,,! ,,romance ,,( ,,sci5ce ,,! ,,ma*9]y ,,( ,,! ,,univ]se ,,me*anical ,,conceptions ,,( ,,physical ,,ph5om5a ,,by ,a4 ,e4 ,,dolbe>1 ,a4,b41 ,a4,m41 ,m4,e41 ,,ph4,d4 ,,pr(essor ,,( ,,physics ,,& ,,a/ronomy1 ,,tufts ,,college1 ,,mass4 ,,publi%$ ,,"u ,,g5]al ,,lit]ature ,,committee4 ,,london3 ,,society ,,= ,,promot+ ,,*ri/ian ,,k1 ,,nor?umb]l& ,,av5ue1 ,w4,c42 #dc1 ,,que5 ,,victoria ,,/reet1 ,e4,c4 ,,brighton3 #abi1 ,,nor? ,,/reet4 ,,new ,,york3 ,e4 ,j4 ,b4 ,,"y ,,co4 #ahig4 ,,preface ,= ?irty ye>s or m ! expressions ,correlation ( ! ,physical ,=ces & ,! ,cons]vation ( ,en]gy h be5 common1 yet few p]sons h tak5 ! necess>y pa9s to ?9k out cle>ly :at me*anical *anges take place :5 "o =m ( en]gy is trans=m$ into ano!r4 ,s9ce ,tyndall gave u 8 book call$ ,heat z a ,mode ( ,motion nei!r lectur]s nor text-books h attempt$ to expla9 h[ all ph5om5a are ! necess>y outcome ( ! v>i\s =ms ( motion4 ,9 g5]al1 ph5om5a h be5 attribut$ to =ces--a metaphysical t]m1 :i* expla9s no?+ & is m]ely a /op-gap1 & is really n at all ne$ful 9 ^! days1 see+ t trans=mable modes ( motion1 easily p]ceiv$ & und]/ood1 may be sub/itut$ 9 all cases = =ces4 ,9 ,decemb] #ahie ! au?or gave a lecture be=e ! ,frankl9 ,in/itute ( ,philadelphia1 on ,me*anical ,conceptions ( ,electrical ,ph5om5a1 9 :i* he und]took to make cle> :at happ5s :5 electrical ph5om5a appe>4 ,! publication ( ?is lecture 9 ,! ,j\rnal ( ! ,frankl9 ,in/itute & 9 ,nature br\ght an urg5t reque/ t x %\ld be enl>g$ some:at & publi%$ 9 a =m m conv5i5t = ! public4 ,! enl>gem5t consi/s 9 ! addition ( a *apt] on ! ,contra/$ ,prop]ties ( ,matt] & ! ,e!r1 a *apt] conta9+ some?+ :i* ! au?or believes to be ( philosophical importance 9 ^! days :5 electricity is s g5]ally describ$ z a ph5om5on ( ! e!r4 ,a4 ,e4 ,,dolbe>4 ,,table ,,( ,,cont5ts ,,*apt] ,i ,ideas ( ph5om5a anci5t & mod]n1 metaphysical & me*anical--,impond]ables--,=ces1 inv5t$ & disc>d$--,explanations--,en]gy1 its factors1 ,k9etic & ,pot5tial--,motions1 k9ds & trans=mations (--,me*anical1 molecul>1 & atomic--,inv5tion ( ,e!rs1 ,f>aday's conceptions p4 #g ,,*apt] ,,ii ,prop]ties ( ,matt] & ,e!r comp>$--,discont9uity v]sus ,cont9uity--,size ( atoms--,a/ronomical di/ances--,numb] ( atoms 9 ! univ]se--,e!r unlimit$--,k9ds ( ,matt]1 p]man5t qualities (--,atomic /ructure2 vortex-r+s1 _! prop]ties--,e!r /ructureless--,matt] gravitative1 ,e!r n--,friction 9 ,matt]1 ,e!r frictionless--,*emical prop]ties--,en]gy 9 ,matt] & 9 ,e!r--,matt] z a trans=m] ( ,en]gy--,ela/icity--,vibratory rates & waves--,d5sity--,heat--,inde/ructibility ( ,matt]--,in]tia 9 ,matt] & 9 ,e!r--,matt] n in]t--,magnetism & ,e!r waves--,/ates ( ,matt]--,cohesion & *emism affect$ by temp]ature--,%e>+ /ress 9 ,solids & 9 ,e!r--,e!r pressure--,s5sation dep5d5t ^u ,matt]--,n]v\s sy/em n affect$ by ,e!r /ates--,o!r /resses 9 ,e!r--,trans=mations ( ,motion--,t]m9ology p4 #bd ,,*apt] ,,iii ,antec$5ts ( ,electricity--,nature ( :at is trans=m$--,s]ies ( trans=mations = ! production ( light--,positive & negative ,electricity--,positive & negative twi/s--,rotations ab\t a wire--,rotation ( an arc--,e!r a non-conductor--,electro-magnetic waves--,induction & inductive action--,e!r /ress & atomic position--,nature ( an electric curr5t--,electricity a condition1 n an entity p4 #id ,,*apt] ,i ,ideas ( ph5om5a anci5t & mod]n1 metaphysical & me*anical--,impond]ables--,=ces1 inv5t$ & disc>d$--,explanations--,en]gy1 its factors1 ,k9etic & ,pot5tial--,motions1 k9ds & trans=mations (--,me*anical1 molecul>1 & atomic--,inv5tion ( ,e!rs1 ,f>aday's conceptions4 ',& n[ we might add some?+ conc]n+ a mo/ subtle _s :i* p]vades & lies hid 9 all gross bodies1 by ! =ce & action ( :i* _s ! p>ticles ( bodies attract ea* o!r at ne> di/ances1 & coh]e if contigu\s1 & electric bodies op]ate at great] di/ances1 z well repell+ z attract+ neighb\r+ corpuscles1 & light is emitt$1 reflect$1 inflect$1 & heats bodies1 & all s5sation is excit$1 & memb]s ( animal bodies move at ! comm& ( ! w4'--,,newton1 ,pr9cipia4 ,9 ,newton's day ! :ole field ( nature 0 practically ly+ fall[4 ,no fundam5tal pr9ciples 7 kn[n until ! law ( gravitation 0 discov]$4 ,?is law 0 beh9d all ! "w ( ,cop]nicus1 ,kepl]1 & ,galileo1 & :at !y _h done ne$$ int]pretation4 ,x 0 q natural t ! mo/ obvi\s & me*anical ph5om5a %\ld fir/ be r$uc$1 & s ! ,pr9cipia 0 conc]n$ ) me*anical pr9ciples appli$ to a/ronomical problems4 ,to u1 :o h gr[n up famili> ) ! pr9ciples & conceptions und]ly+ !m1 all v>ieties ( me*anical ph5om5a seem s obvi\s1 t x is difficult = u to und]/& h[ any "o c\ld be obtuse to !m2 b ! records ( ,newton's "t1 & imm$iately aft] ?is1 %[ t !y 7 n s easy ( appreh5sion4 ,x may be rememb]$ t !y 7 n adopt$ 9 ,france till long aft] ,newton's day4 ,9 spite ( :at is ?\ght to be reasonable1 x really requires some?+ m ?an complete demon/ration to conv9ce mo/ ( u ( ! tru? ( an idea1 %\ld ! tru? happ5 to be ( a k9d n famili>1 or %\ld x *ance to be oppos$ to our m or less well-def9$ notions ( :at x is or ought to be4 ,if ^? :o lab\r = & atta9 :at !y ?9k to be ! tru? ab\t any matt]1 7 a little bett] in=m$ conc]n+ m5tal processes & ! conditions "u :i* ideas gr[ & displace o!rs1 !y w\ld be m pati5t ) mank9d2 tea*]s ( e rank might !n discov] t :at is (t5 call$ /upidity may be no?+ else ?an m5tal in]tia1 :i* c no m be made active by simply will+ ?an c ! movem5t ( a cannon ball by a l ef=t4 ,we gr[ into our beliefs & op9ions ^u all matt]s1 & sci5tific ideas are no exceptions4 ,:ewell1 9 8 ,hi/ory ( ! ,inductive ,sci5ces1 says t ! ,greeks made no headway 9 physical sci5ce because !y lack$ appropriate ideas4 ,! evid5ce is ov]:elm+ t !y 7 z obs]v+1 z acute1 z reasonable z any :o live to-day4 ,) ?is view1 x w\ld appe> t ! great discov]]s mu/ h be5 m5 :o />t$ out ) appropriate ideas3 7 look+ = :at !y f\nd4 ,if1 !n1 "o reflects ^u ! exce$+ great difficulty !re is 9 discov]+ "o new tru?1 & ! imm5se am\nt ( "w ne$$ to dis5tangle x1 x w\ld appe> z if ev5 ! mo/ successful h b indi/9ct ideas ( :at is really appropriate1 & t _! me*anical conceptions become cl>ifi$ by do+ _! "w4 ,?is is n always ! fact4 ,9 ! /atem5t ( ,newton quot$ at ! head ( ?is *apt]1 he speaks ( a _s :i* lies hid 9 all gross bodies1 etc41 by means ( :i* all k9ds ( ph5om5a are to be expla9$2 b he delib]ately ab&ons t idea :5 he comes to ! /udy ( light1 = he assumes ! exi/5ce & activity ( light corpuscles1 = :i* he has no exp]im5tal evid5ce2 & ! probability is t he did ?is because ! latt] conception 0 "o :i* he c\ld h&le ma!matically1 :ile he saw no way = ?us deal+ ) ! o!r4 ,8 me*anical in/9cts 7 m to be tru/$ ?an 8 c>efully calculat$ results2 =1 z all "k1 :at he call$ spirits1 is :at to-day we call ! e!r1 & ! corpuscul> !ory ( light has n[ no m ?an a hi/oric int]e/4 ,! corpuscul> !ory 0 a me*anical conception1 b ea* su* corpuscle 0 ideally end[$ ) qualities :i* 7 out ( all relation ) ! ord9>y matt] ) :i* x 0 class$4 ,until ! middle ( ! pres5t c5tury ! reign+ physical philosophy held to ! exi/5ce ( :at 7 call$ impond]ables4 ,! ph5om5a ( heat 7 expla9$ z due to an impond]able sub/ance call$ caloric1 :i* ord9>y matt] c\ld absorb & emit4 ,a hot body 0 "o :i* _h absorb$ an impond]able sub/ance4 ,x 01 !re=e1 no heavi] ?an be=e1 b x possess$ ability to d "w proportional to ! am\nt absorb$4 ,c>not's ideal eng9e 0 describ$ by him 9 t]ms t imply ! mat]iality ( heat4 ,light 0 ano!r impond]able sub/ance1 ! exi/5ce ( :i* 0 ma9ta9$ by ,sir ,david ,brew/] z long z he liv$4 ,electricity & magnetism 7 impond]able fluids1 :i*1 :5 alli$ ) ord9>y matt]1 end[$ ! latt] ) _! peculi> qualities4 ,! conceptions 9 ea* case 7 prop]ly me*anical ones "p 7b n all7 ( ! "t2 = :5 ! immat]ial sub/ances 7 dissociat$ f matt]1 :]e !y _h manife/$ !mselves1 no "o conc]n$ himself to inquire z to _! :]eab\ts4 ,!y 7 simply (f duty1 b c\ld be summon$1 l ! g5ii 9 ! /ory ( ,aladd9's ,lamp4 ,n[1 a me*anical conception ( any ph5om5on1 or a me*anical explanation ( any k9d ( action1 mu/ be me*anical all ! "t1 9 ! antec$5ts z well z ! consequ5ts4 ,no?+ else w d except a miracle4 ,dur+ ! fifty ye>s1 f ab\t #ahbj to #ahgj1 a some:at diff]5t k9d ( explanation ( physical ev5ts grew up4 ,! int]e/ t 0 ar\s$ by ! discov]ies 9 all ! fields ( physical sci5ce--9 heat1 electricity1 magnetism & *emi/ry--by ,f>aday1 ,j\le1 ,helmholtz1 & o!rs1 compell$ a *ange ( conceptions2 = x 0 notic$ t ea* special k9d ( ph5om5on 0 prec$$ by "s o!r def9ite & kn[n k9d2 z1 = in/ance1 t *emical action prec$$ electrical curr5ts1 t me*anical or electrical activity result$ f *ang+ magnetism1 & s on4 ,z ea* k9d ( action 0 believ$ to be due to a special =ce1 !re 7 inv5t$ su* t]ms z me*anical =ce1 electrical =ce1 magnetic1 *emical & vital =ces1 & ^! 7 discov]$ to be conv]tible into "o ano!r1 & ! doctr9e ( ! correlation ( ! physical =ces became a common expression 9 philosophies ( all sorts4 ,by conv]tible into "o ano!r1 0 meant1 t :5ev] any giv5 =ce appe>$1 x 0 at ! exp5se ( "s o!r =ce2 ?us1 9 a batt]y *emical =ce 0 *ang$ into electrical =ce2 9 a magnet1 electrical =ce 0 *ang$ into magnetic =ce1 & s on4 ,! idea "h 0 ! trans=mation ( =ces1 & =ces 7 n s cle>ly def9$ t "o c\ld h a me*anical idea ( j :at _h happ5$4 ,t "p ( ! philosophy 0 no cle>] ?an t ( ! impond]ables1 :i* _h l>gely dropp$ out ( m9d4 ,! t]m9ology repres5t$ an advance 9 k1 b 0 lack+ 9 lucidity1 = no "o knew :at a =ce ( any k9d 04 ,! fir/ to discov] ?is & to repudiate ! prevail+ t]m9ology 7 ! physiologi/s1 :o e>ly ann\nc$ _! disbelief 9 a vital =ce1 & _! belief t all physiological activities 7 ( purely physical & *emical orig91 & t !re 0 no ne$ to assume any su* ?+ z a vital =ce4 ,!n came ! discov]y t *emical =ce1 or aff9ity1 _h only an adv5titi\s exi/5ce1 & t1 at absolute z]o1 !re 0 no su* activity4 ,! discov]y (1 or r ! appreciation (1 :at is impli$ by ! t]m absolute z]o1 & especially ( ! nature ( heat itself1 z express$ 9 ! /atem5t t heat is a mode ( motion1 dismiss$ ano!r ( ! s-call$ =ces z be+ a metaphysical ag5cy hav+ no real exi/5ce1 ?\gh /&+ = ph5om5a ne$+ fur!r att5tion & explanation2 & by explanation is meant ! pres5tation ( ! me*anical antec$5ts = a ph5om5on1 9 s complete a way t no supplem5t>y or unkn[n factors are necess>y4 ,! tra9 moves because ! eng9e pulls x2 ! eng9e pulls because ! /eam pu%es x4 ,!re is no m necessity = assum+ a /eam =ce betwe5 ! /eam & ! eng9e1 ?an = assum+ an eng9e =ce betwe5 ! eng9e & ! tra94 ,all ! processes are me*anical1 & h to d only ) ord9>y matt] & its conditions1 f ! coal-pile to ! mov+ freight1 ?\gh !re are _m trans=mations ( ! =ms ( motion & ( en]gy betwe5 ! two extremes4 ,dur+ ! pa/ ?irty ye>s !re has come into common use ano!r t]m1 unkn[n 9 any te*nical s5se be=e t "t1 namely1 en]gy4 ,:at 0 once call$ ! cons]vation ( =ce is n[ call$ ! cons]vation ( en]gy1 & we n[ (t5 he> ( =ms ( en]gy4 ,?us1 heat is said to be a =m ( en]gy1 & ! =ms ( en]gy are conv]tible into "o ano!r1 z ! s-call$ =ces 7 =m]ly suppos$ to be trans=mable into "o ano!r4 ,we are ask$ to consid] gravitative en]gy1 heat en]gy1 me*anical en]gy1 *emical en]gy1 & electrical en]gy4 ,:5 we inquire :at is meant by en]gy1 we are in=m$ t x means ability to d "w1 & t "w is measurable z a pressure into a di/ance1 & is specifi$ z foot-p\nds4 ,a mass ( matt] moves because en]gy has be5 sp5t ^u x1 & has acquir$ en]gy equal to ! "w done on x1 & ?is is believ$ to hold true1 no matt] :at ! k9d ( en]gy 0 t mov$ x4 ,if a body moves1 x moves because ano!r body has ex]t$ pressure ^u x1 & its en]gy is call$ k9etic en]gy2 b a body may be subject to pressure & n move appreciably1 & !n ! body is said to possess pot5tial en]gy4 ,?us1 a b5t spr+ & a rais$ weight are said to possess pot5tial en]gy4 ,9 ei!r case1 an en]giz$ body receives its en]gy by pressure1 & has ability to produce pressure on ano!r body4 ,:e!r or n x does "w on ano!r body dep5ds on ! rigidity ( ! body x acts ^u4 ,9 any case1 x is simply a me*anical action--body ,a pu%es ^u body ,b 7,fig4 #a74 ,!re is no ne$ to assume any?+ m my/]i\s ?an me*anical action4 ,:e!r body ,b moves ?is way or t dep5ds ^u ! direction ( ! pu%1 ! po9t ( its application4 ,:e!r ! body be a mass z l>ge z ! e>? or z small z a molecule1 makes no diff]5ce 9 t p>ticul>4 ,suppose1 !n1 t a 7,fig4 #b7 sp5ds its en]gy on b1 b on c1 c on d1 & s on4 ,! en]gy ( a gives translatory motion to b1 b sets c vibrat+1 & c makes d sp9 on "s axis4 ,ea* ( ^! has _h en]gy sp5t on x1 & ea* has "s =m ( en]gy diff]5t f ! o!r1 b no new factor has be5 introduc$ betwe5 a & d1 & ! only factor t has gone f a to d has be5 motion--motion t has _h its direction & quality *ang$1 b n its nature4 ,if we agree t en]gy is nei!r creat$ nor annihilat$1 by any physical process1 & if we assume t a gave to b all its en]gy1 t is1 all its motion2 t b likewise gave its all to c1 & s on2 !n ! succession ( ph5om5a f a to d has be5 simply ! transf]5ce ( a def9ite am\nt ( motion1 & !re=e ( en]gy1 f ! "o to ! o!r2 = motion has be5 ! only v>iable factor4 ,if1 fur!rmore1 we %\ld agree to call ! translatory motion alpha1 ! vibratory motion beta1 ! rot>y gamma1 !n we %\ld h _h a conv]sion ( alpha into beta1 ( beta into gamma4 ,if we %\ld consid] ! am\nt ( transf] motion in/ead ( ! k9d ( motion1 we %\ld h to say t ! alpha en]gy _h be5 trans=m$ into beta & ! beta into gamma4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #a4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #b4 ,:at a giv5 am\nt ( en]gy w d dep5ds only ^u its =m1 t is1 ! k9d ( motion t embodies x4 ,! en]gy sp5t ^u a /one ?r[n into ! air1 giv+ x translatory motion1 w\ld1 if sp5t ^u a tun+ =k1 make x s\nd1 b n move x f its place2 :ile if sp5t ^u a top1 w\ld enable ! latt] to /& ^u its po9t z easily z a p]son /&s on 8 two feet1 & to d o!r surpris+ ?+s1 :i* o!rwise x c\ld n d4 ,"o c1 )\t difficulty1 =m a me*anical conception ( ! :ole s]ies )\t assum+ impond]ables1 or fluids or =ces4 ,me*anical motion only1 by pressure1 has be5 transf]r$ 9 c]ta9 directions at c]ta9 rates4 ,suppose n[ t "s "o %\ld sudd5ly come ^u a sp9n+ top 7,fig4 #c7 :ile x 0 /&+ ^u its po9t1 &1 z its motion might n be visible1 %\ld cauti\sly t\* x4 ,x w\ld b\nd away ) surpris+ promptness1 &1 if he 7 n in/ruct$ 9 ! me*anical pr9ciples involv$1 he might fairly well draw ! conclusion t x 0 actuat$ by o!r ?an simple me*anical pr9ciples1 &1 = t reason1 x w\ld be difficult to p]suade him t !re 0 no?+ ess5tially diff]5t 9 ! body t appe>$ & act$ ?us1 ?an 9 a /one ?r[n into ! air2 nev]!less1 t /atem5t w\ld be ! simple tru?4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #c4 ,all our exp]i5ce1 )\t a s+le exception1 en=ces ! proposition t no body moves 9 any direction1 or 9 any way1 except :5 "s o!r body 9 contact ) x presses ^u x4 ,! action is direct4 ,9 ,newton's lett] to 8 fri5d ,b5tley1 he says--,t "o body %\ld act ^u ano!r ?r\gh empty space1 )\t ! m$iation ( any?+ else by & ?r\gh :i* _! action & pressure may be convey$ f "o to ano!r1 is to me s great an absurdity t ,i believe no man :o has 9 philosophical matt]s a compet5t faculty ( ?9k+ c ev] fall into x4 ,= ma!matical purposes1 x has sometimes be5 conv5i5t to treat a problem z if "o body c\ld act ^u ano!r )\t any physical m$ium betwe5 !m2 b su* a conception has no degree ( rationality1 & ,i "k ( no "o :o believes 9 x z a fact4 ,if ?is be grant$1 !n our philosophy agrees ) our exp]i5ce1 & e body moves because x is pu%$1 & ! me*anical antec$5t ( e k9d ( ph5om5on is to be look$ = 9 "s adjac5t body possess+ en]gy--t is1 ! ability to pu% or produce pressure4 ,x mu/ n be =gott5 t en]gy is n a simple factor1 b is always a product ( two factors--a mass ) a velocity1 a mass ) a temp]ature1 a quantity ( electricity into a pressure1 & s on4 ,"o may sometimes meet ! /atem5t t matt] & en]gy are ! two realities2 bo? are spok5 ( z entities4 ,x is mu* m philosophical to speak ( matt] & motion1 = 9 ! abs5ce ( motion !re is no en]gy1 & ! en]gy v>ies ) ! am\nt ( motion2 & fur!rmore1 to und]/& any manife/ation ( en]gy "o mu/ inquire :at k9d ( motion is involv$4 ,?is we d :5 we speak ( me*anical en]gy z ! en]gy involv$ 9 a body hav+ a translatory motion2 also1 :5 we speak ( heat z a vibratory1 & ( light z a wave motion4 ,to speak ( en]gy )\t /at+ or imply+ ^! di/9ctions1 is to speak loosely & to keep f> )9 ! b\nds ( actual k4 ,to speak ?us ( a body possess+ en]gy1 or exp5d+ en]gy1 is to imply t ! body possesses "s k9d ( motion1 & produces pressure ^u ano!r body because x has motion4 ,tait & o!rs h po9t$ out ! fact1 t :at is call$ pot5tial en]gy mu/1 9 its nature1 be k9etic4 ,tait says--,n[ x is impossible to conceive ( a truly dormant =m ( en]gy1 ^: magnitude %\ld dep5d1 9 any way1 ^u ! unit ( "t2 & we are =c$ to conclude t pot5tial en]gy1 l k9etic en]gy1 dep5ds 7ev5 if unexpla9$ or unimag9$7 ^u motion4 ,all ?is means t x is n[ too late to /op ) en]gy z a f9al factor 9 any ph5om5on1 t ! =m ( motion :i* embodies ! en]gy is ! factor t det]m9es :at happ5s1 z di/+ui%$ f h[ mu* happ5s4 ,"h1 !n1 are to be f\nd ! di/9ctions :i* h h]et(ore be5 call$ =ces2 "h is embodi$ ! pro( t direct pressure ( "o body ^u ano!r is :at causes ! latt] to move1 & t ! direction ( movem5t dep5ds on ! po9t ( application1 ) ref]5ce to ! c5tre ( mass4 ,x is ne$ful n[ to look at ! o!r t]m 9 ! product we call en]gy1 namely1 ! sub/ance mov+1 sometimes call$ matt] or mass4 ,x has be5 m5tion$ t ! idea ( a m$ium fill+ space 0 pres5t to ,newton1 b 8 gravitation problem did n require t he %\ld consid] o!r factors ?an masses & di/ances4 ,! law ( gravitation z consid]$ by him 0--,e p>ticle ( matt] attracts e o!r p>ticle ( matt] ) a /ress :i* is proportional to ! product ( _! masses1 & inv]sely to ! squ>es ( ! di/ance betwe5 !m4 ,"h we are conc]n$ only ) ! /atem5t t e p>ticle ( matt] attracts e o!r p>ticle ( matt]4 ,ev]y?+ !n t possesses gravitative attraction is matt] 9 ! s5se 9 :i* t t]m is us$ 9 ?is law4 ,if !re be any o!r sub/ance 9 ! univ]se t is n ?us subject to gravitation1 !n x is improp] to call x matt]1 o!rwise ! law %\ld read1 ,"s p>ticles ( matt] attract1 etc41 :i* w nev] d4 ,we are n[ assur$ t !re is some?+ else 9 ! univ]se :i* has no gravitative prop]ty at all1 namely1 ! e!r4 ,x 0 fir/ imag9$ 9 ord] to acc\nt = ! ph5om5a ( light1 :i* 0 obs]v$ to take ab\t eight m9utes to come f ! sun to ! e>?4 ,!n ,"y appli$ ! wave !ory to ! explanation ( pol>ization & o!r ph5om5a2 & 9 #ahea ,f\cault prov$ exp]im5tally t ! velocity ( light 0 less 9 wat] ?an 9 air1 z x %\ld be if ! wave !ory be true1 & ?is has be5 consid]$ a crucial exp]im5t :i* took away ! la/ hope = ! corpuscul> !ory1 & demon/rat$ ! exi/5ce ( ! e!r z a space-fill+ m$ium capable ( transmitt+ light-waves kn[n to h a velocity ( #ahf1jjj miles p] second4 ,x 0 call$ ! lum9if]\s e!r1 to di/+ui% x f o!r e!rs :i* _h also be5 imag9$1 su* z electric e!r = electrical ph5om5a1 magnetic e!r = magnetic ph5om5a1 & s on--z _m e!rs1 9 fact1 z !re 7 diff]5t k9ds ( ph5om5a to be expla9$4 ,x 0 ,f>aday :o put a /op to ! inv5tion ( e!rs1 by sugge/+ t ! s-call$ lum9if]\s e!r might be ! "o conc]n$ 9 all ! diff]5t ph5om5a1 & :o po9t$ out t ! arrangem5t ( iron fil+s ab\t a magnet 0 indicative ( ! direction ( ! /resses 9 ! e!r4 ,?is sugge/ion did n meet ! approval ( ! ma!matical physici/s ( 8 day1 = x necessitat$ ! ab&onm5t ( ! conceptions !y _h work$ )1 z well z ! t]m9ology :i* _h be5 employ$1 & made x ne$ful to recon/ruct all _! "w to make x intelligible--a lab\r :i* 0 ! m di/a/eful z x 0 =c$ ^u !m by "o :o1 al?\gh exp]t en\gh 9 exp]im5tation1 0 n a ma!matician1 & :o boa/$ t ! mo/ complicat$ ma!matical "w he ev] did 0 to turn ! crank ( a calculat+ ma*9e2 :o did all 8 "w1 =m$ 8 conclusions1 & !n said--,! "w is done2 h& x ov] to ! comput]s4 ,x has turn$ out t ,f>aday's me*anical conceptions 7 "r4 ,e "o n[ kn[s ( ,maxwell's "w1 :i* 0 to />t ) ,f>aday's conceptions z to magnetic ph5om5a1 & foll[ !m out to _! logical conclusions1 apply+ !m to molecules & ! reactions ( ! latt] ^u ! e!r4 ,?us he 0 l$ to conclude t light 0 an electro-magnetic ph5om5on2 t is1 t ! waves :i* con/itute light1 & ! waves produc$ by *ang+ magnetism 7 id5tical 9 _! nature1 7 9 ! same m$ium1 travell$ ) ! same velocity1 7 capable ( refraction1 & s on4 ,n[ t all ?is is a matt] ( common k to-day1 x is curi\s to look back no fur!r ?an t5 ye>s4 ,maxwell's conclusions 7 adopt$ by sc>cely a physici/ 9 ! _w4 ,al?\gh x 0 kn[n t inductive action travell$ ) f9ite velocity 9 space1 & t an electro-magnet w\ld affect ! space ab\t x practically inv]sely z ! squ>e ( ! di/ance1 & t su* ph5om5a z are involv$ 9 telephonic induction betwe5 circuits c\ld h no o!r mean+ ?an ! "o assign$ by ,maxwell1 yet ne>ly all ! physici/s fail$ to =m ! only conception ( x t 0 possible1 & wait$ = ,h]tz to devise app>atus = produc+ int]f]5ce be=e !y grasp$ x4 ,x 0 ev5 !n s new1 to "s1 t x 0 proclaim$ to be a demon/ration ( ! exi/5ce ( ! e!r itself1 z well z a me?od ( produc+ waves %ort en\gh to enable "o to notice int]f]5ce ph5om5a4 ,x is obvi\s t ,h]tz himself mu/ h _h ! me*anics ( wave-motion pla9ly 9 m9d1 or he w\ld n h plann$ su* exp]im5ts4 ,! outcome ( x all is1 t we n[ h exp]im5tal demon/ration1 z well z !oretical reason = believ+1 t ! e!r1 once consid]$ z only lum9if]\s1 is conc]n$ 9 all electric & magnetic ph5om5a1 & t waves set up 9 x by electro-magnetic actions are capable ( be+ reflect$1 refract$1 pol>iz$1 & twi/$1 9 ! same way z ord9>y light-waves c be1 & t ! laws ( optics are applicable to bo?4 ,,*apt] ,,ii ,,prop]ties ,,( ,,matt] ,,& ,,e!r ,prop]ties ( ,matt] & ,e!r comp>$--,discont9uity v]sus ,cont9uity--,size ( atoms--,a/ronomical di/ances--,numb] ( atoms 9 ! univ]se--,e!r unlimit$--,k9ds ( ,matt]1 p]man5t qualities (--,atomic /ructure2 vortex-r+s1 _! prop]ties--,e!r /ructureless--,matt] gravitative1 ,e!r n--,friction 9 ,matt]1 ,e!r frictionless--,*emical prop]ties--,en]gy 9 ,matt] & 9 ,e!r--,matt] z a trans=m] ( ,en]gy--,ela/icity--,vibratory rates & waves--,d5sity--,heat--,inde/ructibility ( ,matt]--,in]tia 9 ,matt] & 9 ,e!r--,matt] n in]t--,magnetism & ,e!r waves--,/ates ( ,matt]--,cohesion & *emism affect$ by temp]ature--,%e>+ /ress 9 ,solids & 9 ,e!r--,e!r pressure--,s5sation dep5d5t ^u ,matt]--,n]v\s sy/em n affect$ by ,e!r /ates--,o!r /resses 9 ,e!r--,trans=mations ( ,motion--,t]m9ology4 ,a common conception ( ! e!r has be5 t x is a f9]-gra9$ sub/ance ?an ord9>y matt]1 b o!rwise s l ! latt] t ! laws f\nd to hold good ) matt] 7 equally applicable to ! e!r1 & h5ce ! me*anical conceptions =m$ f exp]i5ce 9 reg>d to ! "o h be5 transf]r$ to ! o!r1 & ! prop]ties belong+ to "o1 su* z d5sity1 ela/icity1 etc41 h be5 ass]t$ z prop]ties ( ! o!r4 ,!re is s consid]able a body ( k be>+ ^u ! simil>ities & dissimil>ities ( ^! two entities t x w be well to comp>e !m4 ,aft] su* comp>ison "o w be bett] able to judge ( ! propriety ( assum+ !m to be subject to id5tical laws4 #a4 ,,matt] ,,is ,,discont9u\s4 ,matt] is made up ( atoms hav+ dim5sions approximately det]m9$ to be 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ! "o fifty-million? ( an in* 9 diamet]4 ,^! atoms may h v>i\s degrees ( aggregation2--!y may be 9 practical contact1 z 9 mo/ solid bodies su* z metals & rocks2 9 molecul> gr\p+s z 9 wat]1 & 9 gases su* z hydrog51 oxyg51 & s =?1 :]e two1 ?ree1 or m atoms coh]e s /rongly z to enable ! molecules to act "u ord9>y circum/ances l simple p>ticles4 ,any or all ( ^! molecules & atoms may be sep>at$ by any assignable di/ance f ea* o!r4 ,?us1 9 common air ! molecules1 ?\gh rapidly *ang+ _! positions1 are on ! av]age ab\t two hundr$ & fifty times _! own diamet] ap>t4 ,?is is a di/ance relatively great] ?an ! di/ance ap>t ( ! e>? & ! moon1 = two hundr$ & fifty times ! diamet] ( ! e>? w be #hjjj #bej #b1jjj1jjj miles1 :ile ! di/ance to ! moon is b #bdj1jjj miles4 ,! sun is #ic1jjj1jjj miles f ! e>?1 & ! mo/ ( ! bodies ( ! sol> sy/em are /ill m widely sep>at$1 ,neptune be+ ne>ly #cjjj millions ( miles f ! sun4 ,z = ! fix$ />s1 !y are s f> sep>at$ f u t1 at ! pres5t rate ( motion ( ! sol> sy/em 9 its drift ?r\gh space--#ejj millions ( miles 9 a ye>--x w\ld take n less ?an #dj1jjj ye>s to rea* ! ne>e/ /> among its neighb\rs1 :ile = ! m remote ones millions ( ye>s mu/ be reckon$4 ,! huge space sep>at+ ^! masses is practically devoid ( matt]2 x is a vacuum4 ,,! ,,e!r ,,is ,,cont9u\s4 ,! idea ( cont9uity z di/+ui%$ f discont9uity may be ga9$ by consid]+ :at w\ld be made visible by magnification4 ,wat] appe>s to ! eye z if x 7 )\t pores1 b if sug> or salt be put into x1 ei!r w be dissolv$ & q disappe> among ! molecules ( ! wat] z /eam does 9 ! air1 :i* %[s t !re are "s unoccupi$ spaces betwe5 ! molecules4 ,if a microscope be employ$ to magnify a m9ute drop ( wat] x /ill %[s ! same lack ( /ructure z t look$ at ) ! unaid$ eye4 ,if ! magnify+ p[] be ! highe/ x may reveal a speck z small z ! hundr$-?\s&? "p ( an in*1 yet ! speck looks no diff]5t 9 "*4 ,we "k t wat] is compos$ ( two diff]5t k9ds ( atoms1 hydrog5 & oxyg51 = !y c be sep>at$ by *emical means & kept 9 sep>ate bottles1 & aga9 made to comb9e to =m wat] hav+ all ! qualities t belong$ to x be=e x 0 decompos$4 ,if a v mu* high] magnify+ p[] 7 available1 we %\ld ultimately be able to see ! individual wat] molecules1 & recognize _! hydrog5 & oxyg5 con/itu5ts by _! diff]5ce 9 size1 rate ( movem5ts1 & we might possibly sep>ate !m by me*anical me?ods4 ,:at "o w\ld see w\ld be some?+ v diff]5t 9 /ructure f ! wat] z x appe>s to our eyes4 ,if ! e!r 7 simil>ly to be exam9$ ?r\gh high] & /ill high] magnify+ p[]s1 ev5 up to inf9ity1 !re is no reason = ?9k+ t ! la/ exam9ation w\ld %[ any?+ diff]5t 9 /ructure or quality f t :i* 0 exam9$ ) l[ p[] or ) no microscope at all4 ,?is is all express$ by say+ t ! e!r is a cont9u\s sub/ance1 )\t int]/ices1 t x fills space completely1 &1 unlike gases1 liquids1 & solids1 is incapable ( absorb+ or dissolv+ any?+4 #b4 ,,matt] ,,is ,,limit$4 ,!re appe>s to be a def9ite am\nt ( matt] 9 ! visible univ]se1 a def9ite numb] ( molecules & atoms4 ,h[ _m molecules !re are 9 a cubic in* ( air "u ord9>y pressure has be5 det]m9$1 & is repres5t$ approximately by a huge numb]1 some?+ l a ?\s& million million millions4 ,:5 ! diamet] ( a molecule has be5 measur$1 z x has be5 approximately1 & f\nd to be ab\t "o fifty-million? ( an in*1 !n fifty million 9 a r[ w\ld rea* an in*1 & ! cube ( fifty million is #abe1jjj1jjjjjj1jjjjjj1jjjjjj1 "o hundr$ & tw5ty-five ?\s& million million millions4 ,9 a cubic foot !re w ( c\rse be #agbh times t numb]4 ,"o may if "o likes f9d h[ _m !re may be 9 ! e>?1 & moon1 sun & planets1 = ! dim5sions ( !m are all v well kn[n4 ,only ! multiplication table ne$ be us$1 & ! sum ( all ^! w give h[ _m molecules !re are 9 ! sol> sy/em4 ,if "o %\ld feel t ! numb] ?us obta9$ 0 n v accurate1 he might reflect t if !re 7 t5 times z _m x w\ld add b ano!r ciph] to a long l9e ( simil> ones & w\ld n mat]ially modify x4 ,! po9t is t !re is a def9ite1 computable numb]4 ,if "o w !n add to ^! ! numb] ( molecules 9 ! m di/ant />s & nebul1 ( :i* !re are visible ab\t #ajj1jjj1jjj1 mak+ su* e/imate ( _! individual size z he ?9ks prud5t1 ! sum ( all w give ! numb] ( molecules 9 ! visible univ]se4 ,! numb] is n s l>ge b x c be writt5 d[n 9 a m9ute or two4 ,^? :o h be5 to ! pa9s to d ! sum say x may be repres5t$ by sev5 foll[$ by n9ety-"o ciph]s4 ,"o c\ld easily compute h[ _m molecules s l>ge a space w\ld conta9 if x 7 full & z closely pack$ z !y are 9 a drop ( wat]1 b !re w\ld be a f9ite & n an inf9ite numb]1 & !re=e !re is a limit$ numb] ( atoms 9 ! visible univ]se4 ,,! ,,e!r ,,is ,,unlimit$4 ,! evid5ce = ?is comes to u f ! ph5om5a ( light4 ,exp]im5tally1 e!r waves ( all l5g?s are f\nd to h a velocity ( #ahf1jjj miles 9 a second4 ,x takes ab\t eight m9utes to rea* u f ! sun1 f\r h\rs f ,neptune ! mo/ di/ant planet1 & f ! ne>e/ fix$ /> ab\t ?ree & a half ye>s4 ,a/ronom]s tell u t "s visible />s are s di/ant t _! light requires n less ?an t5 ?\s& ye>s & probably m to rea* u1 ?\gh travell+ at ! enorm\s rate ( #ahf1jjj miles a second4 ,?is means t ! :ole ( space is fill$ ) ?is m$ium4 ,if !re 7 any vacant spaces1 ! light w\ld fail to get ?r\gh !m1 & />s beyond !m w\ld become invisible4 ,!re are no su* vacant spaces1 = any "p ( ! heav5s %[s />s beam+ cont9u\sly1 & e increase 9 telescopic p[] %[s />s /ill fur!r remov$ ?an any se5 be=e4 ,! :ole ( ?is int]v5+ space mu/ !re=e be fill$ ) ! e!r4 ,"s ( ! waves t rea* u are n m ?an ! hundr$-?\s&? ( an in* long1 s !re c be no crack or break or abs5ce ( e!r f s small a section z ! hundr$-?\s&? ( an in* 9 all ?is great expanse4 ,m ?an ?is4 ,no "o c ?9k t ! remote/ visible />s are ^u ! b\nd>y ( space1 t if "o c\ld get to ! mo/ di/ant /> he w\ld h on "o side ! :ole ( space :ile ! opposite side w\ld be devoid ( x4 ,space we "k is ( ?ree dim5sions1 & a /raight l9e may be prolong$ 9 any direction to an inf9ite di/ance1 & a ray ( light may travel on = an inf9ite "t & come to no end provid$ space be fill$ ) e!r4 ,h[ long ! sun & />s h be5 %9+ no "o kn[s1 b x is highly probable t ! sun has exi/$ = n less ?an #ajjj million ye>s1 & has dur+ t "t be5 p\r+ its rays z radiant en]gy into space4 ,if !n 9 half t "t1 or #ejj millions ( ye>s1 ! light _h some:]e rea*$ a b\nd>y to ! e!r1 x c\ld n h gone beyond b w\ld h be5 reflect$ back into ! e!r-fill$ space1 & su* "p ( ! sky w\ld be lit up by ?is reflect$ light4 ,!re is no indication t any?+ l reflection comes to u f ! sky4 ,?is is equival5t to say+ t ! e!r fills space 9 e direction away f u to an unlimit$ di/ance1 & s f> is itself unlimit$4 #c4 ,,matt] ,,is ,,het]og5e\s4 ,! v>i\s k9ds ( matt] we are acqua9t$ ) are commonly call$ ! elem5ts4 ,^! :5 comb9$ 9 v>i\s ways exhibit *>act]i/ic ph5om5a :i* dep5d ^u ! k9ds ( matt]1 ! /ructure & motions :i* are involv$4 ,!re are "s sev5ty diff]5t k9ds ( ?is elem5tal matt] :i* may be id5tifi$ z con/itu5ts ( ! e>?4 ,_m ( ! same elem5ts h be5 id5tifi$ 9 ! sun & />s1 su* = in/ance z hydrog51 c>bon1 & iron4 ,su* ph5om5a lead u to conclude t ! k9ds ( matt] else:]e 9 ! univ]se are id5tical ) su* z we are famili> )1 & t else:]e ! v>iety is z great4 ,! qualities ( ! elem5ts1 )9 a c]ta9 range ( temp]ature1 are p]man5t2 !y are n subject to fluctuations1 ?\gh ! qualities ( comb9ations ( !m may v>y indef9itely4 ,! elem5ts !re=e may be reg>d$ z reta9+ _! id5tity 9 all ord9>y exp]i5ce4 ,,! ,,e!r ,,is ,,homog5e\s4 ,"o "p ( ! e!r is precisely l any o!r "p ev]y:]e & always1 & !re are no su* di/9ctions 9 x z correspond ) ! elem5tal =ms ( matt]4 #d4 ,,matt] ,,is ,,atomic4 ,!re is an ultimate p>ticle ( ea* "o ( ! elem5ts :i* is practically absolute & kn[n z an atom4 ,! atom reta9s its id5tity ?r\gh all comb9ations & processes4 ,x may be "h or !re1 move fa/ or sl[1 b its atomic =m p]si/s4 ,,! ,,e!r ,,is ,,non-,,atomic4 ,"o might inf]1 f :at has already be5 said ab\t cont9uity1 t ! e!r c\ld n be con/itut$ ( sep>able p>ticles l masses ( matt]2 = no matt] h[ m9ute !y might be1 !re w\ld be int]spaces & unoccupi$ spaces :i* w\ld pres5t u ) ph5om5a :i* h nev] be5 se54 ,x is ! g5]al cons5sus ( op9ion among ^? :o h /udi$ ! subject t ! e!r is n atomic 9 /ructure4 #e4 ,,matt] ,,has ,,def9ite ,,/ructure4 ,e atom ( e elem5t is s l e o!r atom ( ! same elem5t z to exhibit ! same *>act]i/ics1 size1 weight1 *emical activity1 vibratory rate1 etc41 & x is ?us %[n conclusively t ! /ructural =m ( ! elem5tal p>ticles is ! same = ea* elem5t1 = su* *>act]i/ic reactions z !y exhibit c\ld h>dly be if !y 7 me*anically unlike4 ,( :at =m ! atoms ( an elem5t may be is n v def9itely kn[n4 ,! e>li] philosoph]s assum$ !m to be h>d r\nd p>ticles1 b lat] ?9k]s h conclud$ t atoms ( su* a "* are highly improbable1 = !y c\ld n exhibit 9 ?is case ! prop]ties :i* ! elem5ts d exhibit4 ,!y h !re=e dismiss$ su* a conception f consid]ation4 ,9 place ( ?is hypo!sis has be5 sub/itut$ a v diff]5t idea1 namely1 t an atom is a vortex-r+#a ( e!r float+ 9 ! e!r1 z a smoke-r+ puff$ out by a locomotive 9 /ill air may float 9 ! air & %[ v>i\s ph5om5a4 ,footnote #a3 ,vortex-r+s = illu/ration may be made by hav+ a wood5 box ab\t a foot on a side1 ) a r\nd orifice 9 ! middle ( "o side1 & ! side opposite cov]$ ) /\t clo? /ret*$ tight ov] a framework4 ,a sauc] conta9+ /rong ammonia wat]1 & ano!r conta9+ /rong hydro*loric acid1 w cause d5se fumes 9 ! box1 & a tap ) ! h& ^u ! clo? back w =ce out a r+ f ! orifice4 ,^! may be made to foll[ & /rike ea* o!r1 reb\nd+ & vibrat+1 app>5tly attract+ ea* o!r & be+ attract$ by neighb\r+ bodies4 ,by fill+ ! m\? ) smoke1 & purs+ ! lips z if to make ! s\nd o1 "o may make fifte5 or tw5ty small r+s by snapp+ ! *eek ) ! f+]4 ,a vortex-r+ produc$ 9 ! air behaves 9 ! mo/ surpris+ mann]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #d4--,me?od ( mak+ vortex-r+s & _! behavi\r4 #a4 ,x reta9s its r+ =m & ! same mat]ial rotat+ z x />ts )4 #b4 ,x c travel ?r\gh ! air easily tw5ty or ?irty feet 9 a second )\t disruption4 #c4 ,its l9e ( motion :5 free is always at "r angles to ! plane ( ! r+4 #d4 ,x w n /& /ill unless compell$ by "s object4 ,if /opp$ 9 ! air x w />t up itself to travel on )\t ext]nal help4 #e4 ,x possesses mom5tum & en]gy l a solid body4 #f4 ,x is capable ( vibrat+ l an ela/ic body1 mak+ a def9ite numb] ( su* vibrations p] second1 ! degree ( ela/icity dep5d+ ^u ! rate ( vibration4 ,! swift] ! rotation1 ! m rigid & ela/ic x is4 #g4 ,x is capable ( sp9n+ on its own axis1 & ?us hav+ rot>y en]gy z well z translatory & vibratory4 #h4 ,x repels light bodies 9 front ( x1 & attracts into itself light bodies 9 its re>4 #i4 ,if project$ along p>allel ) ! top ( a long table1 x w fall ^u x e "t1 j z a /one ?r[n horizontally w fall to ! gr\nd4 #aj4 ,if two r+s ( ! same size be travell+ 9 ! same l9e1 & ! re> "o ov]takes ! o!r1 ! front "o w enl>ge its diamet]1 :ile ! re> "o w contract its own till x c g ?r\gh ! =w>d "o1 :5 ea* w recov] its orig9al diamet]1 & cont9ue on 9 ! same direction1 b vibrat+1 exp&+ & contract+ _! diamet]s ) regul>ity4 #aa4 ,if two r+s be mov+ 9 ! same l9e1 b 9 opposite directions1 !y w repel ea* o!r :5 ne>1 & ?us ret>d _! spe$4 ,if "o goes ?r\gh ! o!r1 z 9 ! =m] case1 x may q lose its velocity1 & come to a /&/ill 9 ! air till ! o!r has mov$ on to a di/ance1 :5 x w />t up 9 its =m] direction4 #ab4 ,if two r+s be =m$ side by side1 !y w in/antly collide at _! edges1 %[+ /rong attraction4 #ac4 ,if ! collision does n de/roy !m1 !y may ei!r break ap>t at ! po9t ( ! collision1 & !n weld toge!r into a s+le r+ ) twice ! diamet]1 & !n move on z if a s+le r+ _h be5 =m$1 or !y may simply b\nce away f ea* o!r1 9 :i* case !y always reb\nd 9 a plane at "r angles to ! plane ( collision4 ,t is1 if !y collid$ on _! sides1 !y w\ld reb\nd s t "o w5t up & ! o!r d[n4 #ad4 ,?ree may 9 l mann] collide & fuse into a s+le r+4 ,su* r+s =m$ 9 air by a locomotive may rise wriggl+ 9 ! air to ! height ( sev]al hundr$ feet1 b !y are soon dissolv$ & disappe>4 ,?is is because ! friction & viscosity ( ! air robs ! r+s ( _! sub/ance & en]gy4 ,if ! air 7 )\t friction ?is c\ld n happ51 & ! r+s w\ld !n be p]si/5t1 & w\ld reta9 all _! qualities4 ,suppose !n t su* r+s 7 produc$ 9 a m$ium )\t friction z ! e!r is believ$ to be1 !y w\ld be p]man5t /ructures ) a v>iety ( prop]ties4 ,!y w\ld occupy space1 h def9ite =m & dim5sions1 mom5tum1 en]gy1 attraction & repulsion1 ela/icity2 obey ! laws ( motion1 & s f> behave q l su* matt] z we "k4 ,= su* reasons x is ?\ght by "s p]sons to be n improbable t ! atoms ( matt] are m9ute vortex-r+s ( e!r 9 ! e!r4 ,t :i* di/+ui%es ! atom f ! e!r is ! =m ( motion :i* is embodi$ 9 x1 & if ! motion 7 simply arre/$1 !re w\ld be no?+ to di/+ui% ! atom f ! e!r into :i* x dissolv$4 ,9 o!r words1 su* a conception makes ! atoms ( matt] a =m ( motion ( ! e!r1 & n a creat$ some?+ put into ! e!r4 ,,! ,,e!r ,,is ,,/ructureless4 ,if ! e!r be ! b\ndless sub/ance describ$1 x is cle> x c h no =m z a :ole1 & if x be cont9u\s x c h no m9ute /ructure4 ,if n con/itut$ ( atoms or molecules !re is no?+ descriptive t c be said ab\t x4 ,a molecule or a p>ticul> mass ( matt] c\ld be id5tifi$ by its =m1 & is ?us 9 m>k$ contra/ ) any portion ( e!r1 = ! latt] c\ld n be id5tifi$ 9 a simil> way4 ,"o may !re=e say t ! e!r is =mless4 #f4 ,,matt] ,,is ,,gravitative4 ,! law ( gravitation is held z be+ univ]sal4 ,accord+ to x e p>ticle ( matt] 9 ! univ]se attracts e o!r p>ticle4 ,! evid5ce = ?is law 9 ! sol> sy/em is complete4 ,sun1 planets1 satellites1 comets & meteors are all controll$ by gravitation1 & ! movem5ts ( d\ble />s te/ify to its activity among ! m di/ant bodies ( ! univ]se4 ,! attraction does n dep5d ^u ! k9d ( matt] nor ! arrangem5t ( molecules or atoms1 b ^u ! am\nt or mass ( matt] pres5t1 & if x be ( a def9ite k9d ( matt]1 z ( hydrog5 or iron1 ! gravitative action is proportional to ! numb] ( atoms4 ,,! ,,e!r ,,is ,,gravitationless4 ,"o might inf] already t if ! e!r 7 /ructureless1 physical laws op]ative ^u su* mat]ial sub/ances z atoms c\ld n be applicable to x1 & s inde$ all ! evid5ce we h %[s t gravitation is n "o ( its prop]ties4 ,if x 71 & x behav$ 9 any degree l atomic /ructures1 x w\ld be f\nd to be d5s] 9 ! neighb\rhood ( l>ge bodies l ! e>?1 planets1 & ! sun4 ,light w\ld be turn$ f its /raight pa? :ile travell+ 9 su* d5s] m$ium1 or made to move ) less velocity4 ,!re is n ! slighte/ indication ( any su* effect any:]e )9 ! range ( a/ronomical vision4 ,gravitation !n is a prop]ty belong+ to matt] & n to e!r4 ,! impropriety ( ?9k+ or speak+ ( ! e!r z matt] ( any k9d w be app>5t if "o reflects ^u ! significance ( ! law ( gravitation z /at$4 ,e p>ticle ( matt] 9 ! univ]se attracts e o!r p>ticle4 ,if !re be any?+ else 9 ! univ]se :i* has no su* quality1 !n x %\ld n be call$ matt]1 else ! law %\ld read3 ,"s p>ticles ( matt] attract "s o!r p>ticles1 :i* w\ld be no law at all1 = a real physical law has no exceptions any m ?an ! multiplication table has4 ,physical laws are physical relations1 & all su* relations are quantitative4 #g4 ,,matt] ,,is ,,frictionable4 ,a bullet %ot into ! air has its velocity cont9u\sly r$uc$ by ! air1 to :i* its en]gy is imp>t$ by mak+ x move out ( its way4 ,a railway tra9 is br\ght to re/ by ! friction brake ^u ! :eels4 ,! translatory en]gy ( ! tra9 is trans=m$ into ! molecul> en]gy call$ heat4 ,! /eam%ip requires to propel x fa/1 a l>ge am\nt ( coal = its eng9es1 because ! wat] 9 :i* x moves (f]s great friction--resi/ance :i* mu/ be ov]come4 ,:5ev] "o surface ( matt] is mov$ 9 contact ) ano!r surface !re is a resi/ance call$ friction1 ! mov+ body loses its rate ( motion1 & w pres5tly be br\ght to re/ unless en]gy be cont9u\sly suppli$4 ,?is is true = masses ( matt] ( all sizes & ) all k9ds ( motion4 ,friction is ! condition = ! trans=mation ( all k9ds ( me*anical motions into heat4 ,! te/ ( ! am\nt ( friction is ! rate ( loss ( motion4 ,a top w sp9 "s "t 9 ! air because its po9t is small4 ,x w sp9 long] on a plate ?an on ! c>pet1 & long] 9 a vacuum ?an 9 ! air1 = x does n h ! air friction to resi/ x1 & !re is no k9d or =m ( matt] n subject to frictional resi/ance4 ,,! ,,e!r ,,is ,,frictionless4 ,! e>? is a mass ( matt] mov+ 9 ! e!r4 ,9 ! equatorial region ! velocity ( a po9t is m ?an a ?\s& miles 9 an h\r1 = ! circumf]5ce ( ! e>? is #be1jjj miles1 & x turns once on its axis 9 #bd h\rs1 :i* is ! l5g? ( ! day4 ,if ! e>? 7 ?us sp9n+ 9 ! atmosph]e1 ! latt] n be+ 9 motion1 ! w9d w\ld bl[ ) t5 times hurricane velocity4 ,! friction w\ld be s great t no?+ b ! f\ndation rocks ( ! e>?'s cru/ c\ld )/& x1 & ! velocity ( rotation w\ld be r$uc$ appreciably 9 a relatively %ort "t4 ,! air moves along ) ! e>? z a "p ( x1 & consequ5tly no su* frictional de/ruction takes place1 b ! e>? rotates 9 ! e!r ) t same rate1 & if ! e!r (f]$ resi/ance x w\ld react s z to ret>d ! rotation & increase ! l5g? ( ! day4 ,a/ronomical obs]vations %[ t ! l5g? ( ! day has c]ta9ly n *ang$ s mu* z ! t5? ( a second dur+ ! pa/ #bjjj ye>s4 ,! e>? also revolves ab\t ! sun1 hav+ a spe$ ( ab\t #ai miles 9 a second1 or #fh1jjj miles an h\r4 ,?is motion ( ! e>? & ! o!r planets ab\t ! sun is "o ( ! mo/ /able ph5om5a we "k4 ,! mean di/ance & p]iod ( revolution ( e planet is unalt]able 9 ! long run4 ,if ! e>? _h be5 ret>d$ by its friction 9 ! e!r ! l5g? ( ! ye> w\ld h be5 *ang$1 & a/ronom]s w\ld h discov]$ x4 ,!y ass]t t a *ange 9 ! l5g? ( a ye> by s mu* z ! hundr$? "p ( a second has n happ5$ dur+ ! pa/ ?\s& ye>s4 ,?is !n is te/imony1 t a velocity ( n9ete5 miles a second = a ?\s& ye>s has produc$ no effect ^u ! e>?'s motion t is noticeable4 ,n9ete5 miles a second is n a v swift a/ronomical motion1 = comets h be5 kn[n to h a velocity ( #djj miles a second :5 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ! sun1 & yet !y h n seem$ to suff] any ret>dation1 = _! orbits h n be5 %ort5$4 ,"s ye>s ago a comet 0 notic$ to h its p]iodic "t %ort5$ an h\r or two1 & ! explanation (f]$ at fir/ 0 t ! %ort5+ 0 due to friction 9 ! e!r al?\gh no o!r comet 0 ?us affect$4 ,! idea 0 soon ab&on$1 & to-day !re is no a/ronomical evid5ce t bodies hav+ translatory motion 9 ! e!r meet ) any frictional resi/ance :atev]4 ,if a /one c\ld be ?r[n 9 int]/ell> space ) a velocity ( fifty feet a second x w\ld cont9ue to move 9 a /raight l9e ) ! same spe$ = any assignable "t4 ,z has be5 said1 light moves ) ! velocity ( #ahf1jjj miles p] second1 & x may pursue its c\rse = t5s ( ?\s&s ( ye>s4 ,!re is no evid5ce t x ev] loses ei!r its wave-l5g? or en]gy4 ,x is n trans=m$ z friction w\ld trans=m x1 else !re w\ld be "s di/ance at :i* light ( giv5 wave-l5g? & amplitude w\ld be q ext+ui%$4 ,! light f di/ant />s w\ld be diff]5t 9 "* f t com+ f ne>] />s4 ,fur!rmore1 z ! :ole sol> sy/em is drift+ 9 space "s #ejj1jjj1jjj ( miles 9 a ye>1 new />s w\ld be com+ into view 9 t direction1 & fa9t />s w\ld be dropp+ out ( sight 9 ! opposite direction--a ph5om5on :i* has n be5 obs]v$4 ,altoge!r ! te/imony seems conclusive t ! e!r is a frictionless m$ium1 & does n trans=m me*anical motion into heat4 #h4 ,,matt] ,,is ,,olotropic4 ,t is1 its prop]ties are n alike 9 all directions4 ,*emical ph5om5a1 cry/allization1 magnetic & electrical ph5om5a %[ ea* 9 _! way t ! prop]ties ( atoms are n alike on opposite faces4 ,atoms comb9e to =m molecules1 & molecules arrange !mselves 9 c]ta9 def9ite geometric =ms su* z cubes1 tetrah$ra1 hexagonal prisms & /ellate =ms1 ) prop]ties emphasiz$ on c]ta9 faces or ends4 ,?us qu>tz w twi/ a ray ( light 9 "o direction or ! o!r1 dep5d+ ^u ! arrangem5t :i* may be kn[n by ! ext]nal =m ( ! cry/al4 ,calc sp> w break up a ray ( light into two p>ts if ! light be s5t ?r\gh x 9 c]ta9 directions1 b n if 9 ano!r4 ,t\rmal9e pol>izes light s5t ?r\gh its sides & becomes positively electrifi$ at "o end :ile be+ heat$4 ,"s sub/ances w conduct s\nd or light or heat or electricity bett] 9 "o direction ?an 9 ano!r4 ,all matt] is magnetic 9 "s degree1 & t implies pol>ity4 ,if "o w recall ! /ructure ( a vortex-r+1 he w see h[ all ! motion is inw>d on "o side & outw>d on ! o!r1 :i* gives diff]5t prop]ties to ! two sides3 a pu% away f x on "o side & a pull t[>d x on ! o!r4 ,,! ,,e!r ,,is ,,isotropic4 ,t is1 its prop]ties are alike 9 e direction4 ,!re is no di/9ction due to position4 ,a mass ( matt] w move z freely 9 "o direction z 9 ano!r2 a ray ( light ( any wave-l5g? w travel 9 x 9 "o direction z freely z 9 any o!r2 nei!r velocity nor direction are *ang$ by ! action ( ! e!r alone4 #i4 ,,matt] ,,is ,,*emically ,,selective4 ,:5 ! elem5ts comb9e to =m molecules !y always comb9e 9 def9ite ways & 9 def9ite proportions4 ,c>bon w comb9e ) hydrog51 b w drop x if x c get oxyg54 ,oxyg5 w comb9e ) iron or lead or sodium1 b _c be made to comb9e ) fluor9e4 ,no m ?an two atoms ( oxyg5 c be made to unite ) "o c>bon atom1 nor m ?an "o hydrog5 ) "o *lor9e atom4 ,!re is ?us an app>5t *oice = ! k9d & numb] ( associates 9 molecul> /ructure1 & ! in/ability ( a molecule dep5ds altoge!r ^u ! pres5ce 9 its neighb\rhood ( o!r atoms = :i* "s ( ! elem5ts 9 ! molecule h a /rong] attraction or aff9ity ?an !y h = ! atoms !y are n[ comb9$ )4 ,?us iron is n /able 9 ! pres5ce ( wat] molecules1 & x becomes iron oxide2 iron oxide is n /able 9 ! pres5ce ( hot sulphur1 x becomes an iron sulphide4 ,all ! elem5ts are ?us selective1 & x is by su* means t !y may be *emically id5tifi$4 ,!re is no ph5om5on 9 ! e!r t is comp>able ) ?is4 ,evid5tly !re c\ld n be unless !re 7 atomic /ructures hav+ 9 "s degree diff]5t *>act]i/ics :i* we "k ! e!r to be )\t4 #aj4 ,,! ,,elem5ts ,,( ,,matt] ,,are ,,h>monically ,,relat$4 ,x is possible to arrange ! elem5ts 9 ! ord] ( _! atomic weights 9 columns :i* w %[ communities ( prop]ty4 ,newl&s1 ,m5deleff1 ,mey]1 & o!rs h done ?is4 ,! explanation = su* an arrangem5t has n yet be5 =?com+1 b t x expresses a real fact is c]ta91 = 9 ! orig9al s*eme !re 7 sev]al gaps repres5t+ undiscov]$ elem5ts1 ! prop]ties ( :i* 7 pr$ict$ f t ( _! associates 9 ! table4 ,"s ( ^! h s9ce be5 discov]$1 & _! atomic weight & physical prop]ties accord ) ^? pr$ict$4 ,) ! e!r su* a s*eme is q impossible1 = ! v evid5t reason t !re are no diff]5t ?+s to h relation ) ea* o!r4 ,e "p is j l e o!r "p4 ,:]e !re are no diff]5ces & no di/9ctions !re c be no relations4 ,! e!r is q h>monic )\t relations4 #aa4 ,,matt] ,,embodies ,,en]gy4 ,s long z ! atoms ( matt] 7 reg>d$ z h>d r\nd p>ticles1 !y 7 assum$ to be in]t & only active :5 act$ ^u by :at 7 call$ =ces1 :i* 7 held to be entities ( "s sort1 indep5d5t ( matt]4 ,^! c\ld pull or pu% x "h or !re1 b ! matt] 0 itself incapable ( indep5d5t activity4 ,all ?is is n[ *ang$1 & we are call$ ^u to consid] e atom z be+ itself a =m ( en]gy 9 ! same s5se z heat or light are =ms ( en]gy1 ! en]gy be+ embodi$ 9 p>ticul> =ms ( motion4 ,light1 = in/ance1 is a wave motion ( ! e!r4 ,an atom is a rot>y r+ ( e!r4 ,/op ! wave motion1 & ! light w\ld be annihilat$4 ,/op ! rotation1 & ! atom w\ld be annihilat$ = ! same reason4 ,z ! ray ( light is a p>ticul> embodim5t ( en]gy1 & has no exi/5ce ap>t f x1 s an atom is to be reg>d$ z an embodim5t ( en]gy4 ,on a previ\s page x is said t en]gy is ! ability ( "o body to act ^u & move ano!r 9 "s degree4 ,an atom ( any k9d is n ! in]t ?+ x has be5 suppos$ to be1 = x c d some?+4 ,ev5 at absolute z]o1 :5 all its vibratory or heat en]gy w\ld be abs5t1 x w\ld be /ill an ela/ic :irl+ body pull+ ^u e o!r atom 9 ! univ]se ) gravitational en]gy1 twi/+ o!r atoms into con=mity ) its own position ) its magnetic en]gy2 &1 if su* e!r r+s are l ! r+s :i* are made 9 air1 w n /& /ill 9 "o place ev5 if no o!rs act ^u x1 b w />t at once by its own inh]5t en]gy to move 9 a "r l9e at "r angles to its own plane & 9 ! direction ( ! :irl inside ! r+4 ,two r+s ( wood or iron might rema9 9 contact ) ea* o!r = an indef9ite "t1 b vortex-r+s w n1 b w beat ea* o!r away z two sp9n+ tops w d if !y t\* ev] s g5tly4 ,if !y d n ?us sep>ate x is because !re are o!r =ms ( en]gy act+ to press !m toge!r1 b su* ext]nal pressure w be less5$ by ! r+s' own reactions4 ,x is true t 9 a frictionless m$ium l ! e!r "o _c at pres5t see h[ su* vortex-r+s c\ld be produc$ 9 x4 ,c]ta9ly n by any su* me*anical me?ods z are employ$ to make smoke-r+s 9 air1 = ! friction ( ! air is ! condition = produc+ !m4 ,h[ev] !y came to be1 !re is impli$ ! previ\s exi/5ce ( ! e!r & ( en]gy 9 "s =m capable ( act+ ^u x 9 a mann] radically diff]5t f any kn[n 9 physical sci5ce4 ,!re is good spectroscopic evid5ce t 9 "s way elem5ts ( diff]5t k9ds are n[ be+ =m$ 9 nebul1 = ! simple/ %[ ! pres5ce ( hydrog5 alone4 ,z !y increase 9 complexity o!r elem5ts are add$1 until ! spectrum exhibits all ! elem5ts we "k (4 ,x has ?us seem$ likely ei!r t mo/ ( :at are call$ elem5ts are compos$ ( molecul> gr\p+s ( "s fundam5tal elem5t1 :i* by prop] physical me?ods might be decompos$1 z "o c n[ decompose a molecule ( ammonia or sulphuric acid1 or t ! elem5ts are n[ be+ creat$ by "s extra-physical process 9 ^? f>-(f regions4 ,9 ei!r case an atom is ! embodim5t ( en]gy 9 su* a =m z to be p]man5t "u ord9>y physical circum/ances1 b ( :i*1 if 9 any mann] x %\ld be de/roy$1 only ! =m w\ld be lo/4 ,! e!r w\ld rema91 & ! en]gy :i* 0 embodi$ w\ld be di/ribut$ 9 o!r ways4 ,,! ,,e!r ,,is ,,end[$ ,,) ,,en]gy4 ,! di/9ction betwe5 en]gy 9 matt] & en]gy 9 ! e!r w be app>5t1 on consid]+ t bo? ! e!r & en]gy 9 "s =m mu/ be conceiv$ z exi/+ indep5d5t ( matt]2 ?\gh e atom 7 annihilat$1 ! e!r w\ld rema9 & all ! en]gy embodi$ 9 ! atoms w\ld be /ill 9 exi/5ce 9 ! e!r4 ,! atomic en]gy w\ld simply be dissolv$4 ,"o c easily conceive ! e!r z ! same space-fill+1 cont9u\s1 unlimit$ m$ium1 )\t an atom 9 x4 ,on ?is assumption x is cle> t no =m ( en]gy ) :i* we h to deal 9 physical sci5ce w\ld h any exi/5ce 9 ! e!r2 = e "o ( ^? =ms1 gravitational1 !rmal1 electric1 magnetic1 or any o!r--all are ! results ( ! =ms ( en]gy 9 matt]4 ,if !re 7 no atoms1 !re w\ld be no gravitation1 = t is ! attraction ( atoms ^u ea* o!r4 ,if !re 7 no atoms1 !re c\ld be no atomic vibration1 !re=e no heat1 & s on = ea* & all4 ,nev]!less1 if an atom be ! embodim5t ( en]gy1 !re mu/ h be5 en]gy 9 ! e!r be=e any atom exi/$4 ,"o ( ! prop]ties ( ! e!r is its ability to di/ribute en]gy 9 c]ta9 ways1 b !re is no evid5ce t ( itself x ev] trans=ms en]gy4 ,once a giv5 k9d ( en]gy is 9 x1 x does n *ange2 h5ce = ! app>ition ( a =m ( en]gy1 l ! fir/ vortex-r+1 !re mu/ h be5 n only en]gy1 b "s o!r ag5cy capable ( trans=m+ t en]gy into a p]man5t /ructure4 ,to ! be/ ( our k to-day1 ! e!r w\ld be absolutely helpless4 ,su* en]gy z 0 active 9 =m+ atoms mu/ be call$ by ano!r "n ?an :at is appropriate = su* trans=mations z occur :51 = in/ance1 ! me*anical en]gy ( a bullet is trans=m$ into heat :5 ! t>get is /ruck4 ,beh9d ! e!r mu/ be assum$ "s ag5cy1 direct+ & controll+ en]gy 9 a mann] totally diff]5t f any ag5cy1 :i* is op]ative 9 :at we call physical sci5ce4 ,no?+ %ort ( :at is call$ a miracle w d--an ev5t )\t a physical antec$5t 9 any way necess>ily relat$ to its factors1 z is ! fact ( a /one relat$ to gravity or heat to an electric curr5t4 ,e!r en]gy is an end[m5t in/ead ( be+ an embodim5t1 & implies antec$5ts ( a sup]-physical k9d4 #ab4 ,,matt] ,,is ,,an ,,en]gy ,,trans=m]4 ,z ea* diff]5t k9d ( en]gy repres5ts "s specific =m ( motion1 & vice v]s1 "s sort ( me*anism is ne$ful = trans=m+ "o k9d into ano!r1 !re=e molecul> /ructure ( "o k9d or ano!r is ess5tial4 ,! trans=mation is a me*anical process1 & matt] 9 "s p>ticul> & appropriate =m is ! condition ( its tak+ place4 ,if heat appe>s1 !n its antec$5t has be5 "s o!r =m ( motion act+ ^u ! sub/ance heat$4 ,x may h be5 ! me*anical motion ( ano!r mass ( matt]1 z :5 a bullet /rikes a t>get & becomes heat$2 or x may be friction1 z :5 a c>-axle heats :5 run )\t prop] oil+ to r$uce friction2 or x may be cond5sation1 z :5 t9d] is ignit$ by cond5s+ ! air ab\t x2 or *emical reactions1 :5 molecul> /ructure is *ang$ z 9 combu/ion1 or an electrical curr5t1 :i* implies a dynamo & /eam-eng9e or wat]-p[]4 ,if light appe>s1 its antec$5t has be5 impact or friction1 cond5sation or *emical action1 & if electricity appe>s ! same sort ( antec$5ts are pres5t4 ,:e!r ! "o or ! o!r ( ^! =ms ( en]gy is develop$1 dep5ds ^u :at k9d ( a /ructure ! antec$5t en]gy has act$ ^u4 ,if radiant en]gy1 s-call$1 falls ^u a mass ( matt]1 :at is absorb$ is at once trans=m$ into heat or into electric or magnetic effects2 :i* "o ( ^! dep5ds ^u ! "* ( ! me*anism ^u :i* ! radiant en]gy acts1 b ! radiant en]gy itself1 :i* consi/s ( e!r-waves1 is traceable back 9 e case to a mass ( matt] hav+ def9ite *>act]i/ic motions4 ,"o may !re=e say ) c]ta9ty t e physical ph5om5on is a *ange 9 ! direction1 or velocity1 or "*1 ( ! en]gy pres5t1 & su* *ange has be5 produc$ by matt] act+ z a trans=m]4 ,,! ,,e!r ,,is ,a ,,non-,,trans=m]4 ,x has already be5 said t ! abs5ce ( friction 9 ! e!r enables light-waves to ma9ta9 _! id5tity = an indef9ite "t1 & to an indef9itely great di/ance4 ,9 a uni=m1 homog5e\s sub/ance ( any k9d1 any k9d ( en]gy :i* might be 9 x w\ld cont9ue 9 x )\t any *ange4 ,uni=mity & homog5eity imply simil>ity ?r\gh\t1 & ! necess>y condition = trans=mation is unlik5ess4 ,"o might n look = any k9d ( physical ph5om5on :i* 0 n due to ! pres5ce & activity ( "s het]og5eity4 ,z a ray ( light cont9ues a ray ( light s long z x exi/s 9 free e!r1 s all k9ds ( radiations1 ( :atev] wave-l5g?1 cont9ue id5tical until !y fall ^u "s me*anical /ructure call$ matt]4 ,translatory motion cont9ues translatory1 rot>y cont9ues rot>y1 & vibratory cont9ues to be vibratory1 & no trans=m+ *ange c take place 9 ! abs5ce ( matt]4 ,! e!r is helpless4 #ac4 ,,matt] ,,is ,,ela/ic4 ,x is commonly /at$ t c]ta9 sub/ances1 l putty & d\gh1 are inela/ic1 :ile "s o!r sub/ances1 l glass1 /eel1 & wood1 are ela/ic4 ,?is quality ( ela/icity1 z manife/$ 9 su* diff]5t degrees1 dep5ds ^u molecul> comb9ations2 "s ( :i*1 z 9 glass & /eel1 are fav\rable = exhibit+ x1 :ile o!rs mask x1 = ! ultimate atoms ( all k9ds are c]ta9ly highly ela/ic4 ,! measure ( ela/icity 9 a mass ( matt] is ! velocity ) :i* a wave-motion w be transmitt$ ?r\gh x4 ,?us ! ela/icity ( ! air det]m9es ! velocity ( s\nd 9 x4 ,if ! air be heat$1 ! ela/icity is increas$ & ! s\nd moves fa/]4 ,! rates ( su* s\nd-conduction range f a few feet 9 a second to ab\t #af1jjj1 five times swift] ?an a cannon ball4 ,9 su* ela/ic bodies z vibrate to & fro l ! prongs ( a tun+-=k1 or give s\nds ( a def9ite pit*1 ! rate ( vibration is det]m9$ by ! size & %ape ( ! body z well z by _! elem5t>y composition4 ,! small] a body is1 ! high] its vibratory rate1 if x be made ( ! same mat]ial & ! =m rema9s ! same4 ,?us a tun+-=k1 t may be c>ri$ 9 ! wai/coat-pocket1 may vibrate #ejj times a second4 ,if x 7 only ! fifty-million? ( an in* 9 size1 b ( ! same mat]ial & =m1 x w\ld vibrate #cj1jjj1jjjjjj times a second2 & if x 7 made ( e!r1 in/ead ( /eel1 x w\ld vibrate z _m times fa/] z ! velocity ( waves 9 ! e!r is great] ?an x is 9 /eel1 & w\ld be z _m z #djj1jjjjjj1jjjjjj times p] second4 ,! am\nt ( displacem5t1 or ! amplitude ( vibration1 ) ! pocket-=k might be no m ?an ! hundr$? ( an in*1 & ?is rate measur$ z translation velocity w\ld be b five in*es p] second4 ,if ! =k 7 ( atomic magnitude1 & %\ld sw+ its sides "o half ! diamet] ( ! atom1 or say ! hundr$-million? ( an in*1 ! translational velocity w\ld be equival5t to ab\t eighty miles a second1 or a hundr$ & fifty times ! velocity ( a cannon ball1 :i* may be reckon$ at ab\t #cjjj feet4 ,t atoms really vibrate at ! above rate p] second is v c]ta91 = _! vibrations produce e!r-waves ! l5g? ( :i* may be accurately measur$4 ,:5 a tun+-=k vibrates #ejj times a second1 & ! s\nd travels #aajj feet 9 ! same int]val1 ! l5g? ( ea* wave w be f\nd by divid+ ! velocity 9 ! air by ! numb] ( vibrations1 or #aajj #ejj #b4b feet4 ,9 l mann]1 :5 "o kn[s ! velocity & wave-l5g?1 he may compute ! numb] ( vibrations by divid+ ! velocity by ! wave-l5g?4 ,n[ ! velocity ( ! waves call$ light is #ahf1jjj miles a second1 & a light-wave may be "o =ty ?\s&? ( an in* long4 ,! atom t produces ! wave mu/ be vibrat+ z _m times p] second z ! fif? ?\s&? ( an in* is conta9$ 9 #ahf1jjj miles4 ,r$uc+ ?is numb] to in*es we h #ahf1jjj #ebhj #ab ------------------- #djj1jjj1jjj1jjj1jjj1 ne>ly4 #a_/dj1jjj ,?is %[s t ! atoms are m9ute ela/ic bodies t *ange _! =m rapidly :5 /ruck4 ,z rapid z ! *ange is1 yet ! rate ( movem5t is only "o-fif? t ( a comet :5 ne> ! sun1 & is !re=e easily comp>able ) o!r velocities obs]v$ 9 masses ( matt]4 ,^! vibratory motions1 due to ! ela/icity ( ! atoms1 is :at con/itutes heat4 ,,! ,,e!r ,,is ,,ela/ic4 ,! ela/icity ( a mass ( matt] is its ability to recov] its orig9al =m aft] t =m has be5 di/ort$4 ,!re is impli$ t a /ress *anges its %ape & dim5sions1 :i* 9 turn implies a limit$ mass & relative *ange ( position ( p>ts & "s degree ( discont9uity4 ,f :at has be5 said ( ! e!r z be+ unlimit$1 cont9u\s1 & n made ( atoms or molecules1 x w be se5 h[ difficult1 if n impossible1 x is to conceive h[ su* a prop]ty z ela/icity1 z manife/$ 9 matt]1 c be attribut$ to ! e!r1 :i* is incapable ( de=mation1 ei!r 9 /ructure or =m1 ! latt] be+ inf9itely ext5d$ 9 e direction & !re=e =mless4 ,nev]!less1 c]ta9 =ms ( motion1 su* z light-waves1 move 9 x ) def9ite velocity1 q indep5d5t ( h[ !y orig9ate4 ,?is velocity ( #ahf1jjj miles a second s mu* exce$s any movem5t ( a mass ( matt] t ! motions c h>dly be comp>$4 ,?us if #djj miles p] second be ! swifte/ spe$ ( any mass ( matt] kn[n--t ( a comet ne> ! sun--! e!r-wave moves #ahf1jjj #djj #dfe times fa/] ?an su* comet1 & #ijj1jjj times fa/] ?an s\nd travels 9 air4 ,x is cle> t if ?is rate ( motion dep5ds ^u ela/icity1 ! ela/icity mu/ be ( an entirely diff]5t type f t belong+ to matt]1 & _c be def9$ 9 any su* t]ms z are employ$ = matt]4 ,if "o consid]s gravitative ph5om5a1 ! difficulty is enorm\sly increas$4 ,! orbit ( a planet is nev] an exact ellipse1 on acc\nt ( ! p]turbations produc$ by ! planet>y attractions--p]turbations :i* dep5d ^u ! direction & di/ance ( ! attract+ bodies4 ,^!1 h[ev]1 are s well kn[n t slight deviations are easily notic$4 ,if gravitative attraction took any su* appreciable "t to g f "o a/ronomical body to ano!r z does light1 x w\ld make v consid]able diff]5ces 9 ! pa?s ( ! planets & ! e>?4 ,inde$1 if ! velocity ( gravitation 7 less ?an a million times great] ?an t ( light1 its effects w\ld h be5 discov]$ long ago4 ,x is !re=e consid]$ t ! velocity ( gravitation _c be less ?an #ahfjjj1jjjjjj miles p] second4 ,h[ mu* great] x may be no "o c guess4 ,see+ t gravitation is e!r-pressure1 x does n seem probable t its velocity c be inf9ite4 ,h[ev] t may be1 ! ability ( ! e!r to transmit pressure & v>i\s di/urbances1 evid5tly dep5ds ^u prop]ties s diff]5t f ^? t enable matt] to transmit di/urbances t !y des]ve to be call$ by diff]5t names4 ,to speak ( ! ela/icity ( ! e!r may s]ve to express ! fact t en]gy may be transmitt$ at a f9ite rate 9 x1 b x c only mislead "o's ?9k+ if he imag9es ! process to be simil> to en]gy transmission 9 a mass ( matt]4 ,! two processes are incomp>able4 ,no o!r ^w has be5 sugge/$1 & p]haps x is n ne$ful = mo/ sci5tific purposes t ano!r %\ld be adopt$1 b ! inappropriat5ess ( ! "o ^w = ! diff]5t ph5om5a has long be5 felt4 #ad4 ,,matt] ,,has ,,d5sity4 ,?is quality is exhibit$ 9 two ways 9 matt]4 ,9 ! fir/1 ! diff]5t elem5ts 9 _! atomic =m h diff]5t masses or atomic weights4 ,an atom ( oxyg5 weighs sixte5 times z mu* z an atom ( hydrog52 t is1 x has sixte5 times z mu* matt]1 z det]m9$ by weight1 z ! hydrog5 atom has1 or x takes sixte5 times z _m hydrog5 atoms to make a p\nd z x takes ( oxyg5 atoms4 ,?is is g5]ally express$ by say+ t oxyg5 has sixte5 times ! d5sity ( hydrog54 ,9 l mann]1 iron has fifty-six times ! d5sity1 & gold "o hundr$ & n9ety-six4 ,! diff]5ce is "o 9 ! /ructure ( ! atomic elem5ts4 ,if "o imag9es !m to be vortex-r+s1 !y may diff] 9 size1 ?ickness1 & rate ( rotation2 ei!r ( ^! might make all ! obs]v$ diff]5ce betwe5 ! elem5ts1 includ+ _! d5sity4 ,9 ! second way1 d5sity implies compactness ( molecules4 ,?us if a cubic foot ( air be compress$ until x occupies b half a cubic foot1 ea* cubic in* w h twice z _m molecules 9 x z at fir/4 ,! am\nt ( air p] unit volume w h be5 d\bl$1 ! weight w h be5 d\bl$1 ! am\nt ( matt] z det]m9$ by its weight w h be5 d\bl$1 & consequ5tly we say its d5sity has be5 d\bl$4 ,if a bullet or a piece ( iron be hamm]$1 ! molecules are compact$ clos] toge!r1 & a great] numb] c be got into a cubic in* :5 s cond5s$4 ,9 ?is s5se1 !n1 d5sity means ! numb] ( molecules 9 a unit ( space1 a cubic in* or cubic c5timet]4 ,!re is impli$ 9 ?is latt] case t ! molecules d n occupy all ! available space1 t !y may h v>y+ degrees ( clos5ess2 9 o!r words1 matt] is discont9u\s1 & !re=e !re may be degrees 9 d5sity4 ,,! ,,e!r ,,has ,,d5sity4 ,x is common to h ! degree ( d5sity ( ! e!r spok5 ( 9 ! same way1 & = ! same reason1 t its ela/icity is spok5 (4 ,! rate ( transmission ( a physical di/urbance1 z ( a pressure or a wave-motion 9 matt]1 is condition$ by its degree ( d5sity2 t is1 ! am\nt ( matt] p] cubic in* z det]m9$ by its weight2 ! great] ! d5sity ! sl[] ! rate4 ,s if rate ( spe$ & ela/icity be kn[n1 ! d5sity may be comput$4 ,9 ?is way ! d5sity ( ! e!r has be5 d$uc$ by not+ ! velocity ( light4 ,! enorm\s velocity is suppos$ to prove t its d5sity is v small1 ev5 :5 comp>$ ) hydrog54 ,?is is /at$ to be ab\t equal to t ( ! air at ! height ( two hundr$ & t5 miles above ! surface ( ! e>?1 :]e ! air molecules are s few t a molecule might travel = #fj1jjj1jjj miles )\t com+ 9 collision ) ano!r molecule4 ,9 air ( ord9>y d5sity1 a molecule c on ! av]age move no fur!r ?an ab\t ! two-hundr$-&-fifty-?\s&? ( an in* )\t su* collision4 ,x is pla9 ! d5sity ( ! e!r is s f> remov$ f ! d5sity ( any?+ we c measure1 t x is h>dly comp>able ) su* ?+s4 ,if1 9 addition1 "o recalls ! fact t ! e!r is homog5e\s1 t is all ( "o k9d1 & also t x is n compos$ ( atoms & molecules1 !n degree ( compactness & numb] ( p>ticles p] cubic in* h no mean+1 & ! t]m d5sity1 if us$1 c h no su* mean+ z x has :5 appli$ to matt]4 ,!re is no physical conception ga9$ f ! /udy ( matt] t c be useful 9 ?9k+ ( x4 ,z ) ela/icity1 s d5sity is inappropriately appli$ to ! e!r1 b !re is no sub/itute yet (f]$4 #ae4 ,,matt] ,,is ,,heatable4 ,s long z heat 0 ?\ght to be "s k9d ( an impond]able ?+1 :i* might reta9 its id5tity :e!r x 7 9 or out ( matt]1 its real nature 0 obscur$ by ! "n giv5 to x4 ,an impond]able 0 a my/]i\s some?+ l a _s1 :i* 0 ! cause ( c]ta9 ph5om5a 9 matt]4 ,heat1 light1 electricity1 magnetism1 gravitation1 7 due to su* v>i\s ag5cies1 & no "o conc]n$ himself ) ! nature ( "o or ! o!r4 ,bacon ?\ght t heat 0 a brisk agitation ( ! p>ticles ( sub/ances1 & ,c\nt ,rum=d & ,sir ,humphrey ,davy ?\ght !y prov$ t x c\ld be no?+ else1 b !y conv9c$ nobody4 ,may] 9 ,g]many & ,j\le 9 ,engl& %[$ t quantitative relations exi/$ betwe5 "w done & heat develop$1 b n until ! publication ( ! book call$ ,heat z a ,mode ( ,motion1 0 !re a *ange ( op9ion & t]m9ology z to ! nature ( heat4 ,= tw5ty ye>s aft] t x 0 common to he> ! expressions heat1 & radiant heat1 to di/+ui% betwe5 ph5om5a 9 matt] & :at is n[ call$ radiant en]gy radiations1 or simply e!r-waves4 ,n until ! necessity arose = di/+ui%+ betwe5 diff]5t =ms ( en]gy1 & ! conditions = develop+ !m1 did x become cle> to all t a *ange 9 ! =m ( en]gy impli$ a *ange 9 ! =m ( motion t embodi$ x4 ,! en]gy call$ heat en]gy 0 prov$ to be a vibratory motion ( molecules1 & :at happ5$ 9 ! e!r z a result ( su* vibrations is no long] spok5 ( z heat1 b z e!r waves4 ,:5 x is rememb]$ t ! ultimate atoms are ela/ic bodies1 & t !y w1 if free1 vibrate 9 a p]iodic mann] :5 /ruck or %ak5 9 any way1 j z a ball w vibrate aft] x is /ruck1 x is easy to keep 9 m9d ! di/9ction betwe5 ! me*anical =m ( motion sp5t 9 /rik+ & ! vibratory =m ( ! motion produc$ by x4 ,! latt] is call$ heat2 no o!r =m ( motion ?an t is prop]ly call$ heat4 ,x is ?is alone t repres5ts temp]ature1 ! rate & amplitude ( su* atomic & molecul> vibrations z con/itute *ange1 ( =m4 ,:]e molecules l ^? 9 a gas h "s fre$om ( movem5t betwe5 impacts1 !y b\nd away f ea* o!r ) v>y+ velocities4 ,! pa? ( su* motion may be long or %ort1 dep5d+ ^u ! d5sity or compactness ( ! molecules1 b su* *anges 9 position are n heat = a molecule any m ?an ! flight ( a musket ball is heat1 ?\gh x may be trans=m$ into heat on /rik+ ! t>get4 ,?is conception ( heat z ! rapid *ange 9 ! =m ( atoms & molecules1 due to _! ela/icity1 is a ph5om5on peculi> to matt]4 ,x implies a body possess+ =m t may be *ang$2 ela/icity1 t its *anges may be p]iodic1 & degrees ( fre$om t secure space = ! *anges4 ,su* a body may be heat$4 ,its temp]ature w dep5d ^u ! amplitude ( su* vibrations1 & w be limit$ by ! maximum amplitude4 ,,! ,,e!r ,,is ,,unheatable4 ,! translatory motion ( a mass ( matt]1 big or little1 ?r\gh ! e!r1 is n arre/$ 9 any degree s f> z obs]v$1 b ! int]nal vibratory motion sets up waves 9 ! e!r1 ! e!r absorbs ! en]gy1 & ! amplitude is cont9ually less5$4 ,! motion has be5 transf]r$ & trans=m$2 transf]r$ f matt] to ! e!r1 & trans=m$ f vibratory to waves travell+ at ! rate ( #ahf1jjj miles p] second4 ,! latt] is n heat1 b ! result ( heat4 ,) ! e!r con/itut$ z describ$1 su* vibratory motion z con/itutes heat is impossible to x1 & h5ce ! *>act]i/ic ( heat-motion 9 x is impossible2 x _c !re=e be heat$4 ,! space betwe5 ! e>? & ! sun may h any assignable am\nt ( en]gy 9 ! =m ( e!r waves or light1 b n any temp]ature4 ,"o might loosely say t ! temp]ature ( empty spaces 0 absolute z]o1 b t w\ld n be q correct1 = ! idea ( temp]ature _c prop]ly be ent]ta9$ z applicable to ! e!r4 ,to say t its temp]ature 0 absolute z]o1 w\ld s]ve to imply t x might be high]1 :i* is inadmissible4 ,:5 en]gy has be5 trans=m$1 ! old "n by :i* ! en]gy 0 call$ mu/ be dropp$4 ,e!r _c be heat$4 #af4 ,,matt] ,,is ,,inde/ructible4 ,?is is commonly said to be "o ( ! ess5tial prop]ties ( matt]4 ,all t is meant by x1 h[ev]1 is simply ?is3 ,9 no physical or *emical process to :i* x has be5 exp]im5tally subject$ has !re be5 any app>5t loss4 ,! matt] exp]im5t$ ^u may *ange f a solid or liquid to a gas1 or ! molecul> *ange call$ *emical may result 9 new comp\nds1 b ! weight ( ! mat]ial & its atomic con/itu5ts h n appreciably *ang$4 ,t matt] _c be annihilat$ is only ! conv]se ( ! proposition t matt] _c be creat$1 :i* ought always to be modifi$ by add+1 by physical or *emical processes at pres5t kn[n4 ,a *emi/ may "w ) a few gra9s ( a sub/ance 9 a beak]1 or te/-tube1 or crucible1 & aft] sev]al solutions1 precipitations1 fusions & dry+s1 may f9d by f9al weigh+ t he has n lo/ any appreciable am\nt1 b h[ mu* is an appreciable am\nt8 ,a fragm5t ( matt] ! t5-?\s&? ( an in* 9 diamet] has too small a weight to be not$ 9 any balance1 yet x w\ld be made up ( ?\s&s ( millions ( atoms4 ,h5ce if1 9 ! processes to :i* ! sub/ance _h be5 subject$1 !re _h be5 ! total annihilation ( ?\s&s ( millions ( atoms1 su* ph5om5on w\ld n h be5 discov]$ by weigh+4 ,nei!r w\ld x h be5 discov]$ if !re _h be5 a simil> creation or developm5t ( new matt]4 ,all t c be ass]t$ conc]n+ su* ev5ts is1 t !y h n be5 discov]$ ) our means ( obs]vation4 ,! al*emi/s s\ght to trans=m "o elem5t into ano!r1 z lead into gold4 ,!y did n succe$4 ,x 0 at l5g? ?\ght to be impossible1 & ! attempt to d x an absurdity4 ,lately1 h[ev]1 telescopic obs]vation ( :at is go+ on 9 nebul1 :i* has already be5 ref]r$ to1 has some:at modifi$ ideas ( :at is possible & impossible 9 t direction4 ,x is c]ta9ly possible r\ghly to conceive h[ su* a /ructure z a vortex-r+ 9 ! e!r might be =m$4 ,) c]ta9 pol>iz+ app>atus x is possible to produce rays ( circul>ly pol>iz$ light4 ,^! are rays 9 :i* ! motion is an advanc+ rotation l ! wire 9 a spiral spr+4 ,if su* a l9e ( rotations 9 ! e!r 7 flexible1 & ! two ends %\ld come toge!r1 !re is reason = ?9k+ !y w\ld weld toge!r1 9 :i* case ! /ructure w\ld become a vortex-r+ & be z durable z any o!r4 ,!re is reason = believ+1 also1 t some:at simil> movem5ts are always pres5t 9 a magnetic field1 & ?\gh we d n "k h[ to make !m close up 9 ! prop] way1 x does n foll[ t x is impossible = !m to d s4 ,! be>+ ( all ?is ^u ! problem ( ! transmutation ( elem5ts is evid5t4 ,no "o n[ w v5ture to d5y its possibility z /rongly z x 0 d5i$ a g5]ation ago4 ,x w also lead "o to be less confid5t 9 ! !ory t matt] is inde/ructible4 ,assum+ ! vortex-r+ !ory ( atoms to be true1 if 9 any way su* a r+ c\ld be cut or brok51 !re w\ld n rema9 two or m fragm5ts ( a r+ or atom4 ,! :ole w\ld at once be dissolv$ into ! e!r4 ,! r+ & rot>y en]gy t made x an atom w\ld be de/roy$1 b n ! sub/ance x 0 made (1 nor ! en]gy :i* 0 embodi$ !re94 ,= a long "t philosoph]s h argu$1 & commons5se has agre$ ) !m1 t an atom :i* c\ld n be ideally brok5 into two p>ts 0 impossible1 t "o c\ld at any rate ?9k ( half an atom z a real objective possibility4 ,?is vortex-r+ !ory %[s easily h[ possible x is to-day to ?9k :at once 0 philosophically incr$ible4 ,x %[s t metaphysical reason+ may be ev] s cle> & app>5tly irrefragable1 yet = all t x may be v uns\nd4 ,! tr\ble does n come s mu* f ! logic z f ! assumption ^u :i* ! logic is f\nd$4 ,9 ?is p>ticul> case ! assumption 0 t ! ultimate p>ticles ( matt] 7 h>d1 irrefragable some?+s1 )\t necess>y relations to any?+ else1 or to en]gy1 & irrefragable only because no means _h be5 f\nd ( break+ !m4 ,! de/ructibility or inde/ructibility ( ! e!r _c be consid]$ f ! same /&po9t z t = matt]1 ei!r ideally or really4 ,n ideally1 because we are utt]ly )\t any me*anical conceptions ( ! sub/ance ^u :i* "o c base ei!r reason or analogy2 & n really1 because we h no exp]im5tal evid5ce z to its nature or mode ( op]ation4 ,if x be cont9u\s1 !re are no int]spaces1 & if x be illimitable !re is no unfill$ space any:]e4 ,fur!rmore1 "o might inf] t if 9 any way a portion ( ! e!r c\ld be annihilat$1 :at 0 left w\ld at once fill up ! vacat$ space1 s !re w\ld be no record left ( :at _h happ5$4 ,app>5tly1 its de/ruction w\ld be ! de/ruction ( a sub/ance1 :i* is a v diff]5t ?+ f ! de/ruction ( a mode ( motion4 ,9 ! latt]1 only ! =m ( ! motion ne$ be de/roy$ to completely oblit]ate e trace ( ! atom4 ,9 ! =m]1 !re w\ld ne$ to be ! de/ruction ( bo? sub/ance & en]gy1 = x is c]ta91 = reasons yet to be att5d$ to1 t ! e!r is saturat$ ) en]gy4 ,"o may1 )\t me*anical difficulties1 imag9e a vortex-r+ de/roy$4 ,x is q diff]5t ) ! e!r itself1 = if x 7 de/roy$ 9 ! same s5se z ! atom ( matt]1 x w\ld be *ang$ into some?+ else :i* is n e!r1 a proposition :i* assumes ! exi/5ce ( ano!r entity1 ! exi/5ce = :i* is ne$$ only z a me*anical antec$5t = ! o!r4 ,! same assumption w\ld be ne$$ = ?is entity z = ! e!r1 namely1 some?+ out ( :i* x 0 made1 & ?is process ( assum+ antec$5ts w\ld be int]m9able4 ,! la/ "o consid]$ w\ld h ! same difficulties to meet z ! e!r has n[4 ,! assumption t x 0 9 "s way & at "s "t creat$ is m rational1 & !re=e m probable1 ?an t x ei!r creat$ itself or t x always exi/$4 ,consid]$ z ! und]ly+ /ratum ( matt]1 x is cle> t *anges ( any k9d 9 matt] c 9 no way affect ! quantity ( e!r4 #ag4 ,,matt] ,,has ,,in]tia4 ,! resi/ance t a mass ( matt] opposes to a *ange 9 its position or rate & direction ( movem5t1 is call$ in]tia4 ,t x %\ld actively oppose any?+ has be5 already po9t$ out z reason = d5y+ t matt] is in]t1 b in]tia is ! measure ( ! reaction ( a body :5 x is act$ ^u by pressure f any s\rce t5d+ to di/urb its condition ( ei!r re/ or motion4 ,x is ! equival5t ( mass1 or ! am\nt ( matt] z measur$ by gravity1 & is a fix$ quantity2 = in]tia is z inh]5t z any o!r quality1 & belongs to ! ultimate atoms & e comb9ation ( !m4 ,x implies ! ability to absorb en]gy1 = x requires z mu* en]gy to br+ a mov+ body to a /&/ill z 0 requir$ to give x its =w>d motion4 ,bo? rot>y & vibratory movem5ts are oppos$ by ! same prop]ty4 ,a gr9d/one1 a tun+-=k1 & an atom ( hydrog5 require1 to move !m 9 _! appropriate ways1 an am\nt ( en]gy proportionate to _! mass or in]tia1 :i* en]gy is aga9 trans=m$ ?r\gh friction into heat & radiat$ away4 ,"o may say t in]tia is ! measure ( ! ability ( a body to transf] or trans=m me*anical en]gy4 ,! meteorite t falls ^u ! e>? to-day gives1 on its impact1 ! same am\nt ( en]gy x w\ld h giv5 if x _h /ruck ! e>? t5 ?\s& ye>s ago4 ,! in]tia ( ! meteor has p]si/$1 n z en]gy1 b z a factor ( en]gy4 ,we commonly express ! en]gy ( a mass ( matt] by mv#b_/b1 :]e m /&s = ! mass & v = its velocity4 ,we might z well1 if x 7 z conv5i5t1 sub/itute in]tia = mass1 & write ! expression iv#b_/b1 = ! mass1 be+ measur$ by its in]tia1 is only ! m common & less def9itive ^w = ! same ?+4 ,! en]gy ( a mass ( matt] is1 !n1 proportional to its in]tia1 because in]tia is "o ( its factors4 ,en]gy has (t5 be5 treat$ z if x 7 an objective ?+1 an entity & a unity2 b su* a conception is evid5tly wrong1 =1 z has be5 said be=e1 x is a product ( two factors1 ei!r ( :i* may be *ang$ 9 any degree if ! o!r be *ang$ inv]sely 9 ! same degree4 ,a cannon ball weigh+ #ajjj p\nds1 & mov+ #ajj feet p] second1 w h #aef1jjj foot-p\nds ( en]gy1 b a musket ball weigh+ an ounce w h ! same am\nt :5 its velocity is #ab1fjj feet p] second4 ,nev]!less1 ano!r body act+ ^u ei!r bullet or cannon ball1 t5d+ to move ei!r 9 "s new direction1 w be z effici5t :ile ^? bodies are mov+ at any assignable rate z :5 !y are quiesc5t1 = ! *ange 9 direction w dep5d ^u ! in]tia ( ! bodies1 & t is con/ant4 ,! common !ory ( an in]t body is "o t is :olly passive1 hav+ no p[] ( itself to move or d any?+1 except z "s ag5cy outside itself compels x to move 9 "o way or ano!r1 & ?us end[s x ) en]gy4 ,?us a /one or an iron nail are ?\ght to be in]t bodies 9 t s5se1 & x is true t ei!r ( !m w rema9 /ill 9 "o place = an indef9ite "t & move f x only :5 "s ext]nal ag5cy gives !m impulse & direction4 ,/ill x is kn[n t su* bodies w roll d[n hill if !y w n roll up1 & ea* ( !m has itself z mu* to d ) ! d[n-hill movem5t z ! e>? has2 t is1 x attracts ! e>? z mu* z ! e>? attracts x4 ,if "o c\ld magnify ! /ructure ( a body until ! molecules became individually visible1 e "o ( !m w\ld be se5 to be 9 int5se activity1 *ang+ its =m & relative position an enorm\s numb] ( times p] second 9 undirect$ ways4 ,no two su* molecules move 9 ! same way at ! same "t1 & z all ! molecules coh]e toge!r1 _! motions 9 diff]5t directions balance ea* o!r1 s t ! body z a :ole does n *ange its position1 n because !re is no mov+ ag5cy 9 itself1 b because ! individual movem5ts are scatt]+1 & n 9 a common direction4 ,an army may rema9 9 "o place = a long "t4 ,to "o at a di/ance x is quiesc5t1 in]t4 ,to "o 9 ! camp !re is abundant sign ( activity1 b ! movem5ts are individual movem5ts1 "s 9 "o direction & "s 9 ano!r1 & (t5 *ang+4 ,! same army on ! m>* has ! same en]gy1 ! same rate ( individual movem5t2 b all h a common direction1 x moves z a :ole body into new t]ritory4 ,s ) ! molecules ( matt]4 ,9 l>ge masses !y appe> to be in]t1 & to d no?+1 & to be capable ( do+ no?+4 ,t is only due to ! fact t _! en]gy is undirect$1 n t !y c d no?+4 ,! inf]5ce t if quiesc5t bodies d n act 9 p>ticul> ways !y are in]t1 & _c act 9 any k9d ( a way1 is a wrong inf]5ce4 ,an illu/ration may p]haps make ?is po9t pla9]4 ,a lump ( coal w be /ill z long z any?+ if x be undi/urb$4 ,inde$1 x has ?us la9 9 a coal-b$ = millions ( ye>s probably1 b if coal be plac$ :]e x c comb9e ) oxyg51 x =?) does s1 & dur+ ! process yields a l>ge am\nt ( en]gy 9 ! %ape ( heat4 ,"o p\nd ( coal 9 ?is way gives out #ad1jjj heat units1 :i* is ! equival5t ( #aa1jjj1jjj foot-p\nds ( "w1 & if x c\ld be all utiliz$ w\ld furni% a horse-p[] = five & a half h\rs4 ,c any in]t body weigh+ a p\nd furni% a horse-p[] = half a day8 ,& c a body give out :at x has n got8 ,are gunp[d] & nitro-glyc]9e in]t8 ,are bread & butt] & foods 9 g5]al in]t because !y w n pu% & pull z a man or a horse may8 ,all h en]gy1 :i* is available 9 c]ta9 ways & n 9 o!rs1 & :atev] possesses en]gy available 9 any way is n an ideally in]t body4 ,la/ly1 h[ _m in]t bodies toge!r w x take to make an active body8 ,if ! "q be absurd1 !n all ! ph5om5a witness$ 9 bodies1 l>ge or small1 are due to ! fact t ! atoms are n in]t1 b are imm5sely en]getic1 & _! in]tia is ! measure ( _! rates ( ex*ang+ en]gy4 ,,! ,,e!r ,,is ,,conditionally ,,possess$ ,,( ,,in]tia4 ,a mov+ mass ( matt] is br\ght to re/ by friction1 because x imp>ts its motion at "s rate to ! body x is 9 contact )4 ,g5]ally ! en]gy is trans=m$ into heat1 b sometimes x appe>s z electrification4 ,friction is only possible because "o or bo? ( ! bodies possess in]tia4 ,t a body may move 9 ! e!r = an indef9ite "t )\t los+ its velocity has be5 /at$ z a reason = believ+ ! e!r to be frictionless4 ,if x be frictionless1 !n x is )\t in]tia1 else ! en]gy ( ! e>? & ( a ray ( light w\ld be fritt]$ away4 ,a ray ( light c only be trans=m$ :5 x falls ^u molecules :i* may be heat$ by x4 ,z ! e!r _c be heat$ & _c trans=m translational en]gy1 x is )\t in]tia = su* a =m ( motion & its embodi$ en]gy4 ,x is n ?us ) o!r =ms ( en]gy ?an ! translational4 ,atomic & molecul> vibrations are s relat$ to ! e!r t !y are trans=m$ into waves1 :i* are conduct$ away at a def9ite rate4 ,?is %[s t su* prop]ty ( in]tia z is possess$ by ! e!r is selective & n l t ( matt]1 :i* is equally in]tiative "u all conditions4 ,simil>ly ) electric & magnetic ph5om5a1 x is capable ( trans=m+ ! en]gy :i* may reside z /ress 9 ! e!r1 & o!r bodies mov+ 9 ! space s affect$ meet ) frictional resi/ance1 = !y become heat$ if ! motion be ma9ta9$4 ,on ! o!r h&1 !re is no evid5ce t ! body :i* produc$ ! electric or magnetic /ress suff]s any degree ( friction on mov+ 9 precisely ! same space4 ,a b> magnet rotat+ on its longitud9al axis does n di/urb its own field1 b a piece ( iron revolv+ ne> ! magnet w n only become heat$1 b w heat ! /ation>y magnet4 ,mu* exp]im5tal "w has be5 done to discov]1 if possible1 ! relation ( a magnet to its e!r field4 ,z ! latt] is n di/urb$ by ! rotation ( ! magnet1 x has be5 conclud$ t ! field does n rotate2 b z e molecule 9 ! magnet has its own field indep5d5t ( all ! re/1 x is me*anically probable t ea* su* field does v>y 9 ! rotation1 b among ! ?\s&s ( millions ( su* fields ! av]age /r5g? ( ! field does n v>y )9 measurable limits4 ,ano!r consid]ation is t ! magnetic field itself1 :5 mov$ 9 space1 suff]s no frictional resi/ance4 ,!re is no magnetic en]gy wa/$ ?r\gh e!r in]tia4 ,^! ph5om5a %[ t :e!r ! e!r exhibits ! quality call$ in]tia dep5ds ^u ! k9d ( motion x has4 #ah4 ,,matt] ,,is ,,magnetic4 ,! ord9>y ph5om5on ( magnetism is %[n by br++ a piece ( iron into ! neighb\rhood ( a s-call$ magnet1 :]e x is attract$ by ! latt]1 & if free to move w g to & cl+ to ! magnet4 ,a delicately susp5d$ magnetic ne$le w be affect$ appreciably by a /rong magnet at ! di/ance ( sev]al hundr$ feet4 ,z ! /r5g? ( su* action v>ies inv]sely z ! squ>e ( ! di/ance f ! magnet1 x is evid5t !re c be no absolute b\nd>y to x4 ,at a di/ance f an ord9>y magnet x becomes too weak to be detect$ by our me?ods1 n t !re is a limit to x4 ,x is cu/om>y to ?9k ( iron z be+ peculi>ly end[$ ) magnetic quality1 b all k9ds ( matt] possess x 9 "s degree4 ,wood1 /one1 pap]1 oats1 sulphur1 & all ! re/1 are attract$ by a magnet1 & w /ick to x if ! magnet be a /rong "o4 ,:e!r a piece ( iron itself exhibits ! prop]ty dep5ds ^u its temp]ature1 = ne> #gjj degrees x becomes z magnetically indiff]5t z a piece ( copp] at ord9>y temp]ature4 ,oxyg51 too1 at #bjj degrees bel[ ! z]o ( ,c5tigrade adh]es to a magnet l iron4 ,9 ?is z 9 s _m o!r p>ticul>s1 h[ a piece ( matt] behaves dep5ds ^u its temp]ature1 n t ! ess5tial qualities are modifi$ 9 any degree1 b temp]ature int]f]es ) atomic arrangem5t & aggregation1 & s disguises _! ph5om5a4 ,z e k9d ( matt] is ?us affect$ by a magnet1 ! manife/ations diff]+ b 9 degree1 x foll[s t all k9ds ( atoms--all ! elem5ts--are magnetic4 ,an inh]5t prop]ty 9 !m1 z mu* s z gravitation or in]tia2 app>5tly a quality dep5d+ ^u ! /ructure ( ! atoms !mselves1 9 ! same s5se z gravitation is ?us dep5d5t1 z x is n a quality ( ! e!r4 ,an atom mu/1 !n1 be ?\ght ( z hav+ pol>ity1 diff]5t qualities on ! two sides1 & possess+ a magnetic field z ext5sive z space itself4 ,! magnetic field is ! /ress or pressure 9 ! e!r produc$ by ! magnetic body4 ,?is e!r pressure produc$ by a magnet may be z great z a ton p] squ>e in*4 ,x is ?is pressure t holds an armature to ! magnet4 ,z heat is a molecul> condition ( vibration1 & radiant en]gy ! result ( x1 s is magnetism a prop]ty ( molecules1 & ! magnetic field ! tempor>y condition 9 ! e!r1 :i* dep5ds ^u ! pres5ce ( a magnetic body4 ,we no long] speak ( ! wave-motion 9 ! e!r :i* results f heat1 z heat1 b call x radiation1 or e!r waves1 & = a l reason ! magnetic field ought n to be call$ magnetism4 ,,! ,,e!r ,,is ,,non-,,magnetic4 ,a magnetic field manife/s itself 9 a way t implies t ! e!r /ructure1 if x may be said to h any1 is de=m$--de=m$ 9 su* a s5se t ano!r magnet 9 x t5ds to set itself 9 ! plane ( ! /ress2 t is1 ! magnet is twi/$ into a new position to accommodate itself to ! condition ( ! m$ium ab\t x4 ,! new position is ! result ( ! reaction ( ! e!r ^u ! magnet & e!r pressure act+ at "r angles to ! body t produc$ ! /ress4 ,su* an action is s anomal\s z to sugge/ ! propriety ( modify+ ! s-call$ ?ird law ( motion1 viz41 action & reaction are equal & opposite1 add+ t sometimes action & reaction are at "r angles4 ,!re is no condition or prop]ty exhibit$ by ! e!r itself :i* %[s x to h any su* *>act]i/ic z attraction1 repulsion1 or diff]5ces 9 /ress1 except :]e its condition is modifi$ by ! activities ( matt] 9 "s way4 ,! e!r itself is n attract$ or repell$ by a magnet2 t is1 x is n a magnetic body 9 any su* s5se z matt] 9 any ( its =ms is1 & !re=e _c prop]ly be call$ magnetic4 ,x has be5 a me*anical puzzle to und]/& h[ ! vibratory motions call$ heat c\ld set up light waves 9 ! e!r see+ t !re is an abs5ce ( friction 9 ! latt]4 ,9 ! endeav\r to conceive x1 ! orig9 ( s\nd-waves has be5 9 m9d1 :]e longitud9al air-waves are produc$ by ! vibrations ( a s\nd+ body1 & molecul> impact is ! antec$5t ( ! waves4 ,! analogy does n apply4 ,! foll[+ exposition may be helpful 9 grasp+ ! idea ( su* trans=mation & *ange ( en]gy f matt] to ! e!r4 ,consid] a /raight b> p]man5t magnet to be held 9 ! h&4 ,x has its nor? & s\? poles & its field1 ! latt] ext5d+ 9 e direction to an indef9ite di/ance4 ,! field is to be consid]$ z e!r /ress ( su* a sort z to t5d to set o!r magnets 9 x 9 new positions4 ,if at a di/ance ( t5 feet !re 7 a delicately-pois$ magnet ne$le1 e *ange 9 ! position ( ! magnet held 9 ! h& w\ld br+ ab\t a *ange 9 ! position ( ! ne$le4 ,if ! position ( ! h& magnet 7 completely rev]s$1 s ! s\? pole fac$ :]e ! nor? pole fac$ be=e1 ! field w\ld h be5 completely rev]s$1 & ! pois$ ne$le w\ld h be5 pu%$ by ! field into an opposite position4 ,if ! ne$le 7 a hundr$ feet away1 ! *ange w\ld h be5 ! same except 9 am\nt4 ,! same might be said if ! two 7 a mile ap>t1 or ! di/ance ( ! moon or any o!r di/ance1 = !re is no limit to an e!r magnetic field4 ,suppose ! h& magnet to h its direction completely rev]s$ once 9 a second4 ,! :ole field1 & ! direction ( ! /ress1 w\ld necess>ily be rev]s$ z (t54 ,b ?is k9d ( *ange 9 /ress is kn[n by exp]im5t to travel ) ! spe$ ( light1 #ahf1jjj miles a second2 ! di/urbance due to ! *ange ( position ( ! magnet w !re=e be felt 9 "s degree ?r\gh\t space4 ,9 a second & a ?ird ( a second x w h rea*$ ! moon1 & a magnet !re w be 9 "s measure affect$ by x4 ,if !re 7 an obs]v] !re ) a delicate-en\gh magnet1 he c\ld be witness to its *anges once a second = ! same reason "o 9 ! room c\ld4 ,! only diff]5ce w\ld be "o ( am\nt ( sw+4 ,x is !re=e !oretically possible to signal to ! moon ) a sw++ magnet4 ,suppose aga9 t ! magnet %\ld be swung twice a second1 !re w\ld be =m$ two waves1 ea* "o half z long z ! fir/4 ,if x %\ld sw+ t5 times a second1 !n ! waves w\ld be "o-t5? ( #ahf1jjj miles long4 ,if 9 "s me*anical way x c\ld be rotat$ #ahf1jjj times a second1 ! wave w\ld be b "o mile long4 ,artificial ways h be5 inv5t$ = *ang+ ?is magnet field z _m z #ajj million times a second1 & ! correspond+ wave is less ?an a foot long4 ,! %ape ( a magnet does n necess>ily make x weak] or /rong] z a magnet1 b if ! poles are ne> toge!r ! magnetic field is d5s] betwe5 !m ?an :5 !y are sep>at$4 ,! e!r /ress is diff]5tly di/ribut$ = e *ange 9 ! relative positions ( ! poles4 ,a common ,u-magnet1 if /ruck1 w vibrate l a tun+-=k1 & gives out a def9ite pit*4 ,its poles sw+ t[>ds & away f ea* o!r at uni=m rates1 & ! pit* ( ! magnet w dep5d ^u its size1 ?ickness1 & ! mat]ial x is made (4 ,let t5 or fifte5 ohms ( any conv5i5t-siz$ wire be w\nd ^u ! b5d ( a comm]cial ,u-magnet4 ,let ?is wire be connect$ to a telephone 9 its circuit4 ,:5 ! magnet is made to s\nd l a tun+-=k1 ! pit* w be reproduc$ 9 ! telephone v l\dly4 ,if ano!r magnet ) a diff]5t pit* be all[$ to vibrate ne> ! =m]1 ! pit* ( ! vibrat+ body w be he>d 9 ! telephone1 & ^! %[ t ! *ang+ magnetic field reacts ^u ! quiesc5t magnet1 & compels ! latt] to vibrate at ! same rate4 ,! action is an e!r action1 ! waves are e!r waves1 b !y are relatively v long4 ,if ! magnet makes #ejj vibrations a second1 ! waves w be #cgb miles long1 ! numb] ( times #ejj is conta9$ 9 #ahf1jjj miles4 ,imag9e ! magnet to become small] & small] until x 0 ! size ( an atom1 ! "o-fifty-million? ( an in*4 ,its vibratory rate w\ld be proportionally increas$1 & *anges 9 its =m w /ill br+ ab\t *anges 9 its magnetic field4 ,b its magnetic field is practically limitless1 & ! numb] ( vibrations p] second is to be reckon$ z millions ( millions2 ! waves are correspond+ly %ort1 small fractions ( an in*4 ,:5 !y are z %ort z ! "o-?irty-sev5-?\s&? ( an in*1 !y are capable ( affect+ ! ret9a ( ! eye1 & !n are said to be visible z r$ light4 ,if ! vibratory rate be /ill high]1 & ! correspond+ waves be no m ?an "o-sixty-?\s&? ( an in* long1 !y affect ! ret9a z violet light1 & betwe5 ^! limits !re are all ! waves t produce a complete spectrum4 ,! atoms1 !n1 %ake ! e!r 9 ?is way because !y all h a magnetic hold ^u ! e!r1 s t any di/urbance ( _! own magnetism1 su* z necess>ily comes :5 !y collide1 reacts ^u ! e!r = ! same reason t a l>ge magnet acts ?us ^u x :5 its poles approa* & rec$e f ea* o!r4 ,x is n a ph5om5on ( me*anical impact or frictional resi/ance1 s9ce nei!r are possible 9 ! e!r4 #ai4 ,,matt] ,,exi/s ,,9 ,,sev]al ,,/ates4 ,molecul> cohesion exi/s betwe5 v wide ranges4 ,:5 /rong1 s if "o "p ( a body is mov$ ! :ole is mov$ 9 ! same way1 )\t break+ cont9uity or ! relative positions ( ! molecules1 we call ! body a solid4 ,9 a liquid1 cohesion is greatly r$uc$1 & any "p ( x may be de=m$ )\t mat]ially *ang+ ! =m ( ! re/4 ,! molecules are free to move ab\t ea* o!r1 & !re is no def9ite position :i* any ne$ assume or keep4 ,) gases1 ! molecules are )\t any cohesion1 ea* "o is indep5d5t ( e o!r "o1 collides ) & b\nds away f o!rs z free ela/ic p>ticles d4 ,betwe5 impacts x moves 9 :at is call$ its free pa?1 :i* may be long or %ort z ! d5sity ( ! gas be less or great]4 ,^! diff]+ degrees ( cohesion dep5d ^u temp]ature1 = if ! d5se/ & h>de/ sub/ances are suffici5tly heat$ !y w become gase\s4 ,?is is only ano!r way ( say+ t ! /ates ( matt] dep5d ^u ! am\nt ( molecul> en]gy pres5t4 ,solid ice becomes wat] by ! application ( heat4 ,m heat r$uces x to /eam2 /ill m decomposes ! /eam molecules into oxyg5 & hydrog5 molecules2 & la/ly1 /ill m heat w decompose ^! molecules into _! atomic /ate1 complete dissociation4 ,on cool+1 ! process ( r$uction w be rev]s$ until ice has be5 =m$ aga94 ,cohesive /r5g? 9 solids is increas$ by r$uction ( temp]ature1 & metallic rods become /rong] ! cold] !y are4 ,no di/9ction is n[ made betwe5 cohesion & *emical aff9ity1 & yet at l[ temp]atures *emical action w n take place1 :i* ph5om5on %[s !re is a di/9ction betwe5 molecul> cohesion & molecul> /ructure4 ,9 molecul> /ructure1 z det]m9$ by *emical activity1 ! molecules & atoms are arrang$ 9 def9ite ways :i* dep5d ^u ! rate ( vibrations ( ! compon5ts4 ,! atoms are set 9 def9ite positions to con/itute a giv5 molecule4 ,b atoms or molecules may coh]e = o!r reasons1 gravitative or magnetic1 & relative positions w\ld be immat]ial4 ,9 ! abs5ce ( temp]ature1 a solid body w\ld be solid] & /rong] ?an ev]1 :ile a gase\s mass w\ld probably fall by gravity to ! floor ( ! conta9+ vessel l s mu* du/4 ,! molecul> /ructure might n be *ang$1 = !re w\ld be no ag5cy to act ^u x 9 a di/urb+ way4 ,,! ,,e!r ,,has ,,no ,,correspond+ ,,/ates4 ,degrees ( d5sity h already be5 exclud$1 & ! homog5eity & cont9uity ( ! e!r w\ld also exclude ! possibility ( diff]5t /ates at all comp>able ) su* z belong to matt]4 ,z = cohesion1 x is d\btful if ! t]m ought to be appli$ to su* a sub/ance4 ,! ^w itself seems to imply possible sep>at5ess1 & if ! e!r be a s+le indivisible sub/ance1 its cohesion mu/ be inf9ite & is !re=e n a matt] ( degree4 ,! e!r has sometimes be5 consid]$ z an ela/ic solid1 b su* solidity is comp>able ) no?+ we call solid 9 matt]1 & ! ^w has to be def9$ 9 a special s5se 9 ord] t its use may be tol]at$ at all4 ,9 addition to ?is1 "s ( ! ph5om5a exhibit$ by x1 su* z diffraction & d\ble refraction1 are q incompatible ) ! !ory t ! e!r is an ela/ic solid4 ,! reasons :y x _c be consid]$ z a liquid or gas h be5 consid]$ previ\sly4 ,! expression /ates ( matt] _c be appli$ to ! e!r 9 any su* s5se z x is appli$ to matt]1 b !re is "o s5se :5 possibly x may be consid]$ applicable4 ,let x be grant$ t an atom is a vortex-r+ ( e!r 9 ! e!r1 !n ! /ate ( be+ 9 r+ rotation w\ld suffice to diff]5tiate t "p ( ! e!r f ! re/1 & give to x a degree ( individuality n possess$ by ! re/2 & su* an atom might be call$ a /ate ( e!r4 ,9 l mann]1 if o!r =ms ( motion1 su* z transv]se waves1 circul> & elliptical spirals1 or o!rs1 exi/ 9 ! e!r1 !n su* movem5ts give special "* to ! "p ?us active1 & x w\ld be prop] to speak ( su* /ates ( ! e!r1 b ev5 ?us ! ^w w\ld n be us$ 9 ! same s5se z x is us$ :5 "o speaks ( ! /ates ( matt] z be+ solid1 liquid1 & gase\s4 #bj4 ,,solid ,,matt] ,,c ,,exp]i5ce ,a ,,%e>+ ,,/ress1 ,,liquids ,,& ,,gases ,,_c4 ,a slid+ /ress appli$ to a solid de=ms x to a degree :i* dep5ds ^u ! /ress & ! degree ( rigidity pres]v$ by ! body4 ,?us if ! h& be plac$ ^u a clos$ book ly+ on ! table1 & pressure be s appli$ z to move ! upp] side ( ! book b n ! l[]1 ! book is said to be subject to a %e>+ /ress4 ,if ! press+ h& has a twi/+ motion1 ! book w be w>p$4 ,any solid may be ?us %e>$ or w>p$1 b nei!r liquids nor gases c be s affect$4 ,molecul> cohesion makes x possible 9 ! "o1 & ! lack ( x1 impossible 9 ! o!rs4 ,! solid c ma9ta9 su* a de=mation indef9itely long1 if ! pressure does n rupture its molecul> /ructure4 ,,! ,,e!r ,,c ,,ma9ta9 ,a ,,%e>+ ,,/ress4 ,! ph5om5a 9 a magnetic field %[ t ! /ress is ( su* a sort z to twi/ into a new directional position ! body ^u :i* x acts z exhibit$ by a magnetic ne$le1 also z indicat$ by ! transv]se vibrations ( ! e!r waves1 & aga9 by ! twi/ giv5 to plane pol>iz$ light :5 mov+ ?r\gh a magnetic field4 ,^! are all int]pret$ z indicative ( ! direction ( e!r /ress1 z be+ simil> to a %e>+ /ress 9 solid matt]4 ,! fact has be5 adduc$ to %[ ! e!r to be a solid1 b su* a ph5om5on is c]ta9ly incompatible ) a liquid or gase\s e!r4 ,?is k9d ( /ress is ma9ta9$ indef9itely ab\t a p]man5t magnet1 & ! me*anical pressure :i* may result f x is a measure ( ! /r5g? ( ! magnetic field1 & may exce$ a ?\s& p\nds p] squ>e in*4 #ba4 ,,o!r ,,prop]ties ,,( ,,matt]4 ,!re are _m second>y qualities exhibit$ by matt] 9 "s ( its =ms1 su* z h>dness1 brittl5ess1 malleability1 col\r1 etc41 & ! same ultimate elem5t may exhibit itself 9 ! mo/ div]se ways1 z is ! case ) c>bon1 :i* exi/s z lamp-black1 *>coal1 graphite1 jet1 an?racite & diamond1 rang+ f ! s(te/ to ! h>de/ ( kn[n bodies4 ,!n x may be black or col\rless4 ,gold is yell[1 copp] r$1 silv] :ite1 *lor9e gre51 iod9e purple4 ,! only significance any or all ( su* qualities h = u "h is t ! e!r exhibits none ( !m4 ,!re is nei!r h>dness nor brittl5ess1 nor col\r1 nor any approa* to any ( ! *>act]i/ics = ! id5tification ( elem5t>y matt]4 #bb4 ,,s5sation ,,dep5ds ,,^u ,,matt]4 ,h[ev] great ! my/]y ( ! relation ( body to m9d1 x is q true t ! n]v\s sy/em is ! me*anism by & ?r\gh :i* all s5sation comes1 & t 9 our exp]i5ce 9 ! abs5ce ( n]ves !re is nei!r s5sation nor consci\sness4 ,! n]ves !mselves are b complex *emical /ructures2 _! molecul> con/itution is said to embrace z _m z #bj1jjj atoms1 *iefly c>bon1 hydrog51 oxyg51 & nitrog54 ,!re mu/ be cont9uity ( ?is /ructure too1 = to sev] a n]ve is to p>alyze all beyond4 ,if all k comes ?r\gh exp]i5ce1 & all exp]i5ce comes ?r\gh ! n]v\s sy/em1 ! possibilities dep5d ^u ! me*anism ea* "o is provid$ ) = absorb+ f 8 environm5t1 :at en]gies !re are t c act ^u ! n]ves4 ,t\*1 ta/e1 & smell imply contact1 s\nd has great] range1 & sight has ! imm5sity ( ! univ]se = its field4 ,! mo/ di/ant b visible /> acts ?r\gh ! optic n]ve to pres5t itself to consci\sness4 ,x is n ! ego t looks out ?r\gh ! eyes1 b x is ! univ]se t p\rs 9 ^u ! ego4 ,aga91 all ! kn[n ag5cies t act ^u ! n]ves1 :e!r = t\* or s\nd or sight1 imply matt] 9 "s ( its =ms & activities1 to adapt ! en]gy to ! n]v\s sy/em4 ,! me*anism = ! p]ception ( light is complicat$4 ,! light acts ^u a s5sitive surface :]e molecul> /ructure is brok5 up1 & ?is di/urbance is 9 ! pres5ce ( n]ve t]m9als1 & ! s5sation is n 9 ! eye b 9 ! s5sorium4 ,9 l mann] = all ! re/2 s "o may fairly say t matt] is ! condition = s5sation1 & 9 its abs5ce !re w\ld be no?+ we call s5sation4 ,,! ,,e!r ,,is ,,ins5sible ,,to ,,n]ves4 ,! e!r is 9 great contra/ ) matt] 9 ?is p>ticul>4 ,!re is no evid5ce t 9 any direct way x acts ^u any "p ( ! n]v\s sy/em1 or ^u ! m9d4 ,x is probable t ?is lack ( relation betwe5 ! e!r & ! n]v\s sy/em 0 ! *ief reason :y its discov]y 0 s long delay$1 z ! me*anical necessities = x ev5 n[ are felt only by su* z recognize cont9uity z a condition = ! transmission ( en]gy ( :atev] k9d x may be4 ,action at a di/ance contradicts all exp]i5ce1 is philosophically incr$ible1 & is repudiat$ by e "o :o once p]ceives t en]gy has two factors--sub/ance & motion4 ,! table giv5 bel[ pres5ts a li/ ( tw5ty-two ( ! kn[n prop]ties ( matt] contra/$ ) ^? exhibit$ by ! e!r4 ,9 none ( !m are ! prop]ties ( ! two id5tical1 & 9 mo/ ( !m :at is true = "o is n true = ! o!r4 ,!y are n simply diff]5t1 !y are incomp>able4 ,f ! necessities ( ! case1 z k has be5 acquir$ & t]m9ology became ess5tial = mak+ di/9ctions1 ! e!r has be5 describ$ 9 t]ms applicable to matt]1 h5ce su* t]ms z mass1 solidity1 ela/icity1 d5sity1 rigidity1 etc41 :i* h a def9ite mean+ & convey def9ite me*anical conceptions :5 appli$ to matt]1 b h no correspond+ mean+ & convey no su* me*anical conceptions :5 appli$ to ! e!r4 ,x is c]ta9 t !y are inappropriate1 & t ! e!r & its prop]ties _c be describ$ 9 t]ms applicable to matt]4 ,ma!matical consid]ations d]iv$ f ! /udy ( matt] h no advantage1 & are n likely to lead u to a k ( ! e!r4 ,only a few h p]ceiv$ ! inconsi/5cy ( ?9k+ ( ! two 9 ! same t]ms4 ,9 8 ,gramm> ( ,sci5ce1 ,pr(4 ,k>l ,pe>son says1 ,we f9d t our s5se-impressions ( h>dness1 weight1 col\r1 temp]ature1 cohesion1 & *emical con/itution1 may all be describ$ by ! aid ( ! motions ( a s+le m$ium1 :i* itself is conceiv$ to h no h>dness1 weight1 col\r1 temp]ature1 nor inde$ ela/icity ( ! ord9>y conceptual type4 ,none ( ! prop]ties ( ! e!r are su* z "o w\ld or c\ld h pr$ict$ if he _h _h all ! k possess$ by mank9d4 ,e ph5om5on 9 x is a surprise to u1 because x does n foll[ ! laws :i* exp]i5ce has enabl$ u to =mulate = matt]4 ,a sub/ance :i* has none ( ! ph5om5al prop]ties ( matt]1 & is n subject to ! kn[n laws ( matt]1 ought n to be call$ matt]4 ,e!r ph5om5a & matt] ph5om5a belong to diff]5t categories1 & ! ends ( sci5ce w n be cons]v$ by confus+ !m1 z is done :5 ! same t]m9ology is employ$ = bo?4 ,!re are o!r prop]ties belong+ to ! e!r m wond]ful1 if possible1 ?an ^? already m5tion$4 ,its ability to ma9ta9 enorm\s /resses ( v>i\s k9ds )\t ! slighte/ evid5ce ( int]f]5ce4 ,!re is ! gravitational /ress1 a direct pull betwe5 two masses ( matt]4 ,betwe5 two molecules x is immeasurably small ev5 :5 close toge!r1 b ! prodigi\s numb] ( !m 9 a bullet br+s ! action into ! field ( obs]vation1 :ile betwe5 su* bodies z ! e>? & moon or sun1 ! quantity rea*es an a/oni%+ figure4 ,?us if ! gravitative t5sion due to ! gravitative attraction ( ! e>? & moon 7 to be replac$ by /eel wires connect+ ! two bodies to prev5t ! moon f leav+ its orbit1 !re w\ld be ne$$ f\r numb] t5 /eel wires to e squ>e in* ^u ! e>?1 & ^! w\ld be /ra9$ ne>ly to ! break+ po9t4 ,yet ?is /ress is n only endur$ cont9ually by ?is pliant1 impalpable1 transp>5t m$ium1 b o!r bodies c move ?r\gh ! same space app>5tly z freely z if x 7 entirely free4 ,9 addition to ?is1 ! /ress f ! sun & ! m v>iable /resses f ! planets are all endur$ by ! same m$ium 9 ! same space & app>5tly a ?\s& or a million times m w\ld n make ! slighte/ diff]5ce4 ,rupture is impossible4 ,electric & magnetic /resses1 act+ p>allel or at "r angles to ! o!r1 exi/ 9 ! same space & to indef9ite degrees1 nei!r modify+ ! direction nor am\nt ( ei!r ( ! o!rs4 ,^! v>i\s /resses h be5 comput$ to repres5t en]gy1 :i* if x c\ld be utiliz$1 ea* cubic in* ( space w\ld yield five hundr$ horse-p[]4 ,x %[s :at a /ore-h\se ( en]gy ! e!r is4 ,if e p>ticle ( matt] 7 to be in/antly annihilat$1 ! univ]se ( e!r w\ld /ill h an inexpressible am\nt ( en]gy left4 ,to draw at w directly f ?is inexhau/ible supply1 & utilize x = ! ne$s ( mank9d1 is n a =lorn hope4 ,! accompany+ table pres5ts ^! contra/+ prop]ties = conv5i5t inspection4 ,,contra/$ ,,prop]ties ,,( ,,matt] ,,& ,,! ,,e!r4 ,,matt]4 ,,e!r4 #a4 ,discont9u\s ,cont9u\s #b4 ,limit$ ,unlimit$ #c4 ,het]og5e\s ,homog5e\s #d4 ,atomic ,non-atomic #e4 ,def9ite /ructure ,/ructureless #f4 ,gravitative ,gravitationless #g4 ,frictionable ,frictionless #h4 olotropic ,isotropic #i4 ,*emically selective ---- #aj4 ,h>monically relat$ ---- #aa4 ,en]gy embodi$ ,en]gy end[$ #ab4 ,en]gy trans=m] ,non-trans=m] #ac4 ,ela/ic ,ela/ic8 #ad4 ,d5sity ,d5sity8 #ae4 ,heatable ,unheatable #af4 ,inde/ructible8 ,inde/ructible #ag4 ,in]tiative ,in]tiative conditionally #ah4 ,magnetic ---- #ai4 ,v>iable /ates ---- #bj4 ,subject to %e>+ /ress 9 solid ,%e>+ /ress ma9ta9$ #ba4 ,has ,second>y qualities ---- #bb4 ,s5sation dep5ds ^u ,ins5sible to n]ves ,,*apt] ,,iii ,antec$5ts ( ,electricity--,nature ( :at is trans=m$--,s]ies ( trans=mations = ! production ( light--,positive & negative ,electricity--,positive & negative twi/s--,rotations ab\t a wire--,rotation ( an arc--,e!r a non-conductor--,electro-magnetic waves--,induction & inductive action--,e!r /ress & atomic position--,nature ( an electric curr5t--,electricity a condition1 n an entity4 ,s f> z we h k to-day1 ! only factors we h to consid] 9 expla9+ physical ph5om5a are3 7#a7 ,ord9>y matt]1 su* z con/itutes ! sub/ance ( ! e>?1 & ! heav5ly bodies2 7#b7 ! e!r1 :i* is omnipres5t2 & 7#c7 ! v>i\s =ms ( motion1 :i* are mutually trans=mable 9 matt]1 & "s ( :i*1 b n all1 are trans=mable into e!r =ms4 ,= in/ance1 ! translatory motion ( a mass ( matt] c be imp>t$ to ano!r mass by simple impact1 b translatory motion _c be imp>t$ to ! e!r1 &1 = t reason1 a body mov+ 9 x is n subject to friction1 & cont9ues to move on ) velocity undim9i%$ = an indef9ite "t2 b ! vibratory motion :i* con/itutes heat is trans=mable into wave-motion 9 ! e!r1 & is transmitt$ away ) ! spe$ ( light4 ,! k9d ( motion :i* is ?us trans=m$ is n ev5 a to-&-fro sw+ ( an atom1 or molecule1 l ! sw+ ( a p5dulum bob1 b t due to a *ange ( =m ( ! atoms )9 ! molecule1 o!rwise !re c\ld be no su* ?+ z spectrum analysis4 ,vibratory motion ( ! matt] becomes undulatory motion 9 ! e!r4 ,! vibratory motion we call heat2 ! wave-motion we call sometimes radiant en]gy1 sometimes light4 ,nei!r ( ^! t]ms is a good "o1 b we n[ h no o!rs4 ,x is conc$$ t x is n prop] to speak ( ! wave-motion 9 ! e!r z heat2 x is also admitt$ t ! e!r is n heat$ by ! pres5ce ( ! wave--or1 9 o!r words1 ! temp]ature ( ! e!r is absolute z]o4 ,matt] only c be heat$4 ,b ! e!r waves c heat o!r matt] !y may fall on2 s !re are ?ree /eps 9 ! process & two trans=mations--7#a7 vibrat+ matt]2 7#b7 waves 9 ! e!r2 7#c7 vibration 9 o!r matt]4 ,en]gy has be5 transf]r$ indirectly4 ,:at is important to be> 9 m9d is1 t :5 a =m ( en]gy 9 matt] is trans=m$ 9 any mann] s z to lose its *>act]i/ics1 x is n prop] to call x by ! same "n aft] z be=e1 & ?is we d 9 all cases :5 ! trans=mation is f "o k9d 9 matt] to ano!r k9d 9 matt]4 ,?us1 :5 a bullet is %ot aga9/ a t>get1 be=e x /rikes x has :at we call me*anical en]gy1 & we measure t 9 foot-p\nds2 aft] x has /ruck ! t>get1 ! trans=mation is into heat1 & ?is has its me*anical equival5t1 b is n call$ me*anical en]gy1 nor are ! motions :i* embody x simil>4 ,! me*anical ideas 9 ^! ph5om5a are easy to grasp4 ,!y apply to ! ph5om5a ( ! me*anics ( l>ge & small bodies1 to s\nd1 to heat1 & to light1 z ord9>ily consid]$1 b !y h n be5 appli$ to electric ph5om5a1 z !y evid5tly %\ld be1 unless x be held t su* ph5om5a are n relat$ to ord9>y ph5om5a1 z ! latt] are to "o ano!r4 ,:5 we w\ld give a complete explanation ( ! ph5om5a exhibit$ by1 say1 a heat$ body1 we ne$ to inquire z to ! antec$5ts ( ! manife/ation1 & also its consequ5ts4 ,:]e & h[ did x get its heat8 ,:]e & h[ did x lose x8 ,:5 we "k e /ep ( ^? processes1 we "k all !re is to le>n ab\t !m4 ,let u und]take ! same ?+ = "s electrical ph5om5a4 ,fir/1 "u :at circum/ances d electrical ph5om5a arise8 7#a7 ,me*anical1 z :5 two diff]5t k9ds ( matt] are subject to friction4 7#b7 ,!rmal1 z :5 two sub/ances 9 molecul> contact are heat$ at ! junction4 7#c7 ,magnetic1 z :5 any conductor is 9 a *ang+ magnetic field4 7#d7 ,*emical1 z :5 a metal is be+ dissolv$ 9 any solution4 7#e7 ,physiological1 z :5 a muscle contracts4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #e4--;,frictional electrical ma*9e4 ,ea* ( ^! has sev]al v>ieties1 & *anges may be rung on comb9ations ( !m1 z :5 me*anical & magnetic conditions int]act4 7#a7 ,9 ! fir/ case1 ord9>y me*anical or translational en]gy is sp5t z friction1 an am\nt measurable 9 foot-p\nds1 & ! factors we "k1 a pressure into a di/ance4 ,if ! surface be ( ! same k9d ( molecules1 ! :ole en]gy is sp5t z heat1 & is pres5tly radiat$ away4 ,if ! surfaces are ( unlike molecules1 ! product is a comp\nd "o1 "p heat1 "p electrical4 ,:at we h turn$ into ! ma*9e we "k to be a p>ticul> mode ( motion4 ,we h n *ang$ ! am\nt ( matt] involv$2 inde$1 we assume1 )\t specify+ & )\t controv]sy1 t matt] is itself inde/ructible1 & ! product1 :e!r x be ( "o k9d or ano!r1 c only be "s =m ( motion4 ,:e!r we c describe x or n is immat]ial2 b if we agree t heat is vibratory molecul> motion1 & !re be any o!r k9d ( a product ?an heat1 x too mu/ also be "s o!r =m ( motion4 ,s if "o is to =m a conception ( ! me*anical orig9 ( electricity1 ?is is ! only "o he c h--trans=m$ motion4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #f4--,!rmo-pile4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #g4--;,dynamo4 7#b7 ,:5 heat is ! antec$5t ( electricity1 z 9 ! !rmo-pile1 t :i* is turn$ into ! pile we "k to be molecul> motion ( a def9ite k9d4 ,t :i* comes out ( x mu/ be "s equival5t motion1 & if all t w5t 9 7 trans=m$1 !n all t came out w\ld be trans=m$1 call x by :at "n we w & let its am\nt be :at x may4 7#c7 ,:5 a conductor is mov$ 9 a magnetic field1 ! en]gy sp5t is measurable 9 foot-p\nds1 z be=e1 a pressure into a di/ance4 ,! en]gy appe>s 9 a new =m1 b ! quantity ( matt] be+ un*ang$1 ! only *angeable factor is ! k9d ( motion1 & t ! motion is molecul> is evid5t1 = ! molecules are heat$4 ,me*anical or mass motion is ! antec$5t1 molecul> heat motion is ! consequ5t1 & ! way we "k !re has be5 "s int]m$iate =m is1 t heat is n conduct$ at ! rate :i* is obs]v$ 9 su* a case4 ,call x by :at "n "o w1 "s =m ( motion has be5 int]m$iate betwe5 ! antec$5t & ! consequ5t1 else we h "s o!r factor ( en]gy to reckon ) ?an e!r1 matt] & motion4 7#d7 ,9 a galvanic batt]y1 ! s\rce ( electricity is *emical action2 b :at is *emical action8 ,simply an ex*ange ( ! con/itu5ts ( molecules--a *ange :i* involves ex*ange ( en]gy4 ,molecules capable ( do+ *emical "w are load$ ) en]gy4 ,! *emical products ( batt]y action are molecules ( diff]5t con/itution1 ) small] am\nts ( en]gy z measur$ 9 calorics or heat units4 ,if ! results ( ! *emical reaction be prev5t$ f escap+1 by conf9+ !m to ! cell itself1 ! :ole en]gy appe>s z heat & raises ! temp]ature ( ! cell4 ,if a s-call$ circuit be provid$1 ! en]gy is di/ribut$ ?r\gh x1 & less heat is sp5t 9 ! cell1 b :e!r x be 9 "o place or ano!r1 ! mass ( matt] involv$ is n *ang$1 & ! v>iable factor is ! motion1 ! same z 9 ! o!r cases4 ,! me*anical conceptions appropriate are ! trans=mation ( "o k9d ( motion into ano!r k9d by ! me*anical conditions provid$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #h4--;,galvanic ,batt]y4 7#e7 ,physiological antec$5ts ( electricity are exemplifi$ by ! /ructure & mode ( op]ation ( c]ta9 muscles 7,fig4 #i1 a7 9 ! torp$o & o!r electrical animals4 ,! me*anical contraction ( !m results 9 an electrical excitation1 &1 if a prop] circuit be provid$1 9 an electric curr5t4 ,! en]gy ( a muscle is d]iv$ f food1 :i* is itself b a molecul> comp\nd load$ ) en]gy ( a k9d available = muscul> trans=mation4 ,bread-&-butt] has m available en]gy1 p\nd = p\nd1 ?an has coal1 & c be sub/itut$ = coal = runn+ an eng9e4 ,x is n us$1 because x co/s s mu* m4 ,!re is no?+ diff]5t1 s f> z ! factors ( en]gy g1 betwe5 ! food ( an animal & ! food ( an eng9e4 ,:at becomes ( ! en]gy dep5ds ^u ! k9d ( /ructure x acts on4 ,x may be *ang$ into translatory1 & ! :ole body moves 9 "o direction2 or into molecul>1 & !n appe>s z heat or electrical en]gy4 ,if "o conf9es 8 att5tion to ! only v>iable factor 9 ! en]gy 9 all ^! cases1 & traces out 9 ea* j :at happ5s1 he w h only motions ( "o sort or ano!r1 at "o rate or ano!r1 & !re is no?+ my/]i\s :i* ent]s into ! processes4 ,we w turn n[ to ! mode 9 :i* electricity manife/s itself1 & :at x c d4 ,x may be well to po9t out at ! outset :at has occasionally be5 /at$1 b :i* has n receiv$ ! philosophical att5tion x des]ves--namely1 t electrical ph5om5a are rev]sible2 t is1 any k9d ( a physical process :i* is capable ( produc+ electricity1 electricity is itself able to produce4 ,?us to "n a few3 ,if me*anical motion develops electricity1 electricity w produce me*anical motion2 ! movem5t ( a pi? ball & an electric motor are examples4 ,if *emical action c produce x1 x w produce *emical action1 z 9 ! decomposition ( wat] & electro-plat+4 ,z heat may be its antec$5t1 s w x produce heat4 ,if magnetism be an antec$5t factor1 magnetism may be its product4 ,:at is call$ induction may give rise to x 9 an adjac5t conductor1 &1 likewise1 induction may be its effect4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #i4--,torp$o4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aj4--;,dynamo & ,motor4 ,let u suppose ourselves to be 9 a build+ 9 :i* a /eam-eng9e is at "w4 ,!re is fuel1 ! furnace1 ! boil]1 ! pipes1 ! eng9e ) its fly-:eel turn+4 ,! fuel burns 9 ! furnace1 ! wat] is sup]heat$ 9 ! boil]1 ! /eam is direct$ by ! pipes1 ! pi/on is mov$ by ! /eam pressure1 & ! fly-:eel rotates because ( prop] me*anism betwe5 x & ! pi/on4 ,no "o :o has giv5 att5tion to ! successive /eps 9 ! process is s puzzl$ z to feel ! ne$ ( inv5t+ a p>ticul> =ce1 or a new k9d ( matt]1 or any ag5cy1 at any /age ( ! process1 diff]5t f ! simple me*anical ones repres5t$ by a pu% or a pull4 ,ev5 if he _c see cle>ly h[ heat c produce a pu%1 he does n v5ture to assume a g5ii to d ! "w1 b = ! "t is cont5t ) say+ t if he />ts ) motion 9 ! furnace & /ops ) ! motion ( ! fly-:eel1 any assumption ( any o!r factor ?an "s =m ( motion betwe5 ! two w\ld be gratuit\s4 ,he c tru?fully say t he und]/&s ! nature ( t :i* goes on betwe5 ! furnace & ! :eel2 t x is "s sort ( motion1 ! p>ticul> k9d ( :i* he might make out at 8 leisure4 ,suppose once m t1 across ! road f an eng9e-h\se1 !re 0 ano!r build+1 :]e all sorts ( ma*9es--la!s1 plan]s1 drills1 etc4--7 runn+1 b t ! s\rce ( ! p[] = all ?is 0 out ( sight1 & t "o c\ld see no connection betwe5 ?is & ! eng9e on ! o!r side ( ! /reet4 ,w\ld "o ne$ to suppose !re 0 any?+ my/]i\s betwe5 ! two--a =ce1 a fluid1 an immat]ial some?+8 ,?is "q is put on ! supposition t "o %\ld n be aw>e ( ! %aft t might be betwe5 ! two build+s1 & t x 0 n obvi\s on simple inspection h[ ! ma*9es got _! motions f ! eng9e4 ,no "o w\ld be puzzl$ because he did n "k j :at ! int]v5+ me*anism might be4 ,if ! boil] 7 9 ! "o build+1 & ! eng9e 9 ! o!r ) ! ma*9es1 he c\ld see no?+ mov+ betwe5 !m1 ev5 if ! /eam-pipes 7 ( glass4 ,if matt] ( any k9d 7 mov+1 he c\ld n see x !re4 ,he w\ld say !re mu/ be some?+ mov+1 or pressure c\ld n be transf]r$ f "o place to ! o!r4 ,sub/itute = ! furnace & boil] a galvanic batt]y or a dynamo2 = ! ma*9es ( ! %op1 "o or m motors ) suitable wire connections4 ,:5 ! dynamo goes ! motors g2 :5 ! dynamo /ops ! motors /op2 no?+ c be se5 to be turn+ or mov+ 9 any way betwe5 !m4 ,is !re any necessity = assum+ a my/]i\s ag5cy1 or a =ce ( a nature diff]5t f ! visible ones at ! two ends ( ! l9e8 ,is x n c]ta9 t ! "q is1 ,h[ does ! motion get f "o to ! o!r1 :e!r !re be a wire or n8 ,if !re be a wire1 x is pla9 t !re is motion 9 x1 = x is heat$ its :ole l5g?1 & heat is kn[n to be a mode ( motion1 & e molecule :i* is ?us heat$ mu/ h _h "s antec$5t motions4 ,:e!r x be def9$ or n1 & :e!r x be call$ by "o "n or ano!r1 are q immat]ial1 if "o is conc]n$ only ) ! nature ( ! action1 :e!r x be matt] or e!r1 or motion or abracadabra4 ,once m3 suppose we h a s]ies ( active ma*9es4 7,fig4 #aa47 ,an arc lamp1 radiat+ light-waves1 gets its en]gy f ! wire :i* is heat$1 :i* 9 turn gets its en]gy f ! electric curr5t2 t f a dynamo1 ! dynamo f a /eam-eng9e2 t f a furnace & ! *emical actions go+ on 9 x4 ,let u call ! *emical actions ,a1 ! furnace ,b1 ! eng9e ,c1 ! dynamo ,d1 ! electric lamp ,e1 ! e!r waves ,f4 7,fig4 #ab47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aa4 ,! product ( ! *emical action ( ! coal is molecul> motion1 call$ heat 9 ! furnace4 ,! product ( ! heat is me*anical motion 9 ! eng9e4 ,! product ( ! me*anical motion is electricity 9 ! dynamo4 ,! product ( ! electric curr5t 9 ! lamp is light-waves 9 ! e!r4 ,no "o hesitates = an in/ant to speak ( ! heat z be+ molecul> motion1 nor ( ! motions ( ! eng9e z be+ me*anical2 b :5 we come to ! product ( ! dynamo1 :i* we call electricity1 behold1 ne>ly e "o says1 n t he does n "k :at x is1 b t no "o kn[s6 ,does any "o v5ture to say he does n "k :at heat is1 because he _c describe 9 detail j :at goes on 9 a heat$ body1 z x might be describ$ by "o :o saw ) a microscope ! movem5ts ( ! molecules8 ,let u g back = a mom5t to ! proposition /at$ e>ly 9 ?is book1 namely1 t if any body ( any magnitude moves1 x is because "s o!r body 9 motion & 9 contact ) x has imp>t$ its motion by me*anical pressure4 ,!re=e1 ! e!r waves at ,f 7,fig4 #aa7 imply cont9u\s motions ( "s sort f ,a to ,f4 ,t !y are all motions ( ord9>y matt] f ,a to ,e is obvi\s1 because cont9u\s matt] is ess5tial = ! ma9t5ance ( ! actions4 ,at ,e ! motions are h&$ ov] to ! e!r1 & !y are radiat$ away z light-waves4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ab4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ac4 ,a puzzl+ electrical ph5om5on has be5 :at has be5 call$ its duality-/ates1 :i* are spok5 ( z positive & negative4 ,?us1 we speak ( ! positive plate ( a batt]y & ! negative pole ( a dynamo2 & ano!r tr\blesome condition to idealize has be51 h[ x c\ld be t1 9 an electric circuit1 !re c\ld be z mu* en]gy at ! mo/ remote "p z at ! s\rce4 ,b1 if "o w take a limp rope1 #h or #aj feet long1 tie its ends toge!r1 & !n beg9 to twi/ x at any po9t1 he w see ! twi/ move 9 a "r-h&$ spiral on ! "o h&1 & 9 a left-h&$ spiral on ! o!r1 & ea* may be trac$ q r\nd ! circuit2 s !re w be z mu* twi/1 z mu* motion1 & z mu* en]gy 9 "o "p ( ! rope z 9 any o!r2 & if "o *ooses to call ! "r-h&$ twi/ positive1 & ! left-h&$ twi/ negative1 he w h ! me*anical ph5om5on ( en]gy-di/ribution & ! t]m9ology1 analog\s to :at !y are 9 an electric conductor4 7,fig4 #ac47 ,are ! cases m dissimil> ?an ! me*anical analogy w\ld make !m seem to be8 ,are !re any ph5om5a :i* imply t rotation is go+ on 9 an electric conductor8 ,!re are4 ,an electric arc1 :i* is a curr5t 9 ! air1 & is1 !re=e1 less con/ra9$ ?an x is 9 a conductor1 rotates4 ,especially m>k$ is ?is :5 9 front ( ! pole ( a magnet2 b ! rotation may be notic$ 9 an ord9>y arc by look+ at x ) a /roboscope disk1 rotat$ s z to make ! light to ! eye int]mitt5t at ! rate ( f\r or five hundr$ p] second4 ,a ray ( plane pol>iz$ light1 p>allel ) a wire convey+ a curr5t1 has its plane ( vibration twi/$ to ! "r or left1 z ! curr5t goes "o way or ! o!r ?r\gh ! wire1 & to a degree t dep5ds ^u ! di/ance x travels2 n only s1 b if ! ray be s5t1 by reflection1 back ?r\gh ! same field1 x is twi/$ z mu* m--a ph5om5on :i* conv9ces "o t rotation is go+ on 9 ! space ?r\gh :i* ! ray travels4 ,if ! e!r ?r\gh :i* ! ray be s5t 7 simply w>p$ or 9 "s /atic /ress1 ! ray1 aft] reflection1 w\ld be br\ght back to its orig9al plane1 :i* is n ! case4 ,?is rotation 9 ! e!r is produc$ by :at is go+ on 9 ! wire4 ,! e!r waves call$ light are int]pret$ to imply t molecules orig9ate !m by _! vibrations1 & t !re are z _m e!r waves p] second z ( molecul> vibrations p] second4 ,9 l mann]1 ! implication is ! same1 t if !re be rotations 9 ! e!r !y mu/ be produc$ by molecul> rotation1 & !re mu/ be z _m rotations p] second 9 ! e!r z !re are molecul> rotations t produce !m4 ,! space ab\t a wire c>ry+ a curr5t is (t5 pictur$ z fill$ ) :orls indicat+ ?is motion 7,fig4 #ad71 & "o mu/ picture to himself1 n ! wire z a :ole rotat+1 b ea* individual molecule indep5d5tly4 ,b "o is aw>e t ! molecules ( a conductor are practically 9 contact ) ea* o!r1 & t if "o = any reason rotates1 ! next "o to x w\ld1 f frictional action1 cause ! "o x t\*$ to rotate 9 ! opposite direction1 :]eas1 ! evid5ce goes to %[ t all rotation is 9 ! same direction4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ad4 ,h[ c ?is be expla9$ me*anically8 ,recall ! k9d ( action t con/itutes heat1 t x is n translatory action 9 any degree1 b vibratory1 9 ! s5se ( a *ange ( =m ( an ela/ic body1 & ?is1 too1 ( ! atoms t make up ! molecule ( :atev] sort4 ,ea* atom is s f> indep5d5t ( e o!r atom 9 ! molecule t x c vibrate 9 ?is way1 else x c\ld n be heat$4 ,! great] ! amplitude ( vibration1 ! m free space to move 91 & cont9u\s contact ( atoms is incompatible ) ! me*anics ( heat4 ,!re mu/1 !re=e1 be impact & fre$om alt]nat+ ) ea* o!r 9 all degrees 9 a heat$ body4 ,if1 9 any way1 ! atoms !mselves 7 made to rotate1 _! heat impacts n only w\ld re/ra9 ! rotations1 b ! en]gy also ( ! rotation motion w\ld increase ! vibrations2 t is1 ! heat w\ld be correspond+ly increas$1 :i* is :at happ5s always :5 an electric curr5t is 9 a conductor4 ,x appe>s t ! cool] a body is ! less electric resi/ance x has1 & ! indications are t at absolute z]o !re is no resi/ance2 t is1 impacts d n ret>d rotation1 b x is also app>5t t any curr5t s5t ?r\gh a conductor at t temp]ature w\ld at once heat x4 ,?is is ! same z say+ t an electric curr5t c\ld n be s5t ?r\gh a conductor at absolute z]o4 ,s f>1 me*anical conceptions are 9 accordance ) electrical ph5om5a1 b !re are sev]al o!rs yet to be not$4 ,electrical ph5om5a has be5 expla9$ z molecul> or atomic ph5om5a1 & !re is "o m 9 t category :i* is well en\gh kn[n1 & :i* is s important & sugge/ive1 t ! wond] is its significance has n be5 se5 by ^? :o h s\ght to int]pret electrical ph5om5a4 ,! ref]5ce is to ! fact t electricity _c be transmitt$ ?r\gh a vacuum4 ,an electric arc beg9s to spread out z ! d5sity ( ! air decreases1 & pres5tly x is ext+ui%$4 ,an induction sp>k t w jump two or ?ree feet 9 air _c be made to bridge ! t5? ( an in* 9 an ord9>y vacuum4 ,a vacuum is a p]fect non-conductor ( electricity4 ,is !re m ?an "o possible int]pretation to ?is1 namely1 t electricity is fundam5tally a molecul> & atomic ph5om5on1 & 9 ! abs5ce ( molecules _c exi/8 ,"o may say1 ,electrical action is n h9d]$ by a vacuum1 :i* is true1 b has q ano!r int]pretation ?an ! implication t electricity is an e!r ph5om5on4 ,! heat ( ! sun 9 "s way gets to ! e>?1 b :at takes place 9 ! e!r is n heat-transmission4 ,!re is no heat 9 space1 & no "o is at lib]ty to say1 or ?9k1 t !re c be heat 9 ! abs5ce ( matt]4 ,:5 heat has be5 trans=m$ into e!r waves1 x is no long] heat1 call x by :at "n "o w4 ,=m]ly1 su* waves 7 call$ heat-waves2 no "o1 prop]ly in=m$1 does s n[4 ,9 l mann]1 if electrical motions or conditions 9 matt] be trans=m$1 no matt] h[1 x is no long] prop] to speak ( su* trans=m$ motions or conditions z electricity4 ,?us1 if electrical en]gy be trans=m$ into heat1 no "o ?9ks ( speak+ ( ! latt] z electrical4 ,if ! electrical en]gy be trans=m$ into me*anical ( any sort1 no "o ?9ks ( call+ ! latt] electrical because ( its antec$5t4 ,if electrical motions be trans=m$ into e!r actions ( any k9d1 :y %\ld we cont9ue to speak ( ! trans=m$ motions or en]gy z be+ electrical8 ,electricity may be ! antec$5t1 9 ! same s5se z ! me*anical motion ( a bullet may be ! antec$5t ( ! heat develop$ :5 ! latt] /rikes ! t>get2 & if x be grant$ t a vacuum is a p]fect non-conductor ( electricity1 !n x is manife/ly improp] to speak ( any ph5om5on 9 ! e!r z an electrical ph5om5on4 ,x is f ! failure to make ?is di/9ction t mo/ ( ! tr\ble has come 9 ?9k+ on ?is subject4 ,"s h giv5 all _! att5tion to :at goes on 9 matt]1 & h call$ t electricity2 o!rs h giv5 _! att5tion to :at goes on 9 ! e!r1 & h call$ t electricity1 & "s h consid]$ bo? z be+ ! same ?+1 & h be5 conf\nd$4 ,let u consid] :at is ! relation betwe5 an electrifi$ body & ! e!r ab\t x4 ,:5 a body is electrifi$1 ! latt] at ! same "t creates an e!r /ress ab\t x1 :i* is call$ an electric field4 ,! e!r /ress may be consid]$ z a w>p 9 ! di/ribution ( ! en]gy ab\t ! body 7,fig4 #ae71 by ! new positions giv5 to ! molecules by ! process ( electrification4 ,x has be5 already said t ! evid5ce f o!r s\rces is t atoms1 r ?an molecules1 9 l>g] masses1 are :at affect ! e!r4 ,"o is incl9$ to inquire = ! evid5ce we h z to ! con/itution ( matt] or ( atoms4 ,!re is only "o hypo!sis to-day t has any degree ( probability2 t is1 ! vortex-r+ !ory1 :i* describes an atom z be+ a vortex-r+ ( e!r 9 ! e!r4 ,x possesses a def9ite am\nt ( en]gy 9 virtue ( ! motion :i* con/itutes x1 & ?is motion diff]5tiates x f ! surr\nd+ e!r1 giv+ x dim5sions1 ela/icity1 mom5tum1 & ! possibility ( translatory1 rot>y1 vibratory motions1 & comb9ations ( !m4 ,)\t go+ fur!r into ?is1 x is suffici5t1 = a me*anical conception1 t "o %\ld h s mu* 9 m9d1 z x w va/ly help 9 =m+ a me*anical conception ( reactions betwe5 atoms & ! e!r4 ,an ex*ange ( en]gy betwe5 su* an atom & ! e!r is n an ex*ange betwe5 diff]5t k9ds ( ?+s1 b betwe5 diff]5t conditions ( ! same ?+4 ,next1 x %\ld be rememb]$ t all ! elem5ts are magnetic 9 "s degree4 ,?is means t !y are !mselves magnets1 & e magnet has a magnetic field unlimit$ 9 ext5t1 :i* c almo/ be reg>d$ z a "p ( itself4 ,if a magnet ( any size be mov$1 its field is mov$ ) x1 & if 9 any way ! magnetism be increas$ or dim9i%$1 ! field *anges correspond+ly4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ae4 ,assume a /raight b> electro-magnet 9 circuit1 s t a curr5t c be made int]mitt5t1 say1 once a second4 ,:5 ! circuit is clos$ & ! magnet is made1 ! field at once is =m$ & travels outw>ds at ! rate ( #ahf1jjj miles p] second4 ,:5 ! curr5t /ops1 ! field adjac5t is de/roy$4 ,ano!r closure develops ! field aga91 :i*1 l ! o!r1 travels outw>ds2 & s !re may be =m$ a s]ies ( waves 9 ! e!r1 ea* #ahf1jjj miles long1 ) an electro-magnetic antec$5t4 ,if ! circuit 7 clos$ t5 times a second1 ! waves w\ld be #ah1fjj miles long2 if #ahf1jjj times a second1 !y w\ld be b "o mile long4 ,if #djj million ( millions times a second1 !y w\ld be b ! =ty-?\s&? ( an in* long1 & w\ld !n affect ! eye1 & we %\ld call !m light-waves1 b ! latt] w\ld n diff] f ! fir/ wave 9 any p>ticul> except 9 l5g?4 ,z x is prov$ t su* electro-magnetic waves h all ! *>act]i/ics ( light1 x foll[s t !y mu/ orig9ate ) electro-magnetic action1 t is1 9 ! *ang+ magnetism ( a magnetic body4 ,?is makes x ne$ful to assume t ! atoms :i* orig9ate waves are magnets1 z !y are exp]im5tally f\nd to be4 ,b h[ c a magnet1 n subject to a v>y+ curr5t1 *ange its magnetic field8 ,! /r5g? or d5sity ( a magnetic field dep5ds ^u ! =m ( ! magnet4 ,:5 ! poles are ne> toge!r1 ! field is d5se/2 :5 ! magnet is b5t back to a /raight b>1 ! field is r>e/ or weake/1 & a *ange 9 ! =m ( ! magnet f a ,u-=m to a /raight b> w\ld result 9 a *ange ( ! magnetic field )9 its greate/ limits4 ,a few turns ( wire--z has be5 already said--w\nd ab\t ! poles ( an ord9>y ,u-magnet1 & connect$ to an ord9>y magnetic telephone1 w enable "o1 li/5+ to ! latt]1 to he> ! pit* ( ! =m] l\dly reproduc$ :5 ! magnet is /ruck l a tun+-=k1 s z to vibrate4 ,?is %[s t ! field ( ! magnet *anges at ! same rate z ! vibrations4 ,assume t ! magnet becomes small] & small] until x is ( ! dim5sions ( an atom1 say = an approximation1 ! fifty-million? ( an in*4 ,x w\ld /ill h its field2 x w\ld /ill be ela/ic & capable ( vibration1 b at an enorm\sly rapid rate2 b its vibration w\ld *ange its field 9 ! same way1 & s !re w\ld be =m$ ^? waves 9 ! e!r1 :i*1 because !y are s %ort t !y c affect ! eye1 we call light4 ,! me*anical conceptions are legitimate1 because bas$ ^u exp]im5ts hav+ ranges ?r\gh ne>ly ! :ole gamut z waves 9 e!r4 ,! idea implies t e atom has :at may be loosely call$ an electro-magnetic grip ^u ! :ole ( ! e!r1 & any *ange 9 ! =m] br+s "s *ange 9 ! latt]4 ,la/ly1 ! ph5om5on call$ induction may be me*anically conceiv$4 ,x is well kn[n t a curr5t 9 a conductor makes a magnet ( ! wire1 & gives x an electro-magnetic field1 s t o!r magnets 9 its neighb\rhood are twi/$ 9 a way t5d+ to set !m at "r angles to ! wire4 ,also1 if ano!r wire be adjac5t to ! fir/1 an electric curr5t hav+ an opposite direction is induc$ 9 x4 ,?us3 ,consid] a p]man5t magnet ,a 7,fig4 #ae71 free to turn on an axis 9 ! direction ( ! arr[4 ,if !re be o!r free magnets1 ,b & ,c1 9 l9e1 !y w assume su* positions t _! simil> poles all po9t "o way4 ,let ,a be twi/$ to a position at "r angles1 !n ,b w turn1 b 9 ! opposite direction1 & ,c 9 simil>4 ,t is1 if ,a turn 9 ! direction ( ! h&s ( a clock1 ,b & ,c w turn 9 opposite directions4 ,^! are simply ! obs]v$ movem5ts ( l>ge magnets4 ,imag9e t ^! magnets be r$uc$ to atomic dim5sions1 yet reta9+ _! magnetic qualities1 poles & fields4 ,w\ld !y n evid5tly move 9 ! same way & = ! same reason8 ,if x be true1 t a magnet field always s acts ^u ano!r z to t5d by rotation to set ! latt] into a c]ta9 position1 ) ref]5ce to ! /ress 9 t field1 !n1 :]ev] !re is a *ang+ magnetic field1 !re ! atoms are be+ adju/$ by x4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #af4 ,suppose we h a l9e ( magnetic ne$les free to turn1 hundr$s or ?\s&s ( !m1 b dis>rang$4 ,let a /rong magnetic field be produc$ at "o end ( ! l9e4 ,! field w\ld be /ronge/ & be/ conduct$ along ! magnet l9e1 b e magnet 9 ! l9e w\ld be compell$ to rotate1 & if ! fir/ 7 kept rotat+1 ! rotation w\ld be kept up along ! :ole l9e4 ,?is w\ld be a me*anical illu/ration ( h[ an electric curr5t travels 9 a conductor4 ,! rotations are ( ! atomic sort1 & are at "r angles to ! direction ( ! conductor4 ,t :i* makes ! magnets move is inductive magnetic e!r /ress1 b ! advanc+ motion repres5ts me*anical en]gy ( rotation1 & x is ?is motion1 ) ! result+ friction1 :i* causes ! heat 9 a conductor4 ,:at is important to note is1 t ! action 9 ! e!r is n electric action1 b m prop]ly ! result ( electro-magnetic action4 ,:atev] "n be giv5 to x1 & h[ev] x comes ab\t1 !re is no good reason = call+ any k9d ( e!r action electrical4 ,electric action1 l magnetic action1 beg9s & ends 9 matt]4 ,x is subject to trans=mations into !rmal & me*anical actions1 also into e!r /ress--"r-h&$ or left-h&$--:i*1 9 turn1 c simil>ly affect o!r matt]1 b ) opposite pol>ities4 ,9 8 ,mod]n ,views ( ,electricity1 ,pr(4 ,o4 ,j4 ,lodge w>ns u1 q rightly1 t p]haps1 aft] all1 !re is no su* ?+ z electricity--t electrification & electric en]gy may be t]ms to be kept = conv5i5ce2 b if electricity z a t]m be held to imply a =ce1 a fluid1 an impond]able1 or a ?+ :i* c\ld be describ$ by "s "o :o knew en\gh1 !n x has no degree ( probability1 = sp9n+ atomic magnets seem capable ( develop+ all ! electrical ph5om5a we meet4 ,x mu/ be ?\ght ( z a condition & n z an entity4 ,,! ,,end ,ri*>d ,clay ,sons1 ,limit$1 ,london ,bungay4 ,,publications ,,( ,,! ,society = ,promot+ ,*ri/ian ,k4 ,,! ,,romance ,,( ,,sci5ce4 ,a s]ies ( books :i* %[s t sci5ce has = ! masses z great int]e/ z1 & m edification ?an1 ! romances ( ! day4 ,small ,po/ #hvo1 ,clo? bo>ds4 ,coal1 & :at we get f x4 ,by ,pr(essor ,,raphael ,,meldola1 ,f4,r4,s41 ,f4,i4,c4 ,) sev]al ,illu/rations4 #bs4 #f;d4 ,col\r ,measurem5t & ,mixture4 ,by ,,capta9 ,w4 ,,de ,w4 ,,abney1 ,c4,b41 ,r4,e4 ,) num]\s ,illu/rations4 #bs4 #f;d4 ,! ,mak+ ( ,fl[]s4 ,by ! ,rev4 ,pr(essor ,,george ,,h5sl[1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,l4,s4 ,) sev]al ,illu/rations4 #bs4 #f;d4 ,! ,bir? & ,gr[? ( ,worlds4 ,a ,lecture by ,pr(essor ,a4 ,h4 ,,gre51 ,m4,a41 ,f4,r4,s4 #as4 ,soap-,bubbles1 & ! ,=ces :i* ,m\ld ,!m4 ,a c\rse ( ,lectures by ,c4 ,v4 ,,boys1 ,a4,r4,s4,m41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,) num]\s ,diagrams4 #bs4 #f;d4 ,sp9n+ ,tops4 ,by ,pr(essor ,j4 ,,p]ry1 ,m4,e41 ,d4,sc41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,) num]\s ,diagrams4 #bs4 #f;d4 ,our ,secret ,fri5ds & ,foes4 ,by ,p4 ,f4 ,,frankl&1 ,f4,r4,s4 ,) num]\s ,illu/rations4 ,new ,edition1 #cs4 ,diseases ( ,plants4 ,by ,pr(essor ,,m>%all ,,w>d1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,r4,s41 ,f4,l4,s4 ,) num]\s ,illu/rations4 #bs4 #f;d4 ,! ,/ory ( a ,t9d]-,box4 ,by ! late ,,*>les ,,meymott ,,tidy1 ,m4,b41 ,m4,s4 ,) num]\s ,illu/rations4 #bs4 ,"t & ,tide4 ,a ,romance ( ! ,moon4 ,by ,sir ,,rob]t ,s4 ,,ball1 ,,ll4,d41 ,royal ,a/ronom] ( ,irel&4 ,) ,illu/rations4 ,?ird ,edition1 revis$4 #bs4 #f;d4 ,! ,spla% ( a ,drop4 ,by ,pr(essor ,a4 ,m4 ,,wor?+ton1 ,f4,r4,s4 ,) num]\s ,illu/rations4 #as4 #f;d4 ,,natural ,,hi/ory ,,rambles4 ,fcap4 #hvo41 ) num]\s ,woodcuts1 ,clo? bo>ds1 #bs4 #f;d4 ea*4 ,,9 ,,se>* ,,( ,,m9]als4 ,by ! late ,d4 ,t4 ,,an/ead1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,,lakes ,,& ,,riv]s4 ,by ,c4 ,o4 ,,groom ,,napi]1 ,f4,g4,s4 ,,lane ,,& ,,field4 ,by ! late ,rev4 ,j4 ,g4 ,,wood1 ,m4,a41 ,au?or ( ,man & 8 ,h&iwork1 c4 ,,m\nta9 ,,& ,,moor4 ,by ,j4 ,e4 ,,taylor1 ,f4,l4,s41 ,f4,g4,s41 ,editor ( ,sci5ce-,gossip4 ,,ponds ,,& ,,dit*es4 ,by ,m4 ,c4 ,,cooke1 ,m4,a41 ,,ll4,d4 ,,! ,,sea-,,%ore4 ,by ,pr(essor ,p4 ,,m>t9 ,,duncan1 ,m4,b4 7,london71 ,f4,r4,s4 ,,! ,,woodl&s4 ,by ,m4 ,c4 ,,cooke1 ,m4,a41 ,,ll4,d41 ,au?or ( ,freaks & ,m>vels ( ,plant ,life1 c4 ,,und]gr\nd4 ,by ,j4 ,e4 ,,taylor1 ,f4,l4,s41 ,f4,g4,s4 ,,h]oes ,,( ,,sci5ce4 ,cr[n #hvo4 ,clo? bo>ds1 #ds4 ea*4 ,,a/ronom]s4 ,by ,e4 ,j4 ,c4 ,,morton1 ,b4,a4 ,) num]\s diagrams4 ,,botani/s1 ,,zoologi/s1 ,,& ,,geologi/s4 ,by ,pr(essor ,p4 ,,m>t9 ,,duncan1 ,f4,r4,s41 c4 ,,*emi/s4 ,by ,m4 ,m4 ,,pattison ,,muir1 ,esq41 ,f4,r4,s4,e4 ,) sev]al diagrams4 ,,me*anicians4 ,by ,t4 ,c4 ,,lewis1 ,m4,a4 ,,physici/s4 ,by ,w4 ,,g>nett1 ,esq41 ,m4,a4 ,,manuals ,,( ,,heal?4 ,fcap4 #hvo1 #abh pp41 ,limp ,clo?1 price #as4 ea*4 ,,heal? ,,& ,,occupation4 ,by ! late ,sir ,b4 ,w4 ,,ri*>dson1 ,f4,r4,s41 ,m4,d4 ,,habitation ,,9 ,,relation ,,to ,,heal? 7,!74 ,by ,f4 ,s4 ,b4 ,,*aumont1 ,m4,d41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,,notes ,,on ,,! ,,v5tilation ,,& ,,w>m+ ,,( ,,h\ses1 ,,*ur*es1 ,,s*ools1 ,,& ,,o!r ,,build+s4 ,by ! late ,,erne/ ,h4 ,,jacob1 ,m4,a41 ,m4,d4 7,,oxon474 ,,on ,,p]sonal ,,c>e ,,( ,,heal?4 ,by ! late ,e4 ,a4 ,,p>kes1 ,m4,d41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,,air1 ,,wat]1 ,,& ,,dis9fectants4 ,by ,c4 ,h4 ,,aikman1 ,m4,a41 ,d4,sc41 ,f4,r4,s4,e4 ,,manuals ,,( ,,elem5t>y ,,sci5ce4 ,foolscap #hvo1 #abh pp4 ) ,illu/rations1 ,limp ,clo?1 #as4 ea*4 ,,physiology4 ,by ,pr(essor ,a4 ,,macali/]1 ,,ll4,d41 ,m4,d41 ,f4,r4,s41 ,f4,s4,a4 ,,geology4 ,by ! ,rev4 ,t4 ,g4 ,,bonney1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,g4,s4 ,,a/ronomy4 ,by ,w4 ,h4 ,,*ri/ie1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,,botany4 ,by ! late ,pr(essor ,,rob]t ,,b5tley4 ,,zoology4 ,by ,,alfr$ ,,newton1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,r4,s41 ,pr(essor ( ,zoology 9 ! ,univ]sity ( ,cambridge4 ,new ,revis$ ,edition4 ,,matt] ,,& ,,motion4 ,by ! late ,j4 ,,cl]k ,,maxwell1 ,m4,a41 ,tr9ity ,college1 ,cambridge4 ,,spectroscope 7,,!71 ,,& ,,its ,,"w4 ,by ! late ,,ri*>d ,a4 ,,proctor4 ,,cry/allography4 ,by ,,h5ry ,,pal9 ,,gurney1 ,m4,a41 ,cl>e ,college1 ,cambridge4 ,,electricity4 ,by ! late ,pr(4 ,,fleem+ ,,j5k94 ,,miscellane\s ,,publications4 s4 d4 ,animal ,creation 7,!74 ,a popul> ,introduction to ,zoology4 ,by ! late ,,?omas ,,rym] ,,jones1 ,f4,r4,s4 ,) #dhh ,woodcuts4 ,po/ #hvo4 ,clo? bo>ds #g #f ,birds' ,ne/s & ,eggs4 ,) #aa col\r$ plates ( ,eggs4 ,squ>e #afmo4 ,clo? bo>ds #c #j ,briti% ,birds 9 ,_! ,haunts4 ,by ! late ,rev4 ,c4 ,a4 ,,johns1 ,b4,a41 ,f4,l4,s4 ,) #aij engrav+s by ,wolf & ,:ymp]4 ,po/ #hvo4 ,clo? bo>ds #f #j ,ev5+s at ! ,microscope2 or1 ,rese>*es among ! ,m9ut] ,organs & ,=ms ( ,animal ,life4 ,by ! late ,,philip ,h4 ,,gosse1 ,f4,r4,s4 ,a ,new ,edition1 revis$ by ,pr(essor ,f4 ,,jeffrey ,,bell4 ,) num]\s ,woodcuts4 ,po/ #hvo4 ,clo? bo>ds #e #j ,f]n ,portfolio 7,!74 ,by ,,francis ,g4 ,,hea?1 ,au?or ( ,:]e to f9d ,f]ns1 c4 ,) #ae plates1 elaborately drawn life-size1 exquisitely col\r$ f ,nature1 & accompani$ ) descriptive text4 ,clo? bo>ds #h #j ,fi%es1 ,natural ,hi/ory ( ,briti%3 _! ,/ructure1 ,economic ,uses1 & ,capture by ,net & ,rod4 ,by ! late ,,frank ,,buckl&4 ,) num]\s illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo4 ,clo? bo>ds #e #j ,fl[]s ( ! ,field4 ,by ! late ,rev4 ,c4 ,a4 ,,johns1 ,b4,a41 ,f4,l4,s4 ,new edition1 ) an ,app5dix on ,grasses1 by ,c4 ,h4 ,,johns1 ,m4,a4 ,) num]\s woodcuts4 ,po/ #hvo4 ,clo? bo>ds #f #j ,=e/ ,trees 7,!7 ( ,great ,brita94 ,by ! late ,rev4 ,c4 ,a4 ,,johns1 ,b4,a41 ,f4,l4,s4 ,) #aej woodcuts4 ,po/ #hvo4 ,clo? bo>ds #e #j ,freaks & ,m>vels ( ,plant ,life2 or1 ,curiosities ( ,vegetation4 ,by ,m4 ,c4 ,,cooke1 ,m4,a41 ,,ll4,d4 ,) num]\s illu/rations4 ,po/ #hvo4 ,clo? bo>ds #f #j ,man & 8 ,h&iwork4 ,by ! late ,rev4 ,j4 ,g4 ,,wood1 ,au?or ( ,lane & ,field1 c4 ,) ab\t #ejj illu/rations4 ,l>ge ,po/ #hvo4 ,clo? bo>ds #g #f ,natural ,hi/ory ( ! ,bible 7,!74 ,by ! ,rev4 ,,canon ,,tri/ram1 ,au?or ( ,! ,l& ( ,israel1 c4 ,) num]\s illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo4 ,clo? bo>ds #e #j ,nature & h] ,s]vants2 or1 ,sket*es ( ! ,animal ,k+dom4 ,by ! ,rev4 ,,!odore ,,wood4 ,) num]\s woodcuts4 ,l>ge ,po/ #hvo4 ,clo? bo>ds #d #j ,ocean 7,!74 ,by ! late ,,philip ,h4 ,,gosse1 ,f4,r4,s41 ,au?or ( ,ev5+s at ! ,microscope4 ,) #ea illu/rations & woodcuts4 ,po/ #hvo4 ,clo? bo>ds #c #j ,our ,bird ,allies4 ,by ! ,rev4 ,,!odore ,,wood4 ,) num]\s illu/rations4 ,fcap4 #hvo4 ,clo? bo>ds #b #f ,our ,insect ,allies4 ,by ! ,rev4 ,,!odore ,,wood4 ,) num]\s illu/rations4 ,fcap4 #hvo4 ,clo? bo>ds #b #f ,our ,insect ,enemies4 ,by ! ,rev4 ,,!odore ,,wood4 ,) num]\s illu/rations4 ,fcap4 #hvo4 ,clo? bo>ds #b #f ,our ,isl& ,cont95t4 ,a ,naturali/'s ,holiday 9 ,au/ralia4 ,by ,j4 ,e4 ,,taylor1 ,f4,l4,s41 ,f4,g4,s4 ,) ,map4 ,fcap4 #hvo4 ,clo? bo>ds #b #f ,our ,native ,song/]s4 ,by ,,anne ,,pratt1 ,au?or ( ,wild ,fl[]s4 ,) #gb col\r$ plates4 #afmo4 ,clo? bo>ds #d #j ,romance ( ,l[ ,life among/ ,plants4 ,facts & ,ph5om5a ( ,cryptogamic ,vegetation4 ,by ,m4 ,c4 ,,cooke1 ,m4,a41 ,,ll4,d41 ,a4,l4,s4 ,) num]\s woodcuts4 ,l>ge po/ #hvo4 ,clo? bo>ds #d #j ,selborne 7,! ,natural ,hi/ory (74 ,by ! ,,rev4 ,,gilb]t ,,:ite4 ,) ,frontispiece1 ,map1 & #ej woodcuts4 ,po/ #hvo4 ,clo? bo>ds #b #f ,toil]s 9 ! ,sea4 ,by ,m4 ,c4 ,,cooke1 ,m4,a41 ,,ll4,d4 ,po/ #hvo4 ,) num]\s illu/rations4 ,clo? bo>ds #e #j ,vegetable ,wasps & ,plant ,worms4 ,by ,m4 ,c4 ,,cooke1 ,m4,a4 ,illu/rat$4 ,po/ #hvo4 ,clo? bo>ds #e #j ,wayside ,sket*es4 ,by ,f4 ,,edw>d ,,hulme1 ,f4,l4,s ,) num]\s illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo4 ,clo? bo>ds #e #j ,:]e to f9d ,f]ns4 ,by ,,francis ,g4 ,,hea?1 ,au?or ( ,! ,f]n ,portfolio1 c4 ,) num]\s illu/rations4 ,fcap4 #hvo4 ,clo? bo>ds #a #f ,wild ,fl[]s4 ,by ,,anne ,,pratt1 ,au?or ( ,our ,native ,song/]s1 c4 ,) #aib col\r$ plates4 ,9 two volumes4 #afmo4 ,clo? bo>ds #h #j 99 99 99 99 99 ,,london3 ,,nor?umb]l& ,,av5ue1 ,,*>+ ,,cross1 ,w4,c42 #dc1 ,,que5 ,,victoria ,,/reet1 ,e4,c4 ,transcrib]'s ,note ,m9or typographical corrections h be5 made )\t comm5t4 ,inconsi/5cies 9 hyph5ation1 & ! au?or's use ( commas :5 writ+ l>ge numb]s1 h be5 reta9$4