file 0 produc$ f images produc$ by ,core ,hi/orical ,lit]ature 9 ,agriculture 7,,*la71 ,cornell ,univ]sity7 ,transcrib]'s ,note3 ,e ef=t has be5 made to replicate ?is text z fai?fully z possible1 includ+ obsolete & v>iant spell+s & o!r inconsi/5cies4 ,text t has be5 *ang$ to correct an obvi\s error is not$ at ! end ( ?is ebook4 ,also1 on pages #dg-dh1 ! ,greek lett] !ta is repres5t$ by ,,!ta4 ,9 *emical & ma!matical notations1 a subscript is enclos$ 9 braces & prec$$ by an und]score 7e4g41 ,h#b,o47 ,,agricultural ,,eng9e]+ ,,s]ies ,e4 ,b4 ,,mccormick1 ,,consult+ ,,editor ,,=m]ly ,,dean ,,( ,,eng9e]+ ,,division ,,kansas ,,/ate ,,agricultural ,,college ,,am]ican ,,rural ,,highways ,mc,graw-,hill ,book ,co4 ,inc4 ,,publi%]s ,,( ,,books ,,= ,coal ,age -- ,electric ,railway ,j\rnal ,electrical ,_w -- ,eng9e]+ ,news-,record ,am]ican ,ma*9i/ -- ,+5i]ia ,int]nacional ,eng9e]+ ,m9+ ,j\rnal -- ,p[] ,*emical ,metallurgical ,eng9e]+ ,electrical ,m]*&is+ ,illu/ration3 ,frontispiece ,,am]ican ,,rural ,,highways ,,by ,t4 ,r4 ,,agg1 ,c4,e4 ,,pr(essor ,,( ,,highway ,,eng9e]+ ,,i[a ,,/ate ,,college ,,fir/ ,,edition ,,mcgraw-,,hill ,,book ,,company1 ,,inc4 ,,new ,,york3 #bci ,,we/ #ci,,? ,,/reet ,,london3 #f #h ,,b\v]ie ,,/41 ,e4 ,c4 #d #aibj ,,copyright1 #aibj1 ,,by ,,! ,mc,g,r,a,w-,,hill ,,book ,,company1 ,,inc4 ,,preface ,,am]ican ,,rural ,,highways 0 writt5 = use z a text or ref]5ce 9 c\rses deal+ ) rural highways & int5d$ = agricultural eng9e]s1 /ud5ts 9 agriculture & = %ort c\rses & ext5sion c\rses4 ,! read] is assum$ to h famili>ity ) draw+ & survey+1 b ! text is adapt$ prim>ily = /ud5ts :o d n receive tra9+ along ! l9es ( ! usual c\rse 9 ,highway or ,civil ,eng9e]+4 ,! text is int5d$ to famili>ize ! /ud5t ) ! relation ( highway improvem5t to national progress1 to indicate ! v>i\s problems ( highway adm9i/ration & to set =? ! usual me?ods ( design & con/ruction = rural highways 9 suffici5t detail to e/abli% a cle> und]/&+ ( ! di/+ui%+ *>act]i/ics & relative s]viceability ( ea* ( ! common types ( roadway surface4 ,exp]i5ce ) classes made up ( /ud5ts 9 agriculture or agricultural eng9e]+ & ) trade s*ool /ud5ts 9 road mak+ s]v$ z a guide 9 ! selection & arrangem5t ( ! mat]ial4 ,detail$ discussion ( te/s ( mat]ials & ( ! !ory ( design has to a consid]able ext5t be5 elim9at$ z be+ outside ( ! scope ( ! c\rse = :i* ! text is int5d$4 ,9 ! prep>ation ( ,am]ican ,rural ,highways ref]5ce 0 _h to _m books on highway subjects & to curr5t p]iodical lit]ature4 ,:]ev] direct extracts 7 made f su* s\rce1 appropriate ackn[l$gm5t appe>s 9 ! text4 ,t4 ,r4 ,,agg ,,ames1 ,,i[a1 ,,augu/ #ah1 #aibj4 ,,cont5ts ,,preface vii ,,*apt] ,i ,,! ,,purpose ,,& ,,utility ,,( ,,highways ,transportation ,problem--,national 9 ,scope--,developm5t 9 ,traffic--,location or ,f>m to ,m>ket ,traffic--,f>m to ,f>m ,traffic--,int]-,city ,traffic--,int]-,c\nty & ,int]-,/ate ,traffic--,rural ,education--,rural ,social ,life--,good ,roads & ,comm]ce #a-ab ,,*apt] ,,ii ,,highway ,,adm9i/ration ,t[n%ip ,adm9i/ration--,c\nty ,adm9i/ration--,/ate ,adm9i/ration--,f$]al ,adm9i/ration--,special ,assessm5ts--,zone ,me?od ( ,assess+--,g5]al ,taxation--,vehicle ,taxes--,s9k+ ,fund ,bonds--,annuity ,bonds--,s]ial ,bonds--,comp>ison ( ,me?ods ( ,issu+ ,bonds--,desirability ( ,road ,bonds #ac-bh ,,*apt] ,,iii ,,dra9age ,,( ,,roads ,! ,necessity = ,dra9age--,importance ( ,design--,surface ,dra9age--,run-(f--,ord9>y ,design ( ,dit*es--,und]gr\nd ,wat]--,tile ,dra9s--,ly+ ,tile--,culv]ts--,l5g? ( ,culv]t-- ,f>m ,entrance ,culv]ts--,metal ,pipe--,clay & ,cem5t ,concrete ,pipe--,concrete ,pipe--,endwalls = ,culv]ts--,re9=c$ ,concrete ,box ,culv]ts--,drop ,inlet ,culv]ts #bi-da ,,*apt] ,,iv ,,road ,,design ,necessity = ,plann+--,road ,plans--,problems ( ,design-- ,prelim9>y ,inve/igations--,road ,surveys--,alignm5t-- ,int]sections--,sup]elevation--,tractive ,resi/ance--,roll+ ,resi/ance--,int]nal ,resi/ance--,air ,resi/ance--,effect ( ,trades--,en]gy ,loss on ,acc\nt ( ,grades--,undulat+ ,roads-- ,gu>d ,rail+--,wid? ( ,roadway--,cross ,section--,control ( ,erosion--,private ,entrances--/hetics #db-fb ,,*apt] ,v ,,e>? ,,roads ,v>iations 9 ,soils--,v>iation 9 ,ra9fall--,cross ,sections ,elevat+ ,grad]--,maney ,grad]--,slip ,scrap]--,fresno ,scrap]--,elevat+ ,grad] ,"w--,use ( ,blade ,grad]-- ,co/s--,ma9t5ance--,value ( ,e>? ,roads #fc-gc ,,*apt] ,,vi ,,s&-,,clay ,,& ,,gravel ,,roads ,! ,b9d]--,top-soil or ,natural ,mixtures--,s&-clay on ,s&y ,roads--,s&-clay on ,clay or ,loam--,*>act]i/ics--,natural ,gravel--,! ,ideal ,road ,gravel--,p]missible ,size ( ,pebbles-- ,we>+ ,prop]ties--,utiliz+ ,natural ,gravels--,?ickness ( ,lay]--,prep>ation ( ! ,road--,tr5* ,me?od--,surface ,me?od--,ma9t5ance #gd-hh ,,*apt] ,,vii ,,brok5 ,,/one ,,road ,,surfaces ,design--,prop]ties ( ! ,/one--,k9ds ( ,rocks us$ = ,macadam--,sizes ( ,/one--,e>? ,"w--,f\ndation = ! ,macadam--,tel=d ,f\ndation--,plac+ ! ,brok5 ,/one-- ,roll+--,spread+ ,scre5+s--,bitum9\s ,surfaces--,ma9t5ance ,*>act]i/ics #hi-ig ,,*apt] ,,viii ,,cem5t ,,concrete ,,roads ,de/ructive ,ag5cies--,design--,concrete ,mat]ials--,f9e ,aggregate--,proportions--,measur+ ,mat]ials--,prep>ation ( ! ,e>? ,f\ndation--,plac+ ,concrete = ,two-c\rse ,road--,cur+ ! ,concrete--,expansion ,jo9ts--,re9=c+--,bitum9\s ,coat+s on ,concrete ,surfaces--,*>act]i/ics--,ma9t5ance #ih-aje ,,*apt] ,,ix ,,vitrifi$ ,,brick ,,roads ,vitrifi$ ,brick--,pav+ ,brick--,repress$ ,brick--,vitrifi$ ,fib] ,brick--,wire-cut-lug ,brick--,te/s = ,quality--,o!r ,te/s-- ,f\ndation--,s& ,b$d+ ,c\rse--,s& ,mort> ,b$d+ ,c\rse-- ,gre5 ,concrete ,b$d+ ,c\rse--,bitum9\s ,fill]s--,ma/ic ,fill]s--,m>g9al ,curb #ajf-aae ,,*apt] ,x ,,bitum9\s ,,road ,,mat]ials ,,& ,,_! ,,use ,classes ( ,bitum9\s ,mat]ials--,coal ,t>--,wat] ,gas ,t>--,natural ,asphalt--,petroleum ,asphalt--,mixtures--,classification ,accord+ to ,consi/5cy--,road ,oils--,liquid ,asphalts--,asphalt ,cem5ts-- ,fill]s--,bitum5--,specifications--,surf ace ,treatm5ts--,apply+ ! ,bitum9\s ,b9d]--,f9i%+ ! ,surface--,pat*+-- ,p5etration ,macadam--,f\ndation--,upp] or ,we>+ ,c\rse-- ,pat*+ ,*>act]i/ics--,hot ,mix$ ,macadam--,f\ndation--,sizes ( ,/one--,mix+ ! ,we>+ ,/one--,plac+ & ,we>+ ,surface--,seal ,coat--,*>act]i/ics--,asphaltic ,concrete-- ,bituli?ic or ,w>r5ite--,topeka ,asphaltic ,concrete--,f\ndation --,plac+ ! ,surface--,*>act]i/ics #aaf-abi ,,*apt] ,,xi ,,ma9t5ance ,,( ,,highways ,petrol ,ma9t5ance--,gang ,ma9t5ance--,ma9t5ance ( ,e>?1 ,s&-clay1 ,gravel & ,macadam ,roads #acj-acd ,index #ace ,,am]ican ,,rural ,,highways ,,*apt] ,i ,,! ,,purpose ,,& ,,utility ,,( ,,highways ,,! ,,developm5t ,,( ,,highway ,,sy/ems ,transportation ,problem4--,public highways1 l _m o!r famili> ?+s1 are utiliz$ con/antly ) little ?\ght ( h[ indisp5sable !y are to ! conduct ( ! bus9ess ( a nation or ( ! intimate relation !y be> to ! ev]yday life ( any community4 ,! degree to :i* a nation or a community p]fects its transportation facilities is an index ( its indu/rial progress & public highways con/itute an important elem5t 9 ! national transportation sy/em4 ,x is to be expect$ t ! av]age citiz5 w ?9k ( ! public highway only :5 x affects 8 own activities & t he w conc]n himself b little ) ! broad problem ( highway improvem5t unless x be br\ght =cibly to 8 att5tion ?r\gh taxation or by publicity connect$ ) ! advancem5t ( specific projects4 ,national 9 ,scope4--,! improvem5t & ext5sion ( ! highway sy/em is ( national importance j z is developm5t & ext5sion ( railways1 & conc]t$ action ?r\gh\t a nation is a pr]equisite to an adequate policy 9 reg>d to ei!r4 ,x is inconceivable t any community 9 a nation c prosp] greatly )\t "s b5efit accru+ to _m o!r p>ts ( ! c\ntry4 ,increas$ consumption1 :i* always accompanies mat]ial prosp]ity1 means increas$ production some:]e1 & p pur*ase f _m v>i$ s\rces to supply ! ?+s t !y want4 ,good transportation facilities contribute greatly to community prosp]ity & indirectly to national prosp]ity1 & ! b5efits ( highly improv$ public highways are !re=e national 9 scope4 ,?is fact has be5 recogniz$ 9 ,europe1 notably 9 ,engl&1 ,france & ,belgium1 :]e ! public highways are adm9i/]$ l>gely z national utilities4 ,until rec5t ye>s1 highway improvem5t 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates has be5 subord9at$ to o!r m press+ public improvem5ts1 b dur+ ! ,_w ,w> ! inadequacy ( ! transportation sy/em ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates became app>5t4 ,:ile su* an unprec$5t$ load ^u transportation facilities may n recur = _m ye>s1 x has become app>5t t m rapid progress 9 highway improvem5t is necess>y & 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ! subject is n[ likely to receive att5tion comm5surate ) its importance4 ,developm5t ( ,traffic4--,! "* & ext5t ( ! highway improvem5t ne$$ 9 any locality is dep5d5t entirely on ! dem&s ( traffic4 ,9 sp>sely settl$ areas1 p>ticul>ly ^? t are semi-arid or arid1 ! am\nt ( traffic on local roads is likely to be small & ! unimprov$ trails or natural roads adequate4 ,b z an area develops ei!r on acc\nt ( agricultural progress or ! e/abli%m5t ( indu/rial ent]prises1 ! use ( ! public highways bo? = bus9ess & = pleasure increases & ! old trails are gradually improv$ to meet1 at lea/ to "s degree1 ! new dem&s ( traffic4 ,9 sp>sely settl$ areas1 x is possible = ! public to accommodate its use ( ! highways to ! physical condition !re(1 & bus9ess is m or less regulat$ accord+ to ! condition ( ! roads4 ,?is is n always pleasant or economical b is ! only possible arrangem5t4 ,9 popul\s di/ricts1 ) div]sifi$ activities1 x becomes imp]ative to h ye>-r\nd usable roads 9 ord] to transact ) reasonable dispat* ! regul> bus9ess ( ! indu/ries4 ,any?+ less w h&icap normal community progress4 ,! adv5t ( ! motor driv5 vehicle 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates has result$ 9 a greatly increas$ use ( ! public highways ( agricultural areas1 ev5 ( ^? t are sp>sely populat$1 because ( ! conv5i5ce ( ! motor vehicle bo? = pass5g] & = freight s]vice4 ,probably 9 excess ( #ij p] c5t ( ! tonnage pass+ ov] ! rural highways 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates is c>ri$ by motor vehicles4 ,?is class ( traffic has really j develop$ & no "o c pr$ict :at x w be 9 t5 ye>s1 yet x has already introduc$ into ! highway problem an elem5t t has revolutioniz$ me?ods ( con/ruction & ma9t5ance4 ,a diff]5t set ( traffic conditions exi/s 9 ^? p>ts ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates :]e l>ge areas are devot$ prim>ily to indu/rial pursuits1 ! agricultural developm5t be+ ( second>y importance4 ,public highways connect+ ! indu/rial c5t]s are indisp5sable adjuncts to ! bus9ess facilities 9 su* communities & are ord9>ily subject$ to a v l>ge volume & tonnage ( traffic consi/+ pr9cipally ( motor vehicles4 ,! roads fir/ select$ = improvem5t w n be ^? s]v+ ! agricultural int]e/s ( ! di/rict1 b r ^? s]v+ ! indu/rial c5t]s4 ,int]-city roads ( great durability & relatively high co/ are necess>y = su* traffic conditions4 ,n infrequ5tly ! transportation ne$s w require a sy/em ( bo? int]-city & rural highways 9 ! same community4 ,!re are few areas 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates :]e !re is no agricultural developm5t4 ,x is app>5t !re=e t ! nature ( ! highway sy/ems & ! adm9i/rative organization "u :i* !y are built & ma9ta9$ w diff] 9 v>i\s /ates or areas accord+ to ! nature ( developm5t ( t area agriculturally & indu/rially4 ,9 plann+ improvem5ts ( highway sy/ems1 x is recogniz$ t "o or m ( sev]al gr\ps ( traffic may be enc\nt]$ & t ! ext5t & nature ( ! improvem5t mu/ be su* z w meet ! requirem5ts ( all classes ( traffic1 ! mo/ important be+ fir/ provid$ =1 & t ( less] importance z rapidly z f9ances p]mit4 ,,k9ds ,,( ,,traffic ,,on ,,public ,,highways ,local or ,f>m to ,m>ket ,traffic4--,9 /rictly agricultural communities ! pr9cipal use ( ! highways w p]ta9 to agricultural activities & mo/ ( x w be betwe5 ! f>m & ! mo/ conv5i5t m>ket c5t]4 ,9 ! ord9>y /ate1 ! numb] ( rural families w n av]age m ?an six to eight p] squ>e mile1 b 9 "s di/ricts x may rea* tw5ty families p] squ>e mile4 ,! travel f ! di/rict ar\nd a m>ket c5t] w orig9ate 9 ?is r sp>sely populat$ area & conv]ge onto a few ma9 roads lead+ to m>ket4 ,! outly+ or fe$] roads w be us$ by only a few families1 b ! d5sity ( traffic w increase ne>] ! m>ket c5t]s & consequ5tly ! roads ne>] t[n w be mu* m heavily travel$ ?an ! outly+ ones4 ,x is app>5t !re=e t consid]able diff]5ce may exi/ 9 ! k9d ( con/ruction adequate = ! v>i\s sections ( road :]e f>m traffic is ! pr9cipal consid]ation4 ,?is traffic is made up ( horse drawn wagons1 transport+ f>m products & ( horse drawn & motor pass5g] vehicles1 ! motor traffic compris+ #hj p] c5t or m ( ! volume ( traffic & a great] p] c5t ( ! tonnage4 ,motor trucks are n[ employ$ to "s ext5t = m>ket+ f>m products &1 :]e surfac$ highways h be5 provid$1 ?is class ( traffic is sup]s$+ horse drawn traffic4 ,f>m to ,f>m ,traffic4--,9 ! ord9>y prosecution ( f>m+ op]ations1 a consid]able am\nt ( neighborhood travel is inevitable4 ,f>m]s help ea* o!r ) c]ta9 k9ds ( "w1 ex*ange commodities su* z se$1 ma*9]y & f>m animals & visit back & =? bo? = bus9ess & pleasure4 ,to accommodate ?is traffic1 x is desirable to provide good neighborhood roads4 ,traffic ( ?is sort foll[s no p>ticul> r\te & c to "s ext5t accommodate itself to ! condition ( ! highways )\t entail+ f9ancial loss1 al?\gh "s discom=t & "s inconv5i5ce may result f inadequate highway facilities4 ,?is traffic w be p>tly motor & p>tly horse drawn1 b ! proportion ( motor driv5 is l>ge4 ,int]-city ,traffic4--,9 /rictly agricultural di/ricts !re is a l>ge am\nt ( travel betwe5 t[ns1 bo? = bus9ess & = pleasure4 ,! pleasure travel is mo/ly 9 motor vehicles & a consid]able "p ( ! bus9ess traffic is ! same1 al?\gh horse drawn vehicles are employ$ to "s ext5t4 ,9 indu/rial di/ricts !re is a l>ge volume ( ?is class ( traffic consi/+ ( motor pass5g] vehicles us$ = bus9ess & = pleasure & ( motor freight vehicles us$ = g5]al bus9ess purposes4 ,9 addition1 !re is c]ta9 to be a l>ge am\nt ( motor truck freight traffic incid5t to ! p>ticul> indu/rial pursuits ( ! cities4 ,:]e adequate public highways connect indu/rial c5t]s1 !re is inv>iably a v l>ge am\nt ( int]-city traffic1 due 9 "p to ! ne$s ( indu/ry & 9 "p to conc5tration ( population 9 indu/rial c5t]s4 ,int]-,c\nty & ,int]-,/ate ,traffic4--,automobile t\r+ is a popul> means ( relaxation1 especially on ! "p ( ^? :o live 9 ! cities1 al?\gh x is by no means conf9$ to !m4 ,traffic ( ?is k9d foll[s ! r\tes :]e roads are be/ & passes entirely across a c\nty1 attract$ by "s public ga!r+4 ,(t5 x is int]-/ate 9 "*1 made up ( t\ri/s :o are travel+ to di/ant pleasure resorts4 ,su* traffic at pres5t con/itutes a relatively small "p ( ! travel on public highways1 except on c]ta9 favorable r\tes1 b z ! weal? ( ! c\ntry increases & good t\r+ roads are num]\s1 long di/ance travel w increase & w ev5tually necessitate ! con/ruction ( a numb] ( well ma9ta9$ national highways1 locat$ ) ref]5ce to ! conv5i5ce ( ! automobile t\ri/4 ,,public ,,highways ,,& ,,community ,,life ,x is well to recognize ! intimate relation public highways be> to ! economic progress ( a nation4 ,normal developm5t ( all ( ! div]se activities ( a p dep5ds v l>gely ^u ! highway policy t is adopt$ & :e!r ! actual con/ruction ( s]viceable roads keeps pace ) transportation ne$s4 ,rural ,education4--,x has become increas+ly app>5t dur+ ! ,_w ,w> t ! dem& ^u ,nor? ,am]ica = food /uffs is to become m & m insi/5t z ! ye>s pass4 ,already ! consumption 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates has approa*$ q closely to ! av]age production & yet ! population is con/antly increas+4 ,! "t is n f> di/ant :5 great] production w be requir$ ( ! agricultural area 9 ,nor? ,am]ica 9 ord] to meet ! home dem& = food/uffs1 & _m ?\s&s ( tons w be ne$$ = export4 ,?is ne$ c only be met by agricultural me?ods t w increase greatly ! pres5t yield ( ! soil4 ,! adoption ( bett] agricultural me?ods mu/ ( necessity be prec$$ by ! te*nical tra9+ ( ! s*ool *ildr5 :o w be ! f>m]s ( ! next g5]ation1 :i* c be/ be accompli%$ 9 grad$ s*ools ) well equipp$ laboratories & ) suitably tra9$ tea*]s4 ,! problem ( provid+ su* s*ools 9 rural communities has1 9 "s in/ances1 be5 solv$ by consolidat+ a numb] ( rural s*ool di/ricts & con/ruct+ a well equipp$ build+ to accommodate ! /ud5ts f an area sev]al miles squ>e4 ,an educational sy/em ( ?is sort c rea* its highe/ usefulness only :5 adequate public highways facilitate att5dance ( pupils4 ,! :ole tr5d ( rural educational progress is t[>d a sy/em :i* is pr$icat$ ^u a compreh5sive highway policy 9 ! di/rict4 ,rural ,social ,life4--,closely alli$ to ! rural educational problem is ! rural social problem4 ,motor c>s & good roads d a great deal to elim9ate ! isolation & lack ( social opportunity t has *>act]iz$ rural life 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,a high ord] ( citiz5%ip 9 rural communities is ess5tial to ! solution ( _m problems ( rural economics1 & su* citiz5s w n live away f ! social opportunities ( mod]n life4 ,! rural s*ool h\se & ! rural *ur* may become social c5t]s & local plays1 mov+ picture %[s & lectures & ent]ta9m5ts ( o!r k9ds made available to ^? :o live 9 ! c\ntry4 ,_! enjoym5t ( ^! social opportunities w be mu* m g5]al if ! public highways are at all times 9 a condition to be travel$ 9 com=t4 ,good homes & good s*ools on good roads are pr]equisites to ! solution ( _m rural problems4 ,if !re is opportunity = ^? :o live 9 ! cities to get "s adequate idea ( rural life & ! conditions "u :i* f>m+ op]ations are c>ri$ on x w correct _m misund]/&+s ( ! broad problems ( food production & di/ribution4 ,ref]5ce has frequ5tly be5 made to ! seem+ desire on ! "p ( city p to get into ! c\ntry1 &1 by facilitat+ ! realization ( ?is desire1 a great social s]vice is r5d]$4 ,good ,roads & ,comm]ce4--,t good highways are almo/ z necess>y z are railroads to ! comm]cial developm5t ( a nation is recogniz$ b1 unlike ! railroads1 ! highways are n op]at$ = direct pr(it & ! responsibility ( secur+ consid]ation ( ! dem& = improvem5ts is n c5traliz$4 ,!re=e1 s5tim5t = road improvem5t has be5 ( sl[ gr[?1 & important projects are (t5 delay$ until long aft] ! ne$ = !m 0 manife/4 ,movem5ts to secure f9ancial support = highway improvem5t mu/ g ?r\gh ! sl[ process ( legislative enactm5t1 enc\nt]+ all ( ! unc]ta9ties ( political action1 & ! result+ f9ancial plan is likely to be inadequate & (t5 inequitable4 ,! :ole comm]cial /ructure ( a nation re/s ^u transportation1 & ! highways are a "p ( ! transportation sy/em4 ,! highway problem c nev] receive adequate consid]ation until public highways are recogniz$ z an indisp5sable elem5t 9 ! bus9ess equipm5t ( a nation4 ,dur+ ! ,_w ,w> all transportation facilities 7 tax$ to ! limit1 & motor trucks 7 utiliz$ = long di/ance freight haulage to an ext5t n previ\sly consid]$ practicable4 ,z a result1 ! int]e/ 9 ! motor truck z an addition to ! transportation equipm5t ( ! nation1 has be5 greatly /imulat$4 ,_m haulage companies h ent]$ ! freight transportation field1 deliv]+ commodities by truck to di/ances ( a hundr$ miles or m4 ,! "p ! motor truck w play 9 ! future c only be e/imat$1 b x seems cle> t ! mo/ promis+ field is = %ipm5ts de/9$ to or orig9at+ 9 a city ( "s size & a w>eh\se or /ore n on a railroad spur1 & especially :5 ! %ipm5ts are less ?an c> load lots4 ,! delays & exp5se incid5t to h&l+ small %ipm5ts ( freight ?r\gh ! t]m9als ( a l>ge city & c>t+ f ! unload+ /ation to ! w>eh\se or o!r de/9ation con/itute a consid]able item 9 ! co/ ( transportation4 ,mr4 ,*>les ,:it+ ,bak]1 ,consult+ ,editor ( ,eng9e]+ ,news-,record1 /ates3#a #a ,eng9e]+ ,news ,record1 ,july #aj1 #aiai4 ,x co/s today z mu* to haul a ton ( f>m produce t5 miles to a railway /ation z x does to haul x a ?\s& miles ov] a heavy-traffic trunk-l9e railway4 ,x (t5 co/s m today to transport a ton ( m]*&ise f its arrival 9 a long tra9 9 ! freight y>d on ! outskirts ( a great city to its deposit 9 ! w>eh\se ( a m]*ant f\r or five miles away ?an x has co/ to haul x ov] a ?\s& miles ( railway l9e4 ,nev]!less x seems probable t new me?ods ( op]at+ ! motor truck transport1 & possibly new types ( trucks or trucks & trail]s w be develop$ s t freight traffic ov] _m roads w be ( consid]able tonnage & an e/abli%$ "p ( ! transportation sy/em ( ! nation4 ,9 ! article above ref]r$ to are giv5 ! foll[+ data relative to ! co/ ( haul+ on improv$ roads by motor truck & ^! co/ e/imates are bas$ on ! be/ in=mation available at ?is "t4 ,!y %\ld be consid]$ z approximate only1 b s]ve to indicate ! limitations ( ! truck z a competitor ( ! /eam railway4 ,,table #a ,,truck ,,op]ation ,,co/s1 ,,f ,,reports ,,by ,,six ,,motor ,,truck ,,op]ators1 ,,direct ,,*>ges ,,p] ,,day ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,a ,b ,c ,d ,e ,f ,av]age ,total ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,driv] #e4jj #e4bj #e4jj #e4jj #e4ag #e4ej #e4ac ,tires #c4jj #c4ge #b4jj #b4jj #b4jj #c4jj #b4fh ,oil1 etc4 4#cj 444 4#cj 4#ej 4#be 4#be 4#ce ,gasol9e #c4jj #d4jj #c4ej #d4fe #b4jh #c4ge #c4ej ------ #aa4ff ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,,indirect ,,*>ges ,,p] ,,day ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,av]age ,a ,b ,c ,d ,e ,f ,total ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,depreciation #c4ej #d4ai #c4fj #c4dj #c4fg #d4jj #c4gg ,int]e/ #a4bj #a4bf #a4jh #a4bb #a4aj #a4jj #a4ae ,insurance #a4ej #b4ed #a4bf #b4aj 4#hf 4#ej #a4dg ,g>age #a4jj #a4bj #a4jj #a4jj 4#hi #a4jj #a4ja ,ma9t5ance 4#ej 444 4#ej 444 #a4jj 444 4#ge ,ov]haul #a4cc #b4ge #a4hj #a4fj #b4jj #c4jj #b4jg ,lic5se 4#ag 4#bg 4#bj 4#bj 4#bj 4#bj 4#bj ,body upkeep 4#be 444 4#cj 4#aj 4#dj 444 4#bg ---- #aj4fi ,sup]vision 4#ej #b4ic #b4je #a4ij 444 444 #a4ij #a4ij ,lo/ "t #b4bj 444 #a4fg #c4dj #b4ej #a4ig #b4eg #b4eg ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- ----------- #bc4de #bh4ji #bd4bf #bh4jg #bb4ab #bd4ag #bf4hb ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,,table #b ,,ov]head ,,*>ges ,,p] ,,ye> ,,= ,a #e-,,ton ,,capacity ,,gasol9e ,,motor ,,truck ,,runn+ ,,an ,,av]age ,,( #ej ,,miles ,,p] ,,day ,,= #bdj ,,days ,,p] ,,ye> ,driv]'s wages#a #aejj ,depreciation 7#bj on #fjjj inve/m5t7 #abjj ,int]e/ 7#f on #fjjj inve/m5t7 #cfj ,insurance #dej ,g>age 7r5tal1 upkeep1 etc47 #cjj ,ma9t5ance1 m9or repairs & supplies1 tire *a9s1 tools1 lamps1 spr+s1 equipm5t1 etc4 7e/imat$7 #cjj ,complete ov]haul once a ye> #fjj ,lic5se fee #fj ,body upkeep1 repairs1 pa9t+1 etc4 #ij ,sup]vision #fif ----- ,total p] annum #eeef ,ov]head *>ges p] day = #bdj days 9 ! ye>1 actual op]ation #bc4ae ,ov]head *>ges p] mile = #ej miles p] day 4#dfc #a ,9 ! above table ! driv]'s wages h be5 plac$ "u ov]head *>ges because ! driv] is paid by ! mon? & 8 wages cont9ue ev5 ?\gh ! truck is idle because ( repairs1 bad wea!r or lack ( bus9ess1 unless1 ( c\rse1 ! idl5ess %\ld be ( long duration1 :5 ! driv] might be laid (f4 ,,direct ,,*>ges ,,p] ,,day ,,& ,,p] ,,mile ,,= #e-,,ton ,,truck ,,op]at$ ,,z ,,above ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,co/ ,co/ p] day p] mile ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,tires 7bas$ on pres5t tire gu>antee7 #c4jj #j4jf ,lubricants 4#ej 4#ja ,gasol9e 7#c-a_/b miles p] gal41 #ad gal4 at #be;c7 #c4ej 4#jg ----- ----- #g4jj #j4ad ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,total ( ov]head & direct *>ges = #bdj days p] ye> op]ation1 p] day #cj4ae ,p] mile 4#fjc ,co/ p] ton-mile = full loads "o way & empty return+ 4#bdab ,co/ p] ton-mile = full loads "o way & half load return+ 4#af ,! significance ( ^! figures becomes app>5t :5 !y are comp>$ ) ! co/ ( haul+ freight ov] trunk-l9e railways ) heavy traffic :]e ! co/ p] ton-mile1 includ+ t]m9al *>ges1 ranges f #a4g mills p] ton-mile to #d4d mills p] ton-mile4 ,9 view ( ^! facts x seems reasonable to suppose t motor vehicles = use on ! public highways are m likely to be employ$ to supplem5t ! rail transport ?an to compete ) x4 ,to ! actual co/ ( op]ation ( motor trucks giv5 9 ,table #b1 !re %\ld be add$ ! proportionate co/ ( ma9ta9+ ! highway = ! use ( ! truck1 :i* is p>tly cov]$ by ! item ,lic5se ,fee 9 ! table4 ,! lic5se fee w\ld necess>ily be consid]ably l>g] if x 7 to comp5sate adequately = ! we> on ! highways ov] :i* ! trucks op]ate4 ,?is w /ill fur!r increase ! co/ ( haul+ by motor truck4 ,motor trucks are employ$ = _m k9ds ( haul+ :]e _! spe$ & consequ5tly _! daily capacity is an advantage ov] team haul+ t is decid$ly wor? :ile4 ,x probably c\ld be %[n t = _m k9ds ( haul+1 teams are m economical ?an motor trucks1 b :5 promptness & spe$ & ! consequ5t effect on dep5d5t activities are consid]$1 ! motor truck (t5 has a di/9ct advantage1 & ! use ( ! truck to replace horse drawn vans is progress+ rapidly4 ,?is is true n only 9 ! cities1 b also 9 ! small] t[ns & 9 ! c\ntry4 ,motor trucks h be5 adopt$ 9 a great _m communities = deliv]y ( f>m products to m>ket1 & ?is use ( ! truck is c]ta9 to increase rapidly4 ,b trucks 9 ?is s]vice w use ! second>y roads z well z ! ma9 or prim>y roads4 ,^! obs]vations emphasize ! ext5t to :i* ! highway policy ( ! nation mu/ be pr$icat$ on ! use ( ! highways by motor vehicles4 ,,*apt] ,,ii ,,highway ,,adm9i/ration ,! sy/ems ( highway adm9i/ration extant 9 ! v>i\s political units 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates pres5t a pat*work ( ov]lapp+ au?ority & undet]m9$ responsibility4 ,highway laws are be+ con/antly revis$ by /ate legislatures & ) ea* revision !re is "s *ange 9 adm9i/rative me?ods & (t5 ! *anges are revolution>y 9 "*4 ,9 mo/ /ates1 ! tr5d is away f c\nty & t[n%ip adm9i/ration & t[>d /ate adm9i/ration1 ) provision = consid]able p>ticipation by ! f$]al gov]nm5t4 ,x w be p]t95t to consid] briefly ! pres5t functions ( ea* ( ! adm9i/rative au?orities hav+ duties 9 connection ) highway "w 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 al?\gh ^! duties v>y greatly 9 ! sev]al /ates & *ange p]iodically ) ! action ( legislatures4 ,t[n%ip ,adm9i/ration4--,t[n%ip or ,t[n au?ority is a survival ( ! old ,new ,engl& t[n gov]nm5t & ! t[n bo>d consi/s ( ?ree or m tru/ees :o hold (fice = fix$ t]ms4 ,! usual t]m is ?ree ye>s1 b is less 9 "s /ates4 ,! incumb5t is g5]ally a man :o has o!r responsibilities ( a public or private nature & :o gives b little ( 8 "t to highway matt]s4 ,9 "s /ates ! pay is a fix$ annual sal>y & 9 o!rs a p] diem ) "s limitation on ! am\nt t may be drawn 9 any "o ye>1 :i* limitation may be /atutory or may be by common cons5t4 ,! t[n%ip highway commission]s or tru/ees h jurisdiction ov] c]ta9 ( ! roads 9 ! t[n%ip1 usually be/ describ$ z all roads n by law plac$ "u ! jurisdiction ( "s o!r au?ority4 ,9 c]ta9 in/ances1 ! t[n%ip au?orities h *>ge ( all ( ! roads 9 ! t[n%ip1 :i* w\ld mean t no c\nty or /ate roads happ5$ to be laid out 9 t t[n%ip4 ,x is a matt] ( g5]al obs]vation t ! tr5d ( legislation is t[>d remov+ f ! jurisdiction ( ! t[n%ip (ficials all roads except ^? ^u :i* ! traffic is pr9cipally local 9 "*4 ,! actual mileage ( roads 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates t is at pres5t adm9i/]$ by t[n%ip (ficials is l>ge1 probably con/itut+ n less ?an sev5ty p] c5t ( ! total mileage4 ,9 mo/ /ates ! t[n%ip (ficials are responsible = ! ma9t5ance ( ! roads "u _! jurisdiction & also sup]vise su* new con/ruction z is und]tak54 ,?is includes ! con/ruction ( culv]ts & bridges z a rule1 b 9 "s /ates ! c\nty bo>d ( sup]visors is responsible = all ( ! bridge & culv]t "w on ! t[n%ip roads4 ,9 o!r /ates1 ! t[n%ip bo>d is responsible only = bridges or culv]ts t co/ less ?an a c]ta9 am\nt specifi$ by law 7usually ab\t #ajjj7 & ! c\nty bo>d provides = ! con/ruction & upkeep ( ! m exp5sive bridges & culv]ts4 ,funds = ! "w c>ri$ out by ! t[n%ip road (ficials are obta9$ by g5]al taxation1 ! am\nt t may be levi$ be+ limit$ by /atute & ! actual levy be+ any am\nt up to ! maximum t ! t[n%ip bo>d deems necess>y = its purposes4 ,x is ! g5]al obs]vation t ! tax levy is usually ! maximum p]mitt$ by law4 ,9 _m /ates1 t[n%ip (ficials are p]mitt$ to issue bonds = road con/ruction1 almo/ inv>iably1 h[ev]1 ) ! re/riction t ea* issue mu/ be approv$ by ! vot]s ( ! t[n%ip4 ,!re is always a provision t ! total am\nt ( bonds out/&+ mu/ n exce$ ! con/itutional limit 9 =ce 9 ! /ate4 ,9 sev]al /ates1 ! t[n%ips h l>ge am\nts ( road bonds out/&+4 ,c\nty ,adm9i/ration4--,9 "s /ates ! c\nty is ! smalle/ adm9i/rative unit 9 ! road sy/em4 ,a c\nty bo>d1 call$ ! bo>d ( c\nty sup]visors or bo>d ( c\nty commission]s consi/+ ( f ?ree to fifte5 memb]s1 is ! adm9i/rative au?ority4 ,its memb]s are elect$ = fix$ t]ms :i* v>y 9 l5g? f "o to five ye>s4 ,! c\nty bo>d usually has _m public responsibilities o!r ?an highway adm9i/ration1 & is g5]ally made up ( m5 ) consid]ably m bus9ess ability ?an ! av]age t[n%ip bo>d4 ,! c\nty bo>d has jurisdiction ov] all ( ! highways 9 ! c\nty 9 "s /ates1 & 9 o!rs x has *>ge ( only ! m important highways4 ,9 mo/ /ates1 ! laws set =? specifically :at highways %all be "u ! jurisdiction ( ! c\nty au?orities4 ,9 addition to hav+ direct sup]vision ( ! improvem5t & ma9t5ance ( ! roads assign$ to c\nty adm9i/ration1 ! c\nty bo>ds 9 "s /ates arrange = ! con/ruction ( all culv]ts & bridges on ! roads t are "u t[n%ip sup]vision1 or at lea/ ! m exp5sive bridges & culv]ts on su* roads4 ,sometimes ?is is accompli%$ by grant+ c\nty aid = t[n%ip bridges1 "u :i* sy/em ! c\nty pays a "p ( ! co/ ( ! con/ruction ( bridges on ! t[n%ip roads4 ,! am\nt ( aid v>ies1 b is g5]ally ab\t "o-half ( ! co/1 & ! t[n%ip & c\nty (ficials jo9tly assume ! responsibility ( arrang+ = ! con/ruction by contract or o!rwise4 ,! c\nty bo>d obta9s funds = road "w ?r\gh a direct tax on all prop]ty 9 ! c\nty1 ! maximum rate be+ limit$ by /atute4 ,c\nty bo>ds are also au?oriz$ to issue bonds = road con/ruction "u /atutory re/rictions & limitations simil> to ^? effective 9 ! t[n%ip z to total am\nt issu$1 & _m millions ( doll>s' wor? ( highway bonds h be5 issu$ by c\nty au?orities 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,/ate ,adm9i/ration4--,9 a /ate1 ! adm9i/rative au?ority 9 highway matt]s is ve/$ 9 a bo>d ( commission]s usually consi/+ ( ?ree or m memb]s4 ,9 a few /ates1 ! adm9i/rative au?ority is delegat$ to a s+le commission]4 ,:]e ! au?ority is ve/$ 9 a bo>d1 t bo>d is usually appo9t$ by ! gov]nor4 ,9 sev]al /ates "o or m memb]s ( ! commission hold t position ex (ficio2 = example1 9 sev]al /ates ! gov]nor is by law a memb] ( ! commission1 9 o!rs ! secret>y ( /ate or ! dean ( eng9e]+ at ! ,/ate ,univ]sity or ! /ate geologi/ is a memb] ( ! commission4 ,:]e ! adm9i/rative au?ority is a s+le commission] he may be elect$ along ) o!r /ate (fic]s1 b ?is is ! case 9 only a few /ates4 ,! au?ority ( ! /ate highway dep>tm5t v>ies 9 ! sev]al /ates1 b 9 g5]al ! dep>tm5ts s]ve 9 ! dual capacity ( g5]al advis]s to ! c\nty & t[n%ip au?orities on road matt]s & z ! executive au?ority responsible = ! con/ruction ( ^? highways t are built entirely or 9 "p f /ate or f$]al funds4 ,/ate highway dep>tm5ts consi/ ( ! commission or commission]1 & ! te*nical & cl]ical /aff requir$ to p]=m ! duties impos$ on ! /ate organization4 ,to "s ext5t ! /ate highway dep>tm5ts are able to enc\rage economical & correct con/ruction ( highways by ! t[n%ip & c\nty au?orities by furni%+ !m /&>d plans & specifications & by =mulat+ regulations to gov]n ! "* ( con/ruction1 b su* ef=ts are likely to be m or less ineffective unless ! /ate au?ority has sup]vision ( ! allotm5t ( /ate or f$]al funds to ! v>i\s c\nties & t[n%ips4 ,nev]!less1 mo/ /ate highway dep>tm5ts d a great deal ( advisory "w 9 connection ) ! highway con/ruction c>ri$ out by c\nty & t[n%ip au?orities4 ,/ate highway dep>tm5ts are support$ by funds obta9$ 9 v>i\s ways1 laws diff]+ greatly 9 ?is respect4 ,! necess>y support is 9 "s /ates appropriat$ f funds obta9$ by g5]al taxation1 & is 9 o!rs obta9$ f automobile lic5se fees4 ,9 /ill o!rs1 ! funds are secur$ by a comb9ation ( ! two me?ods m5tion$ above4 ,9 addition to ^! support funds1 a c]ta9 "p ( ! money obta9$ z f$]al aid may be employ$ = ! eng9e]+ & inspection co/s on f$]al aid roads4 ,! above m5tion$ funds are requir$ to ma9ta9 ! /ate highway dep>tm5t4 ,9 addition1 ! dep>tm5ts h sup]vision ( ! exp5ditures ( con/ruction funds :i* c be us$ = road con/ruction & ma9t5ance1 & may n be exp5d$ = sal>ies or o!r ov]head exp5se4 ,9 a numb] ( /ates1 automobile lic5se fees are set aside = f9anc+ road con/ruction & ma9t5ance1 & ! "w paid = f ! fees is c>ri$ out "u ! sup]vision ( ! /ate highway dep>tm5t4 ,9 a numb] ( in/ances1 /ate bonds h be5 issu$ = road con/ruction1 & ! exp5diture ( ! proce$s ( ! sale ( road bonds has usually be5 sup]vis$ by ! /ate highway dep>tm5t4 ,all f$]al aid funds allott$ to a /ate mu/ be exp5d$ "u ! direction ( ! /ate highway dep>tm5t4 ,f$]al ,adm9i/ration4--,f$]al au?ority 9 highway "w is ve/$ 9 ! ,bureau ( ,public ,roads ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,dep>tm5t ( ,agriculture4 ,! (ficial head is ! ,secret>y ( ,agriculture1 b ! adm9i/rative head is ! ,director ( ! ,bureau4 ,9 ?is ,bureau are ! v>i\s in/rum5talities ne$$ = c>ry+ on inve/igations & furni%+ in=mation to ! v>i\s /ates on highway subjects4 ,! ,bureau also sup]vises ! con/ruction ( f$]al aid roads 9 a g5]al way ?r\gh di/rict eng9e]s1 ea* ( :om looks aft] ! "w 9 sev]al /ates4 ,funds = ! support ( ! ,bureau ( ,public ,roads are obta9$ f congressional appropriations to ! ,dep>tm5t ( ,agriculture & f a p]c5tage ( ! funds appropriat$ = f$]al aid4 ,f$]al aid is money appropriat$ by ,congress to be di/ribut$ to ! v>i\s /ates to /imulate road con/ruction4 ,x is grant$ to ! /ates on ! condition t ! /ates w exp5d at lea/ an equal am\nt on ! projects involv$4 ,! /ates 9 turn usually give a suitable "p ( ! /ate allotm5t to ea* c\nty4 ,!re are v>i\s limitations z to ! am\nt ( f$]al aid p] mile ( road & ! type ( con/ruction t may be employ$1 b ^! are matt]s ( regulation t *ange f "t to "t4 ,x w be se5 t ea* ( ! adm9i/rative au?orities1 except ! ,bureau ( ,public ,roads1 is to "s ext5t subs]vi5t to a high] au?ority1 & ! ,bureau ( ,public ,roads is sup]vis$ by ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,congress4 ,consid]able diplomacy is requir$ on ! "p ( any adm9i/rative au?ority if 8 contact ) o!r (ficials is to be )\t friction4 ,?is is especially true 9 connection ) ! =mulation ( a policy reg>d+ ! types ( con/ruction to be adopt$ = an improvem5t4 ,! responsibility = ! selection is v>i\sly plac$ on ! t[n%ip1 c\nty or /ate au?ority1 ! laws n be+ uni=m 9 ?is respect4 ,if /ate or f$]al funds are allott$ to an improvem5t1 ! /ate au?ority ei!r makes ! selection ( ! type ( con/ruction or ! selection is made by "s subord9ate au?ority subject to ! approval ( ! /ate highway dep>tm5t4 ,:]e ! improvem5t is paid = exclusively ) t[n%ip or c\nty funds1 ! selection is (t5 made by ! t[n%ip or c\nty au?ority )\t review by high] au?ority4 ,_m abuses h crept into highway adm9i/ration ?r\gh ! unscrupul\s me?ods ( promot]s ( ! sale ( road mat]ials or road ma*9]y4 ,a great deal ( ! sell+ activity ( ! ag5ts = ^! commodities is entirely irreproa*able1 b x is well kn[n t su* is n always ! case4 ,z a result1 ! t5d5cy ( legislation is to require ! /ate highway dep>tm5t to approve contracts = mat]ials or con/ruction ent]$ into by ! t[n%ip or c\nty au?orities4 ,! /ate highway dep>tm5ts c secure ! requisite te*nical exp]ts to det]m9e ! m]its ( mat]ials & equipm5t &1 9 spite ( "s gl>+ examples ( ineffici5cy or worse1 h made a good record = imp>tiality & integrity z cu/odians ( ! funds = :i* !y are responsible4 ,,highway ,,f9ance ,! p>am\nt problem 9 highway adm9i/ration is ! developm5t ( an adequate f9ancial plan = c>ry+ on road improvem5t4 ,! necess>y exp5ditures are enorm\s1 al?\gh ! money s exp5d$ is probably mu* less ?an ! actual b5efit result+ f ! improvem5ts4 ,special ,assessm5ts4--,!re is presum$ to be a direct & recogniz$ b5efit conf]r$ on f>m l&s by ! con/ruction ( improv$ highways adjac5t !reto4 ,!re=e1 x is equitable to *>ge a "p ( ! co/ aga9/ ! l&s s b5efit$4 ,! pr9ciple ( pay+ = public improvem5ts by a special assessm5t ^u private prop]ty has be5 long e/abli%$ & a l>ge proportion ( ! public improvem5ts 9 ! cities & t[ns h be5 made f9ancially possible ?r\gh ! m$ium ( special assessm5ts on abutt+ & adjac5t prop]ty4 ,! same pr9ciple has be5 appli$ to ! f9anc+ ( dra9age projects = reclaim+ f>m l&s4 ,rec5tly ! special assessm5t me?od has come into limit$ use 9 f9anc+ rural highway improvem5ts4 ,! policy 9 su* cases is to assess ! abutt+ & adjac5t prop]ty 9 a zone along ! improv$ road = a p]c5tage ( ! co/ ( ! improvem5t4 ,! am\nt s assess$ does n ord9>ily exce$ "o-f\r? ( ! total co/ ( ! improvem5t & may be consid]ably less4 ,! assessm5t is spread ov] an area ext5d+ back f "o to six miles f ! improv$ road4 ,! assessm5t area is g5]ally divid$ into ab\t f\r zones p>allel to ! road4 ,! zone next ! road is assess$ at a rate arbitr>ily det]m9$ z a fair measure ( ! b5efit1 & ea* succe$+ zone is assess$ at a some:at l[] rate4 ,g5]ally ab\t ?ree-f\r?s ( ! total assessm5t is plac$ on ! half ( ! assessm5t area ly+ next to ! road4 ,_m sy/ems ( mak+ assessm5ts h be5 propos$ :i* are me*anical 9 application aft] ! area & rate ( di/ribution ( b5efit h be5 e/abli%$1 b 9 practice x is always f\nd necess>y to make adju/m5ts on individual p>cels ( l& because ( v>iation 9 b5efits receiv$ & x is impossible to elim9ate ! ex]cise ( human judgm5t 9 equaliz+ ! assessm5ts4 ,zone ,me?od ( ,assess+4--,! area to be assess$ on ea* side ( ! improv$ road is divid$ into zones usually f\r 9 numb]1 b a l>g] or small] numb] ( zones may be adopt$4 ,! rate = ea* zone is !n arbitr>ily det]m9$4 ,= a typical case1 ! fir/ ( f\r zones w\ld receive an assessm5t ( #ej p] c5t ( ! am\nt to be borne by ! area2 ! second zone #be p] c5t1 ! ?ird #ae p] c5t & ! f\r? #aj p] c5t4 ,o!r p]c5tages sometimes adopt$ are #de1 #be1 #bj & #aj & #fj1 #bj1 #ae & #e4 ,! set ( p]c5tages fir/ m5tion$ seems to insure ! mo/ equitable di/ribution = an area all ( :i* is sub/antially equally productive4 ,:5 a road1 = ! improvem5t ( :i* an assessm5t is be+ made1 lies on two or m sides ( a p>cel ( l& all ( :i* is )9 ! assessm5t area1 ! rate is arbitr>ily r$uc$ to relieve t p>cel ( l& some:at1 or ! assessm5t is fir/ spread z above outl9$ & aft]w>d equaliz$ z judgm5t dictates4 ,9 apply+ ! zone me?od "s difficulty is enc\nt]$ 9 det]m9+ an equitable di/ribution on ^? p>cels ( l& ly+ p>tly 9 "o zone & p>tly 9 ano!r1 b ! rate may be arriv$ at ) reasonable accuracy by pro-rat+ 9 accordance ) ! exact conditions4 ,94 ,fig4 #a1 let x be assum$ t ! assessm5t area is to be two miles wide1 "o mile on ea* side ( ! road & ! v>i\s own]%ips to be indicat$ by ! p>cels ( l& numb]$ #a to #h1 z %[n4 ,ea* zone = ! assessm5t ( ! #c-a_/d mile section is #a_/d mile wide & ! rates = ! sev]al zones are #ej1 #be1 #ae & #aj p] c5t respectively4 ,let x be assum$ t ! portion ( ! co/ ( ! #c-a_/d miles ( road to be assess$ on ! area %[n is #bj1jjj4 ,! assessm5t w\ld !n be z foll[s3 ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,rate frontage on ,am\nt ( ,p>cel ,rate improv$ road ,assessm5t ,assessm5t assessm5t units p] unit#a #a #b #c #d #e ---------------------------------------- -------------------- #a a #ej #ej #bfdj #acb1jjj #j4jaffee #aeeh4df b #ge #ge #acbj #ii1jjj #aaec4ij #b #dj #dj #bfdj #aje1fjj #abcj4gg #c #aj #aj #bfdj #bf1djj #cjg4fi #d #be #be #acbj #cc1jjj #chd4ff #e #bhe #he #ebhj #ddh1hjj #ebcj4hh #f #ae #ae #ebhj #gi1bjj #ibc4jh #g #bfe #fe #gibj #ead1hjj #fjjj4jj #h #ce #ce #gibj #bgg1bjj #cbcj4gg ------------------- ----------- #a1gaf1jjj #bjjjj4jj ---------------------------------------- -------------------- #a ,! assessm5t p] unit is obta9$ by divid+ ! total assessm5t by ! total ( column ?ree4 #b ,on ^! two p>cels1 x is decid$ t m ?an half ( ! zone rate %\ld apply to ! half ( ! zone t[>d ! improv$ road1 b "s modification ( ! rates adopt$ might be ju/ifi$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #a ,! assessm5t ( ! co/ ( ! ea/ & we/ "o-mile section ( road is made up 9 l mann]1 & let x be assum$ t ! portion ( ! co/ ( ?is road t is to be assess$ on ! area %[n is #eejj4 ,! assessm5t area w be "o mile wide & ea* zone "o-f\r? mile 9 wid? & ! rates = ea* zone ! same z be=e4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,rate frontage on ,am\nt ( ,p>cel ,rate improv$ road ,assessm5t ,assessm5t assessm5t units p] unit ---------------------------------------- -------------------- #a a #ge #ge x #acbj #ii1jjj #j4jajdag #ajca4be b #ae #ae x #bfdj #ci1fjj #dab4di #b #ge #ge x #bfdj #aih1jjj #bjfb4ec #c #ej #ej x #acbj #ff1jjj #fhg4ea #d a #be #be x #acbj #cc1jjj #gef4be b #ae #ae x #bfdj #ci1fjj #e #aj #aj x #ccjj #cc1jjj #cdc4gc #f #aj #aj x #aihj #ai1hjj #bjf4bd ------------- ------------- #ebh1jjj #eejj4jj ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,x w be not$ t ! comb9$ assessm5t = ! two sections ( road is especially heavy on p>cels #a1 #b & #c4 ,9 ord] to prev5t unju/ *>ges aga9/ su* prop]ties1 laws usually limit ! total assessm5t aga9/ any p>cel ( l& to a fix$ p]c5tage ( a fair m>ket value or ( ! assess$ value4 ,! assessm5t on ^! p>cels w\ld be r$uc$ z seem$ exp$i5t & ! deficit w\ld be di/ribut$ ov] ! rema9d] ( ! area 9 ! same mann] z ! orig9al assessm5t 0 spread4 ,9 practice su* re-di/ribution is ord9>ily made by ! arbitr>y adju/m5t 9 accordance ) :at ! au?oriz$ (ficials consid] to be fair & equitable4 ,! me?od outl9$ is m]ely a me*anical means ( secur+ di/ribution & mu/ n be consid]$ z an infallible me?od ( mak+ ! assessm5t4 ,x is always necess>y to review ! results 9 ! light ( ! actual b5efits to be presum$ = ea* p>cel ( l&4 ,nev]!less1 ! me?od outl9$ w prove equitable 9 a majority ( cases4 ,g5]al ,taxation4--,!re is a g5]al community b5efit d]iv$ f ! con/ruction ( good roads 9 t ! actual co/ ( m>ket+ f>m products is less5$ ) a result+ l[]+ ( ! price to ! consum]4 ,! b5efit also accrues f ! great] facility ) :i* all community bus9ess may be conduct$4 ,! introduction ( bett] opportunities = social1 religi\s & educational activities 9 ! rural di/ricts :i* results f improv$ highways is also a community b5efit ( no mean importance4 ,a "p ( ! co/ ( road improvem5t may !re=e be equitably paid f funds obta9$ by g5]al taxation4 ,a consid]able portion ( ! curr5t exp5se ( ma9ta9+ ! t[n%ip & c\nty highway "w & at lea/ a "p ( ! co/ ( ma9ta9+ /ate highway activities is met f funds obta9$ by g5]al taxation4 ,likewise1 ! funds requir$ = ! amortization ( bond issues are (t5 obta9$ f g5]al taxation al?\gh vehicle lic5se fees are sometimes us$ = t purpose4 ,g5]al taxes are levi$ on all taxable prop]ty 9 a political unit "u /atutory provisions regulat+ ! am\nt ( ! levy & ! purpose = :i* ! rev5ue is to be us$4 ,9 ! aggregate1 ! road taxes are l>ge b 9 ! t[n%ip or c\nty ! rate is g5]ally small comp>$ to "s o!r taxes1 su* z ! s*ool tax4 ,vehicle ,taxes4--,! great direct b5efit d]iv$ by ^? :o actually op]ate vehicles ov] ! roads ju/ifies ! policy ( requir+ a vehicle to pay a lic5se fee 9 lieu ( o!r taxes1 ! funds s obta9$ to be us$ = ! con/ruction & ma9t5ance ( public highways4 ,9 practice1 ?is me?od has already be5 appli$ to motor vehicles 9 mo/ /ates & has prov5 to be an important s\rce ( rev5ue4 ,its application to horse-drawn vehicles has n be5 attempt$1 due probably to ! fact t su* horse-drawn vehicles z use ! public highways are also employ$ ab\t ! f>m or 9 ! t[ns & ! det]m9ation ( an equitable basis = taxation involves _m difficulties4 ,! rate ( ! fee = motor vehicles %\ld be bas$ on _! de/ructive effect on ! road s f> z t is possible4 ,! scale ( fees %\ld !re=e take acc\nt ( weight & spe$ ( vehicle & if ! lic5se is 9 lieu ( all o!r taxes1 x %\ld also be graduat$ ) ! co/ ( ! vehicle4 ,:5 funds are ?us d]iv$1 e precaution %\ld be tak5 to insure t ! money is us$ judici\sly = con/ruction & especially = ma9t5ance on ^? roads mo/ useful to motor traffic4 ,highway ,bonds4--,bond issues = road improvem5t af=d a means ( con/ruct+ roads & pay+ = !m :ile !y are be+ us$4 ,a v l>ge volume ( su* bonds are out/&+ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,road bonds %\ld be issu$ only = durable types ( improvem5t & ! life ( ! bond %\ld be well )9 ! probable useful life ( ! road surface4 ,x is cu/om>y & highly desirable t ! g5]al nature & ext5t ( ! improvem5t be e/abli%$ be=e ! bonds are issu$4 ,x is desirable t bond issues be subject to approval by ref]5dum be=e issue & t is provid$ 9 e in/ance4 ,highway bonds are ( ?ree classes kn[n z ,s9k+ ,fund1 ,annuity & ,s]ial ,bonds1 respectively4 ,! e>li] bonds issu$ 7 almo/ all ( ! s9k+ fund class1 b 9 rec5t ye>s ! s]ial bond has be5 widely employ$ & is probably ! mo/ satisfactory to adm9i/]4 ,s9k+ ,fund ,bonds4#a--,:5 ?is type ( bond is employ$1 ! am\nt ( ! exp5diture = road improvem5t is det]m9$ ^u & ! l5g? ( ! p]iod dur+ :i* tax paym5ts %all be made is settl$4 ,to employ a concrete example1 x may be assum$ t #ajj1jjj is to be exp5d$ = road "w & is to be paid at ! end ( t5 ye>s4 ,! int]e/ rate on ! bonds w v>y ) ! condition ( ! bond m>ket & ! /ability ( ! political unit issu+ ! bonds1 b is usually ab\t #e p] c5t4 ,kn[+ ^! factors1 ! am\nt to be add$ to ! s9k+ fund ea* ye> is comput$4 ,9 ord] to pay ! int]e/ on ! bonds1 a tax ( suitable rate is levi$1 & 9 ord] to retire ! bonds at ! end ( ! p]iod1 a sum is set aside ea* ye> :i* is suppos$ to be inve/$ & draw int]e/ :i* w be add$ to ! pr9ciple1 & ! pr9ciple & int]e/ comprise ! s9k+ fund4 ,! pr9ciple ( ! s9k+ fund is obta9$ by tax levies1 a sum be+ add$ to ! pr9ciple ( ! s9k+ fund ea* ye>4 #a ,= a m detail$ discussion ( highway bonds see ,bullet9 #acf1 ,u4 ,s4 ,dept4 ( ,agriculture1 :i* is ! basis ( ?is discussion4 ,! success ( ?is me?od ( f9anc+ dep5ds ^u ! prop] adm9i/ration ( ! s9k+ fund4 ,x mu/ be inve/$ ) fidelity & ! fund be kept intact4 ,usually ! s9k+ fund _c be inve/$ at z high a rate ( int]e/ z ! bonds be> & !re is "s loss z a result4 ,road bonds be>+ #e p] c5t int]e/ c usually be sold at p> :ile ! s9k+ fund w usually net ab\t #c or #c-a_/b p] c5t int]e/4 ,! total co/ ( a bond issue w be great] by ! s9k+ fund me?od ?an by ei!r ( ! o!r me?ods describ$4 ,annuity ,bonds4--,annuity bonds are drawn 9 su* a mann] t ! am\nt ( ! paym5t = pr9ciple & int]e/ is ! same ea* ye> dur+ ! life ( ! bond4 ,:5 ! am\nt ( ! issue & ! rate ( int]e/ has be5 det]m9$ & ! am\nt ( ! desir$ annual paym5t has be5 det]m9$1 ! numb] ( ye>s ! bonds mu/ run is comput$4 ,?is me?od is conv5i5t 9 t ! am\nt ( ! tax to be levi$ ea* ye> rema9s con/ant4 ,s]ial ,bonds4--,s]ial bonds are drawn s t a uni=m am\nt ( ! pr9ciple is retir$ ea* ye> aft] retirem5t />ts & ! total int]e/ paym5ts decrease ea* ye> aft] ! fir/ bonds are retir$4 ,! fir/ bond may n be retir$ = a numb] ( ye>s aft] ! issue ( ! bonds1 b :5 x once />ts retirem5t proce$s at a con/ant rate annually4 ,comp>ison ( ,me?ods ( ,issu+ ,bonds4--,! relative co/s ( f9anc+ by ei!r ( ! ?ree me?ods dep5ds ^u ! rate ( int]e/ 9 ea* case & ! net rate secur$ on ! s9k+ fund provid$ = retir+ s9k+ fund bonds4 ,= comp>ative purposes1 "s typical examples are giv5 9 ,table #c4 ,^! illu/rate ! diff]5ces 9 total co/ ( secur+ #ajj1jjj by ea* ( ! ?ree me?ods at v>i\s int]e/ rates4 ,,table #c ,,total ,,co/ ,,( ,a ,,loan ,,( #ajj1jjj ,,= #bj ,,ye>s1 ,,int]e/ ,,comp\nd$ ,,annually ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,annual ,s9k+ ,fund ,comp\nd$ ,int]e/ ,annually at on ,bonds ------------------------------------- ,annuity ,s]ial #c p] c5t #c-a_/b p] c5t #d p] c5t ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ #d #aed1dca #aej1gbb #adg1afc #adg1afc #adb1jjj #d-a_/b #afd1dca #afj1gbb #aeg1afc #aec1geb #adg1bej #e #agd1dca #agj1gbb #afg1afc #afj1dhe #aeb1ejj #e-a_/b #ahd1dca #ahj1gbb #agg1afc #afg1cei #aeg1gej #f #aid1dca #aij1gbb #ahg1afc #agd1cfi #afc1jjj ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,desirability ( ,road ,bonds4--,9 !ory ! bond me?od ( f9anc+ enables ! highway au?orities to con/ruct a l>ge mileage ( roads 9 a few ye>s & spreads ! co/ ov] ! p]iod dur+ :i* ! public is be+ b5efit$4 ,bett] prices are obta9$ on contracts = a l>ge mileage ?an = small] jobs1 & ! community c receive ! b5efit m quickly ?an :]e con/ruction proce$s piecemeal ) curr5t funds4 ,! vital consid]ation is to insure t ! t]m ( ! bonds is well )9 ! useful life ( ! road1 & t ample provision is made to ma9ta9 ! roads dur+ t p]iod4 ,"u prop] re/rictions ! bond me?od ( f9anc+ is to be comm5d$4 ,! bonds are an attractive inve/m5t & readily m>ketable on satisfactory t]ms4 ,,*apt] ,,iii ,,dra9age ,,( ,,roads ,! ,necessity = ,dra9age4--,! importance ( dra9age = all roads subject to ! effects ( /orm or und]gr\nd wat] has always be5 recogniz$ by road build]s1 b dur+ rec5t ye>s con/antly increas+ att5tion has be5 giv5 to ?is phase ( road con/ruction4 ,x is un=tunate t !re has 9 ! pa/ be5 "s t5d5cy to consid] elaborate dra9age provisions less necess>y :]e rigid types ( surfaces 7 employ$4 ,x has become app>5t1 f ! nature ( ! defects obs]v$ 9 all sorts ( road surfaces1 t to neglect or m9imize ! importance ( dra9age 9 connection ) ei!r e>? roads or any class ( surfac$ roads is to invite rapid det]ioration ( "s sections ( ! roadway surface & to add to ma9t5ance co/s4 ,! degree to :i* lack ( dra9age provisions affect ! s]viceability ( ! road surface v>ies ) ! am\nt ( precipitation 9 ! locality & ! mann] 9 :i* x is di/ribut$ ?r\gh\t ! ye>4 ,9 ! humid areas ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 :i* are1 r\ghly1 ^? portions ea/ ( a nor? & s\? l9e pass+ ?r\gh ,omaha & ,kansas ,city1 toge!r ) ! nor!rn "p ( ! ,pacific slope1 precipitation is g5]ally 9 excess ( #cj in*es p] ye> & fairly well di/ribut$ ?r\gh\t ! ye>1 b ) seasonal v>iations 9 rate4 ,9 ^! areas1 ! effect ( ! precipitation1 bo? z reg>ds its t5d5cy to l[] ! /ability ( soils & z an erod+ ag5t1 mu/ be c>efully provid$ aga9/ 9 highway design4 ,outside ( ! areas m5tion$ above1 ! precipitation is mu* less ?an #cj in*es p] ye> & its effect z an ag5t ( erosion is ( greate/ significance1 al?\gh 9 re/rict$ areas !re may be %ort p]iods :5 ! soil is made un/able by gr\nd wat]4 ,importance ( ,design4--,! dra9age sy/em = a propos$ road improvem5t ought to be design$ ) z mu* c>e z any o!r elem5t1 &1 to d s1 a /udy mu/ be made ( all factors t h any be>+ on ! dra9age requirem5ts & ! probable effectiv5ess ( ! propos$ dra9age sy/em4 ,! well e/abli%$ pr9ciples ( l& dra9age %\ld be foll[$ s f> z applicable4 ,! basic pr9ciple ( road dra9age is to m9imize ! effect ( wat] to su* an ext5t t !re w always be a lay] ( comp>atively dry soil ( appreciable ?ickness "u ! travel$ "p ( ! road4 ,?is lay] %\ld probably nev] be less ?an two feet ?ick & = soils ( a /ructure favorable to capill>y action x %\ld be at lea/ ?ree feet ?ick4 ,! means employ$ to accompli% ! requisite dra9age w be z v>i\s z ! conditions enc\nt]$4 ,surface ,dra9age4--,! dra9age me?od :i* is by f> ! mo/ ne>ly g5]al 9 application is t :i* utilizes op5 dit*es1 & ! sy/em :i* employs ^! dit*es is usually ref]r$ to z surface dra9age4 ,! full possibilities ( ?is me?od ( m9imiz+ ! effects ( /orm wat] are r>ely fully utiliz$ 9 road con/ruction4 ,v frequ5tly1 det]ioration ( a road surface is directly attributable to failure to provide adequately = ! removal ( ! /orm wat] or wat] f ! melt+ ( sn[ t has fall5 on ! road1 or wat] t fl[s to ! road f l& adjac5t !reto4 ,surface wat] c usually mo/ *eaply & exp$iti\sly be c>ri$ away 9 op5 dit*es1 al?\gh special conditions are occasionally enc\nt]$ :i* require supplem5t>y tile dra9s4 ,! cross section commonly adopt$ = roads l5ds itself naturally to ! con/ruction ( dra9age dit*es at ! sides ( ! travel$ way1 & ^! are usually ! pr9cipal dep5d5ce = ! disposal ( /orm wat]4 ,run-(f4--,! capacity requir$ ( side dit*es to insure satisfactory surface dra9age w be affect$ by ! am\nt & nature ( ! precipitation 9 ! region :]e ! road is built4 ,! annual ra9fall 9 a region may am\nt to sev]al feet1 b may be well di/ribut$ ?r\gh\t ! ye> ) an abs5ce ( excessive ra9fall = %ort p]iods1 t is1 flood conditions may r>ely occur4 ,9 o!r areas1 ! annual ra9fall may be comp>atively small b ! precipitation occurs at a v high rate1 t is1 flood conditions may be common1 or x may be at a l[ rate ext5d+ ov] a consid]able p]iod4 ,^! peculi>ities mu/ be kn[n be=e an adequate dra9age sy/em c be plann$4 ,x is almo/ univ]sally true 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates t precipitation at a v high rate w be = a relatively %ort duration1 & dur+ ^! %ort p]iods1 :i* usually d n exce$ ?irty m9utes1 a portion ( ! wat] t falls on ! areas adjac5t to ! road & t dra9s to ! road dit*es w soak into ! soil & !re=e n rea* ! dit*es along ! road4 ,! ext5t to :i* ! wat] is tak5 up by ! soil w v>y ) ! porosity & slope ( ! l& & ! "* ( ! gr[? !reon4 ,cultivat$ l& w absorb ne>ly all ( ! wat] f %[]s up to fifte5 or tw5ty m9utes duration2 grass l& a some:at small] p]c5tage2 & h>d bak$ or o!r imp]vi\s soil w absorb a comp>atively small am\nt4 ,rocky gr\nd & /eep slopes w absorb v little /orm wat]4 ,! surface ( ! road is design$ to turn wat] rapidly to ! dit*es1 b :5 ! mat]ial is ! natural soil1 !re is always consid]able absorption ( /orm wat]4 ,surfaces su* z s&clay1 gravel & macadam d n absorb to exce$ #aj p] c5t ( ! precipitation dur+ %ort %[]s4 ,bitum9\s surfaces1 brick & concrete pavem5ts1 d n absorb an appreciable am\nt ( /orm wat]4 ,g5]ally x is be/ to assume t if a ra9 la/s = =ty-five m9utes or m1 all ( ! wat] w run (f1 z ! soil w rea* a /ate ( saturation 9 t "t4 ,?is is n true ( deep s&1 b is = ne>ly all o!r soils4 ,! dit* capacity ne$$ w !re=e dep5d ^u ! area dra9$1 ! "* ( ! soil1 ! slopes & ! ra9fall *>act]i/ics ( ! region1 & ^u ! nature ( ! road surface4 ,= a requir$ capacity1 ! cross section area ( ! dit* w v>y inv]sely z ! grade1 because ! velocity ( fl[ increases ) an increase 9 ! grade ( ! dit*4 ,if ! surface wat] mu/ be c>ri$ along ! road = di/ances exce$+ five or six hundr$ feet1 ! dit* mu/ be con/ruct$ ( increas+ capacity t[>d ! outlet 9 ord] to accommodate ! accumulat$ volume ( wat]4 ,! velocity ( fl[ v>ies n only ) ! grade1 b ) ! %ape ( ! cross section1 cleanness ( ! *annel1 ! dep? ( ! wat] 9 ! *annel1 alignm5t ( ! *annel & ! k9d ( mat]ial 9 :i* ! *annel is =m$4 ,x is n necess>y to g to great ref9em5t 9 ! design ( ! side dit*es = ! ord9>y case :]e ! wat] is c>ri$ along ! road = only a few hundr$ feet4 ,! dit*es are made ( ample capacity by us+ ! commonly accept$ cross section = a road1 :i* w be discuss$ 9 a lat] p>agraph4 ,b :]e l>ge areas mu/ be dra9$ by ! road dit*es1 x is desirable c>efully to design ! side dit*es4 ,! basis = t design is too l5g?y to be includ$ h]e91 & ref]5ce %\ld be made to a /&>d treatise on ! subject4 ,ord9>y ,design ( ,dit*es4--,= grades ( "o p] c5t or less on roads 9 ! humid area1 ! bottom ( ! dit* %\ld be at lea/ ?ree & "o-half feet l[] ?an ! travel$ surface ( ! road1 except = v s&y soil4 ,= grades great] ?an "o p] c5t1 ?is dep? may be decreas$ "o foot1 & = grades ( f\r p] c5t & upw>d1 ! dep? may be /ill less4 ,^! g5]al rules = dep? are susceptible ( v>iation b are believ$ to be ! m9imum except 9 arid or semi-arid climates4 ,x is f> bett] to be too lib]al 9 dit* all[ance ?an to be too cons]vative4 ,9 arid or semi-arid regions1 ! dit* design w be bas$ on ! necessity ( provid+ = flood fl[ & prev5t+ damage ?r\gh erosion4 ,ord9>y dra9age requirem5ts w be satisfactory ) ! dit* ab\t "o foot deep4 ,if ! topography is su* t x is evid5t consid]able /orm wat] w fl[ f ! adjac5t l& to ! road dit*es1 ! design mu/ be modifi$ to take ?is into acc\nt4 ,sometimes su* wat] c be div]t$ by dit*es well back f ! road1 & ?us prev5t$ f fl[+ into ! side dit*es along ! roadway4 ,x is especially desirable to div]t wat]1 :i* w\ld o!rwise fl[ d[n ! slope ( a cut1 by means ( a dit* on ! hill-side above ! upp] edge ( ! slope ( ! cut4 ,dit*es are n effective unless !y af=d a free fl[ ?r\gh\t _! l5g? & h an outlet to a dra9age *annel ( ample capacity4 ,!re=e1 dit* grades %\ld be e/abli%$ by survey1 especially if ! gradi5t is less ?an "o p] c5t1 & ! con/ruction "w %\ld be *eck$ to insure t ! dit* is actually con/ruct$ z plann$4 ,a few high places 9 ! dit* w greatly r$uce ! effectiv5ess1 al?\gh ^! may appe> at ! "t ( con/ruction to be slight4 ,con/rict$ places1 su* z might be due to a small am\nt ( loose e>? left 9 ! dit*1 are always to be avoid$4 ,:]e ! side dit* passes f a cut to ! b]m alongside a fill1 ! dit* %\ld be excavat$ ?r\gh\t 9 ! undi/urb$ natural soil1 five feet or m f ! toe ( ! slope ( ! fill1 & along ! fill$ portion ( ! road !re %\ld be a b]m ( ?ree or f\r feet betwe5 ! toe ( ! slope ( ! fill & ! ne> edge ( ! dit*4 ,und]gr\nd ,wat]4--,9 a prec$+ p>agraph1 m5tion 0 made ( ! fact t only a "p ( ! /orm wat] runs (f ov] ! surface ( ! gr\nd1 ! l>g] "p be+ absorb$ by ! soil4 ,! wat] ?us absorb$ fl[s d[nw>d ?r\gh ! pores 9 ! soil until x is deflect$ lat]ally by "s physical *>act]i/ic ( ! soil /ructure4 ,! movem5t ( und]gr\nd wat] is affect$ by _m circum/ances1 b only two conditions ne$ be discuss$ h]e94 ,und]gr\nd wat]1 l surface wat]1 t5ds to atta9 a level surface1 b 9 s do+ x may ne$ to fl[ long di/ances ?r\gh ! pores ( ! soil1 & to ov]come ! resi/ance incid5t to s do+ "s head w be requir$4 ,t is to say1 ! wat] w be high] at "s places ?an at o!rs4 ,if a cut is made 9 grad+ ! road1 ! road surface may actually be l[] ?an ! gr\nd wat] level 9 ! l& adjo9+ ! road4 ,z a result1 ! wat] w seep out ( ! side slopes 9 ! cut & keep ! dit*es wet1 or ev5 furni% en\gh wat] to occasion a fl[ 9 ! dit*4 ,simil>ly1 ! high] head ( ! und]gr\nd wat] ne> ! top ( a hill may result 9 gr\nd wat] com+ q close to ! surface "s di/ance d[n ! hill4 ,! rem$y 9 bo? cases is tile und]dra9s alongside ! road to l[] ! gr\nd wat] level s t x _c affect ! road surface4 ,sometimes ! gr\nd wat] enc\nt]s an imp]vi\s /ratum z x fl[s d[nw>d ?r\gh ! soil1 or "o t is less p]vi\s ?an ! surface soil4 ,:5 su* is ! case1 ! wat] w foll[ along ?is /ratum1 & %\ld !re be an outcrop ( ! d5se /ratum1 a spr+ w be f\nd at t place4 ,?is may be on a highway4 ,! imp]vi\s /ratum may n actually outcrop b may lie only a few feet "u ! surface ( ! road1 9 :i* case1 ! road surface w be s wat] soak$ z to be un/able4 ,! s-call$ seepy places s (t5 not$ along a road are g5]ally ! result ( ?is condition4 ,?is condition c be correct$ by tile laid s z to int]cept ! fl[ at a dep? t precludes damage to ! road4 ,commonly1 ! tile w be laid diagonally across ! road "s di/ance above ! section :]e ! effect ( ! wat] is not$1 & w be turn$ p>allel to ! road at ! dit* l9e & c>ri$ "u "o ( ! side dit*es to an outlet4 ,tile ,dra9s4--,:]e ! soil & climatic conditions are su* t ! roadway at times becomes un/able because ( und]gr\nd wat] ris+ to a level n f> bel[ ! road surface1 ! gr\nd wat] level is l[]$ by means ( tile und]dra9s4 ,! function ( ! tile dra9s 9 su* cases is precisely ! same z :5 employ$ 9 l& dra9age2 to l[] ! gr\nd wat] level4 ,lay+ ,tile4--,! tile l9es are usually laid 9 tr5*es p>allel to ! c5t] l9e ( ! road ne> ! dit* l9e & at lea/ #d feet deep s z to keep ! gr\nd wat] level well d[n4 ,!y mu/ be c>efully laid to l9e & grade4 ,a good outlet mu/ be provid$ & ! la/ few jo9ts ( pipe %\ld be bell-&-spigot sew] pipe ) ! jo9ts fill$ ) cem5t mort>4 ,! op5+ ( ! tile %\ld be cov]$ ) a co>se scre5 to prev5t animals f ne/+ 9 ! tile4 ,x is frequ5tly necess>y to lay a l9e ( tile at ! toe ( ! slope 9 cuts to int]cept wat] t w p]colate "u ! road f ! banks at ! sides4 ,9 "s cases1 x is desirable to back-fill ! tile tr5* ) gravel or brok5 /one to insure rapid p5etration ( surface wat] to ! tile4 ,9 o!r in/ances1 x is advantage\s to place cat* bas9s ab\t e ?ree or f\r hundr$ feet4 ,^! may be ( concrete or ( tile plac$ on end or may be bl9d cat* bas9s =m$ by fill+ a section ( ! tr5* ) brok5 /one4 ,:5 a bl9d cat* bas9 is us$1 ! top %\ld be built up into a m\nd1 & = a tile or concrete cat* bas91 a grat+ ( ! beehive type %\ld be us$1 s t fl[ to ! tile w n be ob/ruct$ by we$s & o!r tra% t is c>ri$ to ! cat* bas94 ,culv]ts4--,culv]ts & bridges are a "p ( ! dra9age sy/em & ! di/9ction betwe5 ! two is m]ely a matt] ( size4 ,g5]ally1 /ructures ( spans less ?an ab\t eight feet are class$ z culv]ts1 b ! practice is n uni=m4 ,9 ?is discussion culv]ts w be def9$ z ( spans ( #h feet or less4 ,num]\s culv]ts are requir$ to af=d passage = /orm wat] & small /reams crosswise ( ! road1 & _! aggregate co/ is a l>ge item 9 ! co/ ( road improvem5t4 ,! size ( ! wat]way ( a culv]t requir$ 9 any location w be e/imat$ by an inspection ( ! /ream & exi/+ /ructure1 & by det]m9+ ! ext5t & physical *>act]i/ics ( ! dra9age area4 ,sometimes !re is suffici5t evid5ce at ! site to indicate q closely ! size requir$1 b ?is %\ld always be *eck$ by run-(f computations4 ,! dra9age area contribut+ wat] to ! /ream pass+ ?r\gh ! culv]t "u consid]ation is comput$ f cont\r maps or f a survey ( ! gr\nd1 & ! size ( culv]t det]m9$ by "o ( ! empirical =mulas applicable to t purpose4 ,9 ^! =mulas1 ! solution dep5ds ^u ! prop] selection ( a factor ,c :i* v>ies 9 accordance ) ! nature ( ! dra9age area4 ,two ( ^! t are q widely us$ are z foll[s3 ,my]s' ,=mula3 a ,,ca ,:]e a area ( cross section ( culv]t 9 squ>e feet4 ,a area 9 acres ( ! dra9age area above culv]t4 ,c a factor v>y+ f #a = flat c\ntry to #d = m\nta9\s c\ntry or rocky soil1 ! exact value to be select$ aft] an inspection ( ! dra9age area4 ,talbot's ,=mula3 ,area ( wat]way 9 squ>e feet ,c ,squ>e root ( 77,dra9age area 9 acres7#c7 ,transcrib]'s ,note3 ,! above =mula us$ ! ma!matical squ>e root symbol 9 ! orig9al4 ,"o %\ld read x z ,c times ! squ>e root ( ! ,dra9age area 9 acres cub$4 ,c be+ v>iable accord+ to circum/ances ?us3 ,= /eep & rocky gr\nd ,c v>ies f #b_/c to #a4 ,= roll+ agricultural c\ntry1 subject to floods at times ( melt+ sn[1 & ) l5g? ( valley ?ree or f\r times its wid?1 ,c is ab\t #a_/c1 & if /ream is long] 9 proportion to ! area1 decrease ,c4 ,9 di/ricts n affect$ by accumulat$ sn[1 & :]e ! l5g? ( valley is sev]al times its wid?1 #a_/e or #a_/f or ev5 less may be us$4 ,c %\ld be increas$ = /eep side slopes1 especially if ! upp] "p ( ! valley has a mu* great] fall ?an ! *annel at ! culv]t4 ,! value ( ,c to be us$ 9 any case is det]m9$ aft] an inspection ( ! dra9age area4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #b4 ,design ( ,pipe ,culv]t & ,bulkhead ,l5g? ( ,culv]t4--,! cle> l5g? betwe5 end walls on a culv]t %\ld be at lea/ equal to ! wid? ( ! roadway betwe5 dit*es4 ,?is is a m9imum ( #bj feet = second>y roads & ranges f #bd to #cj feet = ma9 roads4 ,! headwall to ! culv]t %\ld n be a monum5t1 b %\ld be no high] ?an ne$$ to prev5t vehicles f leav+ ! roadway at ! culv]t4 ,f>m ,entrance ,culv]ts4--,at f>m entrances1 culv]ts are requir$ to c>ry ! f>m driveway across ! side dit* ( ! road4 ,^! culv]ts are usually ab\t #af feet along1 & %\ld be ( a size adequate to take ! fl[ ( ! side dit*4 ,! f>m entrance culv]t %\ld be ( su* design t x c be easily remov$ to p]mit clean+ out ! dit*es ) a road grad]4 ,,types ,,( ,,culv]ts ,culv]ts con/ruct$ ( concrete & p\r$ 9 place are call$ box culv]ts because ( ! rectangul> =m ( ! cross section4 ,culv]ts ( pre-ca/ pipe are kn[n z pipe culv]ts4 ,sev]al =ms ( pipe culv]t are 9 g5]al use4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #c4--,typical ,concrete ,box ,culv]t ,metal ,pipe4--,^! may be ( ca/ iron1 /eel or wr\ght iron4 ,! ca/ iron pipe is v durable b exp5sive & heavy to h&le & is n widely us$ 9 highway con/ruction4 ,/eel pipe has be5 employ$ to a limit$ ext5t b its durability is que/ion$4 ,at lea/ x is kn[n t ! pipe made f uncoat$1 light %eet /eel is n v durable4 ,%eet iron & %eets made f alloy iron coat$ ) spelt] h be5 ext5sively us$ & seem to be durable1 especially :5 laid deep en\gh to elim9ate possibility ( damage f heavy loads4 ,to insure reasonable resi/ance to corrosion1 ! metal %eets %\ld be coat$ ) at lea/ "o & "o-half ounces ( spelt] p] squ>e foot ( %eet & ! %eets %\ld n be light] ?an #af gauge = small sizes & %\ld be heavi] = ! l>g] sizes4 ,clay & ,cem5t ,concrete ,pipe4--,! ord9>y burn$ clay bell & spigot pipe t is employ$ = sew] con/ruction is sometimes us$ = culv]ts4 ,x mu/ be v c>efully b$d$1 pref]ably on a concrete cradle & ! jo9ts fill$ ) cem5t mort>4 ,culv]ts ( ?is type h a t5d5cy to break "u unusual loads1 su* z traction eng9es or trucks4 ,!y may be damag$ by ! pressure f freez+ wat]1 p>ticul>ly :5 successive freez+ & ?aw+ results 9 ! culv]t fill+ ) mu%y sn[1 :i* subsequ5tly freezes4 ,concrete ,pipe4--,re9=c$ concrete pipe is a satisfactory mat]ial = culv]ts1 if ! pipe is prop]ly design$4 ,! pipe %\ld be c>efully laid on a firm e>? b$ ) e>? c>efully back-fill$ & tamp$ ar\nd ! pipe4 ,! jo9ts 9 ! pipe %\ld be fill$ ) cem5t mort>1 or %\ld be ( a design t w be tight4 ,endwalls = ,culv]ts4--,a sub/antial reta9+ wall is plac$ at ea* end ( ! culv]t b>rel1 :atev] ! type4 ,?is is to prev5t ! end ( ! culv]t f becom+ *ok$ ) e>? & to reta9 ! roadway at ! culv]t4 ,x also indicates to ! driv]s ! location ( ! end ( ! culv]t4 ,! endwall ext5ds a foot or m bel[ ! floor ( ! culv]t to prev5t wat] f cutt+ "u ! b>rel4 ,pla9 concrete or /one masonry are mo/ commonly us$ = culv]t endwalls4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #d4--,two ,types ( ,drop ,inlet ,culv]t ,re9=c$ ,concrete ,box ,culv]ts4--,! pipe culv]t is limit$ 9 application to ! small] wat]ways4 ,re9=c$ concrete is ext5sively us$ = culv]ts ( all sizes1 b especially = ! l>g] ones4 ,^! are usually con/ruct$ ) endwalls integral ) ! b>rel ( ! culv]t4 ,culv]ts ( ?is type mu/ be design$ = ! loads anticipat$ to insure suitable /r5g? & /ability1 & mu/ be con/ruct$ ( a good quality ( concrete4 ,figs4 #b & #c %[ designs = pipe & box culv]ts4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #e4--;,drop ,inlet ,culv]t ,drop ,inlet ,culv]ts4--,9 "s locations erosion has begun 9 ! fields adjac5t to a culv]t & x w probably cont9ue until ! /ream above ! culv]t has erod$ to ab\t ! level ( ! floor ( ! culv]t4 ,?is is a reason = plac+ ! culv]t z high z ! roadway w p]mit1 s long z ! area above ! culv]t w be prop]ly dra9$4 ,consid]able reclamation ( l& is possible if ! culv]t is con/ruct$ ) a box at ! inlet & z %[n 9 ,fig4 #d4 ,! area up-/ream f ! culv]t w n erode bel[ ! level ( ! top ( ! box at ! inlet end4 ,:]e ! /ream cross+ ! road has erod$ to consid]able dep? or has consid]able fall1 z w\ld sometimes be ! case on side hill roads1 ! culv]t b>rel w\ld foll[ ! g5]al slope ( ! dit* b %\ld h a drop inlet4 ,?is type ( culv]t is %[n 9 ,fig4 #e4 ,,*apt] ,,iv ,,road ,,design ,necessity = ,plann+4--,sometimes highway improvem5t is ! result ( spasmodic & c>elessly direct$ "w c>ri$ out at odd times on v>i\s sections ( a road1 f9ally result+ 9 ! wor/ places be+ at lea/ tempor>ily bett]$4 ,! grade on ! /eepe/ hills is probably r$uc$ some:at & "s ( ! wor/ ( ! l[ ly+ sections are fill$ 9 & !reby rais$4 ,%ort sections ( surfac+ su* z gravel or brok5 /one may be plac$ "h & !re4 ,f ! /&po9t ( ! responsible (ficial1 ! road has be5 improv$1 b too (t5 su* "w does n produce an improvem5t t la/s1 & sometimes x is n ev5 ( any great imm$iate b5efit to ^? :o use ! roads4 ,9 ne>ly e in/ance su* "w co/s m 9 money & labor t x is wor?4 ,la/+ improvem5t ( public highways c be br\ght ab\t only ?r\gh sy/ematic & correlat$ con/ruction c>ri$ on = a s]ies ( ye>s4 ,9 o!r words1 !re mu/ be a road improvem5t policy :i* w be made effective ?r\gh "s ag5cy t is s organiz$ t its policies w be p]petuat$ & is clo!d ) en\gh au?ority to be capable ( en=c+ ! ess5tial features ( good design & ( secur+ ! prop] con/ruction ( improvem5ts4 ,details ( highway con/ruction & design mu/ v>y ) _m local conditions & types ( surface4 ,! limits ( grades & ! _m o!r details ( design may prop]ly be adopt$ = a specific piece ( "w only aft] an adequate inve/igation ( ! local requirem5ts & 9 ! light ( wide exp]i5ce 9 sup]vis+ road improvem5t4 ,new ideas are con/antly be+ inject$ into ! art ( road build+1 b ^! are dissem9at$ some:at sl[ly1 s t valuable devices & improvem5ts 9 me?ods rema9 long unkn[n except to ! comp>atively few :o h ! means = in=m+ !mselves ( all su* developm5ts4 ,x foll[s !n t ! logical sy/em ( conduct+ road improvem5t is ?r\gh an ag5cy ( cont9u+ p]sonnel :i* w sup]vise ! prep>ation ( suitable plans & direct ! con/ruction 9 accordance ) ! mo/ rec5t exp]i5ce4 ,road ,plans4--,! in=mation %[n on ! plans prep>$ = road improvem5t v>ies some:at ) ! design & ) ! ideas ( ! eng9e] z to :at con/itutes necess>y in=mation1 b 9 g5]al ! plans %[ ! exi/+ road & ! new con/ruction contemplat$ 9 an am\nt ( detail dep5d+ pr9cipally ^u ! "* ( ! con/ruction4 ,simple plans suffice = grade r$uction or re%ap+ an e>? road surface1 :ile = ! con/ruction ( pav$ roads1 ! plans mu/ be work$ out 9 consid]able detail4 ,! ess5tial requirem5t is t !re be giv5 on ! plans all in=mation necess>y to enable ! con/ruction to be c>ri$ out accord+ to ! int5tions ( ! eng9e]1 t all p>ts ( ! "w fit toge!r1 t ! culv]ts are ( ! prop] size & locat$ at ! prop] places1 dit*es dra9 prop]ly1 grades are r$uc$ to ! pr$et]m9$ rate1 t excavat$ mat]ial is utiliz$ & t an exact record ( ! "w done is reta9$4 ,plans are indisp5sable to economical road con/ruction & ! prep>ation ( ! plans is ! "w ( ! exp]t 9 road design1 t is1 ! highway eng9e]4 ,problem ( ,design4--,! problem ( road design is to prep>e plans = a road improvem5t ) ! v>i\s details s correlat$ z to insure 9 ! road con/ruct$ 9 accordance !re) ! maximum ( safety1 conv5i5ce & economy to ! us]s !re(4 ,! degree to :i* ! design w be effective w dep5d to a consid]able ext5t ^u ! f9ancial limitations impos$ ^u ! eng9e]1 b skill & ef=t on ! plans w d a great deal to (fset f9ancial h&icap & no pa9s %\ld be sp>$ 9 ! prep>ation ( ! plans4 ,moreov]1 ! plans mu/ af=d all ( ! in=mation ne$$ by ! contractor 9 prep>+ a bid = ! "w4 ,prelim9>y ,inve/igation4--,! fir/ /ep 9 road improvem5t is to secure an adequate idea ( ! exi/+ conditions on ! road or roads involv$4 ,! detail to :i* ?is in=mation ne$ g w dep5d entirely ^u ! purpose ( ! prelim9>y inve/igation1 = be=e a def9ite plan is prep>$1 x may be necess>y to *oose ! be/ f among sev]al available r\tes4 ,= ?is purpose1 x is n always necess>y to make an actual in/rum5t survey ( ! sev]al r\tes4 ,a ha/y reconnaissance w usually be suffici5t4 ,?is is made by walk+ or rid+ ov] ! road & not+1 9 a suitable book or ^u prep>$ blanks1 ! in=mation ne$$4 ,! items ( in=mation record$ w usually be z foll[s3 di/ances1 grades1 type ( soil on ! road & nature ( exi/+ surface1 "* ( dra9age1 location ( bridges & culv]ts & ! type ( ea* ) notes z to its condition1 location ( railway cross+s & notes z to type1 location ( int]sect+ roads1 f>m entrances1 & all simil> features t h a be>+ on ! *oice ( r\tes4 ,^! data c be obta9$ 9 a comp>atively %ort "t by a skill$ obs]v] :o may drive ov] ! road 9 a motor c>4 ,sometimes x may be desirable to make a m c>eful /udy ( "s c]ta9 sections ( road & ?is may be done by wak+ ov] ! section 9 "q 9 ord] to make a m delib]ate survey ( ! features to be consid]$ ?an is possible :5 rid+ 9 a motor c>4 ,factors o!r ?an relative l5g?s ( r\tes w obvi\sly det]m9e ! co/ ( improvem5t & ! comp>ative m]its ( ! improv$ roads4 ,"s special *>act]i/ic ( a road1 su* z bad railroad cross+s or a few bad hills1 may elim9ate a r\te1 or availability ( mat]ials along a r\te may (fset disadvantages ( alignm5t or grade4 ,9 special cases1 complete surveys ( r\tes may be requir$ f9ally to select ! be/ r\te1 b ^! in/ances are few 9 numb]4 ,road ,surveys4--,:5 a road has be5 def9itely select$ = improvem5t1 a c>eful survey is made to furni% in=mation = ! prep>ation ( ! plans4 ,?is w consi/ ( a transit survey & a level survey4 ,! transit survey is made by runn+ a l9e betwe5 e/abli%$ corn]s foll[+ ! record$ r\te ( ! road1 or if no records are available or ! road is irregul> 9 alignm5t1 by e/abli%+ arbitr>y ref]5ce po9ts & runn+ a l9e along ! c5t] l9e ( ! exi/+ road or p>allel !reto4 ,! topography is ref]5c$ to ?is l9e 9 su* complet5ess t x c be reproduc$ on ! plans4 ,! level survey consi/s 9 tak+ levels on cross sections ( ! road at "o hundr$ foot int]vals1 & (t5] if !re are abrupt *anges 9 grade4 ,special level det]m9ations are made at /reams1 railroad cross+s1 int]sect+ roads or lanes & :]ev] x appe>s "s special features ( ! t]ra9 %\ld be record$4 ,f ! surveys & su* o!r in=mation z has be5 assembl$ relative to ! project1 a plan is prep>$ :i* embodies a design presum$ to provide = an improvem5t 9 accordance ) ! be/ highway practice4 ,,! ,,problem ,,( ,,design ,x w be conv5i5t to consid] sep>ately ! compon5ts ( a road design1 al?\gh 9 ! actual design ! consid]ation ( ^! _c be sep>at$ because all p>ts ( ! plan mu/ fit toge!r4 ,alignm5t4--,! alignm5t ( ! road is det]m9$ to a consid]able ext5t by ! exi/+ "r-(-way1 :i* may foll[ section l9es1 reg>dless ( topography1 z is ! case ) _m roads 9 ! prairie /ates1 or x may foll[ ! valleys1 ridges1 or o!r favorable location 9 hilly c\ntry4 ,9 _m places ! roads ( necessity w9d ar\nd among ! hills 9 ord] to avoid excessive grades4 ,9 design+ an improvem5t1 x is g5]ally desirable to foll[ ! exi/+ "r-(-way s f> z possible4 ,b ! elem5t ( safety mu/ n be lo/ sight (1 & curves %\ld n preclude a view ahead = suffici5t di/ance to insure safety to vehicles4 ,! necess>y l5g? ( cle> view ahead is usually assum$ to be #bej feet1 b probably #bjj feet is a satisfactory compromise di/ance :5 a great] di/ance _c be obta9$ at reasonable co/4 ,to secure suitable sight di/ance1 ! curves mu/ be ( long radii1 & :]e possible ! "r-(-way on ! inside ( ! curve %\ld be cle>$ ( trees or bru% t w ob/ruct ! view4 ,:]e ! topography w n p]mit a long radius curve & ! view is ob/ruct$ by an embankm5t or by gr[+ crops or o!r gr[?1 x is desirable to sep>ate ! tracks ar\nd ! curve to elim9ate ! possibility ( accid5ts on ! curve4 ,?is is readily accompli%$ if ! road is surfac$1 b if x is n surfac$1 ! same end is accompli%$ by mak+ ! e>? road ( ample wid? at ! curve4 ,relocations %\ld be resort$ to :5ev] !y %ort5 di/ances or r$uce grades suffici5tly to comp5sate = ! co/4 ,int]sections4--,at road int]sections1 x is always difficult to design a curve t entirely meets ! requirem5ts ( safety because !re is n en\gh room 9 ! "r-(-way1 & en\gh additional "r-(-way mu/ be secur$ to p]mit ! prop] design4 ,x is n necess>y to provide an int]section t is adapt$ to high spe$ traffic1 :]e ma9 roads cross1 b1 on ! contr>y1 a design t automatically causes traffic to sl[ up has di/9ct advantages4 ,:]e a ma9 r\te1 improv$ ) a h>d surface1 crosses second>y roads1 x is satisfactory to cont9ue ! pav$ surface across ! int]sect+ road at normal wid? & make no provision = ! int]sect+ road traffic o!r ?an a prop]ly grad$ approa* at ! int]section4 ,sup]elevation4--,on all curv$ sections ( road1 o!r ?an int]sections1 acc\nt is tak5 ( ! t5d5cy ( motor c>s to skid t[>d ! outside ( ! curve4 ,?is t5d5cy is c\nt]act$ by design+ ! cross section ) sup]elevation4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #f ,9 ,fig4 #f1 ,f repres5ts ! tang5tial =ce t t5ds to cause skidd+4 ,w repres5ts ! weight ( ! vehicle 9 p\nds1 ,,!ta ! angle ( sup]elevat$ surface c-d1 ) ! horizontal c-a4 ,r repres5ts ! radius ( ! curve ^u :i* ! vehicle is mov+4 w is ! compon5t ( ! weight p>allel to ! surface c-d1 v velocity ( ! vehicle 9 feet p] second4 m mass ( vehicle ,w_/g ,,!ta w ,w tan ,,!ta mv#b wv#b ,f ------- ------ ,r g,r ,if ,f w !re w be no t5d5cy to skid2 h5ce ! rate ( sup]elevation necess>y 9 any case is z foll[s3 ,wv#b ,w tan ,,!ta ------- g,r v#b tan ,,!ta ------- g,r ,! am\nt ( sup]elevation requir$1 !re=e1 v>ies z ! squ>e ( ! velocity & inv]sely z ! radius ( ! curve4 ,!oretically1 ! am\nt ( ! sup]elevation %\ld increase ) a decrease 9 ! radius ( ! curve & %\ld also increase z ! squ>e ( ! spe$ ( ! vehicle4 ,on acc\nt ( ! v>iation 9 spe$s ( ! vehicles1 ! sup]elevation = curves on a highway c only be design$ to suit ! av]age spe$4 ,at turns approa*+ n9ety degrees1 ! curve is likely to be ( su* %ort radius t x is impossible to ma9ta9 ! ord9>y road spe$ ar\nd ! curve1 ev5 ) ! maximum sup]elevation p]missible4 ,x is good practice to provide ! !oretical sup]elevation on all curves hav+ radii great] ?an #cjj feet = vehicle spe$s ( ! maximum all[$ by law1 :i* is g5]ally ab\t #be miles p] h\r4 ,:]e ! radii are less ?an #cjj feet1 ! !oretical sup]elevation = ! maximum vehicle spe$s gives a sup]elevation too great = motor trucks & horse drawn vehicles & g5]ally no *>ge is made 9 sup]elevation = radii less ?an #cjj feet1 b all su* curves are con/ruct$ ) ! same sup]elevation z ! curve ) #cjj foot radius4 ,! diagram 9 ,fig4 #g %[s ! !oretical sup]elevation = v>i\s curve radii4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #g4 ,curves %[+ ,!oretical ,sup]elevation = ,v>i\s ,degrees ( ,curve = ,v>i\s ,spe$s ( ,vehicle ,at ! int]section ( important highways1 ! problem is complicat$ by ! necessity = provid+ = ?r\gh traffic 9 bo? directions & = traffic :i* may turn 9 ei!r direction & ! eng9e] mu/ provide safe roadways = ea* class ( traffic4 ,tractive ,resi/ance4--,! adoption ( a policy reg>d+ ! grades on a road involves an und]/&+ ( ! effect ( v>iation 9 ! "* ( ! surface & 9 rate ( grade ^u ! en]gy requir$ to transport a load ov] ! highway4 ,! =ces t oppose ! movem5t ( a horse drawn vehicle are fairly well und]/ood & _! magnitude has be5 measur$ by sev]al obs]v]s1 b comp>atively little is kn[n ab\t ! =ces oppos+ translation ( rubb] tir$ self-propell$ vehicles4 ,! resi/ance to translation ( a vehicle is made up ( ?ree elem5ts3 resi/ance ( ! road surface to ! roll+ :eel1 resi/ance ( ! air to ! movem5t ( ! vehicle & int]nal friction 9 ! vehicle itself4 ,roll+ ,resi/ance4--,:5 ! :eel ( a vehicle rolls ov] a road surface1 bo? ! :eel & ! surface are di/ort$4 ,if ! :eel has /eel tires & ! road surface is pla/ic1 !re w be consid]able di/ortion ( ! road surface & v little ( ! :eel4 ,a s(t rubb] tire w be di/ort$ consid]ably by a brick road surface4 ,betwe5 ^! extremes !re are innum]able comb9ations ( tire & road surface enc\nt]$1 b !re is always a c]ta9 am\nt ( di/ortion ( ei!r road surface or :eel1 or ( bo?1 :i* has ! same effect ^u ! =ce necess>y = translation z a slight upw>d grade4 ,:5 bo? ! tire & ! road surface /rongly resi/ di/ortion 7z /eel tires on vitrifi$ brick pav+71 ! resi/ance to translation is l[ b ! factor ( impact is likely to be introduc$4 ,:]e impact is pres5t1 en]gy is us$ up 9 ! p\nd+ & gr9d+ ( ! :eels on ! surface1 & ?is factor increases z ! spe$ ( translation1 & may be a consid]able item4 ,impact is especially significant on r\gh roads ) motor vehicles1 p>ticul>ly trucks1 travel+ at high spe$4 ,^! two factors 7impact & roll+ resi/ance7 comb9$ con/itute ! major "p ( ! resi/ance to translation = horse drawn vehicles4 ,int]nal ,resi/ance4--,= horse drawn vehicles1 ! int]nal resi/ance consi/s ( axle friction1 :i* is small 9 am\nt4 ,= self-propell$ vehicles1 ! int]nal resi/ance consi/s ( axle friction & friction 9 ! driv+ me*anism1 ( :i* ge> friction & ! *urn+ ( oil 9 ! ge> boxes is a l>ge item4 ,int]nal friction is ( significance 9 all self-propell$ vehicles & especially s at high spe$s4 ,air ,resi/ance4--,at sl[ spe$s1 ! resi/ance ( /ill air to translation is small1 b z ! spe$ increases1 ! air resi/ance increases rapidly & at ! usual spe$ ( ! pass5g] automobile on ! road becomes a v consid]able "p ( ! total resi/ance to translation4 ,?is factor has no significance 9 connection ) horse drawn vehicles1 b is to be tak5 into acc\nt :5 deal+ ) self-propell$ vehicles at spe$s 9 excess ( five miles p] h\r4 ,_m det]m9ations ( tractive resi/ance ) horse drawn vehicles h be5 made f "t to "t & ^! %[ values t are fairly consi/5t :5 ! inevitable v>iations 9 surfaces ( ! same type are tak5 into acc\nt4 ,table #d is a composite made up ( values select$ f v>i\s reliable s\rces & ,table #e is f exp]im5ts by ,pr(essor ,j4 ,b4 ,davidson on ,cali=nia highways4 ,,table #d ,,av]age ,,tractive ,,resi/ance ,,( ,,road ,,surfaces ,,to ,,/eel ,,tir$ ,,vehicles ,surface ,tractive =ce p] ton ,e>? pack$ & dry #ajj ,e>? du/y #ajf ,e>? muddy #aij ,s& loose #cbj ,gravel good #ea ,gravel loose #adg ,c9d]s well-pack$ #ib ,oil$ road--dry #fa ,oil$ road--wet #ajh ,macadam--v good #ch ,macadam--av]age #df ,%eet asphalt #ch ,asphaltic concrete #dj ,vitrifi$ brick--new #ef ,wood block--good #cc ,wood block--poor #db ,cobble/one #ed ,granite tramway #bg ,asphalt block #eb ,granite block #dg ,,table #e ,,tractive ,,resi/ances ,,to ,,/eel ,,tir$ ,,vehicles#a ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,condition ,tractive ,resi/ance ,te/ ,no4 ,k9d ( ,road ( ,road ,total lb4 p] ton lb4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- #bi-cj-ca ,concrete ,good1 excell5t #hc4j #bg4f 7unsurfac$7 #baa-ab ,concrete ,good1 excell5t #ij4j #cj4j 7unsurfac$7 #bf-bg-bh ,concrete #c_/h-;94,good1 excell5t #adg4f #di4b surface asphaltic oil & scre5+s #ac-ad ,concrete #c_/h-;94,good1 excell5t #aee4j #ea4f surface asphaltic oil & scre5+s #i-aj ,macadam1 ,good1 excell5t #aic4j #fd4c wat]-b\nd #bb-bc ,topeka on ,good1 excell5t #bje4e #fh4e concrete #h ,gravel ,compact1 good #bbe4j #ge4j condition #cde-dh ,oil macadam ,good1 new #bcd4e #gh4b #ddf-dg ,oil macadam ,good1 new #bdd4j #ha4c #ch ,gravel ,pack$1 9 #bdg4j #hb4c good condition #ah-ai-bj ,topeka on plank ,good condition1 #bfe4j #hh4c s(t1 wagon left m>ks #cd ,e>? road ,firm1 #a-a_/b-;94 #bgf4j #ib4j f9e loose du/ #bd-be ,topeka on plank ,good condition1 #bgh4j #ib4f b s(t #a-b-e ,e>? road ,du/ #c_/d to #b 94 #bih4j #ii4c #c-c ,e>? ,mud1 /iff1 firm #fed4j #bah4j und]nea? #f-g ,gravel ,loose1 n pack$ #ghi4j #bfc4j ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- #a ,pr(4 ,j4 ,b4 ,davidson 9 ,eng9e]+ ,news-,record1 ,augu/ #ag1 #aiah4 #b ,graphic record indicates t ! load 0 be+ accel]at$ :5 te/ 0 />t$4 #c ,drawn ) motor truck at #b-a_/b miles p] h\r4 #d ,drawn ) motor truck at #e miles p] h\r4 ,comp>atively few data are available %[+ ! tractive resi/ance ( motor vehicles1 b ! foll[+ tables are bas$ on suffici5t data to s]ve to illu/rate ! g5]al tr5d4 ,^! data on ! tractive resi/ances ( an electric truck ) solid rubb] tires on asphalt & bituli?ic1 wood1 brick & granite block1 wat]-bond$ & t> macadam1 c9d] & gravel road surfaces 7 obta9$ by ,a4 ,e4 ,k5nelly & ,o4 ,r4 ,s*urig 9 ! rese>* division ( ! electrical eng9e]+ dep>tm5t ( ! ,massa*usetts ,in/itute ( ,te*nology1 & are publi%$ 9 ,bullet9 ,no4 #aj ( ! division4 ,an electric truck 0 run ov] measur$ sections1 rang+ f #djj to #bfjj feet 9 l5g?1 surfac$ ) ^! v>i\s mat]ials1 at c]ta9 spe$s p] h\r1 rang+ f ab\t #h to ab\t #ae4e miles p] h\r4 ,! result ( ! obs]vations ( spe$s1 tractive resi/ances1 conditions ( surfaces1 etc41 7 collect$ & /udi$ 9 v>i\s comb9ations4 ,,table #f ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,tractive ,tractive ,resi/ance ,resi/ance ,type ( ,surface ,condition ( ,surface 9 lbs4 9 lbs4 p] ton p] ton #aj miles #ab4d miles p] hr4 p] hr4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,asphalt ,good #bj4d ,asphalt ,poor #bb4f #be4e ,wood block ,good #bd4b #be4c ,brick block ,good #bd4f #bf4f ,granite block ,good #dj4c #de4ge ,brick block ,slightly worn #be4a #bh4j ,granite block ) cem5t jo9ts ,good #be4e #cj4b ,macadam1 wat] bond$ ,dry & h>d #bc4c #be4h ,macadam1 wat] bond$ ,fair1 heavily oil$ #ce4i #ch4g ,macadam1 wat] bond$ ,poor1 damp1 "s holes #cf4c #da4f ,t> macadam ,good #be4g #bh4j ,t> macadam ,v s(t #cf4h #ch4g ,t> macadam ,_m holes1 s(t1 extremely poor #eb4d #fj4f ,c9d] ,fair1 h>d #bg4e #cj4f ,gravel ,fair1 du/y #cj4d #cc4j ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #h ,effect ( ,grades4--,grades increase or decrease ! resi/ance to translation due to ! fact t !re is a compon5t ( ! weight ( ! vehicles p>allel to ! road surface & opposite 9 direction to ! motion :5 ! load is asc5d+ ! hill & 9 ! same direction :5 ! vehicle is desc5d+4 ,9 ,fig4 #h ,w repres5ts ! weight ( ! vehicle1 act+ v]tically d[nw>d1 w is ! compon5t ( ! weight p]p5dicul> to ! road surface & ,w#b is ! compon5t p>allel to ! road surface4 ,w#b ,w tan ,,!ta4 tan ,,!ta #j4ja p] c5t ( grade4 ,w#b #j4ja ,w p] c5t grade4 ,w#b #j4ja #bjjj p] c5t ( grade1 = ea* ton ( weight ( vehicle4 ,h5ce ,w#b #bj lbs4 p] ton ( load = ea* "o p] c5t ( grade4 ,! gravity =ce act+ ^u a vehicle p>allel to ! surface on a grade is !re=e #bj lbs4 p] ton = ea* "o p] c5t ( grade & ?is =ce t5ds ei!r to ret>d or to accel]ate ! movem5t ( ! vehicle4 ,let ,f ! sum ( all =ces oppos+ ! translation ( a vehicle4 ,f fr fi fp fa fg 7#a7 :]e fr roll+ resi/ance ( road surface4 fi resi/ance due to int]nal friction 9 ! vehicle4 fp resi/ance due to impact ( ! road surface4 fa resi/ance due to air4 fg resi/ance due to grade1 :i* is positive :5 asc5d+ & negative :5 desc5d+4 ,all ( ! above 9 p\nds p] ton ( #bjjj lbs4 ,let ,t ! tractive ef=t appli$ to ! vehicle by any means4 ,t mu/ be great] ?an ,f 9 ord] to move ! vehicle4 ,by an inspection ( 7#a71 x w be se5 t = a giv5 vehicle & any type ( road surface1 all t]ms are con/ant except fa & fg4 fa v>ies z ! spe$ ( ! vehicle & ! driv] c mat]ially decrease fa by r$uc+ spe$4 fg v>ies ) ! rate ( grade4 ,= any vehicle load$ = satisfactory op]ation on a level road ) ! p[] available1 ! limit+ condition is ! factor fg4 ,if ! load is su* z b>ely to p]mit motion on a level road1 any hill w /all ! vehicle4 ,!re=e1 9 practice ! load is always s adju/$ t !re is an excess ( p[] on a level road4 ,if draft animals are employ$ ! load is usually ab\t "o f\r? ( t :i* ! animals c\ld actually move by _! maximum ef=t = a %ort p]iod4 ,) motor vehicles1 ! excess p[] is provid$ = by ge>+4 ,if x be assur$ a load ( conv5i5t size is be+ mov$ on a level road by draft animals1 !re is a limit to ! rate ( grade up :i* ! load c be drawn by ! maximum ef=t ( ! animals4 ,te/s indicate t ! horse c pull at a spe$ ( #b-a_/b miles p] h\r1 an am\nt equal to #a_/h to #a_/aj ( its weight1 & = %ort int]vals c pull #c_/d ( its weight4 ,! maximum ef=t possible is !re=e six times ! av]age pull1 b ?is is possible = only %ort int]vals4 ,a v %ort /eep hill w\ld af=d a condition :]e su* ef=t w\ld be utiliz$4 ,b = hills ( any l5g?1 t is1 "o hundr$ feet or m b n to exce$ five hundr$ feet1 x is safe to c\nt on ! draft animal pull+ ?ree times 8 normal pull+ p[] = su/a9$ ef=t4 ,! limit+ grade = ! horse drawn vehicle is !re=e "o requir+1 to ov]come ! effect ( grade1 or fg1 a pull 9 excess ( ?ree times t ex]t$ on ! level4 ,a team ( draft animals weigh+ #ahjj lbs4 ea* c\ld ex]t a cont9u\s pull ( ab\t #a_/aj ( _! weight or #cfj lbs4 ,if x be assum$ t ! "* ( ! vehicle & ! road surface is su* t fr fi fp fa #ajj lbs4 p] gross ton on a level section ( road1 !n ! gross load = ! team w\ld be #c4f tons4 ,! same team c\ld = a %ort "t ex]t an additional pull ( ?ree times #cfj lbs4 or #ajhj lbs4 ,= ea* #a p] c5t ( grade a pull ( #bj lbs4 p] ton w\ld be requir$ or fg = ! #c4f tons load w\ld be #gb lbs4 = ea* p] c5t ( grade4 ,at t rate1 ! limit+ grade = ! team w\ld be fifte5 p] c5t4 ,if1 h[ev]1 ! "* ( ! vehicle & ! road surface 7 su* t fr fi fp fa #fj lbs4 p] gross ton on a level section ( road1 ! gross load = ! team on ! level w\ld be #f tons1 & ! limit+ grade #i p] c5t4 ,! above discussion s]ves to illu/rate ! desirability ( adopt+ a l[ rul+ or limit+ grade = roads to be surfac$ ) a mat]ial hav+ l[ tractive resi/ance & ! poor economy ( adopt+ a l[ rul+ grade = e>? roads or roads to be surfac$ ) mat]ial ( high tractive resi/ance4 ,x may be que/ion$ :e!r horse drawn traffic %\ld be ! limit+ consid]ation = ma9 trunk l9e highways1 b x is c]ta9 t = a numb] ( ye>s horse drawn traffic w be a factor on second>y roads4 ,9 ! case ( motor vehicles1 excess p[] is provid$ by means ( ge>s & no difficulty is enc\nt]$ 9 mov+ vehicles ov] grades up to #ab or #ae p] c5t1 s t any grade t w\ld ord9>ily be tol]at$ on a ma9 highway w pres5t no ob/acle to motor vehicles1 b ! economy ( su* design is yet to be inve/igat$4 ,en]gy ,loss on ,acc\nt ( ,grades4--,:e!r a vehicle is horse drawn or motor driv51 en]gy has be5 exp5d$ 9 mov+ x up a hill4 ,a "p ( ?is en]gy has be5 requir$ to ov]come ! v>i\s resi/ances o!r ?an grade1 & t has be5 dissipat$1 b ! en]gy requir$ to translate ! vehicle aga9/ ! resi/ance due to grade has be5 trans=m$ into pot5tial en]gy & c be p>tially or :olly recov]$ :5 ! vehicle desc5ds a grade1 provid$ ! physical conditions p]mit its utilization4 ,if ! grade is s /eep z to cause ! vehicle to accel]ate rapidly1 ! brakes mu/ be appli$ & loss ( en]gy results4 ,! coa/+ grade is dep5d5t ^u ! "* ( ! surface & ! nature ( ! vehicle4 ,9 ! cases discuss$ 9 ! prec$+ p>agraph1 ! coa/+ grades w\ld be five p] c5t & ?ree p] c5t respectively4 ,= horse drawn vehicles !n ! economical grades w\ld be ?ree & five p] c5t1 :i* aga9 emphasizes ! necessity ( l[] grades on roads t are surfac$ ?an on roads ) no we>+ surface o!r ?an ! natural soil4 ,! !ory ( grades is some:at diff]5t :5 motor vehicles are consid]$1 s9ce x is all[able to p]mit consid]ably high] spe$ ?an ) horse drawn vehicles be=e apply+ ! brakes & ! effect ( grade c be utiliz$ n only 9 translat+ ! vehicle d[n ! grade1 b also 9 ov]com+ resi/ances due to me*anical friction & ! air4 ,on long grades1 a spe$ might be atta9$ t w\ld require ! use ( ! brake or ! same condition might apply on v /eep %ort grades4 ,!re is at pres5t insuffici5t data on ! tractive resi/ance & air resi/ance ) motor vehicles to p]mit ! e/abli%+ ( rules relative to grade1 b exp]i5ce indicates a few g5]al pr9ciples t may be accept$4 ,if a hill is ( su* rate ( grade & ( su* l5g? t x is n necess>y to use ! brake x may be assum$ t no en]gy loss results s f> z motor vehicles are conc]n$4 ,:]e !re is no turn at ! bottom ( ! hill & ! physical condition ( ! road p]mits spe$s up to ?irty-five or =ty miles p] h\r grades ( five p] c5t are p]missible if ! l5g? does n exce$ five hundr$ feet & grades ( ?ree p] c5t "o ?\s& feet long are all[able4 ,x is a r settl$ conviction among highway eng9e]s t on trunk l9e highways ! maximum grade %\ld be six p] c5t1 unless a v l>ge am\nt ( grad+ is necess>y to rea* t grade4 ,undulat+ ,roads4--,_m hills exi/ ^u highways1 ! grade ( :i* is mu* bel[ ! maximum p]missible4 ,if !re are grades rang+ f #j to #d p] c5t1 ) a few hills ^u :i* x is impracticable to rea* a grade ( less ?an six p] c5t1 x is que/ionable economy to r$uce ! grades t are already l[] ?an ! all[able maximum4 ,x is especially unju/ifiable to incur exp5se 9 r$uc+ a grade f two p] c5t to "o & "o-half p] c5t on a road ^u :i* !re are also grades 9 excess ( t am\nt4 ,! undulat+ road is n uneconomical unless ! grades are above ! all[able maximum or are exceptionally long or ! alignm5t foll[s %ort radius curves4 ,safety ,consid]ations4--,on hills x is especially desirable to provide = safety & curves on hills are always m dang]\s ?an on level sections ( road4 ,!re=e1 x is desirable to provide z flat grades z possible at ! curves & to cut away ! b]m at ! side ( ! road s z to give a view ahead = ab\t ?ree hundr$ feet4 ,:e!r a road be level or on a hill1 safety %\ld always be consid]$ & ! mo/ important safety precaution is to provide a cle> view ahead = a suffici5t di/ance to enable motor vehicle driv]s to avoid accid5ts4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #i4--,types ( ,gu>d ,rails ,gu>d ,rail+4--,:5 a section ( road is on an embankm5t1 gu>d rails are provid$ at ! top ( ! side slope to s]ve z w>n+s ( dang]1 & to prev5t vehicles f actually go+ ov] ! embankm5t 9 case ( skidd+1 or if = any reason ! driv] loses control4 ,^! are usually /rongly built1 b w\ld h>dly re/ra9 a vehicle :i* /ruck at high spe$4 ,b !y are adequate = ! protection ( a driv] :o uses reasonable c>e4 ,a typical gu>d rail is %[n 9 ,fig4 #i1 b _m o!r designs ( simil> nature are employ$4 ,at v dang]\s turns a solid plank wall six or eight feet high is sometimes built ( su* sub/antial con/ruction z to )/& ! sev]e/ %ock )\t be+ displac$4 ,trees1 %rubs & ! b]ms at ! side ( ! road 9 cuts are p>ticul>ly likely to ob/ruct ! view & %\ld be cle>$ or cut back s f> z is necess>y to provide ! prop] sight di/ance4 ,wid? ( ,roadway4--,= roads c>ry+ mix$ traffic1 #i feet ( wid? is ne$$ = a s+le l9e ( vehicles & #ah feet = #b l9es ( vehicles4 ,9 accordance ) ! above1 second>y roads1 c>ry+ p]haps #be to #ej vehicles p] day1 may h an available travel$ way #ah feet wide4 ,^? m heavily travel$ may require room = ?ree vehicles to pass at any place & !re=e h an available travel$ way #cj feet wide4 ,great] wid? is seldom requir$ on rural highways1 & #bj feet is ! prevail+ wid? = ma9 highways4 ,cross ,section4--,! cross section ( ! road is design$ to give ! requir$ wid? ( travel$ way1 &1 9 addition1 provide ! dra9age *annels t may be ne$$4 ,9 regions ( small ra9fall ! side dit*es w be ( small capacity or may be entirely omitt$1 b usually "s dit* is provid$4 ,! transition f ! travel$ way to dit* %\ld be a gradual slope s z to avoid ! dang] incid5t to abrupt *ange 9 ! %ape ( ! cross section4 ,! dep? ( dit* may be v>i$ )\t *ang+ to wid? or slope ( ! travel$ "p ( ! road z %[n 9 ,fig4 #aj4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aj ,control ( ,erosion4--,! con/ruction ( a highway may be utiliz$ to control g5]al erosion to "s ext5t1 p>ticul>ly :5 public highways exi/ e mile or two & are laid out on a gridiron sy/em1 z is ! case 9 _m ( ! prairie /ates4 ,! /reams cross ! highways at frequ5t int]vals & ! culv]ts c be plac$ s z effectually to prev5t an increase 9 dep? ( ! /ream4 ,?is w to "s ext5t limit ! erosion above ! culv]t & if su* culv]ts are built e mile or two along ! /ream1 consid]able effect is produc$4 ,:]e small /reams h _! orig9 a %ort di/ance f a culv]t "u :i* !y pass1 x is sometimes advisable to provide tile = c>ry+ ! wat] "u ! road1 in/ead ( ! culv]t1 &1 by cont9u+ ! tile into ! dra9age area ( ! culv]t1 elim9ate ! fl[ ( surface wat] & reclaim consid]able areas ( l&4 ,erosion 9 ! dit*es along a highway c be prev5t$ by con/ruct+ weirs across ! dit* at frequ5t int]vals1 ?us effectually prev5t+ an increase 9 ! dep? ( ! dit*4 ,:]ev] wat] fl[s at a velocity suffici5t to produce erosion or :]e ! dra9age *annel *anges abruptly f a high] to a l[] level1 pav$ gutt]s1 tile or pipe *annels %\ld be employ$ to prev5t erosion4 ,private ,entrances4--,entrance to private prop]ty along ! highway is by means ( driveways lead+ (f ! ma9 road4 ,^! %\ld always be provid$ = 9 ! design s z to insure easy & conv5i5t access to ! prop]ty4 ,! driveways w usually cross ! side dit* along ! road & culv]ts w be requir$ to c>ry ! wat] "u ! driveway4 ,driveways t cross a gutt] by means ( a pavem5t 9 ! gutt] are usually unsatisfactory1 & to cross ! gutt] )\t provid+ a pavem5t is to insure /oppage ( ! fl[ at ! cross+4 ,! culv]t at a driveway entrance mu/ be l>ge en\gh to take ! dit* wat] readily or x w div]t ! wat] to ! roadway itself4 ,g5]ally end walls on su* culv]ts are n requir$ z 9 ! case ( culv]ts across a highway4 ,ae/hetics4--,mu* ( ! traffic on ! public highways is = pleasure & relaxation & any?+ t t5ds to increase ! attractiv5ess ( ! highways is to be enc\rag$4 ,usually ! roadside is a mass ( bloom 9 ! fall1 gold5rod1 a/]s & o!r h>dy annuals be+ especially beautiful4 ,9 "s /ates wild roses & o!r l[ bu%es are plant$ to s]ve ! two-fold purpose ( assi/+ to prev5t erosion & to beautify ! roadside4 ,9 humid areas trees ( any consid]able size %ade ! road surface & are a di/9ct disadvantage to roads surfac$ ) ! less durable mat]ials su* z s&-clay or gravel4 ,x is d\btful if ! same is true ( pav$ surfaces1 b ! trees %\ld be f> en\gh back f ! travel$ way to af=d a cle> view ahead4 ,%rubs are n objectionable f any view-po9t & are to be enc\rag$ = _! beauty1 s long z !y d n ob/ruct ! view at turns4 ,,*apt] ,v ,,e>? ,,roads ,highways con/ruct$ )\t ! addition ( surfac+ mat]ial to ! natural soil ( ! "r-(-way are usually call$ e>? roads4 ,b if ! natural soil exhibits peculi> *>act]i/ics or is ( a di/9ct type1 ! road may be ref]r$ to by "s di/9ctive "n indicat+ t fact4 ,h5ce1 roads are ref]r$ to z clay1 gumbo1 s&y or cali*e roads z local cu/om may elect4 ,9 ea* case1 h[ev]1 ! we>+ surface consi/s ( ! natural soil1 :i* may h be5 %ap$ & smoo!d = traffic or may be 9 its natural /ate except = a trackway =m$ by ! vehicles t h us$ x4 ,v>iations 9 ,soils4--,! nature ( ! exi/+ soil w obvi\sly det]m9e ! s]viceability & physical *>act]i/ics ( ! road surface x af=ds4 ,t is to say t ev5 "u ! mo/ favorable conditions "s e>? roads w be mu* m s]viceable ?an o!rs1 due to ! bett] /ability ( ! natural soil4 ,"s soils are d5se & some:at t\gh :5 dry & !re=e resi/ to a degree ! t5d5cy ( vehicles to gr9d away ! p>ticles & dissipate !m 9 ! =m ( du/4 ,su* soils reta9 a reasonably smoo? trackway 9 dry wea!r ev5 :5 subject$ to consid]able traffic4 ,o!r soils d n possess ! inh]5t t5acity & /ability to enable !m to resi/ ! action ( :eels & consequ5tly gr9d away rapidly4 ,roads on su* soils become v du/y4 ,^! are ! extremes & betwe5 !m are _m types ( soils or mixtures ( soils possess+ v>y+ degrees ( /ability1 &1 9 consequ5ce1 diff]+ rates ( we>4 ,simil>ly ! v>i\s soils exhibit diff]5t degrees ( /ability :5 wet4 ,x is to be expect$ t soils w diff] ) ! geographical location1 = x is well kn[n t !re is a great v>iation 9 soils 9 ! v>i\s p>ts ( ! _w4 ,b wide diff]5ces are also enc\nt]$ 9 ! soil on roads v ne> ea* o!r & ev5 on successive /ret*es ( ! same road4 ,x is = ?is reason t e>? roads (t5 exhibit great diff]5ces 9 s]viceability ev5 9 a re/rict$ area4 ,v>iation 9 ,ra9fall4--,! /ability ( a soil & its ability to support ! weight ( vehicles v>ies greatly ) ! am\nt ( wat] 9 ! soil4 ,a c]ta9 small am\nt ( moi/ure 9 ! soil is b5eficial 9 t practically e soil compacts m readily :5 moi/ ?an :5 dry because ! moi/ure aids 9 b9d+ toge!r ! p>ticles4 ,b mo/ soils also become un/able :5 ! am\nt ( wat] pres5t is 9 excess ( t small am\nt ref]r$ to above & ! /ability decreases v rapidly z ! am\nt ( wat] 9 ! soil increases4 ,! s]viceability ( an e>? road w *ange cont9ually z ! moi/ure cont5t ( ! soil *anges & consequ5tly ! g5]al utility ( ! e>? road sy/em 9 any locality is dep5d5t to a consid]able ext5t ^u ! am\nt & seasonal di/ribution ( precipitation4 ,! me?ods ( ma9ta9+ e>? roads appropriate to any locality mu/ ( necessity be adapt$ to ! climatic conditions1 & ! am\nt ( "w requir$ to give ! highe/ possible degree ( s]viceability w be exce$+ly v>iable f season to season & f place to place4 ,9 regions ( great humidity1 e>? roads may be expect$ to h a l[ av]age ( s]viceability1 :ile 9 arid regions !y may possess suffici5t durability = a consid]able volume ( traffic4 ,! design adopt$ = e>? roads & ! me?ods ( ma9t5ance foll[$ %\ld !re=e be c>efully evolv$ to meet ! soil & climate conditions :]e ! roads are locat$4 ,^! w diff] greatly ?r\gh\t a /ate or ev5 a c\nty4 ,cross ,sections4--,! g5]al pr9ciples ( road design 7 set =? 9 ,*apt] ,,iv4 ,9 ,fig4 #aa are %[n typical cross sections = e>? roads adapt$ to v>i\s conditions z indicat$4 ,x is n app>5t t "o =m ( dit* is p>ticul>ly pref]able to ! o!r & s9ce "s eng9e]s pref] ! ,v section & o!rs ! trapezoidal section bo? are %[n4 ,x w\ld appe> t ! ,v %ap$ dit* is some:at ! easi] to con/ruct ) ! blade grad] :ile ! trapezoidal is readily excavat$ ) ! slip or fresno scrap]4 ,! dit* capacity requir$ & consequ5tly ! dim5sions w dep5d ^u ! dra9age requirem5ts1 z 0 po9t$ out 9 ,*apt] ,,iii4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aa4 ,cross ,section = ,e>? ,roads ,,e>? ,,roads ,,9 ,,regions ,,( ,,consid]able ,,ra9fall ,9 ! zones :]e ! annual precipitation exce$s #cj in*es di/ribut$ ov] sev]al mon?s1 e>? roads w be uns]viceable = a consid]able p]iod ea* ye> unless !y are con/ruct$ s z to m9imize ! effect ( wat]4 ,?is is done by provid+ = ! be/ possible dra9age & by adopt+ a me?od ( ma9t5ance t w re/ore ! surface to a smoo? condition z quickly z possible aft] a p]iod ( ra9y wea!r or aft] ! fro/ comes out 9 ! spr+4 ,be=e ! con/ruction ( ! desir$ cross section is und]tak51 all ( ! grade r$uction %\ld be complet$1 except = m9or cuts :i* c be h&l$ ) ! elevat+ grad] 9 ! mann] t w be describ$ pres5tly4 ,:]e any consid]able *ange 9 grade is to be effect$1 ! e>? c be mov$ 9 sev]al ways & ( ^! ! mo/ economical _c be readily det]m9$4 ,ord9>ily a contractor or a c\nty w use ! equipm5t t happ5s to be at h& ev5 ?\gh "s o!r might be m advantage\s4 ,elevat+ ,grad]4--,:]e ! topography is su* z to p]mit its use1 ! elevat+ grad] is employ$ 9 grade r$uction to load ! e>? into dump wagons 9 :i* x is haul$ to ! fill or wa/e bank4 ,! elevat+ grad] consi/s ess5tially ( a heavy %e> pl[ or disc pl[ :i* loos5s ! e>? & deposits x on a mov+ canvas apron4 ,! apron c>ries ! mat]ial up an incl9e & deposits x into a wagon :i* is driv5 along "u ! end ( ! apron4 ,:5 ! wagon is load$1 ! grad] is /opp$ :ile ! load$ wagon is haul$ out & an empty "o drawn into position4 ,! motive p[] = ! elevat+ grad] is ei!r a tractor or five or six teams ( mules4 ,= _m k9ds ( "w1 p>ticul>ly :]e frequ5t turn+ is necess>y or :]e ! gr\nd is yield+1 mules are pref]able to a tractor4 ,! apron is op]at$ by ge>+ f ! re> :eels ( ! grad]4 ,g5]ally f\r mules are hit*$ to a pu%] 9 ! re> ( ! grad] & six or eight 9 ! lead4 ,?is me?od ( grade r$uction is p>ticul>ly advantage\s :5 ! mat]ial mu/ be haul$ a di/ance ( #ejj y>ds or m1 because wagon haul+ 9 su* cases is ! mo/ economical me?od to employ4 ,a tractor may be us$ to draw ! elevat+ grad] & "o hav+ a comm]cial rat+ ( #cj to #de horsep[] is requir$4 ,maney ,grad]4--,if ! haul is long & ! nature ( ! cut w n p]mit ! use ( ! elevat+ grad] because ( excessive grades or lack ( room = turn+1 a grad] ( ! ,maney type may be us$4 ,?is consi/s ( a scoop ( ab\t "o cubic y>d capacity1 susp5d$ f a f\r-:eel wagon ge>4 ,:5 load+1 ! scoop is let d[n & fill$ 9 ! same mann] z a two-:eel$ scrap] or :eel]4 ,! pull requir$ to fill a ,maney grad] is s great t a tractor is ord9>ily employ$ 9 place ( a snap team4 ,! tractor is hit*$ at ! end ( ! tongue1 )\t int]f]+ ) ! team draw+ ! grad]4 ,"o team readily h&les ! grad] aft] x is load$4 ,= ?is s]vice a tractor hav+ a comm]cial ration+ ( #be to #cj horsep[] is requir$4 ,:eel ,scrap]4--,= mov+ e>? = di/ances betwe5 #aej & #ejj y>ds1 ! :eel scrap] ( a capacity ( ab\t #a-a_/b y>ds is q g5]ally employ$4 ,! soil mu/ be loos5$ ) a pl[ be=e x c conv5i5tly be load$ into ! :eel] & a heavy pl[ is ord9>ily employ$ = t purpose4 ,two furr[s ) ! pl[ w loos5 a /rip ( e>? ab\t z wide z ! scoop ( ! scrap] & if m is loos5$ x w be pack$ d[n by ! scrap]s :eel+ 9 place to load4 ,a help] or snap team is employ$ to assi/ 9 load+1 aft] :i* ! :eel scrap] is h&l$ by "o team4 ,slip ,scrap]4--,! slip scrap] diff]s f ! :eel scrap] 9 t ! scoop is n susp5d$ f :eels b is dragg$ along ! gr\nd4 ,x is drawn by "o team & ! capacity is two to five cubic feet1 b ! mat]ial spills out to "s ext5t z ! scrap] is dragg$ along & ! me?od is n suitable = long hauls1 #ajj feet be+ ab\t ! economical limit4 ,fresno ,scrap]4--,! ,fresno scrap] is "o =m ( slip scrap] requir+ f\r horses or mules = effici5t "w4 ,x diff]s some:at f ! ord9>y slip scrap] 9 %ape & is ( l>g] capacity1 b is a drag type ( scrap] mu* favor$ 9 ! we/]n /ates4 ,,%ap+ ,,to ,,prop] ,,cross ,,section ,if a road has be5 grad$ s t ! pr(ile is satisfactory or if ! exi/+ pr(ile ( ! location is satisfactory1 & ! surface is to be %ap$ to a prescrib$ cross section1 ei!r ! elevat+ grad] or ! blade grad] may be employ$4 ,elevat+ ,grad] ,"w4--,if ! elevat+ grad] is us$ 9 %ap+ ! e>? road1 ! apron w be l[]$ & ! mat]ial w be excavat$ at ! sides ( ! road & deposit$ on ! middle portion4 ,if slight *anges 9 grade are desir$1 wagons w accompany ! grad] & cat* "u ! apron at ! high places & haul ! mat]ial to ! l[ places4 ,aft] ! e>? has be5 deposit$ x mu/ be work$ ov] to secure ! correct cross section & be made passable = vehicles4 ,?is requires t clods be brok51 we$s & grass t are mix$ ) ! e>? be remov$ by h>r[+ & =k+ & t ! surface be c>efully smoo!d ) a blade grad]4 ,?is latt] op]ation w h to be repeat$ sev]al times be=e a satisfactory surface is secur$4 ,b ?is miscellane\s "w is highly important & "u no circum/ances ought to be neglect$4 ,no?+ s detracts f an o!rwise cr$itable piece ( "w z failure to provide a smoo? surface = ! use ( vehicles4 ,x is especially uncom=table = ! us]s ( a highway if sods & we$s 9 quantity are left 9 ! road aft] x has be5 grad$4 ,! humus t w be left 9 ! soil z ! vegetable matt] decays increases ! porosity ( ! road surface mak+ x m absorb5t ?an soil )\t humus4 ,?is increases ! susceptibility to s(t5+ f /orm wat] or gr\nd wat]4 ,! tractor c advantage\sly be us$ to draw ! elevat+ grad] on ?is class ( "w1 b w be greatly h&icapp$ if !re are wet sections along ! road1 ?r\gh :i* ! tractor mu/ be driv54 ,9 _m cases its use is prohibit$ by su* conditions & = all-r\nd s]vice ( ?is "*1 mules are pref]r$ = motive p[]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ab4--,tractor-grad] ,outfit ,use ( ,blade ,grad]4--,heavy blade grad]s design$ to be drawn by a tractor are suitable = %ap+ ! e>? road4 ,"s ( ^! h blades #ab feet long & excell5t control = regulat+ ! dep? ( cutt+4 ,(t5 two su* grad]s are op]at$ t&em4 ,^! ma*9es h a device :i* p]mits ! op]ator to /e] ! grad] indep5d5tly ( ! tractor4 ,?us ! grad] c be /e]$ (f to ! side to cut out ! dit*es1 :ile ! tractor cont9ues to travel on ! firm "p ( ! road4 ,e>? mov$ ) ! blade grad] is usually fairly free f l>ge lumps & c readily be smoo!d to a satisfactory surface = ! use ( traffic4 ,! sods & we$s w be drawn into ! road along ) ! e>? j z !y are :5 ! elevat+ grad] is employ$4 ,precaution mu/ !re=e be tak5 to elim9ate !m be=e ! vegetable matt] decays1 & to smoo? ! surface = ! use ( traffic4 ,co/s4--,! co/ ( %ap+ an e>? road 9 ! mann] describ$ above w v>y ?r\gh r wide limits because ! nature & am\nt ( "w to be done v>ies s greatly4 ,"s roads c be grad$ satisfactorily = #cjj4jj p] mile1 :ile o!rs w co/ #gjj4jj4 ,b #dbe4jj p] mile may be tak5 z an av]age = blade or elevat+ grad] "w plus a mod]ate am\nt ( grade r$uction 9 ! way ( remov+ slight knolls4 ,= ! am\nt ( grade r$uction necess>y 9 roll+ c\ntry1 foll[$ by grad] %ap+1 #ajjj4jj to #ahjj4jj p] mile w be requir$4 ,! me?od is n adapt$ to roll+ c\ntry :]e ! roads are undulat+ & require "s grade r$uction on e hill4 ,= hilly roads "o ( ! me?ods describ$ = grade r$uction w be requir$ & ! co/ w obvi\sly dep5d ^u ! am\nt ( e>? mov$4 ,av]ages ( co/ figures mean no?+ 9 su* cases z ! co/ may rea* #aj1jjj4jj p] mile1 or may be z l[ z #bjjj4jj p] mile4 ,ma9t5ance4--,reg>dless ( ! c>e ) :i* an e>? road has be5 grad$1 x w be yield+ & w readily absorb wat] = a long "t aft] ! completion ( ! "w4 ,! condition ( ! surface w naturally det]iorate rapidly dur+ ! fir/ season x is us$ unless ! road receives ! con/ant ma9t5ance t is a pr]equisite to satisfactory s]viceability4 ,! road drag is g5]ally recomm5d$ = ?is purpose1 & if a drag is prop]ly us$ x w s]ve to re/ore ! %ape ( ! surface z fa/ z x is de/roy$ by traffic4 ,good results ) ! drag dep5d ^u *oos+ ! prop] "t to drag & ^u do+ ! "w 9 ! "r way :5 us+ ! drag4 ,! be/ "t to drag is z soon aft] a ra9 z ! road has dri$ out en\gh to pack "u traffic4 ,if ! "w is done :ile ! road is too wet1 ! fir/ vehicles travel+ ! road aft] x has be5 dragg$ w make ruts & to a consid]able ext5t (fset ! good done by ! drag4 ,if ! road is too dry1 ! drag w n smoo? ! irregul>ities4 ,a little obs]vation w be requir$ to det]m9e ! prop] "t = dragg+ on any p>ticul> soil1 b usually aft] a ra9 or ?aw !re is a p]iod la/+ a day or two :5 conditions are ab\t "r4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ac4--,road ,drag ,! drag is us$ m]ely to re/ore ! %ape ( ! surface & to d s a small am\nt ( mat]ial is drawn t[>d ! middle ( ! road4 ,b !re mu/ n be a ridge ( loose mat]ial left 9 ! middle aft] ! "w is complet$4 ,"s patrolm5 />t at "o side ( ! road & gradually "w across ! road on successive trips1 f9ally f9i%+ up at ! side opposite t at :i* ! />t 0 made4 ,! next dragg+ %\ld />t on ! opposite side f ! fir/ if t me?od is foll[$4 ,by %ift+ 8 weight on ! drag1 ! op]ator c adju/ ! cutt+ edge s t v little loose mat]ial is mov$ crosswise ( ! road & t is ! prop] me?od to pursue4 ,9 t case no ridge w rema9 at ! middle ( ! road4 ,if a slight "o is left x %\ld be remov$ by a f9al trip ) ! drag4 ,9 addition to ! dragg+1 we$s mu/ be cut along ! road ab\t twice a ye>1 ! dit*es mu/ be kept clean$ out & culv]ts op54 ,all ( ! ma9t5ance = #aj miles ( e>? road c be accompli%$ by "o man giv+ 8 entire "t to ! "w1 & t is ! only me?od t has prov5 adequate to ! problem4 ,,e>? ,,roads ,,9 ,,arid ,,regions ,9 areas :]e ! ra9fall is less ?an #ah in*es p] ye>1 & especially :]e x is #aj in*es or less1 an entirely diff]5t road problem exi/s4 ,! effect ( precipitation is ( significance prim>ily f ! /&po9t ( erosion1 & ! design ( cross section & dit*es & ! culv]t provisions are entirely diff]5t f ^? necess>y 9 humid regions4 ,frequ5tly ! ra9fall 9 semi-arid regions w be seasonal & provision mu/ be made to c>e = a l>ge volume ( wat] dur+ ! ra9y season1 b1 9 g5]al1 road design is adapt$ to prev5tion ( erosion r ?an to elim9ation ( gr\nd wat] effects1 or ! s(t5+ effects ( surface wat]4 ,g5]ally ! ra9y p]iod does n la/ long en\gh to w>rant exp5sive con/ruction to elim9ate its g5]al effects4 ,9 fact1 ! saturation ( ! soil is m likely to be a b5efit ?an o!rwise4 ,e>? roads are likely to be satisfactory except :]e ! traffic is suffici5t to gr9d ! surface into du/ to su* an ext5t t an excessive du/ lay] is produc$4 ,9 su* locations ! problem is "o ( provid+ a durable surface unaffect$ by long cont9u$ dry wea!r4 ,grade r$uction w h ! same importance z 9 humid areas & w be c>ri$ out 9 ! same way4 ,ma9t5ance w consi/ 9 repair+ ! damage f occasional floods & 9 remov+ or prev5t+ accumulations ( drift+ s& or du/4 ,crude petroleum oils h be5 satisfactory = ma9t5ance 9 su* locations :5 us$ on /able soils4 ,value ( ,e>? ,roads4--,! s]viceability ( ! e>? road dep5ds to a l>ge ext5t ^u ! c>e ex]cis$ 9 its ma9t5ance4 ,! only "p ( e>? road con/ruction t is p]man5t is ! grade r$uction4 ,! cross section t is s c>efully %ap$ at consid]able co/ may flatt5 out 9 "o or two ye>s1 especially if ! road goes ?r\gh unusually wet p]iods4 ,traffic w cont9ually seek a new track dur+ ! p]iod :5 ! road is muddy & is z likely to cross ! dit* to ! sod ne> ! f5ce z to use any o!r "p ( ! road4 ,cont9ual & p]si/5t ma9t5ance is !re=e ess5tial to ev5 reasonable s]viceability4 ,at be/ ! e>? road w be a poor facility = a consid]able p]iod ea* ye> 9 ! regions ( ye>-ar\nd ra9fall4 ,9 mo/ localities1 roads ( di/9ctly m9or importance are ( necessity only e>? roads & = ! comp>atively small t]ritory !y s]ve & ! small am\nt ( traffic1 !y probably s]ve ! purpose4 ,= roads ( any importance 9 ! humid areas ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ! e>? road _c c>ry satisfactorily ! traffic ( a prosp]\s & busy community4 ,,*apt] ,,vi ,,s&-,,clay ,,& ,,gravel ,,roads ,9 ,*apt] ,,iv1 m5tion 0 made ( ! v>iation 9 s]viceability ( road surfaces compos$ ( ! natural soil exi/+ on ! "r-(-way ( ! road4 ,x has be5 f\nd t soils ( a clayey nature 9 :i* !re is a consid]able p]c5tage ( s& usually af=d a s]viceable road surface = light or mod]ate traffic1 especially 9 areas :]e climatic conditions are favorable4 ,a /udy ( ^! soils1 toge!r ) ! con/ruction ( exp]im5tal roads ( v>i\s mixtures ( s& & clay1 has l$ to a fairly compreh5sive und]/&+ ( ! pr9ciples ( con/ruction & range ( capacity ( ?is type ( road surface1 :i* is kn[n z ! s&-clay road4 ,! s&-clay road surface consi/s ( a natural or artificial mixture ( s& & clay1 9 :i* ! am\nt ( clay is some:at great] ?an suffici5t to fill ! voids 9 ! dry s&4 ,x may be assum$ t ! s& conta9s #dj p] c5t ( voids & t at lea/ #de p] c5t ( clay is requir$ to fill ! voids & b9d ! s& gra9s toge!r1 because ! clay spreads ! s& gra9s ap>t dur+ ! mix+1 ?us hav+ ! effect ( increas+ ! voids4 ,z a matt] ( exp]im5t1 x is f\nd to be impractical to secure by available con/ruction me?ods mixtures ( suffici5t uni=mity to r5d] x necess>y to ex]cise great exactness 9 proportion+ ! compon5ts1 b reasonable c>e 9 proportion+ ! mat]ials is desirable4 ,successful utilization ( ?is type ( surface requires consid]able /udy ( available mat]ials & inve/igations ( _! behavior :5 comb9$4 ,ext5sive & exhau/ive exp]im5ts h be5 conduct$ ) s&-clay mixtures 9 v>i\s places :]e !y are widely us$ = road surfaces & ! foll[+ g5]al pr9ciples h be5 d$uc$4 ,! ,b9d]4--,9 ! s&-clay road1 /ability is obta9$ by utiliz+ ! bond+ prop]ties possess$ to "s degree by all soils4 ,naturally ?is *>act]i/ic may be expect$ to v>y widely ) ! sev]al types ( soil4 ,x is g5]ally consid]$ to be a common prop]ty ( clay1 b ! t]m clay is a g5]al "o t is (t5 appli$ to soils diff]+ greatly 9 physical *>act]i/ics & ! t]m !re=e loses its significance 9 ?is connection4 ,^? soils t are prop]ly & te*nically call$ clay are decid$ly /icky :5 wet & are ! be/ mat]ials = s&-clay con/ruction4 ,( ! clays1 ^? t produce a t\gh /icky mud are be/4 ,?is c be te/$ by mix+ a small quantity into a /iff mud & mold+ x into a ball & imm]s+ 9 wat]4 ,if ! ball reta9s its %ape = "s little "t1 x is likely to prove a v satisfactory b9d]1 b1 if x becomes pla/ic & loses its %ape1 x w be an inf]ior b9d]1 z a g5]al rule4 ,! ball clay1 z ! =m] is call$1 may be ( any color common to soils1 n necess>ily yell[ or r$di% z is sometimes suppos$4 ,likewise1 balls ( mixtures conta9+ v>y+ p]c5tages ( s& & ! b9d] to be us$ may be made up & imm]s$ 9 wat]4 ,! mixture t holds its %ape longe/ is ( c\rse ! be/ comb9ation ( ! mat]ials & indicates ! mixture to use 9 ! con/ruction4 ,an ideal1 or ev5 a fairly satisfactory soil = a b9d] may n exi/ 9 ! vic9ity ( a propos$ improvem5t1 & consequ5tly an inf]ior b9d] is frequ5tly ! only mat]ial available4 ,sometimes deposits ( clay or gravel conta9 a consid]able p]c5tage ( gypsum :i* s]ves z a b9d] & is p>ticul>ly effective :5 us$ 9 comb9ation ) clay & s& or gravel4 ,9 _m places a soil ( ! type us$ = adobe & call$ cali*e may be f\nd & ?is is an excell5t b9d] = s& or gravel4 ,top-,soil or ,natural ,mixtures4--,deposits consi/+ ( a natural mixture ( s& & clay 9 :i* ! +r$i5ts happ5 to exi/ 9 ab\t ! correct relative proportions = s&-clay road surfaces are f\nd 9 _m localities4 ,^! mixtures are commonly ref]r$ to z top-soil4 ,if ! deposits are some:at defici5t ei!r 9 s& or clay1 !y c be utiliz$ if ! prop] corrections 9 ! proportions are made dur+ con/ruction4 ,v satisfactory road surfaces are sometimes con/ruct$ ) mixtures t appe> to be f> f ideal 9 composition1 b exp]i5ce & frequ5t trials are ne$$ to det]m9e ! be/ way 9 :i* to h&le ^! mixtures4 ,s&-,clay ,surfaces on ,s&y ,roads4--,s&-clay surfaces may be con/ruct$ on naturally s&y roads ei!r by add+ clay & mix+ x ) ! s& to secure ! desir$ composition1 or a lay] ( a natural s&-clay mixture1 cali*e or s&-clay-gypsum may be plac$ on top ( ! s&4 ,! mo/ widely us$ me?od is to mix clay or o!r b9d] ) ! s&4 ,s9ce !re is no ne$ to provide = dit*es to c>ry /orm wat] on a deep s& soil1 ! s& is grad$ (f ne>ly flat across ! road & no dit*es are provid$4 ,! clay is dump$ on ! road 9 a lay] ab\t #h in*es ?ick & is !n mix$ into ! s&4 ,x is desir$ to mix en\gh s& ) ! clay to produce a mixture compos$ ( approximately #a_/c clay & #b_/c s&4 ,! mix+ is accompli%$ 9 v>i\s ways1 ! mo/ common be+ to use a heavy pl[ at fir/ & to foll[ ?is ) a heavy disc h>r[4 ,! mix+ is a t$i\s & disagreeable process1 b its ?or\gh accompli%m5t is indisp5sable4 ,! mix+ is mo/ readily done :5 ! mat]ials are saturat$ ) wat] & 9 practice x is cu/om>y to dep5d ^u ra9 = ! wat]1 al?\gh 9 ! f9al /ages wat] may be haul$ & spr9kl$ on ! road to facilitate f9al completion ( ! mix+4 ,aft] ! mix+ has be5 complet$1 ! surface is smoo!d ) ! blade grad] & is kept smoo? until x dries out4 ,repeat$ dragg+ w be requir$1 dur+ ! fir/ ye> especially1 & to "s ext5t ea* ye> 9 ord] to keep ! surface smoo?1 b ! dragg+ c be successfully accompli%$ only :5 ! road is wet4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ad4--;,cross ,sections = ,s&-,clay ,roads ,9 regions :]e sev]al mon?s ( cont9u$ hot1 dry wea!r is to be expect$ ea* ye>1 ! s&-clay mixture is likely to break ?r\gh unless x is ( consid]able ?ickness & g5]ally ! surface lay] is made mu* ?ick] ?an = regions :]e ! annual ra9fall is fairly well di/ribut$4 ,?is is especially necess>y :5 ! b9d] is ( inf]ior quality4 ,x is n uncommon 9 su* cases to make ! s&-clay surface z mu* z two feet ?ick4 ,z ! mix+ progresses x may appe> t pat*es "h & !re are defici5t 9 ei!r clay or s& & ! mixture 9 ^! places is correct$ by ! addition ( a little s& or clay z may be requir$4 ,if ! top-soil is us$ x is deposit$ on ! s& 9 ! requir$ quantity & is remix$ 9 place to insure uni=mity4 ,if ei!r s& or clay is ne$$ to give a satisfactory mixture1 ! prop] mat]ial is add$ & mix$ 9 z ! "w progresses4 ,! surface is f9ally smoo!d by means ( ! grad] & drag4 ,s&-,clay on ,clay or ,loam4--,if ! exi/+ road is ( clay or loam1 ample dra9age w be requir$ z discuss$ 9 ,*apt] ,,iv4 ,! surface may be con/ruct$ ( a natural s&-clay mixture or ( a s& mix$ ) ! natural soil4 ,if ! =m]1 ! surface ( ! exi/+ road is prep>$ by grad+ s z to insure good dra9age & ! natural mixture is !n deposit$ & ! surface complet$ z describ$ 9 ! prec$+ section4 ,if ! surface is =m$ by mix+ s& ) ! exi/+ soil1 ! s&s may be deposit$ 9 a lay] ab\t six in*es ?ick :i* w gradually mix ) ! soil z ! road is us$4 ,a second application ( s& may foll[ 9 a ye> or two if x is ne$$4 ,su* a road surface w lack uni=mity ( composition & x seems pref]able to mix ! s& ) ! soil by pl[+ & disc+ z previ\sly describ$4 ,*>act]i/ics4--,s&-clay road surfaces d n h suffici5t durability = heavily travel$ highways1 b w be satisfactory = a mod]ate am\nt ( traffic4 ,^! surfaces h maximum s]viceability :5 moi/1 n wet1 & consequ5tly are n z durable 9 dry climates z 9 humid areas4 ,!y are likely to become /icky & un/able 9 cont9u$ wet wea!r & to become friable & we> into *uck holes 9 long cont9u$ dry wea!r4 ,at _! be/1 !y are du/less1 some:at resili5t & ( l[ tractive resi/ance4 ,,gravel ,,road ,,surfaces ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ae4--;,cross ,sections = ,gravel ,highways ,natural ,gravel4--,gravel is ! "n giv5 to a mat]ial consi/+ ( a mixture ( m or less r\nd$ /ones1 s& & e>?y mat]ial1 :i* is f\nd 9 natural deposits4 ,^! deposits exi/ 9 almo/ e "p ( ,nor? ,am]ica1 be+ especially num]\s 9 ! glaciat$ areas1 b by no means conf9$ to !m4 ,gravel deposits consi/ ( pieces ( rock v>y+ 9 size f ^? ( a cubic y>d or m 9 volume to ! f9e/ /one du/1 b ) pieces rang+ 9 size f t :i* w pass a #c-;in* r+ d[n to f9e s& pr$om9at+4 ,! l>g] pieces are usually m or less r\nd$ & ! f9] p>ticles may be r\nd$ or may be angul>4 ,_m v>ieties ( rocks are to be f\nd among ! gravel pebbles1 b ! rocks ( igne\s orig9 & possess+ a consid]able degree ( h>dness g5]ally pr$om9ate4 ,int]mix$ ) ! pieces ( rock !re is likely to be clay or o!r soil1 ! quantity v>y+ greatly 9 diff]5t deposits & ev5 9 v>i\s places 9 ! same deposits4 ,(t5 !re are f\nd deposits ( mat]ial :i* are by ! layman t]m$ gravel1 :i* are really clayey s& or s& conta9+ a few pebbles1 b :i* are ( value to ! road build] = ! s& clay type ( surfac+4 ,! t]m gravel is exce$+ly g5]al & unless specifically def9$1 gives little indication ( ! exact nature ( to :i* x is appli$4 ,,table #g ,,%[+ ,,cem5t+ ,,prop]ties ,,( ,,sev]al ,,samples ,,( ,,gravel ---------------------------------------- ----- ,cem5t+ ,value ,p] ,c5t ,clay by --------------------------- ,weight ,z ,receiv$ ,wa%$ ---------------------------------------- ---- #d4d #bgf #dc #f4d #aje #bhe #e4a #bda #gj #ad4e #ejj #bgi #h4e #ejj #aab #aj4a #cjj #bfg #ad4h #ejj #ajg #g4e #ahd #aih #af4e #ejj #dbh #b4j #ahe #bci #a4e #ejj #ejj #d4e #bab #bjd #b4e #aaf #cfc ---------------------------------------- ---- ,! value ( any gravel = road surfac+ dep5ds ^u ! degree to :i* x possesses ! prop]ties ( an ideal gravel = road surfac+4 ,ideal gravel is seldom enc\nt]$1 b a consid]ation ( its *>act]i/ics s]ves to e/abli% a measure by :i* to e/imate ! probable value ( any deposit4 ,! ,ideal ,road ,gravel4--,! ideal road gravel is a mixture ( pebbles1 s& & e>?y mat]ial1 ! pieces v>y+ f co>se to f9e 9 su* a mann] t :5 ! gravel is compact$ into a road surface ! spaces betwe5 ! l>g] pebbles are fill$ ) ! f9] mat]ial4 ,! pebbles are ( a v>iety ( rock t is highly resi/ant to we> s t ! road surface made f ! gravel w h ! quality ( durability4 ,! gravel possesses good cem5t+ prop]ties1 insur+ t ! pieces w hold toge!r 9 ! road surface4 ,! cem5t+ prop]ty may be due to ! rock p[d] 9 ! deposit or to e>?y mat]ial mix$ ) ! rock p>ticles1 or to bo?4 ,table #g %[s ! results ( a numb] ( te/s made ^u gravels & indicates t ! cem5t+ prop]ty ( ! gravel does n always dep5d ^u ! clay cont5t4 ,p]missible ,size ( ,pebbles4--,! l>g] pebbles 9 ! gravel are less likely to cru% "u loads ?an small] pebbles ( ! same sort ( rock1 b if ! rock is ( "s ( ! t\gh] v>ieties su* z trap1 !re is v little likelihood ( ev5 ! small] pebbles cru%+4 ,if ! pebbles are ( rock ( m$ium t\ghness1 ! small] pebbles might be cru%$ "u ! heavi] loads4 ,x is ! usual practice to p]mit gravel to be us$ = ! f\ndation c\rse 9 :i* ! pebbles are z l>ge z w pass a #c-a_/b-;in* circul> scre5 op5+1 & = ! we>+ c\rse1 z l>ge z w pass a #b-a_/b-;in* circul> scre5 op5+4 ,if l>g] pebbles are all[$ 9 ! we>+ c\rse1 ! surface is c]ta9 to become r\gh aft] a "t4 ,if ! gravel is to be plac$ 9 a s+le c\rse z is a v common practice1 !n ! maximum size %\ld n exce$ t :i* w pass a #b-a_/b-;in* circul> scre5 op5+4 ,! ,wiscons9 ,highway ,commission has con/ruct$ a v l>ge mileage ( excell5t gravel roads & ! sizes specifi$ = _! roads are z foll[s3 ,bottom ,c\rse ,gravel4--,bottom c\rse %all consi/ ( a mixture ( gravel1 s& & clay ) ! proportions & v>i\s sizes z foll[s3 ,all to pass a two-in* scre5 & to h at lea/ sixty & n m ?an sev5ty-five p] c5t reta9$ on a qu>t]-in* scre52 at lea/ tw5ty-five & n m ?an sev5ty-five p] c5t ( ! total co>se aggregate to be reta9$ on a "o-in* scre52 at lea/ sixty-five & n m ?an eighty-five p] c5t ( ! total f9e aggregate to be reta9$ on a two hundr$-me% sieve4 ,top ,c\rse ,gravel4--,top c\rse %all consi/ ( a mixture ( gravel1 s& & clay ) ! proportions ( ! v>i\s sizes z foll[s3 ,all to pass a "o-in* scre5 & to h at lea/ fifty & n m ?an sev5ty-five p] c5t reta9$ on a qu>t]-in* scre52 at lea/ tw5ty-five & n m ?an sev5ty-five p] c5t ( ! total co>se aggregate 7mat]ial ov] "o-f\r? in* 9 size7 to be reta9$ on a "o-half-in* scre52 at lea/ sixty-five & n m ?an eighty-five p] c5t ( ! total f9e aggregate 7mat]ial "u "o-f\r? in* 9 size7 to be reta9$ on a two hundr$-me% sieve4 ,scre5$ ,gravel & ,s& ,mixtures4--,:]e x is impossible to obta9 run ( bank gravel conta9+ ! necess>y b9d] 9 its natural /ate1 scre5$ gravel %all be us$ & ! necess>y s& & clay b9d] add$ z direct$ by ! eng9e]4 ,gravel & s& %all be deliv]$ on ! "w sep>ately4 ,clay b9d] %all be obta9$ f approv$ pits & add$ z direct$ by ! eng9e]4 ,run ( ,bank ,gravel4--,:5 run ( bank gravel is p]mitt$ ei!r = "o c\rse or two c\rse "w1 ! size %all n exce$ t specifi$ = bottom or top c\rse4 ,if necess>y1 ! contractor %all pass all ! mat]ial ?r\gh a two-in* scre5 = ! bottom c\rse1 & ?r\gh a "o-in* scre5 = ! top c\rse4 ,:5 ! "w consi/s ( only "o c\rse1 ! mat]ial %all be ( ! sizes z specifi$ = ! top c\rse4 ,! necess>y b9d] %all be conta9$ 9 ! mat]ial 9 its natural /ate1 except+ t a small p]c5tage ( clay b9d] may be add$ z direct$ by ! ,eng9e]4 ,we>+ ,prop]ties4--,a c]ta9 am\nt ( gr9d+ action takes place on ! road surface "u ! direct action ( :eels1 especially ^? ) /eel tires4 ,:]e rubb] tir$ traffic pr$om9ates1 ?is action is mu* less sev]e ?an :]e /eel tir$ vehicles pr$om9ate1 b ! t5d5cy exi/s on all roads4 ,9 addition1 !re is di/ortion ( ! lay] ( gravel "u heavy loads :i* causes ! pieces ( /one 9 ! surface to rub aga9/ ea* o!r & to we> away sl[ly4 ,! gravel road 9 ! v be/ condition is slightly unev5 b !re is comp>atively little j> imp>t$ to vehicles1 &1 consequ5tly1 little impact on ! surface4 ,:5 some:at worn1 ! impact becomes a factor ( "s importance & ! p\nd+ ( vehicles has a v de/ructive action on ! surface4 ,s(t pebbles w be r$uc$ to du/ 9 a comp>atively %ort "t4 ,! degree to :i* any gravel resi/s ! de/ructive action ( traffic dep5ds ^u ! v>ieties ( rock repres5t$ by ! pebbles 9 ! gravel4 ,if ! pebbles are mo/ly f rocks ( good we>+ prop]ties1 t quality w be imp>t$ to ! road surface4 ,if mo/ly f rocks ( little durability1 ! same *>act]i/ic w be imp>t$ to ! road surface4 ,a v good g5]al notion ( ! probable durability ( gravel c !re=e be obta9$ by a c>eful visual exam9ation ( ! mat]ial & classification ( ! rock v>ieties repres5t$ by ! pebbles4 ,utiliz+ ,natural ,gravels4--,gravel road con/ruction is advantage\s only :5 x c be accompli%$ at l[ fir/ co/4 ,?is usually presupposes a local supply ( gravel t c be utiliz$1 or at any rate a supply t ne$ n be %ipp$ a long di/ance4 ,9 ! nature ( ?+s1 su* deposits are likely to be defici5t 9 "s ( ! desirable *>act]i/ics1 & may be defici5t 9 mo/ ( !m4 ,by v>i\s means1 ! defects 9 ! mat]ials c be p>tially correct$ :ile con/ruct+ ! road4 ,if ! gravel deposit consi/s ( lay]s ( v>y+ composition z reg>ds size & clay cont5t1 ! mat]ial may be loos5$ f ! expos$ face & all[$ to fall to ! bottom ( ! pit !reby becom+ mix$ to a suffici5t ext5t to produce a reasonably uni=m product4 ,if defici5t 9 clay1 x (t5 proves feasible to add a small "p ( ! clay ov]-burd51 !reby insur+ en\gh b9d]4 ,sometimes adjo9+ deposits w consi/ "o ( relatively f9e mat]ial1 ! o!r ( relatively co>se4 ,^! may be mix$ on ! "w by fir/ plac+ ! co>se mat]ial 9 a lay] ab\t #e in*es ?ick & add+ ! f9] mat]ial 9 a simil> lay]4 ,! two w mix v rapidly dur+ ! op]ations ( spread+ & %ap+4 ,:5 deposits conta9 pebbles l>g] ?an w pass a #c-a_/b-;in* r+1 ^! l>g] /ones w prove to be undesirable if plac$ on ! road1 z !y are almo/ sure to "w to ! surface ( ! gravel lay] & become a s\rce ( annoyance to ! us]s ( ! road4 ,ov]size /one c be remov$ :ile load+ ! gravel or :ile spread+ x1 if c>e is ex]cis$ & n too l>ge a proportion is ov]size4 ,x is pref]able h[ev] to remove ! ov]size by means ( scre5s at ! pit4 ,usually on l>ge jobs ! ov]size is cru%$ & mix$ ) ! supply s z to utilize :at is really ! be/ "p ( ! mat]ial4 ,gravels defici5t 9 bond+ mat]ial are (t5 enc\nt]$ 9 deposits :]e !re is insuffici5t ov]burd5 to give en\gh additional b9d] or :]e ! ov]burd5 is ( a mat]ial unsuitable = b9d]4 ,su* mat]ials may be utiliz$ by add+ b9d] 9 ! =m ( clay aft] ! gravel has be5 plac$ on ! road4 ,almo/ any gravel deposit c be utiliz$ 9 "s way if ! mat]ial is ( a durable nature1 reg>dless ( o!r *>act]i/ics4 ,! s]viceability ( a gravel road w dep5d l>gely on h[ ne>ly ! gravel approa*es ! ideal1 b v>iations 9 ! manipulations w d mu* to ov]come defici5cies 9 mat]ials4 ,?ickness ( ,lay]4--,! ?ickness ( ! lay] ( gravel requir$ dep5ds bo? ^u ! type ( soil ^u :i* x is plac$ & ! nature ( ! traffic to :i* ! road w be subject$4 ,gravel surfaces %\ld n ord9>ily be con/ruct$ on highways c>ry+ heavy truck traffic1 b if gross loads ( ?ree or f\r tons are ! heavie/ anticipat$1 ! gravel w be reasonably /able4 ,on su* roads1 a lay] ( well compact$ gravel t5 in*es ?ick w support ! loads if a well dra9$ e>? f\ndation is provid$4 ,if b little truck traffic is anticipat$ & loads up to ?ree tons on /eel tires are ! av]age1 a lay] #h in*es ?ick w be suffici5t4 ,9 dry climates1 a lay] six in*es ?ick w be adequate if x c be kept f ravel+4 ,on second>y roads1 c>ry+ pr9cipally f>m-to-m>ket traffic1 & n a great volume ( t1 ! above ?icknesses may be r$uc$ ab\t "o-f\r?4 ,! exact ?ickness ne$$ = any p>ticul> road is a matt] = special /udy on acc\nt ( ! v>iations 9 ! gravels & 9 ! support+ p[] ( ! soil ^u :i* !y are plac$4 ,,plac+ ,,gravel ,prep>ation ( ! ,road4--,! roadway t is to be surfac$ ) gravel is fir/ br\ght to ! desir$ grade & cross section4 ,x w\ld be advantage\s if ?is c\ld be done a ye> be=e ! gravel is plac$ s t no settlem5t ( ! e>? f\ndation w\ld occur aft] ! gravel surface is complet$4 ,b if t is impractical1 ! grad+ may be done j prior to plac+ ! gravel1 provid+ appropriate me?ods are adopt$ = secur+ compact$ fills4 ,tr5* ,me?od4--,two di/9ct me?ods ( plac+ ! gravel are 9 g5]al use1 kn[n z ! tr5* me?od & ! surface or fea!r edge me?od respectively4 ,! me?od to adopt = any p>ticul> road w dep5d l>gely on c]ta9 conditions t w be expla9$ lat]4 ,9 ! tr5* me?od1 a tr5* ( ! prop] wid? & dep? = receiv+ ! gravel is excavat$ 9 ! e>? road surface & ! gravel is plac$ !re94 ,! tr5* is =m$ by pl[+ a few furr[s & scrap+ out ! loos5$ e>? ) a blade grad]4 ,! loose mat]ial is g5]ally mov$ out lat]ally to build up e>? b]ms or %\ld]s alongside ! gravel4 ,into ?is tr5* ! gravel is dump$ 9 ! prop] quantity to give ! requir$ ?ickness aft] be+ compact$4 ,! greate/ c>e mu/ be ex]cis$ 9 spread+ ! gravel to elim9ate unev5ness :]e ! loads 7 deposit$4 ,an ord9>y blade grad] is "o ( ! be/ & mo/ economical implem5ts to use = spread+ ! gravel4 ,:5 ! gravel has be5 deposit$ 9 ! tr5* = a di/ance ( a ?\s& feet or m1 ! spread+ is accompli%$ by dragg+ ! surface repeat$ly ) ! blade grad]1 ! "w be+ cont9u$ until all wav9ess disappe>s4 ,! gravel is !n ?or\ghly & repeat$ly h>r[$ ) a heavy /iff too? h>r[ to mix ?or\ghly ! f9e & co>se gravel s z to produce z ne>ly a uni=m mixture z may be4 ,! gravel is !n f9ally smoo!d ) ! blade grad]4 ,! gravel may be compact$ by roll+ or may be all[$ to pack f ! action ( traffic4 ,! =m] is greatly to be pref]r$ :]e practicable4 ,! roll+ is p]=m$ ) a ?ree-:eel$ self-propell$ roll] weigh+ ab\t #h tons & mu/ be done :ile ! gravel is wet4 ,g5]ally a spr9kl+ wagon is us$ to wet d[n ! gravel1 b advantage is always tak5 ( ra9s to facilitate ! "w4 ,! gravel mu/ be spread 9 lay]s n ov] #e or #f in*es ?ick to get ! desir$ results1 :i* means t = an ord9>y gravel road ab\t #aj in*es ?ick1 ! gravel w be plac$ 9 two lay]s ( ab\t equal ?ickness1 ea* ( :i* w be roll$4 ,! gravel w compact sl[ly ev5 if x is n roll$1 b g5]ally does n become /able until ! mat]ial is ?or\ghly soak$ by ra9s4 ,!n x w beg9 to pack1 b w become badly rutt$ & unev5 dur+ ! process4 ,dur+ ?is p]iod ! surface mu/ be kept smoo? by means ( ! blade grad]4 ,! drag does n suffice = ?is purpose1 t5d+ to acc5tuate ! unev5ness r ?an to correct x4 ,if gravel is plac$ 9 a tr5* 9 d5se soil & ra9y wea!r ensues1 suffici5t wat] w be held 9 ! tr5* to cause unev5ness f f\ndation settlem5t & ! gravel w become mix$ ) ! soil to "s ext5t & be !reby wa/$4 ,tr5*es cut f ! road b$ ^u :i* ! gravel is plac$1 to ! side dit*es1 w relieve ?is condition by af=d+ an outlet = ! surplus wat]4 ,nev]!less "s difficulty may be expect$ if ! tr5* me?od is us$ & wet wea!r prevails4 ,if x is possible to close ! road aga9/ traffic until ! road is dry ! me?od is applicable4 ,moreov]1 9 long-cont9u$ dry wea!r1 ! disp]sion & loss ( consid]able gravel f ! action ( automobile traffic is avoid$ because ! gravel is held betwe5 sub/antial e>? b]ms & ! gravel w pack bett] & hold its %ape long] :5 con/ruct$ by ! tr5* me?od ?an o!rwise4 ,surface ,me?od4--,! surface me?od is "o 9 :i* ! gravel is plac$ on ! grad$ e>? road surface )\t e>? %\ld]s to hold ! gravel 9 place4 ,x is also sometimes call$ ! fea!r-edge me?od4 ,except = ! mann] ( plac+ z j m5tion$1 ! sev]al op]ations are conduct$ 9 ! same g5]al mann] z = ! tr5* me?od4 ,! gravel does n compact z quickly z 9 ! tr5* me?od & a consid]able loss ( mat]ial is likely to result f ! effect ( automobile traffic :ile ! gravel is loose4 ,b x has ! advantage ( be+ free f difficulties 9 wet wea!r & 9 "s locations is !re=e pref]able to ! tr5* me?od4 ,x is p>ticul>ly applicable to ^? projects on :i* ! plac+ ( gravel cont9ues ?r\gh\t ! w9t]1 ! gravel be+ dump$ & spread1 to be f9ally smoo!d & f9i%$ 9 ! e>ly summ]4 ,bond+4--,:]e gravels defici5t 9 b9d] are utiliz$1 clay = b9d] is sometimes add$ z ! gravel is plac$ on ! road4 ,?is may be done by spread+ ! clay on top ( ! l[] c\rse ( gravel1 plac+ ! upp] lay] & spr9kl+ & roll+ until ! clay squeezes up ?r\gh ! surface lay]4 ,x may also be accompli%$ by spread+ dry clay on ! upp] c\rse be=e x is h>r[$ & !n h>r[+ to mix x ) ! gravel4 ,bo? me?ods are practic$1 b ! =m] is believ$ to be pref]able4 ,a ?ird me?od is to sep>ate ! s& & pebbles & to mix ! clay b9d] ) ! s& & !n spread ! s& on top ( ! pebbles & mix by h>r[+4 ,ma9t5ance4--,gravel surfaces require c>eful ma9t5ance1 especially dur+ ! fir/ season ! road is us$4 ,! gravel w compact sl[ly & dur+ ! process w be rutt$ & o!rwise di/urb$ by traffic4 ,x is important dur+ ?is p]iod to re/ore ! %ape once a week or at lea/ twice a mon?4 ,! light blade grad] is usually employ$ = ! purpose s long z ! gravel is some:at loose4 ,lat] a drag ( ! type kn[n z ! plan] w prove to be ! mo/ effective4 ,figure #af %[s a type ( drag t is v satisfactory = use on gravel roads4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #af4--,road ,plan] ,,*apt] ,,vii ,,brok5 ,,/one ,,road ,,surfaces ,! brok5 /one road surface1 or macadam road z x is usually t]m$1 consi/s ( a lay] ( brok5 /one1 bond$ or cem5t$ toge!r by means ( /one du/ & wat]4 ,! surface may or may n be coat$ ) "s bitum9\s mat]ial4 ,design4--,x has be5 an accept$ assumption t ! macadam road surface is some:at m /able ?an ! gravel road surface ( equal ?ickness1 & s9ce ?is is probably ! cons5sus ( op9ion ( eng9e]s famili> ) bo? types1 x may be accept$ until exp]im5tal data are available on ! subject4 ,! ?ickness ( ! lay] ( macadam requir$ = a road w dep5d ^u ! same factors t 7 consid]$ 9 connection ) ! ?ickness ( ! gravel surface1 i4e41 k9d ( /one us$1 "* ( e>? f\ndation & nature ( ! traffic4 ,! /&>d macadam surface :]e good e>? f\ndation is to be _h & :]e ! loads d n exce$ ab\t f\r tons has = ye>s be5 eight in*es ?ick4 ,= heavi] loads or inf]ior f\ndation1 a some:at great] ?ickness w\ld be employ$1 b ! be/ practice w\ld probably provide a f\ndation c\rse ( ! ,tel=d type = d\btful f\ndation conditions1 especially = ! extremely unc]ta9 cases4 ,= soils ( v good support+ /r5g? su* z v s&y loam or deep s& or = arid regions :]e /able f\ndation is always assur$ ! ?ickness ( ! macadam might be r$uc$ to six in*es4 ,x %\ld be borne 9 m9d t ! brok5 /one road is n adapt$ to ! traffic c>ri$ by trunk l9e highways 9 popul\s di/ricts1 b is r a type p]missible on second>y roads & usually adequate = local roads4 ,x %\ld nev] be employ$ = roads c>ry+ any consid]able volume ( pass5g] automobile traffic or motor truck traffic4 ,if surfac$ ) a bitum9\s mat]ial x w c>ry up to #abjj pass5g] automobiles p] day1 b n to exce$ fifty trucks4 ,prop]ties ( ! ,/one4--,! /one employ$ = ! brok5 /one road %\ld possess ! qualities ( h>dness & t\ghness & %\ld be capable ( resi/+ abrasion suffici5tly well to h reasonable life "u ! traffic to :i* x is subject$4 ,s9ce ! traffic may v>y f v light on "s roads to f> beyond ! limit ( ! economical capacity ( ?is type ( pavem5t on o!rs1 x foll[s t any p>ticul> deposit ( /one might be durable en\gh = "s roads1 :ile = o!rs x might be entirely inadequate4 ,z a g5]al rule x has be5 f\nd t /one t we>s away at a mod]ate rate w1 :5 us$ = wat]-b\nd macadam surface1 result 9 a smoo!r trackway ?an "o t w we> v sl[ly4 ,x is n !re=e altoge!r c]ta9 t ! mo/ durable /one to be _h %\ld be select$ = a p>ticul> road4 ,?is is especially true n[ t ! wat]-b\nd macadam surface has be5 l>gely sup]s$$ = trunk l9e highways & o!r heavily travel$ roads1 & is employ$ 9 locations :]e s]vice conditions are n sev]e4 ,! /one employ$ = ! wat]-b\nd macadam surface mu/ possess good cem5t+ prop]ties1 because ! surface dep5ds = /ability prim>ily ^u ! bond+ action ( ! du/ f ! brok5 /one4 ,?is is 9 contra/ to ! gravel road1 :]e little dep5d5ce is plac$ ^u ! bond+ effect ( ! rock du/4 ,9 prep>+ ! /one = macadam surfaces1 ! l$ge rock is cru%$ & scre5$1 & 9 t way a supply ( ! f9] p>ticles1 :i* are a "p ( ! output ( ! cru%]1 is obta9$ = use 9 bond+ ! surface4 ,?is f9ely brok5 mat]ial1 usually call$ scre5+s1 is ess5tial to ! con/ruction ( ! wat]-b\nd type ( surface4 ,rocks v>y consid]ably 9 ! cem5t+ prop]ties ( ! du/1 b usually ! rocks class$ z trap1 su* z &esite1 gabbro & rhyolite1 & s*i/ & basalt possess good cem5t+ prop]ties4 ,lime/ones usually possess good cem5t+ prop]ties1 b "s ( ! dolomitic lime/ones are ( l[ cem5t+ value4 ,qu>tz1 s&/one & ! granites are ( l[ cem5t+ value4 ,k9ds ( ,rocks ,us$ = ,macadam4--,lime/one & *]t are ! two s$im5t>y rocks1 employ$ mo/ ext5sively = brok5 /one roads4 ,^! rocks are f\nd 9 widely di/ribut$ areas & v>y 9 physical *>act]i/ics f v s(t mat]ial ( no use to ! road build] to mat]ials possess+ consid]able durability4 ,x is desirable to c>efully te/ out ! deposits ( ^! mat]ials be=e us+ to asc]ta9 ! probable value ( ! rock1 = ! con/ruction ( ! road surface4 ,( ! igne\s rocks1 ^? class$ z trap are be/ kn[n to ! road build] & _m ( ! deposits ( trap rock af=d an excell5t mat]ial = brok5 /one roads :]e ! sev]e/ conditions ( traffic are enc\nt]$4 ,! trap rocks are t\gh & durable & g5]ally possess excell5t cem5t+ prop]ties4 ,granite & s&/one are seldom us$ = wat]-b\nd macadam z !y possess poor cem5t+ prop]ties & a b9d] ( "s k9d mu/ be add$ to cem5t ! pieces toge!r4 ,= ?is purpose clay or ! scre5+s f "s o!r v>iety ( /one may be utiliz$4 ,"s o!r mat]ials are occasionally employ$ = ! con/ruction ( macadam surfaces4 ,( ^!1 oy/] or m>9e %ells1 burnt %ale1 & slag are mo/ common4 ,%ells & slag are ( r l[ durability b possess good cem5t+ prop]ties4 ,%ale is a make%ift suitable only = v light traffic roads4 ,sizes ( ,/one4--,! /one = ! we>+ c\rse ( a macadam road %\ld be z l>ge z practicable1 because ! l>g] ! pieces ! m durable ! surface4 ,if ! individual /ones are too l>ge x is difficult to secure a smoo? surface1 & l>ge /ones w be readily loos5$ by tipp+ z ! :eels roll ov] !m4 ,^! consid]ations limit ! size to a maximum ( t :i* w pass a #b-a_/b-;in* scre54 ,/one ( excell5t we>+ qualities may be some:at small]1 b nev] less ?an t :i* w j pass a #a-a_/b-;in* scre54 ,= ! l[] c\rse1 ! size is n p>ticul>ly important except :]e ! e>? f\ndation is su* z to require special con/ruction4 ,x is n uncommon to use ! same size ( /one = bo? upp] & l[] c\rse & yet 9 _m in/ances /one up to t :i* w j pass a #c-a_/b-;in* scre5 is us$ = ! l[] c\rse4 ,/one mu* small] 9 size may also be us$ successfully1 b if ! /one is brok5 to a small] size ?an is requir$1 unnecess>y exp5se is incurr$4 ,! bond+ mat]ial is ! f9] portion ( ! product ( ! cru%]1 :i* is call$ scre5+s4 ,?is mat]ial may be s f9ely cru%$ z to pass a "o-f\r? in* scre51 or may be s co>se z to j pass a "o-half in* scre51 b 9 any case mu/ conta9 all ( ! du/ & f9e mat]ial produc$ by ! cru%]4 ,:]e ! soil & dra9age conditions dem& an especially /able f\ndation c\rse1 ! ,tel=d type is us$4 ,! ,tel=d f\ndation consi/s ( a lay] ( /ones ( v>i\s dim5sions t c be laid s z to give a ?ickness ( #h in*es4 ,^! l>ge /ones are plac$ by h& & !re=e ! size requirem5ts are n rigid4 ,/ones hav+ "o dim5sion ab\t #h in*es & ! o!rs n ov] #aj or #ab in*es are satisfactory4 ,e>? ,"w4--,a ?or\ghly dra9$ & /able e>? f\ndation is ess5tial to success ) ! macadam type ( surface4 ,be=e plac+ ! /one1 ! road mu/ be %ap$ to ! prop] cross section & all grade r$uction "w complet$4 ,pref]ably heavy fills %\ld h a ye> to settle be=e ! macadam surface is plac$4 ,side dit*es1 necess>y culv]ts & tile dra9s %\ld be con/ruct$ z requir$ = dra9age4 ,! e>? "w is (t5 c>ri$ out 9 connection ) ! con/ruction ( ! macadam surface1 be+ complet$ j ahead ( ! surfac+4 ,9 t case1 ! fills mu/ be c>efully roll$ z !y are plac$4 ,! road b$ may be %ap$ 9 connection ) ! o!r e>?work4 ,if ! road has be5 br\ght to a satisfactory grade "s "t prior to plac+ ! macadam1 ! road b$ = ! brok5 /one w be prep>$ z ne$$ = plac+ ! /one4 ,f\ndation = ! ,macadam4--,macadam surfaces are q g5]ally plac$ 9 a tr5* z describ$ 9 ! tr5* me?od = plac+ gravel4 ,x is an almo/ univ]sal practice to compact ! lay] ( /one by roll+ ) an #h- or #aj-ton p[] roll]1 & if ! /one is n held betwe5 sub/antial e>? b]ms or %\ld]s1 ! roll+ m]ely s]ves to spread ! /one out ov] ! road b$ in/ead ( compact+ x4 ,if an attempt is made to roll brok5 /one :i* has be5 plac$ on a yield+ f\ndation1 no b5efit results1 b on ! contr>y ! /one is likely to be =c$ d[n into ! soil4 ,to insure t ! lay] ( brok5 /one c be compact$ by roll+1 x is fir/ necess>y to roll ! e>? f\ndation until x becomes h>d & unyield+4 ,if s(t or yield+ places appe> dur+ ! roll+ ^! %\ld be correct$ by tile dra9s or by remov+ ! e>? f ! spongy place & back-fill+ ) mat]ial t w compact :5 roll$4 ,x is n always easy to det]m9e :y ^! s(t places exi/ 9 :at appe>s to be a well dra9$ roadway1 especially s9ce !y are z likely to be f\nd on fills z any:]e else4 ,app>5tly !y are due to local pockets ( por\s soil held by d5s] soil s t ! wat] does n readily dra9 away4 ,x is usually true t su* places are obs]v$ dur+ ! season ( frequ5t precipitation m (t5 ?an dur+ o!r seasons ( ! ye>4 ,9 dry climates1 ! difficulties ( secur+ suitable f\ndations = ! brok5 /one road are l>gely elim9at$1 b x may be obs]v$ t ?is type ( surface is n suitable = su* climates unless "s sort ( bitum9\s b9d] is employ$ to hold ! /ones 9 place4 ,! cem5t+ p[] ( ! /one du/ is inadequate :5 ! surface is cont9ually dry4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ag4--;,cross ,section = ,macadam ,tel=d ,f\ndation4--,:5 ! ,tel=d type ( f\ndation is employ$1 ! e>? subgrade is prep>$ & !n ! ,tel=d /one plac$ c>efully by h&4 ,! spaces betwe5 ! l>ge /ones are fill$ ) ! spalls brok5 f ! l>g] /ones 9 fitt+ !m 9 place4 ,:5 complet$ ! base is roll$ ) a heavy roll] to secure a firm unyield+ lay]4 ,! ?ickness is g5]ally ab\t eight in*es4 ,any fairly s\nd /one may be us$ = ! ,tel=d base4 ,plac+ ! ,brok5 ,/one4--,x has be5 f\nd impracticable prop]ly to roll a great] ?ickness ?an ab\t #e or #f in*es ( loose /one1 !re=e1 ! /one = ! macadam surface is usually plac$ 9 two lay]s1 ! fir/ or l[] lay] be+ roll$ be=e ! next lay] is plac$4 ,! /one is haul$ 9 dump wagons1 trucks or dump c>s1 dump$ on ! road b$ & spread by h& rakes or by means ( a blade grad] & is !n roll$4 ,to insure ! prop] ?ickness ! loads are accurately spac$ to spread to ! prop] ?ickness4 ,roll+4--,a ?ree-:eel$ or macadam type ( roll]1 ( ! self-propell$ type1 is be/ = compact+ ! brok5 /one road4 ,! weight v>ies f eight to fifte5 tons1 b = mo/ conditions ! t5 or twelve ton size seems to be pref]able4 ,on ,tel=d base con/ruction1 a heavi] ma*9e is desirable & = v h>d /one x may be successfully employ$4 ,! fir/ trip ) ! roll] is made along ! edge ( ! /one & ea* successive trip is made a little ne>] ! middle until f9ally "o half ( ! /rip ( /one has be5 roll$4 ,! roll] is !n tak5 to ! opposite side ( ! roadway & ! op]ation repeat$ on ! o!r half4 ,! roll+ is cont9u$ until ! /one is ?or\ghly compact$1 :i* is evid5c$ by ! fact t ! roll] makes b a slight track 9 ! surface4 ,! second lay] ( /one is !n plac$ & roll$ 9 ! same mann] z ! fir/4 ,spread+ ,scre5+s4--,aft] ! upp] c\rse has be5 roll$1 ! scre5+s are spread on x f piles alongside ! road1 en\gh be+ us$ to fill ! voids 9 ! lay] ( /one & furni% a slight excess4 ,z ! scre5+s are spread !y are roll$ to "w !m into ! voids4 ,:5 ^! are fill$1 ! surface is spr9kl$ ?or\ghly by means ( an ord9>y /reet spr9kl+ c>t & aga9 roll$4 ,9 ?is way ! du/ & wat] are mix$ into a mort> :i* fills ! crevices betwe5 ! /ones4 ,?is mort> h>d5s 9 a few days1 giv+ a bond t is weak1 b suffici5t = ! purpose if ! traffic is n too heavy4 ,a brok5 /one road f9i%$ 9 ?is way is call$ a wat]-b\nd macadam1 & is ready = traffic 9 ?ree or f\r days aft] completion4 ,bitum9\s ,surfaces4--,on acc\nt ( ! inadequacy ( ! wat]-b\nd macadam :5 subject$ to motor traffic & to obviate ! t5d5cy ( brok5 /one surfaces to loos5 9 dry wea!r1 !re has be5 develop$ a me?od ( cov]+ ! surface ) a bitum9\s mat]ial su* z t> or asphalt4 ,?is w be describ$ 9 detail 9 a lat] *apt]4 ,ma9t5ance4--,ev5 "u favorable conditions z reg>ds k9d & am\nt ( traffic ! macadam road requires con/ant ma9t5ance4 ,! fir/ effect ( traffic w be to bru% away ! f9e mat]ials us$ = bond+ ! surface1 ?us expos+ ! l>g] /ones 9 su* a way t !y are r easily loos5$ & remov$ f ! surface by :eels & ! ho(s ( animals4 ,?is f9] mat]ial mu/ be replac$ z fa/ z x is remov$ s z to protect ! surface4 ,ei!r /one du/ or clayey s& may be us$1 b clay if us$ alone is likely to be /icky :5 wet & prove to be worse ?an ! condition x 0 expect$ to correct4 ,9 "t1 ruts & depressions w appe>1 ei!r z ! gradual effect ( we>1 :i* w inevitably effect "s portions ( ! surface m ?an o!rs1 or on acc\nt ( subsid5ce ( ! f\ndation4 ,unev5 places are repair$ by fir/ loos5+ ! /one1 !n re/or+ ! cross section by add+ new mat]ial & tamp+ or roll+ x 9 place4 ,if a bitum9\s coat+ has be5 appli$1 x w ev5tually peel (f 9 places & ^! places mu/ be recoat$ z soon z practicable4 ,ev5tually ! surface w be worn to su* an ext5t t an entirely new we>+ surface mu/ be add$4 ,?is is done by loos5+ ! entire surface to a dep? ( #c or #d in*es & !n add+ a new lay] ( brok5 /one4 ,! loos5+ is sometimes accompli%$ by means ( heavy spikes ins]t$ 9 ! roll] :eels1 & at o!rs by means ( a special tool kn[n z a sc>ifi]4 ,! new surface is plac$ & roll$ 9 precisely ! same mann] z ! we>+ surface ( ! orig9al con/ruction1 b ! lay] may n be z ?ick z ! orig9al we>+ c\rse4 ,a new c\rse w n bond to ! old surface unless ! old macadam has be5 ?or\ghly brok5 up fir/4 ,*>act]i/ics4--,! wat]-b\nd macadam is a du/y1 some:at r\gh surface ( l[ durability = rubb] tir$ vehicles4 ,x has long be5 ! /&>d rural highway = /eel tir$ vehicles1 b _c c>ry any consid]able am\nt ( motor traffic4 ,x is easily repair$4 ,:5 f9i%$ ) a bitum9\s surface its durability is greatly increas$ & ! du/ is elim9at$4 ,x does n seem to be suffici5tly rigid = truck traffic1 unless plac$ on exceptionally good f\ndation4 ,,*apt] ,,viii ,,cem5t ,,concrete ,,roads ,! cem5t concrete road is "o ( ! lat] developm5ts 9 highway con/ruction1 b ! type has _h suffici5t use to %[ t x is "o ( ! satisfactory types = heavy mix$ traffic1 &1 :]e ! prop] mat]ials are available1 x is "o ( ! economical types ( con/ruction4 ,de/ructive ,ag5cies4--,x is well to h cle>ly 9 m9d at ! outset t ! concrete 9 a road surface is subject$ to c]ta9 de/ructive ag5cies n usually significant 9 connection ) ! use ( concrete1 & ^! are s (t5 disreg>d$ t ! av]age s]viceability ( ! concrete road surface is sometimes mu* l[] ?an x w\ld be if built ) due reg>d = ! effect ( traffic on concrete surfaces4 ,9 mo/ /ructural uses ( concrete1 its /r5g? 9 compression only is utiliz$1 & ! factor ( safety is su* z to elim9ate to "s ext5t failures due to inf]ior mat]ials or workman%ip4 ,! concrete road surface is subject$ to compression "u :eel loads1 to b5d+1 caus+ t5sion 9 ! concrete1 to abrasion f :eels1 & to t5sion & compression due to effect ( temp]ature4 ,! weight ( ! :eel loads may cause suffici5t di/ortion ( ! road slab to produce rupture4 ,! aggregates may be cru%$ "u :eel loads if ! mat]ial is too s(t4 ,abrasion f /eel tir$ vehicles we>s away ! concrete unless x is h>d & durable4 ,*anges 9 dim5sion due to ! effect ( *ange 9 temp]ature introduce t5sion or compression into ! road slab & may result 9 cracks4 ,freez+ & ?aw+ 9 ! subgrade subjects ! slab to v]tical movem5t & discont9u\s support ) ! result t longitud9al & transv]se cracks occur4 ,! =ego+ indicates ! importance ( secur+ good concrete = road surfac+1 & t is accompli%$ by us+ suitable aggregates1 by prop] design ( ! road surface & by foll[+ e/abli%$ con/ruction me?ods4 ,design4--,! wid?s usually adopt$ = concrete roads are3 = s+le track roads1 #i or #aj feet1 & = d\ble track roads1 #ah or #bj feet4 ,! ?ickness is #f to #h in*es at ! middle1 v>y+ ) climatic conditions & ) ! k9d ( soil ^u :i* ! concrete is laid4 ,! ?ickness at ! edge is #a in* less ?an at ! middle except t #f-;in* surfaces are usually ( uni=m ?ickness1 ! total cr[n be+ #b in*es4 ,! ?ickness ( ! two c\rse pavem5t is ! same z w\ld be us$ = a s+le c\rse pavem5t 9 ! same location4 ,! surface ( ei!r wid? has a total cr[n ( "o or two in*es to insure wat] runn+ (f ! surface4 ,! e>? f\ndation is (t5 flat1 ! cr[n be+ obta9$ by mak+ ! slab ?ick] at ! middle ?an at ! edge4 ,fig4 #ah %[s cross section = concrete roads4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ah4--;,cross ,section = ,concrete ,highway ,9 ! /ate ( ,cali=nia1 concrete roads f\r or five in*es ?ick & surfac$ ) a bitum9\s c>pet mat h be5 successfully con/ruct$4 ,simil> designs h be5 us$ 9 a few o!r places1 b = g5]al practice x is unsafe to dep5d ^u su* a ?9 slab4 ,climatic & soil conditions probably acc\nt = ! success ( ! ?9 roads 9 ,cali=nia4 ,concrete ,mat]ials4--,! co>se aggregate = ! concrete may be brok5 /one or pebbles scre5$ f natural gravel4 ,durability is necess>y1 b x is also important to h uni=mity 9 ! concrete s t ! road surface w we> uni=mly & consequ5tly keep smoo?4 ,supplies ( brok5 /one are likely to conta9 a small p]c5tage ( s(t pieces & su* ( ^! z are at ! surface :5 ! concrete is f9i%$ w cru% "u traffic1 leav+ a pit 9 ! surface4 ,pebbles scre5$ f gravel are also likely to be v>iable 9 durability & %\ld be c>efully inspect$ if !y are to be us$ z aggregate = concrete roads4 ,! h>d] lime/ones1 "s s&/ones1 pebbles f _m ( ! gravel deposits & practically all ( ! igne\s rocks make satisfactory aggregates = ! concrete road4 ,sometimes none ( ! co>se aggregates readily available are suffici5tly durable or uni=m = ! we>+ surface ( ! concrete road1 b a suitable aggregate may be obta9$ at relatively high price by %ipp+ consid]able di/ances4 ,9 su* cases :at is kn[n z ! two c\rse type ( concrete road is employ$4 ,! we>+ c\rse usually is ab\t #b in*es ?ick & is con/ruct$ ) select$ aggregates ( good quality %ipp$ 9 = ! purpose4 ,! l[] c\rse is con/ruct$ ( aggregates :i* d n possess ! desir$ qualities = a we>+ c\rse1 b :i* are satisfactory = concrete n subject$ to abrasion4 ,! aggregates = ! we>+ c\rse w be select$ ) ! same reg>d = uni=mity & durability t w\ld be ! case if !y 7 = ! "o c\rse pavem5t4 ,bank run gravel1 or run ( ! cru%] /one1 is g5]ally n suffici5tly uni=m z reg>ds proportion ( f9e & co>se mat]ial to produce uni=mity 9 ! concrete1 & ! use ( aggregates ( t "* is n p]missible = ! we>+ c\rse1 b "u prop] inspection !y may be us$ = ! l[] c\rse ( two c\rse pavem5ts4 ,f9e ,aggregate4--,! f9e aggregate is g5]ally natural s&1 b a mixture ( natural s& & /one scre5+s is sometimes employ$4 ,! f9e aggregate ( :atev] "* mu/ be clean1 free f organic matt] & s&1 mu/ conta9 no appreciable am\nt ( mica1 feldsp>1 alkali1 %ale or simil> delet]i\s sub/ances & n exce$ two & "o-half p] c5t ( clay & silt4 ,! s& is ( su* a range ( sizes t all w pass ! "o-f\r?-in* sieve & t n exce$+ ab\t five p] c5t w pass ! #ajj-me% sieve4 ,proportions4--,v>i\s mixtures = ! concrete are employ$ because ^! may prop]ly v>y to "s ext5t ) ! exact "* & grad+ ( ! aggregates4 ,exp]i5ce seems to h %[n t ! concrete us$ = ! we>+ surface %\ld h a cru%+ /r5g? ( at lea/ #bejj p\nds p] squ>e in*1 & ! mixture adopt$ is bas$ on ! requirem5ts t w give ! desir$ cru%+ /r5g?4 ,! common mixture = ! "o c\rse pavem5t is "o "p cem5t1 two p>ts s& & ?ree & "o-half p>ts co>se aggregate4 ,= ! we>+ c\rse ( ! two-c\rse type ( pavem5t1 a mixture ( ! same k9d is v (t5 specifi$4 ,:ile ^! are p]haps ! mo/ widely adopt$ proportions1 _m o!rs h be5 us$1 especially :]e ! aggregates exhibit peculi>ities or ! traffic conditions are unusual4 ,x is desir$ to emphasize t ! purpose is to obta9 concrete ( ! desir$ /r5g? & !re c be no su* ?+ z /&>d proportions4 ,measur+ ,mat]ials4--,9 consid]+ ! me?ods employ$ = measur+ aggregates1 emphasis %\ld be plac$ on ! futility ( rigid requirem5ts = ! aggregates1 bo? z reg>ds quality & range ( sizes1 if ! mat]ials are c>elessly proportion$ at ! mix]4 ,if ev5 reasonably ne> uni=m we>+ qualities are to be secur$ ?r\gh\t ! entire area ( ! concrete road surface1 successive bat*es ( concrete mu/ be alike1 & to insure t1 ! aggregates includ+ ! wat] 9 ea* bat* ( concrete mu/ be mix$ 9 exactly ! same proportions4 ,! aggregates are measur$ 9 v>i\s ways1 all ess5tially alike 9 t ! int5t is to insure exactly ! same am\nt ( ea* +r$i5t = ea* bat* ( concrete4 ,"o me?od is to place bottomless boxes 9 :eelb>r[s1 fill ! boxes level full & !n lift (f ! box4 ,ano!r is to use a :eelb>r[ ) a b$ ( su* %ape t ! cont5ts w be a multiple ( #a cubic foot :5 level full4 ,= ! l>g] jobs1 ! aggregates are haul$ 9 indu/rial c>s1 ea* hav+ suffici5t capacity = a bat* ( concrete4 ,! c> body is provid$ ) a p>tition s z to sep>ate ! f9e & co>se mat]ial4 ,! wat] is measur$ 9 a tank :i* automatically refills to ! same level ea* "t x is empti$ & :5 adju/$ = a mixture w introduce ! prop] am\nt ( wat] = ea* bat*4 ,x is highly important to use ! lea/ am\nt ( wat] t w produce workable concrete4 ,prep>ation ( ! ,e>? ,f\ndation4--,! concrete road is g5]ally plac$ directly on ! natural soil :i* has be5 br\ght to ! prop] cross section4 ,"s eng9e]s advocate t 9 prep>+ ! subgrade1 ! e>? be ?or\ghly roll$2 o!rs pref] n to roll ! subgrade4 ,if fills ( consid]able dep? are con/ruct$1 !y %\ld ei!r be roll$ z built or else %\ld be all[$ to settle = "s mon?s be=e ! concrete road is plac$1 pref]ably ! latt]4 ,plac+ ! ,concrete4--,! concrete is plac$ betwe5 sub/antial side =ms ( a height equal to ! ?ickness ( ! concrete road slab at ! edge1 & is %ap$ r\ghly by means ( %ovels4 ,v>i\s me?ods h be5 develop$ = /rik+ ! surface to ! exact %ape desir$ & smoo?+ x4 ,if h& f9i%+ me?ods are employ$1 a plank template is cut to ! prescrib$ cross section & ! concrete is %ap$ by draw+ ! template along ! side =ms4 ,sometimes ! template is us$ z a tamp]1 be+ mov$ along v sl[ly accompani$ by an up & d[n motion t t5ds to tamp ! concrete4 ,! template is !n drawn along a second "t to smoo? ! surface f9ally4 ,aft] ! surface has be5 /ruck (f by h&1 x is f9ally smoo!d1 fir/ by roll+ crosswise ) a slight h& roll] ab\t #h in*es 9 diamet] & #cj in*es long4 ,! f9al f9i% is effect$ by dragg+ a piece ( web belt+ back & =? across ! surface4 ,ma*9es design$ to tamp ! concrete & /rike x (f to ! requir$ cross section are also employ$ = f9i%+4 ,! ma*9e is p[] op]at$ & is c>ri$ on :eels t run on ! side =ms1 & ! ma*9e moves sl[ly along z ! tamp+ progresses4 ,! concrete is tamp$1 /ruck (f to %ape & smoo!d ) ! belt at "o op]ation4 ,?is me?od ( f9i%+ produces d5s] & /rong] concrete ?an c be produc$ by h& f9i%+ me?ods4 ,plac+ ,concrete = ,two-c\rse ,road4--,! me?ods employ$ = ! two-c\rse concrete road are mu* ! same z = ! "o-c\rse road4 ,! concrete = ! l[] c\rse is plac$ & /ruck (f by means ( h& tools1 & aft] t c\rse has progress$ a few feet1 ! upp] c\rse is plac$ & f9i%$ z has be5 describ$ = ! "o-c\rse road4 ,cur+ ! ,concrete4--,! sett+ action ( cem5t is a *emical process1 n m]ely a dry+ out ( ! wat] introduc$ 9 mix+ ! concrete4 ,! *emical action is progressive = a long "t1 b is m rapid dur+ ! fir/ few h\rs ?an dur+ ! lat] p]iods1 & ! concrete rea*es ab\t ?ree-f\r?s ( its maximum /r5g? at ! end ( sev5 days4 ,dur+ ! sett+ p]iod & p>ticul>ly dur+ ! fir/ few days1 pl5ty ( wat] mu/ be available to ! cem5t4 ,to prev5t too rapid loss ( wat] f ! concrete dur+ ! sett+ p]iod1 ! surface mu/ be protect$ f ! w9d & sun4 ,?is is accompli%$ by fir/ cov]+ ) canvas z soon z ! concrete has h>d5$ suffici5tly & by lat] cov]+ ) e>?1 to a dep? ( two in*es4 ,! e>? cov]+ is kept wet = ab\t t5 days & is left 9 place = ab\t "o mon?4 ,9 "s places ! pond+ me?od ( cur+ is adopt$4 ,! surface is divid$ into sections by e>!n dikes & ! space inside ! dikes fill$ ) wat] to a dep? ( two or ?ree in*es4 ,! wat] cov]+ is ma9ta9$ = two weeks or long]4 ,no traffic is p]mitt$ on ! surface = "o mon?1 & 9 cold wea!r traffic may be kept (f ! surface = a long] p]iod4 ,expansion ,jo9ts4--,to p]mit ! concrete slab to accommodate itself to *anges 9 dim5sion due to temp]ature *anges1 expansion jo9ts #a_/b in* wide are plac$ ab\t e ?irty feet4 ,^! consi/ ( a %eet ( "s prep>$ bitum9\s mat]ial plac$ 9 position z ! concrete is p\r$4 ,exp]i5ce seems to indicate t 9 spite ( ! expansion jo9ts1 ! concrete w crack m or less & _m eng9e]s ?9k x advisable to omit expansion jo9ts 9 con/ruct+ ! pavem5t & :5 cracks develop to p\r bitum9\s mat]ial into !m1 ?us =m+ expansion jo9ts4 ,! prevail+ practice 9 rural highway con/ruction is to omit ! expansion jo9ts1 b !y are commonly adopt$ 9 city pavem5ts4 ,re9=c+4--,to m9imize ! crack+1 ei!r b> or wire me% re9=c+ is us$ 9 ! concrete4 ,if b>s are us$ !y are plac$ 9 ! concrete z x is p\r$ s z to =m a belt ar\nd ea* section ab\t #ae feet squ>e4 ,if ! me% type is employ$1 a "p ( ! lay] ( concrete is plac$ & smoo!d (f & a /rip ( ! me% laid 9 place4 ,additional concrete is !n p\r$ on top ( ! me% to br+ ! slab to ! requir$ ?ickness4 ,bitum9\s ,coat+s on ,concrete ,surfaces4--,! concrete road surface is sometimes coat$ ) a lay] ( bitum9\s mat]ial & /one *ips or gravel pebbles4 ,?is is p>ticul>ly advisable :]e no really satisfactory aggregates are available & ! concrete surface w\ld n possess suffici5t durability4 ,! bitum9\s mat]ial is appli$ hot to ! surface & is !n cov]$ ) /one *ips or gravel pebbles1 rang+ 9 size f #c_/d in* d[n to #a_/d in*1 ! result+ coat+ be+ ab\t #c_/d in* ?ick4 ,_m failures ( ?is type ( surface h be5 record$ due to ! difficulty ( secur+ adhesion to ! concrete4 ,?is seems to be due 9 "p to inability to get ! prop] bitum9\s mat]ials & 9 "p to climatic effects4 ,consid]able progress has be5 made 9 develop+ ?is type ( surface & x may ev5tually become a satisfactory ma9t5ance me?od4 ,*>act]i/ics4--,! concrete road is ( a granul> texture & is n slipp]y4 ,x is ( c\rse rigid & noisy = /eel tir$ vehicles4 ,x is an excell5t automobile road & its l[ tractive resi/ance makes x a desirable surface = horse drawn vehicles4 ,x possesses a high degree ( durability if prop]ly con/ruct$4 ,x is likely to crack indiscrim9ately b z a g5]al rule ! cracks are n a s]i\s defect4 ,ma9t5ance4--,! cracks t appe> 9 ! concrete surface are fill$ once or twice a ye>1 t> or asphalt be+ employ$4 ,! du/ & detritus is clean$ out ( ! cracks & ! hot fill] p\r$ 91 ) en\gh excess ov]fl[+ to protect ! edges4 ,,*apt] ,,ix ,,vitrifi$ ,,brick ,,roads ,vitrifi$ brick roads consi/ ( a f\ndation c\rse ( ,portl& cem5t concrete1 brok5 /one or slag macadam1 or ( brick laid flat1 ! fir/ nam$ be+ by f> ! mo/ g5]ally us$1 & a we>+ c\rse ( vitrifi$ brick4 ,vitrifi$ ,brick4--,vitrifi$ brick are made f clay ( su* a "* t :5 heat$ to ! requir$ temp]ature !y w fuse into a glassy texture4 ,brick roads are con/ruct$ on roads c>ry+ ! sev]e/ ( traffic & ! brick mu/ !re=e be t\gh & ( high resi/ance to we>4 ,n all ( ! clays f :i* brick may be manufactur$ w produce a product suitable = road con/ruction1 & pav+ brick1 ev5 ?\gh truly vitrifi$1 are ( diff]5t degrees ( durability1 dep5d+ ^u ! nature ( ! clay & ! c>e ex]cis$ 9 ! manufacture4 ,pav+ brick are manufactur$ by ! /iff mud process1 :i* means t ! clay is mold$ into =m 9 a relatively dry condition4 ,to accompli% ?is1 consid]able pressure is ex]t$ 9 =c+ ! column ( clay ?r\gh ! dies1 :i* =m ! prism f :i* ! brick are cut4 ,if ! clay is unsuitable 9 "* or is n prop]ly gr\nd & mix$1 ! brick w possess planes ( weakness betwe5 ! v>i\s lay]s ( clay :i* h be5 press$ toge!r1 & ^! planes1 call$ lam9ations1 are a s\rce ( weakness if too m>k$4 ,x is usual to specify t ! brick us$ = road surfaces %all be free f m>k$ lam9ations4 ,if ! brick is n prop]ly burn$ x w be only p>tly vitrifi$ & !re=e n ( maximum durability4 ,x is cu/om>y to specify t ! brick %all %[ a glassy fracture indicat+ complete vitrification4 ,v>i\s defects ( a m9or nature occasionally develop 9 ! brick dur+ ! successive /eps 9 ! manufactur+ process4 ,*eck cracks result+ f ! burn+ or f too rapid cool+ are (t5 enc\nt]$1 b unless ^! are deep1 t is #c_/af in* or m1 !y d n impair ! we>+ quality ( ! brick1 nor indicate /ructural weakness4 ,kiln m>ks are =m$ on "s ( ! brick due to ! weight ( ! brick above 9 ! kiln4 ,^! depressions are n objectionable unless ! brick are s di/ort$ t !y w n lie ev5ly 9 ! pavem5t4 ,spac+ lugs or rais$ lett]s are =m$ on "o face ( ! brick to insure suffici5t space betwe5 ! brick = ! fill]4 ,^! lugs or lett]s are n less ?an #a_/h in* nor m ?an #a_/d in* high & ( su* design t !y w n ob/ruct ! free fl[ ( fill] into ! jo9ts betwe5 ! brick4 ,sev]al v>ieties ( pav+ brick are to be _h1 ! diff]5ce be+ pr9cipally 9 ! design or size4 ,repress$ ,brick4--,9 ?is type ( brick ! spac+ lugs are =m$ by press+ ! gre5 brick1 aft] x has be5 cut to size1 into a mold on "o face ( :i* are recess$ lett]s or o!r devices into :i* ! clay is press$1 ?us =m+ ! spac+ lugs4 ,v]tical ,fib] ,brick4--,^! brick are design$ to be laid ) "o wire-cut face up & spac+ is provid$ by two or m beads on ! side ( ! brick4 ,sometimes ! v]tical fib] brick has no spac+ lug1 x be+ cont5d$ t ! irregul>ities ( ! brick are su* z to provide all ( ! space requir$4 ,9 practice ?is does n always "w out1 z ! brick are s regul> 9 %ape t :5 laid !re is too little space betwe5 ! brick to p]mit ! introduction ( a suitable fill]4 ,! use ( brick )\t spac+ lugs is j beg9n+ & is n yet a g5]ally accept$ practice4 ,wire-cut-lug ,brick4--,?is is a type ( non-repress$ brick :i* has spac+ lugs provid$ by cutt+ "o face 9 a special mann] :i* provid$ lugs = spac+4 ,9 ?is type ! wire cut face is ! "o betwe5 ! brick z !y are laid 9 ! pavem5t4 ,te/s = ,quality4--,! /&>d te/ = quality ( pav+ brick is ! rattl] te/4 ,! brick rattl] consi/s ( a b>rel ( #ad sides #bd in*es long1 m\nt$ s z to rotate at a spe$ betwe5 #bi4e & #cj4e revolutions p] m9ute4 ,! duration ( a te/ is #ahjj revolutions4 ,t5 brick con/itute a *>ge & ^! are plac$ 9 ! rattl] along ) #cjj lbs4 ( ca/ iron sph]es4 ,! sph]es are ( two sizes1 ! small] be+ #a-g_/h in* 9 diamet] :5 new1 & ! l>g] #c-c_/d in*es 9 diamet] :5 new4 ,t5 ( ! l>g] sph]es are us$ & ! balance ( ! *>ge is made up ( ! small size4 ,:5 te/$ 9 ! /&>d mann] ! loss all[able = ! sev]al classes ( s]vice are z foll[s3 ---------------------------------------- --- ,maximum ,loss ,traffic ,av]age ,loss = any ,brick ---------------------------------------- --- ,heavy #bj p] c5t #bd p] c5t ,m$ium #bb p] c5t #bf p] c5t ,light #be p] c5t #bh p] c5t ---------------------------------------- --- ,o!r ,te/s4--,sometimes ! absorption te/ is specifi$ = pav+ brick1 b x is r>ely a vitrifi$ brick t w pass ! rattl] te/s :i* fails to pass a reasonable absorption te/4 ,absorption ( wat] 9 an am\nt exce$+ #d p] c5t indicates incomplete vitrification & failure ( su* brick is almo/ c]ta9 dur+ ! rattl] te/s4 ,! cross break+ te/ is also sometimes employ$1 b g5]ally only to *eck ! g5]al quality ( ! brick4 ,failure 9 s]vice m frequ5tly occurs f excessive we> ?an f any o!r cause & ! cross break+ te/ has little significance1 except = brick less ?an #c in*es ?ick1 :i* are to be laid on a s& b$d+ c\rse4 ,f\ndation4--,! f\ndation = brick roads is usually ( ,portl& cem5t concrete1 ! ?ickness v>y+ ) ! nature ( ! traffic & ! k9d ( soil ^u :i* ! pavem5t is built4 ,= well dra9$ soils & normal highway traffic1 #e in*es is ! ord9>y ?ickness ( f\ndation4 ,"u favorable conditions su* z locations ) s&y soils or 9 semi-arid or arid regions :]e ! soil is always /able1 ! f\ndation may be f\r in*es ?ick1 & a consid]able mileage ( brick road has be5 built ) concrete f\ndations less ?an f\r in*es ?ick4 ,9 o!r locations ! soil & traffic conditions require a base six in*es or m 9 ?ickness1 & ! prop] ?ickness c be det]m9$ only aft] all ( ! factors involv$ are kn[n & h be5 analyz$4 ,x is impractical to adopt a /&>d ?ickness ( f\ndation t w be equally economical = all locations & all k9ds ( traffic4 ,z ! brick pavem5t is ess5tially a heavy traffic type ( surface1 ! design _c be v>i$ greatly ) simil> f\ndation conditions because ! weight ( individual loads is ! significant factor & ?is does n v>y s mu* z ! volume ( traffic4 ,a v>iation 9 volume ( traffic may be comp5sat$ = by a v>iation 9 ! quality ( ! brick z already set =?4 ,! mixtures = ! concrete f\ndation v>y widely because ( ! v>iation 9 ! aggregates employ$4 ,if ! f9e & co>se aggregate = ! concrete are ( good quality a mixture ( "o "p cem5t1 two & "o-half p>ts s& & five p>ts ( co>se aggregate w\ld insure concrete ( adequate /r5g?4 ,a some:at lean] mixture is sometimes employ$ & w\ld be satisfactory if ! aggregates 7 ( exceptional concrete mak+ quality4 ,mixtures ( s& & pebbles 7unscre5$ gravel7 may also be us$ if c>e is ex]cis$ to secure a mixture ( adequate /r5g?4 ,! proportion w ( necessity v>y ) ea* p>ticul> mat]ial & ! discussion ( ! v>i\s consid]ations involv$ may be obta9$ f v>i\s /&>d works on concrete & concrete mat]ials4 ,brok5 /one macadam is sometimes utiliz$ = ! f\ndation c\rse ( ! brick pavem5t & su* f\ndations are con/ruct$ z wat]-b\nd1 :i* is describ$ 9 a previ\s *apt]4 ,! ?ickness1 l t ( ! concrete f\ndation1 v>ies ) ! soil conditions & ! weight ( ! loads t are expect$ to use ! road4 ,! macadam is plac$ 9 a s+le lay] & is roll$ & bond$ ) scre5+s z describ$ 9 ! *apt] deal+ ) wat]-b\nd macadam4 ,six in*es is a common ?ickness = ! macadam base4 ,?is type ( f\ndation %\ld be employ$ only :]e ! soil is q /able & :]e mat]ial co/s are su* z to insure t ! macadam base is mat]ially *eap] ?an "o ( concrete4 ,?is w\ld usually be 9 locations :]e ! co/ ( cem5t is high because ( long hauls & :]e suitable macadam mat]ials may be obta9$ close at h&4 ,old macadam roads are sometimes utiliz$ = ! f\ndation = ! brick surface1 b ! in/ances :]e ?is is p]missible are comp>atively few 9 numb]4 ,:5 an old macadam is to be us$ x is re%ap$ to ! prop] cross section & re-roll$ & bond$ s z to af=d a /able f\ndation ( ! prop] cross slope4 ,,b$d+ ,,c\rse ,,= ,,brick ,,surfaces ,9 ord] to equalize ! v>iations 9 size & %ape ( ! brick1 !y are laid on a b$d+ c\rse compos$ ( mat]ial into :i* ! brick may be =c$ by roll+4 ,9 ?is way ! upp] surfaces ( all brick c be br\ght to ! prop] elevation to insure smoo?ness & easy rid+ qualities4 ,sev]al k9ds ( b$d+ c\rse are n[ employ$4 ,s& ,b$d+ ,c\rse4--,! s& b$d+ c\rse has be5 ref]r$ to z a s& cu%ion1 b z a matt] ( exp]i5ce ! cu%ion effect is slight1 al?\gh sometimes pavem5ts h become unev5 because ! brick h pu%$ d[n into ! s& aft] ! pavem5t 0 us$ = a "t4 ,! s& = ! b$d+ c\rse %\ld pref]ably be f9e gra9$1 all p>ticles pass+ ! eight me% sieve1 b ord9>y concrete s& is satisfactory4 ,! s& ne$ n be clean1 z a comp>atively l>ge p]c5tage ( silt or clay does n impair ! usefulness ( ! mat]ial4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ai4--;,cross ,sections = ,brick ,highways ,s& ,mort> ,b$d+ ,c\rse4--,9 ord] to elim9ate ! t5d5cy = ! /raight s& b$d+ c\rse to %ift because ( ! impact ( traffic on ! brick1 a lean cem5t mort> is sometimes employ$ r ?an ! /raight s&4 ,s& & cem5t 9 ! ratio ( "o "p cem5t to f\r or five p>ts ( s& are mix$ dry1 & aft] ! brick h be5 roll$1 is moi/5$ to furni% wat] to hydrate ! cem5t4 ,! s& employ$ is ord9>y clean concrete s&4 ,gre5 ,concrete ,b$d+ ,c\rse4--,9 ! monoli?ic type ( brick road con/ruction1 ! brick are laid directly on ! gre5 concrete base be=e ! concrete has tak5 a set & ! irregul>ities ( ! brick are tak5 up by roll+ !m until b$d$ 9 concrete4 ,,fill]s ,,= ,,brick ,,surfaces ,! spaces betwe5 ! brick are fill$ ) "s mat]ial t w prev5t ! brick f be+ displac$ & prev5t wat] gett+ to ! b$d+ c\rse4 ,a suitable fill] mu/ adh]e to ! brick & fill completely ! spaces betwe5 !m4 ,x mu/ )/& traffic s z to rema9 intact 9 ! jo9ts & :5 9 place x mu/ be rigid en\gh to prev5t displacem5t ( ! brick4 ,cem5t ,gr\t ,fill]4--,"o ( ! mo/ commonly us$ fill]s = brick pavem5ts consi/s ( a gr\t compos$ ( ,portl& cem5t & f9e s&4 ,:5 prop]ly mix$ & appli$ ! gr\t fill] meets all requirem5ts = a fill] except t x is non-ela/ic & "s means mu/ be adopt$ = c>+ = pavem5t expansion4 ,bitum9\s ,fill]s4--,asphaltic mat]ials & t>s are widely us$ z fill]s = brick pavem5ts4 ,su* fill]s are ( high melt+ po9t & consequ5tly solid at ord9>y temp]ature4 ,!y are p\r$ into ! jo9ts hot & :5 !y cool are firm en\gh to comply ) ! requirem5ts = a fill]4 ,9 addition1 !y h en\gh ductility to accommodate ! expansion ( ! pavem5t due to temp]ature *anges4 ,ma/ic ,fill]s4--,ma/ic consi/s ( a mixture ( ab\t equal volumes ( f9e s& & a solid bitum9\s mat]ial4 ,! mixture is prep>$ at high temp]ature & is work$ into ! jo9ts betwe5 ! brick :ile hot4 ,:5 cool x resembles ! /raight bitum9\s fill] except t ! ma/ic is some:at m resi/ant to we> ?an ! /raight bitum9\s fill]4 ,,expansion ,,jo9ts ,x is recogniz$ t brick w exp& & contract ) *anges 9 temp]ature4 ,:5 a bitum9\s or ma/ic fill] is employ$ !re is suffici5t yield to ! fill] to accommodate ! *ange 9 dim5sion 9 ! brick1 b :5 ! gr\t fill] is us$ ei!r ! expansion jo9t mu/ be provid$ or ! pavem5t mu/ be design$ to )/& ! compression due to expansion ( ! brick4 ,expansion jo9ts may consi/ ( a %eet ( bitum9\s ma/ic prep>$ = ! purpose & set 9 place 9 ! pavem5t4 ,! %eet ( jo9t mat]ial is simply ins]t$ betwe5 c\rses ( brick at ! prop] place4 ,ano!r me?od ( =m+ an expansion jo9t consi/s 9 plac+ a /rip ( wood betwe5 c\rses ( brick at ! place :]e a jo9t is requir$4 ,aft] ! pavem5t has be5 gr\t$1 ! wood5 /rip is pull$ out & ! jo9t is fill$ ) a suitable bitum9\s fill]4 ,m>g9al ,curb4--,if ! s& b$d+ c\rse is employ$1 x is necess>y to provide curb+ along ! sides ( ! brick to hold ! b$d+ c\rse 9 place4 ,! curb is usually con/ruct$ integral ) ! base & ( concrete ( ! same mixture z ! base4 ,! wid? ( ! curb is usually six in*es & ! top ( ! curb is at ! same elevation z ! edge ( brick surface4 ,,con/ruction ,,( ,,! ,,surface ,be=e ! con/ruction ( a brick surface %\ld be und]tak5 on a road1 ! dra9age %\ld be provid$ = ev5 m completely ?an = a less co/ly type ( surface s9ce x does n pay to jeop>dize ! /ability ( ! pavem5t by failure to provide adequately = ! /ability ( ! support+ soil4 ,grades %\ld also be r$uc$ to ! economical limit4 ,! e>? subgrade is br\ght to ! prop] elevation & cross section & is ?or\ghly roll$4 ,if !re are places :]e ! soil w n compact prop]ly "u roll+1 ^! places are correct$ by tak+ out ! mat]ial & back fill+ ) new mat]ial t w prop]ly compact "u ! roll]4 ,! aggregates = ! concrete may be di/ribut$ along on ! prep>$ subgrade or may be /or$ 9 /ock piles or b9s at conv5i5t po9ts4 ,if /or$ on ! subgrade1 a traction mix] is employ$ :i* is drawn along ! road z ! "w progresses1 ! mat]ials be+ plac$ directly 9 ! mix]4 ,if /or$ at a c5tral po9t1 !y may be transport$ to ! mix] on ! road & dump$ directly into ! mix]1 or ! mix] may be set up at ! /orage piles & ! concrete haul$ 9 trucks to ! road :]e x is deposit$ & %ap$4 ,! concrete is spread to ! prop] ?ickness & tamp$ ei!r by h& or by ma*9]y4 ,if ! m>g9al curb is to be employ$1 x is con/ruct$ imm$iately aft] ! concrete = ! base has be5 f9i%$ b be=e ! cem5t beg9s to set4 ,aft] ! f\ndation concrete has set1 ! b$d+ c\rse is spread & /ruck (f to ! prop] ?ickness4 ,:5 ! b$d+ c\rse consi/s ( s&-cem5t mort>1 ! s& & cem5t are mix$ dry & spread to prescrib$ ?ickness4 ,x is consid]$ to be desirable to roll ! s& b$d+ c\rse ) a light h& roll] be=e ! brick are plac$1 b ! s&-cem5t b$d+ c\rse is n roll$4 ,! b$d+ c\rse mu/ be c>efully %ap$ by means ( a templet or /rike bo>d be=e ! brick are plac$4 ,! brick are laid 9 /raight c\rses across ! pavem5t1 ) ! spac+ lugs all 9 ! same direction if brick ) spac+ lugs are employ$1 & ) ! lugs 9 contact ) ! brick ( adjo9+ c\rses4 ,if brick )\t spac+ lugs are us$ !y are laid loosely s t !re w be room = ! fill] betwe5 ! brick ( adjo9+ c\rses4 ,aft] ! brick h be5 laid !y are roll$ to b$ !m 9 ! s& or s&-mort> b$d+ c\rse & ?us secure a smoo? surface4 ,= ?is purpose a light1 p[] driv51 t&em roll] is us$ & ! roll+ is cont9u$ until ! brick are ?or\ghly b$d$4 ,any defective brick t are not$ are remov$ & replac$ ) good brick & aft] ?is cull+ has be5 complet$ ! surface is once m ?or\ghly roll$4 ,if a cem5t-s& b$d+ c\rse is employ$1 ! surface is spr9kl$ j aft] ! f9al roll+ s t wat] w fl[ d[n betwe5 ! brick & moi/5 ! b$d+ c\rse suffici5tly to cause ! cem5t to set4 ,9 "s cases1 ! s&-cem5t b$d+ c\rse is spr9kl$ j be=e ! brick are laid b 9 w>m wea!r ! sett+ w\ld take place be=e ! brick c\ld be roll$ if t 7 done4 ,9 cool wea!r ! sett+ is suffici5tly sl[ to p]mit roll+ be=e ! b$d+ c\rse h>d5s4 ,! fill] is appli$ to ! surface aft] ! roll+4 ,if ! bitum9\s type ( fill] is employ$1 ! hot fill] is p\r$ onto ! surface & work$ into ! jo9ts by means ( squeegees1 ) comp>atively little mat]ial left on ! surface4 ,9 "s in/ances cone-%ap$ p\r+ pots are employ$ & ! mat]ial is p\r$ directly into ! jo9ts4 ,! cem5t gr\t fill] is appli$ 9 ! same g5]al mann] z ! bitum9\s fill]4 ,! gr\t1 consi/+ ( equal p>ts ( s& & cem5t1 is mix$ to a ?9 consi/5cy & p\r$ onto ! surface & is !n work$ into ! jo9ts ) squeegees4 ,two or m applications are usually requir$ to effect a complete fill+ ( ! jo9ts4 ,! surface %\ld be cov]$ ) s& & be kept moi/ until ! cem5t gr\t has set4 ,,*apt] ,x ,,bitum9\s ,,road ,,mat]ials ,,& ,,_! ,,use ,t>s & asphaltic mat]ials ( v>i\s k9ds are widely us$ = road con/ruction & ma9t5ance1 especially = road surfaces subject$ to motor traffic4 ,mat]ials ( ?is "* t are employ$ 9 highway "w possess v>y+ degrees ( adhesiv5ess1 & :ile !y may be semi-solid or visc\s liquids at air temp]ature1 !y melt on ! application ( heat & c be made suffici5tly fluid to mix ) ! m9]al aggregates t may be us$ 9 ! road surface4 ,^u cool+1 ! bitum9\s mat]ials return to ! previ\s /ate & imp>t a c]ta9 am\nt ( pla/icity to ! mixture1 at ! same "t s]v+ z a b9d+ or cem5t+ ag5t1 :i* is suffici5tly /able = _m classes ( road con/ruction4 ,classes ( ,bitum9\s ,mat]ials4--,bitum9\s mat]ials may be classifi$1 accord+ to ! s\rce f :i* !y are obta9$1 z coal t>s1 wat] gas t>s1 native or natural asphalts & oil or petroleum asphalts4 ,coal ,t>4--,coal t> is obta9$ z a by-product 9 ! manufacture ( illum9at+ gas f coal4 ,x is also obta9$ 9 ! manufacture ( coke f coal4 ,! t> ?us obta9$ is manufactur$ into products t are us$ = du/ lay]s on gravel or macadam roads1 b9d]s = macadam & gravel surfaces1 fill]s = brick1 wood block & /one block pavem5ts & = expansion jo9ts4 ,^! v>i\s mat]ials diff] ma9ly 9 _! consi/5cy at air temp]ature4 7,!y may diff] widely 9 *emical composition1 b t ne$ n be consid]$ h]e947 ,wat] ,gas ,t>4--,wat] gas t> is obta9$ z a by-product 9 ! manufacture ( illum9at+ gas f crude petroleum4 ,x is us$ = ! same k9ds ( con/ruction z coal t>1 & ! products utiliz$ = ! sev]al purposes1 l ! coal t>s1 diff] ma9ly 9 consi/5cy4 ,natural ,asphalt4--,natural asphalt is f\nd 9 deposits at _m places 9 ! _w1 exi/+ 9 b$s or pools :]e x has exud$ f ! e>? or z ve9s 9 cavities 9 ! rocks4 ,x is ( v>y+ composition & consi/5cy1 b ^? k9ds 9 mo/ g5]al use are solid or v visc\s liquids at air temp]ature4 ,( ! deposits t h be5 develop$ on a comm]cial scale1 ! ,tr9idad lake 9 ! ,briti% ,we/ ,indies & ,b]mudez deposit 9 ,v5ezuela are be/ kn[n4 ,bo? ( ^! mat]ials are too h>d 9 ! natural /ate to be us$ = road con/ruction1 & are s(t5$1 or flux$ z x is call$1 ) fluid petroleum oil be=e be+ us$4 ,petroleum ,asphalt4--,petroleum asphalt is a residue rema9+ aft] ! fluid products h be5 di/ill$ f petroleum4 ,residues ( ?is sort are n always suitable = road con/ruction1 b a numb] ( br&s ( road mat]ial are obta9$ f ?is s\rce4 ,oil asphalts are us$ = du/ lay]s1 = b9d]s = macadam roads1 = asphalt cem5ts = %eet pavem5t surfaces1 & = fill]s = block pavem5ts & expansion jo9ts4 ,mixtures4--,wat] gas t>s & asphalts are sometimes mix$ to produce road mat]ials1 & likewise native asphalts & residues obta9$ f petroleum are sometimes mix$ to produce asphalt cem5ts = pav+ mixtures4 ,classification accord+ to ,consi/5cy4--,! v>i\s bitum9\s mat]ials may be classifi$ accord+ to consi/5cy 9 discuss+ ! v>i\s uses to :i* !y may be put4 ,road ,oils4--,road oils are fluid petroleum oils ( su* consi/5cy t !y may be appli$ cold or by heat+ slightly4 ,!y are us$ z du/ lay]s on e>?1 gravel & macadam surfaces4 ,_! efficacy dep5ds ^u ! b9d+ prop]ties ( ! small am\nt ( asphaltic mat]ial t is conta9$ 9 ! oil4 ,liquid ,asphalts4--,^! are some:at less fluid ?an ! road oils1 & mu/ always be heat$ be=e application1 b are visc\s liquids at ord9>y temp]ature4 ,^! mat]ials are obta9$ f crude petroleum or semi-solid native bitum5s1 9 :i* case !y are usually call$ mal?as4 ,bo? coal t>s & wat] gas t>s ( semi-solid consi/5cy are also employ$ = ! same class ( con/ruction z ! liquid asphalts4 ,^! mat]ials are us$ = c>pet+ m$iums on macadam roads & z cem5t+ ag5ts 9 ! con/ruction ( hot-mix$ macadam4 ,asphalt ,cem5ts4--,! solid asphaltic mat]ials us$ = hot-mix$ types ( con/ruction are call$ asphalt cem5ts4 ,!y may be petroleum residues or native asphalts flux$ ) petroleum oils4 ,!y are solids at ord9>y temp]ature & mu/ be heat$ to a temp]ature 9 excess ( two hundr$ & fifty degrees be=e !y are suffici5tly fluid to use4 ,asphalt cem5ts are us$ = %eet asphalt & asphaltic concrete con/ruction & = hot-mix$ bitum9\s macadam4 ,fill]s4--,fill]s are solid asphalts or t>s t are us$ = fill+ expansion jo9ts 9 rigid pavem5ts & = fill+ ! spaces betwe5 ! blocks 9 brick1 wood block & /one block pavem5ts4 ,bitum54--,bitum9\s mat]ials are all soluble to a great] or less] ext5t 9 c>bon disulphide & ! soluble portion is call$ bitum54 ,x is ! bitum5 t gives to ! mat]ials ! cem5t+ prop]ties utiliz$ 9 road con/ruction4 ,mixtures ( m9]al aggregates & bitum9\s mat]ials = v>i\s purposes are proportion$ ) bitum5 z a basis4 ,!re=e1 less ( an asphalt conta9+ "o hundr$ p] c5t bitum5 w be us$ ?an ( "o conta9+ less ?an "o hundr$ p] c5t ( bitum54 ,,table #h ,,prop]ties ,,( ,,asphaltic ,,road ,,mat]ials 7,a7 ,mat]ial 7,b7 ,specific ,gravity 7,c7 ,consi/5cy 7,d7 ,solubility 9 ,,cs#b1 ,p] ,c5t 7,e7 ,solubility ( ,bitum5 9 ,c,cl#d1 ,p] ,c5t 7,f7 ,solubility ( ,bitum5 9 #hf ,naph?a1 ,p] ,c5t 7,g7 ,fix$ ,c>bon1 ,p] ,c5t 7,h7 ,fla% ,po9t 7,i7 ,ductility ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- 7,a7 7,b7 7,c7 7,d7 7,e7 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,mexican oil asphalts #a4jc-a4je;,z desir$ #ii4e-ii4iii4e-ii4i ,cali=nia oil asphalts #a4jb-a4jd;,z desir$ #ii4i #ii4i ,texas oil asphalts #a4ja-a4jc;,z desir$ #ii4i #ii4i ,b]mudez natural asphalt#a4jg #be #ie #ii ,tr9idad natural asphalt #a4dj #g #ef-eg #ajj ,b]mudez asphalt cem5t #a4jd-a4jf,up to #ace #ie-ig #ii4e or m ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- 7,a7 7,f7 7,g7 7,h7 7,i7 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,mexican oil asphalts #gj-hj #ac-af #bjj;,c4 up #fj-ajj ,cali=nia oil asphalts #ge-hj #aj-ab #bjj;,c4 up #ajj ,texas oil asphalts #ge-hj #ab-ad #bjj;,c4 up #ej-ajj ,b]mudez natural asphalt #fh-gj #ac-ad 444 444 ,tr9idad natural asphalt #fd-fe #aj-aa 444 444 ,b]mudez asphalt cem5t #gg-hj #aa-ab #age-bjj #be-ej ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,specifications4--,"s prop]ties ( bitum9\s mat]ials c be v>i$ 9 ! process ( manufacture1 :ile o!rs are inh]5t 9 ! mat]ial & _c be *ang$ 9 ! process ( manufacture4 ,specifications mu/ !re=e be drawn ) c>e to insure t ! requirem5ts c be met by satisfactory mat]ials4 ,b c]ta9 prop]ties1 su* z specific gravity1 may v>y greatly among mat]ials equally satisfactory = con/ruction purposes4 ,"o %\ld n be misl$ by app>5t diff]5ces 9 ! *>act]i/ics ( mat]ials1 because ^! may simply be natural peculi>ities :i* h no be>+ on ! usefulness ( ! mat]ial4 ,!re are giv5 9 ,table #h ! prop]ties ( "s ( ! commonly us$ bitum9\s mat]ials & ! prop]ties t c be v>i$ 9 ! process ( manufacture are indicat$ ) an a/]isk4 ,a v>iation 9 ^! prop]ties w usually result 9 "s *ange ( o!r prop]ties1 b g5]ally n a great *ange4 ,,surfaces ,,9 ,,:i* ,,bitum9\s ,,mat]ials ,,are ,,utiliz$ ,i4 ,surface ,treatm5ts ,att5tion has be5 direct$ to ! rapid det]ioration ( wat]-b\nd macadam :5 subject$ to pass5g] automobile traffic4 ,9 wat]-b\nd macadam ! /ones are held 9 place by a weak cem5t compos$ ( /one du/ & wat]1 & ?is cem5t is n suffici5tly /rong to hold ! /ones 9 place :5 !y are subject$ to ! %e> ( automobile tires4 ,9 f9i%+ ! wat]-b\nd macadam surface1 ! spaces betwe5 ! /ones are fill$ ) scre5+ & 9 addition a lay] ab\t "o-f\r? in* ?ick is left on ! surface4 ,! automobile traffic fir/ bru%es aside all ( ! scre5+s & small] p>ticles ( rock1 expos+ ! l>g] /ones4 ,^! gradually loos5 z ! road is us$ & are bru%$ aside4 ,:5 ?is effect beg9s1 ! road is said to be ravel+4 ,v>i\s l5g?s ( "t may elapse f ! "t ! road is fir/ f9i%$ until ravel+ beg9s1 dep5d+ ^u ! "* ( ! /one1 ! wea!r & ! am\nt ( motor traffic4 ,dur+ ! p]iod be=e ravel+ />ts1 x is comp>atively easy to re/ore ! road surface at any "t by ! addition ( scre5+s or clay & s&4 ,usually !re w be a few small areas ( ! surface t1 on acc\nt ( faulty con/ruction1 w ravel or become rutt$ mu* e>li] ?an ! rema9d] ( ! surface4 ,^! c be repair$ by ! me?ods describ$ 9 ! *apt] on ,wat]-b\nd ,macadam ,con/ruction4 ,:5 ! surface beg9s to ravel s]i\sly1 ma9t5ance becomes mu* m difficult & 9 ord] to prev5t ravel+ & ! difficulties ( ma9t5ance !reaft]1 ! macadam surface is (t5 coat$ ) a bitum9\s mat]ial4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bj4--,oil+ a ,gravel ,road ,if !re is any du/ or scre5+s on ! road surface1 ! bitum9\s mat]ial w n adh]e to ! /ones & w soon flake (f "u traffic4 ,! surface ( ! macadam mu/ !re=e be ?or\ghly clean$ be=e ! bitum9\s mat]ial is appli$4 ,! usual practice is to f9i% ! road z wat]-b\nd macadam1 & p]mit traffic on x = a suffici5t l5g? ( "t to %[ any weak places 9 ! surface & at ! same "t ?or\ghly to season ! surface4 ,if any defective places appe>1 !y are repair$ & :5 ! surface exhibits satisfactory /ability1 b be=e x beg9s to ravel1 ! bitum9\s surface is appli$4 ,!re w ord9>ily be "s /one du/ & "s scre5+s rema9+ on ! surface at ! "t bitum9\s treatm5t is und]tak51 & !re may also be "s cak$ mud or o!r =eign mat]ial4 ,all ( ?is mu/ be remov$ s z to expose ! /ones ?r\gh\t4 ,apply+ ! ,bitum9\s ,b9d]4--,! bitum9\s b9d] may be deliv]$ 9 tank c>s1 :i* is desirable if ! "w is ne> a railroad sid+1 or ample tank wagon s]vice is available = long hauls s t ! tank w n be held up too long4 ,(t5 x is desirable to pur*ase ! b9d] 9 b>rels & haul ^! to ! site ( ! "w 9 advance ( beg9n+ ! con/ruction ( ! surface4 ,! bitum9\s mat]ial may be appli$ by means ( h& spread+ cans n unlike an ord9>y g>d5 wat]+ pot1 except t a slott$ nozzle is sub/itut$ = ! ord9>y p]=at$ "o4 ,if h& me?ods are employ$ = spread+1 ! bitum9\s mat]ial is heat$ 9 op5 kettles & !n spread on ! surface1 ! quantity requir$ usually be+ ab\t "o-half gallon p] squ>e y>d ( surface4 ,! temp]ature ( ! b9d] %\ld be great en\gh to insure fluidity & ! road %\ld be dry at ! "t ( ! application4 ,z soon z ! mat]ial has be5 spread1 ! surface is f9i%$ ) a dress+ ( *ips4 ,f9i%+ ! ,surface4--,= surface dress+ ! be/ mat]ial is /one *ips rang+ 9 size f ab\t #a in* d[n to "o-f\r? in*4 ,b ! *ips mu/ be ( durable mat]ial1 or !y w quickly gr9d into du/4 ,!y mu/ be free f du/ :5 appli$1 z ! pres5ce ( any consid]able am\nt ( du/ int]f]es ) ! prop] f9i%+ ( ! surface4 ,! /one *ips are roll$ into ! surface1 a suffici5t quantity be+ us$ to j cov] ! surface4 ,pat*+4--,x almo/ always happ5s t "s small areas w n be prop]ly clean$ or t = "s unkn[n reason ! coat+ peels (f ! surface4 ,su* places mu/ be promptly pat*$ to prev5t !m enl>g+ "u ! action ( traffic4 ,?is "w is usually done by patrolm51 :o inspect ! road at frequ5t int]vals & make ! necess>y repairs4 ,! patrolman is equipp$ ) a small heat+ kettle1 a spread+ c & ! necess>y bru%es1 tamp]s & miscellane\s tools ne$$ = ! repair "w4 ,! place to be pat*$ is c>efully clean$1 coat$ ) bitum9\s b9d] & /one *ips & tamp$ until d5se & solid4 ,repairs made 9 ?is way are exce$+ly important 9 t !y arre/ det]ioration 9 its e>ly /ages & ma9ta9 a high degree ( s]viceability4 ,,ii4 ,p5etration ,macadam ,a consid]able mileage ( macadam has be5 con/ruct$ 9 :i* an attempt 0 made to elim9ate ! difficulties ( ma9t5ance by a me?od ( con/ruction t involves apply+ a bitum9\s b9d] 9 su* a mann] z to p]mit x to p5etrate two in*es or m into ! surface4 ,x is expect$ t ! b9d] w coat ! /ones to su* an ext5t z to increase mat]ially ! /ability ( ! bitum9\s macadam ov] ! surface treat$ "o4 ,x is also expect$ t less difficulty w be enc\nt]$ 9 ma9ta9+ a surface ( bitum9\s mat]ial & /one *ips on ?is type ( road ?an on ! wat]-b\nd macadam4 ,! ext5t to :i* ^! expectations h be5 realiz$ has v>i$ to a m>k$ degree & al?\gh "s excell5t surfaces h be5 con/ruct$ by ?is me?od1 ! results h z a rule be5 nei!r uni=m nor entirely satisfactory4 ,x seems to be app>5t t good results _c be obta9$ unless ! mat]ials are entirely suitable & ! con/ruction is c>ri$ out ) unusual skill4 ,f\ndation4--,! f\ndation or l[] c\rse consi/s ( a lay] ( brok5 /one six in*es ?ick plac$ on a well dra9$ & ?or\ghly roll$ e>? subgrade4 ,9 exceptional cases1 ! ,tel=d type ( f\ndation might be employ$4 ,! l[] c\rse ( brok5 /one is f9i%$ 9 ! same mann] z wat]-b\nd macadam1 be+ bond$ ) /one scre5+s or ) f9e gravel ( high clay cont5t4 ,s9ce ?is c\rse is 9 reality ! f\ndation ( ! surface1 x is necess>y to secure /ability by appropriate con/ruction me?ods1 exactly z 9 con/ruct+ wat]-b\nd macadam4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ba4--,type ( ,roll] us$ on ,gravel & ,macadam ,roads ,upp] or ,we>+ ,c\rse4--,! we>+ c\rse consi/s ( a lay] ( /one ab\t two & "o-half in*es ?ick4 ,! /one is plac$ & roll$ & ! spaces betwe5 ! /ones p>tially fill$ ) "s suitable bitum9\s mat]ial4 ,! bitum9\s mat]ial is usually appli$ by means ( a me*anical spread+ device connect$ to a tank wagon4 ,! bitum9\s mat]ials employ$ = ?is class ( con/ruction are semi-solid 9 "* & mu/ be heat$ to give !m suffici5t fluidity = application4 ,!y may be heat$ 9 ! tank wagon :i* is us$ = ! application or !y may be heat$ 9 sep>ate tanks & transf]r$ to ! di/ribut+ wagon = spread+4 ,"s k9d ( a nozzle or gr\p ( nozzles is employ$ = spread+ ! mat]ial s t x c be deliv]$ 9 ! =m ( a spray or at lea/ 9 a ?9 fan-%ap$ /ream & c be di/ribut$ 9 a fairly uni=m lay] ov] ! /one4 ,! b9d] w cool r rapidly aft] x is appli$1 b mean:ile w fl[ into ! op5+s betwe5 ! /ones & w =m ov] ! surface /ones a coat+ ( slight ?ickness4 ,! surface ( ! macadam is next cov]$ ) a lay] ( *ips ( t\gh rock1 simil> to ! mat]ial us$ = ! f9al dress+ 9 surface treatm5ts4 ,^! are c>efully bru%$ into ! op5+s betwe5 ! l>g] /ones by means ( heavy bru% brooms4 ,?is is an exce$+ly important "p ( ! "w & (t5 a mu* neglect$ "p ( ! con/ruction4 ,! surface is !n cov]$ ) a second application ( bitum9\s mat]ial1 some:at less 9 quantity ?an requir$ = ! fir/ treatm5t & ! surface aga9 cov]$ ) /one *ips & bru%$4 ,! surface is !n ?or\ghly roll$ & is ready = traffic4 ,pat*+4--,z 9 ! case ( surface treatm5ts1 !re are likely to be places t1 on acc\nt ( defects 9 ! con/ruction1 w fail soon aft] ! road is plac$ "u traffic4 ,^! w quickly enl>ge unless !y are repair$ promptly4 ,! repairs are made by loos5+ ! /one 9 ! area affect$ & add+ new /one z ne$$ & !n p\r+ on ! necess>y am\nt ( bitum9\s mat]ial to coat ! /ones4 ,all[ance mu/ be made = ! compression ( ! mat]ial by tamp+ s t a depression does n result4 ,! /ones are c>efully tamp$ to place & cov]$ ) *ips :i* are also tamp$4 ,*>act]i/ics4--,! p5etration macadam is a surface well adapt$ to motor traffic if ! individual vehicles are n too heavy4 ,x is likely to squeeze out ( %ape "u motor truck traffic1 becom+ s]i\sly unev5 & uncom=table = traffic4 ,its durability is mat]ially affect$ by ! con/ruction me?ods foll[$4 ,,iii4 ,hot ,mix$ ,macadam ,! we>+ c\rse ( ! mix$ macadam is compos$ ( grad$ brok5 /one or gravel & a bitum9\s b9d]4 ,usually ! bitum9\s mat]ial only is heat$ prior to ! mix+1 b sometimes ! /one is also heat$4 ,f\ndation4--,! l[] c\rse1 :i* s]ves z ! f\ndation1 is ei!r brok5 /one macadam1 gravel or concrete4 ,:]e a f\ndation ( brok5 /one is us$1 x is con/ruct$ ( ! mat]ials & 9 ! mann] describ$ = ! f\ndation ( ! p5etration macadam4 ,q (t5 a badly worn macadam or gravel road is us$ = ! f\ndation & a new we>+ c\rse provid$ by add+ a mix$ macadam surface4 ,if su* is ! case1 ! old surface is work$ ov] s z to re/ore ! %ape suffici5tly & to insure t x is ev]y:]e ( suffici5t ?ickness4 ,portl& cem5t concrete is sometimes us$ z a f\ndation = ! mix$ macadam1 b n (t54 ,usually if ! traffic is ( a "* requir+ a concrete f\ndation1 x is desirable to use a bett] we>+ c\rse ?an ! mix$ macadam1 & ! asphaltic concrete or %eet asphalt type ( surface is employ$4 ,x is necess>y to f9i% ! surface ( ! concrete base ) "s device t w leave ! surface r\gh to prev5t ! macadam f creep+4 ,a knobb$ tamp] :i* leaves num]\s irregul> depressions ab\t #b in*es 9 diamet] & ?ree-f\r?s in* deep is (t5 employ$4 ,sizes ( ,/one4--,= ! we>+ surface1 /one rang+ 9 size f #b in*es d[n to "o-f\r? in* is usually employ$4 ,if ! /one is ( good quality ! maximum size may be b #a-a_/b in*es1 b s(t or ev5 m$ium /one ( t size are likely to cru% "u traffic4 ,! /one = ! base c\rse %\ld pref]ably be f #c in*es d[n1 b any available size w be satisfactory if ! lay] is well roll$ & bond$4 ,! base c\rse is con/ruct$ 9 ! same mann] z wat]-b\nd macadam & any mat]ial satisfactory = ! base c\rse ( macadam w s]ve = ! base c\rse ( mix$ macadam4 ,scre5+s hav+ good bond+ prop]ties w also be requir$ = ! base c\rse4 ,mix+ & ,we>+ ,surface4--,sev]al me?ods are employ$ 9 mix+ ! we>+ surface4 ,! simple/ is to mix by h& ) %ovels4 ,! aggregates are heat$ 9 improvis$ heat]s :i* may consi/ ( no?+ m ?an a metal pipe two or ?ree feet 9 diamet]1 ar\nd :i* ! /one is pil$4 ,! mix+ plat=m is usually a metal plate sometimes arrang$ s t x c be heat$ by means ( a fire und]nea?4 ,! bitum9\s mat]ial is heat$ 9 kettles4 ,= "s mixtures1 ! /one is n heat$1 b ! bitum9\s mat]ial is always heat$4 ,! bat* ( /one is plac$ on ! mix+ plat=m1 ! bitum9\s mat]ial add$ & ! mat]ials mix$ by h&4 ,ma*9e mix+ is practic$ mu* m ext5sively ?an h& mix+1 be+ bo? m rapid & *eap]4 ,! mix] is simil> to a concrete mix] except t ! drum is arrang$ s t x c be heat$4 ,! hot /one & ! bitum9\s b9d] are put into ! drum & mix$ = ! requisite l5g? ( "t4 ,sometimes ! /one is mix$ cold1 ! bitum9\s mat]ial only be+ heat$4 ,plac+ ! ,we>+ ,surface4--,! hot mixture is c>t$ to ! road & spread to su* ?ickness t aft] roll+ ! we>+ surface w be n less ?an two in*es ?ick4 ,! hot mixture is dump$ & !n spread by means ( %ovels to ! approximate ?ickness & ! spread+ complet$ by means ( rakes4 ,! surface is !n roll$ ei!r ) a t&em or a ?ree-:eel$ roll] until ?or\ghly compress$4 ,seal ,coat4--,aft] ! roll+ has be5 complet$1 ! surface is cov]$ ) hot bitum9\s cem5t & dress$ ) pea gravel or /one *ips & aga9 roll$4 ,traffic may be p]mitt$ 9 tw5ty-f\r h\rs4 ,*>act]i/ics4--,! mix$ macadam is a some:at resili5t surface ( excell5t rid+ qualities & consid]able durability = m$ium traffic4 ,x is likely to creep & become unev5 :5 subject$ to heavy loads4 ,! seal coat w we> (f 9 two or ?ree ye>s & w require replac+4 ,,iv4 ,asphaltic ,concrete ,asphaltic concrete is a "n giv5 to a road surface mixture :i* is compos$ ( grad$ /one1 grad$ s& & asphalt cem5t4 ,?is type is designat$ z asphaltic concrete because ( ! analogy ( ! mixture to ,portl& cem5t concrete4 ,asphaltic concrete is ( two g5]al types kn[n z bituli?ic1 or ,w>r5ite1 & ,topeka asphaltic concrete1 respectively1 ! diff]5ces be+ 9 ! nature ( ! mixture4 ,bituli?ic or ,w>r5ite4--,! /one employ$ = ^! types is grad$ d[n f a size ab\t equal to "o-half ( ! ?ickness ( ! we>+ c\rse1 & /one pass+ a #a-a_/d or #a-a_/b-;in* scre5 is usually specifi$4 ,f ! maximum size ! /one is grad$ d[n to ! f9e/ p>ticles produc$ by ! cru%]4 ,! range ( sizes ( /one w v>y ) ! s\rce ( ! supply1 & 9 ord] to secure ! desir$ d5sity 9 ! mixture1 v>y+ am\nts ( grad$ s& & m9]al du/1 su* z gr\nd lime/one or ,portl& cem5t1 are add$ to ! brok5 /one4 ,usually ! result+ mixture conta9s less ?an fifte5 p] c5t ( voids1 & to ?is c>efully grad$ m9]al aggregate !re is add$ en\gh asphalt cem5t to b9d toge!r ! p>ticles4 ,topeka ,asphaltic ,concrete4--,9 ?is type ( asphaltic concrete1 ! m9]al aggregate consi/s ( a mixture ( c>efully grad$ s& & ( brok5 /one ( su* size t all w pass a "o-half-in* scre5 & grad$ d[n to ! f9e du/ produc$ by ! cru%]4 ,to ?is mixture is add$ ab\t n9e p] c5t ( ,portl& cem5t or lime/one du/4 ,! voids 9 ! mixture are usually ab\t tw5ty-five p] c5t4 ,x w be se5 t ! ess5tial diff]5ces betwe5 ! ,bituli?ic & ,topeka types are ^!3 ! ,topeka type conta9s a l>g] p]c5tage ( voids & /one ( a small] maximum size ?an ! ,bituli?ic4 ,bo? types h be5 ext5sively employ$ = city pav+1 b ! ,bituli?ic & ,w>r5ite types h also be5 us$ to "s ext5t = rural highways4 ,! ,topeka type has be5 us$ b little = rural highways4 ,f\ndation4--,! f\ndation = ! asphaltic concrete may be an old macadam road1 a base c\rse con/ruct$ ( brok5 /one or ,portl& cem5t concrete1 ! latt] be+ us$ mu* m ext5sively ?an ei!r ( ! o!r types4 ,sometimes asphaltic concrete is us$ = resurfac+ wat]-b\nd macadam or gravel roads :5 ! traffic has increas$ to ! po9t :]e ! co/ ( ma9t5ance ( ! wat]-b\nd macadam has become excessive4 ,! exi/+ surface is repair$ & ! cross section is re/or$1 or possibly flatt5$ some:at4 ,plac+ ! ,surface4--,! /one1 s& & asphalt cem5t are heat$ to ! requir$ temp]ature & comb9$ 9 ! prop] proportions & are !n ?or\ghly mix$ by a me*anical mix]4 ,! mixture is haul$ directly to ! road & is dump$ & spread by means ( rakes4 ,x is !n roll$ ?or\ghly :ile /ill hot1 a ?ree-:eel$ roll] be+ mo/ satisfactory4 ,aft] roll+1 a seal coat ( hot asphalt cem5t is spread ov] ! surface & cov]$ ) hot /one *ips ab\t #a_/d in* 9 size4 ,! surface c be op5$ to traffic imm$iately aft] ! surface has be5 complet$4 ,*>act]i/ics4--,! asphaltic concrete surface is ( excell5t rid+ prop]ties1 is easily repair$ & ( mod]ate durability4 ,x is a p>ticul>ly desirable surface = pleasure automobile rid+ & = horse drawn traffic4 ,,*apt] ,,xi ,,ma9t5ance ,,( ,,highways ,prop] ma9t5ance ( highways is equally important ) prop] con/ruction4 ,) ne>ly all types ( road con/ruction1 ! ne$ = ma9t5ance arises soon aft] ! surface is plac$ "u traffic & is cont9u\s !reaft]4 ,! nature & am\nt ( ma9t5ance "w v>ies greatly among ! sev]al types ( surface & ! organization suitable = a sy/em ( highways w dep5d to a consid]able ext5t ^u ! k9ds ( surfaces t are to be ma9ta9$4 ,! upkeep ( a road may be conv5i5tly consid]$ z ( two k9ds1 viz41 7#a7 t :i* has to d ) ! we>+ surface & e>? %\ld]s or b]ms ^u :i* !re is "s traffic & 7#b7 t :i* has to d ) ! side dit*es & dra9age /ructures & keep+ ! roadside 9 pres5table condition4 ,bo? k9ds ( "w are usually c>ri$ out by ! same organization1 b :]eas ! nature ( ! "w indicat$ "u 7#a7 w v>y ) ! type ( we>+ surface & ) all v>iations 9 traffic1 t :i* is indicat$ "u 7#b7 w be ne>ly con/ant 9 any locality4 ,,organization ,,= ,,ma9t5ance ,ma9t5ance ( highways is pref]ably "u ! adm9i/ration ( ! same au?ority z con/ruction & :5 an improvem5t is und]tak5 "u ! jurisdiction ( a ,/ate ,highway ,dep>tm5t1 ! complet$ improvem5t is ord9>ily ma9ta9$ "u ! /ate au?ority4 ,if ! improvem5t is made by c\nty au?orities1 ! ma9t5ance is also c>ri$ out "u c\nty au?ority4 ,! nature ( ! organization ( ma9t5ance =ces is dep5d5t ^u ! k9d ( roads to be c>$ = & mu/ ( necessity be v>i$ 9 any in/ance z conditions dem&4 ,9 g5]al1 ei!r ma9t5ance gangs or patrolm5 are employ$ & (t5 bo? are us$ on ! same road sy/em4 ,patrol ,ma9t5ance4--,:]e ?is sy/em is 9 op]ation1 ! highway sy/em is divid$ into patrol di/ricts ( f six to eighte5 miles ( highway & a s+le patrolman is plac$ 9 *>ge ( ea* di/rict4 ,he is provid$ ) all ( ! necess>y tools & mat]ials requir$ 9 8 di/rict & p]=ms all ( ! "w requir$ 9 ! ord9>y upkeep ( ! highway4 ,he %\ld "w "u ! direction ( ! c\nty eng9e] or ! di/rict eng9e] = ! /ate highway dep>tm5t1 because 8 "w involves ! use ( mat]ials & processes requir+ te*nical sup]vision4 ,gang ,ma9t5ance4--,! ma9t5ance gang may be employ$ = "s types ( road surface 9 lieu ( ! patrolman or ) o!r types ( surface may be employ$ to supplem5t ! "w ( ! patrolman4 ,! ma9t5ance gang consi/s ( ?ree to t5 m5 & is furni%$ all ( ! tools & mat]ials requir$ = ! p>ticul> k9d ( "w !y d4 ,ord9>ily ! gang goes ov] ! roads assign$ to x once ea* season & p]=ms ^? repair op]ations requir+ m "w ?an ! patrolman c f9d "t =4 ,! "w ( ! ma9t5ance gang l t ( ! patrolman %\ld be "u eng9e]+ sup]vision4 ,ma9t5ance ( ,e>?1 ,s&-clay1 ,gravel & ,macadam ,roads4--,! ord9>y upkeep ( e>?1 s&-clay1 gravel & macadam surfaces is mo/ readily accompli%$ by ! patrol me?od1 s9ce con/ant c>e is requir$ to keep ! roads 9 a condition ( maximum s]vice ability4 ,! tools requir$ = ea* patrolman may include ! foll[+3 #a %ovel #a spade #a /one rake #a pick #a scy! #a tamp] #a or m road drags #a m[+ ma*9e = cutt+ we$s #a :eelb>r[ 7sometimes7 #a light truck #a small kit c>p5t]'s tools ,! "w ( ! patrolman consi/s 9 keep+ ! surface ( ! road smoo? by dragg+1 repair+ *uck holes by tamp+ 9 fre% mat]ial ( ! appropriate k9d1 keep+ ! dit*es & culv]ts free f ob/ruction1 cutt+ we$s & repair+ bridge floors if !y are ( plank con/ruction4 ,removal ( sn[ drifts is sometimes a "p ( ! patrolman's duty1 b m (t5 t is done by special gangs4 ,usually ! patrolman is au?oriz$ to hire teams = dragg+ & cutt+ we$s4 ,:5 an e>? road requires to be re-grad$ s z to re/ore ! cross-section & deep5 ! dit*es1 a gang is s5t 9 to p]=m t "w1 z x is obvi\sly impossible = ! patrolman to p]=m "w1 ( t k9d4 ,if ! gravel road is be+ ma9ta9$ ) a bitum9\s c>pet coat1 ! patrolman w be furni%$ ! necess>y tools to enable him to pat* ! surface ) bitum9\s mat]ial z necessity requires4 ,:5 ! surface det]iorates to su* an ext5t t a new c>pet coat is requir$1 ! gang sy/em is employ$ = all "w connect$ ) resurfac+1 in/ead ( attempt+ to h ! "w done by patrolm54 ,! ma9t5ance ( ! macadam road is c>ri$ out 9 mu* ! same mann] z t ( ! gravel road4 ,! b9d] ( /one du/ or clayey s& is r5ew$ z (t5 z x is swept (f by traffic4 ,depressions or ruts are repair$ by fir/ loos5+ ! surface ) a pick & !n add+ brok5 /one & scre5+s to re/ore ! surface4 ,:5 ! macadam rea*es ! /age :]e entire resurfac+ is ne$$1 ! "w is p]=m$ by gangs organiz$ & equipp$ = ! purpose2 & likewise :5 ! surface is be+ ma9ta9$ ) a bitum9\s c>pet1 ! r5ewal ( ! c>pet coat is p]=m$ by special gangs1 b ! ord9>y upkeep ( ! surface by pat*+ is h&l$ by a patrolman4 ,,ma9t5ance ,,( ,,mix$ ,,bitum9\s ,,surfaces ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bb4--,sc>afi] us$ 9 ,gravel ,road ,ma9t5ance ,^! types ( surface c be kept 9 satisfactory condition if !y are c>efully repair$ once or twice ea* season4 ,?is "w requires consid]able exp]i5ce & "s special equipm5t1 n ord9>ily suppli$ to patrolm54 ,a gang is organiz$ = ! "w & suppli$ ) ! prop] equipm5t4 ,!y g ov] ! roads & pat* all worn places1 g5]ally fir/ remov+ ! we>+ surface entirely 9 ! area affect$4 ,! we>+ surface mixture is !n prep>$ & tamp$ or roll$ into place4 ,if ! area affect$ is small1 tamp+ is satisfactory1 & :5 ! area is consid]able1 roll+ is employ$4 ,! upkeep ( ! side roads may be accompli%$ by ! same gang b is pref]ably tak5 c>e ( by patrolm51 :o d n attempt any b m9or repairs to ! we>+ surface4 ,,ma9t5ance ,,( ,,brick ,,& ,,concrete ,,roads ,on brick & concrete roads1 ! pr9cipal "w on ! we>+ surface consi/s 9 fill+ ! cracks ) a suitable bitum9\s mat]ial4 ,?is "w is done by patrolm5 or by special gangs & g5]ally w be done once ea* ye>4 ,! upkeep ( ! side roads is c>$ = by patrolm5 :o drag ! side roads & cut ! we$s z occasion requires4 ,,index ,adm9i/ration c\nty2 #ae f$]al2 #ag highway2 #ac /ate2 #af t[n%ip2 #ac ,ae/hetics2 #fb ,aggregate1 f9e2 #aja ,aggregate1 co>se2 #ajj ,air resi/ance2 #ea ,alignm5t2 #df ,apply+ bitum9\s b9d]2 #abb ,asphaltic concrete2 #abh ,asphalt1 natural2 #aag liquid2 #aah petroleum2 #aag ,assessm5ts1 special2 #ai zone me?od2 #bj ,b$d+ c\rse1 gre5 mort>2 #aaa s& mort>2 #aaa s& b$d+ mort>2 #aaa ,b9d] = gravel2 #ge ,bituli?ic or w>r5ite2 #abh ,bitum52 #aah ,bitum9\s coat+s on concrete2 #aje ,bitum9\s fill]s2 #aab ,bitum9\s road mat]ials & _! use2 #aaf ,bitum9\s surfaces2 #if1 #abj ,blade grad]2 #fi ,bond+2 #hg ,bonds1 annuity2 #bf s]ial2 #bg s9k+ fund2 #be ,box culv]ts2 #ci ,brick roads2 #aac ,brick1 repress$2 #ajg te/s ( #ajh2 v]tical fib]2 #ajg vitrifi$2 #ajf wire-cut-lug2 #ajh ,brok5 /one road surfaces2 #hi ,cem5t1 asphaltic2 #aah ,cem5t concrete roads2 #ih ,cem5t gr\t fill]2 #aab ,*>act]i/ics1 asphaltic concrete2 #abi bitum9\s macadam2 #abe brok5 /one2 #ig concrete2 #aje mix$ macadam2 #abh s& clay2 #gh ,classes ( bitum9\s mat]ials2 #aaf ,classification accord+ to consi/5cy2 #aag ,clay & cem5t concrete pipe2 #ci ,coal t>2 #aaf ,concrete1 asphaltic2 #abh ,concrete mat]ials2 #ajj ,concrete pipe2 #ci ,control ( erosion2 #fa ,co/s2 #gj ,c\nty adm9i/ration2 #ae ,cross sections2 #fj1 #fe ,culv]ts2 #ef ,cur+ concrete2 #ajc ,design1 brok5 /one roads2 #hi concrete roads2 #ii e>? roads2 #db ,desirability ( road bonds2 #bg ,developm5t ( traffic2 #b ,dra9age1 necessity (2 #bi ,dra9age ( roads2 #bi ,e>? roads1 9 arid regions2 #gb humid regions2 #fe value (2 #gc ,e>? works2 #ib ,education1 rural2 #f ,effect ( grades2 #ed ,elevat+ grad]2 #ff ,elevat+ grad] "w2 #fh ,end walls = culv]ts2 #ci ,en]gy loss on acc\nt ( grades2 #eg ,entrances1 f>m2 #cg1 #fa ,expansion jo9ts2 #ajd ,f>m entrance culv]ts2 #cg ,f$]al adm9i/ration2 #ag ,fill]s2 #aah ,f9ance1 highway2 #ai ,f9e aggregate2 #aja ,f9i%+ surface ( concrete2 #abb ,f\ndation1 asphaltic concrete2 #abi brick2 #aji macadam2 #ic mix$ macadam2 #abf p5etration macadam2 #abc ,tel=d2 #id ,gang ma9t5ance2 #aca ,grad]1 ,maney2 #fg use (2 #fi ,gravel1 ideal2 #ha natural2 #hc roads2 #gd ,g5]al taxation2 #bd ,good roads & comm]ce2 #g ,gre5 concrete b$d+ c\rse2 #aaa ,highway adm9i/ration2 #ac ,highway f9ance2 #ai ma9t5ance2 #acj ,importance ( design2 #cj ,ideal road gravel2 #ha ,int]-city traffic2 #e ,int]-c\nty & int]-/ate traffic2 #e ,int]nal resi/ance2 #ej ,int]sections2 #df ,lay+ tile2 #ce ,l5g? ( culv]t2 #cg ,liquid asphalt2 #aah ,local f>m to m>ket traffic2 #d ,macadam2 #hi ,ma9t5ance1 concrete2 #aje e>? roads2 #gj g5]al2 #aca gravel roads2 #hh macadam2 #if ( highways2 #acj patrol2 #aca ,maney grad]2 #fg ,m>g9al curb2 #aac ,measur+ mat]ials2 #aja ,metal pipe2 #ch ,mix+ we>+ surface2 #abg ,mixtures2 #aag ,natural asphalt2 #aag gravel2 #gi ,necessity = plann+2 #db dra9age2 #bi ,pat*+2 #abb1 #abe ,patrol ma9t5ance2 #aca ,pebbles1 size (2 #hj ,petroleum asphalt2 #aag ,plac+ asphaltic concrete2 #abi ,plac+ brok5 /one2 #id ,plac+ concrete2 #ajb1 #ajc mix$ macadam2 #abg ,plans = roads2 #dc ,prelim9>y inve/igation2 #dd ,prep>ation ( e>? f\ndation2 #ajb ( road2 #he ,private entrances2 #fa ,prop]ties ( /one2 #ij ,proportions = concrete roads2 #aja ,purpose ( highways2 #a ,re9=c$ concrete box culv]ts2 #ci ,re9=c+2 #ajd ,repress$ brick2 #ajg ,road oils2 #aag ,road plans2 #dc ,rocks1 k9d (1 = macadam2 #ia ,roll+1 macadam2 #ie ,roll+ resi/ance2 #ej ,run-(f2 #ca ,rural education2 #f ,rural social life2 #g ,safety consid]ation2 #eh ,s& b$d+ c\rse2 #aaa ,s& clay & gravel road2 #gd ,s& mort> b$d+ c\rse2 #aaa ,seal coat2 #abg ,s]ial bonds2 #bg ,s9k+ fund bond2 #be ,slip scrap]2 #fg ,special assessm5ts2 #ai ,specifications2 #aai ,spread+ scre5+s2 #ie ,/ate adm9i/ration2 #af ,/one1 use (2 #ib ,surface dra9age2 #cj ,surfaces1 bitum9\s2 #abj ,surface me?od2 #hg ,sup]elevation2 #dg ,te/s1 brick2 #ajh ,tile dra9s2 #ce ,topeka asphaltic concrete2 #abh ,tractive resi/ance2 #eb ,tr5* me?od2 #he ,truck op]ation co/s2 #i ,types ( culv]ts2 #ch ,und]gr\nd wat]2 #cd ,undulat+ roads2 #eh ,use ( blade grad]2 #fi ,utiliz+ natural gravels2 #hc ,value ( e>? roads2 #gc ,v>iation 9 ra9fall2 #fd ,v>iation 9 soils2 #fc ,vehicle taxes2 #bd ,v]tical fib] brick2 #ajg ,vitrifi$ brick roads2 #ajf ,vitrifi$ brick2 #ajf ,wat] gas t>2 #aag ,wid? ( roadway2 #ei ,wire-cut-lug brick2 #ajh ,zone me?od ( assess+2 #bj 99 99 99 99 99 ,transcrib]'s ,notes3 ,! transcrib] made ^! *anges to ! text to correct obvi\s errors3 #a4 p4 #e1 accomodate -- accommodate #b4 p4 #ci1 guage -- gauge #c4 p4 #df1 enbankm5t -- embankm5t #d4 p4 #fc1 t\ght -- t\gh #e4 p4 #fh1 absorbant -- absorb5t #f4 p4 #gc1 p]si/ant -- p]si/5t #g4 p4 #gg1 indisp5sible -- indisp5sable #h4 p4 #aai1 aspealt -- asphalt #i4 p4 #abg1 repaid -- rapid #aj4 p4 #acj1 ,vetrifi$ brick2 #aje -- ,vitrifi$ brick2 #ajf #aa4 p4 #acj1 ,virtical -- ,v]tical ,end ( ,transcrib]'s ,notes