and confined subjects1 the praise which we must give must be as limited as its object4 ,and yet it was in following an example set by ,hogarth in portrait painting that ,reynolds gained his ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxxviii4--,,william ,,hogarth ,,the ,,shrimp ,,girl ,national ,gallery1 ,london first success in that art4 ,i mean the full-length portrait of ,captain ,keppel1 painted in #ageb4 ,this originality and boldness in disregarding the tame but universal convention in posing the sitter was peculiarly ,hogarth's own4 ,with him it amounted almost to perverseness4 ,he would not let anybody sit to him1 if he could help it4 ,when he did1 as in the portraits of ,quinn1 the actor1 and ,hoadly1 ,bishop of ,winchester1 in the ,national ,gallery1 the result is not the happiest2 for1 with all their force1 these portraits lack the grace that a conventional pose requires to render it acceptable in the terms of its convention4 ,if a man must put on the accepted evening dress of his time1 he must see that it conforms in the spirit as well as in the letter of the fashion1 or he will only look like a dressed-up greengrocer4 ,hogarth was too sturdy and too wilful to put on court clothes4 ,if he had to1 he struggled with them4 ,hogarth's father was a man of literary tastes1 and a scholar4 ,he had written a supplement to ,littleton's ,latin ,dictionary1 but was unable to get it published4 ,i saw the difficulties1 writes the artist1 under which my father laboured2 the many inconveniences he endured from his dependence1 living chiefly on his pen1 and the cruel treatment he met with from booksellers and printers4 ,i had before my eyes the precarious situation of men of classical education2 it was therefore conformable to my wishes that ,i was taken from school and served a long apprenticeship to a silver-plate engraver4 ,this is printed in ,allan ,cunningham's ,life of ,hogarth1 together with many more extracts from autobiographical memoranda1 from which we may learn at first hand a great deal of information bearing on the state of painting at this period1 and the circumstances under which it received such a stimulus from ,hogarth1 before the sun had fully risen 7in the person of ,reynolds7 to illumine the whole period of ,british art4 ,as ,i had naturally a good eye and fondness for drawing1 ,hogarth continues1 shows of all sorts gave me uncommon pleasure when young1 and mimicry1 common to all children1 was remarkable in me4 ,an early access to a neighbouring painter drew my attention from play1 and ,i was at every possible opportunity engaged in making drawings4444 ,my exercises at school were more remarkable for the ornaments which adorned them than for the exercise itself4 ,in the former ,i soon found that blockheads with better memories would soon surpass me1 but for the latter ,i was particularly distinguished4 ,the painting of ,st4 ,paul's and ,greenwich ,hospital1 which were at that time going on1 ran in my head1 and ,i determined that silver-plate engraving should be followed no longer than necessity obliged me to it4 ,engraving on copper was1 at twenty years of age1 my utmost ambition4 ,to attain that it was necessary that ,i should learn to draw objects something like nature1 instead of the monsters of heraldry1 and the common methods of study were much too tedious for one who loved his pleasure and came so late to it4444 ,this led me to consider whether a shorter road than that usually travelled was not to be found4444 ,i had learned by practice to copy with tolerable correctness in the ordinary way1 but it occurred to me that there were many disadvantages attending this method of study1 as having faulty originals1 etc42 and even when the prints or pictures to be imitated were by the best masters1 it was little more than pouring water out of one vessel into another4 ,many reasons led me to wish that ,i could find a shorter path--fix forms and characters in my mind--and1 instead of copying the lines1 try to read the language1 and if possible find the grammar of the art1 by bringing into one focus the various observations ,i had made1 and then trying by my power on the canvas how far my plan enabled me to combine and apply them to practice4444 ,i had one material advantage over my competitors1 viz41 the early habit ,i acquired of retaining in my mind's eye1 without coldly copying on the spot1 whatever ,i intended to imitate4444 ,instead of burdening the memory with musty rules1 or tiring the eye with copying dry or damaged pictures1 ,i have ever found studying from nature the shortest and safest way of obtaining knowledge in my art4444 ,i entertained some thoughts1 he writes again1 of succeeding in what the puffers in books call the great style of history painting1 so that1 without having had a stroke of this grand business before1 ,i quitted small portraits and familiar conversations1 and with a smile at my own temerity commenced history painter1 and on a great staircase at ,st4 ,bartholomew's ,hospital painted two ,scripture stories1 ,the ,pool of ,bethesda and ,the ,good ,samaritan1 with figures seven feet high4 ,these ,i presented to the charity1 and thought that they might serve as a specimen to show that1 were there an inclination in ,england for encouraging historical pictures1 such a first essay might prove the painting them more easily attainable than is generally imagined4 ,but as ,religion1 the great promoter of this style in other countries1 rejected it in ,england1 and ,i was unwilling to sink into a portrait-manufacturer--and still ambitious of being singular1 ,i soon dropped all expectations of advantage from that source1 and returned to the pursuit of my former dealings with the public at large4 ,few seemed disposed to recognise1 in any of ,hogarth's works1 a higher aim than that of raising a laugh4 ,somerville1 the poet1 dedicated his ,rural ,games to ,hogarth in these words--,permit me1 ,sir1 to make choice of you for my patron1 being the greatest master in the burlesque way4 ,your province is the town--leave me a small outride in the country1 and ,i shall be content4 ,fielding had a different opinion of his merits3 ,he who would call the ingenious ,hogarth a burlesque painter would in my opinion do him very little honour1 for sure it is much easier1 much less the subject of admiration1 to paint a man with a nose1 or any other feature of a preposterous size1 or to expose him in some absurd or monstrous attitude1 than to express the affections of man on canvas4 ,it hath been thought a vast commendation of a painter to say his figures seem to breathe1 but surely it is a much greater and nobler applause that they appear to think4 ,in answer to criticism of his ,analysis of ,beauty1 ,hogarth writes3 ,among other crimes of which ,i am accused1 it is asserted that ,i have abused the ',great ,masters'2 this is far from being just4 ,so far from attempting to lower the ancients1 ,i have always thought1 and it is universally admitted1 that they knew some fundamental principles in nature which enabled them to produce works that have been the admiration of succeeding ages2 but ,i have not allowed this merit to those leaden-headed imitators1 who1 having no consciousness of either symmetry or propriety1 have attempted to mend nature1 and in their truly ideal figures1 gave similar proportions to a ,mercury and a ,hercules4 ,another and a better spirit influenced him in the following passage--he is proposing to seek the principles of beauty in nature instead of looking for them in mere learning4 ,his words are plain1 direct1 and convincing4 ,nature is simple1 plain1 and true in all her works1 and those who strictly adhere to her laws1 and closely attend to her appearances in their infinite varieties are guarded against any prejudicial bias from truth2 while those who have seen many things that they cannot well understand1 and read many books which they do not fully comprehend1 notwithstanding all their parade of knowledge1 are apt to wander about it and about it2 perplexing themselves and their readers with the various opinions of other men4 ,as to those painters who have written treatises on painting1 they were in general too much taken up with giving rules for the operative part of the art1 to enter into physical disquisitions on the nature of the objects4 ,after this it would be unfair to withhold the praise of ,benjamin ,west 7who succeeded ,reynolds as ,president of the ,royal ,academy7--a painter1 prudent in speech1 and frugal in commendation4 ,i remember1 when ,i was a lad1 says ,smith1 in his account of ,nollekens1 asking the late venerable ,president ,west what he thought of ,hogarth's ,analysis of ,beauty1 and his answer was1 ',it is a work of the highest value to everyone studying the art4 ,hogarth was a strutting consequential little man1 and made himself many enemies by that book2 but now that most of them are dead1 it is examined by disinterested readers1 unbiassed by personal animosities1 and will be more and more read1 studied and understood4' ,in his memoranda respecting the establishment of an ,academy of ,art in ,england1 ,hogarth writes well and wisely4 ,voltaire asserts that after the establishment of the ,french ,academy not one work of genius appeared1 for all the painters became mannerists and imitators4 ,hogarth agrees with him1 declaring that the institution will serve to raise and pension a few bustling and busy men1 whose whole employment will be to tell a few simple students when a leg is too long1 or an arm too short4 ,more will flock to the study of art than genius sends2 the hope of profit1 or the thirst of distinction1 will induce parents to push their offspring into the lecture-room1 and many will appear and but few be worthy4 ,the paintings of ,italy form a sort of ornamental fringe to their gaudy religion1 and ,rome is the general storeshop of ,europe4 ,the arts owe much to ,popery1 and ,popery owes much of its universality to the arts4 ,the ,french have attained to a sort of foppish magnificence in art2 in ,holland1 selfishness is the ruling passion1 and in ,england vanity is united with selfishness4 ,portrait-painting1 therefore1 has succeeded1 and ever will succeed better in ,england than in any other country1 and the demand will continue as new faces come into the market4 ,portrait painting is one of the ministers of vanity1 and vanity is a munificent patroness2 historical painting seeks to revive the memory of the dead1 and the dead are very indifferent paymasters4 ,paintings are plentiful enough in ,england to keep us from the study of nature2 but students who confine their studies to the works of the dead1 need never hope to live themselves2 they will learn little more than the names of the painters3 true painting can only be learnt in one school1 and that is kept by ,nature4 ,hogarth disliked a formal school1 says ,cunningham1 because he was the pupil of nature1 and foresaw that students would flock to it from the feeling of trade rather than the impulse of genius1 and that it become a manufactory for conventional forms and hereditary graces4 ,opulent collectors were filling their galleries with the religious paintings of the ,romish ,church1 and vindicating their purchases by representing these works as the only patterns of all that is noble in art and worthy of imitation4 ,hogarth perceived that all this was not according to the natural spirit of the nation2 he well knew that our island had not yet poured out its own original mind in art1 as it had done in poetry2 and he felt assured that such a time would come1 if native genius were not overlaid systematically by mock patrons and false instructors4 ,as a painter1 says ,walpole1 ,hogarth has slender merit4 ,what is the merit of a painter8 ,cunningham concludes4 ,if it be to represent life--to give us an image of man--to exhibit the workings of his heart--to record the good and evil of his nature--to set in motion before us the very beings with whom earth is peopled--to shake us with mirth--to sadden us with woeful reflection--to please us with natural grouping1 vivid action1 and vigorous colouring--,hogarth has done all this--and if he that has done so be not a painter1 who will show us one8 ,,iii ,,sir ,,joshua ,,reynolds ,,and ,,thomas ,,gainsborough ,whether or not ,,sir ,,joshua ,,reynolds is entitled to be ranked among the very greatest painters1 there can be no question that he has a place among the most famous1 not only on account of his actual painting1 but also because of the influence exerted by his whole-hearted devotion to his art1 and his strong character in forming1 out of such unpromising elements1 a really vigorous school of painting in this country4 ,the example he set in the strenuous exercise of his profession1 the precepts he laid down for the guidance of students1 and the dignity with which he invested the whole practice of painting which1 until he came1 had degenerated into a mere business1 were of incalculable benefit to his own and succeeding ages1 and ,edmund ,burke was paying him no empty compliment but only stating the bare truth when he said that ,sir ,joshua ,reynolds was the first ,englishman who added the praise of the elegant arts to the other glories of his country4 ,joshua ,reynolds was born at ,plympton in ,devonshire on the #afth ,july #agbc2 the son of the ,rev4 ,samuel ,reynolds and his wife ,theophila ,potter4 ,he was on every side connected with the ,church1 for both his father and his grandfather were in holy orders1 his mother was the daughter of a clergyman1 and his maternal grandmother also4 ,his father's elder brother1 too1 was a clergyman1 a fellow of ,eton ,college and ,canon of ,st4 ,peter's1 ,exeter4 ,so that here1 as in ,italy1 we start with a basis of religion4 ,the young artist's first essays were made in copying several little things done by his elder sisters1 and he afterwards took great delight in copying such prints as he met with in his father's books1 particularly those in ,plutarch's ,lives1 and in ,jacob ,cats's ,book of ,emblems1 which his great-grandmother by his father's side1 a ,dutch woman1 had brought from ,holland4 ,when he was only eight years old he read with great avidity a book called ,the ,jesuits ,perspective1 an architectural1 not a religious work1 and made himself so completely master of it that he never afterwards had occasion to study any other treatise on the subject4 ,in fact1 a drawing which he then made of ,plympton ,school so filled his father with wonder that he said to him1 ,now this exemplifies what the author of the ,perspective says in his preface--that by observing the rules laid down in his book a man may do wonders1 for this is wonderful6 ,from these attempts he proceeded to draw likenesses of his friends and relations with tolerable success4 ,but what most strongly confirmed him in his love of the art was ,richardson's ,treatise on ,painting1 the perusal of which so delighted and inflamed his mind1 that ,raphael appeared to him superior to the most illustrious names of ancient or modern times--a notion which he loved to indulge all the rest of his life4 ,before he was eighteen years old his father placed him as a pupil with ,thomas ,hudson1 who was then the most distinguished portrait-painter in ,england2 but having some disagreement with his master1 the young man returned to ,devonshire1 where he practised portrait painting with more or less success until in #agdi he accompanied ,admiral ,keppel to the ,mediterranean1 and remained for two or three years studying the old masters in ,italy4 ,as this period of ,reynold's career had so determining an influence not only on himself but on the whole course of the history of painting in ,england--inasmuch as it formed the greater part of the groundwork of his discourses when ,president of the ,royal ,academy1 it is worth having an account of it at first hand from the painter himself4 ,it has frequently happened1 he says1 as ,i was informed by the ,keeper of the ,vatican1 that many of those whom he had conducted through the various apartments of that edifice when about to be dismissed1 have asked for the works of ,raphael1 and would not believe that they had already passed through the room where they are preserved1 so little impression had those performances made on them4 ,one of the first painters now in ,france once told me that this circumstance happened to himself1 though he now looks on ,raphael with that veneration which he deserves from all painters and lovers of the art4 ,i remember very well my own disappointment when ,i first visited the the ,vatican3 but on confessing my feelings to a brother student1 of whose ingenuousness ,i had a high opinion1 he acknowledged that the works of ,raphael had the same effect on him1 or rather that they did not produce the effect which he expected4 ,this was a great relief to my mind1 and on inquiry further of other students ,i found that those persons only who from natural imbecility appeared to be incapable of ever relishing those divine performances1 made pretensions to instantaneous raptures on first beholding them4 ,in justice to myself1 however1 ,i must add that though disappointed and mortified at not finding myself enraptured with the works of this great master1 ,i did not for a moment conceive or suppose that the name of ,raphael1 and those admirable paintings in particular1 owed their reputation to the ignorance and prejudice of mankind2 on the contrary1 my not relishing them as ,i was conscious ,i ought to have done was one of the most humiliating circumstances that ever happened to me4 ,i found myself in the midst of works executed upon principles with which ,i was unacquainted3 ,i felt my ignorance1 and stood abashed4 ,all the indigested notions of painting which ,i had brought with me from ,england where the art was in the lowest state it had ever been in 7it could not indeed be lower7 were to be totally done away and eradicated from my mind4 ,it was necessary1 as it is expressed on a very solemn occasion1 that ,i should become as a little child4 ,notwithstanding my disappointment1 ,i proceeded to copy some of those excellent works4 ,i viewed them again and again2 ,i even affected to feel their merit and to admire them more than ,i really did4 ,in a short time a new taste and new perceptions began to dawn upon me1 and ,i was convinced that ,i had originally formed a false opinion of the perfection of art1 and that this great painter was well entitled to the high rank which he holds in the estimation of the world4 ,when ,i was at ,venice1 he writes in a note on ,du ,fresnoy's ,art of ,painting about the chiaroscuro of ,titian1 ,paul ,veronese and ,tintoretto1 the method ,i took to avail myself of their principles was this4 ,when ,i observed an extraordinary effect of light and shade in any picture1 ,i took a leaf of my pocket-book and darkened every part of it in the same gradation of light and shade as the picture1 leaving the white paper untouched to represent the light1 and this without any attention to the subject or to the drawing of the figures4 ,after a few experiments ,i found the paper blotted nearly alike2 their general practice appeared to be to allow not above a quarter of the picture for the light1 including in this portion both the principal and secondary lights2 another quarter to be as dark as possible1 and the remaining half kept in mezzotint or half shadow4 ,rubens appears to have admitted rather more light than a quarter1 and ,rembrandt much less1 scarce an eighth2 by this conduct ,rembrandt's light is extremely brilliant1 but it costs too much1 the rest of the picture is sacrificed to this one object4 ,the results of these studies in ,rome and ,venice were at once observable on his return to ,england in the beautiful portrait of ,giuseppe ,marchi1 one of the treasures belonging to the ,royal ,academy4 ,it was altogether too much for the ignorant ,british artists1 and it excited lively comment4 ,what chiefly attracted the public notice1 however1 was the whole-length portrait which he painted of his friend and patron ,admiral ,keppel4 ,on the appearance of this ,reynolds was not only universally acknowledged to be at the head of his profession1 but to be the greatest painter that ,england had seen since ,van ,dyck4 ,the whole interval1 as ,malone observes1 between the time of ,charles ,i4 and the conclusion of the reign of ,george ,,ii4 seemed to be annihilated1 and the only question was whether the new painter or ,van ,dyck were the more excellent4 ,reynolds very soon saw how much animation might be obtained by deviating from the insipid manner of his immediate predecessors1 and instead of confining himself to mere likeness he dived1 as it were1 into the minds and habits and manners of those who sat to him1 and accordingly the majority of his portraits are so appropriate and characteristic that the many illustrious persons whom he has delineated are almost as well known to us as if we had seen and conversed with them4 ,very soon after his return from ,italy his acquaintance with ,dr ,johnson commenced1 and their intimacy continued uninterrupted to the time of ,johnson's death4 ,how much he profited thereby1 especially in the practice of art1 he has recorded in a paper which was intended to form a part of one of his discourses4 ,i remember1 he writes1 ,mr ,burke speaking of the ,essays of ,sir ,francis ,bacon1 said he thought them the best of his works4 ,dr ,johnson was of opinion 'that their excellence and their value consisted in being the observations of a strong mind operating upon life2 and in consequence you find there what you seldom find in other books1' ,it is this kind of excellence which gives a value to the performances of artists also4444 ,the observations which he made on poetry1 on life1 and on everything about us1 ,i applied to our art2 with what success others must judge4 ,perhaps an artist in his studies should pursue the same conduct1 and instead of patching up a particular work on the narrow plan of imitation1 rather endeavour to acquire the art and power of thinking4 ,in another passage from his memoranda1 quoted by ,malone1 ,sir ,joshua lets us into some more of the secrets of his pre-eminence in his art1 both of painter and preceptor3 for we are to remember that the ,british ,school of painting owes more to the influence of ,reynolds than perhaps any other school to the example of one man3-- ,i considered myself as playing a great game1 he writes1 and instead of beginning to save money1 ,i laid it out faster than ,i got it in1 purchasing the best examples of art that could be procured2 for ,i even borrowed money for this purpose4 ,the possessing portraits by ,titian1 ,van ,dyck1 ,rembrandt1 etc41 ,i considered as the best kind of wealth4 ,by studying carefully the works of great masters1 this advantage is obtained--we find that certain niceties of expression are capable of being executed1 which otherwise we might suppose beyond the reach of art4 ,this gives us a confidence in ourselves1 and we are thus incited to endeavour at not only the same happiness of execution but also at other congenial excellencies4 ,study indeed consists in learning to see nature1 and may be called the art of using other men's minds4 ,by this kind of contemplation and exercise we are taught to think in their way1 and sometimes to attain their excellence4 ,thus1 for instance1 if ,i had never seen any of the works of ,correggio1 ,i should never perhaps have remarked in nature the expression which ,i find in one of his pieces2 or if ,i had remarked it ,i might have thought it too difficult1 or perhaps impossible to be executed4 ,my success and continual improvement in my art 7if ,i may be allowed that expression71 may be ascribed in a good measure to a principle which ,i will boldly recommend to imitation2 ,i mean the principle of honesty2 which in this as in all other instances is according to the vulgar proverb certainly the best policy3 ,i always endeavoured to do my best4 ,my principal labour was employed on the whole together1 and ,i was never weary of changing and trying different modes and different effects4 ,i had always some scheme in my mind1 and a perpetual desire to advance4 ,by constantly endeavouring to do my best1 ,i acquired a power of doing that with spontaneous facility that which at first was the effort of my whole mind4 ,i had not an opportunity of being early initiated in the principles of colouring2 he continues1 no man indeed could teach me4 ,if ,i have never been settled with respect to colouring1 let it at the same time be remembered that my unsteadiness in this respect proceeded from an inordinate desire to possess every kind of excellence that ,i ever saw in the works of others1 without considering that there are in colouring1 as in style1 excellencies which are incompatible with each other4444 ,i tried every effect of colour1 and by leaving out every colour in its turn1 showed every colour that ,i could do without it4 ,as ,i alternately left out every ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xxxix4--,,sir ,,joshua ,,reynolds ,,lady ,,cockburn ,,and ,,her ,,children ,national ,gallery1 ,london colour1 ,i tried every new colour2 and often1 as is well known1 failed4444 ,my fickleness in the mode of colouring arose from an eager desire to attain the highest excellence4 ,in the year #agei ,reynolds began to write1 and three of his essays were printed in the ,idler1 which was conducted by ,dr4 ,johnson4 ,northcote records that at the same time he committed to paper a variety of remarks which afterwards served him as hints for his discourses4 ,one or two of these will give us as good an idea as we are likely to get from elsewhere of what are the first requisites of a successful painter4 ,it is absolutely necessary that a painter1 as the first requisite1 should endeavour as much as possible to form to himself an idea of perfection not only of beauty1 but of what is perfection in a picture4 ,this conception he should always have fixed in his view1 and unless he has this view we shall never see any approaches towards perfection in his works2 for it will not come by chance4 ,if a man has nothing of that which is called genius1 that is1 if he is not carried away1 if ,i may so say1 by the animation1 the fire of enthusiasm1 all the rules in the world will never make him a painter4 ,he who possesses genius is enabled to see a real value in those things which others disregard and overlook4 ,he perceives a difference in cases where inferior capacities see none2 as the fine ear for music can distinguish an evident variation in sounds which to another ear more dull seem to be the same4 ,this example will also apply to the eye in respect to colouring4 ,in the beginning of the year #agfj1 ,reynolds moved into the house on the west side of ,leicester ,square which he occupied for the rest of his life4 ,it is now tenanted by ,messrs4 ,puttick ,simpson1 the ,auctioneers4 ,northcote has usefully recorded the following details his studio4 ,his painting-room was of an octagonal form1 about twenty feet long and about sixteen in breath4 ,the window which gave the light to this room was square1 and not much larger than one half the size of a common window in a private house1 whilst the lower part of this window was nine feet four inches from the floor4 ,the chair for his sitters was raised eighteen inches from the floor1 and turned round on castors4 ,his palettes were those which are held by a handle1 not those held on the thumb4 ,the sticks of his pencils 7brushes7 were long1 measuring about nineteen inches4 ,he painted in that part of the room nearest the window1 and never sat down when he worked4 ,as the actual methods of a great artist are possibly of more value in a history of painting than the subjects1 or even the prices1 of his pictures1 ,i venture to quote the following extracts from various parts of ,sir ,joshua's own memoranda3-- ,never give the least touch with your pencil 7i4e4 brush7 till you have present in your mind a perfect idea of your future work4 ,paint at the greatest possible distance from your sitter1 and place the picture 444 near to the sitter1 or sometimes under him1 so as to see both together4 ,in beautiful faces keep the whole circumference about the eye in a mezzotinto1 as seen in the works of ,guido and the best of ,carlo ,maratti4 ,endeavour to look at the subject or sitter from which you are painting1 as if it was a picture4 ,this will in some degree render it more easy to be copied4 ,in painting consider the object before you1 whatever it may be1 as more made out by light and shadow than by lines4 ,a student should begin his career by a careful finishing and making out the parts2 as practice will give him freedom and facility of hand3 a bold and unfinished manner is commonly the habit of old age4 ,on painting a head-- ,let those parts which turn or retire from the eye be of broken or mixed colours1 as being less distinguished and nearer the borders4 ,let all your shadows be of one colour3 glaze them till they are so4 ,use red colours in the shadows of the most delicate complexions1 but with discretion4 ,contrive to have a screen with red or yellow colour on it1 to reflect the light on the shaded part of the sitter's face4 ,avoid the chalk1 the brick dust1 and the charcoal1 and think on a pearl and a ripe peach4 ,avoid long continued lines in the eyes1 and too many sharp ones4 ,take care to give your figure a sweep or sway4 ,outlines in waves1 soft1 and almost imperceptible against the background4 ,never make the contour too coarse4 ,avoid also those outlines and lines which are equal1 which make parallels1 triangles1 etc4 ,the parts which are nearest to the eye appear most enlightened1 deeper shadowed1 and better seen4 ,keep broad lights and shadows1 and also principal lights and shadows4 ,where there is the deepest shadow it is accompanied by the brightest light4 ,let nothing start out or be too strong for its place4 ,squareness has grandeur2 it gives firmness to the forms2 a serpentine line in comparison appears feeble and tottering4 99 99 99 99 99 ,one is apt to forget in these enlightened days how greatly the art of painting benefited by the establishment of public exhibitions4 ,farington's observations on this point1 occasioned by the inauguration of the exhibitions at the ,society of ,arts from #agfj1 until the foundation of the ,royal ,academy in #agfh1 are both instructive and amusing4 ,the history of our exhibitions1 he says affords the strongest evidence of their impressive effect upon public taste4 ,at their commencement1 though men of enlightened minds could distinguish and appreciate what was excellent1 the admiration of the many was confined to subjects either gross or puerile1 and commonly to the meanest efforts of intellect2 whereas at this time 7#ahai7 the whole train of subjects most popular in the earlier exhibitions have disappeared4 ,the loaf and cheese that could provoke hunger1 the cat and canary bird1 and the dead mackerel on a deal board1 have long ceased to produce astonishment and delight2 while truth of imitation now finds innumerable admirers though combined with the highest qualities of beauty1 grandeur and taste4 ,to our public exhibitions1 and to arrangements that followed in consequence of their introduction this change must be chiefly attributed4 ,the present generation appears to be composed of a new and1 at least with respect to the arts1 a superior order of beings4 ,generally speaking1 their thoughts1 their feelings and language1 differ entirely from what they were sixty years ago4 ,the state of the public mind1 incapable of discriminating excellence from inferiority proved incontrovertibly that a right sense of art in the spectator can only be acquired by long and frequent observation1 and that without proper opportunities to improve the mind and the eye1 a nation would continue insensible of the true value of the fine arts4 ,in view of these very pertinent observations it is worth inquiring a little as to the origin of exhibitions in ,england1 and the stimulus given by them to ,british art before the institution of the ,royal ,academy4 ,from the introduction to book written by ,edward ,edwards1 in continuation of ,walpole's ,anecdotes of ,painters1 and published in #ahjh1 ,i extract the following account of them1 as far as possible using his own quaint phraseology4 ,although the study of the human form had long been cultivated and encouraged in ,italy and ,france by national schools or academies1 yet in ,england until the eighteenth century such seminaries were unknown2 and it is therefore difficult to trace the origin or ascertain the precise period when those nurseries of art were first attempted in this country1 especially as every establishment of that kind was1 at first1 of a private and temporary nature1 depending chiefly upon the protection of some artist of rank and reputation in his day4 ,the first attempt towards the establishment of an academy is mentioned by ,walpole as having been formed by several artists under ,sir ,godfrey ,kneller in #agaa4 ,afterwards we find1 by other accounts in the same author1 which are corroborated by authentic information1 that ,sir ,james ,thornhill formed an academy in his own house1 in the ,piazza1 ,covent ,garden4 ,but this was not of long duration1 for it commenced in #agbd and died in #agcd2 which reduced the artists again to seek some new seminary2 for the public of that day were so little acquainted with the use of such schools1 that they were even suspected of being held for immoral purposes4 ,after the death of ,thornhill a few of the artists 7chiefly foreigners71 finding themselves without the necessary example of the living model1 formed a small society and established their regular meetings of study in a convenient apartment in ,greyhound ,court1 ,arundel ,street4 ,the principal conductor of this school was ,michael ,moser1 who when the ,royal ,academy was established was appointed keeper4 ,here they were visited by artists such as ,hogarth1 ,wills1 and ,ellis1 who were so well pleased with the propriety of their conduct1 and so thoroughly convinced of the utility of the institution1 that a general union took place1 and the members thereby becoming numerous1 they required and sought for a more convenient situation and accommodation for their school4 ,by the year #agci they were settled in ,peter's ,court1 ,st ,martin's ,lane1 where the study of the human figure was carried on till #agfg1 when they removed to ,pall ,mall4 ,but a permanent and conspicuous establishment was still wanting1 and on this account the principal artists had several meetings with a view to forming a public academy4 ,this they did not succeed in doing2 but they were so far from being discouraged that they continued their meetings and their studies1 and the next effort they made towards acquiring the attention of the public was connected with the ,foundling ,hospital4 ,this institution was incorporated in #agci1 and a few years later the present building was erected2 but as the income of the charity could not1 with propriety1 be expended upon decorations1 many of the principal artists of that day voluntarily exerted their talents for the purpose of ornamenting several apartments of the ,hospital which otherwise must have remained without decoration4 ,the pictures thus produced1 and generously given1 were permitted to be seen by any visitor upon proper application4 ,the spectacle was so new that it made a considerable impression upon the public1 and the favourable reception these works experienced impressed the artists with an idea of forming a public exhibition1 which scheme was carried into full effect with the help of the ,society for the ,encouragement of ,arts1 ,manufactures and ,commerce1 who lent their great room for the purpose4 ,the success of this1 the first1 public display of art was more than equal to the general expectation4 ,yet there were some circumstances1 consequent to the arrangement of the pictures1 with which the artists were very justly dissatisfied2 they were occasioned by the following improprieties4 ,the ,society in the same year had offered premiums for the best painting of history and landscape1 and it was one of the conditions that the pictures produced by the candidates should remain in their great room for a certain time2 consequently they were blended with the rest1 and formed part of the exhibition4 ,as soon as it was known which performances had obtained the premiums1 it was naturally supposed1 by such persons who were deficient in judgment1 that those pictures were the best in the room1 and consequently deserved the chief attention4 ,this partial1 though unmerited1 selection gave displeasure to the artists in general4 ,nor were they pleased with the mode of admitting the spectators1 for every member of the ,society had the discretionary privilege of introducing as many persons as he chose1 by means of gratuitous tickets2 and consequently the company was far from being select1 or suited to the wishes of the exhibition4 ,these circumstances1 together with the interference of the ,society in the concern of the exhibition1 determined the principal artists to withdraw themselves1 which they did in the next year4 ,encouraged by the success of their first attempt1 they engaged the great room in ,spring ,garden1 and their first exhibition at that place opened on the #ith ,may #agfa4 ,here they found it necessary to change their mode of admission1 which they did by making the catalogue the ticket of admission2 consequently one catalogue would admit a whole family in succession1 for a shilling1 which was its price2 but this mode of admittance was still productive of crowd and disorder1 and it was therefore altered the next year4 ,this exhibition1 which was the second in this country1 contained several works of the best ,english artists1 among which many of the pictures were equal to any masters then living in ,europe2 and so strikingly conspicuous were their merits1 and so forcible was the effect of this display of art1 that it drew from the pen of ,roubilliac1 the sculptor1 the following lines1 which were stuck up in the exhibition room1 and were also printed in the ,st ,james's ,chronicle3-- ,prtendu ,connoiseur qui sur l',antique glose1 ,idolatrant le hom1 sans connoitre la ,chose1 ,vrai ,peste des beaux ,arts1 sans ,gout sans ,equit1 ,quitez ce ton pedant1 ce mpris affect1 ,pour tout ce que le ,tems n'a pas encore gat4 ,ne peus tu pas1 en admirant ,les ,maitres de la ,grece1 ceux d l',italie ,rendre justice galement ,a ceux qu'a nourris ta ,patrie8 ,vois ce ,salon1 et tu perdras ,cette prvention injuste1 ,et bien tonn conviendras ,qu'il ne faut pas qu'un ,mecenas ,pour revoir le ,sicle d',auguste4 ,in the following season1 says ,edwards1 they ventured to fix the price of admission at one shilling each person1 but had the precaution to affix a conciliatory preface to their catalogue1 which was given gratis1 ,as it is becoming more and more usual of late years to preface a catalogue with a signed article1 or1 as in a recent instance1 a facsimile letter1 it is interesting to know that this conciliatory preface was written by ,dr ,johnson4 ,as a document its value in the history of the ,british ,school of ,painting demands its reproduction here in full3-- ,the public may justly require to be informed of the nature and extent of every design for which the favour of the public is openly solicited4 ,the artists who were themselves the first promoters of an exhibition in this nation1 and who have now contributed to the following catalogue1 think it therefore necessary to explain their purpose1 and justify their conduct4 ,an exhibition of the works of art being a spectacle new in this kingdom1 has raised various opinions and conjectures among those who are unacquainted with the practice in foreign nations4 ,those who set their performances to general view1 have been too often considered as the rivals of each other2 as men actuated1 if not by avarice1 at least by vanity1 and contending for superiority of fame1 though not for a pecuniary prize4 ,it cannot be denied or doubted1 that all who offer themselves to criticism are desirous of praise2 this desire is not only innocent but virtuous1 while it is undebased by artifice1 and unpolluted by envy2 and of envy or artifice those men can never be accused1 who already enjoying all the honours and profits of their profession are content to stand candidates for public notice1 with genius yet unexperienced1 and diligence yet unrewarded2 who without any hope of increasing their own reputation or interest1 expose their names and their works1 only that they may furnish an opportunity of appearance to the young1 the diffident1 and the neglected4 ,the purpose of this exhibition is not to enrich the artist1 but to advance the art2 the eminent are not flattered with preference1 nor the obscure insulted with contempt2 whoever hopes to deserve public favour1 is here invited to display his merit4 ,of the price put upon this exhibition some account may be demanded4 ,whoever sets his work to be shewn1 naturally desires a multitude of spectators2 but his desire defeats its own end1 when spectators assemble in such numbers as to obstruct one another4 ,though we are far from wishing to diminish the pleasures1 or to depreciate the sentiments of any class of the community1 we know1 however1 what every one knows1 that all cannot be judges or purchasers of works of art4 ,yet we have already found by experience1 that all are desirous to see an exhibition4 ,when the terms of admission were low1 our room was throng'd with such multitudes1 as made access dangerous1 and frightened away those1 whose approbation was most desired4 ,yet because it is seldom believed that money is got but for the love of money1 we shall tell the use which we intend to make of our expected profits4 ,many artists of great abilities are unable to sell their works for their due price2 to remove this inconvenience1 an annual sale will be appointed1 to which every man may send his works1 and send them1 if he will1 without his name4 ,these works will be reviewed by the committee that conduct the exhibition2 a price will be secretly set on every piece1 and registered by the secretary2 if the piece exposed for sale is sold for more1 the whole price shall be the artist's2 but if the purchasers value it at less than ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xl4--,,sir ,,joshua ,,reynolds ,,the ,,age ,,of ,,innocence ,national ,gallery1 ,london the committee1 the artist shall be paid the deficiency from the profits of the exhibition4 99 99 99 99 99 ,this mode of admission was found to answer all the wished-for purposes1 and the visitors1 who were highly respectable1 were also perfectly gratified with the display of art1 which1 for the first time1 they beheld with ease and pleasure to themselves4 ,the exhibition1 thus established1 continued at ,spring ,garden ,room1 under the direction and management of the principal artists by whom it was first promoted1 and they were soon also joined by many of those who had continued to exhibit in the ,strand 7i4e4 at the ,society of ,arts1 etc471 which party being mostly composed of young men1 and others who chose to become candidates for the premiums given by the ,society1 thought it prudent to remain under their protection4 ,but the ,society finding that those who continued with them began to diminish in their numbers1 and that the exhibition interfered with their own concerns1 no longer indulged them with the use of their room1 and the exhibitions at that place terminated in #agfd4 ,these artists1 who were mostly the younger part of the profession at that time1 thereupon engaged a large room in ,maiden ,lane1 where they exhibited in #agfe and #agff4 ,but this situation not being favourable1 they engaged with ,mr ,christie1 in building his room near ,pall ,mall1 and the agreement was that they should have it for their use during one month every year1 in the spring4 ,here they contrived to support a feeble exhibition for eight years1 when their engagements interfering with ,mr ,christie's auctions1 he purchased their share of the premises1 and they made their last removal to a room in ,s4 ,alban's ,street1 where they exhibited the next season1 but never after attempted to attract public notice4 ,it may be observed that while this ,society continued there were annually three exhibitions of the works of ,english artists1 namely1 the ,royal ,academy1 the ,chartered ,society1 and that last mentioned1 the members of which styled themselves the ,free ,society of ,artists4 ,their exhibition was considerably inferior to those of their rivals4 ,by the ,chartered ,society1 ,edwards means the artists who formed the exhibition at the ,spring ,garden ,room1 who in #agfe obtained a ,charter from the king4 ,owing partly to internal disagreements1 but more no doubt to the foundation of the ,royal ,academy in #agfh1 this ,society gradually diminished in importance1 until ,edwards could write of their exhibition in #agia that the articles they had then collected were very insignificant1 most of which could not be considered as works of art2 such as pieces of needlework1 subjects in human hair1 cut paper1 and such similar productions as deserve not the recommendation of a public exhibition1 99 99 99 99 99 ,to the first exhibition of the ,royal ,academy1 which was opened on the #bnd of ,january #agfi1 ,reynolds sent three pictures3-- ,the ,duchess of ,manchester and her son1 as ,diana disarming ,cupid4 ,lady ,blake1 as ,juno receiving the ,cestus of ,venus4 ,miss ,morris as ,hope nursing ,love4 ,that all of them were1 so to speak1 fancy portraits is not entirely without significance4 ,portraiture1 the painters bread and butter1 was apparently deemed hardly suitable for the occasion1 and among a list of the pictures which attracted most attention ,northcote only includes the portraits of the ,king and ,queen by ,nathaniel ,dance1 ,lady ,molyneux by ,gainsborough1 and the ,duke of ,gloucester by ,cotes4 ,the rest are as follows3--,the ,departure of ,regulus from ,rome1 and ,venus lamenting the ,death of ,adonis1 by ,benjamin ,west2 ,hector and ,andromache1 and ,venus directing ,aeneas and ,achates1 by ,angelica ,kauffmann2 ,a ,piping ,boy1 and ,a ,candlelight ,piece1 by ,nathaniel ,hone2 ,an ,altar-,piece of the ,annunciation by ,cipriani2 ,hebe1 and ,a ,boy ,playing ,cricket1 by ,cotes2 ,a landscape by ,barrett1 and ,shakespeare's ,black-smith1 by ,penny4 ,in all1 ,reynolds exhibited two hundred and fifty-two pictures during the thirty-two years of his life in which exhibitions existed1 namely from #agfj to #agia2 of which two hundred and twenty-eight went to the ,royal ,academy4 ,of these1 or most of them1 ample records and criticisms may be found in the copious literature which has grown up around his name4 ,for our present purpose a glance at his influence1 his methods1 and his circumstances has seemed to me to be more in point1 and as a succinct estimate of the man and his work from one of his most illustrious contemporaries1 the following passage may be added by way of conclusion3-- ,sir ,joshua ,reynolds1 wrote ,edmund ,burke six years after the painter's death1 was on very many accounts one of the most memorable men of his time4 ,he was the first ,englishman who added the praise of the elegant arts to the other glories of his country4 ,in taste1 in grace1 in facility1 in happy invention1 and in the richness and harmony of colouring1 he was equal to the great masters of the renowned ages4 ,in portraiture he went beyond them1 for he communicated to that description of the art1 in which ,english artists are the most engaged1 a fancy and a dignity derived from the higher branches1 which even those who professed1 them in a superior manner1 did not always preserve when they delineated individual nature4 ,his portraits remind the spectator of the invention of history and the amenity of landscape4 ,in painting portraits he appeared not to be raised upon that platform1 but to descend to it from a higher sphere4 ,his paintings illustrate his lessons1 and his lessons seem to be derived from his paintings4 ,he possessed the theory as perfectly as the practice of his art4 ,to be such a painter1 he was a profound and penetrating philosopher4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,thomas ,,gainsborough 7#agbg-aghh71 whose name we can seldom help thinking of whenever we hear that of ,reynolds1 was in many ways the very antithesis of his more illustrious rival4 ,in his private life he most certainly was1 and so far as his practical influence on his contemporaries is concerned1 he is altogether overshadowed by the first ,president of the ,royal ,academy4 ,with respect to their works there is a diversity of opinion1 and it is largely a matter of personal feeling whether we prefer those of the one or of the other4 ,both were great artists1 and on the common ground of portraiture they contended so equally1 and in some cases with such similarity of method1 that it is impossible to say impartially which was the greater4 ,how is it possible to decide except on the ground of individual taste1 as to whether we would rather lose ,gainsborough or ,reynolds as a portrait painter1 without considering for a moment that the former was a great landscape painter as well8 ,and1 putting aside ,wilson1 whose landscape was essentially ,italian1 whether executed in ,italy or not1 the first landscape painter in ,england was ,gainsborough4 ,we are so accustomed to bracket him with ,reynolds as a great portrait painter1 so thrilled over the sale of a ,gainsborough portrait for many thousands of pounds1 that we are apt to forget him altogether as a landscape painter4 ,and yet two or three of his best works in the ,national ,gallery are landscapes1 and two of them at least famous ones--,the ,market ,cart and ,the ,watering ,place4 ,how many more beautiful landscapes by him there must be in existence it is impossible to say1 but there can be no doubt that there are not a few which are only waiting their turn for a fashionable market1 but are now reposing unappreciated in private hands4 ,in the ,metropolitan ,museum at ,new ,york is a splendid example1 the like of which ,i have never seen in this country1 but which is so much closer in feeling to his numerous drawings and sketches in chalk or pencil that it is impossible to believe that no similar examples exist4 ,if we could only bring them to light6 ,the fact is that the state of society in the middle of the eighteenth century was1 with all its brilliance and intellect1 the cause of hampering the natural development of the three great painters of that period4 ,reynolds came back from his stay in ,italy an ardent disciple of the grand style1 burning to follow the example of ,raphael and ,michelangelo4 ,romney1 too1 was all for ,italian art1 but looked further back1 and worshipped the classics4 ,gainsborough was a born landscape painter1 and his whole time was devoted1 when he was not executing commissions for portraits1 to making sketches and studies of woods and valleys and trees4 ,but so bent on having their likenesses handed about were the brilliant personages of their time1 that ,reynolds1 ,gainsborough and ,romney were compelled in spite of themselves to turn their attention to portraiture1 to the exclusion of every other branch of their art1 and as portrait painters they have made themselves and their country famous4 ,in the numerous sketches and studies that ,gainsborough has left us1 we can see how much we have lost in gaining his wonderful portraits4 ,he loved landscape1 from his earliest youth to his dying day4 ,loved it for itself4 ,for among all the drawings of his which ,i have ever seen1 ,i do not remember one which can be identified as any particular place4 ,in the eighteenth century there was a perfect mania among the smaller fry for making topographical drawings1 in pencil or water-colour1 views of some town or mountain or castle4 ,but with ,gainsborough the place was nothing--it was the spirit of it that charmed him4 ,a cottage in a wood1 a glade1 a country road1 a valley1 was to him a beautiful scene1 whatever it was called or wherever it happened to be1 and out of it accordingly he made a beautiful picture1 or at least a drawing4 ,that his pictures of landscape are so extraordinarily few while his drawings are so numerous1 may be accounted for in a great measure by the exigences of portrait painting1 but not entirely2 and the probability is that there are many more which are now forgotten4 ,for an estimate of ,thomas ,gainsborough both in regard to his place in the story of the ,english ,school and to the abilities and methods by which he attained it1 it is needless to look elsewhere than to that of ,sir ,joshua ,reynolds1 contained in the discourse delivered shortly after ,gainsborough's death3-- ,when such a man as ,gainsborough rises to great fame without the assistance of an academical education1 without travelling to ,italy1 or any of those preparatory studies which have been so often recommended1 he is produced ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xli4--,,thomas ,,gainsborough ,,the ,,market ,,cart ,national ,gallery1 ,london as an instance how little such studies are necessary1 since so great excellence may be acquired without them4 ,this is an inference not warranted by the success of any individual1 and ,i trust that it will not be thought that ,i wish to make this use of it4 ,it must be remembered that the style and department of art which ,gainsborough chose1 and in which he so much excelled1 did not require that he should go out of his own country for the objects of his study2 they were everywhere about him2 he found them in the streets1 and in the fields2 and from the models thus accidentally found he selected with great judgment such as suited his purpose4 ,as his studies were directed to the living world principally1 he did not pay a general attention to the works of the various masters1 though they are1 in my opinion1 always of great use even when the character of our subject requires us to depart from some of their principles4 ,it cannot be denied that excellence in the department of the art which he professed may exist without them1 that in such subjects and in the manner that belongs to them the want of them is supplied1 and more than supplied1 by natural sagacity and a minute observation of particular nature4 ,if ,gainsborough did not look at nature with a poet's eye1 it must be acknowledged that he saw her with the eye of a painter2 and gave a faithful1 if not a poetical1 representation of what he had before him4 ,though he did not much attend to the works of the great historical painters of former ages1 yet he was well aware that the language of the art--the art of imitation--must be learned somewhere2 and as he knew he could not learn it in an equal degree from his contemporaries1 he very judiciously applied himself to the ,flemish school1 who are undoubtedly the greatest masters of one necessary branch of art1 and he did not need to go out of his country for examples of that school2 from that he learned the harmony of colouring1 the management and disposition of light and shadow1 and every means of it which the masters practised to ornament and give splendour to their works4 ,and to satisfy himself1 as well as others1 how well he knew the mechanism and artifice which they employed to bring out that tone of colour which we so much admire in their works1 he occasionally made copies from ,rubens1 ,teniers and ,van ,dyck1 which it would be no disgrace to the most accurate connoisseur to mistake at the first sight for the works of those masters4 ,what he thus learned he applied to the originals of nature1 which he saw with his own eyes1 and imitated not in the manner of those masters but in his own4 ,whether he most excelled in portraits1 landscapes1 or fancy pictures1 it is difficult to determine2 whether his portraits were most admirable for exact truth of resemblance1 or his landscapes for a portrait-like representation of nature1 such as we see in the works of ,rubens1 ,ruisdael1 or others of those schools4 ,in his fancy pictures1 when he had fixed on his object of imitation1 whether it was the mean and vulgar form of the woodcutter1 or a child of an interesting character1 as he did not attempt to raise the one1 so neither did he lose any of the natural grace and elegance of the other2 such a grace and such an elegance as are more frequently found in cottages than in courts4 ,this excellence was his own1 the result of his particular observation and taste2 for this he was certainly not indebted to the ,flemish school1 nor indeed to any school2 for his grace was not academic1 or antique1 but selected by himself from the great school of nature4444 ,upon the whole we may justly say that whatever he attempted he carried to a high degree of excellence4 ,it is to the credit of his good sense and judgment that he never did attempt that style of historical painting for which his previous studies had made no preparation4 ,the peculiarity of his manner or style1 ,reynolds continues a little later1 or we may call it the language in which he expressed his ideas1 has been considered by many as his greatest defect4444 ,a novelty and peculiarity of manner1 as it is often a cause of our approbation1 so likewise it is often a ground of censure1 as being contrary to the practice of other painters1 in whose manner we have been initiated1 and in whose favour we have perhaps been prepossessed from our infancy3 for fond as we are of novelty1 we are upon the whole creatures of habit4 ,however1 it is certain that all those odd scratches and marks which on a close examination are so observable in ,gainsborough's pictures1 and which even to experienced painters appear rather the effect of accident than design2 this chaos1 this uncouth and shapeless appearance1 by a kind of magic1 at a certain distance assumes form1 and all the parts seem to drop into their proper places2 so that we can hardly refuse acknowledging the full effect of diligence under the appearance of chance and hasty negligence4 ,that ,gainsborough himself considered this peculiarity in his manner1 and the power it possesses of exciting surprise1 as a beauty in his works1 ,i think may be inferred from the eager desire which we know he always expressed1 that his pictures at the exhibition should be seen near as well as at a distance4 ,the slightness which we see in his best works cannot always be imputed to negligence4 ,however they may appear to superficial observers1 painters know very well that a steady attention to the general effect takes up more time and is much more laborious to the mind than any mode of high finishing or smoothness without such attention4 ,his handling1 the manner of leaving the colours1 or1 in other words1 the methods he used for producing the effect1 had very much the appearance of the work of an artist who had never learnt from others the usual and regular practice belonging to the art2 but still1 like a man of strong intuitive perception of what was required1 he found a way of his own to accomplish his purpose4 ,to ,reynolds's opinion of this technique as applied to portraits1 we may listen with even more attention4 ,it must be allowed1 he continues1 that this hatching manner of ,gainsborough did very much contribute to the lightness of effect which is so eminent a beauty in his pictures2 as1 on the contrary1 much smoothness and uniting the colours is apt to produce heaviness4 ,every artist must have remarked how often that lightness of hand which was in his dead-colour 7or first painting7 escaped in the finishing when he had determined the parts with more precision2 and another loss which he often experiences1 which is of greater consequence3 while he is employed in the detail1 the effect of the whole together is either forgotten or neglected4 ,the likeness of a portrait1 as ,i have formerly observed1 consists more in preserving the general effect of the countenance than in the most minute finishing of the features or any of the particular parts4 ,now1 ,gainsborough's portraits were often little more in regard to finishing or determining the form of the features1 than what generally attends a first painting2 but as he was always attentive to the general effect1 or whole together1 ,i have often imagined that this unfinished manner contributed even to that striking resemblance for which his portraits are so remarkable4 ,,iv ,,the ,,close ,,of ,,the ,,eighteenth ,,century ,not until the year of ,gainsborough's death1 #aghh1 was there born another landscape painter4 ,this was ,,john ,,crome1 and he too came from the east of ,england1 nearest to ,holland1 being born in ,norfolk1 the neighbouring county to ,gainsborough's native ,suffolk4 ,within ten years more1 two still greater landscapists were born1 also in the east1 ,constable in ,essex1 still closer to ,sudbury1 and ,turner in ,london4 ,john ,crome--,old ,crome1 as he is usually called to distinguish him from his less distinguished son1 ,john ,bernay ,crome--was born at ,norwich1 and had to support himself most of his life by teaching drawing1 not to professional pupils unfortunately2 but incidentally he founded ,the ,norwich ,school of landscape painters1 who loyally carried forward the traditions he had inculcated4 ,but having to spend his time as a drawing-master1 he was not free like the old ,dutch painters to put out pictures when and as often as he would1 and his work in oils is therefore comparatively scarce4 ,the three examples at the ,national ,gallery are typical of his varied powers1 ,the ,slate ,quarries1 ,household ,heath1 and ,porringland ,oak are all of them masterpieces4 ,,john ,,sell ,,cotman1 born in #aghb1 was1 after ,crome1 the most considerable of the ,norwich ,school4 ,he1 too1 was compelled to earn a livelihood by being a drawing-master1 for there was not as yet a sufficient market1 nor for some time later1 for landscape pictures1 to support existence1 however humble4 ,cotman devoted much of his energies to water-colours1 and he is better known in this branch of the art than in painting2 that is the only excuse for the ,national ,gallery in having purchased as his the very inferior picture called ,a ,galliot in a ,gale4 ,the other example1 ,wherries on the ,yare1 is more worthy of him1 though it by no means exhibits all his wonderful power and fascination4 ,in ,,george ,,morland 7#agfc-ahjd7 we have something more and something less than a landscape painter4 ,landscape to him was not what it was to ,wilson1 ,gainsborough or ,crome1--the only end in view2 nor was it merely a background for his subjects4 ,but1 as it generally happened1 it was both4 ,to ,morland1 the landscape and the figures were one and the same thing4 ,out of the fulness of his heart he painted pictures of ,boys ,robbing an ,orchard1 ,horses in a ,stable1 or a ,farmer on ,horseback staying to talk to a group of gypsies beside a wood1 and whether or not the picture might be classed as a landscape depended entirely on the nature of the scene itself4 ,whatever he saw or chose to see he painted with equal skill and with equal charm2 and as his choice of vision lay in the simple everyday life that surrounded him1 his variety is not the least of his attractions4 ,the fact that his mother was a ,frenchwoman 7his father was ,henry ,morland1 the painter of the delightful pair of half-lengths1 ,the ,laundry ,maids7 suggests to my mind the wild surmise that she may have been the daughter of ,chardin4 ,for in the technique as well as in the temperament of ,morland1--making allowance for difference of circumstances1--there is something remarkably akin to those of the great ,frenchman4 ,both eschewed the temptation to become fashionable1 both painted the humble realities of middle-class life with a zest that could not possibly have been affected1 and both painted them with much the same extraordinary charm4 ,at his best1 ,morland is not much inferior to ,chardin1 and but for his unfortunate wildness and his susceptibility to the temptations of strong drink1 he might easily have excelled the other4 ,the feeling exhibited in two such different subjects as ,lord ,glenconner's ,boys ,robbing an ,orchard1 and ,the ,interior of a ,stable1 in the ,national ,gallery1 certainly equals that of ,chardin's most famous pieces1 ,i mean the feeling for the particular scene he is depicting4 ,the nearest1 in fact the only1 approach that ,morland made to portrait painting was in such pieces as ,the ,fortune ,teller in the ,national ,gallery1 which brings to mind the ,conversation ,pieces1 introduced by ,hogarth and ,highmore into ,english painting1 but which were never widely attempted4 ,in the ,portfolio monograph ,english ,society in the ,eighteenth ,century ,i tried to collect as many examples as ,i could of this form of art1 but found it difficult to fill even a small volume1 so entirely was the single figure portrait the vogue4 ,a few notable instances are worth mentioning1 if only as exceptions to the general rule4 ,gainsborough's ,ladies ,walking in the ,mall1 belonging to ,sir ,audley ,neeld2 ,reynolds's large group of ,the ,marlborough ,family at ,blenheim1 and a very early group of ,the ,elliott ,family1 consisting of eleven figures1 belonging to ,lord ,st ,germans2 ,john ,singleton ,copley's ,children of ,francis ,sitwell1 ,esq41 at ,renishaw2 and lastly ,zoffany's ,family ,party1 at ,panshanger4 ,for life-like representation of the ,english people we look to ,hogarth and ,morland1 and yet nothing could be more different than the motives which inspired the two1 and the way they went to work upon their subject4 ,hogarth was above all things theatrical1 ,morland natural4 ,hogarth first conceived his idea1 then laid his scene1 and lastly peopled it with actual characters as they appeared--individually--before him4 ,morland simply looked about him and painted what he happened to see at the precise moment when what he saw coincided with his natural inclination1 or we may even say inspiration1 to paint it4 ,it was much the same difference as between the work of ,zola and that of ,thomas ,hardy4 ,the one had a moral to preach1 the other a story to tell4 99 99 99 99 99 ,when the most we hear of ,,george ,,romney nowadays is the price that has been paid for one of his portraits at ,christie's1 it is refreshing as well as informative to turn to the criticism of one of his greatest though not in these times so highly priced contemporaries1 ,i mean ,john ,flaxman4 ,when ,romney first began to paint1 he writes1 he had seen no gallery of pictures nor the fine productions of ancient sculpture2 but then women and children were his statues1 and all objects under the canopy of heaven formed his school of painting4 ,the rainbow1 the purple distance1 or the silver lake1 taught him colouring2 the various actions and passions of the human figure1 with the forms of clouds1 woods1 and mountains or valleys1 afforded him studies of composition4 ,indeed1 his genius bore a strong resemblance to the scenes he was born in2 like them1 it partook of the grand and beautiful2 and like them also1 the bright sunshine and enchanting prospects of his fancy were occasionally overspread with mist and gloom4 ,on his arrival in ,italy he was witness to new scenes of art and sources of study of which he could only have supposed previously that something ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xlii4--,,george ,,romney ,,the ,,parson',s ,,daughter ,national ,gallery1 ,london of the kind might exist2 for he there contemplated the purity and perfection of ancient sculpture1 the sublimity of ,michelangelo's ,sistine ,chapel1 and the simplicity of ,cimabue and ,giotto's schools4 ,he perceived those qualities distinctly1 and judiciously used them in viewing and imitating nature2 and thus his quick perception and unwearied application enabled him1 by a two years' residence abroad1 to acquire as great a proficiency in art as is usually attained by foreign studies of a much longer duration4 ,after his return1 the novelty and sentiment of his original subjects were universally admired4 ,most of these were of the delicate class1 and each had its peculiar character4 ,titania with her ,indian votaries was arch and sprightly2 ,milton dictating to his daughters1 solemn and interesting4 ,several pictures of ,wood ,nymphs and ,bacchantes charmed by their rural beauty1 innocence1 and simplicity4 ,the most pathetic1 perhaps1 of all his works was never finished--,ophelia with the flowers she had gathered in her hand1 sitting on the branch of a tree1 which was breaking under her1 whilst the moody distraction in her lovely countenance accounts for the insensibility to danger4 ,few painters have left so many examples in their works of the tender and delicate affections2 and several of his pictures breathe a kindred spirit with the ,sigismonda of ,correggio4 ,his cartoons1 some of which have unfortunately perished1 were examples of the sublime and terrible1 at that time perfectly new in ,english art4 ,as ,romney was gifted with peculiar powers for historical and ideal painting1 so his heart and soul were engaged in the pursuit of it whenever he could extricate himself from the importunate business of portrait painting4 ,it was his delight by day and study by night1 and for this his food and rest were often neglected4 ,his compositions1 like those of the ancient pictures and basso-relievos1 told their story by a single group of figures in the front1 whilst the background is made the simplest possible1 rejecting all unnecessary episode and trivial ornament1 either of secondary groups or architectural subdivision4 ,in his compositions the beholder was forcibly struck by the sentiment at the first glance3 the gradations and varieties of which he traced through several characters1 all conceived in an elevated spirit of dignity and beauty1 with a lively expression of nature in all the parts4 ,his heads were various--the male were decided and grand1 the female lovely4 ,his figures resembled the antique--the limbs were elegant and finely formed4 ,his drapery was well understood1 either forming the figure into a mass with one or two deep folds only1 or by its adhesion and transparency discovering the form of the figure1 the lines of which were finely varied with the union or expansion of spiral or cascade folds1 composing with or contrasting the outline and chiaroscuro4 ,few artists since the fifteenth century have been able to do so much in so many different branches2 for besides his beautiful compositions and pictures1 which have added to the knowledge and celebrity of the ,english ,school1 he modelled like a sculptor1 carved ornaments in wood with great delicacy1 and could make an architectural design in a fine taste1 as well as construct every part of the building4 ,after the death of ,reynolds and the retirement of ,romney1 in the last decade of the eighteenth century1 the field of portraiture was left vacant--in ,london at least--for ,,john ,,hoppner1 whose name is now generally included with those of ,lawrence and ,raeburn among the first six portrait painters of the ,british ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xliii4--,,george ,,romney ,,mrs ,,robinson--,,perdita ,hertford ,house1 ,london ,school4 ,his fame in recent years has certainly exceeded his merits1 but it is due to him to say that he was a conscientious artist1 and a firm upholder of the tradition of ,reynolds1 so far as in him lay4 ,the old ,king had always disliked ,reynolds1 and ,hoppner was not well enough advised to hold his tongue on the subject of the master3 worse than this1 he openly accepted the patronage of the ,prince of ,wales1 and by so doing opened the door for the admission of ,lawrence as royal painter much sooner than was at all necessary4 ,the story of their rivalry is thus--in substance--sketched by ,allan ,cunningham1 their contemporary3--,the light of the ,prince of ,wales's countenance was of itself sufficient to guide the courtly and beautiful to ,hoppner's easel4 ,suffice it to say that before he was forty years of age 7he was born in #agei71 he had been enabled to exhibit no less than fifteen ladies of quality--for so are they named in the catalogues--a score of ladies of lower degree1 and noblemen unnumbered4 ,but by this time another star had arisen1 destined to outshine that of ,hoppner2 though some at that period1 willing to flatter the older practitioner1 called it a meteor that would but flash and disappear--we allude to ,lawrence4 ,urged upon the ,academy by the ,king and ,queen1 and handed up to public notice by royal favour1 this new aspirant rose rapidly in the estimation of the public2 and by the most delicate flattery1 both with tongue and pencil1 became a formidable rival to the painter whom it was the ,prince's pleasure to befriend4 ,the factions of ,reynolds and ,romney seemed revived in those of ,hoppner and ,lawrence4 ,if ,hoppner resided in ,charles ,street1 at the gates of ,carlton ,house1 and wrote himself portrait painter to the ,prince of ,wales1 ,lawrence likewise had his residence in the ,court end of the town1 and proudly styled himself--and that when only twenty-three years old--portrait painter in ordinary to ,his ,majesty4 ,in other respects1 too1 were honours equally balanced between them2 they were both made ,royal ,academicians1 but in this1 youth had the start of age--,lawrence obtained that distinction first4 ,nature1 too1 had been kind--some have said prodigal--to both2 they were men of fine address1 and polished by early intercourse with the world and by their trade of portrait painting could practise all the delicate courtesies of drawing-room and boudoir2 but in that most fascinating of all flattery1 the art of persuading1 with brushes and fine colours1 very ordinary mortals that beauty and fine expression were their portions1 ,lawrence was soon without a rival4 ,the preference of the ,king and ,queen for ,lawrence was for a time balanced by the affection of the ,prince of ,wales for ,hoppner2 the ,prince was supposed to have the best taste1 and as he kept a court of his own filled with the young nobility1 and all the wits of that great faction known by the name of ,whig1 ,hoppner had the youth and beauty of the land for a time2 and it cannot be denied that he was a rival in every way worthy of contending with any portrait-painter of his day4 ,the bare list of his exhibited portraits will show how and by whom he was supported4 ,it is well said by ,williams1 in his ,life of ,lawrence1 that the more sober and homely ideas of the ,king were not likely to be a passport for any portrait-painter to the variety of ladies1 and hence ,mr4 ,hoppner for a long time almost monopolised the female beauty and young fashion of the country4 ,this rivalry continued for a time in the spirit of moderation--but only for a time4 ,lawrence1 the gentler and the smoother of the two1 kept silence longest2 the warm nature of ,hoppner broke out at last4 ,the ladies of ,lawrence1 he said1 show a gaudy dissoluteness of taste1 and sometimes trespass on moral as well as professional decorum4 ,for his own he claimed1 by implication1 purity of look as well as purity of style4 ,this sarcastic remark found wings in a moment1 and flew through all the coteries and through both courts2 it did most harm to him who uttered it2 all men laughed1 and then began to wonder how ,lawrence1 limner to perhaps the purest court in ,europe1 came to bestow indecorous looks on the meek and sedate ladies of quality of ,st4 ,james's and ,windsor1 while ,hoppner1 limner to the court of a gallant young prince1 who loved mirth and wine1 the sound of the lute and the music of ladies' feet in the dance1 should to some of its gayest and giddiest ornaments give the simplicity of manner and purity of style which pertained to the ,quaker like sobriety of the other4 ,nor is it the least curious part of the story that the ladies1 from the moment of the sarcasm of ,hoppner1 instead of crowding to the easel of him who dealt in the loveliness of virtue1 showed a growing preference for the rival who trespassed on moral as well as on professional decorum4 ,after this1 ,lawrence had plenty of the fairest sitters4 ,,the ,,nineteenth ,,century ,i ,,the ,,spirit ,,of ,,revolt ,in the preceding chapters we have traced the development of painting for five centuries--from the beginning of the fourteenth1 that is to say1 to the end of the eighteenth--in ,italy1 in the ,netherlands1 in ,germany1 in ,spain1 and lastly in ,france and ,england4 ,in the nineteenth the story is confined to the last two alone1 as with one or two minute exceptions the art of painting had by this time entirely ceased to be worth consideration in any of the others4 ,only in ,france and ,england1 where it had been most recently established1 was it to continue2 and besides continuing1 reach out with the most astonishing vigour to snatch at and grasp fruits that no one before would have dreamt of being within its reach4 ,between ,france and ,england--if by the latter we may be taken to mean ,great ,britain1 and include within its artists those who have acclimatised themselves within her shores--the honours of the achievement are pretty equally divided1 though it will have to be left to individual choice to decide exactly on which side the balance of credit is due4 ,a mere list of the greatest names is not sufficient to apportion the praise1 though as a preliminary step it may be of value in clearing the issue4 ,let us take a dozen on either side1 and see how they look4 ,england4 ,lawrence4 ,constable4 ,turner4 ,de ,wint4 ,nasmyth4 ,stevens4 ,whistler4 ,cotman4 ,cox4 ,watts4 ,rossetti4 ,hunt4 ,france4 ,david4 ,gricault4 ,ingres4 ,delacroix4 ,corot4 ,millet4 ,daubigny4 ,courbet4 ,daumier4 ,decamps4 ,manet4 ,degas4 ,among these ,turner stands out conspicuously from the rest1 and he would be included by anyone in a list of twenty1 or perhaps a dozen1 of the greatest painters in the world4 ,but oddly enough his influence on the art in general has been comparatively small1 if we are to judge by its effects on other painters up to the present1 while that of ,constable has been considerably greater4 ,manet1 again1 and ,delacroix1 have accomplished far more for the history of painting than any other two in our lists--and yet their names are scarcely known outside the circle of those who know anything at all about painting4 ,for the ,english public at large an entirely different list would probably prove the superiority of their own race to their complete satisfaction--in spite of ,meissonier1 ,dor1 and ,bouguereau on the other side4 ,but that is only because the ,british public1 owing to the monopoly ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xliv4--,,jacques ,,louis ,,david ,,portrait ,,of ,,mme4 ,r,,camier ,louvre1 ,paris enjoyed by the ,royal ,academy1 have never had a chance of judging for themselves what they approve of and what they do not1 and their taste has been vitiated for generations by the exhibition of what this self-constituted authority1 no doubt unconsciously1 conceives to be best for them--and which1 as might be expected1 is usually found to coincide pretty nearly with the sort of thing they are capable of producing themselves4 ,hogarth's predictions at the time the ,academy was instituted have in a great measure come perfectly true1 and the only benefit that it has been to the ,english ,school of painting is that it has kept it going4 ,how far this may be called a benefit is at least arguable1 but in the main it is probable that if so many bad pictures had not been painted1 there would not have been so many good ones4 ,on the other hand1 the removal of a man like ,sir ,lawrence ,alma-,tadema from his native sphere of influence is quite enough to account for the unlooked-for flowering of blossoms like the brothers ,maris1 ,bosboom1 ,israels1 and ,mauve in the ,dutch garden1 and if that is so1 one need not grudge him his interment amongst ,nelson1 ,wellington1 and other heroes of our own4 ,in a word1 the history of painting in the nineteenth century is ,revolt4 ,what it is going to be in the twentieth ,i am fortunately not called upon to say2 but if ,i may throw out an opinion based upon what is already happening1 ,i should say that no word has yet been coined which will adequately express it4 ,in the last century the issues were simple1 and can be easily expressed4 ,on the one side was the complacent body of practitioners following to the best of their ability the practice of painting as handed down to them in a variety of different forms1 just as the ,byzantine craftsmen earned their living when they were so rudely disturbed by ,cimabue and his school4 ,on the other was a small but ever-increasing number of individuals who1 like ,cimabue1 began to think things out for themselves1 but1 unlike him1 did not succeed in effecting a popular triumph without--if at all--first raising both the painters and the public to a pitch of fury4 ,it is indeed curious to read ,vasari and modern historians side by side1 and to wonder if1 after all1 ,vasari knew or told everything1 in his desire to glorify the art1 or whether ,giotto and other innovators were not in fact burnt at the stake4 ,probably not4 ,gallileo1 as we know1 and ,savonarola suffered for their crimes4 ,but they were working against the ,church1 and the artists were working for it4 ,in the nineteenth century1 painting had altogether broken away from the ,church1 and so it had to fight its own battles out in the street1 or in the law courts4 ,that is what has given it such a swagger and strength4 ,it no longer looks to its protector1 it will hit you in the face before you know where you are4 ,the feeble kind1 only1 looks to ,academies for support1 and thereby becomes feebler still4 ,in the present chapter1 accordingly1 we shall hear no more of the ,madonnas1 the ,holy ,families1 and all the sacred and profane subjects on which the old masters exercised their genius4 ,five centuries of painting had established the art in a position of independence2 and in a sixth--that is to say1 the nineteenth--it began to assert itself1 and to prove that its education was not in itself an end1 but only a means to various ends4 ,instead of following out the fortunes of each painter1 therefore1 and attempting to set in any sort of order the reputations of artists before sufficient time has elapsed for them to cool1 ,i propose to confine myself in the remaining pages to the broad issues raised during this period between the painters1 the critics1 and the public4 ,,ii ,,eug,,ne ,,delacroix ,the man who began all this street fighting was a ,frenchman--,eugne ,delacroix4 ,while still a youth he was bullied1 and the bully was such a redoubtable giant that it took somebody with the grit and genius of ,delacroix to tackle him1 but tackle him he did4 ,the story of the fight1 which is a long and glorious one1 is so admirably told in ,madame ,bussy's life of ,delacroix1 that ,i have obtained permission to give the essence of it in her own words4 ,in the ,salon of #ahbb was exhibited ,delacroix's picture of ,dante and ,virgil1 which is now in the ,louvre1 and evoked the first of those clamours of abuse which were barely stilled before the artist's death4 ,for nearly thirty years all ,french painters1 with the exception of ,gros and ,prudhon2 had shown themselves unquestioning disciples of the school founded by ,jacques ,louis ,david1 whose masterful character and potent personality had reduced all art to a system2 and ,delacroix himself spoke of him with sympathy and admiration4 ,the chief dogma of ,david's school was that the nearest approach to the beau ideal permitted to the human race had been attained by the ,greeks1 and that all art must conform as closely as possible to theirs4 ,unfortunately1 the chief specimens of ,greek art known at that time were those belonging to a decadent period--neither the ,elgin marbles nor the ,venus of ,milo were accessible before #ahaf--so that the works from which they drew their inspiration were without character in themselves1 or merely the feeble and attenuated copies of ancient ,rome4 ,in the pictures of this school1 accordingly1 we find only the monotonous perfection of rounded and well-modelled limbs1 classical features and straight noses4 ,colour1 to the sincere ,davidian1 was a vain and frivolous accessory1 serving only to distract attention from the real purpose of the work1 which was to aim at moral elevation as well as at ideal beauty4 ,everything in the picture was to be equally dwelt upon2 there was no sacrifice1 no mystery4 ,these pictures1 says ,delacroix1 have no epidermis 444they lack the atmosphere1 the lights1 the reflections which blend into an harmonious whole1 objects the most dissimilar in colour4 ,by the untimely death of ,gricault1 whose ,raft of the ,medusa had already caused a flutter in #ahai1 ,delacroix was left at the head of the revolt against this pseudo-classicism2 and amid the storm that greeted the ,dante and ,virgil it is interesting to find ,thiers writing of him in the following strain3--,it seems to me that no picture in the ,salon reveals the future of a great painter better than ,m4 ,delacroix's1 in which we see an outbreak of talent1 a burst of rising superiority which revives the hopes that had been slightly discouraged by the too moderate merits of all the rest4444 ,i think ,i am not mistaken2 ,m4 ,delacroix has genius2 let him go on with confidence1 and devote himself to immense labour1 the indispensable condition of talent4 ,delcluze1 by the by1 the critic-in-chief of the ,davidian ,school1 had characterised the picture as une vritable tartouillade4 ,in #ahbd the ,salon included two pictures which may be regarded as important documents in the history of painting4 ,one of these was ,constable's ,hay ,wain--now ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xlv4--,,eug,,ne ,,delacroix ,,dante ,,and ,,virgil ,louvre1 ,paris in our ,national ,gallery--which had been purchased by a ,frenchman2 the other was ,delacroix's ,massacre of ,scio1 the first to receive the enlightenment afforded by the ,englishman's methods1 which spread so widely over the ,french ,school4 ,it was said that ,delacroix entirely repainted his picture on seeing ,constable's2 but his pupil1 ,lassalle ,bordes1 is probably nearer the truth in saying that the master being dissatisfied with its general tone1 which was too chalky1 transformed it by means of violent glazings4 ,the critics were no less noisy over this picture than the last4 ,a painter has been revealed to us1 said one1 but he is a man who runs along the housetops4 ,yes1 answered ,baudelaire1 but for that one must have a sure foot1 and an eye guided by an inward light4 ,when the ,salon opened again in #ahbg1 after an interval of three years1 the public were astonished to find how large a number of painters had abandoned ,davidism and openly joined the ranks of the enemy4 ,delacroix himself exhibited the ,marino ,faliero 7now at ,hertford ,house7 and eleven others4 ,the gauntlet was flung down1 and war began in deadly earnest between the opposing parties4 ,it was at this time that the terms ,romanticism and ,romantic came into common use4 ,delacroix always resented being labelled as a ,romantic1 and would only acknowledge that the term might be justly applied to him when used in its widest signification4 ,if by my ,romanticism1 he wrote1 is meant the free expression of my personal impressions1 my aversion from the stereotypes invariably produced in the schools1 and my repugnance to academic receipts1 then ,i must admit ,i am ,romantic4 ,here we have the plain truth about the painting of the nineteenth century--and after6 ,the critics were unanimous in their violent condemnation of ,delacroix's works3 the compositions of a sick man in delirium1 the fanaticism of ugliness1 barbarous execution1 an intoxicated broom--such are some of the terms of abuse showered upon him4 ,the gentlest among them commiserate the talent which here and there can be seen struggling with the systematic bizarrerie and the disordered technique of the artist1 just as gleams of reason and sometimes flashes of genius may be seen pitiably shining through the speech of a madman4 ,the final touch to ,delacroix's disgrace was given by the ,directeur des ,beaux ,arts sending for him and recommending him to study drawing from casts1 warning him at the same time that unless he could change his style he must expect neither commissions nor recognition from the ,state6 ,the year #ahcj has given its name to that brilliant generation of poets1 novelists1 painters and philosophers which1 as ,thophile ,gautier says with just pride1 will make its mark on the future and be spoken of as one of the climacteric epochs of the human mind4 ,the revolution of ,july inspired ,delacroix with one of his most interesting pictures4 ,le #bh ,juillet is the only one of his works in which he depicts modern life1 and was a striking refutation to those who complained that modern costume is too ugly or prosaic to be treated in painting4 ,every old master1 ,baudelaire usefully pointed out1 has been modern in his day4 ,the greater number of fine portraits of former times are dressed in the costume of their period4 ,they are perfectly harmonious because the costumes1 the hair1 and even the attitude and expression 7each period has its own71 form a whole of complete vitality4 ,le #bh ,juillet gives us the very breath and spirit of modern street fighting4 ,though the public ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xlvi4--,,john ,,constable ,,the ,,hay ,,wain ,national ,gallery1 ,london remained hostile and the jury bestowed none of its prizes1 as before1 the ,government acknowledged the artist's talent and politics by making him a ,chevalier of the ,legion of ,honour4 ,further1 from #ahcc to #ahec he was intermittently employed in decorating the ,chamber of ,deputies1 the ,senate1 and other public buildings4 ,in #ahee he showed at the ,great ,exhibition a series of thirty-five of his most important pictures1 the effect of which was immense4 ,for the first and only time in his life he enjoyed a triumph1 none the less great because his life-long rival ,ingres also took the opportunity of exhibiting a selection of his works in the same building4 ,but in spite of this success1 and in spite of his being elected an ,academician in #aheg1 the critics remained incorrigible4 ,his pictures in the ,salon of #ahei once more called forth one of those storms of abuse that ,delacroix had the gift of arousing4 ,weary and disheartened--,all my life long ,i have been livr aux btes1 was his bitter exclamation--he vowed to exhibit no more1 and kept his word4 ,,iii ,,ruskin ,,against ,,the ,,philistines ,,in ,england1 meantime1 great things were being accomplished amid peaceful surroundings4 ,in portraiture ,lawrence soon became supreme1 and what excellence he possessed was accentuated on his death in #ahcj by the appointment of ,sir ,martin ,archer ,shee as his successor in the ,presidency of the ,royal ,academy4 ,that was the end of portraiture in ,england until a new school arose4 ,but it was in landscape that our country occupied the field in the first half of the nineteenth century1 and tilled it with the astonishing results that are usually the effect of doing much and saying little4 ,the work accomplished by ,turner1 ,constable1 and ,cotman1 in the first half of the century1 to say nothing of ,crome and one or two of the older men who were still alive1 has never been equalled in any country1 and yet less was heard about the execution of it than would keep a modern journalist in bread and cheese for a week4 ,turner1 who wouldn't sell his pictures1 and ,constable1 who couldn't1 between them filled up the measure of ,english art without any other aid than that of the materials with which they recorded their gorgeous communion with nature4 ,when ,ruskin stepped in with the ,modern ,painters1 originally designed as a vindication of ,turner against certain later-day critics1 ,turner's comment was1 ,he knows a great deal more about my pictures than ,i do4 ,he puts things into my head and points out meanings in them that ,i never intended4 ,that was in #ahdc1 when ,turner was well on in his third manner--within eight years of his death4 ,but let us go back to the beginning4 ,until he developed his latest manner1 ,turner was about the most popular artist that ever lived4 ,his pictures were not above the comprehension of the public1 educated or otherwise1 and no effort was either needed or demanded to understand them4 ,in the diary of a provincial amateur1 ,thomas ,greene1 are recorded an impression of ,turner's work as early as #agig3--,visited the ,royal ,exhibition4 ,particularly struck with a sea-view by ,turner 444the whole composition bold in design and masterly in execution4 ,i am entirely unacquainted with the artist1 but if he proceeds as he has begun1 he cannot fail to become the first in his department4 ,and again in #agii3--,was again struck and delighted with ,turner's landscapes4444 ,turner's views are not mere ordinary transcripts of nature1--he always throws some peculiar and striking character into the scene he represents4 ,brought up as a topographical draughtsman1 he made no departure till quite late in life from the conventional method of depicting scenery2 but being a supremely gifted artist1 he was capable of utilising this method as no other before or since has ever succeeded in doing4 ,the accepted method was good enough for him1 and he laid his paint upon the canvas as anybody else had done before him1 and as many of our present-day painters would do well to do after him--if only they had the genius in them to make the instrument speak4 ,the impressions created on our mind by ,turner's earlier pictures are not conveyed by dots1 cubes1 streaks1 or any device save that of pigment laid upon the canvas in such a manner as seemed to the artist to reproduce what he saw in nature4 ,that he did this with surprising and altogether exceptional skill is the proof of his genius4 ,unflagging energy and devotion to his art enabled him to realise1 not all1 but a wonderful number of the beauties he saw in the world1 with an experience that few beside him have ever taken the trouble to acquire4 ,when barely thirty years old--in #ahje--;he was already considered as the first of living landscape painters1 and was thus noticed by ,edward ,dayes 7the teacher of ,girtin73--,turner may be considered as a striking instance of how much may be gained by industry1 if accompanied with perseverance1 even without the assistance of a master4 ,the way he acquired his professional powers was by borrowing when he could a drawing or picture to copy2 or by making a sketch of any one in the exhibition early in the morning and finishing it up at home4 ,by such practice1 and a patient perseverance1 he has overcome all the difficulties of the art4 ,turner himself used to say that his best academy was the fields and ,dr ,monro's parlour--where ,girtin and other young artists met and sketched and copied the drawings in the doctor's collection4 ,burnet1 in his notice of ,turner and his ,works1 suggests that ,john ,robert ,cozens had paved the way for both ,girtin and ,turner in striking out a broad effect of light and shade4 ,the early pictures of ,turner1 he observes1 possess the breadth1 but are destitute of the brilliant power of light and colour afterwards pervading his works1 and ultimately carried to the greatest extreme in his last pictures4 ,breadth of light seems to have been latterly his chief aim1 supported by the contrast of hot and cold colour2 two of his unfinished pictures exemplified the principle2 they were divided into large masses of blue where the water or sky was to come and the other portions laid out in broad orange yellow1 falling into delicate brown where the trees and landscapes were to be placed4 ,this preparation1 while it secured the greatest breadth1 would have shone through the other colours when finished1 giving the luminous quality observable in his pictures4 ,in many instances his works sent for exhibition to the ,british ,institution had little more than this brilliant foundation1 which was worked into detail and completed in the varnishing days1 ,turner being the first in the morning and the last to leave2 his certainty in the command over his colour1 and the dexterity in his handling1 seemed to convert in a few hours 'an unsubstantial pageant' into a finished landscape4 ,these ad captandum effects1 however1 are not what his fame will depend on for perpetuity2 his finest pictures are the production of great study in their composition1 careful and repeated painting in the detail1 and ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xlvii4--,j4 ,m4 ,w4 ,,turner ,,crossing ,,the ,,brook ,national ,gallery of ,british ,art1 ,london a natural arrangement of the colour and breadth of the chiaroscuro4 ,whether or not we agree with all of ,burnet's opinions1 we shall be more likely to learn the truth about ,turner from prosaic contemporaries of his earlier years than from all the rhapsodies of later days4 ,how significant1 when stripped of its amusing circumstances1 is the simple fact related thus by ,leslie3--,in #ahci1 when ,constable exhibited his ,opening of ,waterloo ,bridge1 it was placed in one of the small rooms next to a sea-piece by ,turner--a grey picture1 beautiful and true1 but with no positive colour in any part of it4 ,constable's picture seemed as if painted with liquid gold and silver1 and ,turner came several times while he was heightening with vermilion and lake the decorations and flags of the city barges4 ,turner stood behind him looking from the ,waterloo ,bridge to his own picture1 and at last brought his palette from the great room where he was touching another picture1 and putting a round daub of red lead1 somewhat bigger than a shilling1 on his grey sea1 went away without saying a word4 ,the intensity of this red lead1 made more vivid by the coolness of his picture1 caused even the vermilion and lake of ,constable to look weak4 ,i came into the room just after ,turner had left it4 ,he has been here1 said ,constable1 and fired a gun4 ,on the opposite wall was a picture by ,jones of ,shadrach ,meshach and ,abednego in the ,furnace4 ,a coal1 said ,cooper1 has bounced across the room from ,jones's picture and set fire to ,turner's sea4 ,turner did not come in again for a day and a half1 and then in the last moment allowed for painting1 he glazed the scarlet seal he had put on his picture1 and shaped it into a buoy4 ,it was in #ahce1 after an unbroken popular triumph lasting over thirty years1 that the critics openly rounded on him4 ,the occasion seized by ,blackwood's ,magazine was the exhibition of his first ,venetian picture exhibited in that year--it is now in the ,metropolitan ,museum in ,new ,york4 ,what is ,venice in this picture8 wrote ,blackwood's critic4 ,a flimsy1 whitewashed1 meagre assemblage of architecture1 starting off ghost-like into unnatural perspective1 as if frightened at the affected blaze of some dogger vessels 7the only attempt at richness in the picture74 ,the greater part of the picture is white1 disagreeable white1 without light or transparency1 and the boats with their red worsted masts are as gewgaw as a child's toy which he may have cracked to see what it is made of4 ,as to ,venice1 nothing can be more unlike its character4 ,ruskin was then only sixteen years old1 but eight years later appeared in print the first volume of ,modern ,painters1 by an undergraduate of ,oxford1 as the result of his growing indignation at this and subsequent attacks on ,turner4 ,without following ,ruskin into the dubious regions whither the pursuit of his romantic fancies ultimately led him1 we may in fairness quote the opening sentence of his second chapter1 ,of ,truth of ,colour1 which will help us1 moreover1 in understanding the conditions under which painting was being conducted at this period4 ,there is nothing so high in art1 he says1 but that a scurrile jest can reach at1 and often the greater the work the easier it is to turn it into ridicule4 ,to appreciate the science of ,turner's colour would require the study of a life2 but to laugh at it requires little more than the knowledge that the yolk of egg is yellow and spinage green2 a fund of critical information on which the remarks of most of our leading periodicals have been of late years exclusively based4 ,we shall1 however1 in spite of the sulphur and treacle criticisms of our ,scotch connoisseurs1 and the eggs and spinage of our ,english ones1 endeavour to test the works of this great colourist by a knowledge of nature somewhat more extensive than is to be gained by an acquaintance1 however formed1 with the apothecary's shop or the dinner table4 ,so much for the critics4 ,for the artist1 if ,ruskin said more than ,turner himself could understand1 he has summed up his achievement in a few passages which may possibly outlast the works themselves4 ,there has been marked and constant progress in his mind2 he has not1 like some few artists1 been without childhood2 his course of study has been as evidently as it has been swiftly progressive2 and in different stages of the struggle1 sometimes one order of truth1 sometimes another1 has been aimed at or omitted4 ,but from the beginning to the present height of his career he has never sacrificed a greater truth to a less4 ,as he advanced1 the previous knowledge or attainment was absorbed in what succeeded1 or abandoned only if incompatible1 and never abandoned without a gain3 and his present works present the sum and perfection of his accumulated knowledge1 delivered with the impatience and passion of one who feels too much1 and has too little time to say it in1 to pause for expression or ponder over his syllables4 ,and again of his latest works--,there is in them the obscurity1 but the truth1 of prophecy2 the instinctive and burning language1 which would express less if it uttered more2 which is indistinct only by its fulness1 and dark with its abundant meaning4 ,he feels now1 with long-trained vividness and keenness of sense1 too bitterly1 the impotence of the hand and the vainness of the colour to catch one shadow or one image of the glory which ,god has revealed to him4 ,he has dwelt and communed with ,nature all the days of his life3 he knows her now too well1 he cannot falter over the material littlenesses of her outward form3 he must give her soul1 or he has done nothing1 and he cannot do this with the flax1 the earth1 and the oil4 ',i cannot gather the beams out of the east1 or ,i would make them tell you what ,i have seen2 but read this1 and interpret this1 and let us remember together4 ,i cannot gather the gloom out of the night sky1 or ,i would make that teach you what ,i have seen2 but read this1 interpret this1 and let us feel together4 ,and if you have not that within you which ,i can summon to my aid1 if you have not the sun in your spirit1 and the passion in your heart1 which my words may awaken1 though they be indistinct and swift1 leave me2 for ,i will give you no patient mockery1 no laborious insult of that glorious ,nature1 whose ,i am and whom ,i serve4 ,let other servants imitate the voice and the gesture of their master1 while they forget his message4 ,hear that message from me2 but remember that the teaching of ,divine truth must still be a mystery4' ,within a very few years ,ruskin was performing a more useful service for the ,english ,school of painting than that of gilding the fine gold of its greatest genius4 ,whether or not he was aware of the fact1 young ,holman ,hunt had borrowed a copy of ,modern ,painters1 which1 he says1 entirely changed his opinions as to the views held by society at large concerning art1 and in #ahdi there were exhibited ,hunt's ,rienzi1 ,rossetti's ,girlhood of ,mary ,virgin1 and ,millais' ,lorenzo and ,isabella1 each inscribed with the mystic letters ,p4,r4,b41 meaning ,pre-,raphaelite ,brotherhood4 ,it is interesting to note that this alliance was formed when the three young artists were looking over a book of engravings of the frescoes in the ,campo ,santo at ,pisa4 ,in the following year ,hunt exhibited the ,british ,family1 ,millais1 ,the ,carpenter's ,shop1 and ,rossetti the ,ecce ,ancilla ,domini1 and in #ahea were ,hunt's ,two ,gentlemen of ,verona and three by ,millais4 ,the fury of the critics had now reached a point at which some notice had to be taken of it--as of a man in an apopleptic fit4 ,that of the ,times in particular3--,these young artists have unfortunately become notorious by addicting themselves to an antiquated style1 false perspective1 and crude colour of remote antiquity4 ,we want not to see what ,fuseli termed drapery snapped instead of folded1 faces bloated into apoplexy1 or extenuated into skeletons2 colour borrowed from the jars in a druggist's shop1 and expression forced into caricature4 ,that morbid infatuation which sacrifices truth1 beauty1 and genuine feeling to mere eccentricity deserves no quarter at the hands of the public4 ,it was in disapproval of the tone of this outburst that the author of ,modern ,painters addressed his famous and useful letter to the ,times1 vindicating the artists1 and following it up with another in which he wishes them all heartily good speed1 believing in sincerity that if they temper the courage and energy which they have shown in the adoption of their systems with patience and discretion in framing it1 and if they do not suffer themselves to be driven by harsh and careless criticism into rejection of the ordinary means of obtaining influence over the minds of others1 they may1 as they gain experience1 lay in our ,england the foundation of a school of art nobler than the world has seen for three hundred years4 ,if any one of this strenuous young band had been a painter of the first rank1 this prediction might have been abundantly verified4 ,but it must be owned that none of them was4 ,holman ,hunt came nearest to being1 and ,millais probably thought he was1 when he had abandoned his early principles and shaped for the ,presidency of the ,academy4 ,rossetti had more genius in him than the others1 but it came out in poetry as well as in painting1 and perhaps in more lasting form4 ,as it was1 the effects of the revolution were widespread and entirely beneficial2 but those effects must not be looked for in the works of any one particular artist1 but rather in the general aspect of ,english art in the succeeding half century1 and perhaps to-day4 ,it broke up the soil4 ,the flowers that came up were neither rare nor great1 but they were many1 varied1 and pleasing1 and in every respect an improvement on the evergreens and hardy annuals with which the ,english garden had become more and more encumbered from want of intelligent cultivation4 ,more than this1 the freedom engendered of revolt had now encouraged the young artist to feel that he was no longer bound to paint in any particular fashion4 ,people's eyes were opened to possibilities as well as to actualities2 and though they were prone to close again under the soporific influence of what was regular and conventional1 they were capable of opening again1 perhaps with a start1 but without the necessity for a surgical operation4 ,in #ahdg1 for example1 ,george ,frederick ,watts had offered to adorn1 free of charge1 the booking-hall of ,euston ,station1 and had been refused--,watts1 by the by1 was quite independent of the ,pre-,raphaelites--whereas in #ahfj the ,benchers of ,lincoln's ,inn accepted his ,school of ,legislature1 and in #ahfg he was elected an academician4 ,two somewhat remarkable effects of the movement are attributed to it by ,mr ,edmund ,gosse 7in a note on the work of ,alfred ,hunt1 written in #ahhd71 which are probably typical of many more4 ,the ,liverpool ,academy1 founded in #ahaj1 had an annual grant of #bjj from the ,corporation4 ,in #aheg it gave a prize to ,millais' ,blind ,girl in preference to the most popular picture of the year 7,abraham ,solomon's ,waiting for the ,verdict71 and so great was the public indignation that pressure was brought to bear on the ,corporation1 the grant was withdrawn1 and the ,academy ruined4 ,in the other instance we may not go the whole way with ,mr ,gosse1 when in speaking of the ,pre-,raphaelite principle he says that the school of ,turnerian landscape was fatally affected by them1 or that all the landscape painters1 except ,alfred ,hunt1 accepted the veto which the ,pre-,raphaelites had tacitly laid upon composition or a striving after an artificial harmony of forms in landscape4 ,but to a certain extent their influence undoubtedly was prejudicial in that respect4 ,in suggesting another reason for the cessation of ,turner s influence he is quite as near the mark1 namely1 the action of the ,royal ,academy in admitting no landscape painters to membership4 ,at ,turner's death in #ahea there were only three1 among whom was ,creswick4 ,this popular artist1 says ,mr ,gosse1 was the ,upas tree under whose shadow the ,academical patronage of landscape died in ,england4 ,from his election as an associate in #ahdb to that of ,vicat ,cole in #ahfi1 no landscape painter entered the doors of the ,royal ,academy4 ,of this august body we shall have something to say later on4 ,,iv ,,manet ,,and ,,whistler ,,against ,,the ,,world ,let us now cross the channel again1 and see what is going on there1 in #ahfc4 ,evidently there is something on1 or there would not be so much excitement4 ,as we approach the ,capital we are aware of one name being prominent in the general uproar--that of ,,douard ,,manet4 ,manet's revolt against tradition began before he became an artist1 as was in fact necessary1 or he would never have been allowed to become one4 ,the traditions of the ,bourgoisie were sacred1 and their power and importance since the revolution of #ahdh not to be lightly set aside4 ,but young ,manet was so determined that he was at last allowed by his bourgeois parents to have his way1 and was sent to study under that very rough diamond ,couture4 ,now again his revolting qualities showed themselves1 this time in the life class4 ,thodore ,duret1 his friend and biographer1 puts it so amusingly that a quotation1 untranslated1 is imperative3--,cette repulsion qui se dveloppe chez ,manet pour l'art de la tradition1 he says1 se manifeste surtout par le mpris qu'il tmoigne aux modles posant dans l'atelier et l'tude du nu telle qu'elle tait alors conduite4 ,le culte de l'antique comme on le comprenait dans la premire moiti du ,x,i,xe sicle parmi les peintres avait amen la recherche de modles speciaux4 ,on leur demandait des formes pleines4 ,les hommes en particulier devaient avoir une poitrine large et bombe1 un torse puissant1 des membres muscls4 ,les individus dous des qualits requises qui posaient alors dans les ateliers1 s'etaient habitus prendre des attitudes prtendues expressive et heroques1 mais toujours tendues et conventionelles1 d'o l'imprvu tait banni4 ,manet1 port vers le naturel et pris de recherches1 s'irritait de ces poses d'un type fixe et toujours les mmes4 ,aussi faisait-il tres mauvais mnage avec les modles4 ,il cherchait en obtenir des poses contraires leurs habitudes1 auxquelles ils se refusaient4 ,les modles connus qui avaient vu les morceaux faits d'aprs leurs torses conduire certains lves l'cole de ,rome1 alors la suprme rcompense1 et qui dans leur orgueil s'attribuaient presqu'une part du succs1 se revoltaient de voir un tout jeune homme ne leur tmoigner aucun respect4 ,il parat que fatigu de l'eternelle tude du nu1 ,manet aurait essay de draper et mme d'habiller les modles1 ce qui aurait caus parmi eux une vritable indignation4 ,it was in #ahfc that the storm of popular fury burst over ,manet's head1 on the exhibition of his first important picture1 painted three years before1 generally known as ,le ,djeuner sur l'herbe4 ,this wonderful canvas was something so new and so surprising that it was rejected by the jury of the ,salon4 ,but in company with less conspicuous though equally unacceptable pieces by such men as ,bracquemond1 ,cazin1 ,fantin-,latour1 ,harpignies1 ,jongkind1 ,j4 ,p4 ,laurens1 ,le ,gros1 ,pissarro1 ,vollon1 and ,whistler1 it was accorded an exhibition1 alongside the official ,salon1 which was called le ,salon des refuss4 ,being the largest and most conspicuous work shown1 it attracted no less attention than if it had been officially hung1 and probably much more4 ,ainsi ce ,djeuner sur l'herbe1 says ,m4 ,duret1 venait-il faire comme une norme tache4 ,il donnait la sensation de quelquechose outr4 ,il heurtait la vision4 ,il produisait1 sur les yeux du public de ce temps1 l'effet de la pleine lumire sur les yeux du hibou4 ,there was more than one reason for this remarkable picture surprising and shocking the sensibilities of the public4 ,it represents a couple of men in everyday bourgeois costume1 one sitting and the other reclining on the grass under trees1 while next to one of them is seated a young woman1 her head turned to the spectator1 in no costume at all4 ,a profusion of articles de djeuner is beside her1 and it is evident that they are only waiting to arrange the meal till a second young woman1 who is seen bathing in the near background1 is ready to join them4 ,the subject and composition are reminiscent of ,giorgione's beautiful and famous ,fte ,champtre1 in the ,louvre1 and ,manet quite frankly and in quite good faith pleaded ,giorgione as his precedent when assailed on grounds of good taste4 ,but unfortunately he had not put his male figures in fancy dress1 and the public could hardly be expected to realise that ,giorgione had not1 either4 ,as for the painting1 it was a revelation4 ,he had broken every canon of tradition--and yet it was a marvellous success6 ,another outburst greeted the appearance of the wonderful ,olympia in #ahfe1 this time in the official catalogue4 ,this is now enshrined in the ,louvre4 ,it was painted in #ahfc1 but fortunately1 perhaps1 ,manet had not the courage to exhibit it then--for who can tell to what length the fury of the ,philistines might not have been goaded by two such shocks8 ,as it was1 this second violation of the sacred traditions of the nude1 which had been exclusively reserved for allegorical subjects1 was considered an outrage2 and the innocent1 natural model1 of by no means voluptuous appearance1 was regarded as a disgraceful intrusion into the chaste category of nymphs and goddesses4 ,as a painter1 however1 ,manet had shown himself unmistakably as the great figure of ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xlviii4--,,douard ,,manet ,,olympia ,louvre1 ,paris the age1 and if we have to go to ,paris or to ,new ,york to catch a glimpse of any of his work1 it is partly because we are too backward in seizing opportunities so eagerly snapped up by others4 ,the next great storm in the artistic world followed in the wake of one of ,manet's companions in adversity at the ,salon des ,refuss--,,james ,m',,neill ,,whistler1 who left ,paris and settled with his mother in ,chelsea in the late 'sixties4 ,that he should have existed for fifteen whole years without breaking forth into strife is so extraordinary that we are almost tempted to attribute it to the influence of his mother1 who used to bring him to the old church on ,sundays1 as the present writer dimly remembers4 ,in this case it was not the public1 but the critic1 ,john ,ruskin1 who so deftly dropped the fat into the fire4 ,having1 as we saw1 taken up the cudgels for poor ,turner against the public in #ahdc1 and for the ,pre-,raphaelite ,brotherhood in #ahej1 he now1 in #ahgg1 ranged himself on the other side1 and accused ,whistler of impertinence in flinging a pot of paint in the face of the public4 ,the action for libel which ,whistler commenced in the following year resulted in strict fact in a verdict of one farthing damages for the libelled one2 but in reality the results were much farther reaching4 ,the artist had vindicated not only himself1 but his art1 from the attacks of the ignorant and bumptious4 ,poor art6 ,whistler wrote1 ,what a sad state the slut is in1 an these gentlemen shall help her4 ,the artist alone1 by the way1 is to no purpose and remains unconsulted2 his work is explained and rectified without him1 by the one who was never in it--but upon whom ,god1 always good though sometimes careless1 has thrown away the knowledge refused to the author1 poor devil6 ,this recalls ,turner's comment on ,ruskin's eulogies--which ,whistler had probably never heard of--and making every allowance for ,whistler's fiery1 combative nature1 and sharp pen1 there is much truth1 and truth that needed telling1 in his contention4 ,art1 he continues1 that for ages has hewn its own history in marble1 and written its own comments on canvas1 shall it suddenly stand still1 and stammer1 and wait for wisdom from the passer-by8 ,for guidance from the hand that holds neither brush nor chisel8 ,out upon the shallow conceit6 ,of the hopeless banality of the critics during this period there are plenty of examples to be found without looking very far4 ,several of the most amusing have been embodied in a little volume of ,whistler ,stories1 lately compiled by ,mr ,don ,c4 ,seitz of ,new ,york4 ,here we find ,the ,standard's little joke about ,whistler paying his costs in the action--apart from those allowed on taxation1 that is to say--,but he has only to paint1 or1 as we believe he expresses it 'knock off' three or four 'symphonies' or 'harmonies'--or perhaps he might try his hand at a ,set of ,quadrilles in ,peacock ,blue8--and a week's labour will set all square4 ,then there is this priceless revelation of his art when questioning his class in ,paris4 ,do you know what ,i mean when ,i say tone1 value1 light1 shade1 quality1 movement1 construction1 etc48 ,chorus1 ,oh1 yes1 ,mr ,whistler6 ,i'm glad1 for it's more than ,i do myself4 ,more serious was the verdict of ,sir ,george ,scharf1 keeper of the ,national ,gallery1 when 7in #ahgd7 there was a proposal to purchase the portrait of ,carlyle4 ,well1 he said1 icily1 on looking at the picture1 and has painting come to this6 ,high place1 it would seem1 did not always conduce to an appreciation of high art4 ,here is the opinion of ,sir ,charles ,eastlake1 ,f4,r4,i4,b4,a41 also keeper of the ,illustration3 ,,plate ,,xlix4--,j4 ,m4 ,,whistler ,,lillie ,,in ,,our ,,alley ,in the possession of ,john ,j4 ,cowan1 ,esq4 ,national ,gallery1 published in #ahhc1 on one of ,rembrandt's pictures in the ,louvre3-- ,the ,bath1 a very ugly and offensive picture1 in which the principal object is the ill-proportioned figure of a naked woman1 distinguished by flesh tones whose colour suggests the need of a bath rather than the fact that it has been taken4 ,the position of the old servant wiping the woman's feet is not very intelligible1 and the drawing of the bather's legs is distinctly defective4 ,the light and shade of the picture1 though obviously untrue to natural effect1 are managed with the painter's usual dexterity4 ,v ,,the ,,royal ,,academy ,the last revolt of the nineteenth century was effected in a peaceable and business-like1 but none the less successful manner1 by the establishment1 in #ahhf1 of the ,new ,english ,art ,club as a means of defence against the mighty vis inerti of the ,royal ,academy4 ,as an example of the disadvantage under which any artist laboured who did not bow down to the great ,idol1 ,i venture to quote a few sentences from the report of the ,select ,committee of the ,house of ,lords appointed to inquire into the administration of the ,chantrey ,trust1 in #aijd3---- ,with five exceptions1 all the works in the collection have been bought from summer exhibitions of the ,royal ,academy4 ,it is admitted by those most friendly to the present system that the ,chantrey collection regarded as a national gallery of modern ,british art is incomplete1 and in a large degree unrepresentative4 ,the works of many of the most brilliant and capable artists who worked in the last quarter of the nineteenth century are missing from the gallery1 and the endeavour to account for these omissions has formed one main branch of the inquiry4 ,it has been stated that while containing some fine works of art1 it is lacking in variety and interest1 and while failing to give expression to much of the finest artistic feeling of its period1 it includes not a few works of minor importance4 ,full consideration of the evidence has led the ,committee to regard this view as approximately correct4 ,up to #ahig1 when the collection was handed over to the nation1 little short of #ej1jjj had been spent upon it4 ,and with five exceptions1 amounting to less than #ejjj1 the whole of that money had been expended on such works alone as were permitted by the ,academy to be exhibited on their walls4 ,of the #ejjj1 it may be noted1 #bbjj was well laid out on ,watts's ,psyche2 but with regard to the very first purchase made1 in #ahgg1 for #ajjj1--;,hilton's ,christ ,mocked1 which had been painted as an altar-piece for ,s4 ,peter's1 ,eaton ,square1 in #ahci1 the following question and answer are full of bitter significance for the poor artist of the time3---- ,lord ,ribblesdale4--,was ,mr ,hilton's picture offered by the ,vicar and ,churchwardens8 ,the ,secretary to the ,royal ,academy4--,yes1 it was offered by them--one of the ,churchwardens was the late ,lord ,maghermorne--he was then ,sir ,james ,m',garrell ,hogg--he was a great friend of ,sir ,francis ,grant who was the ,president1 and he offered it to him for the ,chantrey ,collection4 ,when repeatedly pressed by the ,committee for the reasons why so few purchases were made outside the ,academy exhibitions1 the ,president1 ,sir ,edward ,poynter1 repeatedly pleaded the impossibility of a ,council of ,ten1 all of whom must see pictures before they are bought1 travelling about in search of them4 ,in view of this apparent--but obviously unreal--difficulty1 the following questions were then put by the ,earl of ,lytton3---- #dbj4 ,without actually changing the terms of the will1 has the question of employing an agent for the purpose of finding out what pictures were available and giving advice upon them ever been suggested8--,no4 #dba4 ,that would come within the term of the will1 would it not1 the final voting being1 as it is now1 in the hands of the ,academy2 it would be open to the ,council to appoint an agent1 as was suggested just now1 of going to ,scotland1 and going about the country making suggestions as to pictures which in his opinion might be bought8--,the question has never arisen4 #dbb4 ,but that could be done1 could it not8--,i suppose that could be done under the terms of the will1 but ,i do not suppose that the ,academy would ever do it4 ,as a comment on this let us turn to the ,autobiography of ,w4 ,p4 ,frith ,r4 ,a4 7,chapter xl473--,a portion of the year 444 was spent in the service of the winter ,exhibition of ,old ,masters4 ,my duties took me into strange places4444 ,one of my first visits was paid to a huge mansion in the ,north4444 ,i visited thirty-eight different collections of old masters and named for selection over three hundred pictures4444 ,the pictures of ,reynolds are so much desired for the winter ,exhibition that neither trouble nor expense are spared in searching for them2 so hearing of one described to me as of unusual splendour1 ,i made a journey into ,wales with the solitary ,reynolds for its object4 ,here1 where it is not a question of a ,trust for the benefit of the public and for the encouragement of artists1 there appears to have been no trouble or expense spared4 ,but the real reason for the ,academic selection leapt navely from the mouth of the ,president a little later1 in reply to question #ede4--,the best artists come into the ,academy ultimately4 ,i do not say that there have been no exceptions1 but as a general rule all the best artists ultimately become ,academicians4 ,it is natural1 if we want the best pictures that we should go to the best artists4 ,on this point the answer to a question put by ,lord ,lytton to one of the forty1 ,sir ,william ,richmond1 ,k4,c4,b41 is of value1 as showing that the grievances of the outsiders were not imaginary3-- #gfg4 ,i just want to ask you one more question4 ,when you said that in your opinion the walls of the ,academy have had priority of claim in the past1 have you any particular reason for that statement8--,yes4 ,i may mention this to show that ,i am consistent4 ,before ,i was an ,associate of the ,royal ,academy1 ,i fought hard for what are called1 in rather undignified language1 the outsiders1 and ,i was anxious that men should be elected ,associates of the ,royal ,academy not necessarily because they exhibit on the ,royal ,academy walls1 but because they are competent painters4 ,that was my fight upon which ,i stood2 and ,i refused to send a picture to the ,royal ,academy on the understanding that if ,i did ,i should probably be elected ,associate that year1 and also that my picture would be bought by the ,chantrey ,fund4 ,my answer to that was1 ,if my picture is good enough to be purchased for the ,chantrey ,bequest my picture can be purchased from the walls of the ,grosvenor ,gallery as well as from the walls of the ,royal ,academy4 ,that seems to me to be justice4 ,the ,new ,english1 then1 had some justification for their establishment2 and although they did not make very much headway before the close of the nineteenth century1 they find themselves at the opening of the twentieth in a position to determine to a very considerable extent what the future of ,english painting is to be1 just as the ,academy succeeded in determining it before they came into existence4 ,for the ,academy everything that was vital in ,english art in the last half century had no existence--was simply ignored4 ,for the ,new ,english1 it was the seed that flowered1 under their gentle influence1 into the many varieties of blossoms with which our garden is already filled4 ,to the ,academy there was no such thing as change or development--their ears were deaf to any innovation1 their eyes were blind to any fresh beauty4 ,to others1 every new movement foretold its significance1 and the century closed with the recognition of the fact that art must live and develop if it is to be anything but a comfortable means of subsistence for a self-constituted authority of forty and their friends4 ,let me be allowed to conclude this chapter1 and my imperfect efforts to indicate the energies of six centuries of art in so small a space1 with a passage from a lecture delivered in #ahhb by ,mr ,selwyn ,image1 now ,slade ,professor at ,oxford1 which embodies the spirit in the air at that time1 and foreshadows what was to come4 ,i do not feel that we have come here to sing a requiem for art this afternoon1 he said4 ,as a giant it will renew its strength and rejoice to run its course4 ,i am not a prophet1 ,i cannot tell you just what that course is going to be4 ,nor is it possible to estimate what is around us with the same security1 with the same value1 that we estimate what has passed--you must be at a certain distance to take things in4 ,but in contemporary art we can notice some characteristics1 which are quite at one with what we call the modern spirit2 and extremely suggestive--for they seem to indicate movement1 and therefore life1 in this imaginative sphere1 just as there is movement and life in the sphere of science or of social interests4 ,for instance1 in modern representative work 444 ,i think anyone comparing it as a whole with the work of the old masters1 will be struck as against their distinctness1 containedness1 simplicity and serenity2 with its complexity1 restlessness1 and vagueness1 and emotion1 and suggestiveness in place of delineation1 and impressionism in place of literal transcription--and this alike in execution and motive4 ,i do not mean to say that these qualities are better than the qualities that preceded them1 or worse--but only that they are different1 only that they are of the modern spirit--only that they indicate movement and life2 and so far that is hopeful--is it not8 ,,the ,,end ,,index ,academy of ,painting1 the ,french1 #bca ---- the ,royal1 #bgi1 #bhf1 #cbi-ccc ,alamanus1 ,giovanni or ,johannes1 #fj1 #fa ,allegri1 ,antonio1 or ,correggio1 #eh ,alma-,tadema1 ,sir ,lawrence1 #cjg ,altdorfer1 ,albert1 #bab1 #bad-baf ,angelico1 ,fra1 #ai ,animal ,painters1 #aed1 #aia-bjb ,aretino1 ,spinello1 #ag ,arnolde1 #bee ,backer1 #agd ,balen1 ,henry van1 #aei1 #afb ,barret1 #bhg ,basaiti1 ,marco1 #fc1 #gd ,bassano1 ,jacopo da1 #ih-ii ,bastiani1 ,lazzaro di1 #ge-gf ,baudelaire1 #caa1 #cab ,bazzi1 ,giovanni ,antonio 7,sodoma71 #eg ,bellini1 ,gentile1 #gj1 #gb-gc1 #gf1 #ha ---- ,giovanni1 #fb1 #fc1 #ff1 #gj-gb1 #gf1 #ha1 #hb1 #hc1 #id ---- ,jacopo1 #ff1 #fi1 #gj1 #ge ,belvedere1 ,andrea1 #bja ,berchem1 ,nicholas1 #aii-bja1 #bje1 #bjh ,beruete1 ,senor1 quoted1 #aac1 #aae1 #aaf1 #aah1 #agg ,bettes1 ,john1 #bed1 #bee ---- ,thomas1 #bee ,bol1 #afe ,boltraffio1 ,giovanni ,antonio1 #eg ,bonifazio ,veronese or ,veneziano1 #ig-ih ,bordes1 ,lassalle1 #caa ,bosboom1 #cjg ,botticelli1 ,sandro1 #bf1 #bh-cb1 #cc ,botticini1 ,francesco1 #cb ,boucher1 ,franois1 #bda-bdc1 #bde1 #bdf1 #bdg1 #bdh ,bouguereau1 #cjf ,bourdon1 ,sebastien1 #bca-bcb ,bouts1 ,dirk1 #acb ,bracquemond1 #cbe ,bril1 ,paul1 #bbi ,broederlam1 ,melchior1 #aba1 #abb1 #abd ,brouwer1 ,adrian1 #aeg1 #aeh1 #agc1 #ahc-ahe ,brueghel1 ,jan1 or ,velvet ,brueghel1 #ada1 #bja ----- ,pieter 7or ,peasant71 #ada ---- ---- his son1 #ada ,brun1 ,le1 #bcd-bda ,bruyn1 ,bartel1 #bab ,buonarroti4 ,see ,michelangelo ,burnet1 on ,turner1 #cae ,byzantine ,art1 #ei1 #abd ,caliari1 ,paolo1 #ajb-ajc ,campidoglio1 ,michel de1 #bja ,canale1 ,antonio1 #ajh ,caro-,delvaille1 quoted1 #gi1 #hg1 #ia1 #ib ,carpaccio1 ,vittore1 #ge1 #gf-gh ,carracci1 the1 #ajf1 #ahb ---- ,agostino1 #ajf1 #ajg1 #ajh ---- ,annibale1 #ajf1 #ajg ---- ,lodovico1 #ajf1 #ajg ,catalonia1 ,school of1 #aji ,catena1 ,vincenzo1 #gb1 #gc ,cazin1 #cbe ,champaigne1 ,philippe de1 #bcc-bcd ,chantrey ,trust1 the1 #cbi ,chardin1 #bde1 #bdg1 #bif1 #big ,chartered ,society1 the1 #bhf ,cimabue1 ,giovanni1 #a-i1 #aj1 #aa1 #abd1 #abe1 #cjh ,claude 7or ,claude ,lorraine1 or ,gelle71 #bbf1 #bbi-bca ,cleef1 ,joos van1 #adb ,clouet1 ,franois1 #bbf ---- ,jehan or ,jean1 #bbf ,cole1 ,peter1 #bee ---- ,vicat1 #cbc ,conegliano1 ,cima da1 #gb1 #gc-gd ,constable1 #bie1 #cjf1 #caj1 #cad1 #cag ,cook1 ,herbert1 quoted1 #hj1 #hc1 #hg ,copley1 ,john ,singleton1 #big ,corot1 #cjf ,correggio1 #eh ,cotes1 #bhg ,cotman1 ,john ,sell1 #bie-bif1 #cjf1 #cad ,courbet1 #cjf ,couture1 #cbd ,cox1 #cjf ,cozens1 ,john ,robert1 #caf ,cranach1 ,lucas1 #bab1 #bac-bad ,credi1 ,lorenzo di1 #di ,creswick1 #cbc ,crivelli1 ,carlo1 #fc1 #fd ,crome1 ,john1 or ,old ,crome1 #bie1 #cad ---- ,john ,bernay1 his son1 #bie ,crowe and ,cavalcaselle1 quoted1 #abb ,cunningham1 ,allan1 ,life of ,hogarth1 #bfa1 #bff1 #bfg1 #cja ,cuyp1 ,albert1 #aid-aif ---- ,jacob ,gerritz1 #aid ,dance1 ,nathaniel1 #bhf ,daubigny1 #cjf ,daumier1 #cjf ,david1 ,jacques ,louis1 #bdh1 #bdi1 #cjf1 #cji ,dayes1 ,edward1 quoted1 on ,turner1 #cae ,decamps1 #cjf ,degas1 #cjf ,delacroix1 ,eugne1 #cjf1 #cji-cac ,diana1 ,benedetto1 #ge ,dilke1 ,lady1 quoted1 #bdg ,dobson1 ,william1 #beg ,dolce1 ,carlo1 #ajh ---- ,ludovico1 on ,titian1 #hj1 #ha ,domenichino1 #ajg-ajh1 #bbg ,donatello1 #bc1 #gj ,dor1 #cjf ,dou1 ,gerard1 #ahg1 #ahh1 #aib ,doyen1 #bdf ,duccio of ,siena1 #e1 #f1 #ei1 #abd1 #abe ,drer1 ,albert1 #gj1 #adj1 #age1 #aha1 #bab1 #bac1 #bae-bbb1 #bbc ,duret1 ,thodore1 quoted1 on ,manet1 #cbd-cbe ,dyck1 ,anthony van1 #aef1 #aeg1 #afj-afc1 #afe1 #aff1 #agh1 #bcf1 #bgb ---- ---- in ,england1 #bef-beg ,dutch ,school1 #afe-baj ,eclectics1 the1 #aje ,edwards1 ,edward1 quoted1 on ,art ,exhibitions1 #bgi ,elsheimer1 ,adam1 #aeh1 #bab ,emilia1 ,schools of1 #eg ,english ,school1 early ,portrait ,painters of1 #bea-beh ---- in ,eighteenth ,century1 #bie-bih ---- spirit of revolt in ,nineteenth ,century1 #cje et seq4 ,everdingen1 #aeg1 #bje ,exhibitions of ,painting1 #bgh ,eyck1 ,hubert van1 #aba1 #abe1 #abf1 #abg1 #adc1 #aej ---- ,jan van1 #aba1 #abe1 #abi-aca1 #acc1 #acd1 #aej ,fabriano1 ,gentile da1 #fe1 #gj ,fabritius1 ,karel1 #ahi ,fantin-,latour1 #cbe ,fiori1 ,mario di1 #bja ,flaxman1 ,john1 on ,romney1 #bih-cjj ,flemish ,school1 #aba-afc ,floris1 ,franz1 #add ,foppa1 ,vincenzo1 #eg ,fragonard1 ,jean ,honor1 #bde1 #bdh1 #bdi ,francesco1 ,piero della1 #di ,franciabigio1 #de ,free ,society of ,artists1 #bhf ,french ,academy of ,painting1 #bca ,french ,school in ,seventeenth ,century1 #bbe-bce ---- in ,eighteenth ,century1 #bce-bdi ---- in ,nineteenth ,century1 #cje ,frith1 ,w4 ,p41 quoted1 #cca ,fyt1 ,jan1 #aed1 #aeg ,gaddi1 ,taddeo1 #ah ,gainsborough1 ,thomas1 #bhf1 #bhh-bie1 #big ,garrard1 ,mark1 #bee ,gelle1 ,claude1 or ,claude1 #bbf1 #bbi-bca ,genre ,painters of ,dutch ,school1 #ahc-aia ,gricault1 #cjf1 #caj ,german ,schools1 #baa-bbd ,ghirlandaio1 ,domenico1 #dc1 #caj ,giambono1 ,michele1 #fj1 #fa ,gillot1 ,claude1 #bcf1 #bci ,giorgione1 #gf1 #gi1 #ha1 #hb1 #hc1 #hf1 #ig ,giotto di ,bondone1 #aj-ah1 #bd1 #ff1 #abd1 #cjh ,girtin1 #cae1 #caf ,gossaert1 ,jan1 or ,mabuse1 #acf1 #ach1 #aci1 #adc1 #bed ,gosse1 ,edmund1 quoted1 #cbb1 #cbc ,goubeau1 ,antoine1 #bce ,goya1 ,francisco1 #aai-abj ,goyen1 ,jan van1 #ahf1 #aii1 #bjb-bjc1 #bjd ,grebber1 ,peter1 #aii ,greco1 ,el1 #aaj ,greene1 ,thomas1 quoted1 on ,turner1 #cad ,greenhill1 #beg ,gros1 ,le1 #cji1 #cbe ,greuze1 ,jean ,baptiste1 #bdc-bde1 #bdi1 #beh ,gruenewald1 ,matthew1 #bac ,guardi1 ,francesco1 #ajh ,guercino1 #ajh ,hals1 ,frans1 #afe-afi1 #agc1 #agh1 #agi1 #aha1 #ahc1 #ahd1 #aib1 #bdh ,harpignies1 #cbe ,heem1 de1 #bja 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van1 #ahc1 #ahe ,ouwater1 #ac ,pacheco1 #aaj-aaa ,padua1 ,school of1 #ff ,palma1 ,giovane1 #gh ---- ,vecchio1 #gh1 #if1 #ih ,parma1 ,school of1 #eh ,pater1 ,jean ,baptiste ,joseph1 #bdj-bda ,peake1 #bee ,penny1 #bhg ,perugian or ,umbrian ,school1 #dh1 #di1 #ea ,perugino1 ,pietro1 #dh1 #di ,pinas1 #ahj ,piombo1 ,sebastiano del1 #id-if ,pisanello1 ,vittore1 #fd1 #fe ,pissarro1 #cbe ,pollaiuolo1 ,antonio1 #bf-bh1 #cj ,pontormo1 #de ,pot1 ,hendrik ,gerritz1 #afi ,potter1 ,paul1 #aif ---- ,pieter1 #aif ,poussin1 ,gaspard 7,gaspard ,dughet71 #bbh-bbi1 #bca ---- ,nicholas1 #bbf-bbh ,poynter1 ,sir ,edward1 #cca ,predis1 ,ambrogio di1 #cf1 #eg ,pre-,raphaelite ,brotherhood1 #acd1 #cbj1 #cbc1 #cbg ,previtali1 ,andrea1 #gd ,prudhon1 #cji ,quattrocentists1 the ,earlier1 #ah-bf ---- the ,later1 #bf et seq4 ,raeburn1 #cjj ,raphael1 #bf1 #de1 #dg-eg ---- ,sir ,joshua ,reynolds on1 #he1 #bgj ,rembrandt van ,ryn1 #afe1 #aff1 #aga-ahc1 #aib ,reni1 ,guido1 #ajh ,reynolds1 ,sir ,joshua1 #bfg-bgh1 #bhf-bhh1 #bhi ---- quoted1 on ,boucher1 #bdc ---- ---- on ,bourdon1 #bcb1 #bcc ---- ---- on ,gainsborough1 #bij-bid ---- ---- on ,hogarth1 #bfj ---- ---- on ,rubens and ,titian1 #ic-id ---- ---- on ,titian and ,raphael1 #he ---- ---- on ,veronese1 #aje ---- revival of ,english ,school due to1 #aej ---- ,refs4 to1 #bde1 #bdg1 #bea1 #beg1 #big1 #cja1 #cca1 #ccb ,ribera1 #aaj ,richardson1 #beg ,ridolfi1 quoted1 #hd ,rigaud1 ,hyacinthe1 #bcd1 #bda ,riley1 #beg ,robert1 ,hubert1 #bdf ,robusti1 ,jacopo4 ,see ,tintoretto ,romano1 ,giulio1 #ee ,romney1 ,george1 #ajj1 #aeb1 #bhi1 #bih-cjj1 #cja ,rossetti1 #acd1 #cjf1 #cba1 #cbb ,rowlandson1 #hi ,royal ,academy1 the1 #cbi-ccc ---- foundation of1 #bgi1 #bhf ,rubens1 ,peter ,paul1 #adc-aeg ---- and ,van ,dyck1 #afa-afb ---- and ,velasquez1 #aab1 #adi ---- pupils of1 #aeg-afc ---- ,refs4 to1 #hi1 #ic1 #aad1 #aag1 #aeh1 #afj1 #afe1 #afg1 #agf1 #agi1 #ahb1 #ahd1 #bce1 #bcf1 #bga ,rucellai ,madonna1 the1 #e ,ruisdael1 ,jacob1 #aeg1 #bjj1 #bjd-bjf1 #bjh1 #bji ,ruskin against the ,philistines1 #cac-cbc ---- on ,whistler1 #cbg ,sandrart1 ,joachim1 #bbi ---- quoted1 #ahj ,sansovino1 #hi1 #ajb ,sarto1 ,andrea del1 #da1 #de ,scharf1 ,sir ,george1 #cbh ,schlegel1 on ,altdorfer1 #bae ,schongauer1 ,martin1 #acd ,scorel1 ,jan1 #adj ,sebastiani1 ,lazzaro di4 ,see ,bastiani ,segar1 ,francis1 #bee ---- ,william1 #bee ,seghers1 ,daniel1 #bja ,semitecolo1 ,nicolo1 #ei ,shee1 ,sir ,martin ,archer1 #cac ,signorelli1 ,luca1 #di ,smith1 ,john1 ,catalogue ,raisonn1 quoted1 #aic1 #aii1 #bdd1 #bfe ,snyders1 ,frans1 #aed1 #aeg1 #aei-afj1 #afc ,sodoma1 #eg ,spanish ,school1 #ajh-abj ,spinello of ,arezzo1 or ,aretino1 #ag ,squarcione1 ,francesco1 #fb1 #fc1 #ff-fg1 #gj ,steen1 ,jan1 #ahf-ahg ,stevens1 #cjf ,streetes1 ,guillim1 #bed1 #bee ,strozzi1 ,bernard1 #aac ,sueur1 ,eustache le1 #bcb-bcc ,swanenburg1 ,jacob van1 #age1 #ahj ,tassi1 ,agostino1 #bbi ,teniers1 ,abraham1 #aeh ---- ,david1 the ,elder1 #aeg1 #aeh ---- ---- the ,younger1 #aeg1 #aeh1 #aei1 #afc1 #ahe ,terburg1 ,gerard1 #aij-aia ,thornhill1 ,sir ,james1 #beh1 #bgi ,thulden1 ,theodore van1 #aef ,tiepolo1 ,giovanni ,battista1 #ajh ,tintoretto1 ,il1 #ii-ajb1 #ajc1 #ajd1 #aje1 #aac1 #aad1 #aag ,titian1 #gh-id1 #ajj1 #ajb1 #ajc1 #ajd1 #aje1 #aag1 #agi ,turner1 #bie1 #cjf1 #cad-cbj1 #cbc1 #cbg ---- ,claude's influence on1 #bcj1 #bca ,tuscan ,schools1 #a-eh ,uccello1 ,paolo1 #bc-bd1 #be ,umbrian or ,perugian ,school1 #dh1 #di1 #ea ,vaga1 ,piero del1 #de ,van ,balen1 ,henry1 #aei1 #afb ,van ,cleef1 ,joos1 #adb ,van de ,velde1 ,adrian1 #bjc1 #bjf1 #bjh ---- ,willem1 the ,elder1 #bjf ---- ---- the ,younger1 #bjf-bjh ,van der ,helst1 ,bartholomew1 #afe1 #agj-aga1 #agd ,van der ,weyden1 ,roger1 #acb-acd1 #baa ,van ,dyck1 ,anthony1 #aef1 #aeg1 #afj-afc1 #afe1 #aff1 #agh1 #bcf1 #bgb ---- ---- in ,england1 #bef1 #beg ,van ,eyck1 ,hubert1 #aba1 #abe1 #abf1 #abg1 #adc1 #aej ---- ,jan1 #aba1 #abe1 #abg1 #aca1 #acc1 #acd1 #aej ,van ,goyen1 ,jan1 #ahf1 #aii1 #bjb-bjc1 #bjd ,van ,huysum1 ,james1 #bjb ---- ,jan1 #bja-bjb ---- ,justus1 #bjb ---- ,michael1 #bjb ,van ,leyden1 ,lucas1 #ach1 #bab ,van ,loo1 ,carle1 #bda ,van ,mabuse1 ,jan1 #acf1 #ach1 #aci1 #adc1 #bed ,van ,mieris1 ,frans1 #ahh ,van ,oort1 ,adam1 #ade ,van ,orley1 ,bernard1 #adj1 #adc ,van ,ostade1 ,adrian1 #agc1 #ahc1 #ahe1 #bjf ---- ,isaac1 #ahc1 #ahe ,van ,swanenburg1 ,jacob1 #age1 #ahj ,van ,thulden1 ,theodore1 #aef ,vasari1 quoted1 on ,andrea del ,sarto1 #da ---- on ,botticelli1 #bh1 #cj1 #cb ---- on ,cimabue1 #a1 #b1 #c1 #d1 #e1 #i ---- on ,fra ,angelico1 #bj ---- on ,fra ,filippo ,lippi1 #ba1 #bb1 #bc ---- on ,giotto1 #aj ---- on introduction of oil painting1 #abf1 #abg1 #abi ---- on ,leonardo da ,vinci1 #cd1 #cg1 #ci1 #dj ---- on ,masaccio1 #be1 #bf ---- on ,michelangelo1 #db1 #dc1 #dd1 #de ---- on ,pollaiuolo1 #bf1 #bg1 #bh ---- on the ,quattrocentists1 #ah ---- on ,raphael1 #dg ---- on ,spinello of ,aretino1 #hb1 #hf ---- on ,titian1 #hb1 #hf ---- ,refs4 to1 #agc1 #cjh ,vecellio1 ,tiziano4 ,see ,titian ,velasquez1 #hi1 #aji1 #aaj-aah1 #abj1 #afc1 #agh1 #agi ,venetian ,schools1 #ei-ajh ,verhaegt1 ,tobias1 #ade ,vermeer of ,delft1 ,jan1 #ahi1 #aia ,veronese1 ,paolo1 #ajc-ajd1 #aje ,verrocchio1 ,andrea1 #cd1 #ce1 #di ,vertue1 ,george1 #bea ,vinci1 ,leonardo da1 #bf1 #cc-dj1 #di1 #eg1 #bbe ,vivarini ,family1 the1 #ei1 #fj ---- ,antonio1 #fb1 #fc1 #fe ---- ,bartolommeo1 #fb ---- ,luigi1 or ,alvise1 #fb ,vlieger1 ,simon de1 #bjf ,vollon1 #cbe ,volterra1 ,daniele da1 #ah ---- ,francesco da1 #ah ,vos1 ,simon de1 #aef ,waagen1 ,dr1 quoted1 #ie1 #abb-abc1 #adc1 #adf1 #aec1 #aeg1 #bbd ,walker1 ,robert1 #beg ,walpole1 quoted1 #bea1 #beb1 #bfg ,wals1 ,gottfried1 #bbi ,watteau1 ,antoine1 #bce-bci1 #bdj1 #bda ,watts1 ,george ,frederick1 #cjf1 #cbb ,weenix1 ,jan ,baptist1 #aed1 #aig1 #aih1 #aii ---- ---- his son1 #aed1 #aih ,wesel1 ,hermann ,wynrich von1 #baa ,west1 ,benjamin1 #bec1 #bef1 #bhg ,weyden1 ,roger van der1 #acb-acd1 #baa ,whistler1 ,james ,m',neill1 #cjf1 #cbe1 #cbg ,wilhelm1 ,meister1 #baa ,wills1 #bhj ,wils1 ,jan1 #aii ,wilson1 ,richard1 #bcj1 #bhh1 #bif ,wint1 ,peter de1 #cjf ,wouvermans1 ,philip1 #aib-aic1 #bje1 #bjf1 #bjh ,wyczewa1 ,m4 de1 quoted1 #aag ,wynants1 ,jan1 #aib1 #bjc-bjd ,zampieri1 ,domenico1 or ,domenichino1 #ajg-ajh ,zoffany1 #big ,zurbaran1 #aaj ,,footnotes3 #a ,national ,gallery ,catalogue4 #b ,titien1 par ,henry ,caro-,delvaille4 ,librairie ,flix ,alcan4 #c ,an old copy of this picture is in the ,edinburgh ,gallery4