,note3 ,images of the original pages are available through ,internet ,archive_/,canadian ,libraries4 ,see http3_/_/www4archive4org_/details_/ethic sofcopera#jjtuftuoft ,,the ,,ethics ,,of ,,co,,peration 99 99 99 99 99 ,barbara ,weinstock ,lectures on ,the ,morals of ,trade ,,the ,,ethics ,,of ,,co,,peration4 ,by ,,james ,h4 ,,tufts4 ,,higher ,,education ,,and ,,business ,,standards4 ,by ,,willard ,,eugene ,,hotchkiss4 ,,creating ,,capital3 ,,money-,,making ,,as ,,an ,,aim ,,in ,,business4 ,by ,,frederick ,l4 ,,lipman4 ,,is ,,civilization ,a ,,disease8 ,by ,,stanton ,,coit4 ,,social ,,justice ,,without ,,socialism4 ,by ,,john ,,bates ,,clark4 ,,the ,,conflict ,,between ,,private ,,monopoly ,,and ,,good ,,citizenship4 ,by ,,john ,,graham ,,brooks4 ,,commercialism ,,and ,,journalism4 ,by ,,hamilton ,,holt4 ,,the ,,business ,,career ,,in ,,its ,,public ,,relations4 ,by ,,albert ,,shaw4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,ethics ,,of ,,co,,peration by ,,james ,h4 ,,tufts ,professor of ,philosophy in the ,university of ,chicago ,boston and ,new ,york ,houghton ,mifflin ,company ,the ,riverside ,press ,cambridge #aiah ,copyright1 #aiah1 by the ,regents of the ,university of ,california ,all ,rights ,reserved ,published ,september #aiah ,,barbara ,,weinstock ,,lectures ,,on ,,the ,,morals ,,of ,,trade ,this series will contain essays by representative scholars and men of affairs dealing with the various phases of the moral law in its bearing on business life under the new economic order1 first delivered at the ,university of ,california on the ,weinstock foundation4 ,,the ,,ethics ,,of ,,co,,peration ,i ,according to ,plato's famous myth1 two gifts of the gods equipped man for living3 the one1 arts and inventions to supply him with the means of livelihood2 the other1 reverence and justice to be the ordering principles of societies and the bonds of friendship and conciliation4 ,agencies for mastery over nature and agencies for coperation among men remain the two great sources of human power4 ,but after two thousand years1 it is possible to note an interesting fact as to their relative order of development in civilization4 ,nearly all the great skills and inventions that had been acquired up to the eighteenth century were brought into man's service at a very early date4 ,the use of fire1 the arts of weaver1 potter1 and metal worker1 of sailor1 hunter1 fisher1 and sower1 early fed man and clothed him4 ,these were carried to higher perfection by ,egyptian and ,greek1 by ,tyrian and ,florentine1 but it would be difficult to point to any great new unlocking of material resources until the days of the chemist and electrician4 ,domestic animals and crude water mills were for centuries in man's service1 and until steam was harnessed1 no additions were made of new powers4 ,during this long period1 however1 the progress of human association made great and varied development4 ,the gap between the men of ,santander's caves1 or early ,egypt1 and the civilization of a century ago is bridged rather by union of human powers1 by the needs and stimulating contacts of society1 than by conquest in the field of nature4 ,it was in military1 political1 and religious organization that the power of associated effort was first shown4 ,army1 state1 and hierarchy were its visible representatives4 ,then1 a little over a century ago1 began what we call the industrial revolution1 still incomplete1 which combined new natural forces with new forms of human association4 ,steam1 electricity1 machines1 the factory system1 railroads3 these suggest the natural forces at man's disposal2 capital1 credit1 corporations1 labor unions3 these suggest the bringing together of men and their resources into units for exploiting or controlling the new natural forces4 ,sometimes resisting the political1 military1 or ecclesiastical forces which were earlier in the lead1 sometimes mastering them1 sometimes combining with them1 economic organization has now taken its place in the world as a fourth great structure1 or rather as a fourth great agency through which man achieves his greater tasks1 and in so doing becomes conscious of hitherto unrealized powers4 ,early in this great process of social organization three divergent types emerged1 which still contend for supremacy in the worlds of action and of valuation3 dominance1 competition1 and coperation4 ,all mean a meeting of human forces4 ,they rest respectively on power1 rivalry1 and sympathetic interchange4 ,each may contribute to human welfare4 ,on the other hand1 each may be taken so abstractly as to threaten human values4 ,i hope to point out that the greatest of these is coperation1 and that it is largely the touchstone for the others4 ,coperation and dominance both mean organization4 ,dominance implies inequality1 direction and obedience1 superior and subordinate4 ,coperation implies some sort of equality1 some mutual relation4 ,it does not exclude difference in ability or in function4 ,it does not exclude leadership1 for leadership is usually necessary to make coperation effective4 ,but in dominance the special excellence is kept isolated2 ideas are transmitted from above downward4 ,in coperation there is interchange1 currents flowing in both directions1 contacts of mutual sympathy1 rather than of pride-humility1 condescension-servility4 ,the purpose of the joint pursuit in organization characterized by dominance may be either the exclusive good of the master or the joint good of the whole organized group1 but in any case it is a purpose formed and kept by those few who know4 ,the group may share in its execution and its benefits1 but not in its construction or in the estimating and forecasting of its values4 ,the purpose in coperation is joint4 ,whether originally suggested by some leader of thought or action1 or whether a composite of many suggestions in the give and take of discussion or in experiences of common need1 it is weighed and adopted as a common end4 ,it is not the work or possession of leaders alone1 but embodies in varying degrees the work and active interest of all4 ,coperation and competition at first glance may seem more radically opposed4 ,for while dominance and coperation both mean union of forces1 competition appears to mean antagonism4 ,they stand for combination2 it for exclusion of one by another4 ,yet a deeper look shows that this is not true of competition in what we may call its social1 as contrasted with its unsocial1 aspect4 ,the best illustration of what ,i venture to call social competition is sport4 ,here is rivalry1 and here in any given contest one wins1 the other loses1 or few win and many lose4 ,but the great thing in sport is not to win2 the great thing is the game1 the contest2 and the contest is no contest unless the contestants are so nearly equal as to forbid any certainty in advance as to which will win4 ,the best sport is found when no one contestant wins too often4 ,there is in reality a common purpose--the zest of contest4 ,players combine and compete to carry out this purpose2 and the rules are designed so to restrict the competition as to rule out certain kinds of action and preserve friendly relations4 ,the contending rivals are in reality uniting to stimulate each other4 ,without the coperation there would be no competition1 and the competition is so conducted as to continue the relation4 ,competition in the world of thought is similarly social4 ,in efforts to reach a solution of a scientific problem or to discuss a policy1 the spur of rivalry or the matching of wits aids the common purpose of arriving at the truth4 ,similar competition exists in business4 ,many a firm owes its success to the competition of its rivals which has forced it to be efficient1 progressive4 ,as a manufacturing friend once remarked to me3 ,when the other man sells cheaper1 you generally find he has found out something you don't know4 ,but we also apply the term competition to rivalry in which there is no common purpose2 to contests in which there is no intention to continue or repeat the match1 and in which no rules control4 ,weeds compete with flowers and crowd them out4 ,the factory competes with the hand loom and banishes it4 ,the trust competes with the small firm and puts it out of business4 ,the result is monopoly4 ,when plants or inventions are thus said to compete for a place1 there is frequently no room for both competitors1 and no social gain by keeping both in the field4 ,competition serves here sometimes as a method of selection1 although no one would decide to grow weeds rather than flowers because weeds are more efficient4 ,in the case of what are called natural monopolies1 there is duplication of effort instead of coperation4 ,competition is here wasteful4 ,but when we have to do1 not with a specific product1 or with a fixed field such as that of street railways or city lighting1 but with the open field of invention and service1 we need to provide for continuous coperation1 and competition seems at least one useful agency4 ,to retain this1 we frame rules against unfair competition4 ,as the rules of sport are designed to place a premium upon certain kinds of strength and skill which make a good game1 so the rules of fair competition are designed to secure efficiency for public service1 and to exclude efficiency in choking or fouling4 ,in unfair competition there is no common purpose of public service or of advancing skill or invention2 hence1 no coperation4 ,the coperative purpose or result is thus the test of useful1 as contrasted with wasteful or harmful1 competition4 ,there is also an abstract conception of coperation1 which1 in its one-sided emphasis upon equality1 excludes any form of leadership1 or direction1 and in fear of inequality allows no place for competition4 ,selection of rulers by lot in a large and complex group is one illustration2 jealous suspicion of ability1 which becomes a cult of incompetence1 is another4 ,refusals to accept inventions which require any modification of industry1 or to recognize any inequalities of service1 are others4 ,but these do not affect the value of the principle as we can now define it in preliminary fashion3 union tending to secure common ends1 by a method which promotes equality1 and with an outcome of increased power shared by all4 ,,ii ,what are we to understand by the ,ethics of ,coperation8 ,can we find some external standard of unquestioned value or absolute duty by which to measure the three processes of society which we have named1 dominance1 competition1 coperation8 ,masters of the past have offered many such1 making appeal to the logic of reason or the response of sentiment1 to the will for mastery or the claim of benevolence4 ,to make a selection without giving reasons would seem arbitrary2 to attempt a reasoned discussion would take us quite beyond the bounds appropriate to this lecture4 ,but aside from the formulations of philosophers1 humanity has been struggling--often rather haltingly and blindly--for certain goods and setting certain sign-posts which1 if they do not point to a highway1 at least mark certain paths as blind alleys4 ,such goods ,i take to be the great words1 liberty1 power1 justice2 such signs of blind paths ,i take to be rigidity1 passive acceptance of what is4 ,but those great words1 just because they are so great1 are given various meanings by those who would claim them for their own4 ,nor is there complete agreement as to just what paths deserve to be posted as leading nowhere4 ,groups characterized by dominance1 cut-throat competition1 or coperation1 tend to work out each its own interpretations of liberty1 power1 justice2 its own code for the conduct of its members4 ,without assuming to decide your choice1 ,i can indicate briefly what the main elements in these values and codes are4 ,the group of masters and servants will develop what we have learned to call a morality of masters and a morality of slaves4 ,this was essentially the code of the feudal system4 ,we have survivals of such a group morality in our code of the gentleman1 which in ,england still depreciates manual labor1 although it has been refined and softened and enlarged to include respect for other than military and sportsman virtues4 ,the code of masters exalts liberty--for the ruling class--and resents any restraint by inferiors or civilians1 or by public opinion of any group but its own4 ,it has a justice which takes for its premise a graded social order1 and seeks to put and keep every man in his place4 ,but its supreme value is power1 likewise for the few1 or for the state as consisting of society organized and directed by the ruling class4 ,such a group1 according to ,treitschke1 will also need war1 in order to test and exhibit its power to the utmost in fierce struggle with other powers4 ,it will logically honor war as good4 ,a group practicing cut-throat competition will simply reverse the order3 first1 struggle to put rivals out of the field2 then1 monopoly with unlimited power to control the market or possess the soil4 ,it appeals to nature's struggle for existence as its standard for human life4 ,it too sets a high value upon liberty in the sense of freedom from control1 but originating as it did in resistance to control by privilege and other aspects of dominance1 it has never learned the defects of a liberty which takes no account of ignorance1 poverty1 and ill health4 ,it knows the liberty of nature1 the liberty of the strong and the swift1 but not the liberty achieved by the common effort for all4 ,it knows justice1 but a justice which is likely to be defined as securing to each his natural liberty1 and which therefore means non-interference with the struggle for existence except to prevent violence and fraud4 ,it takes no account as to whether the struggle kills few or many1 or distributes goods widely or sparingly1 or whether indeed there is any room at the table which civilization spreads2 though it does not begrudge charity if administered under that name4 ,a coperating group has two working principles3 first1 common purpose and common good2 second1 that men can achieve by common effort what they cannot accomplish singly4 ,the first1 reinforced by the actual interchange of ideas and services1 tends to favor equality4 ,it implies mutual respect1 confidence1 and good-will4 ,the second favors a constructive and progressive attitude1 which will find standards neither in nature nor in humanity's past1 since it conceives man able to change conditions to a considerable extent and thus to realize new goods4 ,these principles tend toward a type of liberty different from those just mentioned4 ,as contrasted with the liberty of a dominant group1 coperation favors a liberty for all1 a liberty of live and let live1 a tolerance and welcome for variation in type1 provided only this is willing to make its contribution to the common weal4 ,instead of imitation or passive acceptance of patterns on the part of the majority1 it stimulates active construction4 ,as contrasted with the liberty favored in competing groups1 coperation would emphasize positive control over natural forces1 over health conditions1 over poverty and fear4 ,it would make each person share as fully as possible in the knowledge and strength due to combined effort1 and thus liberate him from many of the limitations which have hitherto hampered him4 ,similarly with justice4 ,coperation's ethics of distribution is not rigidly set by the actual interest and rights of the past on the one hand1 nor by hitherto available resources on the other4 ,neither natural rights nor present ability and present service form a complete measure4 ,since coperation evokes new interests and new capacities1 it is hospitable to new claims and new rights2 since it makes new sources of supply available1 it has in view the possibility at least of doing better for all than can an abstract insistence upon old claims4 ,it may often avoid the deadlock of a rigid system4 ,it is better to grow two blades of grass than to dispute who shall have the larger fraction of the one which has previously been the yield4 ,it is better1 not merely because there is more grass1 but also because men's attitude becomes forward-looking and constructive1 not pugnacious and rigid4 ,power is likewise a value in a coperating group1 but it must be power not merely used for the good of all1 but to some extent controlled by all and thus actually shared4 ,only as so controlled and so shared is power attended by the responsibility which makes it safe for its possessors4 ,only on this basis does power over other men permit the free choices on their part which are essential to full moral life4 ,as regards the actual efficiency of a coperating group1 it may be granted that its powers are not so rapidly mobilized4 ,in small1 homogeneous groups1 the loss of time is small2 in large groups the formation of public opinion and the conversion of this into action is still largely a problem rather than an achievement4 ,new techniques have to be developed1 and it may be that for certain military tasks the military technique will always be more efficient4 ,to the coperative group1 however1 this test will not be the ultimate ethical test4 ,it will rather consider the possibilities of substituting for war other activities in which coperation is superior4 ,and if the advocate of war insists that war as such is the most glorious and desirable type of life1 coperation may perhaps fail to convert him4 ,but it may hope to create a new order whose excellence shall be justified of her children4 ,,iii ,a glance at the past rles of dominance1 competition1 and coperation in the institutions of government1 religion1 and commerce and industry1 will aid us to consider coperation in relation to present international problems4 ,primitive tribal life had elements of each of the three principles we have named4 ,but with discovery by some genius of the power of organization for war the principle of dominance won1 seemingly at a flash1 a decisive position4 ,no power of steam or lightning has been so spectacular and wide-reaching as the power which ,egyptian1 ,assyrian1 ,macedonian1 ,roman1 and their modern successors introduced and controlled4 ,political states owing their rise to military means naturally followed the military pattern4 ,the sharp separation between ruler or ruling group and subject people1 based on conquest1 was perpetuated in class distinction4 ,gentry and simple1 lord and villein1 were indeed combined in exploitation of earth's resources1 but coperation was in the background1 mastery in the fore4 ,and when empires included peoples of various races and cultural advance the separation between higher and lower became intensified4 ,yet though submerged for long periods1 the principle of coperation has asserted itself1 step by step and it seldom loses ground4 ,beginning usually in some group which at first combined to resist dominance1 it has made its way through such stages as equality before the law1 abolition of special privileges1 extension of suffrage1 influence of public sentiment1 interchange of ideas1 toward genuine participation by all in the dignity and responsibility of political power4 ,it builds a ,panama ,canal1 it maintains a great system of education1 and has1 we may easily believe1 yet greater tasks in prospect4 ,it may be premature to predict its complete displacement of dominance in our own day as a method of government1 yet who in ,america doubts its ultimate prevalence8 ,religion presents a fascinating mixture of coperation with dominance on the one hand1 and exclusiveness on the other4 ,the central fact is the community1 which seeks some common end in ritual1 or in beneficent activity4 ,but at an early period leaders became invested1 or invested themselves1 with a sanctity which led to dominance4 ,not the power of force1 but that of mystery and the invisible raised the priest above the level of the many4 ,and1 on another side1 competition between rival national religions1 like that between states1 excluded friendly contacts4 ,jew and ,samaritan had no dealings2 between the followers of ,baal and ,jehovah there was no peace but by extermination4 ,yet it was religion which confronted the ,herrenmoral with the first reversal of values1 and declared1 ,so shall it not be among you4 ,but whosoever will be great among you let him be your minister4 ,and it was religion which cut across national boundaries in its vision of what ,professor ,royce so happily calls the ,great ,community4 ,protest against dominance resulted1 however1 in divisions1 and although coperation in practical activities has done much to prepare the way for national understanding1 the hostile forces of the world to-day lack the restraint which might have come from a united moral sentiment and moral will4 ,in the economic field the story of dominance1 coperation1 and competition is more complex than in government and religion4 ,it followed somewhat different courses in trade and in industry4 ,the simplest way to supply needs with goods is to go and take them2 the simplest way to obtain services is to seize them4 ,dominance in the first case gives piracy and plunder1 when directed against those without2 fines and taxes1 when exercised upon those within2 in the second case1 it gives slavery or forced levies4 ,but trade1 as a voluntary exchange of presents1 or as a bargaining for mutual advantage1 had likewise its early beginnings4 ,carried on at first with timidity and distrust1 because the parties belonged to different groups1 it has developed a high degree of mutual confidence between merchant and customer1 banker and client1 insurer and insured4 ,by its system of contracts and fiduciary relations1 which bind men of the most varying localities1 races1 occupations1 social classes1 and national allegiance1 it has woven a new net of human relations far more intricate and wide-reaching than the natural ties of blood kinship4 ,it rests upon mutual responsibility and good faith2 it is a constant force for their extension4 ,the industrial side of the process has had similar influence toward union4 ,free craftsmen in the towns found mutual support in guilds1 when as yet the farm laborer or villein had to get on as best he could unaided4 ,the factory system itself has been largely organized from above down4 ,it has very largely assumed that the higher command needs no advice or ideas from below4 ,hours of labor1 shop conditions1 wages1 have largely been fixed by orders1 just as governments once ruled by decrees4 ,but as dominance in government has led men to unite against the new power and then has yielded to the more complete coperation of participation1 so in industry the factory system has given rise to the labor movement4 ,as for the prospects of fuller coperation1 this may be said already to have displaced the older autocratic system within the managing group1 and the war is giving an increased impetus to extension of the process4 ,exchange of goods and services is indeed a threefold coperation3 it meets wants which the parties cannot themselves satisfy or cannot well satisfy2 it awakens new wants2 it calls new inventions and new forces into play4 ,it thus not only satisfies man's existing nature1 but enlarges his capacity for enjoyment and his active powers4 ,it makes not only for comfort1 but for progress4 ,,iv ,if trade and industry1 however1 embody so fully the principle of coperation1 how does it come about that they have on the whole had a rather low reputation1 not only among the class groups founded on militarism1 but among philosophers and moralists8 ,why do we find the present calamities of war charged to economic causes8 ,perhaps the answer to these questions will point the path along which better coperation may be expected4 ,there is1 from the outset1 one defect in the coperation between buyer and seller1 employer and laborer4 ,the coperation is largely unintended4 ,each is primarily thinking of his own advantage1 rather than that of the other1 or of the social whole2 he is seeking it in terms of money1 which as a material object must be in the pocket of one party or of the other1 and is not1 like friendship or beauty1 sharable4 ,mutual benefit is the result of exchange--it need not be the motive4 ,this benefit comes about as if it were arranged by an invisible hand1 said ,adam ,smith4 ,indeed1 it was long held that if one of the bargainers gained1 the other must lose4 ,and when under modern conditions labor is considered as a commodity to be bought and sold in the cheapest market by an impersonal corporate employer1 there is a strong presumption against the coperative attitude on either side4 ,the great problem here is1 therefore3 ,how can men be brought to seek consciously what now they unintentionally produce8 ,how can the man whose ends are both self-centered and ignoble be changed into the man whose ends are wide and high8 ,something may doubtless be done by showing that a narrow selfishness is stupid4 ,if we rule out monopoly the best way to gain great success is likely to lie through meeting needs of a great multitude2 and to meet these effectively implies entering by imagination and sympathy into their situation4 ,the business maxim of service1 the practices of refunding money if goods are unsatisfactory1 of one price to all1 of providing sanitary and even attractive factories and homes1 and of paying a minimum wage far in excess of the market price1 have often proved highly remunerative4 ,yet1 ,i should not place exclusive1 and perhaps not chief1 reliance on these methods of appeal4 ,they are analogous to the old maxim1 honesty is the best policy2 and we know too well that while this holds under certain conditions1--that is1 among intelligent people1 or in the long run1--it is often possible to acquire great gains by exploiting the weak1 deceiving the ignorant1 or perpetrating a fraud of such proportions that men forget its dishonesty in admiration at its audacity4 ,in the end it is likely to prove that the level of economic life is to be raised not by proving that coperation will better satisfy selfish and ignoble interests1 but rather by creating new standards for measuring success1 new interests in social and worthy ends1 and by strengthening the appeal of duty where this conflicts with present interests4 ,the one method stakes all on human nature as it is2 the other challenges man's capacity to listen to new appeals and respond to better motives4 ,it is1 if you please1 idealism2 but before it is dismissed as worthless1 consider what has been achieved in substituting social motives in the field of political action4 ,there was a time when the aim in political life was undisguisedly selfish4 ,the state1 in distinction from the kinship group or the village community1 was organized for power and profit4 ,it was nearly a gigantic piratical enterprise1 highly profitable to its managers4 ,the shepherd1 says ,thrasymachus in ,plato's dialogue1 does not feed his sheep for their benefit1 but for his own4 ,yet now1 what president or minister1 legislator or judge1 would announce as his aim to acquire the greatest financial profit from his position8 ,even in autocratically governed countries1 it is at least the assumption that the good of the state does not mean solely the prestige and wealth of the ruler4 ,a great social and political order has been built up1 and we all hold that it must not be exploited for private gain4 ,it has not been created or maintained by chance4 ,nor could it survive if every man sought primarily his own advantage and left the commonwealth to care for itself4 ,nor in a democracy would it be maintained1 provided the governing class alone were disinterested1 deprived of private property1 and given education1 as ,plato suggested4 ,the only safety is in the general and intelligent desire for the public interest and common welfare4 ,at this moment almost unanimous acceptance of responsibility for what we believe to be the public good and the maintenance of ,american ideals--though it brings to each of us sacrifice and to many the full measure of devotion--bears witness to the ability of human nature to adopt as its compelling motives a high end which opposes private advantage4 ,is the economic process too desperate a field for larger motives8 ,to me it seems less desperate than the field of government in the days of autocratic kings4 ,one great need is to substitute a different standard of success for the financial gains which have seemed the only test4 ,our schools of commerce are aiming to perform this service1 by introducing professional standards4 ,a physician is measured by his ability to cure the sick1 an engineer by the soundness of his bridge and ship2 why not measure a railroad president by his ability to supply coal in winter1 to run trains on time1 and decrease the cost of freight1 rather than by his private accumulations8 ,why not measure a merchant or banker by similar tests8 ,mankind has built up a great economic system4 ,pioneer1 adventurer1 inventor1 scientist1 laborer1 organizer1 all have contributed4 ,it is as essential to human welfare as the political system1 and like that system it comes to us as an inheritance4 ,i can see no reason why it should be thought unworthy of a statesman or a judge to use the political structure for his own profit1 but perfectly justifiable for a man to exploit the economic structure for private gain4 ,this does not necessarily exclude profit as a method of paying for services1 and of increasing capital needed for development1 but it would seek to adjust profits to services1 and treat capital1 just as it regards political power1 as a public trust in need of coperative regulation and to be used for the general welfare4 ,but the war is teaching with dramatic swiftness what it might have needed decades of peace to bring home to us4 ,we are thinking of the common welfare4 ,high prices may still be a rough guide to show men's needs1 but we are learning to raise wheat because others need it--not merely because the price is high4 ,prices may also be a rough guide to consumption1 but we are learning that eating wheat or sugar is not merely a matter of what ,i can afford4 ,it is a question of whether ,i take wheat or sugar away from some one else who needs it--the soldier in ,france1 the child in ,belgium1 the family of my less fortunate neighbor4 ,the great argument for not interfering with private exchange in all such matters has been that if prices should by some authority be kept low in time of scarcity1 men would consume the supply too rapidly2 whereas if prices rise in response to scarcity1 men at once begin to economize and so prevent the total exhaustion of the supply4 ,we now reflect that if prices of milk rise it does not mean uniform economy--it means cutting off to a large degree the children of the poor and leaving relatively untouched the consumption of the well-to-do4 ,merely raising the price of meat or wheat means taking these articles from the table of one class to leave them upon the table of another4 ,war1 requiring1 as it does1 the united strength and purpose of the whole people1 has found this method antiquated4 ,in ,europe governments have said to their peoples3 we must all think of the common weal2 we must all share alike4 ,in this country1 the appeal of the food administrator1 though largely without force of law1 has been loyally answered by the great majority4 ,it is doubtless rash to predict how much peace will retain of what war has taught1 but who of us will again say so easily1 ,my work or leisure1 my economy or my luxury1 is my own affair1 if ,i can afford it8 ,who can fail to see that common welfare comes not without common intention8 ,the second great defect in our economic order1 from the point of view of coperation1 has been the inequality of its distribution4 ,this has been due largely to competition when parties were unequal1 not merely in their ability1 but in their opportunity4 ,and the most serious1 though not the most apparent1 aspect of this inequality1 has not been that some have more comfort or luxuries to enjoy2 it is the fact that wealth means power4 ,in so far as it can set prices on all that we eat1 wear1 and enjoy1 it is controlling the intimate affairs of life more thoroughly than any government ever attempted4 ,in so far as it controls natural resources1 means of transportation1 organization of credit1 and the capital necessary for large-scale manufacturing and marketing1 it can set prices4 ,the great questions then are1 as with political power3 ,how can this great power be coperatively used8 ,is it serving all or a few8 ,two notable doctrines of the courts point ways for ethics4 ,the first is that of property affected with public interest4 ,applied thus far by the courts to warehouses1 transportation1 and similar public services1 what limits can we set ethically to the doctrine that power of one man over his fellows1 whether through his office1 or through his property1 is affected with public interest8 ,the police power1 which sets the welfare of all above private property when these conflict1 is a second doctrine whose ethical import far outruns its legal applications4 ,yet it is by neither of these that the most significant progress has been made toward removing that handicap of inequality which is the chief injustice of our economic system4 ,it is by our great educational system1 liberal in its provisions1 generously supported by all classes1 unselfishly served1 opening to all doors of opportunity which once were closed to the many1 the most successful department of our democratic institutions in helping and gaining confidence of all--a system of which this ,university of ,california is one of the most notable leaders and the most useful members--that fair conditions for competition and intelligent coperation in the economic world are increasingly possible4 ,v ,what bearing has this sketch of the significance and progress of coperation upon the international questions which now overshadow all else8 ,certainly the world cannot remain as before3 great powers struggling for empire2 lesser powers struggling for their separate existence2 great areas of backward peoples viewed as subjects for exploitation2 we ourselves aloof4 ,it must then choose between a future world order based on dominance1 which means world empire2 a world order based on nationalism joined with the non-social type of competition1 which means1 every nation the judge of its own interests1 continuance of jealousies and from time to time the recurrence of war2 and a world order based on nationalism plus international coperation1 to establish justice1 to provide for common defense1 to promote the general welfare1 and to secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity4 ,it is not necessary to discuss in this country the principle of dominance and world empire4 ,it contradicts our whole philosophy4 ,safety for dominance lies only in a civilization of discipline from above down1 in ruthless repression of all thinking on the part of the subject class or race4 ,nor can ,i see any genuine alternative in what some advocate--reliance by each nation on its own military strength as the sole effective guarantee for its interests4 ,after the military lessons of this war1 the concentration of scientific1 economic1 and even educational attention upon military purposes would almost inevitably be vastly in excess of anything previously conceived4 ,what limits can be set to the armies of ,france and ,great ,britain if these are to protect those countries from a ,german empire already double its previous extent1 and taking steps to control the resources of eastern ,europe and the near ,east8 ,what navy could guarantee ,german commerce against the combined forces of ,great ,britain and the ,united ,states8 ,what limits to the frightfulness yet to be discovered by chemist and bacteriologist8 ,what guarantee against the insidious growth of a militarist attitude even in democratically minded peoples if the constant terror of war exalts military preparations to the supreme place8 ,something has changed the ,germany of other days which many of us loved even while we shrank from its militarist masters4 ,is it absolutely certain that nothing can change the spirit of democratic peoples8 ,at any rate1 ,america1 which has experimented on a larger scale with coperation--political1 economic1 and religious--than any other continent1 may well assert steadily and insistently that this is the more hopeful path4 ,it may urge this upon distrustful ,europe4 ,the obstacles to coperation are3 #a4 ,the survival of the principle of dominance1 showing itself in desire for political power and prestige1 and in certain conceptions of national honor4 #b4 ,the principle of non-social competition1 exhibited in part in the political policy of eliminating weaker peoples1 and conspicuously in foreign trade when the use of unfair methods relies upon national power to back up its exploitation or monopoly4 #c4 ,the principle of nationalistic sentiment1 itself based on coperation1 on social tradition and common ideals1 but bound up so closely with political sovereignty and antagonisms as to become exclusive instead of coperative in its attitude toward other cultures4 ,the principle of dominance deters from coperation1 not only the people that seeks to dominate1 but peoples that fear to be dominated or to become involved in entangling alliances4 ,doubtless a policy of aloofness was long the safe policy for us4 ,we could not trust political liberty to an alliance with monarchies1 even as with equal right some ,european peoples might distrust the policies of a republic seemingly controlled by the slavery interest4 ,at the present time one great power professes itself incredulous of the fairness of any world tribunal2 smaller powers fear the commanding influence of the great2 new national groups just struggling to expression fear that a league of nations would be based on present status and therefore give them no recognition1 or else a measure of recognition conditioned by past injustices rather than by future aspirations and real desert4 ,all these fears are justified in so far as the principle of dominance is still potent4 ,the only league that can be trusted by peoples willing to live and let live1 is one that is controlled by a coperative spirit4 ,and yet who can doubt that this spirit is spreading8 ,few governments are now organized on the avowed basis that military power1 which embodies the spirit of dominance1 should be superior to civil control1 and even with them the principle of irresponsible rule1 despite its reinforcement by military success1 is likely to yield to the spirit of the age when once the pressure of war is removed which now holds former protesters against militarism solid in its support4 ,for all powers that are genuine in their desire for coperation there is overwhelming reason to try it2 for only by the combined strength of those who accept this principle can liberty and justice be maintained against the aggression of powers capable of concentrating all their resources with a suddenness and ruthlessness in which dominance is probably superior4 ,yet coperation for protection of liberty and justice is liable to fall short of humanity's hopes unless liberty and justice be themselves defined in a coperative sense4 ,the great liberties which man has gained1 as step by step he has risen from savagery1 have not been chiefly the assertion of already existing powers or the striking-off of fetters forged by his fellows4 ,they have been additions to previous powers4 ,science1 art1 invention1 associated life in all its forms1 have opened the windows of his dwelling1 have given possibilities to his choice1 have given the dream and the interpretation which have set him free from his prison4 ,the liberty to which international coperation points is not merely self-direction or self-determination1 but a larger freedom from fear1 a larger freedom from suspicion1 a fuller control over nature and society1 a new set of ideas1 which will make men free in a far larger degree than ever before4 ,similarly justice needs to be coperatively defined4 ,a justice that looks merely to existing status will not give lasting peace4 ,peoples change in needs as truly as they differ in needs4 ,but no people can be trusted to judge its own needs any more than to judge its own right4 ,a justice which adheres rigidly to vested interests1 and a justice which is based on expanding interests1 are likely to be deadlocked unless a constructive spirit is brought to bear4 ,abstract rights to the soil1 to trade1 to expansion1 must be subordinate to the supreme question3 ,how can peoples live together and help instead of destroy8 ,this can be approached only from an international point of view4 ,the second obstacle1 unsocial competition1 is for trade what dominance is in politics4 ,it prevents that solution for many of the delicate problems of international life which coperation through trade might otherwise afford4 ,exchange of goods and services by voluntary trade accomplishes what once seemed attainable only by conquest or slavery4 ,if ,germany or ,japan or ,italy needs iron or coal2 if ,england needs wheat1 or if the ,united ,states sugar1 it is possible1 or should be possible1 to obtain these without owning the country in which are the mines1 grain1 and sugar cane4 ,the ,united ,states needs ,canada's products2 it has no desire to own ,canada4 ,but in recent years the exchange of products has been subjected to a new influence4 ,national self-interest has been added to private self-interest4 ,this has intensified and called out many of the worst features of antagonism and inequality4 ,few in this country have realized the extent to which other countries have organized their foreign commerce on national lines4 ,we are now becoming informed as to the carefully worked-out programmes of commercial education1 merchant marines1 trade agreements1 consular service1 financial and moral support from the home government1 and mutual aid among various salesmen of the same nationality living in a foreign country4 ,we are preparing to undertake similar enterprises4 ,we are reminded that eighty per cent of the world's people live in the countries bordering on the ,pacific ,ocean1 and that as a result of the rearrangement of trade routes1 ,san ,francisco's chance of becoming the greatest distributing port of the ,pacific for goods en route to the markets of the ,orient1 are now more promising than ever before4 ,can the ,united ,states take part in this commerce in such a way as to help1 not hinder1 international progress in harmony8 ,not unless we remember that commerce may be as predatory as armies1 and that we must provide international guarantees against the exclusive types of competition which we have had to control by law in our own domestic affairs4 ,an ,indian or an ,african may be deprived of his possessions quite as effectively by trade as by violence4 ,we need at least as high standards of social welfare as in domestic commerce4 ,i cannot better present the situation than by quoting from a recent article by ,mr4 ,william ,notz in the ,journal of ,political ,economy 7,feb4 #aiah73 ,during the past twenty-five years competition in the world markets became enormously keen4 ,in the wild scramble for trade the standards of honest business were disregarded more and more by all the various rival nations4 ,in the absence of any special regulation or legislation1 it appeared as though a silent understanding prevailed in wide circles that foreign trade was subject to a code of business ethics widely at variance with the rules observed in domestic trade4 ,what was frowned upon as unethical and poor business policy1 if not illegal at home1 was condoned and winked at or openly espoused when foreign markets formed the basis of operations and foreigners were the competitors4 ,high-minded men of all nations have long observed with concern the growing tendency of modern international trade toward selfish exploitation1 concession-hunting1 cut-throat competition1 and commercialistic practices of the most sordid type4 ,time and again complaints have been voiced1 retaliatory measures threatened1 and more than once serious friction has ensued4 ,mr4 ,notz brings to our attention various efforts by official and commercial bodies looking toward remedies for such conditions and toward official recognition by all countries of unfair competition as a penal offense4 ,what more do we need than fair competition to constitute the coperative international life which we dreamed yesterday and now must consider1 not merely as a dream1 but as the only alternative to a future of horror8 ,free trade has been not unnaturally urged as at least one condition4 ,tariffs certainly isolate4 ,to say to a country3 ,you shall manufacture nothing unless you own the raw material2 you shall sell nothing unless at prices which ,i fix1 is likely to provoke the reply3 ,then ,i must acquire lands in which raw materials are found2 ,i must acquire colonies which will buy my products4 ,trade agreements mean coperation for those within1 unless they are one-sided and made under duress2 in any case they are exclusive of those without4 ,free trade1 the open door1 seems to offer a better way4 ,but free trade in name is not free trade unless the parties are really free--free from ignorance1 from pressure of want4 ,if one party is weak and the other unscrupulous2 if one competitor has a lower standard of living than the other1 freedom of trade will not mean genuine coperation4 ,such coperation as means good for all requires either an equality of conditions between traders and laborers of competing nations and of nations which exchange goods1 or else an international control to prevent unfair competition1 exploitation of weaker peoples1 and lowering of standards of living4 ,medical science is giving an object lesson which may well have a wide application4 ,it is seeking to combat disease in its centers of diffusion4 ,instead of attempting to quarantine against the ,orient1 it is aiding the ,orient to overcome those conditions which do harm alike to ,orient and ,occident4 ,plague1 anthrax1 yellow fever1 cannot exist in one country without harm to all4 ,nor in the long run can men reach true coperation so long as ,china and ,africa are a prize for the exploiter rather than equals in the market4 ,not merely in the political sense1 but in its larger meanings democracy here is not safe without democracy there4 ,education1 and the lifting of all to a higher level1 is the ultimate goal4 ,and until education1 invention1 and intercommunication have done their work of elevation1 international control must protect and regulate4 ,in many respects the obstacle to international coperation which is most difficult to remove is the strong and still growing sentiment of nationality4 ,this is not1 like dominance1 a waning survival of a cruder method of social order2 it is a genuine type of coperation4 ,rooted as it is in a historic past1 in community of ideals and traditions1 and usually of language and art1 it wakens the emotional response to a degree once true only of religion4 ,born of such a social tradition1 the modern may be said in truth mentally and spiritually1 as well as physically1 to be born a ,frenchman or a ,german1 a ,scotchman or ,irishman or ,englishman4 ,he may be content to merge this inheritance in an empire if he can be senior partner1 but the struggles of ,irish1 ,poles1 ,czechs1 and ,south ,slavs1 the ,zionist movement1 the nationalistic stirrings in ,india1 with their literary revivals1 their fierce self-assertions1 seem to point away from internationalism rather than toward it4 ,the ,balkans1 in which ,serb1 ,bulgar1 ,roumanian1 and ,greek have been developing this national consciousness1 have been the despair of peacemakers4 ,the strongest point in the nationalist programme is1 however1 not in any wise opposed to coperation1 but rather to dominance or non-social competition4 ,the strongest point is the importance of diversity combined with group unity for the fullest enrichment of life and the widest development of human capacity4 ,a world all of one sort would not only be less interesting1 but less progressive4 ,we are stimulated by different customs1 temperaments1 arts1 and ideals4 ,but all this is the strongest argument for genuine coperation1 since by this only can diversity be helpful1 even as it is only through diversity in its members that a community can develop fullest life4 ,a world organization based on the principle that any single group is best and therefore ought to rule1 or to displace all others1 would be a calamity4 ,a world organization which encourages every member to be itself would be a blessing4 ,why do nationalism and internationalism clash8 ,because this national spirit has rightly or wrongly been bound up so intimately with political independence4 ,tara's harp long hangs mute when ,erin is conquered4 ,poland's children must not use a language in which they might learn to plot against their masters4 ,a ,french-speaking ,alsatian is suspected of disloyalty4 ,professor ,dewey has recently pointed out that in the ,united ,states we have gone far toward separating culture from the state1 and suggests that this may be the path of peace for ,europe4 ,we allow groups to keep their religion1 their language1 their song festivals4 ,it may perhaps be claimed that this maintenance of distinct languages and separate cultures is a source of weakness in such a crisis as we now face4 ,yet it may well be urged1 on the other hand1 that a policy less liberal would have increased rather than diminished disunion and disloyalty4 ,,vi ,the student of human progress is likely to be increasingly impressed with the interaction between ideas and institutions4 ,how far does man build and shape institutions to give body to his ideas8 ,how far is it the organized life with its social contacts1 its give and take1 its enlargement of its membership to see life sub specie communitatis1 which itself brings ideas to birth8 ,desire may bring the sexes together1 but it is the association and organized relationships of the family which transform casual to permanent affection and shape our conceptions of its values4 ,a herding instinct or a common need of defense or of food supplies may bring together early groups1 and will to power may begin the state1 but it is the living together which generates laws and wakens the craving for liberty and the struggle for justice4 ,seer and poet doubtless contribute to progress by their kindling appeals to the imagination and sympathy2 the philosopher may1 as ,plato claimed for him1 live as citizen of a perfect state which has no earthly being1 and shape his life according to its laws2 but mankind in general has learned law and right1 as well as the arts of use and beauty1 in the school of life in common4 ,so it is likely to be with international coperation4 ,fears and hopes now urge it upon a reluctant1 incredulous world4 ,but the beginnings--scientific1 legal1 commercial1 political--timid and imperfect though they be1 like our own early confederation1 will work to reshape those who take part4 ,mutual understanding will increase with common action4 ,when men work consistently to create new resources instead of treating their world as a fixed system1 when they see it as a fountain1 not as a cistern1 they will gradually gain a new spirit4 ,the ,great ,community must create as well as prove the ethics of coperation4 ,the ,riverside ,press ,,cambridge ,,massachusetts ,u ,s ,a