,,evolution ,,and ,,ethics  ,,and       
,,other ,,essays    ,,by ,,thomas ,h4   
,,huxley          ,,preface    ,,the    
discourse on ,evolution and ,ethics1    
reprinted in the first half of  the     
present volume1 was delivered before the
 ,university of ,oxford1 as  the second 
of the annual lectures founded by ,mr4  
,romanes3 whose name ,i  may not write  
without deploring the untimely death1 in
 the flower of  his age1 of a friend    
endeared to me1 as to so many others1 by
 his  kindly nature2 and justly valued  
by all his colleagues for his powers  of
 investigation and his zeal for the     
advancement of knowledge4 ,i well       
remember1 when ,mr4 ,romanes' early work
 came into my hands1 as one of  the     
secretaries of the ,royal ,society1 how 
much ,i rejoiced in the  accession to   
the ranks of the little army of workers 
in science of a  recruit so well        
qualified to take a high place among us4
    ,it was at my friend's urgent       
request that ,i agreed to undertake the 

lecture1 should ,i be honoured with an  
official proposal to give it1  though ,i
 confess not without misgivings1 if only
 on account of the  serious fatigue and 
hoarseness which public speaking has for
 some  years caused me2 while ,i knew   
that it would be my fate to follow the  
most accomplished and facile orator of  
our time1 whose indomitable  youth is in
 no matter more manifest than in his    
penetrating and  musical voice4 ,a      
certain saying about comparisons        
intruded itself  somewhat importunately4
    ,and even if ,i disregarded the     
weakness of my body in the matter of    
voice1 and that of my mind in the matter
 of vanity1 there remained a  third     
difficulty4 ,for several reasons1 my    
attention1 during a number  of years1   
has been much directed to the bearing of
 modern scientific  thought on the      
problems of morals and of politics1 and 
,i did not care  to be diverted from    
that topic4 ,moreover1 ,i thought it the
 most  important and the worthiest      

which1 at the present time1 could engage
  the attention even of an ancient and  
renowned ,university4    ,but it is a   
condition of the ,romanes foundation    
that the lecturer  shall abstain from   
treating of either ,religion or         
,politics2 and it  appeared to me that1 
more than most1 perhaps1 ,i was bound to
 act1 not  merely up to the letter1 but 
in the spirit1 of that prohibition4 ,yet
  ,ethical ,science is1 on all sides1 so
 entangled with ,religion and  ,politics
 that the lecturer who essays to touch  
the former without  coming into contact 
with either of the latter1 needs all the
 dexterity  of an egg-dancer2 and may   
even discover that his sense of         
clearness  and his sense of propriety   
come into conflict1 by no means to the  
advantage of the former4    ,i had      
little notion of the real magnitude of  
these difficulties when ,i  set about my
 task2 but ,i am consoled for my pains  
and anxiety by  observing that none of  
the multitudinous criticisms with which 

,i have  been favoured and1 often1      
instructed1 find fault with me on the   
score  of having strayed out of bounds4 
,among my critics there are not a few to
 whom ,i feel deeply indebted for  the  
careful attention which they have given 
to the exposition thus  hampered2 and   
further weakened1 ,i am afraid1 by my   
forgetfulness of a  maxim touching      
lectures of a popular character1 which  
has descended to  me from that prince of
 lecturers1 ,mr4 ,faraday4 ,he was once 
asked by a  beginner1 called upon to    
address a highly select and cultivated  
audience1 what he might suppose his     
hearers to know already4 ,whereupon  the
 past master of the art of exposition   
emphatically replied  ,nothing6    ,to  
my shame as a retired veteran1 who has  
all his life profited by  this great    
precept of lecturing strategy1 ,i forgot
 all about it just  when it would have  
been most useful4 ,i was fatuous enough 
to imagine  that a number of            
propositions1 which ,i thought          

established1 and which1  in fact1 ,i had
 advanced without challenge on former   
occasions1 needed  no repetition4    ,i 
have endeavoured to repair my error by  
prefacing the lecture with  some        
matter--chiefly elementary or           
recapitulatory--to which ,i have  given 
the title of ,prolegomena ,i wish ,i    
could have hit upon a  heading of less  
pedantic aspect which would have served 
my purpose2  and if it be urged that the
 new building looks over large for the  
edifice to which it is added1 ,i can    
only plead the precedent of the  ancient
 architects1 who always made the adytum 
the smallest part of  the temple4    ,if
 ,i had attempted to reply in full to   
the criticisms to which ,i have         
referred1 ,i know not what extent of    
ground would have been covered by  my   
pronaos4 ,all ,i have endeavoured to do1
 at present1 is to remove  that which   
seems to have proved a stumbling-block  
to many--namely1 the  apparent paradox  
that ethical nature1 while born of      

cosmic nature1 is  necessarily at enmity
 with its parent4 ,unless the arguments 
set forth  in the ,prolegomena1 in the  
simplest language at my command1 have   
some  flaw which ,i am unable to        
discern1 this seeming paradox is a      
truth1 as  great as it is plain1 the    
recognition of which is fundamental for 
the  ethical philosopher4    ,we cannot 
do without our inheritance from the     
forefathers who were the  puppets of the
 cosmic process2 the society which      
renounces it must be  destroyed from    
without4 ,still less can we de with too 
much of it2 the  society in which it    
dominates must be destroyed from within4
    ,the motive of the drama of human   
life is the necessity1 laid upon every  
man who comes into the world1 of        
discovering the mean between            
self-assertion and self-restraint suited
 to his character and his               
circumstances4 ,and the eternally tragic
 aspect of the drama lies in  this3 that
 the problem set before us is one the   

elements of which can  be but           
imperfectly known1 and of which even an 
approximately right  solution rarely    
presents itself1 until that stern       
critic1 aged  experience1 has been      
furnished with ample justification for  
venting  his sarcastic humour upon the  
irreparable blunders we have already    
made4    ,i have reprinted the letters  
on the ,darkest ,england scheme1        
published  in the ,times of ,december1  
#ahij1 and ,january1 #ahia2 and         
subsequently  issued1 with additions1 as
 a pamphlet1 under the title of ,social 
,diseases and ,worse ,remedies1 because1
 although the clever attempt to  rush   
the country on behalf of that scheme has
 been balked1 ,booth's  standing army   
remains afoot1 retaining all the        
capacities for mischief  which are      
inherent in its constitution4 ,i am     
desirous that this fact  should be kept 
steadily in view2 and that the          
moderation of the  clamour of the drums 
and trumpets should not lead us to      

forget the  existence of a force1 which1
 in bad hands1 may1 at any time1 be used
  for bad purposes4    ,in #ahib1 a     
,committee was formed for the purpose of
 investigating the  manner in which the 
moneys1 subscribed in response to the   
appeal made  in the book entitled ',in  
,darkest ,england and the ,way out1'    
have been  expended4 ,the members of    
this body were gentlemen in whose       
competency  and equity every one must   
have complete confidence2 and in        
,december1  #ahib1 they published a     
report in which they declare that1 with 
the  exception of the sums expended on  
the 'barracks' at ,hadleigh1 the  moneys
 in question have been devoted only to  
the objects and expended  in the methods
 set out in that appeal1 and to and in  
no others4    ,nevertheless1 their final
 conclusion runs as follows3 7#d7 ,that 
whilst  the invested property1 real and 
personal1 resulting from such ,appeal   
is so vested and controlled by the      
,trust of the ,deed of ,january #cjth1  

#ahia1 that any application of it to    
purposes other than those declared  in  
the deed by any ',general' of the       
,salvation ,army would amount to a      
breach of trust1 and would subject him  
to the proceedings of a civil  and      
criminal character1 before mentioned in 
the ,report1 ,,adequate ,,legal         
,,safeguards ,,do ,,not ,,at ,,present  
,,exist ,,to ,,prevent ,,the            
,,misapplication ,,of  ,,such           
,,property4    ,the passage ,i have     
italicised forms part of a document     
dated ,december  #aith1 #ahib4 ,it      
follows1 that1 even after the ,deed of  
,january #cjth1  #ahia1 was executed1   
adequate legal safeguards to prevent the
  misapplication of the property did not
 exist4 ,what then was the state  of    
things1 up to a week earlier1 that is on
 ,january #bbnd1 #ahia1 when  my twelfth
 and last letter appeared in the ,times8
 ,a better  justification for what ,i   
have said about the want of adequate    
security  for the proper administration 

of the funds intrusted to ,mr4 ,booth   
could not be desired1 unless it be that 
which is to be found in the  following  
passages of the ,report 7pp4 #cf and    
#cg73--    ,it is possible that a       
',general' may be forgetful of his duty1
 and  sell property and appropriate the 
proceeds to his own use1 or to  meeting 
the general liabilities of the          
,salvation ,army4 ,as matters now       
stand1 he1 and he alone1 would have     
control over such a sale4 ,against  such
 possibilities it appears to the        
,committee to be reasonable that  some  
check should be imposed4    ,once more  
let it be remembered that this opinion  
given under the hand  of ,sir ,henry    
,james1 was expressed by the ,committee1
 with the ,trust  ,deed of #ahia1 which 
has been so sedulously flaunted before  
the public1  in full view4    ,the      
,committee made a suggestion for the    
improvement of this very  unsatisfactory
 state of things2 but the exact value   
set upon it by the  suggestors should be

 carefully considered 7p4#cg74    ,the  
,committee are fully aware that if the  
views thus expressed are  carried out1  
the safeguards and checks created will  
not be sufficient  for all purposes     
absolutely to prevent possible dealing  
with the  property and moneys           
inconsistent with the purposes to which 
they are  intended to be devoted4    ,in
 fact1 they are content to express the  
very modest hope that if the  suggestion
 made be acted upon1 some hindrance will
 thereby be placed in  the way of any   
one acting dishonestly in respect of the
 disposal of  the property and moneys   
referred to4    ,i do not know1 and1    
under the circumstances1 ,i cannot say  
,i much care1  whether the suggestions  
of the ,committee have1 or have not1    
been acted  upon4  ,whether or not1 the 
fact remains that an unscrupulous       
,general  will have a pretty free hand1 
notwithstanding some hindrance4         
,thus1 the judgment of the highly       
authoritative1 and certainly not        

hostile1 ,committee of #ahib1 upon the  
issues with which they concerned        
themselves is hardly such as to inspire 
enthusiastic confidence4 ,and  it is    
further to be borne in mind that they   
carefully excluded from  their duties   
any examination of the principles1      
government1 teaching1  or methods of the
 ,salvation ,army as a religious        
organization1 or of  its affairs except 
so far as they related to the           
administration of  the moneys collected 
by the ,darkest ,england appeal4        
,consequently1 the most important       
questions discussed in my letters were  
not in any way touched by the           
,committee4 ,even if their report had   
been  far more favourable to the        
,darkest ,england scheme than it is2 if 
it  had really assured the contributors 
that the funds raised were fully        
secured against malversation2 the       
objections1 on social and political     
grounds1 to ,mr4  ,booth's despotic     
organization1 with its thousands of     

docile satellites pledged to blind      
obedience1 set forth in the  letters1   
would be in no degree weakened4 ,the    
sixpennyworth of good  would still be   
out-weighed by the shillingsworth of    
harm2 if indeed  the relative worth1 or 
unworth1 of the latter should not be    
rated in  pounds rather than in         
shillings4    ,what would one not give  
for the opinion of the financial members
 of  the ,committee about the famous    
,bank2 and that of the legal experts    
about the proposed tribunes of the      
people8    ,,hodeslea1 ,,eastbourne1    
,july1 #ahid4                           
,,contents                           ,i 
,,page  ,,evolution ,,and ,,ethics4     
,,prolegomena #ahid 4 4 4 4 4 4 #a      
,,ii    ,,evolution ,,and ,,ethics      
#ahic4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4#df       
,,iii    ,,science ,,and ,,morals #ahhf4
 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #aag           
,,iv    ,,capital--,,the ,,mother ,,of  
,,labour #ahij 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #adg       
,v    ,,social ,,diseases ,,and ,,worse 

,,remedies #ahia4 4 4 4 4 #ahh          
,preface4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 
4 4 4 #ahh  ,the ,struggle for          
,existence in ,human ,society4 #aie     
,letters to the ,times 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
 4 4 4 #bcg  ,legal ,opinions 4 4 4 4 4 
4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #cab  ,the ,articles
 of ,war of the ,salvation ,army4 4 #cba
          #a                            
,i4                  ,,evolution ,,and  
,,ethics4                               
,,prolegomena4                          
#ahid4                             ,i4  
,,it may be safely assumed that1 two    
thousand years ago1 before ,caesar  set 
foot in southern ,britain1 the whole    
country-side visible from the  windows  
of the room in which ,i write1 was in   
what is called the state  of nature4    
,except1 it may be1 by raising a few    
sepulchral mounds1  such as those which 
still1 here and there1 break the flowing
 contours  of the downs1 man's hands had
 made no mark upon it2 and the thin veil
  of vegetation which overspread the    

broad-backed heights and the  shelving  
sides of the coombs was unaffected by   
his industry4 ,the  native grasses and  
weeds1 the scattered patches of gorse1  
contended  with one another for the     
possession of the scanty surface soil2  
they  fought against the droughts of    
summer1 the frosts of winter1 and the   
furious gales which swept1 with unbroken
 force1 now from the #b  ,atlantic1 and 
now from the ,north ,sea1 at all times  
of the year2 they  filled up1 as they   
best might1 the gaps made in their ranks
 by all  sorts of underground and       
overground animal ravagers4 ,one year   
with  another1 an average population1   
the floating balance of the unceasing   
struggle for existence among the        
indigenous plants1 maintained itself4   
,it is as little to be doubted1 that an 
essentially similar state of  nature    
prevailed1 in this region1 for many     
thousand years before the  coming of    
,caesar2 and there is no assignable     
reason for denying that  it might       

continue to exist through an equally    
prolonged futurity1  except for the     
intervention of man4    ,reckoned by our
 customary standards of duration1 the   
native vegetation1  like the everlasting
 hills which it clothes1 seems a type of
  permanence4 ,the little ,amarella     
,gentians1 which abound in some places  
to-day1 are the descendants of those    
that were trodden underfoot1 by  the    
prehistoric savages who have left their 
flint tools1 about1 here  and there2 and
 they followed ancestors which1 in the  
climate of the  glacial epoch1 probably 
flourished better than they do now4     
,compared  with the long past of this   
humble plant1 all the history of        
civilized  men is but an episode4       
,yet nothing is more certain than that1 
measured by the liberal scale  of       
time-keeping of the universe1 this      
present state of nature1 however  it may
 seem to have gone and to go on for     
ever1 is #c but a fleeting  phase of her
 infinite variety2 merely the last of   

the series of  changes which the earth's
 surface has undergone in the course of 
the  millions of years of its existence4
 ,turn back a square foot of the  thin  
turf1 and the solid foundation of the   
land1 exposed in cliffs of  chalk five  
hundred feet high on the adjacent shore1
 yields full  assurance of a time when  
the sea covered the site of the         
everlasting  hills2 and when the        
vegetation of what land lay nearest1 was
 as  different from the present ,flora  
of the ,sussex downs1 as that of        
,central ,africa now is499 ,no less     
certain is it that1 between the time    
during which the chalk was formed and   
that at which the original turf  came   
into existence1 thousands of centuries  
elapsed1 in the course of  which1 the   
state of nature of the ages during which
 the chalk was  deposited1 passed into  
that which now is1 by changes so slow   
that1 in  the coming and going of the   
generations of men1 had such witnessed  
them1 the contemporary conditions would 

have seemed to be unchanging  and       
unchangeable4        99 ,see ,on a piece
 of ,chalk in the preceding volume of   
these      ,essays 7vol4  viii4 p4 #a74 
,but it is also certain that1 before the
 deposition of the chalk1 a  vastly     
longer period had elapsed2 throughout   
which it is easy to  follow the traces  
of the same process of ceaseless        
modification and of  the internecine    
struggle for existence of living things2
 and that even  when we can get no      
further #d back1 it is not because there
 is any  reason to think we have reached
 the beginning1 but because the trail   
of the most ancient life remains hidden1
 or has become obliterated4    ,thus    
that state of nature of the world of    
plants which we began by  considering1  
is far from possessing the attribute of 
permanence4 ,rather  its very essence is
 impermanence4 ,it may have lasted      
twenty or thirty  thousand years1 it may
 last for twenty or thirty thousand     
years more1  without obvious change2    

but1 as surely as it has followed upon a
 very  different state1 so it will be   
followed by an equally different        
condition4 ,that which endures is not   
one or another association of  living   
forms1 but the process of which the     
cosmos is the product1 and  of which    
these are among the transitory          
expressions4 ,and in the living  world1 
one of the most characteristic features 
of this cosmic process  is the struggle 
for existence1 the competition of each  
with all1 the  result of which is the   
selection1 that is to say1 the survival 
of  those forms which1 on the whole1 are
 best adapted1 to the conditions  which 
at any period obtain2 and which are1    
therefore1 in that respect1  and only in
 that respect1 the fittest499 ,the acme 
reached by the cosmic  #e process in the
 vegetation of the downs is seen in the 
turf1 with  its weeds and gorse4 ,under 
the conditions1 they have come out of   
the  struggle victorious2 and1 by       
surviving1 have proved that they are the

  fittest to survive4        99 ,that   
every theory of evolution must be       
consistent not merely      with         
progressive development1 but with       
indefinite persistence      in the same 
condition and with retrogressive        
modification1 is a      point which ,i  
have insisted upon repeatedly from the  
year #ahfb      till now4 ,see          
,collected ,essays1 vol4 ii4 pp4        
#dfa-hi2 vol4 iii4      p4 #cc2 vol4    
viii4 p4 #cjd4 ,in the address on       
,geological      ,contemporaneity and   
,persistent ,types 7#ahfb71 the         
paleontological proofs of this          
proposition were1 ,i believe1      first
 set forth4    ,that the state of       
nature1 at any time1 is a temporary     
phase of a  process of incessant change1
 which has been going on for innumerable
  ages1 appears to me to be a           
proposition as well established as any  
in  modern history4    ,paleontology    
assures us1 in addition1 that the       
ancient philosophers  who1 with less    

reason1 held the same doctrine1 erred in
 supposing that  the phases formed a    
cycle1 exactly repeating the past1      
exactly  foreshadowing the future1 in   
their rotations4 ,on the contrary1 it   
furnishes us with conclusive reasons for
 thinking that1 if every link  in the   
ancestry of these humble indigenous     
plants had been preserved  and were     
accessible to us1 the whole would       
present a converging series  of forms of
 gradually diminishing complexity1      
until1 at some period in  the history of
 the earth1 far more remote than any of 
which organic  remains have yet been    
discovered1 they would merge in those   
low groups  among which the ,boundaries 
between animal and vegetable life become
  effaced499        99 ,on the ,border  
,territory between the ,animal and the  
,vegetable      ,kingdoms1 ,essays1 vol4
 viii4 p4 #afb    #f ,the word          
evolution1 now generally applied to the 
cosmic process1  has had a singular     
history1 and is used in various         

senses499 ,taken in  its popular        
signification it means progressive      
development1 that is1  gradual change   
from a condition of relative uniformity 
to one of  relative complexity2 but its 
connotation has been widened to include 
the phenomena of retrogressive          
metamorphosis1 that is1 of progress     
from a condition of relative complexity 
to one of relative uniformity4    ,as a 
natural process1 of the same character  
as the development of a  tree from its  
seed1 or of a fowl from its egg1        
evolution excludes  creation and all    
other kinds of supernatural             
intervention4 ,as the  expression of a  
fixed order1 every stage of which is the
 effect of  causes operating according  
to definite rules1 the conception of    
evolution no less excludes that of      
chance4  ,it is very desirable to       
remember that evolution is not an       
explanation of the cosmic process1  but 
merely a generalized statement of the   
method and results of that  process4    

,and1 further1 that1 if there is proof  
that the cosmic process  was set going  
by any agent1 then that agent will be1  
the creator of it  and of all its       
products1 although supernatural         
intervention may remain  strictly       
excluded from its further course4    ,so
 far as that limited revelation of the  
nature of things1 which we  call        
scientific knowledge1 has #g yet gone1  
it tends1 with constantly  increasing   
emphasis1 to the belief that1 not merely
 the world of  plants1 but that of      
animals2 not merely living things1 but  
the whole  fabric of the earth2 not     
merely our planet1 but the whole solar  
system2 not merely our star and its     
satellites1 but the millions of  similar
 bodies which bear witness to the order 
which pervades  boundless space1 and has
 endured through boundless time2 are all
  working out their predestined courses 
of evolution4        99 ,see ,evolution 
in ,biology1 ,essays1 vol4 ii4 p4 #ahg  
,with none of these have ,i anything to 

do1 at present1 except with that        
exhibited by the forms of life which    
tenant the earth4 ,all plants and       
animals exhibit the tendency to vary1   
the causes of which have yet to  be     
ascertained2 it is the tendency of the  
conditions of life1 at any  given time1 
while favouring the existence of the    
variations best  adapted to them1 to    
oppose that of the rest and thus to     
exercise  selection2 and all living     
things tend to multiply without limit1  
while  the means of support are limited2
 the obvious cause of which is the      
production of offspring more numerous   
than their progenitors1 but with  equal 
expectation of life in the actuarial    
sense4 ,without the first  tendency     
there could be no evolution4  ,without  
the second1 there would  be no good     
reason why one variation should         
disappear and another take  its place2  
that is to say there would be no        
selection4 ,without the #h  third1 the  
struggle for existence1 the agent of the

 selective process  in the state of     
nature1 would vanish499        99       
,collected ,essays1 vol4 ii4 passim4    
,granting the existence of these        
tendencies1 all the known facts of the  
history of plants and of animals may be 
brought into rational  correlation4     
,and this is more than can be said for  
any other  hypothesis that ,i know of4  
,such hypotheses1 for example1 as that  
of  the existence of a primitive1       
orderless chaos2 of a passive and       
sluggish eternal matter moulded1 with   
but partial success1 by  archetypal     
ideas2 of a brand-new world-stuff       
suddenly created and  swiftly shaped by 
a supernatural power2 receive no        
encouragement1 but  the contrary1 from  
our present knowledge4 ,that our earth  
may once have  formed part of a nebulous
 cosmic magma is certainly possible1    
indeed  seems highly probable2 but there
 is no reason to doubt that order       
reigned there1 as completely as amidst  
what we regard as the most  finished    

works of nature or of man49999 ,the     
faith which is born of  knowledge1 finds
 its object in an eternal order1        
bringing forth  ceaseless change1       
through endless time1 in endless space2 
the  manifestations of the cosmic energy
 alternating between phases of          
potentiality and phases of explication4 
,it may be that1 as ,kant               
suggests1999999 every cosmic #i magma   
predestined to evolve into a new  world1
 has been the no less predestined end of
 a vanished predecessor4                
9999,ibid41 vol4 iv4 p4 #ach2 vol4 v4   
pp4 #ga-gc4      999999,ibid41 vol4     
viii4 p4 #cba4                          
,,ii4    ,three or four years have      
elapsed since the state of nature1 to   
which ,i  have referred1 was brought to 
an end1 so far as a small patch of the  
soil is concerned1 by the intervention  
of man4 ,the patch was cut off  from the
 rest by a wall2 within the area thus   
protected1 the native  vegetation was1  
as far as possible1 extirpated2 while a 

colony of  strange plants was imported  
and set down in its place4 ,in short1 it
  was made into a garden4 ,at the       
present time1 this artificially treated 
area presents an aspect extraordinarily 
different from that of so much  of the  
land as remains in the state of nature1 
outside the wall4  ,trees1 shrubs1 and  
herbs1 many of them appertaining to the 
state of  nature of remote parts of the 
globe1 abound and flourish4 ,moreover1  
considerable quantities of vegetables1  
fruits1 and flowers are  produced1 of   
kinds which neither now exist1 nor have 
ever existed1  except under conditions  
such as obtain in the garden2 and which1
  therefore1 are as much works of the   
art of man as the frames and            
glasshouses in which some of them are   
raised4 ,that the state of ,art1  thus  
created in the state of nature by man1  
is sustained by and  dependent on him1  
would at once become #aj apparent1 if   
the watchful  supervision of the        
gardener were withdrawn1 and the        

antagonistic  influences of the general 
cosmic process were no longer sedulously
  warded off1 or counteracted4 ,the     
walls and gates would decay2            
quadrupedal and bipedal intruders would 
devour and tread down the  useful and   
beautiful plants2 birds1 insects1       
blight1 and mildew would  work their    
will2 the seeds of the native plants1   
carried by winds or  other agencies1    
would immigrate1 and in virtue of their 
long-earned  special adaptation to the  
local conditions1 these despised native 
weeds would soon choke their choice     
exotic rivals4 ,a century or two  hence1
 little beyond the foundations of the   
wall and of the houses and  frames would
 be left1 in evidence of the victory of 
the cosmic powers  at work in the state 
of nature1 over the temporary obstacles 
to their  supremacy1 set up by the art  
of the horticulturist4    ,it will be   
admitted that the garden is as much a   
work of art199 or  artifice1 as anything
 that can be mentioned4 ,the energy     

localised in  certain human bodies1     
directed by similarly localised         
intellects1 has  produced a collocation 
of other material bodies which could not
 be  brought about in the state of      
nature4 ,the same proposition is true of
  all the        99 ,the sense of the   
term ,art is becoming narrowed2 work of 
,art to most people means a picture1 a  
statue1 or a piece of      bijouterie2  
by way of compensation artist has       
included in its      wide embrace cooks 
and ballet girls1 no less than painters 
and      sculptors4    #aa works of     
man's hands1 from a flint implement to a
 cathedral or a  chronometer2 and it is 
because it is true1 that we call these  
things  artificial1 term them works of  
art1 or artifice1 by way of             
distinguishing them from the products of
 the cosmic process1 working  outside   
man1 which we call natural1 or works of 
nature4 ,the  distinction thus drawn    
between the works of nature and those of
 man1  is universally recognized2 and it

 is1 as ,i conceive1 both useful and    
justifiable4                            
,,iii4    ,no doubt1 it may be properly 
urged that the operation of human energy
  and intelligence1 which has brought   
into existence and maintains the        
garden1 by what ,i have called the      
horticultural process1 is1  strictly    
speaking1 part and parcel of the cosmic 
process4 ,and no one  could more readily
 agree to that proposition than ,i4 ,in 
fact1 ,i do not  know that any one has  
taken more pains than ,i have1 during   
the last  thirty years1 to insist upon  
the doctrine1 so much reviled in the    
early part of that period1 that man1    
physical1 intellectual1 and  moral1 is  
as much a part of nature1 as purely a   
product of the cosmic  process1 as the  
humblest weed499        99 ,see ,man's  
,place in ,nature1 ,collected ,essays1  
vol4 vii41 and      ,on the ,struggle   
for ,existence in ,human ,society       
7#ahhh71 below4    ,but if1 following up
 this admission1 it is urged #ab that1  

such being  the case1 the cosmic process
 cannot be in antagonism with that      
horticultural process which is part of  
itself--,i can only reply1 that  if the 
conclusion that the two are antagonistic
 is logically absurd1  ,i am sorry for  
logic1 because1 as we have seen1 the    
fact is so4 ,the  garden is in the same 
position as every other work of man's   
art2 it is  a result of the cosmic      
process working through and by human    
energy and  intelligence2 and1 as is the
 case with every other artificial thing 
set up in the state of nature1 the      
influences of the latter1 are           
constantly tending to break it down and 
destroy it4 ,no doubt1 the  ,forth      
bridge and an ironclad in the offing1   
are1 in ultimate resort1  products of   
the cosmic process2 as much so as the   
river which flows  under the one1 or the
 seawater on which the other floats4    
,nevertheless1 every breeze strains the 
bridge a little1 every tide  does       
something to weaken its foundations2    

every change of temperature  alters the 
adjustment of its parts1 produces       
friction and consequent  wear and tear4 
,from time to time1 the bridge must be  
repaired1 just  as the ironclad must go 
into dock2 simply because nature is     
always  tending to reclaim that which   
her child1 man1 has borrowed from her   
and has arranged in combinations which  
are not those favoured by the  general  
cosmic process4    ,thus1 it is not only
 true that the cosmic energy1 working   
through man  upon a portion of #ac the  
plant world1 opposes the same energy as 
it  works through the state of nature1  
but a similar antagonism is  everywhere 
manifest between the artificial and the 
natural4 ,even in  the state of nature  
itself1 what is the struggle for        
existence but the  antagonism of the    
results of the cosmic process in the    
region of life1  one to another899      
99 ,or to put the case still more       
simply4 ,when a man lays hold of        
the two ends of a piece of string and   

pulls them1 with intent      to break   
it1 the right arm is certainly exerted  
in antagonism      to the left arm2 yet 
both arms derive their energy from the  
same original source4                   
,,iv4    ,not only is the state of      
nature hostile to the state of art of   
the  garden2 but the principle of the   
horticultural process1 by which the     
latter is created and maintained1 is    
antithetic to that of the cosmic        
process4 ,the characteristic feature of 
the latter is the intense and  unceasing
 competition of the struggle for        
existence4 ,the  characteristic of the  
former is the elimination of that       
struggle1 by  the removal of the        
conditions which give rise to it4 ,the  
tendency of  the cosmic process is to   
bring about the adjustment of the forms 
of  plant life to the current           
conditions2 the tendency of the         
horticultural process is the adjustment 
of the conditions to the needs  of the  
forms of plant life which the gardener  

desires to raise4    ,the cosmic process
 uses unrestricted multiplication #ad as
 the means  whereby hundreds compete for
 the place and nourishment adequate for 
one2 it employs frost and drought to cut
 off the weak and unfortunate2  to      
survive1 there is need not only of      
strength1 but of flexibility and  of    
good fortune4    ,the gardener1 on the  
other hand1 restricts multiplication2   
provides  that each plant shall have    
sufficient space and nourishment2       
protects  from frost and drought2 and1  
in every other way1 attempts to modify  
the conditions1 in such a manner as to  
bring about the survival of  those forms
 which most nearly approach the standard
 of the useful or  the beautiful1 which 
he has in his mind4    ,if the fruits   
and the tubers1 the foliage and the     
flowers thus  obtained1 reach1 or       
sufficiently approach1 that ideal1 there
 is no  reason why the status quo       
attained should not be indefinitely     
prolonged4 ,so long as the state of     

nature remains approximately the  same1 
so long will the energy and intelligence
 which created the  garden suffice to   
maintain it4 ,however1 the limits within
 which this  mastery of man over nature 
can be maintained are narrow4 ,if the   
conditions of the cretaceous epoch      
returned1 ,i fear the most skilful  of  
gardeners would have to give up the     
cultivation of apples and  gooseberries2
 while1 if those of the glacial period  
once again  obtained1 open asparagus    
beds would be superfluous1 and the      
training  of fruit #ae trees against the
 most favourable of ,south walls1 a     
waste of time and trouble4    ,but it is
 extremely important to note that1 the  
state of nature  remaining the same1 if 
the produce does not satisfy the        
gardener1 it  may be made to approach   
his ideal more closely4 ,although the   
struggle  for existence may be at end1  
the possibility of progress remains4 ,in
  discussions on these topics1 it is    
often strangely forgotten that the      

essential conditions of the             
modification1 or evolution1 of living   
things are variation and hereditary     
transmission4 ,selection is the  means  
by which certain variations are favoured
 and their progeny  preserved4 ,but the 
struggle for existence is only one of   
the means by  which selection may be    
effected4 ,the endless varieties of     
cultivated  flowers1 fruits1 roots1     
tubers1 and bulbs are not products of   
selection by means of the struggle for  
existence1 but of direct  selection1 in 
view of an ideal of utility or beauty4  
,amidst a multitude  of plants1         
occupying the same station and subjected
 to the same  conditions1 in the garden1
 varieties arise4 ,the varieties tending
 in a  given direction are preserved1   
and the rest are destroyed4 ,and the    
same process takes place among the      
varieties until1 for example1 the  wild 
kale becomes a cabbage1 or the wild     
,viola tricolor1 a prize  pansy4    #af 
,v4    ,the process of colonisation     

presents analogies to the formation of a
  garden which are highly instructive4  
,suppose a shipload of ,english         
colonists sent to form a settlement1 in 
such a country as ,tasmania was  in the 
middle of the last century4 ,on landing1
 they find themselves in  the midst of a
 state of nature1 widely different from 
that left behind  them in everything but
 the most general physical conditions4  
,the  common plants1 the common birds   
and quadrupeds1 are as totally  distinct
 as the men from anything to be seen on 
the side of the globe  from which they  
come4 ,the colonists proceed to put an  
end to this  state of things over as    
large an area as they desire to occupy4 
,they  clear away the native vegetation1
 extirpate or drive out the animal      
population1 so far as may be necessary1 
and take measures to defend  themselves 
from the re-immigration of either4 ,in  
their place1 they  introduce ,english   
grain and fruit trees2 ,english dogs1   
sheep1 cattle1  horses2 and ,english    

men2 in fact1 they set up a new ,flora  
and ,fauna and  a new variety of        
mankind1 within the old state of nature4
 ,their farms  and pastures represent a 
garden on a great scale1 and themselves 
the  gardeners who have to keep it up1  
in watchful antagonism to the old       
regime4 ,considered as a whole1 the     
colony is a composite unit  introduced  
into the old state of nature2 and1 #ag  
thenceforward1 a  competitor in the     
struggle for existence1 to conquer or be
 vanquished4    ,under the conditions   
supposed1 there is no doubt of the      
result1 if the  work of the colonists be
 carried out energetically and with     
intelligent combination of all their    
forces4 ,on the other hand1 if  they are
 slothful1 stupid1 and careless2 or if  
they waste their  energies in contests  
with one another1 the chances are that  
the old  state of nature will have the  
best of it4 ,the native savage will     
destroy the immigrant civilized man2 of 
the ,english animals and plants  some   

will be extirpated by their indigenous  
rivals1 others will pass  into the feral
 state and themselves become components 
of the state of  nature4 ,in a few      
decades1 all other traces of the        
settlement will have  vanished4         
,,vi4    ,let us now imagine that some  
administrative authority1 as far        
superior  in power and intelligence to  
men1 as men are to their cattle1 is set 
over the colony1 charged to deal with   
its human elements in such a  manner as 
to assure the victory of the settlement 
over the  antagonistic influences of the
 state of nature in which it is set     
down4 ,he would proceed in the same     
fashion as that in which the  gardener  
dealt with his garden4 ,in the first    
place1 he would1 as far  as possible1   
put a #ah stop to the influence of      
external competition  by thoroughly     
extirpating and excluding the native    
rivals1 whether  men1 beasts1 or plants4
 ,and our administrator would select his
 human  agents1 with a view to his ideal

 of a successful colony1 just as the    
gardener selects his plants with a view 
to his ideal of useful or  beautiful    
products4    ,in the second place1 in   
order that no struggle for the means of 
existence between these human agents    
should weaken the efficiency of  the    
corporate whole in the battle with the  
state of nature1 he would  make         
arrangements by which each would be     
provided with those means2  and would be
 relieved from the fear of being        
deprived of them by his  stronger or    
more cunning fellows4  ,laws1 sanctioned
 by the combined  force of the colony1  
would restrain the self-assertion of    
each man  within the limits required for
 the maintenance of peace4 ,in other    
words1 the cosmic struggle for          
existence1 as between man and man1      
would be rigorously suppressed2 and     
selection1 by its means1 would be  as   
completely excluded as it is from the   
garden4    ,at the same time1 the       
obstacles to the full development of the

  capacities of the colonists by other  
conditions of the state of nature  than 
those already mentioned1 would be       
removed by the creation of  artificial  
conditions of existence of a more       
favourable character3  ,protection      
against extremes of heat and cold would 
#ai be afforded by  houses and clothing2
 drainage and irrigation works would    
antagonise  the effects of excessive    
rain and excessive drought2 roads1      
bridges1  canals1 carriages1 and ships  
would overcome the natural obstacles to 
locomotion and transport2 mechanical    
engines would supplement the  natural   
strength of men and of their draught    
animals2 hygienic  precautions would    
check1 or remove1 the natural causes of 
disease4  ,with every step of this      
progress in civilization1 the colonists 
would  become more and more independent 
of the state of nature2 more and  more1 
their lives would be conditioned by a   
state of art4 ,in order to  attain his  
ends1 the administrator would have to   

avail himself of the  courage1 industry1
 and co-operative intelligence of the   
settlers2 and  it is plain that the     
interest of the community would be best 
served by  increasing the proportion of 
persons who possess such qualities1 and 
diminishing that of persons devoid of   
them4 ,in other words1 by  selection    
directed towards an ideal4    ,thus the 
administrator might look to the         
establishment of an earthly  paradise1 a
 true garden of ,eden1 in which all     
things should work  together towards the
 well-being of the gardeners3 within    
which the  cosmic process1 the coarse   
struggle for existence of the state of  
nature1 should be abolished2 in which   
that state should be replaced by  a     
state of art2 #bj where every plant and 
every lower animal should  be adapted to
 human wants1 and would perish if human 
supervision and  protection were        
withdrawn2 where men themselves should  
have been  selected1 with a view to     
their efficiency as organs for the      

performance of the functions of a       
perfected society4 ,and this ideal      
polity would have been brought about1   
not by gradually adjusting the  men to  
the conditions around them1 but by      
creating artificial  conditions for     
them2 not by allowing the free play of  
the struggle for  existence1 but by     
excluding that struggle2 and by         
substituting  selection directed towards
 the administrator's ideal for the      
selection  it exercises4                
,,vii4    ,but the ,eden would have its 
serpent1 and a very subtle beast too4   
,man  shares with the rest of the living
 world the mighty instinct of           
reproduction and its consequence1 the   
tendency to multiply with great         
rapidity4 ,the better the measures of   
the administrator achieved their        
object1 the more completely the         
destructive agencies of the state of    
nature were defeated1 the less would    
that multiplication be checked4    ,on  
the other hand1 within the colony1 the  

enforcement of peace1 which  deprives   
every man of the power to take away the 
means of existence  from another1 simply
 because he is the stronger1 #ba would  
have put  an end to the struggle for    
existence between the colonists1 and the
  competition for the commodities of    
existence1 which would alone  remain1 is
 no check upon population4    ,thus1 as 
soon as the colonists began to multiply1
 the administrator  would have to face  
the tendency to the reintroduction of   
the cosmic  struggle into his artificial
 fabric1 in consequence of the          
competition1 not merely for the         
commodities1 but for the means of       
existence4 ,when the colony reached the 
limit of possible expansion1  the       
surplus population must be disposed of  
somehow2 or the fierce  struggle for    
existence must recommence and destroy   
that peace1 which  is the fundamental   
condition of the maintenance of the     
state of art  against the state of      
nature4    ,supposing the administrator 

to be guided by purely scientific       
considerations1 he would1 like the      
gardener1 meet this most serious        
difficulty by systematic extirpation1 or
 exclusion1 of the superfluous4  ,the   
hopelessly diseased1 the infirm aged1   
the weak or deformed in body  or in     
mind1 the excess of infants born1 would 
be put away1 as the  gardener pulls up  
defective and superfluous plants1 or the
 breeder  destroys undesirable cattle4  
,only the strong and the healthy1       
carefully matched1 with a view to the   
progeny best adapted to the  purposes of
 the administrator1 would be permitted  
to perpetuate their  kind4    #bb       
,,viii4    ,of the more thoroughgoing of
 the multitudinous attempts to apply the
  principles of cosmic evolution1 or    
what are supposed to be such1 to  social
 and political problems1 which have     
appeared of late years1 a  considerable 
proportion appear to me to be based upon
 the notion that  human society is      
competent to furnish1 from its own      

resources1 an  administrator of the kind
 ,i have imagined4 ,the pigeons1 in     
short1 are  to be their own ,sir ,john  
,sebright499 ,a despotic government1    
whether  individual or collective1 is to
 be endowed with the preternatural      
intelligence1 and with what1 ,i am      
afraid1 many will consider the          
preternatural ruthlessness1 required for
 the purpose of carrying out  the       
principle of improvement by selection1  
with the somewhat drastic  thoroughness 
upon which the success of the method    
depends4  ,experience  certainly does   
not justify us in limiting the          
ruthlessness of  individual saviours of 
society2 and1 on the well-known grounds 
of  the aphorism which denies both body 
and soul to corporations1 it seems      
probable 7indeed the belief is not      
without support in history7 that a      
collective despotism1 a mob got to      
believe in its own divine right by      
demagogic missionaries1 would be capable
 of more thorough #bc work in  this     

direction than any single tyrant1 puffed
 up with the same  illusion1 has ever   
achieved4  ,but intelligence is another 
affair4 ,the  fact that saviours of     
society take to that trade is evidence  
enough  that they have none to spare4   
,and such as they possess is generally  
sold to the capitalists of physical     
force on whose resources they  depend4  
,however1 ,i doubt whether even the     
keenest judge of character1  if he had  
before him a hundred boys and girls     
under fourteen1 could  pick out1 with   
the least chance of success1 those who  
should be kept1  as certain to be       
serviceable members of the polity1 and  
those who  should be chloroformed1 as   
equally sure to be stupid1 idle1 or     
vicious4 ,the points of a good or of a  
bad citizen are really far  harder to   
discern than those of a puppy or a      
short-horn calf2 many do  not show      
themselves before the practical         
difficulties of life  stimulate manhood 
to full exertion4 ,and by that time the 

mischief is  done4 ,the evil stock1 if  
it be one1 has had time to multiply1 and
  selection is nullified4        99 ,not
 that the conception of such a society  
is necessarily based      upon the idea 
of evolution4 ,the ,platonic state      
testifies to the      contrary4         
,,ix4    ,i have other reasons for      
fearing that this logical ideal of      
evolutionary regimentation--this        
pigeon-fanciers' polity--is             
unattainable4 ,in the absence of any    
such a severely scientific              
administrator as we have been dreaming  
of1 human society #bd is kept  together 
by bonds of such a singular character1  
that the attempt to  perfect society    
after his fashion would run serious risk
 of loosening  them4 ,social            
organization is not peculiar to men4    
,other societies1  such as those        
constituted by bees and ants1 have also 
arisen out of  the advantage of         
co-operation in the struggle for        
existence2 and their  resemblances to1  

and their differences from1 human       
society are alike  instructive4 ,the    
society formed by the hive bee fulfils  
the ideal of  the communistic aphorism  
to each according to his needs1 from    
each  according to his capacity4 ,within
 it1 the struggle for existence is      
strictly limited4  ,queen1 drones1 and  
workers have each their allotted        
sufficiency of food2 each performs the  
function assigned to it in the  economy 
of the hive1 and all contribute to the  
success of the whole  cooperative       
society in its competition with rival   
collectors of nectar  and pollen and    
with other enemies1 in the state of     
nature without4 ,in  the same sense as  
the garden1 or the colony1 is a work of 
human art1  the bee polity is a work of 
apiarian art1 brought about by the      
cosmic  process1 working through the    
organization of the hymenopterous type4 
,now this society is the direct product 
of an organic necessity1  impelling     
every member of it to a course of action

 which tends to the  good of the whole4 
,each bee has its duty and none #be has 
any rights4  ,whether bees are          
susceptible of feeling and capable of   
thought is a  question which cannot be  
dogmatically answered4 ,as a pious      
opinion1 ,i  am disposed to deny them   
more than the merest rudiments of       
consciousness499 ,but it is curious to  
reflect that a thoughtful drone         
7workers and queens would have no       
leisure for speculation7 with a turn    
for ethical philosophy1 must needs      
profess himself an intuitive  moralist  
of the purest water4 ,he would point    
out1 with perfect  justice1 that the    
devotion of the workers to a life of    
ceaseless toil  for a mere subsistence  
wage1 cannot be accounted for either by 
enlightened selfishness1 or by any other
 sort of utilitarian motives2  since    
these bees begin to work1 without       
experience or reflection1 as  they      
emerge from the cell in which they are  
hatched4 ,plainly1 an  eternal and      

immutable principle1 innate in each bee1
 can alone account  for the phenomena4  
,on the other hand1 the biologist1 who  
traces out  all the extant stages of    
gradation between solitary and hive     
bees1 as  clearly sees in the latter1   
simply the perfection of an automatic   
mechanism1 hammered out by the blows of 
the struggle for existence  upon the    
progeny of the former1 during long ages 
of constant  variation4        99       
,collected ,essays1 vol4 i41 ,animal    
,automatism2 vol4 v41      ,prologue1   
pp4 #de et seq4    #bf                  
,x4    ,i see no reason to doubt that1  
at its origin1 human society was as much
  a product of organic necessity as that
 of the bees499 ,the human family1  to  
begin with1 rested upon exactly the same
 conditions as those which  gave rise to
 similar associations among animals     
lower in the scale4  ,further1 it is    
easy to see that every increase in the  
duration of the  family ties1 with the  
resulting co-operation of a larger and  

larger  number of descendants for       
protection and defence1 would give the  
families in which such modification took
 place a distinct advantage  over the   
others4 ,and1 as in the hive1 the       
progressive limitation of  the struggle 
for existence between the members of the
 family would  involve increasing       
efficiency as regards outside           
competition4    ,but there is this vast 
and fundamental difference between bee  
society  and human society4 ,in the     
former1 the members of the society are  
each  organically predestined to the    
performance of one particular class of  
functions only4 ,if they were endowed   
with desires1 each could desire  to     
perform none but those offices for which
 its organization specially  fits it2   
and which1 in view of the good of the   
whole1 it is proper it  should do4 ,so  
long as a new queen does not make her   
appearance1  rivalries1 and competition 
are absent from the bee polity4         
99 ,collected ,essays1 vol v41          

,prologue1 pp4 #ej-ed1    #bg ,among    
mankind1 on the contrary1 there is no   
such predestination to  a sharply       
defined place in the social organism4   
,however much men may  differ in the    
quality of their intellects1 the        
intensity of their  passions1 and the   
delicacy of their sensations1 it cannot 
be said that  one is fitted by his      
organization to be an agricultural      
labourer and  nothing else1 and another 
to be a landowner and nothing else4     
,moreover1 with all their enormous      
differences in natural endowment1  men  
agree in one thing1 and that is their   
innate desire to enjoy the  pleasures   
and to escape the pains of life2 and1 in
 short1 to do  nothing but that which it
 pleases them to do1 without the least  
reference to the welfare of the society 
into which they are born4 ,that  is     
their inheritance 7the reality at the   
bottom of the doctrine of  original sin7
 from the long series of ancestors1     
human and semi-human  and brutal1 in    

whom the strength of this innate        
tendency to  self-assertion was the     
condition of victory in the struggle for
  existence4 ,that is the reason of the 
aviditas vitae99--the insatiable  hunger
 for enjoyment--of all mankind1 which is
 one of the essential  conditions of    
success in the war with the state of    
nature outside2 and  yet the sure agent 
of the destruction of society if allowed
 free play  within4        99 ,see      
below4 ,romanes' ,lecture1 note #g4     
,the check upon this free play of       
self-assertion1 or natural liberty1     
which is the necessary condition for the
 origin of human society1 is  the       
product #bh of organic necessities of a 
different kind from those  upon which   
the constitution of the hive depends4   
,one of these is the  mutual affection  
of parent and offspring1 intensified by 
the long  infancy of the human species4 
,but the most important is the tendency1
  so strongly developed in man1 to      
reproduce in himself actions and        

feelings similar to1 or correlated with1
 those of other men4 ,man is  the most  
consummate of all mimics in the animal  
world2 none but  himself can draw or    
model2 none comes near him in the scope1
 variety1  and exactness of vocal       
imitation2 none is such a master of     
gesture2  while he seems to be impelled 
thus to imitate for the pure pleasure of
  it4  ,and there is no such another    
emotional chameleon4 ,by a purely       
reflex operation of the mind1 we take   
the hue of passion of those who  are    
about us1 or1 it may be1 the            
complementary colour4 ,it is not by  any
 conscious putting one's self in the    
place of a joyful or a  suffering person
 that the state of mind we call sympathy
 usually  arises2 99 indeed1 it is often
 contrary to one's sense of #bi right1  
and in spite of one's will1 that        
fellow-feeling makes us wondrous  kind1 
or the reverse4 ,however complete may be
 the indifference to  public opinion1 in
 a cool1 intellectual view1 of the      

traditional sage1  it has not yet been  
my fortune to meet with any actual sage 
who took  its hostile manifestations    
with entire equanimity4 ,indeed1 ,i     
doubt if  the philosopher lives1 or ever
 has lived who could know himself to be 
heartily despised by a street boy       
without some irritation4 ,and1  though  
one cannot justify ,haman for wishing to
 hang ,mordecai on such a  very high    
gibbet1 yet1 really1 the consciousness  
of the ,vizier of  ,ahasuerus1 as he    
went in and out of the gate1 that this  
obscure ,jew  had no respect for him1   
must have been very annoying49999       
99 ,adam ,smith makes the pithy         
observation that the man who            
sympathises with a woman in childbed1   
cannot be said to put      himself in   
her place4 7,the ,theory of the ,moral  
,sentiments1      ,part vii4 sec4 iii4  
chap4 i47 ,perhaps there is more humour 
than      force in the example2 and1 in 
spite of this and other                 
observations of the same tenor1 ,i think

 that the one defect of      the        
remarkable work in which it occurs is   
that it lays too much      stress on    
conscious substitution1 too little on   
purely reflex      sympathy4        9999
 ,esther v4 #i-ac4 4 4 4 but when ,haman
 saw ,mordecai in the      king's gate1 
that he stood not up1 nor moved for him1
 he was      full of indignation against
 ,mordecai4 4 4 4 ,and ,haman told them 
of the glory of his riches 4 4 4 and all
 the things wherein the      king had   
promoted him 4 4 4 ,yet all this        
availeth me nothing1      so long as ,i 
see ,mordecai the ,jew sitting at the   
king's gate4      ,what a shrewd        
exposure of human weakness it is6    ,it
 is needful only to look around us1 to  
see that the greatest  restrainer of the
 anti-social tendencies of men is fear1 
not of the  law1 but of the opinion of  
their fellows4 ,the conventions of      
honour  bind men who break legal1 moral1
 and religious bonds2 and1 while  people
 endure the extremity of physical pain  

rather than part with  life1 shame      
drives the weakest to suicide4    ,every
 forward step of social progress brings 
#cj men into closer  relations with     
their fellows1 and increases the        
importance of the  pleasures and pains  
derived from sympathy4 ,we judge the    
acts of others  by our own sympathies1  
and we judge our own acts by the        
sympathies of  others1 every day and all
 day long1 from childhood upwards1 until
  associations1 as indissoluble as those
 of language1 are formed between        
certain acts and the feelings of        
approbation or disapprobation4 ,it      
becomes impossible to imagine some acts 
without disapprobation1 or  others      
without approbation of the actor1       
whether he be one's self1 or  any one   
else4 ,we come to think in the acquired 
dialect of morals4 ,an  artificial      
personality1 the man within1 as ,adam   
,smith99 calls  conscience1 is built up 
beside the natural personality4 ,he is  
the  watchman of society1 charged to    

restrain the anti-social tendencies of  
the natural man within the limits       
required by social welfare4        99   
,theory of the ,moral ,sentiments1 ,part
 iii4 chap4 #c4 ,on the      ,influence 
and ,authority of ,conscience4          
,,xi4    ,i have termed this evolution  
of the feelings out of which the        
primitive bonds of human society are so 
largely forged1 into the  organized and 
personified sympathy we call conscience1
 the ethical  process499 ,so far as it  
tends to        99 ,worked out1 in its  
essential features1 chiefly by ,hartley 
and      ,adam ,smith1 long before the  
modern doctrine of evolution was        
thought of4 ,see ,note below1 p4 #de4   
#ca make any human society more         
efficient in the struggle for  existence
 with the state of nature1 or with other
 societies1 it works  in harmonious     
contrast with the cosmic process4 ,but  
it is none the  less true that1 since   
law and morals are restraints upon the  
struggle  for existence between men in  

society1 the ethical process is in      
opposition to the principle of the      
cosmic process1 and tends to the        
suppression of the qualities best fitted
 for success in that  struggle499       
99 ,see the essay ,on the ,struggle for 
,existence in ,human ,society           
below2 and ,collected ,essays1 vol4 i4  
p4 #bgf1 for ,kant's      recognition of
 these facts4    ,it is further to be   
observed that1 just as the              
self-assertion1  necessary to the       
maintenance of society against the state
 of nature1  will destroy that society  
if it is allowed free operation within2 
so  the self-restraint1 the essence of  
the ethical process1 which is no  less  
an essential condition of the existence 
of every polity1 may1 by  excess1 become
 ruinous to it4    ,moralists of all    
ages and of all faiths1 attending only  
to the  relations of men towards one    
another in an ideal society1 have agreed
  upon the golden rule1 ,do as you would
 be done by4 ,in other words1  let      

sympathy be your guide2 put yourself in 
the place of the man  towards whom your 
action is directed2 and do to him what  
you would  like to have done to yourself
 under the circumstances4 ,however much 
one may admire the generosity of such a 
rule of #cb conduct2 however  confident 
one may be that average men may be      
thoroughly depended upon  not to carry  
it out to its full logical consequences2
 it is  nevertheless desirable to       
recognise the fact that these           
consequences  are incompatible with the 
existence of a civil state1 under any   
circumstances of this world which have  
obtained1 or1 so far as one can  see1   
are1 likely to come to pass4    ,for ,i 
imagine there can be no doubt that the  
great desire of every  wrongdoer is to  
escape from the painful consequences of 
his actions4  ,if ,i put myself in the  
place of the man who has robbed me1 ,i  
find that  ,i am possessed by an        
exceeding desire not to be fined or     
imprisoned2  if in that of the man who  

has smitten me on one cheek1 ,i         
contemplate  with satisfaction the      
absence of any worse result than the    
turning of  the other cheek for like    
treatment4  ,strictly observed1 the     
golden  rule involves the negation of   
law by the refusal to put it in motion  
against law-breakers2 and1 as regards   
the external relations of a  polity1 it 
is the refusal to continue the struggle 
for existence4 ,it  can be obeyed1 even 
partially1 only under the protection of 
a society  which repudiates it4 ,without
 such shelter1 the followers of the     
golden rule may indulge in hopes of     
heaven1 but they must reckon with  the  
certainty that other people will be     
masters of the earth4    ,what would    
become of the garden if the #cc gardener
 treated all the  weeds and slugs1 and  
birds and trespassers as he would like  
to be  treated1 if he were in their     
place8                       ,,xii4     
,under the preceding heads1 ,i have     
endeavoured to represent in broad1  but 

,i hope faithful1 outlines the essential
 features of the state of  nature and of
 that cosmic process of which it is the 
outcome1 so far  as was needful for my  
argument2 ,i have contrasted with the   
state of  nature the state of art1      
produced by human intelligence and      
energy1 as  it is exemplified by a      
garden2 and ,i have shown that the state
 of art1  here and elsewhere1 can be    
maintained only by the constant         
counteraction of the hostile influences 
of the state of nature4  ,further1 ,i   
have pointed out that the horticultural 
process1 which  thus sets itself against
 the cosmic process is opposed to the   
latter  in principle1 in so far as it   
tends to arrest the struggle for        
existence1 by restraining the           
multiplication which is one of the chief
  causes of that struggle1 and by       
creating artificial conditions of  life1
 better adapted to the cultivated plants
 than are the conditions  of the state  
of nature4 ,and ,i have dwelt upon the  

fact that1 though  the progressive      
modification1 which is the consequence  
of the struggle  for existence in the   
state of nature1 is at an end1 such     
modification  may still be effected #cd 
by that selection1 in view of an ideal  
of  usefulness1 or of pleasantness1 to  
man1 of which the state of nature  knows
 nothing4    ,i have proceeded to show  
that a colony1 set down in a country in 
the  state of nature1 presents close    
analogies with a garden2 and ,i have    
indicated the course of action which an 
administrator1 able and  willing to     
carry out horticultural principles1     
would adopt1 in order  to secure the    
success of such a newly formed polity1  
supposing it to  be capable of          
indefinite expansion4 ,in the contrary  
case1 ,i have shown  that difficulties  
must arise2 that the unlimited increase 
of the  population over a limited area  
must1 sooner or later1 reintroduce into 
the colony that struggle for the means  
of existence between the  colonists1    

which it was the primary object of the  
administrator to  exclude1 insomuch as  
it is fatal to the mutual peace which is
 the  prime condition of the union of   
men in society4    ,i have briefly      
described the nature of the only radical
 cure1 known to  me1 for the disease    
which would thus threaten the existence 
of the  colony2 and1 however            
regretfully1 ,i have been obliged to    
admit that  this rigorously scientific  
method of applying the principles of    
evolution to human society hardly comes 
within the region of practical          
politics2 not for want of will on the   
part of a great many people2 but        
because1 for one reason1 there is no    
hope that mere human beings will  ever  
possess enough intelligence to select   
the fittest4 ,and ,i #ce  have adduced  
other grounds for arriving at the same  
conclusion4    ,i have pointed out that 
human society took its rise in the      
organic  necessities expressed by       
imitation and by the sympathetic        

emotions2  and that1 in the struggle for
 existence with the state of nature and 
with other societies1 as part of it1    
those in which men were thus led  to    
close co-operation had a great          
advantage499 ,but1 since each man       
retained more or less of the faculties  
common to all the rest1 and  especially 
a full share of the desire for unlimited
  self-gratification1 the struggle for  
existence within society could  only be 
gradually eliminated4 ,so long as any of
 it remained1 society  continued to be  
an imperfect instrument of the struggle 
for existence  and1 consequently1 was   
improvable by the selective influence of
 that  struggle4 ,other things being    
alike1 the tribe of savages in which    
order was best maintained2 in which     
there was most security within the      
tribe and the most loyal mutual support 
outside it1 would be the  survivors4    
99 ,collected ,essays1 vol4 v41         
,prologue1 p4 #eb4    ,i have termed    
this gradual strengthening of the social

 bond1 which1  though it arrest the     
struggle for existence inside society1  
up to a  certain point improves the     
chances of society1 as a corporate      
whole1  in the cosmic struggle--the     
ethical process4 ,i have endeavoured to 
show that1 when the ethical process has 
advanced so far as to secure  #cf every 
member of the society in the possession 
of the means of  existence1 the struggle
 for existence1 as between man and man1 
within  that society is1 ipso facto1 at 
an end4 ,and1 as it is undeniable that  
the most highly civilized societies have
 substantially reached this  position1  
it follows that1 so far as they are     
concerned1 the struggle  for existence  
can play no important part within       
them499 ,in other words1  the kind of   
evolution which is brought about in the 
state of nature  cannot take place4     
99 ,whether the struggle for existence  
with the state of nature      and with  
other societies1 so far as they stand in
 the relation      of the state of      

nature with it1 exerts a selective      
influence      upon modern society1 and 
in what direction1 are questions not    
easy to answer4 ,the problem of the     
effect of military and      industrial  
warfare upon those who wage it is very  
complicated4    ,i have further shown   
cause for the belief that direct        
selection1 after  the fashion of the    
horticulturist and the breeder1 neither 
has played1  nor can play1 any important
 part in the evolution of society2 apart
  from other reasons1 because ,i do not 
see how such selection could be         
practised without a serious weakening1  
it may be the destruction1 of  the bonds
 which hold society together4 ,it       
strikes me that men who are  accustomed 
to contemplate the active or passive    
extirpation of the  weak1 the           
unfortunate1 and the superfluous2 who   
justify that conduct  on the ground that
 it has the sanction of the cosmic      
process1 and is  the only way of        
ensuring the progress of the race2 who1 

if #cg they  are consistent1 must rank  
medicine among the black arts and count 
the  physician a mischievous preserver  
of the unfit2 on whose matrimonial      
undertakings the principles of the stud 
have the chief influence2  whose whole  
lives1 therefore1 are an education in   
the noble art of  suppressing natural   
affection and sympathy1 are not likely  
to have any  large stock of these       
commodities left4 ,but1 without them1   
there is no  conscience1 nor any        
restraint on the conduct of men1 except 
the  calculation of self-interest1 the  
balancing of certain present            
gratifications against doubtful future  
pains2 and experience tells us  how much
 that is worth4 ,every day1 we see firm 
believers in the hell  of the           
theologians commit acts by which1 as    
they believe when cool1  they risk      
eternal punishment2 while they hold back
 from those which are  opposed to the   
sympathies of their associates4         
,,xiii4    ,that progressive            

modification of civilization which      
passes by the name  of the evolution of 
society1 is1 in fact1 a process of an   
essentially different character1 both   
from that which brings about the        
evolution of species1 in the state of   
nature1 and from that which  gives rise 
to the evolution of varieties1 in the   
state of art4    ,there can be no doubt 
that vast changes have taken place in   
,english  civilization since the reign  
#ch of the ,tudors4 ,but ,i am not aware
 of  a particle of evidence in favour of
 the conclusion that this  evolutionary 
process1 has been accompanied by any    
modification of the  physical1 or the   
mental1 characters of the men who have  
been the  subjects of it4 ,i have not   
met with any grounds for suspecting that
  the average ,englishmen of to-day are 
sensibly different from those  that     
,shakspere knew and drew4 ,we look into 
his magic mirror of the  ,elizabethan   
age1 and behold1 nowise darkly1 the     
presentment of  ourselves4    ,during   

these three centuries1 from the reign of
 ,elizabeth to that of  ,victoria1 the  
struggle for existence between man and  
man has been so  largely restrained     
among the great mass of the population  
7except for  one or two short intervals 
of civil war71 that it can have had     
little1  or no1 selective operation4 ,as
 to anything comparable to direct       
selection1 it has been practised on so  
small a scale that it may also  be      
neglected4 ,the criminal law1 in so far 
as by putting to death or by  subjecting
 to long periods of imprisonment1 those 
who infringe its  provisions1 prevents  
the propagation of hereditary criminal  
tendencies2 and the poor-law1 in so far 
as it separates married  couples1 whose 
destitution arises from hereditary      
defects of  character1 are doubtless    
selective agents operating in favour of 
the  non-criminal and the more effective
 members of society4 ,but the           
proportion of the population which they 
influence #ci is very small2  and1      

generally1 the hereditary criminal and  
the hereditary pauper have  propagated  
their kind before the law affects them4 
,in a large  proportion of cases1 crime 
and pauperism have nothing to do with   
heredity2 but are the consequence1      
partly1 of circumstances and1  partly1  
of the possession of qualities1 which1  
under different  conditions of life1    
might have excited esteem and even      
admiration4  ,it  was a shrewd man of   
the world who1 in discussing sewage     
problems1  remarked that dirt is riches 
in the wrong place2 and that sound      
aphorism has moral applications4 ,the   
benevolence and open-handed  generosity 
which adorn a rich man1 may make a      
pauper of a poor one2  the energy and   
courage to which the successful soldier 
owes his rise1  the cool and daring     
subtlety to which the great financier   
owes his  fortune1 may very easily1     
under unfavourable conditions1 lead     
their  possessors to the gallows1 or to 
the hulks4 ,moreover1 it is fairly      

probable that the children of a failure 
will receive from their  other parent   
just that little modification of        
character which makes  all the          
difference4 ,i sometimes wonder whether 
people1 who talk so  freely about       
extirpating the unfit1 ever             
dispassionately consider  their own     
history4 ,surely1 one must be very fit1 
indeed1 not to know  of an occasion1 or 
perhaps two1 in one's life1 when it     
would have been  only too easy to       
qualify for a place among the unfit4    
#dj ,in my belief the innate qualities1 
physical1 intellectual1 and  moral1 of  
our nation have remained substantially  
the same for the last  four or five     
centuries4 ,if the struggle for         
existence has affected us  to any       
serious extent 7and ,i doubt it7 it has 
been1 indirectly1  through our military 
and industrial wars with other nations4 
,,xiv4    ,what is often called the     
struggle for existence in society 7,i   
plead  guilty to having used the term   

too loosely myself71 is a contest1 not  
for the means of existence1 but for the 
means of enjoyment4 ,those who  occupy  
the first places in this practical      
competitive examination are  the rich   
and the influential2 those who fail1    
more or less1 occupy the  lower places1 
down to the squalid obscurity of the    
pauper and the  criminal4 ,upon the most
 liberal estimate1 ,i suppose the former
 group  will not amount to two per cent4
 of the population4 ,i doubt if the     
latter exceeds another two per cent42   
but let it be supposed1 for the  sake of
 argument1 that it is as great as five  
per cent499        99 ,those who read   
the last ,essay in this volume will not 
accuse      me of wishing to attenuate  
the evil of the existence of this       
group1 whether great or small4    ,as it
 is only in the latter group that any   
thing comparable to the  struggle for   
existence in the state of nature can    
take place2 as it is  #da only among    
this twentieth of the whole people that 

numerous men1  women1 and children die  
of rapid or slow starvation1 or of the  
diseases incidental to permanently bad  
conditions of life2 and as  there is    
nothing to prevent their multiplication 
before they are  killed off1 while1 in  
spite of greater infant mortality1 they 
increase  faster than the rich2 it seems
 clear that the struggle for existence  
in this class can have no appreciable   
selective influence upon the  other #ie 
per cent4 of the population4    ,what   
sort of a sheep breeder would he be who 
should content himself  with picking out
 the worst fifty out of a thousand1     
leaving them on a  barren common till   
the weakest starved1 and then letting   
the survivors  go back to mix with the  
rest8 ,and the parallel is too          
favourable2  since in a large number of 
cases1 the actual poor and the convicted
  criminals are neither the weakest nor 
the worst4    ,in the struggle for the  
means of enjoyment1 the qualities which 
ensure  success are energy1 industry1   

intellectual capacity1 tenacity of      
purpose1 and1 at least1 as much sympathy
 as is necessary to make a man          
understand the feelings of his fellows4 
,were there none of those  artificial   
arrangements by which fools and knaves  
are kept at the top  of society instead 
of sinking to their natural place at the
 bottom199  the struggle for the means  
#db of enjoyment would ensure a constant
  circulation of the human units of the 
social compound1 from the bottom  to the
 top and from the top to the bottom4    
,the survivors of the  contest1 those   
who continued to form the great bulk of 
the polity1  would not be those fittest 
who got to the very top1 but the great  
body of the moderately fit1 whose       
numbers and superior propagative  power1
 enable them always to swamp the        
exceptionally endowed minority4         
99 ,i have elsewhere lamented the       
absence from society of a      machinery
 for facilitating the descent of        
incapacity4      ,administrative        

,nihilism4 ,collected ,essays1 vol4 i4  
p4 #ed4    ,i think it must be obvious  
to every one1 that1 whether we consider 
the  internal or the external interests 
of society1 it is desirable they  should
 be in the hands of those who are       
endowed with the largest share  of      
energy1 of industry1 of intellectual    
capacity1 of tenacity of  purpose1 while
 they are not devoid of sympathetic     
humanity2 and1 in so  far as the        
struggle for the means of enjoyment     
tends to place such men  in possession  
of wealth and influence1 it is a process
 which tends to  the good of society4   
,but the process1 as we have seen1 has  
no real  resemblance to that which      
adapts living beings to current         
conditions  in the state of nature2 nor 
any to the artificial selection of the  
horticulturist4    #dc ,to return1 once 
more1 to the parallel of horticulture4  
,in the  modern world1 the gardening of 
men by themselves is practically        
restricted to the performance1 not of   

selection1 but of that other  function  
of the gardener1 the creation of        
conditions more favourable  than those  
of the state of nature2 to the end of   
facilitating the free  expansion of the 
innate faculties of the citizen1 so far 
as it is  consistent with the general   
good4  ,and the business of the moral   
and  political philosopher appears to me
 to be the ascertainment1 by the  same  
method of observation1 experiment1 and  
ratiocination1 as is  practised in other
 kinds of scientific work1 of the course
 of conduct  which will best conduce to 
that end4    ,but1 supposing this course
 of conduct to be scientifically        
determined  and carefully followed out1 
it cannot put an end to the struggle for
  existence in the state of nature2 and 
it will not so much as tend1 in  any    
way1 to the adaptation of man to that   
state4 ,even should the whole  human    
race be absorbed in one vast polity1    
within which absolute  political justice
 reigns1 the struggle for existence with

 the state  of nature outside it1 and   
the tendency to the return to the       
struggle  within1 in consequence of     
over-multiplication1 will remain2 and1  
unless men's inheritance from the       
ancestors who fought a good fight in    
the state of #dd nature1 their dose of  
original sin1 is rooted out by  some    
method at present unrevealed1 at any    
rate to disbelievers in                 
supernaturalism1 every child born into  
the world will still bring with  him the
 instinct of unlimited self-assertion4  
,he will have to learn  the lesson of   
self-restraint and renunciation4 ,but   
the practice of  self-restraint and     
renunciation is not happiness1 though it
 may be  something much better4    ,that
 man1 as a political animal1 is         
susceptible of a vast amount of         
improvement1 by education1 by           
instruction1 and by the application of  
his intelligence to the adaptation of   
the conditions of life to his  higher   
needs1 ,i entertain not the slightest   

doubt4 ,but so long as he  remains      
liable to error1 intellectual or moral2 
so long as he is  compelled to be       
perpetually on guard against the cosmic 
forces1 whose  ends are not his ends1   
without and within himself2 so long as  
he is  haunted by inexpugnable memories 
and hopeless aspirations2 so long as    
the recognition of his intellectual     
limitations forces him to  acknowledge  
his incapacity to penetrate the mystery 
of existence2 the  prospect of attaining
 untroubled happiness1 or of a state    
which can1  even remotely1 deserve the  
title of perfection1 appears to me to be
 as  misleading an illusion as ever was 
dangled before the eyes of poor         
humanity4 ,and there have been many of  
them4    ,that which lies before the    
human race is a #de constant struggle to
  maintain and improve1 in opposition to
 the ,state of ,nature1 the ,state  of  
,art of an organized polity2 in which1  
and by which1 man may develop  a worthy 
civilization1 capable of maintaining and

 constantly improving  itself1 until the
 evolution of our globe shall have      
entered so far  upon its downward course
 that the cosmic process resumes its    
sway2  and1 once more1 the ,state of    
,nature prevails over the surface of our
  planet4         ,note3 7,see p4       
#cj74--;,it seems the fashion nowadays  
to ignore  ,hartley2 though1 a century  
and a half ago1 he not only laid the    
foundations but built up much of the    
superstructure of a true theory  of the 
,evolution of the intellectual and moral
 faculties4 ,he speaks of  what ,i have 
termed the ethical process as our       
,progress from  ,self-interest to       
,self-annihilation4 ,observations on    
,man 7#agdi71 vol4  ii p4 #bha4    #df  
,,ii4                      ,,evolution  
,,and ,,ethics4                 ,the    
,romanes ,lecture1 #ahic4    ,soleo enim
 et in aliena castra transire1 non      
tanquam transfuga sed  tanquam          
explorator4 7,l4 ,,annaei ,,senecae     
,,epist4 ,,ii4 #d47    ,,there is a     

delightful child's story1 known by the  
title of ,jack and  the ,bean-stalk1    
with which my contemporaries who are    
present will be  familiar4  ,but so many
 of our grave and reverend ,juniors have
 been  brought up on severer            
intellectual diet1 and1 perhaps1 have   
become  acquainted with fairyland only  
through primers of comparative          
mythology1 that it may be needful to    
give an outline of the tale4 ,it  is a  
legend of a bean-plant1 which grows and 
grows until it reaches  the high heavens
 and there spreads out into a vast      
canopy of foliage4  ,the hero1 being    
moved to climb the stalk1 discovers that
 the leafy  expanse supports a world    
composed of the same elements as that   
below  but yet strangely new2 and his   
adventures there1 on which ,i may not   
dwell1 must #dg have completely changed 
his views of the nature of  things2     
though the story1 not having been       
composed by1 or for1  philosophers1 has 
nothing to say about views4    ,my      

present enterprise has a certain analogy
 to that of the daring  adventurer4 ,i  
beg you to accompany me in an attempt to
 reach a world  which1 to many1 is      
probably strange1 by the help of a bean4
 ,it is1 as  you know1 a simple1        
inert-looking thing4 ,yet1 if planted   
under proper  conditions1 of which      
sufficient warmth is one of the most    
important1  it manifests active powers  
of a very remarkable kind4 ,a small     
green  seedling emerges1 rises to the   
surface of the soil1 rapidly increases  
in size and1 at the same time1 undergoes
 a series of metamorphoses  which do not
 excite our wonder as much as those     
which meet us in  legendary history1    
merely because they are to be seen every
 day and  all day long4    ,by          
insensible steps1 the plant builds      
itself up into a large and  various     
fabric of root1 stem1 leaves1 flowers1  
and fruit1 every one  moulded within and
 without in accordance with an extremely
 complex  but1 at the same time1        

minutely defined pattern4 ,in each of   
these  complicated structures1 as in    
their smallest constituents1 there is an
  immanent energy which1 in harmony with
 that resident in all the  others1      
incessantly works towards the           
maintenance 1of the whole and  the      
efficient performance of the part which 
it has to play in the  economy of       
nature4    #dh ,but no sooner has the   
edifice1 reared with such exact         
elaboration1 attained completeness1 than
 it begins to crumble4 ,by  degrees1 the
 plant withers and disappears from view1
 leaving behind  more or fewer          
apparently inert and simple bodies1 just
 like the bean  from which it sprang2   
and1 like it1 endowed with the          
potentiality of  giving rise to a       
similar cycle of manifestations4        
,neither the poetic  nor the scientific 
imagination is put to much strain in the
 search  after analogies with this      
process of going forth and1 as it were1 
returning to the starting-point4 ,it may

 be likened to the ascent and  descent  
of a slung stone1 or the course of an   
arrow along its  trajectory4 ,or we may 
say that the living energy takes first  
an upward  and then a downward road4 ,or
 it may seem preferable to compare the  
expansion of the germ into the          
full-grown plant1 to the unfolding of a 
fan1 or to the rolling forth and        
widening of a stream2 and thus to       
arrive at the conception of development1
 or evolution4 ,here1 as  elsewhere1    
names are noise and smoke2 the important
 point is to have  a clear and adequate 
conception of the fact signified by a   
name4 ,and1  in this case1 the fact is  
the ,sisyphaean process1 in the course  
of  which1 the living and growing plant 
passes from the relative  simplicity and
 latent potentiality of the seed to the 
full epiphany of  a highly              
differentiated type1 thence to fall back
 to simplicity and  potentiality4    #di
 ,the value of a strong intellectual    
grasp of the nature of this  process    

lies in the circumstance that what is   
true of the bean is true  of living     
things in general4 ,from very low forms 
up to the highest--in  the animal no    
less than in the vegetable kingdom--the 
process of life  presents the same      
appearance ,note #a of cyclical         
evolution4 ,nay1 we  have but to cast   
our eyes over the rest of the world and 
cyclical  change presents itself on all 
sides4  ,it meets us in the water that  
flows to the sea and returns to the     
springs2 in the heavenly bodies  that   
wax and wane1 go and return to their    
places2 in the inexorable  sequence of  
the ages of man's life2 in that         
successive rise1 apogee1  and fall of   
dynasties and of states which is the    
most prominent topic  of civil history4 
,as no man fording a swift stream can   
dip his foot twice into the same  water1
 so no man can1 with exactness1 affirm  
of anything in the  sensible world that 
it is4,note #b ,as he utters the words1 
nay1 as he  thinks them1 the predicate  

ceases to be applicable2 the present has
  become the past2 the is should be was4
 ,and the more we learn of  the nature  
of things1 the more evident is it that  
what we call rest is  only unperceived  
activity2 that seeming peace is silent  
but strenuous  battle4 ,in every part1  
at every moment1 the state of the cosmos
 is the  expression of a transitory     
adjustment of contending forces2 a      
scene1  of strife1 in which all the     
combatants fall in turn4 ,what is #ej   
true  of each part1 is true of the      
whole4 ,natural knowledge tends more and
  more to the conclusion that all the   
choir of heaven and furniture of  the   
earth are the transitory forms of       
parcels of cosmic substance  wending    
along the road of evolution1 from       
nebulous potentiality1  through endless 
growths of sun and planet and satellite2
 through all  varieties of matter2      
through infinite diversities of life and
 thought2  possibly1 through modes of   
being of which we neither have a        

conception1 nor are competent to form   
any1 back to the indefinable  latency   
from which they arose4 ,thus the most   
obvious attribute of the  cosmos is its 
impermanence4 ,it assumes the aspect not
 so much of a  permanent entity as of a 
changeful process in which naught       
endures  save the flow of energy and the
 rational order which pervades it4      
,we have climbed our bean-stalk and have
 reached a wonderland in which  the     
common and the familiar become things   
new and strange4 ,in the  exploration of
 the cosmic process thus typified1 the  
highest  intelligence of man finds      
inexhaustible employment2 giants are    
subdued  to our service2 and the        
spiritual affections of the             
contemplative  philosopher are engaged  
by beauties worthy of eternal constancy4
    ,but there is another aspect of the 
cosmic process1 so perfect as a         
mechanism1 so beautiful as a work of    
art4 ,where the cosmopoietic energy  #ea
 works through sentient beings1 there   

arises1 among its other  manifestations1
 that which we call pain or suffering4  
,this baleful  product of evolution     
increases in quantity and in intensity1 
with  advancing grades of animal        
organization1 until it attains its      
highest  level in man4 ,further1 the    
consummation is not reached in man1 the 
mere animal2 nor in man1 the whole or   
half savage2 but only in man1  the      
member of an organized polity4 ,and it  
is a necessary consequence  of his      
attempt to live in this way2 that is1   
under those conditions  which are       
essential to the full development of his
 noblest powers4    ,man1 the animal1 in
 fact1 has worked his way to the        
headship of the  sentient world1 and has
 become the superb animal which he is1  
in  virtue of his success in the        
struggle for existence4 ,the conditions 
having been of a certain order1 man's   
organization has adjusted itself  to    
them better than that of his competitors
 in the cosmic strife4 ,in  the case of 

mankind1 the self-assertion1 the        
unscrupulous seizing upon  all that can 
be grasped1 the tenacious holding of all
 that can be  kept1 which constitute the
 essence of the struggle for existence1 
have  answered4 ,for his successful     
progress1 throughout the savage state1  
man has been largely indebted to those  
qualities which he shares with  the ape 
and the tiger2 his exceptional physical 
organization2 his  cunning1 his         
sociability1 his curiosity1 and his     
imitativeness2 his  ruthless and #eb    
ferocious destructiveness when his anger
 is roused  by opposition4    ,but1 in  
proportion as men have passed from      
anarchy to social  organization1 and in 
proportion as civilization has grown in 
worth1  these deeply ingrained          
serviceable qualities have become       
defects4  ,after the manner of          
successful persons1 civilized man would 
gladly  kick down the ladder by which he
 has climbed4 ,he would be only too     
pleased to see the ape and tiger die4   

,but they decline to suit his           
convenience2 and the unwelcome intrusion
 of these boon companions of  his hot   
youth into the ranged existence of civil
 life adds pains and  griefs1           
innumerable and immeasurably great1 to  
those which the cosmic  process         
necessarily brings on the mere animal4  
,in fact1 civilized man  brands all     
these ape and tiger promptings with the 
name of sins2 he  punishes many of the  
acts which flow from them as crimes2    
and1 in  extreme cases1 he does his best
 to put an end to the survival of the   
fittest of former days by axe and rope4 
,i have said that civilized man has     
reached this point2 the assertion  is   
perhaps too broad and general2 ,i had   
better put it that ethical man  has     
attained thereto4 ,the science of ethics
 professes to furnish us  with a        
reasoned rule of life2 to tell us what  
is right action and why  it is so4      
,whatever differences of opinion may    
exist among experts  there is a general 

consensus that the ape and #ec tiger    
methods of  the struggle for existence  
are not reconcilable with sound ethical 
principles4    ,the hero of our story   
descended the bean-stalk1 and came back 
to the  common world1 where fare and    
work were alike hard2 where ugly        
competitors were much commoner than     
beautiful princesses2 and where  the    
everlasting battle with self was much   
less sure to be crowned with  victory   
than a turn-to with a giant4 ,we have   
done the like4 ,thousands  upon         
thousands of our fellows1 thousands of  
years ago1 have preceded  us in finding 
themselves face to face with the same   
dread problem of  evil4 ,they also have 
seen that the cosmic process is         
evolution2 that  it is full of wonder1  
full of beauty1 and1 at the same time1  
full of  pain4 ,they have sought to     
discover the bearing of these great     
facts on  ethics2 to find out whether   
there is1 or is not1 a sanction for     
morality in the ways of the cosmos4     

,theories of the universe1 in which the 
conception of evolution plays a  leading
 part1 were extant at least six         
centuries before our era4  ,certain     
knowledge of them1 in the fifth century1
 reaches us from  localities as distant 
as the valley of the ,ganges and the    
,asiatic  coasts of the ,aegean4 ,to the
 early philosophers of ,hindostan1 no   
less  than to those of ,ionia1 the      
salient and characteristic feature of   
the  phenomenal world was its #ed       
changefulness2 the unresting flow of all
  things1 through birth to visible being
 and thence to not being1 in  which they
 could discern no sign of a beginning   
and for which they saw  no prospect of  
an ending4 ,it was no less plain to some
 of these  antique forerunners of modern
 philosophy that suffering is the badge 
of all the tribe of sentient things2    
that it is no accidental  accompaniment1
 but an essential constituent of the    
cosmic process4 ,the  energetic ,greek  
might find fierce joys in a world in    

which strife is  father and king2 but   
the old ,aryan spirit was subdued to    
quietism in  the ,indian sage2 the mist 
of suffering which spread over humanity 
hid  everything else from his view2 to  
him life was one with suffering and     
suffering with life4    ,in ,hindostan1 
as in ,ionia1 a period of relatively    
high and tolerably  stable civilization 
had succeeded long ages of              
semi-barbarism and  struggle4 ,out of   
wealth and security had come leisure and
 refinement1  and1 close at their heels1
 had followed the malady of thought4 ,to
 the  struggle for bare existence1 which
 never ends1 though it may be           
alleviated and partially disguised for a
 fortunate few1 succeeded the  struggle 
to make existence intelligible and to   
bring the order of  things into harmony 
with the moral sense of man1 which also 
never  ends1 but1 for the thinking few1 
becomes keen er with every increase  of 
knowledge and with every step towards   
the realization of a worthy  ideal of   

life4    #ee ,two thousand five hundred 
years ago1 the value of civilization was
  as apparent as it is now2 then1 as    
now1 it was obvious that only in  the   
garden of an orderly polity can the     
finest fruits humanity is  capable of   
bearing be produced4 ,but it had also   
become evident that  the blessings of   
culture were not unmixed4 ,the garden   
was apt to turn  into a hothouse4 ,the  
stimulation of the senses1 the pampering
 of the  emotions1 endlessly multiplied 
the sources of pleasure4 ,the constant  
widening of the intellectual field      
indefinitely extended the range of  that
 especially human faculty of looking    
before and after1 which adds  to the    
fleeting present those old and new      
worlds of the past and the  future1     
wherein men dwell the more the higher   
their culture4  ,but that  very         
sharpening of the sense and that subtle 
refinement of emotion1  which brought   
such a wealth of pleasures1 were fatally
 attended by a  proportional enlargement

 of the capacity for suffering2 and the 
divine  faculty of imagination1 while it
 created new heavens and new earths1    
provided them with the corresponding    
hells of futile regret for the  past and
 morbid anxiety for the future4 ,note #c
 ,finally1 the  inevitable penalty of   
over-stimulation1 exhaustion1 opened the
 gates  of civilization to its great    
enemy1 ennui2 the stale and flat        
weariness when man delights-not1 nor    
woman neither2 when all things  are     
vanity and vexation2 and life seems not 
worth living except to  escape the bore 
of dying4    #ef ,even purely           
intellectual progress brings about its  
revenges4  ,problems settled in a rough 
and ready way by rude men1 absorbed in  
action1 demand renewed attention and    
show themselves to be still  unread     
riddles when men have time to think4    
,the beneficent demon1  doubt1 whose    
name is ,legion and who dwells amongst  
the tombs of old  faiths1 enters into   
mankind and thenceforth refuses to be   

cast out4  ,sacred customs1 venerable   
dooms of ancestral wisdom1 hallowed by  
tradition and professing to hold good   
for all time1 are put to the  question4 
,cultured reflection asks for their     
credentials2 judges them  by its own    
standards2 finally1 gathers those of    
which it approves into  ethical systems1
 in which the reasoning is rarely much  
more than a  decent pretext for the     
adoption of foregone conclusions4       
,one of the oldest and most important   
elements in such systems is the         
conception of justice4 ,society is      
impossible unless those who are         
associated agree to observe certain     
rules of conduct towards one  another2  
its stability depends on the steadiness 
with which they abide  by that          
agreement2 and1 so far as they waver1   
that mutual trust which  is the bond of 
society is weakened or destroyed4       
,wolves could not hunt  in packs except 
for the real1 though unexpressed1       
understanding that  they should not     

attack one another during the chase4    
,the most  rudimentary polity is a pack 
of men living under the like tacit1 or  
expressed1 #eg understanding2 and having
 made the very important  advance upon  
wolf society1 that they agree to use the
 force of the  whole body against       
individuals who violate it and in favour
 of those  who observe it4 ,this        
observance of a common understanding1   
with the  consequent distribution of    
punishments and rewards according to    
accepted rules1 received the name of    
justice1 while the contrary was  called 
injustice4 ,early ethics did not take   
much note of the animus of  the violator
 of the rules4  ,but civilization could 
not advance far1  without the           
establishment of a capital distinction  
between the case of  involuntary and    
that of wilful misdeed2 between a merely
 wrong action  and a guilty one4 ,and1  
with increasing refinement of moral     
appreciation1 the problem of desert1    
which arises out of this  distinction1  

acquired more and more theoretical and  
practical  importance4 ,if life must be 
given for life1 yet it was recognized   
that  the unintentional slayer did not  
altogether deserve death2 and1 by a     
sort of compromise between the public   
and the private conception of  justice1 
a sanctuary was provided in which he    
might take refuge from  the avenger of  
blood4    ,the idea of justice thus     
underwent a gradual sublimation from    
punishment and reward according to acts1
 to punishment and reward  according to 
desert2 or1 in other words1 according to
 motive4  ,righteousness1 that is1      
action from right motive1 #eh not only  
became  synonymous with justice1 but the
 positive constituent of innocence and  
the very heart of goodness4    ,now when
 the ancient sage1 whether ,indian or   
,greek1 who had attained to  this       
conception of goodness1 looked the      
world1 and especially human  life1 in   
the face1 he found it as hard as we do  
to bring the course of  evolution into  

harmony with even the elementary        
requirement of the  ethical ideal of the
 just and the good4    ,if there is one 
thing plainer than another1 it is that  
neither the  pleasures nor the pains of 
life1 in the merely animal world1 are   
distributed according to desert2 for it 
is admittedly impossible for  the lower 
orders of sentient beings1 to deserve   
either the one or the  other4 ,if there 
is a generalization from the facts of   
human life which  has the assent of     
thoughtful men in every age and country1
 it is that  the violator of ethical    
rules constantly escapes the punishment 
which  he deserves2 that the wicked     
flourishes like a green bay tree1 while1
  the righteous begs his bread2 that the
 sins of the fathers are visited  upon  
the children2 that1 in the realm of     
nature1 ignorance is punished  just as  
severely as wilful wrong2 and that      
thousands upon thousands of  innocent   
beings suffer for the crime1 or the     
unintentional trespass of  one4         

,greek and ,semite and ,indian are      
agreed upon #ei this subject4 ,the book 
of ,job is at one with the ,works and   
,days and the ,buddhist ,sutras2  the   
,psalmist and the ,preacher of ,israel1 
with the ,tragic ,poets of  ,greece4    
,what is a more common motive of the    
ancient tragedy in fact1  than the      
unfathomable injustice of the nature of 
things2 what is more  deeply felt to be 
true than its presentation of the       
destruction of the  blameless by the    
work of his own hands1 or by the fatal  
operation of  the sins of others8       
,surely ,oedipus was pure of heart2 it  
was the  natural sequence of events--the
 cosmic process--which drove him1 in    
all innocence1 to slay his father and   
become the husband of his  mother1 to   
the desolation of his people and his own
 headlong ruin4 ,or  to step1 for a     
moment1 beyond the chronological limits 
,i have set  myself1 what constitutes   
the sempiternal attraction of ,hamlet   
but the  appeal to deepest experience of

 that history of a no less blameless    
dreamer1 dragged1 in spite of himself1  
into a world out of joint  involved in a
 tangle of crime and misery1 created by 
one of the prime  agents of the cosmic  
process as it works in and through man8 
,thus1 brought before the tribunal of   
ethics1 the cosmos might well seem  to  
stand condemned4 ,the conscience of man 
revolted against the moral  indifference
 of nature1 and the microcosmic atom    
should have found the  illimitable      
macrocosm guilty4 ,but few1 or none1    
ventured to record  that verdict4    #fj
 ,in the great ,semitic trial of this   
issue1 ,job takes refuge in  silence and
 submission2 the ,indian and the ,greek1
 less wise perhaps1  attempt to         
reconcile the irreconcilable and plead  
for the defendant4  ,to this end1 the   
,greeks invented ,theodicies2 while the 
,indians devised  what1 in its ultimate 
form1 must rather be termed a           
,cosmodicy4 ,for1  although ,buddhism   
recognizes gods many and lords many1    

they are  products of the cosmic        
process2 and transitory1 however long   
enduring1  manifestations of its eternal
 activity4  ,in the doctrine of         
transmigration1 whatever its origin1    
,brahminical and ,buddhist  speculation 
found1 ready to hand,note #d the means  
of constructing a  plausible vindication
 of the ways of the cosmos to man4 ,if  
this world  is full of pain and sorrow2 
if grief and evil fall1 like the rain1  
upon both the just and the unjust2 it is
 because1 like the rain1 they  are links
 in the endless chain of natural        
causation by which past1  present1 and  
future are indissolubly connected2 and  
there is no more  injustice in the one  
case than in the other4 ,every sentient 
being is  reaping as it has sown2 if not
 in this life1 then in one or other of  
the infinite series of antecedent       
existences of which it is the latest    
term4 ,the present distribution of good 
and evil is1 therefore1 the  algebraical
 sum of accumulated positive and        

negative deserts2 or1  rather1 it       
depends on the floating balance of the  
account4 ,for it was  not thought       
necessary that a complete settlement #fa
 should ever take  place4 ,arrears might
 stand over as a sort of hanging gale2 a
 period  of celestial happiness just    
earned might be succeeded by ages of    
torment in a hideous nether world1 the  
balance still overdue for some  remote  
ancestral error4 ,note #e    ,whether   
the cosmic process looks any more moral 
than at first1 after  such a            
vindication1 may perhaps be questioned4 
,yet this plea of  justification is not 
less plausible than others2 and none but
 very  hasty thinkers will reject it on 
the ground of inherent absurdity4  ,like
 the doctrine of evolution itself1 that 
of transmigration has its  roots in the 
world of reality2 and it may claim such 
support as the  great argument from     
analogy is capable of supplying4        
,everyday experience familiarizes us    
with the facts which are grouped  under 

the name of heredity4 ,every one of us  
bears upon him obvious  marks of his    
parentage1 perhaps of remoter           
relationships4 ,more  particularly1 the 
sum of tendencies to act in a certain   
way1 which we  call character1 is often 
to be traced through a long series of   
progenitors and collaterals4 ,so we may 
justly say that this  character--this   
moral and intellectual essence of a     
man--does  veritably pass over from one 
fleshly tabernacle to another1 and does 
really transmigrate from generation to  
generation4 ,in the new-born  infant1   
the character of the stock lies latent1 
and the ,ego is little  more #fb than a 
bundle of potentialities4 ,but1 very    
early1 these  become acutalities2 from  
childhood to age they manifest          
themselves in  dulness or brightness1   
weakness or strength1 viciousness or    
uprightness2 and with each feature      
modified by confluence with another     
character1 if by nothing else1 the      
character passed on to its  incarnation 

in new bodies4    ,the ,indian          
philosophers called character1 as thus  
defined1  karma4,note #f ,it is this    
karma which passed from life to life and
  linked them in the chain of           
transmigrations2 and they held that it  
is  modified in each life1 not merely by
 confluence of parentage1 but by  its   
own acts4 ,they were1 in fact1 strong   
believers in the theory1 so  much       
disputed just at present1 of the        
hereditary transmission of  acquired    
characters4 ,that the manifestation of  
the tendencies of a  character may be   
greatly facilitated1 or impeded1 by     
conditions1 of  which self-discipline1  
or the absence of it1 are among the most
  important1 is indubitable2 but that   
the character itself is modified  in    
this way is by no means so certain2 it  
is not so sure that the  transmitted    
character of an evil liver is worse1 or 
that of a  righteous man better1 than   
that which he received4 ,indian         
philosophy1  however1 did not admit of  

any doubt on this subject2 the belief in
 the  influence of conditions1 notably  
of self-discipline1 on the karma was    
not merely a necessary postulate of its 
theory of retribution1 but it  presented
 #fc the only way of escape from the    
endless round of  transmigrations4      
,the earlier forms of ,indian philosophy
 agreed with those prevalent in  our own
 times1 in supposing the existence of a 
permanent reality1 or  substance1       
beneath the shifting series of          
phenomena1 whether of  matter or of     
mind4 ,the substance of the cosmos was  
,brahma1 that of  the individual man    
,atman2 and the latter was separated    
from the  former only1 if ,i may so     
speak1 by its phenomenal envelope1 by   
the  casing of sensations1 thoughts and 
desires1 pleasures and pains1 which     
make up the illusive phantasmagoria of  
life4 ,this the ignorant take  for      
reality2 their ,atman therefore remains 
eternally imprisoned in  delusions1     
bound by the fetters of desire and      

scourged by the whip of  misery4 ,but   
the man who has attained enlightenment  
sees that the  apparent reality is mere 
illusion1 or1 as was said a couple of   
thousand years later1 that there is     
nothing good nor bad but thinking  makes
 it so4 ,if the cosmos is just and of   
our pleasant vices makes  instruments to
 scourge us1 it would seem that the only
 way to escape  from our heritage of    
evil is to destroy that fountain of     
desire whence  our vices flow2 to refuse
 any longer to be the instruments of the
  evolutionary process1 and withdraw    
from the struggle for existence4 ,if    
the karma is modifiable by              
self-discipline1 if its coarser desires1
  one after another1 can be             
extinguished1 the ultimate #fd          
fundamental  desire of self-assertion1  
or the desire to be1 may also be        
destroyed4  ,note #g ,then the bubble of
 illusion will burst1 and the freed     
individual ,atman will lose itself in   
the universal ,brahma4    ,such seems to

 have been the pre-,buddhistic          
conception of salvation1 and  of the way
 to be followed by those who would      
attain thereto4 ,no more  thorough      
mortification of the flesh has ever been
 attempted than-that  achieved by the   
,indian ascetic anchorite2 no later     
monachism has so  nearly succeeded in   
reducing the human mind to that         
condition of  impassive                 
quasi-somnambulism1 which1 but for its  
acknowledged  holiness1 might run the   
risk of being confounded with idiocy4   
,and this salvation1 it will be         
observed1 was to be attained through    
knowledge1 and by action based on that  
knowledge2 just as the  experimenter1   
who would obtain a certain physical or  
chemical result1  must have a knowledge 
of the natural laws involved and the    
persistent  disciplined will adequate to
 carry out all the various operations   
required4 ,the supernatural1 in our     
sense of the term1 was entirely         
excluded4 ,there was no external power  

which could affect the sequence  of     
cause and effect which gives rise to    
karma2 none but the will of  the subject
 of the karma which could put an end to 
it4    ,only one rule of conduct could  
be based upon the remarkable theory of  
which ,i have endeavoured to give a     
reasoned outline4 ,it was folly to      
continue #fe to exist when an overplus  
of pain was certain2 and the            
probabilities in favour of the increase 
of misery with the  prolongation of     
existence1 were so overwhelming4        
,slaying the body only  made matters    
worse2 there was nothing for it but to  
slay the soul by  the voluntary arrest  
of all its activities4  ,property1      
social ties1  family affections1 common 
companionship1 must be abandoned2 the   
most  natural appetites1 even that for  
food1 must be suppressed1 or at least   
minimized2 until all that remained of a 
man was the impassive1  extenuated1     
mendicant monk1 self-hypnotised into    
cataleptic trances1  which the deluded  

mystic took for foretastes of the final 
union with  ,brahma4    ,the founder of 
,buddhism accepted the chief postulates 
demanded by his  predecessors4 ,but he  
was not satisfied with the practical    
annihilation  involved in merging the   
individual existence in the             
unconditioned--the  ,atman in ,brahma4  
,it would seem that the admission of the
 existence of  any substance            
whatever--even of the tenuity of that   
which has neither  quality nor energy   
and of which no predicate whatever can  
be  asserted--appeared to him to be a   
danger and a snare4 ,though reduced  to 
a hypostatized negation1 ,brahma was not
 to be trusted2 so long as  entity was  
there1 it might conceivably resume the  
weary round of  evolution1 with all its 
train of immeasurable miseries4 ,gautama
 got  rid of even that #ff shade of a   
shadow of permanent existence by a      
metaphysical tour de force of great     
interest to the student of  philosophy1 
seeing that it supplies the wanting half

 of ,bishop  ,berkeley's well-known     
idealistic argument4    ,granting the   
premises1 ,i am not aware of any escape 
from ,berkeley's  conclusion1 that the  
substance of matter is a metaphysical   
unknown  quantity1 of the existence of  
which there is no proof4 ,what ,berkeley
  does not seem to have so clearly      
perceived is that the non-existence  of 
a substance of mind is equally arguable2
 and that the result of the  impartial  
applications of his reasonings is the   
reduction of the ,all  to coexistences  
and sequences of phenomena1 beneath and 
beyond which  there is nothing          
cognoscible4 ,it is a remarkable        
indication of the  subtlety of ,indian  
speculation that ,gautama should have   
seen deeper  than the greatest of modern
 idealists2 though it must be admitted  
that1 if some of ,berkeley's reasonings 
respecting the nature of spirit  are    
pushed home1 they reach pretty much the 
same conclusion4 ,note #h    ,accepting 
the prevalent ,brahminical doctrine that

 the whole cosmos1  celestial1          
terrestrial1 and infernal1 with its     
population of gods and  other celestial 
beings1 of sentient animals1 of ,mara   
and his devils1  is incessantly shifting
 through recurring cycles of production 
and  destruction1 in each of which every
 human being has his transmigratory  #fg
 representative1 ,gautama proceeded to  
eliminate substance  altogether2 and to 
reduce the cosmos to a mere flow of     
sensations1  emotions1 volitions1 and   
thoughts1 devoid of any substratum4 ,as1
 on  the surface of a stream of water1  
we see ripples and whirlpools1 which    
last for a while and then vanish with   
the causes that gave rise to  them1 so  
what seem individual existences are mere
 temporary  associations of phenomena   
circling round a centre1 like a dog tied
 to  a post4 ,in the whole universe     
there is nothing permanent1 no eternal  
substance either of mind or of matter4  
,personality is a metaphysical  fancy2  
and in very truth1 not only we1 but all 

things1 in the worlds  without end of   
the cosmic phantasmagoria1 are such     
stuff as dreams are  made of4    ,what  
then becomes of karma8 ,karma remains   
untouched4 ,as the peculiar  form of    
energy we call magnetism may be         
transmitted from a loadstone  to a piece
 of steel1 from the steel to a piece of 
nickel1 as it may be  strengthened or   
weakened by the conditions to which it  
is subjected  while resident in each    
piece1 so it seems to have been         
conceived that  karma might be          
transmitted from one phenomenal         
association to another  by a sort of    
induction4 ,however this may be1        
,gautama doubtless had a  better        
guarantee for the abolition of          
transmigration1 when no wrack of        
substance1 either of ,atman or of       
,brahma1 was left behind2 when1 in      
short1 a man had but to #fh dream that  
he willed not to dream1 to put  an end  
to all dreaming4    ,this end of life's 
dream is ,nirvana4 ,what ,nirvana is the

 learned do  not agree4 ,but1 since the 
best original authorities tell us there 
is  neither desire nor activity1 nor any
 possibility of phenomenal  reappearance
 for the sage who has entered ,nirvana1 
it may be safely  said of this acme of  
,buddhistic philosophy--the rest is     
silence4    ,note #i ,thus there is no  
very great practical disagreement       
between  ,gautama and his predecessors  
with respect to the end of action2 but  
it  is otherwise as regards the means to
 that end4 ,with just insight into      
human nature1 ,gautama declared extreme 
ascetic practices to be useless  and    
indeed harmful4  ,the appetites and the 
passions are not to be  abolished by    
mere mortification of the body2 they    
must1 in addition1  be attacked on their
 own ground and conquered by steady     
cultivation of  the mental habits which 
oppose them2 by universal benevolence2  
by the  return of good for evil2 by     
humility2 by abstinence from evil       
thought2  in short1 by total            

renunciation of that self-assertion     
which is the  essence of the cosmic     
process4    ,doubtless1 it is to these  
ethical qualities that ,buddhism owes   
its  marvellous success4,note #aj ,a    
system which knows no ,god in the       
western sense2 which denies a soul to   
man2 which counts the belief in         
immortality a blunder and the hope of it
 a sin2 #fi which refuses any  efficacy 
to prayer and sacrifice2 which bids men 
look to nothing but  their own efforts  
for salvation2 which1 in its original   
purity1 knew  nothing of vows of        
obedience1 abhorred intolerance1 and    
never sought  the aid of the secular    
arm2 yet spread over a considerable     
moiety of  the ,old ,world with         
marvellous rapidity1 and is still1 with 
whatever  base admixture of foreign     
superstitions1 the dominant creed of a  
large  fraction of mankind4    ,let us  
now set our faces westwards1 towards    
,asia ,minor and ,greece and  ,italy1 to
 view the rise and progress of another  

philosophy1 apparently  independent1 but
 no less pervaded by the conception of  
evolution4,note  #aa    ,the sages of   
,miletus were pronounced evolutionists2 
and1 however dark  may be some of the   
sayings of ,heracleitus of ,ephesus1 who
 was probably  a contemporary of        
,gautama1 no better expressions of the  
essence of the  modern doctrine of      
evolution can be found than are         
presented by some  of his pithy         
aphorisms and striking metaphors4 ,note 
#ab ,indeed1 many  of my present        
auditors must have observed that1 more  
than once1 ,i have  borrowed from him in
 the brief exposition of the theory of  
evolution  with which this discourse    
commenced4    ,but when the focus of    
,greek intellectual activity shifted to 
,athens1  the leading minds #gj         
concentrated their attention upon       
ethical  problems4  ,forsaking the study
 of the macrocosm for that of the       
microcosm1 they lost the key to the     
thought of the great ,ephesian1  which1 

,i imagine1 is more intelligible to us  
than it was to ,socrates1  or to ,plato4
 ,socrates1 more especially1 set the    
fashion of a kind of  inverse           
agnosticism1 by teaching that the       
problems of physics lie  beyond the     
reach of the human intellect2 that the  
attempt to solve  them is essentially   
vain2 that the one worthy object of     
investigation  is the problem of ethical
 life2 and his example was followed by  
the  ,cynics and the later ,stoics4     
,even the comprehensive knowledge and   
the  penetrating intellect of ,aristotle
 failed to suggest to him that in       
holding the eternity of the world1      
within its present range of  mutation1  
he was making a retrogressive step4 ,the
 scientific heritage  of ,heracleitus   
passed into the hands neither of ,plato 
nor of  ,aristotle1 but into those of   
,democritus4 ,but the world was not yet 
ready to receive the great conceptions  
of the philosopher of ,abdera4  ,it was 
reserved for the ,stoics to return to   

the track marked out by  the earlier    
philosophers2 and1 professing themselves
 disciples of  ,heracleitus1 to develop 
the idea of evolution systematically4   
,in doing  this1 they not only omitted  
some characteristic features of their   
master's teaching1 but they made        
additions altogether foreign to it4     
,one of the most influential of these   
importations was the  transcendental #ga
 theism which had come into vogue4 ,the 
restless1  fiery energy1 operating      
according to law1 out of which all      
things  emerge and into which they      
return1 in the endless successive cycles
 of  the great year2 which creates and  
destroys worlds as a wanton child       
builds up1 and anon levels1 sand castles
 on the seashore2 was  metamorphosed    
into a material world-soul and decked   
out with all the  attributes of ideal   
,divinity2 not merely with infinite     
power and  transcendent wisdom1 but with
 absolute goodness4    ,the consequences
 of this step were momentous4 ,for if   

the cosmos is the  effect of an         
immanent1 omnipotent1 and infinitely    
beneficent cause1  the existence in it  
of real evil1 still less of necessarily 
inherent  evil1 is plainly inadmissible4
 ,note #ac ,yet the universal experience
  of mankind testified then1 as now1    
that1 whether we look within us or      
without us1 evil stares us in the face  
on all sides2 that if anything  is real1
 pain and sorrow and wrong are          
realities4    ,it would be a new thing  
in history if a priori philosophers were
  daunted by the factious opposition of 
experience2 and the ,stoics were  the   
last men to allow themselves to be      
beaten by mere facts4 ,give me  a       
doctrine and ,i will find the reasons   
for it1 said ,chrysippus4 ,so  they     
perfected1 if they did not invent1 that 
ingenious and plausible  form of        
pleading1 the ,theodicy2 for the purpose
 of showing firstly1  that there is no  
such #gb thing as evil2 secondly1 that  
if there is1  it is the necessary       

correlate of good2 and1 moreover1 that  
it is  either due to our own fault1 or  
inflicted for our benefit4 ,theodicies  
have been very popular in their time1   
and ,i believe that a numerous1  though 
somewhat dwarfed1 progeny of them still 
survives4 ,so far as ,i  know1 they are 
all variations of the theme set forth in
 those famous  six lines of the ,essay  
on ,man1 in which ,pope sums up         
,bolingbroke's  reminiscences of stoical
 and other speculations of this kind--  
,all nature is but art1 unknown to thee2
       ,all chance1 direction which thou
 canst not see2       ,all discord1     
harmony not understood2       ,all      
partial evil1 universal good2       ,and
 spite of pride1 in erring reason's     
spite1       ,one truth is clear3       
whatever is is right4    ,yet1 surely1  
if there are few more important truths  
than those  enunciated in the first     
triad1 the second is open to very grave 
objections4 ,that there is a soul of    
good in things evil is  unquestionable2 

nor will any wise man deny the          
disciplinary value of  pain and sorrow4 
,but these considerations do not help us
 to see why  the immense multitude of   
irresponsible sentient beings1 which    
cannot  profit by such discipline1      
should suffer2 nor why1 among the       
endless  possibilities open to          
omnipotence--that of sinless1 happy     
existence  among the rest--the actuality
 in which sin and misery abound should  
be  that selected4    #gc ,surely it is 
mere cheap rhetoric to call arguments   
which have  never yet been answered by  
even the meekest and the least rational 
of  ,optimists1 suggestions of the pride
 of reason4 ,as to the concluding       
aphorism1 its fittest place would be as 
an inscription in letters of  mud over  
the portal of some stye of              
,epicurus,note #ad2 for that is  where  
the logical application of it to        
practice would land men1 with  every    
aspiration stifled and every effort     
paralyzed4 ,why try to set  right what  

is right already8 ,why strive to improve
 the best of all  possible worlds8 ,let 
us eat and drink1 for as today all is   
right1 so  to-morrow all will be4       
,but the attempt of the ,stoics to blind
 themselves to the reality of  evil1 as 
a necessary concomitant of the cosmic   
process1 had less  success than that of 
the ,indian philosophers to exclude the 
reality of  good from their purview4    
,unfortunately1 it is much easier to    
shut  one's eyes to good than to evil4  
,pain and sorrow knock at our doors     
more loudly than pleasure and happiness2
 and the prints of their heavy          
footsteps are less easily effaced4      
,before the grim realities of  practical
 life the pleasant fictions of optimism 
vanished4  ,if this  were the best of   
all possible worlds1 it nevertheless    
proved itself a  very inconvenient      
habitation for the ideal sage4    ,the  
stoical summary of the whole duty of    
man1 ,live according to  nature1 would  
seem to imply that the cosmic process is

 an exemplar  for human #gd conduct4    
,ethics would thus become applied       
,natural  ,history4 ,in fact1 a confused
 employment of the maxim1 in this sense1
  has done immeasurable mischief in     
later times4 ,it has furnished an       
axiomatic foundation for the philosophy 
of philosophasters and for the          
moralizing of sentimentalists4 ,but the 
,stoics were1 at bottom1 not  merely    
noble1 but sane1 men2 and if we look    
closely into what they  really meant by 
this ill-used phrase1 it will be found  
to present no  justification for the    
mischievous conclusions that have been  
deduced  from it4    ,in the language of
 the ,stoa1 ,nature was a word of many  
meanings4  ,there was the ,nature of the
 cosmos and the ,nature of man4 ,in the 
latter1 the animal nature1 which man    
shares with a moiety of the  living part
 of the cosmos1 was distinguished from a
 higher nature4  ,even in this higher   
nature there were grades of rank4 ,the  
logical  faculty is an instrument which 

may be turned to account for any        
purpose4 ,the passions and the emotions 
are so closely tied to the  lower nature
 that they may be considered to be      
pathological1 rather  than normal1      
phenomena4 ,the one supreme1 hegemonic1 
faculty1 which  constitutes the         
essential nature of man1 is most nearly 
represented  by that which1 in the      
language of a later philosophy1 has been
 called  the pure reason4 ,it is this   
nature which holds up the ideal of the  
supreme good and demands absolute       
submission of the will to its  behests4 
,it is #ge which commands all men to    
love one another1 to  return good for   
evil1 to regard one another as          
fellow-citizens of one  great state4    
,indeed1 seeing that the progress       
towards perfection of a  civilized      
state1 or polity1 depends on the        
obedience of its members to  these      
commands1 the ,stoics sometimes termed  
the pure reason the  political nature4  
,unfortunately1 the sense of the        

adjective has  undergone so much        
modification1 that the application of it
 to that  which commands the sacrifice  
of self to the common good would now    
sound almost grotesque4 ,note #ae       
,but what part is played by the theory  
of evolution in this view of  ethics8   
,so far as ,i can discern1 the ethical  
system of the ,stoics1  which is        
essentially intuitive1 and reverences   
the categorical  imperative as strongly 
as that of any later moralists1 might   
have been  just what it was if they had 
held any other theory2 whether that of  
special creation1 on the one side1 or   
that of the eternal existence of  the   
present order1 on the other4,note #af   
,to the ,stoic1 the cosmos had  no      
importance for the conscience1 except in
 so far as he chose to  think it a      
pedagogue to virtue4 ,the pertinacious  
optimism of our  philosophers hid from  
them the actual state of the case4 ,it  
prevented  them from seeing that cosmic 
nature is no school of virtue1 but the  

headquarters of the enemy of ethical    
nature4 ,the logic of facts was         
necessary to convince them #gf that the 
cosmos works through the  lower nature  
of man1 not for righteousness1 but      
against it4 ,and it  finally drove them 
to confess that the existence of their  
ideal wise  man was incompatible with   
the nature of things2 that even a       
passable  approximation to that ideal   
was to be attained only at the cost of  
renunciation of the world and           
mortification1 not merely of the flesh1 
but of all human affections4 ,the state 
of perfection was that  apatheia,note   
#ag in which desire1 though it may still
 be felt1 is  powerless to move the     
will1 reduced to the sole function of   
executing  the commands of pure reason4 
,even this residuum of activity was to  
be  regarded as a temporary loan1 as an 
efflux of the divine  world-pervading   
spirit1 chafing at its imprisonment in  
the  flesh1 until such time as death    
enabled it to return to its source in   

the all-pervading logos4    ,i find it  
difficult to discover any very great    
difference between  ,apatheia and       
,nirvana1 except that stoical           
speculation agrees with  pre-,buddhistic
 philosophy1 rather than with the       
teachings of ,gautama1  in so far as it 
postulates a permanent substance        
equivalent to  ,brahma and ,atman2 and  
that1 in stoical practice1 the adoption 
of  the life of the mendicant cynic was 
held to be more a counsel of  perfection
 than an indispensable condition of the 
higher life4    ,thus the extremes      
touch4 ,greek thought and #gg ,indian   
thought set out  from ground common to  
both1 diverge widely1 develop under very
  different physical and moral          
conditions1 and finally converge to     
practically the same end4    ,the ,vedas
 and the ,homeric epos set before us a  
world of rich and  vigorous life1 full  
of joyous fighting men         ,that    
ever with a frolic welcome took         
,the thunder and the sunshine 4444      

and who were ready to brave the very    
,gods themselves when their blood  was  
up4 ,a few centuries pass away1 and     
under the influence of  civilization the
 descendants of these men are sicklied  
o'er with the  pale cast of             
thought--frank pessimists1 or1 at best1 
make-believe  optimists4 ,the courage of
 the warlike stock may be as hardly     
tried as  before1 perhaps more hardly1  
but the enemy is self4 ,the hero has    
become a monk4 ,the man of action is    
replaced by the quietist1 whose  highest
 aspiration is to be the passive        
instrument of the divine  ,reason4 ,by  
the ,tiber1 as by the ,ganges1 ethical  
man admits that the  cosmos is too      
strong for him2 and1 destroying every   
bond which ties  him to it by ascetic   
discipline1 he seeks salvation in       
absolute  renunciation4,note #ah        
,modern thought is making a fresh start 
from the base whence ,indian and  ,greek
 philosophy set out2 and1 the human mind
 being very much what  #gh it was       

six-and-twenty centuries ago1 there is  
no ground for  wonder if it presents    
indications of a tendency to move along 
the old  lines to the same results4     
,we are more than sufficiently familiar 
with modern pessimism1 at least  as a   
speculation2 for ,i cannot call to mind 
that any of its present  votaries have  
sealed their faith by assuming the rags 
and the bowl of  the mendicant ,bhikku1 
or the cloak and the wallet of the      
,cynic4 ,the  obstacles placed in the   
way of sturdy vagrancy by an            
unphilosophical  police have1 perhaps1  
proved too formidable for philosophical 
consistency4 ,we also know modern       
speculative optimism1 with its          
perfectibility of the species1 reign of 
peace1 and lion and lamb  transformation
 scenes2 but one does not hear so much  
of it as one did  forty years ago2      
indeed1 ,i imagine it is to be met with 
more commonly  at the tables of the     
healthy and wealthy1 than in the        
congregations of  the wise4 ,the        

majority of us1 ,i apprehend1 profess   
neither pessimism  nor optimism4 ,we    
hold that the world is neither so good1 
nor so bad1  as it conceivably might be2
 and1 as most of us have reason1 now and
  again1 to discover that it can be4    
,those who have failed to experience    
the joys that make life worth living    
are1 probably1 in as small a  minority  
as those who have never known the griefs
 that rob existence  of its savour and  
turn its richest fruits into mere dust  
and ashes4    #gi ,further1 ,i think ,i 
do not err in assuming that1 however    
diverse  their views on philosophical   
and religious matters1 most men are     
agreed that the proportion of good and  
evil in life may be very  sensibly      
affected by human action4 ,i never heard
 anybody doubt that  the evil may be    
thus increased1 or diminished2 and it   
would seem to  follow that good must be 
similarly susceptible of addition or    
subtraction4 ,finally1 to my knowledge1 
nobody professes to doubt that1  so far 

forth as we possess a power of bettering
 things1 it is our  paramount duty to   
use it and to train all our intellect   
and energy to  this supreme service of  
our kind4    ,hence the pressing        
interest of the question1 to what extent
 modern  progress in natural knowledge1 
and1 more especially1 the general       
outcome of that progress in the doctrine
 of evolution1 is competent to  help us 
in the great work of helping one        
another8    ,the propounders of what are
 called the ethics of evolution1 when   
the  evolution of ethics would usually  
better express the object of their      
speculations1 adduce a number of more or
 less interesting facts and  more or    
less sound arguments in favour of the   
origin of the moral  sentiments1 in the 
same way as other natural phenomena1 by 
a process  of evolution4 ,i have little 
doubt1 for my own part1 that they are on
  the right track2 but as the immoral   
sentiments have no less been  evolved1  
there is1 so far1 as much natural       

sanction for the #hj one  as the other4 
,the thief and the murderer follow      
nature just as much as  the             
philanthropist4 ,cosmic evolution may   
teach us how the good and the  evil     
tendencies of man may have come about2  
but1 in itself1 it is  incompetent to   
furnish any better reason why what we   
call good is  preferable to what we call
 evil than we had before4 ,some day1 ,i 
doubt  not1 we shall arrive at an       
understanding of the evolution of the   
sthetic faculty2 but all the            
understanding in the world will neither 
increase nor diminish the force of the  
intuition that this is  beautiful and   
that is ugly4    ,there is another      
fallacy which appears to me to pervade  
the so-called  ethics of evolution4 ,it 
is the notion that because1 on the      
whole1  animals and plants have advanced
 in perfection of organization by  means
 of the struggle for existence and the  
consequent survival of  the fittest2    
therefore men in society1 men as ethical

 beings1 must  look to the same process 
to help them towards perfection4 ,i     
suspect  that this fallacy has arisen   
out of the unfortunate ambiguity of the 
phrase survival of the fittest4 ,fittest
 has a connotation of  best2 and about  
best there hangs a moral flavour4 ,in   
cosmic  nature1 however1 what is fittest
 depends upon the conditions4 ,long     
since ,note #ai1 ,i ventured to point   
out that if our hemisphere were  to cool
 again1 the survival of the fittest     
might bring about1 in the  vegetable    
kingdom1 a population of more and more  
stunted and humbler  #ha and humbler    
organisms1 until the fittest that       
survived might be  nothing but lichens1 
diatoms1 and such microscopic organisms 
as those  which give red snow its       
colour2 while1 if it became hotter1 the 
pleasant valleys of the ,thames and     
,isis might be uninhabitable by any     
animated beings save those that flourish
 in a tropical jungle4 ,they1  as the   
fittest1 the best adapted to the changed

 conditions1 would  survive4    ,men in 
society are undoubtedly subject to the  
cosmic process4 ,as among  other        
animals1 multiplication goes on without 
cessation1 and involves  severe         
competition for the means of support4   
,the struggle for  existence tends to   
eliminate those less fitted to adapt    
themselves to  the circumstances of     
their existence4 ,the strongest1 the    
most  self-assertive1 tend to tread down
 the weaker4 ,but the influence of  the 
cosmic process on the evolution of      
society is the greater the more         
rudimentary its civilization4  ,social  
progress means a checking of the        
cosmic1 process at every step and the   
substitution for it of another1  which  
may be called the ethical process2 the  
end of which is not the  survival of    
those who may happen to be the fittest1 
in respect of the  whole of the         
conditions which obtain1 but of those   
who are ethically  the best4,note #bj   
,as ,i have already urged1 the practice 

of that which is ethically  best--what  
we call goodness or virtue--involves a  
course of conduct  which1 in all #hb    
respects1 is opposed to that which leads
 to success  in the cosmic struggle for 
existence4 ,in place of ruthless        
self-assertion it demands               
self-restraint2 in place of thrusting   
aside1  or treading down1 all           
competitors1 it requires that the       
individual  shall not merely respect1   
but shall help his fellows2 its         
influence is  directed1 not so much to  
the survival of the fittest1 as to the  
fitting of as many as possible to       
survive4 ,it repudiates the             
gladiatorial theory of existence4 ,it   
demands that each man who enters  into  
the enjoyment of the advantages of a    
polity shall be mindful of  his debt to 
those who have laboriously constructed  
it2 and shall take  heed that no act of 
his weakens the fabric in which he has  
been  permitted to live4 ,laws and moral
 precepts are directed to the end of    

curbing the cosmic process and reminding
 the individual of his duty to  the     
community1 to the protection and        
influence of which he owes1 if  not     
existence itself1 at least the life of  
something better than a  brutal savage4 
,it is from neglect of these plain      
considerations that the fanatical       
individualism ,note #ba of our time     
attempts to apply the analogy of  cosmic
 nature to society4 ,once more we have a
 misapplication of the  stoical         
injunction to follow nature2 the duties 
of the individual to  the state are     
forgotten1 and his tendencies to        
self-assertion are  dignified by the    
name of rights4 ,it is seriously debated
 whether the  members of a community are
 justified in using #hc their combined  
strength to constrain one of their      
number to contribute his share to  the  
maintenance of it2 or even to prevent   
him from doing his best to  destroy it4 
,the struggle for existence which has   
done such admirable  work in cosmic     

nature1 must1 it appears1 be equally    
beneficent in the  ethical sphere4 ,yet 
if that which ,i have insisted upon is  
true2 if the  cosmic process has no sort
 of relation to moral ends2 if the      
imitation  of it by man is inconsistent 
with the first principles of ethics2    
what  becomes of this surprising theory8
    ,let us understand1 once for all1   
that the ethical progress of society    
depends1 not on imitating the cosmic    
process1 still less in running  away    
from it1 but in combating it4 ,it may   
seem an audacious proposal  thus to pit 
the microcosm against the macrocosm and 
to set man to  subdue nature to his     
higher ends2 but ,i venture to think    
that the  great intellectual difference 
between the ancient times with which we 
have been occupied and our day1 lies in 
the solid foundation we have  acquired  
for the hope that such an enterprise may
 meet with a certain  measure of        
success4    ,the history of civilization
 details the steps by which men have    

succeeded in building up an artificial  
world within the cosmos4  ,fragile reed 
as he may be1 man1 as ,pascal says1 is a
 thinking reed3  ,note #bb there lies   
within him a fund of energy operating   
intelligently and so far akin to that   
which pervades the universe1  that it is
 competent #hd to influence and modify  
the cosmic process4  ,in virtue of his  
intelligence1 the dwarf bends the ,titan
 to his will4  ,in every family1 in     
every polity that has been established1 
the cosmic  process in man has been     
restrained and otherwise modified by law
 and  custom2 in surrounding nature1 it 
has been similarly influenced by the    
art of the shepherd1 the agriculturist1 
the artisan4 ,as civilization  has      
advanced1 so has the extent of this     
interference increased2 until  the      
organized and highly developed sciences 
and arts of the present  day have       
endowed man with a command over the     
course of non-human  nature greater than
 that once attributed to the magicians4 

,the most  impressive1 ,i might say     
startling1 of these changes have been   
brought  about in the course of the last
 two centuries2 while a right           
comprehension of the process of life and
 of the means of influencing  its       
manifestations is only just dawning upon
 us4  ,we do not yet see  our way beyond
 generalities2 and we are befogged by   
the obtrusion of  false analogies and   
crude anticipations4 ,but ,astronomy1   
,physics1  ,chemistry1 have all had to  
pass through similar phases1 before they
  reached the stage at which their      
influence became an important factor  in
 human affairs4 ,physiology1            
,psychology1 ,ethics1 ,political        
,science1  must submit to the same      
ordeal4 ,yet it seems to me irrational  
to doubt  that1 at no distant period1   
they will work as great a revolution in 
the sphere of practice4    #he ,the     
theory of evolution encourages no       
millennial anticipations4  ,if1 for     
millions of years1 our globe has taken  

the upward road1 yet1  some time1 the   
summit will be reached and the downward 
route will be  commenced4 ,the most     
daring imagination will hardly venture  
upon the  suggestion that the power and 
the intelligence of man can ever arrest 
the procession of the great year4       
,moreover1 the cosmic nature born with  
us and1 to a large extent1  necessary   
for our maintenance1 is the outcome of  
millions of years of  severe training1  
and it would be folly to imagine that a 
few centuries  will suffice to subdue   
its masterfulness to purely ethical     
ends4  ,ethical nature may count upon   
having to reckon with a tenacious and   
powerful enemy as long as the world     
lasts4 ,but1 on the other hand1 ,i  see 
no limit to the extent to which         
intelligence and will1 guided by  sound 
principles of investigation1 and        
organized in common effort1 may  modify 
the conditions of existence1 for a      
period longer than that now  covered by 
history4 ,and much may be done to change

 the nature of man  himself4 ,note #bc  
,the intelligence which has converted   
the brother of  the wolf into the       
faithful guardian of the flock ought to 
be able to  do something towards curbing
 the instincts of savagery in civilized 
men4    ,but if we may permit ourselves 
at larger hope of abatement of the      
essential evil of the world than was    
possible to those who1 in the  infancy  
of #hf exact knowledge1 faced the       
problem of existence more  than a score 
of centuries ago1 ,i deem it an         
essential condition of the  realization 
of that hope that we should cast aside  
the notion that the  escape from pain   
and sorrow is the proper object of life4
    ,we have long since emerged from the
 heroic childhood of our race1 when     
good and evil could be met with the same
 frolic welcome2 the  attempts to escape
 from evil1 whether ,indian or ,greek1  
have ended in  flight from the          
battle-field2 it remains to us to throw 
aside the  youthful overconfidence and  

the no less youthful discouragement of  
nonage4 ,we are grown men1 and must play
 the man         444strong in will      
,to strive1 to seek1 to find1 and not to
 yield1    cherishing the good that     
falls in our way1 and bearing the evil1 
in  and around us1 with stout hearts set
 on diminishing it4 ,so far1 we all  may
 strive in one faith towards one hope3  
444 ,it may be that the gulfs will wash 
us down1       ,it may be we shall touch
 the ,happy ,isles1         444 but     
something ere the end1       ,some work 
of noble note may yet be done4 ,note #bd
    #ahg                                
,,notes4    ,note #a 7p4 #di74    ,i    
have been careful to speak of the       
appearance of cyclical evolution        
presented by living things2 for1 on     
critical examination1 it will be  found 
that the course of vegetable and of     
animal life is not exactly  represented 
by1 the figure of a cycle which returns 
into itself4 ,what  actually happens1 in
 all but the lowest organisms1 is that  

one part of  the growing germ 7,a7 gives
 rise to tissues and organs2 while      
another  part 7,b7 remains in its       
primitive condition1 or is but slightly 
modified4 ,the moiety ,a becomes the    
body of the adult and1 sooner or  later1
 perishes1 while portions of the moiety 
,b are detached and1 as  offspring1     
continue the life of the species4       
,thus1 if we trace back  an organism    
along the direct line of descent from   
its remotest  ancestor1 ,b1 as a whole1 
has never suffered death2 portions of   
it1  only1 have been cast off and died  
in each individual offspring4           
,everybody is familiar with the way in  
which the suckers of a  strawberry plant
 behave4 ,a thin cylinder of living     
tissue keeps on  growing at its free    
end1 until it attains a considerable    
length4 ,at  #hh successive intervals1  
it develops buds which grow into        
strawberry  plants2 and these become    
independent by the death of the parts of
 the  sucker which connect them4 ,the   

rest of the sucker1 however1 may go on  
living and growing indefinitely1 and1   
circumstances remaining  favourable1    
there is no obvious reason why it should
 ever die4 ,the  living substance ,b1 in
 a manner1 answers to the sucker4 ,if we
 could  restore the continuity which was
 once possessed by the portions of ,b1  
contained in all the individuals of a   
direct line of descent1 they  would form
 a sucker1 or stolon1 on which these    
individuals would be  strung1 and which 
would never have wholly died4    ,a     
species remains unchanged so long as the
 potentiality of development  resident  
in ,b remains unaltered2 so long1 e4g41 
as the buds of the  strawberry sucker   
tend to become typical strawberry       
plants4 ,in the case  of the progressive
 evolution of a species1 the            
developmental  potentiality of ,b       
becomes of a higher and higher order4   
,in  retrogressive evolution1 the       
contrary would be the case4 ,the        
phenomena  of atavism seem to show that 

retrogressive evolution that is1 the    
return of a species to one or other of  
its earlier forms1 is a  possibility to 
be reckoned with4 ,the simplification of
 structure1  which is so common in the  
parasitic members of a group1 however1  
does  not properly come under this head4
 ,the worm-like1 limbless ,lernoea has  
no resemblance to any of the stages of  
development of the many-limbed  active  
animals of the group to which it        
belongs4 #hi ,note #b 7p4 #di74         
,heracleitus says1,greek phrase ,potamo 
gar ouk esti dis embenai to suto  but1  
to be strictly accurate1 the river      
remains1 though the water of  which it  
is composed changes--just as a man      
retains his identity  though the whole  
substance of his body is constantly     
shifting4    ,this is put very well by  
,seneca 7,ep4 lvii4 i4 #bj1 ,ed4        
,ruhkopf73  ,corpora nostra rapiuntur   
fluminum more1 quidquid vides currit cum
  tempore2 nihil ex his quae videmus    
manet4 ,ego ipse dum loquor mutari      

ista1 mutatus sum4 ,hoc est quod ait    
,heraclitus ',in idem flumen bis non    
descendimus4' ,manet idem fluminis      
nomen1 aqua transmissa est4 ,hoc in     
amne manifestius est quam in homine1 sed
 nos quoque non minus velox  cursus     
praetervehit4    ,note #c 7p4 #ee74     
,multa bona nostra nobis nocent1 timoris
 enim tormentum memorin  reducit1       
providentia anticipat4 ,nemo tantum     
praesentibus miser est4  7,seneca1 ,ed4 
v4  #g47    ,among the many wise and    
weighty aphorisms of the ,roman ,bacon1 
few sound  the realities of life more   
deeply than ,multa bona nostra nobis    
nocent4 ,if there is a soul of good in  
things evil1 it is at least  equally    
true that there is a soul of evil in    
things good3 for things1  like men1 have
 les defauts de leurs qualites4 ,it is  
one of the last  lessons one learns from
 experience1 but not the least          
important1 that  a #ij heavy tax is     
levied upon all forms of success1 and   
that failure  is one of the commonest   

disguises assumed by blessings4    ,note
 #d 7p4 #fj74    ,there is within the   
body of every man a soul which1 at the  
death of  the body1 flies away from it  
like a bird out of a cage1 and enters   
upon a new life 444 either in one of the
 heavens or one of the hells  or on this
 earth4  ,the only exception is the rare
 case of a man having  in this life     
acquired a true knowledge of ,god4      
,according to the  pre-,buddhistic      
theory1 the soul of such a man goes     
along the path of  the ,gods to ,god1   
and1 being united with ,him1 enters upon
 an immortal  life in which his         
individuality is not extinguished4 ,in  
the latter  theory his soul is directly 
absorbed into the ,great ,soul1 is lost 
in  it1 and has no longer any           
independent existence4 ,the souls of all
  other men enter1 after the death of   
the body1 upon a new existence in  one  
or other of the many different modes of 
being4 ,if in heaven or  hell1 the soul 
itself becomes a god or demon without   

entering a body2  all superhuman beings1
 save the great gods1 being looked upon 
as not  eternal1 but merely temporary   
creatures4 ,if the soul returns to earth
  it may or may not enter a new body2   
and this either of a human being1  an   
animal1 a plant1 or even a material     
object4 ,for all these are  possessed of
 souls1 and there is no essential       
difference between these  souls and the 
souls of men--all being alike mere      
sparks of the ,great  ,spirit1 who is   
#ia the only real existence4 7,rhys     
,davids1 ,hibbert  ,lectures1 #ahha1 p4 
#hc47    ,for what ,i have said about   
,indian ,philosophy1 ,i am particularly 
indebted to the luminous exposition of  
primitive ,buddhism and its  relations  
to earlier ,hindu thought1 which is     
given by ,prof4 ,rhys  ,davids in his   
remarkable ,hibbert ,lectures for #ahha1
 and ,buddhism  7#ahij74 ,the only      
apology ,i can offer for the freedom    
with which ,i have  borrowed from him in
 these notes1 is my desire to leave no  

doubt as to  my indebtedness4 ,i have   
also found ,dr4 ,oldenberg's ,buddha    
7,ed4 #b1  #ahij7 very helpful4 ,the    
origin of the theory of transmigration  
stated  in the above extract is an      
unsolved problem4 ,that it differs      
widely  from the ,egyptian              
metempsychosis is clear4 ,in fact1 since
 men usually  people the other world    
with phantoms of this1 the ,egyptian    
doctrine  would seem to presuppose the  
,indian as a more archaic belief4       
,prof4 ,rhys ,davids has fully insisted 
upon the ethical importance of  the     
transmigration theory4 ,one of the      
latest speculations now being  put      
forward among ourselves would seek to   
explain each man's  character1 and even 
his outward condition in life1 by the   
character he  inherited from his        
ancestors1 a character gradually formed 
during a  practically endless series of 
past existences1 modified only by the   
conditions into which he was born1 those
 very conditions being also1  in like   

manner1 the last result of a practically
 endless series of  past causes4        
,gotama's2 speculation might be stated  
in the same words4  ,but it attempted   
also to explain1 in a way different from
 #ib that  which would be adopted by the
 exponents of the modern theory1 that   
strange problem which it is also the    
motive of the wonderful drama of  the   
book of ,job to explain--the fact that  
the actual distribution here  of good   
fortune1 or misery1 is entirely         
independent of the moral  qualities     
which men call good or bad4 ,we cannot  
wonder that a teacher1  whose whole     
system was so essentially an ethical    
reformation1 should  have felt it       
incumbent upon him to seek an           
explanation of this  apparent injustice4
 ,and all the more so1 since the belief 
he had  inherited1 the theory of the    
transmigration of souls1 had provided a 
solution perfectly sufficient to any one
 who could accept that  belief4         
7,hibbert ,lectures1 p4 #ic47 ,i should 

venture to suggest the  substitution of 
largely for entirely in the foregoing   
passage4  ,whether a ship makes a good  
or a bad voyage is largely independent  
of  the conduct of the captain1 but it  
is largely affected by that  conduct4   
,though powerless before a hurricane he 
may weather a bad  gale4    ,note #e    
7,p4 #fa74    ,the outward condition of 
the soul is1 in each new birth1         
determined by  its actions in a previous
 birth2 but by each action in           
succession1 and  not by the balance     
struck after the evil has been reckoned 
off against  the good4 ,a good man who  
has once uttered a slander may spend a  
hundred thousand years as a god1 in     
consequence of his goodness1 and  when  
the power of his good actions is        
exhausted1 may be born #ic as a  dumb   
man on account of his transgression2 and
 a robber who has once  done an act of  
mercy1 may come to life in a king's body
 as the result  of his virtue1 and then 
suffer torments for ages in hell or as a

 ghost  without a body1 or be re-born   
many times as a slave or an outcast1 in 
consequence of his evil life4    ,there 
is no escape1 according to this theory1 
from the result of any  act2 though it  
is only the consequences of its own acts
 that each soul  has to endure4 ,the    
force has been set in motion by itself  
and can  never stop2 and its effect can 
never be foretold4 ,if evil1 it can     
never be modified or prevented1 for it  
depends on a cause already  completed1  
that is now for ever beyond the soul's  
control4 ,there is  even no continuing  
consciousness1 no memory of the past    
that could  guide the soul to any       
knowledge of its fate4  ,the only       
advantage open  to it is to add in this 
life to the sum of its good actions1    
that it  may bear fruit with the rest4  
,and even this can only happen in some  
future life under essentially them same 
conditions as the present one3  subject1
 like the present one1 to old age1      
decay1 and death2 and  affording        

opportunity1 like the present one1 for  
the commission of  errors1 ignorances1  
or sins1 which in their turn must       
inevitably  produce their due effect of 
sickness1 disability1 or woe4 ,thus is  
the  soul tossed about from life to     
life1 from billow to billow in the      
great ocean of transmigration4  ,and    
there is no escape save for the  very   
few1 who1 during their birth as men1    
attain to a right knowledge  of the     
,great ,spirit3 and thus enter into     
immortality1 or1 as the later  #id      
philosophers taught1 are absorbed into  
the ,divine ,essence4 7,rhys  ,davids1  
,hibbert ,lectures1 pp4 #he1 #hf47      
,the state after death thus imagined by 
the ,hindu philosophers has a  certain  
analogy to the purgatory of the ,roman  
,church2 except that  escape from it is 
dependent1 not on a divine decree       
modified1 it may  be1 by sacerdotal or  
saintly intercession1 but by the acts of
 the  individual himself2 and that while
 ultimate emergence into heavenly  bliss

 of the good1 or well-prayed for1       
,catholic is professedly  assured1 the  
chances in favour of the attainment of  
absorption1 or of  ,nirvana1 by any     
individual ,hindu are extremely small4  
,note #f 7,p4 #fb74    ,that part of the
 then prevalent transmigration theory   
which could not  be proved false seemed 
to meet a deeply felt necessity1 seemed 
to  supply a moral cause which would    
explain the unequal distribution here   
of happiness or woe1 so utterly         
inconsistent with the present           
characters of men4 ,gautama still       
therefore talked of men's previous      
existence1 but by no means in the way   
that he is generally represented  to    
have done4 ,what he taught was the      
transmigration of character4  ,he held  
that after the death of any being1      
whether human or not1 there  survived   
nothing at all but that being's ,karma1 
the result1 that is1  of its mental and 
bodily actions4 ,every individual1      
whether human or  divine1 was the last  

inheritor and the last result of the    
,karma of a  long series of past        
individuals--a series #ie so long that  
its  beginning is beyond the reach of   
calculation1 and its end will be        
coincident with the destruction of the  
world4 7,rhys ,davids1 ,hibbert         
,lectures1 p4 #ib47    ,in the theory of
 evolution1 the tendency of a germ to   
develop according  to a certain specific
 type1 e4g4 of the kidney bean seed to  
grow into  a plant having all the       
characters of ,phaseolus vulgaris1 is   
its  ,karma4 ,it is the last inheritor  
and the last result of all the          
conditions that have affected a line of 
ancestry which goes back for  many      
millions of years to the time when life 
first appeared on the  earth4 ,the      
moiety ,b of the substance of the bean  
plant 7see ,note #a7 is  the last link  
in a once continuous chain extending    
from the primitive  living substance3   
and the characters of the successive    
species to  which it has given rise are 

the manifestations of its gradually     
modified ,karma4 ,as ,prof4 ,rhys       
,davids aptly says1 the snowdrop is a   
snowdrop and not an oak1 and just that  
kind of snowdrop1 because it is  the    
outcome of the ,karma of an endless     
series of past existences4  7,hibbert   
,lectures1 p4 #aad47    ,note #g 7p4    
#fd74    ,it is interesting to notice   
that the very point which is the        
weakness  of the theory--the supposed   
concentration of the effect of the      
,karma  in one new being--presented     
itself to the early ,buddhists          
themselves  as a difficulty4  ,they     
avoided it1 partly by explaining that it
 was a  particular thirst in the        
creature dying 7a craving1 ,tanha1 which
 plays  other #if wise a great part in  
the ,buddhist theory7 which actually    
caused the birth of the new individual  
who was to inherit the ,karma of  the   
former one4 ,but1 how this too place1   
how the craving desire  produced this   
effect1 was acknowledged to be a mystery

 patent only to  a ,buddha4 7,rhys      
,davids1 ,hibbert ,lectures1 ,p4 #ie47  
,among the many parallelisms of         
,stoicism and ,buddhism1 it is curious  
to  find one for this ,tanha1 thirst1 or
 craving desire for life4  ,seneca      
writes 7,epist4 lxxvi4 #ah73 ,si enim   
ullum aliud est bonum quam  honestum1   
sequetur nos aviditas vitae aviditas    
rerum vitam  instruentium3 quod est     
intolerabile infinitum1 vagum4    ,note 
#h 7,p4 #ff74    ,the distinguishing    
characteristic of ,buddhism was that it 
started a  new line1 that it looked upon
 the deepest questions men have to solve
  from an entirely different standpoint4
 ,it swept away from the field of  its  
vision the whole of the great soul      
theory which had hitherto so  completely
 filled and dominated the minds of the  
superstitious and the  thoughtful alike4
 ,for the first time in the history of  
the world1 it  proclaimed a salvation   
which each man could gain for himself   
and by  himself1 in this world1 during  

this life1 without any the least        
reference to ,god1 or to ,gods1 either  
great or small4 ,like the  ,upanishads1 
it placed the first importance on       
knowledge2 but it was no  longer a      
knowledge of ,god1 it was a clear       
perception of the real  nature1 as #ig  
they supposed it to be1 of men and      
things4 ,and it added  to the necessity 
of knowledge1 the necessity of purity1  
of courtesy1  of uprightness1 of peace  
and of a universal love far reaching1   
grown  great and beyond measure4 7,rhys 
,davids1 ,hibbert ,lectures1 p4 #bi47   
,the contemporary ,greek philosophy     
takes an analogous direction4           
,according to ,heracleitus1 the universe
 was made neither by ,gods nor  men2    
but1 from all eternity1 has been1 and to
 all eternity1 will be1  immortal fire1 
glowing and fading in due measure4      
7,mullach1 ,heracliti  ,fragmenta1 #bg47
 ,and the part assigned by his          
successors1 the ,stoics1  to the        
knowledge and the volition of the wise  

man made their  ,divinity 7for logical  
thinkers7 a subject for compliments1    
rather than  a power to be reckoned     
with4 ,in ,hindu speculation the        
,arahat1 still  more the ,buddha1       
becomes the superior of ,brahma2 the    
stoical wise  man is1 at least1 the     
equal of ,zeus4    ,berkeley affirms    
over and over again that no idea can be 
formed of a  soul or spirit--,if any man
 shall doubt of the truth of what is    
here  delivered1 let him but reflect and
 try if he can form any idea of  power  
or active being2 and whether he hath    
ideas of two principal  powers marked by
 the names of will and understanding    
distinct from  each other1 as well as   
from a third idea of substance or being 
in  general1 with a relative notion of  
its supporting or being the subject  of 
the aforesaid power1 which is signified 
by the name soul or spirit4  ,this is   
what some hold but1 so far as ,i can    
see1 the words will1 soul1  spirit1 do  
not stand for different ideas or1 in    

truth1 for any idea at  all1 but for    
something which is very different from  
ideas1 and which1  being an agent1      
cannot be like unto or represented by   
,any idea  whatever though it must be   
owned at the same time1 that we have    
some  notion of soul1 spirit1 and the   
operations of the mind1 such as         
willing1 loving1 hating1 inasmuch as we 
know or understand the meaning  of these
 words4 7,the ,principles of ,human     
,knowledge1 lxxvi4 ,see also  sections  
lxxxix41 cxxxv41 cxlv47    ,it is open  
to discussion1 ,i think1 whether it is  
possible to have  some notion of that of
 which we can form no idea4    ,berkeley
 attaches several predicates to the     
perceiving active being  mind1 spirit1  
soul or myself 7,parts ,i4 ,,ii47 ,it is
 said1 for example1  to be indivisible1 
incorporeal1 unextended1 and            
incorruptible4 ,the  predicate          
indivisible1 though negative in form1   
has highly positive  consequences4 ,for1
 if perceiving active being is strictly 

indivisible1 man's soul must be one with
 the ,divine spirit3 which is  good     
,hindu or ,stoical doctrine1 but hardly 
orthodox ,christian  philosophy4 ,if1 on
 the other hand1 the substance of active
  perceiving being is actually divided  
into the one ,divine and  innumerable   
human entities1 how can the predicate   
indivisible be  rigorously applicable to
 it8    ,taking the words cited1 as they
 stand1 the amount to the denial of the 
possibility of any knowledge of         
substance4 ,matter having been  resolved
 into mere affections of spirit1 spirit 
melts away into an  admittedly          
inconceivable and unknowable #ii        
hypostasis of thought and               
power--consequently the existence of    
anything in the universe beyond a  flow 
of phenomena is a purely hypothetical   
assumption4 ,indeed a  pyrrhonist might 
raise the objection that if esse is     
percipi  spirit itself can have no      
existence except as a perception1       
hypostatized into a self1 or as a       

perception of some other spirit4  ,in   
the former case1 objective reality      
vanishes2 in the latter1 there  would   
seem to be the need of an infinite      
series of spirits each  perceiving the  
others4    ,it is curious to observe how
 very closely the phraseology of        
,berkeley  sometimes approaches that of 
the ,stoics3 thus 7cxlviii47 ,it seems  
to  be a general pretence of the        
unthinking herd that they cannot see    
,god4  4 4 ,but1 alas1 we need only open
 our eyes to see the ,sovereign ,lord of
  all things with a more full and clear 
view1 than we do any of our             
fellow-creatures 4 4  4 we do at all    
times and in all places perceive        
manifest tokens of the ,divinity3       
everything we see1 hear1 feel1 or any   
wise perceive by sense1 being a sign or 
effect of the power of ,god 4  4 4      
cxlix4 ,it is therefore plain1 that     
nothing can be more evident to  any one 
that is capable of the least reflection1
 than the existence of  ,god1 or a      

spirit who is intimately present to our 
minds1 producing in  them all that      
variety of ideas or sensations which    
continually affect  us1 on whom we have 
an absolute and entire dependence1 in   
short1 in  whom we live and move and    
have our being4 cl4 ,but you will say   
hath  ,nature no share in the production
 of natural things1 and must they all   
be ascribed to the immediate and sole   
operation of ,god8 444 if by  ,nature is
 #ajj meant some being distinct from    
,god1 as well as from  the laws of      
nature and things perceived by sense1 ,i
 must confess that  word is to me an    
empty sound1 without any intelligible   
meaning annexed  to it4 ,nature in this 
acceptation is a vain ,chimaera         
introduced by  those heathens1 who had  
not just notions of the omnipresence and
  infinite perfection of ,god4          
,compare ,seneca 7,de ,beneficiis1 iv4  
#g73    ,natura1 inquit1 haec mihi      
praestat4 ,non intelligis te1 quum hoc  
dicis1 mutare ,nomen ,deo8 ,quid enim   

est aliud ,natura quam ,deus1 et  divina
 ratio1 toti mundo et partibus ejus     
inserta8 ,quoties voles tibi  licet     
aliter hunc auctorem rerum nostrarum    
compellare1 et ,jovem illum  optimum et 
maximum rite dices1 et tonantem1 et     
statorem3 qui non1 ut  historici        
tradiderunt1 ex eo quod post votum      
susceptum acies ,romanorum  fugientum   
stetit1 sed quod stant beneficio ejus   
omnina1 stator1  stabilitorque est3 hunc
 eundem et fatum si dixeris1 non        
mentieris1 nam  quum fatum nihil aliud  
est1 quam series implexa causarum1 ille 
est  prima omnium causa1 ea qua caeterae
 pendent4 ,it would appear1  therefore1 
that the good ,bishop is somewhat hard  
upon the heathen1  of whose words his   
own might be a paraphrase4    ,there is 
yet another direction in which          
,berkeley's philosophy1 ,i will  not say
 agrees with ,gautama's1 but at any rate
 helps to make a  fundamental dogma of  
,buddhism intelligible4    ,i find ,i   
can excite ideas in my mind at pleasure1

 and vary and shift  the scene as often 
as ,i think fit4 ,it is no more than    
willing1 and  straightway this or that  
idea arises in my fancy3 and by the same
  power #aja it is obliterated1 and     
makes way for another4 ,this making  and
 unmaking of ideas doth very properly   
denominate the mind active4  ,this much 
is certain and grounded on experience4 4
 4 7,principles1  xxviii47    ,a good   
many of us1 ,i fancy1 have reason to    
think that experience tells  them very  
much the contrary2 and are painfully    
familiar with the  obsession of the mind
 by ideas which cannot be obliterated by
 any  effort of the will and steadily   
refuse to make way for others4 ,but     
what ,i desire to point out is that if  
,gautama was equally confident  that he 
could make and unmake ideas--then1 since
 he had resolved  self into a group of  
ideal phantoms--the possibility of      
abolishing  self by volition naturally  
followed4    ,note #i 7,p4 #fh74        
,according to ,buddhism1 the relation of

 one life to the next is merely  that   
borne by the flame of one lamp to the   
flame of another lamp which  is set     
alight by it4 ,to the ,arahat or adept  
no outward form1 no  compound thing1 no 
creature1 no creator1 no existence of   
any kind1  must appear to be other than 
a temporary collocation of its component
  parts1 fated inevitably to be         
dissolved4--7,rhys ,davids1 ,hibbert    
,lectures1 p4 #baa47    ,the self is    
nothing but a group of phenomena held   
together by the  desire of life2 when   
that desire shall have ceased1 the      
,karma of that  particular chain of     
lives will cease to influence any longer
 any  distinct individual1 and there    
will be no more birth2 #ajb for birth1  
decay1 and death1 grief1 lamentation1   
and despair will have come1 so  far as  
regards that chain of lives1 for ever to
 an end4    ,the state of mind of the   
,arahat in which the desire of life has 
ceased  is ,nirvana4 ,dr4 ,oldenberg has
 very acutely and patiently considered  

the various interpretations which have  
been attached to ,nirvana in  the work  
to which ,i have referred 7pp4 #bhe et  
seq474 ,the result of his  and other    
discussions of the question may ,i think
 be briefly stated  thus3    #a4        
,logical deduction from the predicates  
attached to the term  ,nirvana strips it
 of all reality1 conceivability1 or     
perceivability1  whether by ,gods or    
men4 ,for all practical purposes1       
therefore1 it  comes to exactly the same
 thing as annihilation4    #b4 ,but it  
is not annihilation in the ordinary     
sense1 inasmuch as it  could take place 
in the living ,arahat or ,buddha4    #c4
 ,and1 since1 for the faithful          
,buddhist1 that which was abolished in  
the ,arahat was the possibility of      
further pain1 sorrow1 or sin2 and  that 
which was attained was perfect peace2   
his mind directed itself  exclusively to
 this joyful consummation1 and          
personified the negation  of all        
conceivable existence and of all pain   

into a positive bliss4  ,this was all   
the more easy1 as ,gautama refused to   
give any dogmatic  definition of        
,nirvana4 ,there is something analogous 
in the way in  which people commonly    
talk of the happy release of a man who  
has  been long suffering from mortal    
disease4 ,according to their own views1 
it must always be extremely doubtful    
whether the man will be any  happier    
after the release #ajc than before4 ,but
 they do not choose  to look at the     
matter in this light4    ,the popular   
notion that1 with practical1 if not     
metaphysical1  annihilation in view1    
,buddhism must needs be a sad and gloomy
 faith  seems to be inconsistent with   
fact2 on the contrary1 the prospect of  
,nirvana fills the true believer1 not   
merely with cheerfulness1 but  with an  
ecstatic desire to reach it4    ,note   
#aj 7,p4 #fh47    ,the influence of the 
picture of the personal qualities of    
,gautama1  afforded by the legendary    
anecdotes which rapidly grew into a     

biography of the ,buddha2 and by the    
birth stories1 which coalesced  with the
 current folk-lore1 and were            
intelligible to all the world1          
doubtless played a great part4 ,further1
 although ,gautama appears not  to have 
meddled with the caste system1 he       
refused to recognize any  distinction1  
save that of perfection in the way of   
salvation1 among  his followers2 and by 
such teaching1 no less than by the      
inculcation  of love and benevolence to 
all sentient beings1 he practically     
levelled every social1 political1 and   
racial barrier4 ,a third  important     
condition was the organization of the   
,buddhists into  monastic communities   
for the stricter professors1 while the  
laity were  permitted a wide indulgence 
in practice and were allowed to hope for
  accommodation in some of the temporary
 abodes of bliss4 ,with a few  hundred  
thousand years of immediate paradise in 
sight1 the average man  could be content
 to shut his eyes to what might follow4 

#ajd    ,note #aa 7,p4 #fi74    ,in     
ancient times it was the fashion1 even  
among the ,greeks themselves1  to derive
 all ,greek wisdom from ,eastern        
sources2 not long ago it was  as        
generally denied that ,greek philosophy 
had any connection1 with  ,oriental     
speculation2 it seems probable1 however1
 that the truth lies  between these     
extremes4    ,the ,ionian intellectual  
movement does not stand alone4 ,it is   
only one  of several sporadic           
indications of the working of some      
powerful mental  ferment over the whole 
of the area comprised between the       
,aegean and  ,northern ,hindostan during
 the eighth1 seventh1 and sixth         
centuries  before our era4 ,in these    
three hundred years1 prophetism attained
 its  apogee among the ,semites of      
,palestine2 ,zoroasterism grew and      
became  the creed of a conquering race1 
the ,iranic ,aryans2 ,buddhism rose and 
spread with marvellous rapidity among   
the ,aryans of ,hindostan2 while        

scientific naturalism took its rise     
among the ,aryans of ,ionia4 ,it  would 
be difficult to find another three      
centuries which have given  birth to    
four events of equal importance4 ,all   
the principal existing  religions of    
mankind have grown out of the first     
three3 while the  fourth is the little  
spring1 now swollen into the great      
stream of  positive science4 ,so far as 
physical possibilities go1 the prophet  
,jeremiah and the oldest ,ionian        
philosopher might have met and          
conversed4 ,if they had done so1 they   
would probably have disagreed a  good   
deal2 and it is interesting to reflect  
that their discussions  might have #aje 
embraced ,questions which1 at the       
present day1 are  still hotly           
controverted4    ,the old ,ionian       
philosophy1 then1 seems to be only one  
of many results  of a stirring of the   
moral and intellectual life of the      
,aryan and the  ,semitic populations of 
,western ,asia4 ,the conditions of this 

general  awakening were doubtless       
manifold2 but there is one which modern 
research has brought into great         
prominence4 ,this is the existence of   
extremely ancient and highly advanced   
societies in the valleys of the         
,euphrates and of the ,nile4    ,it is  
now known that1 more than a             
thousand--perhaps more than two         
thousand--years before the sixth century
 ,b4,c41 civilization had  attained a   
relatively high pitch among the         
,babylonians and the  ,egyptians4 ,not  
only had painting1 sculpture1           
architecture1 and the  industrial arts  
reached a remarkable development2 but in
 ,chaldaea1 at  any rate1 a vast amount 
of knowledge had been accumulated and   
methodized1 in the departments of       
grammar1 mathematics1 astronomy1 and    
natural history4 ,where such traces of  
the scientific spirit are  visible1     
naturalistic speculation is rarely far  
off1 though1 so far as  ,i know1 no     
remains of an ,accacian1 or ,egyptian1  

philosophy1 properly  so called1 have   
yet been recovered4    ,geographically1 
,chaldaea occupied a central position   
among the oldest  seats of civilization4
 ,commerce1 largely aided by the        
intervention of  those colossal pedlars1
 the ,phoenicians1 had brought ,chaldaea
 into  connection with all of them1 for 
a thousand years before the epoch at    
present under consideration4 ,and in the
 ninth1 eighth and seventh  #ajf        
centuries1 the ,assyrian1 the depositary
 of ,chaldaean  civilization1 as the    
,macedonian and the ,roman1 at a later  
date1 were  the depositories of ,greek  
culture1 had added irresistible force to
 the  other agencies for the wide       
distribution of ,chaldaean literature1  
art1  and science4    ,i confess that ,i
 find it difficult to imagine that the  
,greek  immigrant--who stood in somewhat
 the same relation to the ,babylonians  
and the ,egyptians as the later         
,germanic barbarians to the ,romans of  
the ,empire--should not have been       

immensely influenced by the new life    
with which they became acquainted4  ,but
 there is abundant direct  evidence of  
the magnitude of this influence in      
certain spheres4 ,i  suppose it is not  
doubted that the ,greek went to school  
with the  ,oriental for his primary     
instruction in reading1 writing1 and    
arithmetic2 and that ,semitic theology  
supplied him with some of his           
mythological lore4 ,nor does there now  
seem to be any question about  the large
 indebtedness of ,greek art to that of  
,chaldaea and that of  ,egypt4    ,but  
the manner of that indebtedness is very 
instructive4 ,the obligation  is clear1 
but its limits are no less definite4    
,nothing better  exemplifies the        
indomitable originality of the ,greeks  
than the  relations of their art to that
 of the ,orientals4 ,far from being     
subdued into mere imitators by the      
technical excellence of their  teachers1
 they lost no time in bettering the     
instruction they  received1 using their 

models as mere stepping stones on the   
way to  those unsurpassed and           
unsurpassable achievements which are all
 their  own4 ,the shibboleth of ,art is 
#ajg the human figure4 ,the ancient     
,chaldaeans and ,egyptians1 like the    
modern ,japanese1 did wonders in the    
representation of birds and quadrupeds2 
they even attained to  something more   
than respectability in human            
portraiture4 ,but their  utmost efforts 
never brought them within range of the  
best ,greek  embodiments of the grace of
 womanhood1 or of the severer beauty of 
manhood4    ,it is worth while to       
consider the probable effect upon the   
acute and  critical ,greek mind of the  
conflict of ideas1 social1 political1   
and  theological1 which arose out of the
 conditions of life in the ,asiatic     
colonies4 ,the ,ionian polities had     
passed through the whole gamut of       
social and political changes1 from      
patriarchal and occasionally  oppressive
 kingship to rowdy and still more       

burdensome mobship--no  doubt with      
infinitely eloquent and copious         
argumentation1 on both  sides1 at every 
stage of their progress towards that    
arbitrament of  force which settles most
 political questions4 ,the marvellous   
speculative faculty1 latent in the      
,ionian1 had come in contact with       
,mesopotamian1 ,egyptian1 ,phoenician   
theologies and cosmogonies2 with  the   
illuminati of ,orphism and the fanatics 
and dreamers of the  ,mysteries2        
possibly with ,buddhism and             
,zoroasterism2 possibly even with       
,judaism4 ,and it has been observed that
 the mutual contradictions of           
antagonistic supernaturalisms are apt to
 play a large part among the  generative
 agencies of naturalism4    ,thus1      
various external influences may have    
contributed to the rise of  philosophy  
among the ,ionian ,greeks of the sixth  
century4 ,but the  assimilative #ajh    
capacity of the ,greek mind--its power  
of  ,hellenizing whatever it            

touched--has here worked so effectually1
 that1  so far as ,i can learn1 no      
indubitable traces of such extraneous   
contributions are now allowed to exist  
by the most authoritative  historians of
 ,philosophy4  ,nevertheless1 ,i think  
it must be admitted  that the           
coincidences between the                
,heracleito-stoical doctrines and  those
 of the older ,hindu philosophy are     
extremely remarkable4 ,in both1  the    
cosmos pursues an eternal succession of 
cyclical changes4 ,the  great year1     
answering to the ,kalpa1 covers an      
entire cycle from the  origin of the    
universe as a fluid to its dissolution  
in fire--,humor  initium1 ignis exitus  
mundi1 as ,seneca has it4 ,in both      
systems1 there  is immanent in the      
cosmos a source of energy1 ,brahma1 or  
the ,logos1  which works according to   
fixed laws4 ,the individual soul is an  
efflux  of this world-spirit1 and       
returns to it4 ,perfection is attainable
 only  by individual effort1 through    

ascetic discipline1 and is rather a     
state of painlessness than of happiness2
 if indeed it can be said to  be a state
 of anything1 save the negation of      
perturbing emotion4 ,the  hatchment     
motto ,in ,coelo ,quies would serve both
 ,hindu and ,stoic2 and  absolute quiet 
is not easily distinguishable from      
annihilation4    ,zoroasterism1 which1  
geographically1 occupies a position     
intermediate  between ,hellenism and    
,hinduism1 agrees with the latter in    
recognizing  the essential evil of the  
cosmos2 but differs from both in its    
intensely anthropomorphic               
personification of the two antagonistic 
principles1 to the one of which it      
ascribes all the good2 and1 to the      
other1 all the evil4    #aji ,in fact1  
it assumes the existence of two worlds1 
one good and one  bad2 the latter       
created by the evil power for the       
purpose of damaging  the former4  ,the  
existing cosmos is a mere mixture of the
 two1 and the  last judgment is a       

root-and-branch extirpation of the work 
of  ,ahriman4    ,note #ab 7p4 #fi74    
,there is no snare in which the feet of 
a modern student of ancient lore  are   
more easily entangled1 than that which  
is spread by the similarity  of the     
language of antiquity to modern modes of
 expression4 ,i do not  presume to      
interpret the obscurest of ,greek       
philosophers2 all ,i wish  is to point  
out1 that his words1 in the sense       
accepted by competent  interpreters1 fit
 modern ideas singularly well4    ,so   
far as the general theory of evolution  
goes there is no difficulty4  ,the      
aphorism about the river2 the figure of 
the child playing on the  shore2 the    
kingship and fatherhood of strife1 seem 
decisive4 ,the  ,greek phrase osod ano  
kato mie expresses1 with singular       
aptness1 the  cyclical aspect of the one
 process of organic evolution in        
individual  plants and animals3 yet it  
may be a question whether the           
,heracleitean  strife included any      

distinct conception of the struggle for 
existence4  ,again1 it is tempting to   
compare the part played by the          
,heracleitean  fire with that ascribed  
by the moderns to heat1 or rather to    
that  cause of motion of which heat is  
one expression2 and a little  ingenuity 
might find a foreshadowing of the       
doctrine of the  conservation of energy1
 in the saying #aaj that all the things 
are  changed into fire and fire into all
 things1 as gold into goods and  goods  
into gold4    ,note #ac 7p4 #ga74       
,pope's lines in the ,essay on ,man7,ep4
 i4 #bfg-h71         ,all are but parts 
of one stupendous whole1       ,whose   
body ,nature is1 and ,god the soul1     
simply paraphrase ,seneca's quem in hoc 
mundo locum deus obtinet1 hunc  in      
homine animus3 quod est illic materia1  
id nobis corpus est4--7,ep4  lxv4 #bd72 
which again is a ,latin version of the  
old ,stoical doctrine1  ,greek phrase   
eis apan tou kosou meros diekei o nous1 
kataper aph emon  e psuche4    ,so far  

as the testimony for the universality of
 what ordinary people  call evil goes1  
there is nothing better than the        
writings of the  ,stoics themselves4    
,they might serve1 as a storehouse for  
the epigrams  of the ultra-pessimists4  
,heracleitus 7circa #ejj ,b4,c47 says   
just as  hard things about ordinary     
humanity as his disciples centuries     
later2  and there really seems no need  
to seek for the causes of this dark     
view of life in the circumstances of the
 time of ,alexander's  successors or of 
the early ,emperors of ,rome4 ,to the   
man with an  ethical ideal1 the world1  
including himself1 will always seem full
 of  evil4    ,note #ad 7,p4 #gc74    ,i
 use the well-known phrase1 but decline 
responsibility for the libel  upon      
,epicurus1 whose doctrines #aaa were far
 less compatible with  existence in a   
stye than those of the ,cynics4 ,if it  
were steadily  borne in mind that the   
conception of the flesh as the source of
  evil1 and the great saying ,initium   

est salutis notitia peccati1 are  the   
property of ,epicurus1 fewer illusions  
about ,epicureanism would  pass muster  
for accepted truth4    ,note #ae 7,p4   
#ge74    ,the ,stoics said that man was 
a ,greek phrase zoon logikon politikon  
philallelon1 or a rational1 a political1
 and an altruistic or  philanthropic    
animal4 ,in their view1 his higher      
nature tended to  develop in these three
 directions1 as a plant tends to grow up
 into  its typical form4 ,since1 without
 the introduction of any consideration  
of pleasure or pain1 whatever thwarted  
the realization of its type by  the     
plant might be said to be bad1 and      
whatever helped it good2 so  virtue1 in 
the ,stoical sense1 as the conduct which
 tended to the  attainment of the       
rational1 political1 and philanthropic  
ideal1 was  good in itself1 and         
irrespectively of its emotional         
concomitants4    ,man is an animal      
sociale communi bono genitum4 ,the      
safety of society  depends upon         

practical recognition of the fact4      
,salva autem esse  societas nisi        
custodia et amore partium non possit1   
says ,seneca4 7,de4  ,ira1 ii4 #ca47    
,note #af 7,p4 #ge74    ,the importance 
of the physical doctrine of the ,stoics 
lies in its  clear recognition of the   
universality #aab of the law of         
causation1  with its corollary1 the     
order of nature3 the exact form of that 
order  is an altogether secondary       
consideration4    ,many ingenious       
persons now appear to consider that the 
incompatibility  of pantheism1 of       
materialism1 and of any doubt about the 
immortality  of the soul1 with religion 
and morality1 is to be held as an       
axiomatic truth4 ,i confess that ,i have
 a certain difficulty in  accepting this
 dogma4 ,for the ,stoics were           
notoriously materialists and  pantheists
 of the most extreme character2 and     
while no strict ,stoic  believed in the 
eternal duration of the individual soul1
 some even  denied its persistence after

 death4 ,yet it is equally certain that 
of  all gentile philosophies1 ,stoicism 
exhibits the highest ethical            
development1 is animated by the most    
religious spirit1 and has exerted  the  
profoundest influence upon the moral and
 religious development not  merely of   
the best men among the ,romans1 but     
among the moderns down to  our own day4 
,seneca was claimed as a ,christian and 
placed among the saints by the  fathers 
of the early ,christian ,church2 and the
 genuineness of a  correspondence       
between him and the apostle ,paul has   
been hotly  maintained in our own time1 
by orthodox writers4 ,that the letters1 
as  we possess them1 are worthless      
forgeries is obvious2 and writers as    
wide apart as ,baur and ,lightfoot agree
 that the whole story is devoid  of     
foundation4    ,the dissertation of the 
late ,bishop of ,durham 7,epistle to the
  ,philippians7 is particularly worthy  
of study1 apart from this  question1 on 
account of #aac evidence which it       

supplies of the  numerous similarities  
of thought between ,seneca and the      
writer of the  ,pauline epistles4 ,when 
it is remembered that the writer of the 
,acts  puts a quotation from ,aratus1 or
 ,cleanthes1 into the mouth of the      
apostle2 and that ,tarsus was a great   
seat of philosophical and  especially   
stoical learning 7,chrysippus himself   
was a native of the  adjacent town of   
,soli71 there is no difficulty in       
understanding the  origin of these      
resemblances4 ,see1 on this subject1    
,sir ,alexander  ,grant's dissertation  
in his edition of ,the ,ethics of       
,aristotle 7where  there is an          
interesting reference to the stoical    
character of ,bishop  ,butler's ethics71
 the concluding pages of ,dr4           
,weygoldt's instructive  little work    
,die ,philosophie der ,stoa1 and        
,aubertin's ,seneque et ,saint  ,paul4  
,it is surprising that a writer of ,dr4 
,lightfoot's stamp should speak  of     
,stoicism as a philosophy of despair4   

,surely1 rather1 it was a  philosophy of
 men who1 having cast off all illusions1
 and the  childishness of despair among 
them1 were minded to endure in patience 
whatever conditions the cosmic process  
might create1 so long as those          
conditions were compatible with the     
progress towards virtue1 which  alone1  
for them1 conferred a worthy object on  
existence4 ,there is no  note of despair
 in the stoical declaration that the    
perfected wise  man is the equal of     
,zeus in everything but the duration of 
his  existence4 ,and1 in my judgment1   
there is as little pride about it1      
often as it serves for the text of      
discourses on stoical arrogance4  ,grant
 the stoical postulate that there is no 
good except virtue2 grant  that #aad the
 perfected wise man is altogether       
virtuous1 in  consequence of being      
guided in all things by the reason1     
which is an  effluence of ,zeus1 and    
there seems no escape from the stoical  
conclusion4    ,note #ag 7p4 #gf74      

,our ,apathy carries such a different   
set of connotations from its  ,greek    
original that ,i have ventured on using 
the latter as a technical  term4        
,note #ah 7,p4 #gg74    ,many of the    
stoical philosophers recommended their  
disciples to take  an active share in   
public affairs2 and in the ,roman world1
 for several  centuries1 the best public
 men were strongly inclined to          
,stoicism4  ,nevertheless1 the logical  
tendency of ,stoicism seems to me to be 
fulfilled only in such men as ,diogenes 
and ,epictetus4    ,note #ai 7,p4 #hj74 
,criticisms on the ,origin of ,species1 
#ahfd4 ,collected ,essays1 vol4 ii4  p4 
#ia4ahid4    ,note #bj 7,p4 #ha74    ,of
 course1 strictly speaking1 social life1
 and the ethical process in  virtue of  
which it advances towards perfection1   
,are part and parcel of  the general    
process of evolution1 just as the       
gregarious habit of in  #aae numerable  
plants and animals1 which has been of   
immense  advantage to them1 is so4 ,a   

hive of bees is an organic polity1 a    
society in which the part played by each
 member is determined by  organic       
necessities4 ,queens1 workers1 and      
drones are1 so to speak1  castes1       
divided from one another by marked      
physical barriers4 ,among  birds and    
mammals1 societies are formed1 of which 
the bond in many  cases seems to be     
purely psychological2 that is to say1 it
 appears to  depend upon the liking of  
the individuals for one another's       
company4  ,the tendency of individuals  
to over self-assertion is kept down by  
fighting4  ,even in these rudimentary   
forms of society1 love and fear  come   
into play1 and enforce a greater or less
 renunciation of  self-will4 ,to this   
extent the general cosmic process begins
 to be  checked by a rudimentary ethical
 process1 which is1 strictly speaking1  
part of the former1 just as the governor
 in a steam-engine is part  of the      
mechanism of the engine4    ,note #ba   
7p4 #hb74    ,see ,government3 ,anarchy 

or ,regimentation1 ,collected ,essays1  
vol4 i4  pp4  #dac-dah4 ,it is this form
 of political philosophy to which ,i    
conceive the epithet of reasoned        
savagery to be strictly                 
applicable4#ahid4    ,note #bb 7p4 #hc74
    ,l'homme n'est qu'un roseau1 le plus
 faible de la nature1 mais c'est  un    
roseau pensant4 ,il ne faut #aaf pas que
 l'univers entier s'arme  pour          
l'ecraser4 ,une vapour1 une goutte      
d'eau1 suffit pour le tuer4  ,mais quand
 l'univers l'ecraserait1 l'homme serait 
encore plus noble  que ce qui le tue1   
parce qu'il sait qu'il muert2 et        
l'avantage que  l'univers a sur lui1    
l'univers n'en sait rien4--,pensees de  
,pascal4    ,note #bc 7p4 #he74    ,the 
use of the word ,nature here may be     
criticised4 ,yet the  manifestation of  
the natural tendencies of men is so     
profoundly  modified by training that it
 is hardly too strong4 ,consider the    
suppression of the sexual instinct      
between near relations4    ,note #bd 7p4

 #hf74    ,a great proportion of poetry 
is addressed by the young to the young2 
only the great masters of the art are   
capable of divining1 or think it  worth 
while to enter into1 the feelings of    
retrospective age4 ,the two  great poets
 whom we have so lately lost1 ,tennyson 
and ,browning1 have  done this1 each in 
his own inimitable way2 the one in the  
,ulysses1  from which ,i have borrowed2 
the other in that wonderful fragment    
,childe ,roland to the dark ,tower came4
    #adg    7,note3 ,section ,,iii came 
from a different source than the  other 
sections and thus does not have page    
numbers4    ,section ,,iii of the       
volume1 ,science and ,theology1 is not  
,huxley's text  and is not by ,huxley4  
,it reprints instead an entirely        
different essay1  one by ,asa ,gray on  
,darwin1 published in the ,atlantic in  
#ahfj as  specified in a note before the
 text here2 what looks like a           
subheading1  ,,natural ,,selection ,,not
 ,,inconsistent ,,with ,,natural        

,,theology1 is the title  given to      
,gray's essay in some reprints47        
,,iii4         ,,science ,,and ,,morals 
#ahhf      ,,natural ,,selection        
,,not ,,inconsistent ,,with    ,,natural
 ,,theology    7,atlantic ,monthly for  
,july1 ,august1 and ,october1 #ahfj1    
reprinted in  #ahfa7      ,i            
,novelties are enticing to most people2 
to us they are simply annoying4  ,we    
cling to a long-accepted theory1 just as
 we cling to an old suit of  clothes4   
,a new theory1 like a new pair of       
breeches 7the ,atlantic still  affects  
the older type of nether garment71 is   
sure to have hard-fitting  places2 or1  
even when no particular fault can be    
found with the  article1 it oppresses   
with a sense of general discomfort4 ,new
 notions  and new styles worry us1 till 
we get well used to them1 which is only 
by slow degrees4    ,wherefore1 in      
,galileos time1 we might have helped to 
proscribe1 or to  burn--had he been     
stubborn enough to warrant              

cremation--even the great  pioneer of   
inductive research2 although1 when we   
had fairly recovered  our composure1 and
 bad leisurely excogitated the matter1  
we might have  come to conclude that the
 new doctrine was better than the old   
one1  after all1 at least for those who 
had nothing to unlearn4    ,such being  
our habitual state of mind1 it may well 
be believed that the  perusal of the new
 book ,on the ,origin of ,species by    
,means of ,natural  ,selection left an  
uncomfortable impression1 in spite of   
its plausible  and winning ways4 ,we    
were not wholly unprepared for it1 as   
many of our  contemporaries seem to have
 been4 ,the scientific reading in which 
we  indulge as a relaxation from severer
 studies had raised dim  forebodings4   
,investigations about the succession of 
species in time1  and their actual      
geographical distribution over the      
earths surface1  were leading up from   
all sides and in various ways to the    
question of  their origin4 ,now and then

 we encountered a sentence1 like ,prof4 
,owens  axiom of the continuous         
operation of the ordained becoming of   
living  things1 which haunted us like an
 apparition4 ,for1 dim as our           
conception must needs be as to what such
 oracular and grandiloquent  phrases    
might really mean1 we felt confident    
that they presaged no good  to old      
beliefs4 ,foreseeing1 yet deprecating1  
the coming time of  trouble1 we still   
hoped that1 with some repairs and       
makeshifts1 the old  views might last   
out our days4 ,apres nous le deluge4    
,still1 not to lag  behind the rest of  
the world1 we read the book in which the
 new theory  is promulgated4 ,we took it
 up1 like our neighbors1 and1 as was    
natural1  in a somewhat captious frame  
of mind4    ,well1 we found no cause of 
quarrel with the first chapter4 ,here   
the  author takes us directly to the    
barn-yard and the kitchen-garden4 ,like 
an honorable rural member of our        
,general ,court1 who sat silent until1  

near the close of a long session1 a bill
 requiring all swine at large  to wear  
pokes was introduced1 when he claimed   
the privilege of  addressing the house1 
on the proper ground that he had been   
brought up  among the pigs1 and knew all
 about them--so we were brought up among
  cows and cabbages2 and the lowing of  
cattle1 the cackle of hens1 and  the    
cooing of pigeons1 were sounds native   
and pleasant to our ears4 ,so           
,variation under ,domestication dealt   
with familiar subjects in a  natural    
way1 and gently introduced ,variation   
under ,nature1 which  seemed likely     
enough4 ,then follows ,struggle for     
,existence--a  principle which we       
experimentally know to be true and      
cogent--bringing  the comfortable       
assurance1 that man1 even upon          
,leviathan ,hobbess theory  of society1 
is no worse than the rest of creation1  
since all ,nature is  at war1 one       
species with another1 and the nearer    
kindred the more  internecine--bringing 

in thousandfold confirmation and        
extension of the  ,malthusian doctrine  
that population tends far to outrun     
means of  subsistence throughout the    
animal and vegetable world1 and has to  
be  kept down by sharp preventive       
checks2 so that not more than one of a  
hundred or a thousand of the individuals
 whose existence is so  wonderfully and 
so sedulously provided for ever comes to
 anything1  under ordinary              
circumstances2 so the lucky and the     
strong must prevail1  and the weaker and
 ill-favored must perish2 and then      
follows1 as  naturally as one sheep     
follows another1 the chapter on ,natural
  ,selection1 ,darwins cheval de        
bataille1 which is very much the        
,napoleonic doctrine that ,providence   
favors the strongest  battalions--that1 
since many more individuals are born    
than can  possibly survive1 those       
individuals and those variations which  
possess  any advantage1 however slight1 
over the rest1 are in the long-run sure 

to survive1 to propagate1 and to occupy 
the limited field1 to the  exclusion or 
destruction of the weaker brethren4 ,all
 this we pondered1  and could not much  
object to4 ,in fact1 we began to        
contract a liking  for a system which at
 the outset illustrates the advantages  
of good  breeding1 and which makes the  
most of every creatures best4    ,could 
we let by-gones be by-gones1 and1       
beginning now1 go on  improving and     
diversifying for the future by natural  
selection1 could  we even take up the   
theory at the introduction  of the      
actually  existing species1 we should be
 well content2 and so1 perhaps1 would   
most naturalists be4 ,it is by no means 
difficult to believe that  varieties are
 incipient or possible species1 when we 
see what trouble  naturalists1          
especially botanists1 have to           
distinguish between  them--one regarding
 as a true species what another regards 
as a  variety2 when the progress of     
knowledge continually increases1 rather 

than diminishes1 the number of doubtful 
instances2 and when there is  less      
agreement than ever among naturalists as
 to what is the basis in  ,nature upon  
which our idea of species reposes1 or   
how the word is to be  defined4         
,indeed1 when we consider the endless   
disputes of naturalists  and            
ethnologists over the human races1 as to
 whether they belong to one  species or 
to more1 and1 if to more1 whether to    
three1 or five1 or  fifty1 we can hardly
 help fancying that both may be         
right--or rather1  that the             
uni-humanitarians would have been right 
many thousand years  ago1 and the       
multi-humanitarians will be several     
thousand years later2  while at present 
the safe thing to say is1 that probably 
there is some  truth on both sides4     
,natural selection1 ,darwin remarks1    
leads to divergence of character2  for  
the more living beings can be supported 
on the same area1 the more  they diverge
 in structure1 habits1 and constitution 

7a principle  which1 by-the-way1 is     
paralleled and illustrated by the       
diversification  of human labor72 and   
also leads to much extinction of        
intermediate or  unimproved forms4 ,now1
 though this divergence may steadily    
tend to  increase1 yet this is evidently
 a slow process in ,nature1 and liable  
to much counteraction wherever man does 
not interpose1 and so not  likely to    
work much harm for the future4 ,and if  
natural selection1 with  artificial to  
help it1 will produce better animals and
 better men than  the present1 and fit  
them better to the conditions of        
existence1 why1  let it work1 say we1 to
 the top of its bent ,there is still    
room enough  for improvement4 ,only let 
us hope that it always works for good3  
if  not1 the divergent lines on         
,darwin's lithographic diagram of       
,transmutation made ,easy1 ominously    
show what small deviations from  the    
straight path may come to in the end4   
,the prospect of the future1            

accordingly1 is on the whole pleasant   
and  encouraging4 ,it is only the       
backward glance1 the gaze up the long   
vista  of the past1 that reveals        
anything alarming4 ,here the lines      
converge as  they recede into the       
geological ages1 and point to           
conclusions which1  upon the theory1 are
 inevitable1 but hardly welcome4 ,the   
very first  step backward makes the     
negro and the ,hottentot our            
blood-relations--not that reason or     
,scripture objects to that1 though      
pride may4 ,the next suggests a closer  
association of our ancestors of  the    
olden time with our poor relations of   
the quadrumanous family  than we like to
 acknowledge4 ,fortunately1             
however--even if we must  account for   
him scientifically --man with his two   
feet stands upon a  foundation of his   
own4 ,intermediate links between the    
,bimana and the  ,quadrumana are lacking
 altogether2 so that1 put the genealogy 
of the  brutes upon what footing you    

will1 the four-handed races will not    
serve  for our forerunners--at least1   
not until some monkey1 live or fossil1  
is producible with great-toes1 instead  
of thumbs1 upon his nether  extremities2
 or until some lucky geologist turns up 
the bones of his  ancestor and prototype
 in ,france or ,england1 who was so busy
 napping  the chuckie-stanes and        
chipping out flint knives and           
arrow-heads in  the time of the drift1  
very many ages ago--before the ,british 
,channel  existed1 says ,lyell          
,,iii-#a--;and until these men of the   
olden time are  shown to have worn their
 great-toes in the divergent and        
thumblike  fashion4 ,that would be      
evidence indeed3 but1 until some        
testimony of  the sort is produced1 we  
must needs believe in the separate and  
special  creation of man1 however it may
 have been with the lower animals and   
with plants4    ,no doubt1 the full     
development and symmetry of ,darwin's   
hypothesis  strongly suggest the        

evolution of the human no less than the 
lower  animal races out of some simple  
primordial animal--that all are equally 
lineal descendants of some few beings   
which lived long before the  first bed  
of the ,silurian system was deposited4  
,but1 as the author  speaks             
disrespectfully of spontaneous          
generation1 and accepts a  supernatural 
beginning of life on earth1 in some form
 or forms of being  which included      
potentially all that have since existed 
and are yet to  be1 he is thereby not   
warranted to extend his inferences      
beyond the  evidence or the fair        
probability4 ,there seems as great      
likelihood that  one special origination
 should be followed by another upon     
fitting  occasion 7such as the          
introduction of man71 as that one form  
should be  transmuted into another upon 
fitting occasion1 as1 for instance1 in  
the  succession of species which differ 
from each other only in some  details4  
,to compare small things with great in a

 homely illustration3  man alters from  
time to time his instruments or         
machines1 as new  circumstances or      
conditions may require and his wit      
suggest4 ,minor  alterations and        
improvements he adds to the machine he  
possesses2 he  adapts a new rig or a new
 rudder to an old boat3 this answers to 
,variation4 ,like begets like1 being the
 great rule in ,nature1 if boats  could 
engender1 the variations would doubtless
 be propagated1 like  those of domestic 
cattle4 ,in course of time the old ones 
would be worn  out or wrecked2 the best 
sorts would be chosen for each          
particular use1  and further improved   
upon2 and so the primordial boat be     
developed into  the scow1 the skiff1 the
 sloop1 and other species of            
water-craft--the  very diversification1 
as well as the successive improvements1 
entailing  the disappearance of         
intermediate forms1 less adapted to any 
one  particular purpose2 wherefore these
 go slowly out of use1 and become       

extinct species3 this is ,natural       
,selection4 ,now1 let a great and       
important advance be made1 like that of 
steam navigation3 here1 though  the     
engine might be added to the old vessel1
 yet the wiser and  therefore the actual
 way is to make a new vessel on a       
modified plan3  this may answer to      
,specific ,creation4 ,anyhow1 the one   
does not  necessarily exclude the other4
  ,variation and natural selection may  
play their part1 and so may specific    
creation also4 ,why not8    ,this leads 
us to ask for the reasons which call for
 this new theory of  transmutation4 ,the
 beginning of things must needs lie in  
obscurity1  beyond the bounds of proof1 
though within those of conjecture or of 
analogical inference4 ,why not hold fast
 to the customary view1 that all        
species were directly1 instead of       
indirectly1 created after their         
respective kinds1 as we now behold      
them--and that in a manner which1       
passing our comprehension1 we           

intuitively refer to the supernatural8  
,why this continual striving after the  
unattained and dim8 why these  anxious  
endeavors1 especially of late years1 by 
naturalists and  philosophers of various
 schools and different tendencies1 to   
penetrate  what one of them calls that  
mystery of mysteries1 the origin of     
species8    ,to this1 in general1       
sufficient answer may be found in the   
activity of  the human intellect1 the   
delirious yet divine desire to know1    
stimulated as it has been by its own    
success in unveiling the laws and       
processes of inorganic ,nature2 in the  
fact that the principal triumphs  of our
 age in physical science have consisted 
in tracing connections  where none were 
known before1 in reducing heterogeneous 
phenomena to a  common cause or origin1 
in a manner quite analogous to that of  
the  reduction of supposed independently
 originated species to a common         
ultimate origin--thus1 and in various   
other ways1 largely and  legitimately   

extending the domain of secondary       
causes4  ,surely the  scientific mind of
 an age which contemplates the solar    
system as  evolved from a common        
revolving fluid mass--which1 through    
experimental  research1 has come to     
regard light1 heat1 electricity1        
magnetism1  chemical affinity1 and      
mechanical power as varieties or        
derivative and  convertible forms of one
 force1 instead of independent          
species--which  has brought the         
so-called elementary kinds of matter1   
such as the  metals1 into kindred       
groups1 and pertinently raised the      
question1  whether the members of each  
group may not be mere varieties of one  
species--and which speculates steadily  
in the direction of the ultimate  unity 
of matter1 of a sort of prototype or    
simple element which may be  to the     
ordinary species of matter what the     
,protozoa or what the  component cells  
of an organism are to the higher sorts  
of animals and  plants--the mind of such

 an age cannot be expected to let the   
old  belief about species pass          
unquestioned4 ,it will raise the        
question1 how  the diverse sorts of     
plants and animals came to be as they   
are and  where they are and will allow  
that the whole inquiry transcends its   
powers only when all endeavors have     
failed ,granting the origin to be  super
 natural or miraculous even1 will not   
arrest the inquiry ,all real            
origination the philosophers will say1  
is supernatural1 their very  question   
is1 whether we have yet gone back to the
 origin and can affirm  that the present
 forms of plants and animals are the    
primordial1 the  miraculously created   
ones4  ,and1 even if they admit that1   
they will  still inquire into the order 
of the phenomena1 into the form of the  
miracle ,you might as well expect the   
child to grow up content with what  it  
is told about the advent of its infant  
brother ,indeed1 to learn that  the new 
comer is the gift of ,god1 far from     

lulling inquiry1 only  stimulates       
speculation as to how the precious gift 
was bestowed ,that  questioning child is
 father to the man--is philosopher in   
short-clothes4    ,since1 then questions
 about the origin of species will be    
raised1 and  have been raised--and since
 the theorizings1 however different in  
particulars1 all proceed upon the notion
 that one species of plant or  animal is
 somehow derived from another1 that the 
different sorts which  now flourish are 
lineal 7or unlineal7 descendants of     
other and earlier  sorts--it now        
concerns us to ask1 ,what are the       
grounds in ,nature1 the  admitted facts1
 which suggest hypotheses of derivation 
in some 3shape  or other8 ,reasons there
 must be1 and plausible ones1 for the   
persistent  recurrence of theories upon 
this genetic basis4 ,a study of ,darwins
  book1 and a general glance at the     
present state of the natural  sciences1 
enable us to gather the following as    
among the most  suggestive and          

influential4 ,we can only enumerate them
 here1 without  much indication of their
 particular bearing4 ,there is--    #a4 
,the general fact of variability1 and   
the general tendency of the  variety to 
propagate its like--the patent facts    
that all species vary  more or less2    
that domesticated plants and animals1   
being in conditions  favorable to the   
production and preservation of          
varieties1 are apt to  vary widely2 and 
that1 by interbreeding1 any variety may 
be fixed into  a race1 that is1 into a  
variety which comes true from seed4     
,many such  races1 it is allowed1 differ
 from each other in structure and       
appearance as widely as do many admitted
 species2 and it is practically  very   
difficult1 even impossible1 to draw a   
clear line between races and  species4  
,witness the human races1 for instance4 
,wild species also  vary1 perhaps about 
as widely as those of domestication1    
though in  different ways4 ,some of them
 apparently vary little1 others         

moderately1  others immoderately1 to the
 great bewilderment of systematic       
botanists  and zoologists1 and          
increasing disagreement as to whether   
various forms  shall be held to be      
original species or strong varieties4   
,moreover1 the  degree to which the     
descendants of the same stock1 varying  
in different  directions1 may at length 
diverge1 is unknown4 ,all we know is1   
that  varieties are themselves variable1
 and that very diverse forms have  been 
educed from one stock4    #b4 ,species  
of the same genus are not distinguished 
from each other by  equal amounts of    
difference4 ,there is diversity in this 
respect  analogous to that of the       
varieties of a polymorphous species1    
some of  them slight1 others extreme4   
,and in large genera the unequal        
resemblance shows itself in the         
clustering of the species around        
several types or central species1 like  
satellites around their  respective     
planets4 ,obviously suggestive this of  

the hypothesis that  they were          
satellites1 not thrown off by           
revolution1 like the moons of  ,jupiter1
 ,saturn1 and our own solitary moon1 but
 gradually and  peacefully detached by  
divergent variation4 ,that such         
closely-related  species may be only    
varieties of higher grade1 earlier      
origin1 or more  favored evolution1 is  
not a very violent supposition4 ,anyhow1
 it was a  supposition sure to be made4 
#c4 ,the actual geographical            
distribution of species upon the earths 
surface tends to suggest the same       
notion4 ,for1 as a general thing1 all   
or most of the species of a peculiar    
genus or other type are grouped in  the 
same country1 or occupy continuous1     
proximate1 or accessible areas4  ,so    
well does this rule hold1 so general is 
the implication that kindred  species   
are or were associated geographically1  
that most trustworthy  naturalists1     
quite free from hypotheses of           
transmutation1 are  constantly inferring

 former geographical continuity between 
parts of  the world now widely          
disjoined1 in order to account thereby  
for certain  generic similarities among 
their inhabitants2 just as philologists 
infer former connection of races1 and a 
parent language1 to account for  generic
 similarities among existing languages4 
,yet no scientific  explanation has been
 offered to account for the geographical
  association of kindred species1 except
 the hypothesis of a common  origin4    
#d4 ,here the fact of the antiquity of  
creation1 and in particular of the      
present kinds of the earths inhabitants1
 or of a large part of them1  comes in  
to rebut the objection that there has   
not been time enough for  any marked    
diversification of living things through
 divergent  variation--not time enough  
for varieties to have diverged into what
 we  call species4    ,so long as the   
existing species of plants and animals  
were thought to  have originated a few  
thousand years ago1 and without         

predecessors1  there was no room for a  
theory of derivation of one sort from   
another1  nor time enough even to       
account for the establishment of the    
races  which are generally believed to  
have diverged from a common stock4 ,not 
so much that five or six thousand years 
was a short allowance for this2  but    
because some of our familiar            
domesticated varieties of grain1 of     
fowls1 and of other animals1 were       
pictured and mummified by the old       
,egyptians more than half that number of
 years ago1 if not earlier4  ,indeed1   
perhaps the strongest argument for the  
original plurality of  human species was
 drawn from the identification of some  
of the present  races of men upon these 
early historical monuments and records4 
,but this very extension of the current 
chronology1 if we may rely upon  the    
archaeologists1 removes the difficulty  
by opening up a longer  vista4 ,so does 
the discovery in ,europe of remains and 
implements of  prehistoric races of men1

 to whom the use of metals was          
unknown--men of  the stone age1 as the  
,scandinavian archaeologists designate  
them4 ,and  now1 axes and knives of     
flint1 evidently wrought by human skill1
 are  found in beds of the drift at     
,amiens 7also in other places1 both in  
,france and ,england71 associated with  
the bones of extinct species of         
animals4 ,these implements1 indeed1 were
 noticed twenty years ago2 at a  place  
in ,suffolk they have been exhumed from 
time to time for more than  a century2  
but the full confirmation1 the          
recognition of the age of the  deposit  
in which the implements occur1 their    
abundance1 and the  appreciation of     
their bearings upon most interesting    
questions1 belong  to the present time4 
,to complete the connection of these    
primitive  people with the fossil ages1 
the ,french geologists1 we are told1    
have  now found these axes in ,picardy  
associated with remains of ,elephas     
primigenius1 ,rhinoceros tichorhinus1   

,equus fossilis1 and an extinct  species
 of ,bos4,,iii-#b ,in plain language1   
these workers in flint lived  in the    
time of the mammoth1 of a rhinoceros now
 extinct1 and along with  horses and    
cattle unlike any now                   
existing--specifically different1 as    
naturalists say1 from those with which  
man is now associated4  ,their          
connection with existing human races may
 perhaps be traced through the          
intervening people of the stone age1 who
 were succeeded by the people  of the   
bronze age1 and these by workers in     
iron4,,iii-#c ,now1 various  evidence   
carries back the existence of many of   
the present lower  species of animals1  
and probably of a larger number of      
plants1 to the  same drift period4 ,all 
agree that this was very many thousand  
years  ago4 ,agassiz tells us that the  
same species of polyps which are now    
building coral walls around the present 
peninsula of ,florida actually  made    
that peninsula1 and have been building  

there for many thousand  centuries4     
#e4  ,the overlapping of existing and   
extinct species1 and the seemingly      
gradual transition of the life of the   
drift period into that of the  present1 
may be turned to the same account4      
,mammoths1 mastodons1 and  ,irish elks1 
now extinct1 must have lived down to    
human1 if not almost  to historic times4
  ,perhaps the last dodo did not long   
outlive his huge  ,new ,zealand kindred4
 ,the aurochs1 once the companion of    
mammoths1 still  survives1 but owes his 
present and precarious existence to mans
 care4  ,now1 nothing that we know of   
forbids the hypothesis that some new    
species have been independently and     
supernaturally created within the       
period which other species have         
survived4  ,some may even believe that  
man was created in the days of the      
mammoth1 became extinct1 and was        
recreated at a later date4 ,but why not 
say the same of the aurochs1            
contemporary both of the old man and of 

the new8 ,still it is more  natural1 if 
not inevitable1 to infer that1 if the   
aurochs of that olden  time were the    
ancestors of the aurochs of the         
,lithuanian forests1 so  likewise were  
the men of that age the ancestors of the
 present human  races4  ,then1 whoever  
concludes that these primitive makers of
 rude  flint axes and knives were the   
ancestors of the better workmen of the  
succeeding  stone age1 and these again  
of the succeeding artificers in  brass  
and iron1 will also be likely to suppose
 that the ,equus and ,bos  of that time1
 different though they be1 were the     
remote progenitors of  our own horses   
and cattle4 ,in all candor we must at   
least concede that  such considerations 
suggest a genetic descent from the drift
 period  down to the present1 and allow 
time enough--if time is of any account--
  for variation and natural selection to
 work out some appreciable  results in  
the way of divergence into races1 or    
even into so-called  species4 ,whatever 

might have been thought1 when geological
 time was  supposed to be separated from
 the present era by a clear line1 it is 
now certain that a gradual replacement  
of old forms by new ones is  strongly   
suggestive of some mode of origination  
which may still be  operative4 ,when    
species1 like individuals1 were found to
 die out one by  one1 and apparently to 
come in one by one1 a theory for what   
,owen  sonorously calls the continuous  
operation of the ordained becoming of   
living things could not be far off4     
,that all such theories should take the 
form of a derivation of the new  from   
the old seems to be inevitable1 perhaps 
from our inability to  conceive of any  
other line of secondary causes in this  
connection4 ,owen  himself is apparently
 in travail with some transmutation     
theory of his  own conceiving1 which may
 yet see the light1 although ,darwins   
came  first to the birth4  ,different as
 the two theories will probably be1     
they cannot fail to exhibit that        

fundamental resemblance in this  respect
 which betokens a community of origin1 a
 common foundation on  the general facts
 and the obvious suggestions of modern  
science4  ,indeed--to turn the point of 
a pungent simile directed against       
,darwin--the difference between the     
,darwinian and the ,owenian hypotheses  
may1 after all1 be only that between    
homoeopathic and heroic doses of  the   
same drug4    ,if theories of derivation
 could only stop here1 content with     
explaining  the diversification and     
succession of species between the       
teritiary  period and the present time1 
through natural agencies or secondary   
causes still in operation1 we fancy they
 would not be generally or  violently   
objected to by the savants of the       
present day4 ,but it is  hard1 if not   
impossible1 to find a stopping-place4   
,some of the facts or  accepted         
conclusions already referred to1 and    
several others1 of a more  general      
character1 which must be taken into the 

account1 impel the  theory onward with  
accumulated force4 ,vires 7not to say   
virus7 acquirit  eundo4 ,the theory     
hitches on wonderfully well to ,lyells  
uniformitarian  theory in geology--that 
the thing that has been is the thing    
that is  and shall be--that the natural 
operations now going on will account for
  all geological changes in a quiet and 
easy way1 only give them time  enough1  
so connecting the present and the       
proximate with the farthest  past by    
almost imperceptible gradations--a view 
which finds large and  increasing1 if   
not general1 acceptance in physical     
geology1 and of  which ,darwins theory  
is the natural complement4    ,so the   
,darwinian theory1 once getting a       
foothold1 marches2 boldly on1  follows  
the supposed near ancestors of our      
present species farther and  yet farther
 back into the dim past1 and ends with  
an analogical  inference which makes the
 whole world kin4 ,as we said at the    
beginning1 this upshot discomposes us4  

,several features of the theory  have an
 uncanny look4 ,they may prove to be    
innocent3 but their first  aspect is    
suspicious1 and high authorities        
pronounce the whole thing to  be        
positively mischievous4 ,in this dilemma
 we are going to take advice4           
,following the bent of our prejudices1  
and hoping to fortify these by  new and 
strong arguments1 we are going now to   
read the principal  reviews which       
undertake to demolish the theory--with  
what result our  readers shall be duly  
informed4      ,,ii      ,i can         
entertain no doubt1 after the most      
deliberate study and  dispassionate     
judgment of which ,i am capable1 that   
the view which most  naturalists        
entertain1 and which ,i formerly        
entertained1 namely1 that  each species 
has been independently created1 is      
erroneous4 ,i am fully  convinced that  
species are not immutable2 but that     
those belonging to  what are called the 
same genera are lineal descendants of   

some other  and generally extinct       
species1 in the same manner as the      
acknowledged  varieties of any one      
species are the descendants of that     
species4  ,furthermore1 ,i am convinced 
that ,natural ,selection has been the   
main1  but not exclusive1 means of      
modification4      ,this is the kernel  
of the new theory1 the ,darwinian creed1
 as recited  at the close of the        
introduction to the remarkable book     
under  consideration4  ,the questions1  
,what will he do with it8 and ,how far  
will he carry it8 the author answers at 
the close of the volume3      ,i cannot 
doubt that the theory of descent with   
modification embraces  all the members  
of the same class4 ,furthermore1 ,i     
believe that all  animals have descended
 from at most only four or five         
progenitors1 and  plants from an equal  
or lesser number4      ,seeing that     
analogy as strongly suggests a further  
step in the same  direction1 while he   
protests that analogy may be a deceitful

 guide1  yet he follows its inexorable  
leading to the inference that--         
,probably all the organic beings which  
have ever lived on this ear have        
descended from some one primordial form1
 into which life was first              
breathed4,,iii-#d      ,in the first    
extract we have the thin end of the     
wedge driven a little  way2 in the last1
 the wedge driven home4    ,we have     
already sketched some of the reasons    
suggestive of such a  theory of         
derivation of species1 reasons which    
gave it plausibility1  and even no small
 probability1 as applied to our actual  
world and to  changes occurring since   
the latest tertiary period4 ,we are well
 pleased  at this moment to find that   
the conclusions we were arriving at in  
this  respect are sustained by the very 
high authority and impartial judgment   
of ,pictet1 the ,swiss paleontologist4  
,in his review of ,darwins  book,,iii-#e
 -- the fairest and most admirable      
opposing one that has  appeared--he     

freely accepts that ensemble of natural 
operations which  ,darwin impersonates  
under the now familiar name of ,natural 
,selection1  allows that the exposition 
throughout the first chapters seems a la
  fois prudent et fort1 and is disposed 
to accept the whole argument in  its    
foundations1 that is1 so far as it      
relates to what is now going on1  or has
 taken place in the present geological  
period--which period he  carries back   
through the diluvial epoch to the       
borders of the  tertiary4,,iii-#f       
,pictet accordingly admits that the     
theory will very  well account for the  
origination by divergence of            
nearly-related  species1 whether within 
the present period or in remoter        
geological  times2 a very natural view  
for him to take1 since he appears to    
have  reached and published1 several    
years ago1 the pregnant conclusion that 
there most probably was some material   
connection between the  closely-related 
species of two successive faunas1 and   

that the numerous  close species1 whose 
limits are so difficult to determine1   
were not all  created distinct and      
independent4  ,but while thus accepting1
 or ready  to accept1 the basis of      
,darwins theory1 and all its legitimate 
direct  inferences1 he rejects the      
ultimate conclusions1 brings some       
weighty  arguments to bear against them1
 and is evidently convinced that he can 
draw a clear line between the sound     
inferences1 which he favors1 and  the   
unsound or unwarranted theoretical      
deductions1 which he rejects4 ,we  hope 
he can4    ,this raises the question1   
,why does ,darwin press his theory to   
these  extreme conclusions8 ,why do all 
hypotheses of derivation converge so    
inevitably to one ultimate point8       
,having already considered some of the  
reasons which suggest or support the    
theory at its outset--which may  carry  
it as far as such sound and experienced 
naturalists as ,pictet  allow that it   
may be true--perhaps as far as ,darwin  

himself unfolds it  in the introductory 
proposition cited at the beginning of   
this  article--we may now inquire after 
the motives which impel the theorist  so
 much farther4 ,here proofs1 in the     
proper sense of the word1 are not  to be
 had4 ,we are beyond the region of      
demonstration1 and have only            
probabilities to consider4 ,what are    
these probabilities8 ,what work will    
this hypothesis do to establish a claim 
to be adopted in its  completeness8 ,why
 should a theory which may plausibly    
enough account  for the diversification 
of the species of each special type or  
genus be  expanded into a general system
 for the origination or successive      
diversification of all species1 and all 
special types or forms1 from  four or   
five remote primordial forms1 or perhaps
 from one8 ,we accept  the theory of    
gravitation because it explains all the 
facts we know1  and bears all the tests 
that we can put it to4 ,we incline to   
accept the  nebular hypothesis1 for     

similar reasons2 not because it is      
proved--thus  far it is incapable of    
proof--but because it is a natural      
theoretical  deduction from accepted    
physical laws1 is thoroughly congruous  
with the  facts1 and because its        
assumption serves to connect and        
harmonize these  into one probable and  
consistent whole4 ,can the derivative   
hypothesis  be maintained and carried   
out into a system on similar grounds8   
,if so1  however unproved1 it would     
appear to be a tenable hypothesis1 which
 is  all that its author ought now to   
claim4 ,such hypotheses as1 from the    
conditions of the case1 can neither be  
proved nor disproved by direct  evidence
 or experiment1 are to be tested only   
indirectly1 and therefore  imperfectly1 
by trying their power to harmonize the  
known facts1 and to  account for what is
 otherwise unaccountable4 ,so the       
question comes to  this3 ,what will an  
hypothesis of the derivation of species 
explain  which the opposing view leaves 

unexplained8    ,questions these which  
ought to be entertained before we take  
up the  arguments which have been       
advanced against this theory4 ,we can   
barely  glance at some of the           
considerations which ,darwin adduces1 or
 will be  sure to adduce in the future  
and fuller exposition which is promised4
  ,to display them in such wise as to   
indoctrinate the unscientific reader    
would require a volume4 ,merely to refer
 to them in the most general  terms     
would suffice for those familiar with   
scientific matters1 but  would scarcely 
enlighten those who are not4 ,wherefore 
let these trust  the impartial ,pictet1 
who freely admits that1 in the absence  
of  sufficient direct proofs to justify 
the possibility of his hypothesis1  ,mr4
 ,darwin relies upon indirect proofs1   
the bearing of which is real  and       
incontestable2 who concedes that his    
theory accords very well  with the great
 facts of comparative anatomy and       
zoology--comes in  admirably to explain 

unity of composition of organisms1 also 
to explain  rudimentary and             
representative organs1 and the natural  
series of genera  and species--equally  
corresponds with many paleontological   
data--agrees  well with the specific    
resemblances which exist between two    
successive  faunas1 with the parallelism
 which is sometimes observed between the
  series of paleontological succession  
and of embryonal development1  etc42 and
 finally1 although he does not accept   
the theory in these  results1 he allows 
that it appears to offer the best means 
of  explaining the manner in which      
organized beings were produced in epochs
  anterior to our own4    ,what more    
than this could be said for such an     
hypothesis8 ,here1  probably1 is its    
charm1 and its strong hold upon the     
speculative mind4  ,unproven though it  
be1 and cumbered prima facie with       
cumulative  improbabilities as it       
proceeds1 yet it singularly accords with
 great  classes of facts otherwise      

insulated and enigmatic1 and explains   
many  things which are thus far utterly 
inexplicable upon any other  scientific 
assumption4    ,we have said that       
,darwins hypothesis is the natural      
complement to  ,lyells uniformitarian   
theory in physical geology4 ,it is for  
the organic  world what that is for the 
inorganic2 and the accepters of the     
latter  stand in a position from which  
to regard the former in the most        
favorable light4  ,wherefore the rumor  
that the cautious ,lyell himself  has   
adopted the ,darwinian hypothesis need  
not surprise us4 ,the two  views are    
made for each other1 and1 like the two  
counterpart pictures  for the           
stereoscope1 when brought together1     
combine into one apparently  solid      
whole4    ,if we allow1 with ,pictet1   
that ,darwins theory will very well     
serve for  all that concerns the present
 epoch of the worlds history--an epoch  
in  which this renowned paleontologist  
includes the diluvial or quaternary     

period--then ,darwins first and foremost
 need in his onward course is a         
practicable road from this into and     
through the tertiary period1 the        
intervening region between the          
comparatively near and the far remote   
past4  ,here ,lyells doctrine paves the 
way1 by showing that in the  physical   
geology there is no general or absolute 
break between the two1  probably no     
greater between the latest tertiary and 
the quaternary  period than between the 
latter and the present time4 ,so far1   
the  ,lyellian view is1 we suppose1     
generally concurred in4 ,it is largely  
admitted that numerous tertiary species 
have continued down into the            
quaternary1 and many of them to the     
present time4 ,a goodly percentage  of  
the earlier and nearly half of the later
 tertiary mollusca1  according to ,des  
,hayes1 ,lye661 and1 if we mistake not1 
,bronn1 still  live4 ,this              
identification1 however1 is now         
questioned by a naturalist  of the very 

highest authority4 ,but1 in its bearings
 on the new theory1  the point here     
turns not upon absolute identity so much
 as upon close  resemblance4 ,for those 
who1 with ,agassiz1 doubt the specific  
identity  in any of these cases1 and    
those who say1 with ,pictet1 that the   
later  tertiary deposits contain in     
general the debris of species very      
nearly  related to those which still    
exist1 belonging to the same genera1 but
  specifically different1 may also agree
 with ,pictet1 that the  nearly-related 
species of successive faunas must or may
 have had a  material connection4 ,but  
the only material connection that we    
have an  idea of in such a case is a    
genealogical one4 ,and the supposition  
of a  genealogical connection is surely 
not unnatural in such cases--is         
demonstrably the natural one as respects
 all those tertiary species  which      
experienced naturalists have pronounced 
to be identical with  existing ones1 but
 which others now deem distinct ,for to 

identify the  two is the same thing as  
to conclude the one to be the ancestor  
of the  other ,no doubt there are       
differences between the tertiary and the
  present individuals1 differences      
equally noticed by both classes of      
naturalists1 but differently estimated  
,by the one these are deemed  quite     
compatible1 by the other incompatible1  
with community of origin  ,but who can  
tell us what amount of difference is    
compatible with  community of origin8   
,this is the very question at issue1 and
 one to be  settled by observation alone
 ,who would have thought that the peach 
and  the nectarine came from one stock8 
,but1  this being proved is it now  very
 improbable that both were derived from 
the almond1 or from some  common        
amygdaline progenitor8 ,who would have  
thought that the cabbage1  cauliflower1 
broccoli kale1 and kohlrabi are         
derivatives of one  species1 and rape or
 colza1 turnip1 and probably ruta-baga1 
of  another  species8 ,and who that is  

convinced of this can long undoubtingly 
hold  the original distinctness of      
turnips from cabbages as an article of  
faith8 ,on scientific grounds may not a 
primordial cabbage or rape be  assumed  
as the ancestor of all the cabbage      
races1 on much the same  ground that we 
assume a common ancestry for the        
diversified human  races8 ,if all ,our  
breeds of cattle came from one stock why
 not this  stock from the auroch1 which 
has had all the time between the        
diluvial  and the historic periods in   
which to set off a variation perhaps no 
greater than the difference between some
 sorts of domestic cattle8    ,that     
considerable differences are often      
discernible between tertiary            
individuals and their supposed          
descendants of the present day affords  
no argument against ,darwins theory1 as 
has been rashly thought1 but is         
decidedly in its favor4 ,if the         
identification were so perfect that no  
more differences were observable between

 the tertiary and the recent  shells    
than between various individuals of     
either1 then ,darwins  opponents1 who   
argue the immutability of species from  
the ibises and  cats preserved by the   
ancient ,egyptians being just like those
 of the  present day1 could triumphantly
 add a few hundred thousand years more  
to the length of the experiment and to  
the force of their argument4    ,as the 
facts stand1 it appears that1 while some
 tertiary forms are  essentially        
undistinguishable from existing ones1   
others are the same  with a difference1 
which is judged not to be specific or   
aboriginal2  and yet others show        
somewhat greater differences1 such as   
are  scientifically expressed by calling
 them marked varieties1 or else         
doubtful species2 while others1         
differing a little more1 are            
confidently termed distinct1 but        
nearly-related species4 ,now1 is not    
all this a question of degree1 of mere  
gradation of difference8 ,and is  it at 

all likely that these several gradations
 came to be established  in two totally 
different ways--some of them 7though    
naturalists cant  agree which7 through  
natural variation1 or other secondary   
cause1 and  some by original creation1  
without secondary cause8 ,we have seen  
that  the judicious ,pictet answers such
 questions as ,darwin would have him    
do1 in affirming that1 in all           
probability1 the nearly-related species 
of two successive faunas were materially
 connected1 and that  contemporaneous   
species1 similarly resembling each      
other1 were not all  created so1 but    
have become so4 ,this is equivalent to  
saying that  species 7using the term as 
all naturalists do1 and must continue to
  employ the word7 have only a relative1
 not an absolute fixity2 that           
differences fully equivalent to what are
 held to be specific may arise  in the  
course of time1 so that one species may 
at length be naturally  replaced by     
another species a good deal like it1 or 

may be diversified  into two1 three1 or 
more species1 or forms as different as  
species4  ,this concedes all that       
,darwin has a right to ask1 all that he 
can  directly infer from evidence4 ,we  
must add that it affords a locus        
standi1 more or less tenable1 for       
inferring more4    ,here another        
geological consideration comes in to    
help on this  inference4  ,the species  
of the later tertiary period for the    
most part  not only resembled those of  
our days--many of them so closely as to 
suggest an absolute continuity--but also
 occupied in general the same  regions  
that their relatives occupy now4 ,the   
same may be said1 though  less          
specially1 of the earlier tertiary and  
of the later secondary2 but  there is   
less and less localization of forms as  
we recede1 yet some  localization even  
in palaeozoic times4 ,while in the      
secondary period  one is struck with the
 similarity of forms and the identity of
 many of  the species which flourished  

apparently at the same time in all or in
  the most widely-separated parts of the
 world1 in the tertiary epoch1 on  the  
contrary1 along with the increasing     
specialization of climates and  their   
approximation to the present state1 we  
find abundant evidence of  increasing   
localization of orders1 genera and      
species1 and this  localization         
strikingly accords with the present     
geographical  distribution of the same  
groups of species ,where the imputed    
forefathers lived their relatives and   
supposed descendants now flourish  ,all 
the actual classes of the animal and    
vegetable kingdoms were  represented in 
the tertiary faunas and floras and in   
nearly the same  proportions and the    
same diversities as at present ,the     
faunas of what  is now ,europe1 ,asia   
,america and ,australia1 differed from  
each other  much as they now differ3 in 
fact--according to ,adolphe ,brongniart1
  whose statements we here              
condense,,iii-#g--the inhabitants of    

these  different regions appear for the 
most part to have acquired1 before the  
close of the tertiary period1 the       
characters which essentially            
distinguish their existing faunas4 ,the 
,eastern ,continent had then1 as  now1  
its great pachyderms1 elephants1        
rhinoceros1 hippopotamus2 ,south        
,america1 its armadillos1 sloths1 and   
anteaters2 ,australia1 a crowd of       
marsupials2 and the very strange birds  
of ,new ,zealand had predecessors  of   
similar strangeness4    ,everywhere the 
same geographical distribution as now1  
with a difference  in the particular    
area1 as respects the northern portion  
of the  continents1 answering to a      
warmer climate then than ours1 such as  
allowed species of hippopotamus1        
rhinoceros1 and elephant1 to range  even
 to the regions now inhabited by the    
reindeer and the musk-ox1 and  with the 
serious disturbing intervention of the  
glacial period within a  comparatively  
recent time4 ,let it be noted also that 

those tertiary  species which have      
continued with little change down to our
 days are  the marine animals of the    
lower grades1 especially mollusca4      
,their low  organization1 moderate      
sensibility1 and the simple conditions  
of an  existence in a medium like the   
ocean1 not subject to great variation   
and incapable of sudden change1 may well
 account for their continuance2  while1 
on the other hand1 the more intense1    
however gradual1 climatic  vicissitudes 
on land1 which have driven all tropical 
and subtropical  forms out of the higher
 latitudes and assigned to them their   
actual  limits1 would be almost sure to 
extinguish such huge and unwieldy       
animals as mastodons1 mammoths1 and the 
like1 whose power of enduring  altered  
circumstances must have been small4     
,this general replacement of the        
tertiary species of a country by others 
so much like them is a noteworthy fact4 
,the hypothesis of the  independent     
creation of all species1 irrespective of

 their antecedents1  leaves this fact   
just as mysterious as is creation       
itself2 that of  derivation undertakes  
to account for it4 ,whether it          
satisfactorily does  so or not1 it must 
be allowed that the facts well accord   
with that  hypothesis4 ,the same may be 
said of another conclusion1 namely1 that
  the geological succession of animals  
and plants appears to correspond  in a  
general way with their relative standing
 or rank in a natural  system of        
classification4 ,it seems clear that1   
though no one of the  grand types of the
 animal kingdom can be traced back      
farther than the  rest1 yet the lower   
classes long preceded the higher2 that  
there has  been on the whole a steady   
progression within each class and order2
 and  that the highest plants and       
animals have appeared only in relatively
  modern times4 ,it is only1 however1 in
 a broad sense that this  generalization
 is now thought to hold good4 ,it       
encounters many apparent  exceptions1   

and sundry real ones4 ,so far as the    
rule holds1 all is as  it should be upon
 an hypothesis of derivation4    ,the   
rule has its exceptions4 ,but1 curiously
 enough1 the most striking  class of    
exceptions1 if such they be1 seems to us
 even more favorable  to the doctrine of
 derivation than is the general rule of 
a pure and  simple ascending gradation4 
,we refer to what ,agassiz calls        
prophetic  and synthetic types2 for     
which the former name may suffice1 as   
the  difference between the two is      
evanescent4      ,it has been noticed1  
writes our great zoologist1 that certain
 types1  which are frequently prominent 
among the representatives of past ages1 
combine in their structure peculiarities
 which at later periods are  only       
observed separately in different1       
distinct types4 ,sauroid fishes  before 
reptiles1 ,pterodactyles before birds1  
,ichthyosauri before  dolphins1 etc4    
,there are entire families1 of nearly   
every class of  animals1 which in the   

state of their perfect development      
exemplify such  prophetic relations4    
,the sauroid fishes of the past         
geological ages are an example of this  
kind ,these fishes which preceded the   
appearance of reptiles present a        
combination of ichthyic and reptilian   
characters not to be found in the  true 
members of this class1 which form its   
bulk at present4 ,the  ,pterodactyles1  
which preceded the class of birds1 and  
the ,ichthyosauri1  which preceded the  
,cetacea1 are other examples of such    
prophetic  types4--7,agassiz1           
,contributions1 ,essay on               
,classification1 p4 #aag47      ,now1   
these reptile-like fishes1 of which     
gar-pikes are the living                
representatives1 though of earlier      
appearance1 are admittedly of higher    
rank than common fishes4 ,they dominated
 until reptiles appeared1 when  they    
mostly gave place to 7or1 as the        
derivationists will insist1 were        
resolved by divergent variation and     

natural selection into7 common  fishes1 
destitute of reptilian characters1 and  
saurian reptiles--the  intermediate     
grades1 which1 according to a familiar  
piscine saying1 are  neither fish1      
flesh1 nor good red-herring1 being      
eliminated and  extinguished by natural 
consequence of the struggle for         
existence which  ,darwin so aptly       
portrays4 ,and so1 perhaps1 of the other
 prophetic  types4 ,here type and       
antitype correspond4 ,if these are true 
prophecies1  we need not wonder that    
some who read them in ,agassizs book    
will read  their fulfillment in         
,darwins4    ,note also1 in this        
connection1 that along with a wonderful 
persistence  of type1 with change of    
species1 genera1 orders1 etc41 from     
formation  to formation1 no species and 
no higher group which has once          
unequivocally died out ever afterward   
reappears4 ,why is this1 but that  the  
link of generation has been sundered8   
,why1 on the hypothesis of  independent 

originations1 were not failing species  
recreated1 either  identically or with a
 difference1 in regions eminently       
adapted to their  well-being8 ,to take a
 striking case4 ,that no part of the    
world now  offers more suitable         
conditions for wild horses and cattle   
than the  pampas and other plains of    
,south ,america1 is shown by the        
facility with  which they have there run
 wild and enormously multiplied1 since  
introduced from the ,old ,world not long
 ago4 ,there was no wild ,american      
stock4 ,yet in the times of the mastodon
 and megatherium1 at the dawn of  the   
present period1 wild-horses--certainly  
very much like the existing             
horse--roamed over those plains in      
abundance4 ,on the principle of         
original and direct created adaptation  
of species to climate and other         
conditions1 why were they not           
reproduced1 when1 after the colder      
intervening era1 those regions became   
again eminently adapted to such         

animals8 ,why1 but because1 by their    
complete extinction in ,south  ,america1
 the line of descent was there utterly  
broken8 ,upon the  ordinary hypothesis1 
there is no scientific explanation      
possible of  this series of facts1 and  
of many others like them4  ,upon the new
  hypothesis1 the succession of the same
 types of structure within the  same    
areas during the later geological       
periods ceases to be mysterious1  and is
 simply explained by inheritance4 ,their
 cessation is failure of  issue4        
,along with these considerations the    
fact 7alluded to on page #ih7 should  be
 remembered that1 as a general thing1   
related species of the present  age are 
geographically associated4 ,the larger  
part of the plants1 and  still more of  
the animals1 of each separate country   
are peculiar to it2  and1 as most       
species now flourish over the graves of 
their by-gone  relatives of former ages1
 so they now dwell among or accessibly  
near  their kindred species4    ,here   

also comes in that general parallelism  
between the order of  succession of     
animals and plants in geological times1 
and the gradation  among their living   
representatives from low to highly      
organized1 from  simple and general to  
complex and specialized forms2 also the 
parallelism between the order of        
succession of animals in geological     
times and the changes their living      
representatives undergo during their    
embryological growth1 as if the world   
were one prolonged gestation4  ,modern  
science has much insisted on this       
parallelism1 and to a certain  extent is
 allowed to have made it out4 ,all these
 things1 which conspire  to prove that  
the ancient and the recent forms of life
 are somehow  intimately connected      
together in one grand system1 equally   
conspire to  suggest that the connection
 is one similar or analogous to         
generation4  ,surely no naturalist can  
be blamed for entering somewhat         
confidently  upon a field of speculative

 inquiry which here opens so invitingly2
 nor  need former premature endeavors   
and failures utterly dishearten him4    
,all these things1 it may naturally be  
said1 go to explain the order1  not the 
mode1 of the incoming of species4 ,but  
they all do tend to bring  out the      
generalization expressed by ,mr4        
,wallace in the formula that  every     
species has come into existence         
coincident both in time and  space with 
preexisting closely-allied species4     
,not1 however1 that this  is proved even
 of existing species as a matter of     
general fact4 ,it is  obviously         
impossible to prove anything of the     
kind4 ,but we must concede  that the    
known facts strongly suggest such an    
inference4 ,and--since  species are only
 congeries of individuals1 since every  
individual came  into existence in      
consequence of preexisting individuals  
of the same  sort1 so leading up to the 
individuals with which the species      
began1  and since the only material     

sequence we know of among plants and    
animals is that from parent to          
progeny--the presumption becomes        
exceedingly strong that the connection  
of the incoming with the  preexisting   
species is a genealogical one4    ,here1
 however1 all depends upon the          
probability that ,mr4 ,wallaces         
inference is really true4 ,certainly it 
is not yet generally accepted2  but a   
strong current is setting toward its    
acceptance4    ,so long as universal    
cataclysms were in vogue1 and all life  
upon the  earth was thought to have been
 suddenly destroyed and renewed many    
times in succession1 such a view could  
not be thought of4 ,so the  equivalent  
view maintained by ,agassiz1 and        
formerly1 we believe1 by  ,d,orbigny1   
that irrespectively of general and      
sudden catastrophes1 or  any known      
adequate physical cause1 there has been 
a total depopulation  at the close of   
each geological period or formation1 say
 forty or fifty  times or more1 followed

 by as many independent great acts of   
creation1  at which alone have species  
been originated1 and at each of which a 
vegetable and an animal kingdom were    
produced entire and complete1           
full-fledged1 as flourishing1 as        
wide-spread1 and populous1 as varied    
and mutually adapted from the beginning 
as ever afterward--such a view1  of     
course1 supersedes all material         
connection between successive  species1 
and removes even the association and    
geographical range of  species entirely 
out of the domain of physical causes and
 of natural  science4 ,this is the      
extreme opposite of ,wallaces and       
,darwin s view1  and is quite as        
hypothetical4 ,the nearly universal     
opinion1 if we  rightly gather it1      
manifestly is1 that the replacement of  
the species  of successive formations   
was not complete and simultaneous1 but  
partial  and successive2 and that along 
the course of each epoch some species   
probably were introduced1 and some1     

doubtless1 became extinct4 ,if all      
since the tertiary belongs to our       
present epoch1 this is certainly true   
of it3 if to two or more epochs1 then   
the hypothesis of a total change  is not
 true of them4    ,geology makes huge   
demands upon time2 and we regret to find
 that it has  exhausted ours--that what 
we meant for the briefest and most      
general  sketch of some geological      
considerations in favor of ,darwins     
hypothesis  has so extended as to leave 
no room for considering the great facts 
of  comparative anatomy and zoology with
 which ,darwins theory very well        
accords1 nor for indicating how it      
admirably serves for explaining  the    
unity of composition of all organisms1  
the existence of  representative and    
rudimentary organs1 and the natural     
series which  genera and species        
compose4 ,suffice it to say that these  
are the real  strongholds of the new    
system on its theoretical side2 that it 
goes far  toward explaining both the    

physiological and the structural        
gradations  and relations between the   
two kingdoms1 and the arrangement of all
  their forms in groups subordinate to  
groups1 all within a few great  types2  
that it reads the riddle of abortive    
organs and of morphological  conformity1
 of which no other theory has ever      
offered a scientific  explanation1 and  
supplies a ground for harmonizing the   
two fundamental  ideas which naturalists
 and philosophers conceive to have ruled
 the  organic world1 though they could  
not reconcile them2 namely1 ,adaptation 
to ,purpose and ,conditions of          
,existence1 and ,unity of ,type4 ,to    
reconcile  these two undeniable         
principles is the capital problem in the
  philosophy of natural history2 and the
 hypothesis which consistently  does so 
thereby secures a great advantage4      
,we all know that the arm and hand of a 
monkey1 the foreleg and foot of  a dog  
and of a horse1 the wing of a bat1 and  
the fin of a porpoise1 are              

fundamentally identical2 that the long  
neck of the giraffe has the same  and no
 more bones than the short one of the   
elephant2 that the eggs of  ,surinam    
frogs hatch into tadpoles with as good  
tails for swimming as  any of their     
kindred1 although as tadpoles they never
 enter the water2  that the ,guinea-pig 
is furnished with incisor teeth which it
 never  uses1 as it sheds them before   
birth2 that embryos of mammals and birds
  have branchial slits and arteries     
running in loops1 in imitation or       
reminiscence of the arrangement which is
 permanent in fishes2 and that          
thousands of animals and plants have    
rudimentary organs which1 at least  in  
numerous cases1 are wholly useless to   
their possessors1 etc41 etc4  ,upon a   
derivative theory this morphological    
conformity is explained by  community of
 descent2 and it has not been explained 
in any other way4    ,naturalists are   
constantly speaking of related species1 
of the  affinity of a genus or other    

group1 and of family                    
resemblance--vaguely conscious that     
these terms of kinship are  something   
more than mere metaphors1 but unaware of
 the grounds of their  aptness4 ,mr4    
,darwin assures them that they have been
 talking derivative  doctrine all their 
lives--as ,m4 ,jourdain talked          
prose--without knowing  it4    ,if it is
 difficult and in many cases practically
 impossible to fix the  limits of       
species1 it is still more so to fix     
those of genera2 and  those of tribes   
and families are still less susceptible 
of exact  natural circumscription4      
,intermediate forms occur1 connecting   
one group  with another in a manner     
sadly perplexing to systematists1 except
 to  those who have ceased to expect    
absolute limitations in ,nature4 ,all   
this blending could hardly fail to      
suggest a former material connection    
among allied forms1 such as that which  
the hypothesis of derivation  demands4  
,here it would not be amiss to consider 

the general principle of  gradation     
throughout organic ,nature--a principle 
which answers in a  general way to the  
,law of ,continuity in the inorganic    
world1 or rather  is so analogous to it 
that both may fairly be expressed by the
  ,leibnitzian axiom1 ,natura non agit  
saltatim4 ,as an axiom or  philosophical
 principle1 used to test modal laws or  
hypotheses1 this in  strictness belongs 
only to physics4 ,in the investigation  
of ,nature at  large1 at least in the   
organic world1 nobody would undertake to
 apply  this principle as a test of the 
validity of any theory or supposed law4 
,but naturalists of enlarged views will 
not fail to infer the principle  from   
the phenomena they investigate--to      
perceive that the rule holds1  under due
 qualifications and altered forms1      
throughout the realm of  ,nature2       
although we do not suppose that ,nature 
in the organic world  makes no distinct 
steps1 but only short and serial        
steps--not  infinitely fine gradations1 

but no long leaps1 or few of them4      
,to glance at a few illustrations out of
 many that present themselves4  ,it     
would be thought that the distinction   
between the two organic  kingdoms was   
broad and absolute4  ,plants and animals
 belong to two very  different          
categories1 fulfill opposite offices    
and1 as to the mass of  them are so     
unlike that the difficulty of the       
ordinary observer would  be to find     
points of comparison ,without entering  
into details which  would fill an       
article1 we may safely say that the     
difficulty with the  naturalist is all  
the other way--that all these broad     
differences  vanish one by one as we    
approach the lower confines of the two  
kingdoms1 and that no absolute          
distinction whatever is now known       
between them4 ,it is quite possible that
 the same organism may be both          
vegetable and animal1 or may be first   
the one and then the other4 ,if  some   
organisms may be said to be at first    

vegetables and then animals1  others1   
like the spores and other reproductive  
bodies of many of the  lower ,algae1 may
 equally claim to have first a          
characteristically  animal1 and then an 
unequivocally vegetable existence4 ,nor 
is the  gradation restricted to these   
simple organisms4 ,it appears in general
  functions1 as in that of reproduction1
 which is reducible to the same  formula
 in both kingdoms1 while it exhibits    
close approximations in the  lower      
forms2 also in a common or similar      
ground of sensibility in the  lowest    
forms of both1 a common faculty of      
effecting movements tending  to a       
determinate end1 traces of which pervade
 the vegetable  kingdom--while1 on the  
other hand1 this indefinable principle1 
this  vegetable    ,animula vagula1     
blandula1 ,hospes comesque corporis1    
graduates into the higher sensitiveness 
of the lower class of animals4  ,nor    
need we hesitate to recognize the fine  
gradations from simple  sensitiveness   

and volition to the higher instinctive  
and to the other  psychical             
manifestations of the higher brute      
animals4 ,the gradation is  undoubted1  
however we may explain it4    ,again1   
propagation is of one mode in the higher
 animals1 of two in all  plants2 but    
vegetative propagation1 by budding or   
offshoots1 extends  through the lower   
grades of animals4 ,in both kingdoms    
there may be  separation of the         
offshoots1 or indifference in this      
respect1 or  continued and organic union
 with the parent stock2 and this either 
with  essential independence of the     
offshoots1 or with a subordination of   
these to a common whole2 or finally with
 such subordination and  amalgamation1  
along with specialization of function1  
that the same  parts1 which in other    
cases can be regarded only as progeny1  
in these  become only members of an     
individual4    ,this leads to the       
question of individuality1 a subject    
quite too large  and too recondite for  

present discussion4 ,the conclusion of  
the whole  matter1 however1 is1 that    
individuality--that very ground of being
 as  distinguished from thing--is not   
attained in ,nature at one leap4 ,if    
anywhere truly exemplified in plants1 it
 is only in the lowest and  simplest1   
where the being is a structural unit1 a 
single cell1  member-less and organless1
 though organic--the same thing as those
  cells of which all the more complex   
plants are built up1 and with which     
every plant and 7structurally7 every    
animal began its development4 ,in  the  
ascending gradation of the vegetable    
kingdom individuality is1 so  to say1   
striven after1 but never attained2 in   
the lower animals it is  striven after  
with greater though incomplete success2 
it is realized  only in animals of so   
high a rank that vegetative             
multiplication or  offshoots are out of 
the question1 where all parts are       
strictly members  and nothing else1 and 
all subordinated to a common nervous    

centre--is  fully realized only in a    
conscious person4    ,so1 also1 the     
broad distinction between reproduction  
by seeds or ova  and propagation by     
buds1 though perfect in some of the     
lowest forms of  life1 becomes          
evanescent in others2 and even the most 
absolute law we  know in the physiology 
of genuine reproduction--that of sexual 
cooperation--has its exceptions in both 
kingdoms in parthenogenesis1 to  which  
in the vegetable kingdom a most curious 
and intimate series of  gradations      
leads4 ,in plants1 likewise1 a long and 
finely graduated  series of transitions 
leads from bisexual to unisexual        
blossoms2 and so  in various other      
respects4 ,everywhere we may perceive   
that ,nature  secures her ends1 and     
makes her distinctions on the whole     
manifest and  real but everywhere       
without abrupt breaks ,we need not      
wonder therefore  that gradations       
between species and varieties should    
occur2 the more  so1 since genera1      

tribes1 and other groups into which the 
naturalist  collocates species1 are far 
from being always absolutely limited in 
,nature1 though they are necessarily    
represented to be so in systems4  ,from 
the necessity of the case1 the          
classifications of the naturalist       
abruptly define where ,nature more or   
less blends4 ,our systems are  nothing1 
if not definite4 ,they express          
differences1 and some of the  coarser   
gradations4 ,but this evinces not their 
perfection1 but their  imperfection4    
,even the best of them are to the system
 of ,nature what  consecutive patches of
 the seven colors are to the rainbow4   
,now the principle of gradation         
throughout organic ,nature may1 of      
course1 be interpreted upon other       
assumptions than those of ,darwins      
hypothesis--certainly upon quite other  
than those of a materialistic           
philosophy1 with which we ourselves have
 no sympathy4 ,still we conceive  it not
 only possible1 but probable1 that this 

gradation1 as it has its  natural       
ground1 may yet have its scientific     
explanation4 ,in any case1  there is no 
need to deny that the general facts     
correspond well with an  hypothesis like
 ,darwins1 which is built upon fine     
gradations4    ,we have contemplated    
quite long enough the general           
presumptions in  favor of an hypothesis 
of the derivation of species4 ,we cannot
 forget1  however1 while for the moment 
we overlook1 the formidable difficulties
  which all hypotheses of this class    
have to encounter1 and the serious      
implications which they seem to involve4
 ,we feel1 moreover1 that  ,darwins     
particular hypothesis is exposed to some
 special objections4 ,it  requires no   
small strength of nerve steadily to     
conceive1 not only of  the              
diversification1 but of the formation of
 the organs of an animal  through       
cumulative variation and natural        
selection4 ,think of such an  organ as  
the eye1 that most perfect of optical   

instruments1 as so  produced in the     
lower animals and perfected in the      
higher6 ,a friend of  ours1 who accepts 
the new doctrine1 confesses that for a  
long while a  cold chill came over him  
whenever he thought of the eye4 ,he has 
at  length got over that stage of the   
complaint1 and is now in the fever of   
belief1 perchance to be succeeded by the
 sweating stage1 during which  sundry   
peccant humors may be eliminated from   
the system4 ,for ourselves1  we dread   
the chill1 and have some misgivings     
about the consequences of  the reaction4
  ,we find ourselves in the singular    
position  acknowledged by ,pictet--that 
is1 confronted with a theory which1     
although it can really explain much1    
seems inadequate to the heavy task  it  
so boldly assumes1 but which1           
nevertheless1 appears better fitted     
than any other that has been broached to
 explain1 if it be possible to  explain1
 somewhat of the manner in which        
organized beings may have  arisen and   

succeeded each other4 ,in this dilemma  
we might take  advantage of ,mr4        
,darwins candid admission1 that he by no
 means expects  to convince old and     
experienced people1 whose minds are     
stocked with a  multitude of facts all  
regarded during a long course of years  
from the  old point of view4 ,this is   
nearly our case4 ,so1 owning no call to 
a  larger faith than is expected of us1 
but not prepared to pronounce the  whole
 hypothesis untenable1 under such       
construction as we should put  upon it1 
we naturally sought to attain a settled 
conviction through a  perusal of several
 proffered refutations of the theory4   
,at least1 this  course seemed to offer 
the readiest way of bringing to a head  
the  various objections to which the    
theory is exposed4 ,on several accounts 
some of these opposed reviews especially
 invite examination4 ,we  propose1      
accordingly1 to conclude our task with  
an article upon ,darwin  and his        
,reviewers4      ,,iii      ,the origin 

of species1 like all origination1 like  
the institution of  any other natural   
state or order1 is beyond our immediate 
ken4 ,we see  or may learn how things go
 on2 we can only frame hypotheses as to 
how  they began4    ,two hypotheses     
divide the scientific world1 very       
unequally1 upon the  origin of the      
existing diversity of the plants and    
animals which  surround us4 ,one assumes
 that the actual kinds are primordial2  
the  other1 that they are derivative4   
,one1 that all kinds originated         
supernaturally and directly as such1 and
 have continued unchanged in  the order 
of ,nature2 the other1 that the present 
kinds appeared in some  sort of         
genealogical connection with other and  
earlier kinds1 that they  became what   
they now are in the course of time and  
in the order of  ,nature4    ,or1       
bringing in the word species1 which is  
well defined as the  perennial          
succession of individuals1 commonly of  
very like  individuals--as a close      

corporation of individuals perpetuated  
by  generation1 instead of election--and
 reducing the question to  mathematical 
simplicity of statement3  species are   
lines of individuals  coming down from  
the past and running on to the future2  
lines receding1  therefore1 from our    
view in either direction4  ,within our  
limited  observation they appear to be  
parallel lines1 as a general thing      
neither approaching to nor diverging    
from each other4    ,the first          
hypothesis assumes that they were       
parallel from the unknown  beginning and
 will be to the unknown end4 ,the second
 hypothesis assumes  that the apparent  
parallelism is not real and complete1 at
 least  aboriginally1 but approximate or
 temporary2 that we should find the     
lines convergent in the past1 if we     
could trace them far enough2 that  some 
of them1 if produced back1 would fall   
into certain fragments of  lines1 which 
have left traces in the past1 lying not 
exactly in the  same direction1 and     

these farther back into others to which 
they are  equally unparallel4 ,it will  
also claim that the present lines1      
whether  on the whole really or only    
approximately parallel1 sometimes fork  
or  send off branches on one side or the
 other1 producing new lines             
7varieties71 which run for a while1 and 
for aught we know indefinitely  when not
 interfered with1 near and approximately
 parallel to the parent  line4 ,this    
claim it can establish2 and it may also 
show that these  close subsidiary lines 
may branch or vary again1 and that those
  branches or varieties which are best  
adapted to the existing conditions  may 
be continued1 while others stop or die  
out4 ,and so we may have the  basis of a
 real theory of the diversification of  
species and here  indeed1 there is a    
real1 though a narrow1 established      
ground to build  upon ,but as systems of
 organic ,nature1 both doctrines are    
equally  hypotheses1 are suppositions of
 what there is no proof of from         

experience1 assumed in order to account 
for the observed phenomena1 and         
supported by such indirect evidence as  
can be had4    ,even when the upholders 
of the former and more popular system   
mix up  revelation with scientific      
discussion--which we decline to do--they
 by  no means thereby render their view 
other than hypothetical4 ,agreeing  that
 plants and animals were produced by    
,omnipotent fiat does not  exclude the  
idea of natural order and what we call  
secondary causes4  ,the record of the   
fiat--,let the earth bring forth grass1 
the herb  yielding seed1 etc41 and it   
was so2 let the earth bring forth the   
living creature after his kind1 cattle  
and creeping thing and beast of  the    
earth after his kind1 and it was        
so--seems even to imply them4  ,agreeing
 that they were formed of the dust of   
the ground1 and of thin  air1 only leads
 to the conclusion that the pristine    
individuals were  corporeally           
constituted like existing individuals1  

produced through  natural agencies4 ,to 
agree that they were created after their
 kinds  determines nothing as to what   
were the original kinds1 nor in what    
mode1 during what time1 and in what     
connections it pleased the ,almighty  to
 introduce the first individuals of each
 sort upon the earth4  ,scientifically  
considered1 the two opposing doctrines  
are equally  hypothetical4    ,the two  
views very unequally divide the         
scientific world2 so that  believers in 
the divine right of majorities need not 
hesitate which  side to take1 at least  
for the present4 ,up to a time quite    
within the  memory of a generation still
 on the stage1 two hypotheses about the 
nature of light very unequally divided  
the scientific world4 ,but the  small   
minority has already prevailed3  the    
emission theory has gone  out2 the      
undulatory or wave theory1 after some   
fluctuation1 has reached  high tide1 and
 is now the pervading1 the              
fully-established system4  ,there was an

 intervening time during which most     
physicists held their  opinions in      
suspense4    ,the adoption of the       
undulatory theory of light called for   
the extension  of the same theory to    
heat1 and this promptly suggested the   
hypothesis  of a correlation1 material  
connection1 and transmutability of heat1
  light1 electricity1 magnetism1 etc42  
which hypothesis the physicists  held in
 absolute suspense until very lately1   
but are now generally  adopting4 ,if not
 already established as a system1 it    
promises soon to  become so4 ,at least1 
it is generally received as a tenable   
and probably  true hypothesis4          
,parallel to this1 however less cogent  
the reasons1 ,darwin and others1  having
 shown it likely that some varieties of 
plants or animals have  diverged in time
 into cognate species1 or into forms as 
different as  species1 are led to infer 
that all species of a genus may have    
thus  diverged from a common stock1 and 
thence to suppose a higher community  of

 origin in ages still farther back1 and 
so on4 ,following the safe  example of  
the physicists1 and acknowledging the   
fact of the  diversification of a once  
homogeneous species into varieties1 we  
may  receive the theory of the evolution
 of these into species1 even while  for 
the present we hold the hypothesis of a 
further evolution in cool  suspense or  
in grave suspicion4 ,in respect to very 
many questions a  wise mans mind rests  
long in a state neither of belief nor   
unbelief4  ,but your intellectually     
short-sighted people are apt to be      
preternaturally clear-sighted1 and to   
find their way very plain to  positive  
conclusions upon one side or the other  
of every mooted  question4    ,in fact1 
most people1 and some philosophers1     
refuse to hold questions  in abeyance1  
however incompetent they may be to      
decide them4 ,and1  curiously enough1   
the more difficult1 recondite1 and      
perplexing1 the  questions or hypotheses
 are--such1 for instance1 as those about

 organic  ,nature--the more impatient   
they are of suspense4 ,sometimes1 and   
evidently in the present case1 this     
impatience grows out of a fear that  a  
new hypothesis may endanger cherished   
and most important beliefs4  ,impatience
 under such circumstances is not        
unnatural1 though perhaps  needless1    
and1 if so1 unwise4    ,to us the       
present revival of the derivative       
hypothesis1 in a more  winning shape    
than it ever before had1 was not        
unexpected4 ,we wonder  that any        
thoughtful observer of the course of    
investigation and of  speculation in    
science should not have foreseen it1 and
 have learned at  length to take its    
inevitable coming patiently2 the more   
so1 as in  ,darwins treatise it comes in
 a purely scientific form1 addressed    
only  to scientific men4 ,the notoriety 
and wide popular perusal of this        
treatise appear to have astonished the  
author even more than the book  itself  
has astonished the reading world ,coming

 as the new presentation  does from a   
naturalist of acknowledged character and
 ability and marked  by a               
conscientiousness and candor which have 
not always been  reciprocated we have   
thought it simply right to set forth the
 doctrine  as fairly and as favorably as
 we could ,there are plenty to decry it 
and  the whole theory is widely exposed 
to attack ,for the arguments on the     
other side we may look to the numerous  
adverse publications which  ,darwin s   
volume has already called out and       
especially to those reviews  which      
propose directly to refute it4 ,taking  
various lines and  reflecting very      
diverse modes of thought1 these hostile 
critics may be  expected to concentrate 
and enforce the principal objections    
which can  be brought to bear against   
the derivative hypothesis in general1   
and  ,darwins new exposition of it in   
particular4    ,upon the opposing side  
of the question we have read with       
attention--#a4  ,an article in the      

,north ,american ,review for ,april     
last2 #b4 ,one in the  ,christian       
,examiner1 ,boston1 for ,may2 #c4 ,m4   
,pictets article in the  ,bibliotheque  
,universelle1 which we have already made
 considerable use  of1 which seems      
throughout most able and correct1 and   
which in tone and  fairness is admirably
 in contrast with--#d4 ,the article in  
the ,edinburgh  ,review for ,may1       
attributed--although against a large    
amount of internal  presumptive         
evidence--to the most distinguished     
,british comparative  anatomist2 #e4 ,an
 article in the ,north ,british ,review 
for ,may2 #f4 ,prof4  ,agassiz has      
afforded an early opportunity to peruse 
the criticisms he  makes in the         
forthcoming third volume of his great   
work1 by a  publication of them in      
advance in the ,american ,journal of    
,science for  ,july4    ,in our survey  
of the lively discussion which has been 
raised1 it  matters little how our own  
particular opinions may incline4 ,but we

 may  confess to an impression1 thus    
far1 that the doctrine of the permanent 
and complete immutability of species has
 not been established1 and may  fairly  
be doubted4  ,we believe that species   
vary1 and that ,natural  ,selection     
works2 but we suspect that its          
operation1 like every analogous natural 
operation1 may be limited by something  
else4 ,just as every species by  its    
natural rate of reproduction would soon 
completely fill any country  it could   
live in1 but does not1 being checked by 
some other species or  some other       
condition--so it may be surmised that   
variation and natural  selection have   
their struggle and consequent check1 or 
are limited by  something inherent in   
the constitution of organic beings4     
,we are disposed to rank the derivative 
hypothesis in its fullness with  the    
nebular hypothesis1 and to regard both  
as allowable1 as not  unlikely to prove 
tenable in spite of some strong         
objections1 but as  not therefore       

demonstrably true4 ,those1 if any there 
be1 who regard the  derivative          
hypothesis as satisfactorily proved1    
must have loose notions  as to what     
proof is4 ,those who imagine it can be  
easily refuted and  cast aside1 must1 we
 think1 have imperfect or very          
prejudiced  conceptions of the facts    
concerned and of the questions at issue4
    ,we are not disposed nor prepared to
 take sides for or against the new      
hypothesis1 and so1 perhaps1 occupy a   
good position from which to watch  the  
discussion and criticise those          
objections which are seemingly          
inconclusive4  ,on surveying the        
arguments urged by those who have       
undertaken to demolish the theory1 we   
have been most impressed with a  sense  
of their great inequality4 ,some strike 
us as excellent and  perhaps            
unanswerable2 some1 as incongruous with 
other views of the same  writers2       
others1 when carried out1 as            
incompatible with general  experience or

 general beliefs1 and therefore as      
proving too much2 still  others1 as     
proving nothing at all2 so that1 on the 
whole1 the effect is  rather confusing  
and disappointing4 ,we certainly        
expected a stronger  adverse case than  
any which the thoroughgoing opposers of 
,darwin appear  to have made out4       
,wherefore1 if it be found that the new 
hypothesis has  grown upon our favor as 
we proceeded1 this must be attributed   
not so  much to the force of the        
arguments of the book itself as to the  
want of  force of several of those by   
which it has been assailed4 ,darwins    
arguments we might resist or adjourn2   
but some of the refutations of it  give 
us more concern than the book itself    
did4    ,these remarks apply mainly to  
the philosophical and theological       
objections which have been elaborately  
urged1 almost exclusively by the        
,american reviewers4 ,the ,north        
,british reviewer1 indeed1 roundly      
denounces the book as atheistical1 but  

evidently deems the case too  clear for 
argument4 ,the ,edinburgh reviewer1 on  
the contrary1 scouts all  such          
objections--as well he may1 since he    
records his belief in a  continuous     
creative operation1 a constantly        
operating secondary  creational law1    
through which species are successively  
produced2 and  he emits faint1 but not  
indistinct1 glimmerings of a            
transmutation  theory of his            
own2,,iii-#h so that he is equally      
exposed to all the  philosophical       
objections advanced by ,agassiz1 and to 
most of those  urged by the other       
,american critics1 against ,darwin      
himself4    ,proposing now to criticise 
the critics1 so far as to see what their
  most general and comprehensive        
objections amount to1 we must needs     
begin with the ,american reviewers1 and 
with their arguments adduced to  prove  
that a derivative hypothesis ought not  
to be true1 or is not  possible1        
philosophical1 or theistic4    ,it must 

not be forgotten that on former         
occasions very confident  judgments have
 been pronounced by very competent      
persons1 which have  not been finally   
ratified4 ,of the two great minds of the
 seventeenth  century1 ,newton and      
,leibnitz1 both profoundly religious as 
well as  philosophical1 one produced the
 theory of gravitation1 the other       
objected to that theory that it was     
subversive of natural religion4 ,the    
nebular hypothesis--a natural           
consequence of the theory of gravitation
  and of the subsequent progress of     
physical and astronomical               
discovery--has been denounced as        
atheistical even down to our own day4   
,but it is now largely adopted by the   
most theistical natural  philosophers as
 a tenable and perhaps sufficient       
hypothesis1 and where  not accepted is  
no longer objected to1 so far as we     
know1 on  philosophical or religious    
grounds4    ,the gist of the            
philosophical objections urged by the   

two ,boston  reviewers against an       
hypothesis of the derivation of         
species--or at  least against ,darwins  
particular hypothesis-- is1 that it is  
incompatible with the idea of any       
manifestation of design in the          
universe1 that it denies final causes4  
,a serious objection this1 and  one that
 demands very serious attention4    ,the
 proposition1 that things and events in 
,nature were not designed to  be so1 if 
logically carried out1 is doubtless     
tantamount to atheism4  ,yet most people
 believe that some were designed and    
others were not1  although they fall    
into a hopeless maze whenever they      
undertake to  define their position4    
,so we should not like to stigmatize as 
atheistically disposed a person who     
regards certain things and events  as   
being what they are through designed    
laws 7whatever that expression  means71 
but as not themselves specially         
ordained1 or who1 in another            
connection1 believes in general1 but not

 in particular ,providence4 ,we  could  
sadly puzzle him with questions2 but in 
return he might equally  puzzle us4     
,then1 to deny that anything was        
specially designed to be  what it is1 is
 one proposition2 while to deny that the
 ,designer  supernaturally or           
immediately made it so1 is another3     
though the  reviewers appear not to     
recognize the distinction4    ,also1    
scornfully to repudiate or to sneer at  
the idea of any  manifestation of design
 in the material universe1,,iii-#i is   
one thing2  while to consider1 and      
perhaps to exaggerate1 the difficulties 
which  attend the practical application 
of the doctrine of final causes to      
certain instances1 is quite another     
thing3 yet the ,boston reviewers1 we    
regret to say1 have not been duly       
regardful of the difference4 ,whatever  
be thought of ,darwins doctrine1 we are 
surprised that he should be  charged    
with scorning or sneering at the        
opinions of others1 upon such  a        

subject4 ,perhaps ,darwins view is      
incompatible with final causes--we  will
 consider that question presently-- but 
as to the ,examiners charge1  that he   
sneers at the idea of any manifestation 
of design in the  material universe1    
though we are confident that no         
misrepresentation  was intended1 we are 
equally confident that it is not at all 
warranted  by the two passages cited in 
support of it4  ,here are the passages3 
,if green woodpeckers alone had existed1
 or we did not know that there  were    
many black and pied kinds1 ,i dare say  
that we should have thought  that the   
green color was a beautiful adaptation  
to hide this  tree-frequenting bird from
 its enemies4    ,if our reason leads us
 to admire with enthusiasm a multitude  
of  inimitable contrivances in ,nature1 
this same reason tells us1 though we    
may easily err on both sides1 that some 
contrivances are less perfect4  ,can we 
consider the sting of the wasp or of the
 bee as perfect1 which1  when used      

against many attacking animals1 cannot  
be withdrawn1 owing to  the backward    
serratures1 and so inevitably causes the
 death of the  insect by tearing out its
 viscera8      ,if the sneer here       
escapes ordinary vision in the detached 
extracts 7one  of them wanting the end  
of the sentence71 it is1 if possible1   
more  imperceptible when read with the  
context4 ,moreover1 this perusal        
inclines us to think that the ,examiner 
has misapprehended the  particular      
argument or object1 as well as the      
spirit1 of the author in  these         
passages4 ,the whole reads more         
naturally as a caution against the      
inconsiderate use of final causes in    
science1 and an illustration of  some of
 the manifold errors and absurdities    
which their hasty  assumption is apt to 
involve--considerations probably        
equivalent to  those which induced ,lord
 ,bacon to liken final causes to vestal 
virgins4 ,so1 if any one1 it is here    
,bacon that sitteth in the seat of  the 

scornful4 ,as to ,darwin1 in the section
 from which the extracts  were made1 he 
is considering a subsidiary question1   
and trying to  obviate a particular     
difficulty1 but1 we suppose1 is wholly  
unconscious  of denying any             
manifestation of design in the material 
universe4 ,he  concludes the first      
sentence3      --and consequently that  
it was a character of importance1 and   
might  have been acquired through       
natural selection2 as it is1 ,i have no 
doubt  that the color is due to some    
quite distinct cause1 probably to sexual
  selection4      ,after an illustration
 from the vegetable creation1 ,darwin   
adds3      ,the naked skin on the head  
of a vulture is generally looked at as a
  direct adaptation for wallowing in    
putridity2 and so it may be1 or it  may 
possibly be due to the direct action of 
putrid matter2 but we  should be very   
cautious in drawing any such inference1 
when we see that  the skin on the head  
of the clean-feeding male turkey is     

likewise  naked4 ,the sutures in the    
skulls of young mammals have been       
advanced as  a beautiful adaptation for 
aiding parturition1 and no doubt they   
facilitate or may be indispensable for  
this act2 but as sutures occur  in the  
skulls of young birds and reptiles1     
which have only to escape  from a broken
 egg1 we may infer that this structure  
has arisen from the  laws of growth1 and
 has been taken advantage of in the     
parturition of  the higher animals4     
,all this1 simply taken1 is beyond      
cavil1 unless the attempt to explain    
scientifically how any designed result  
is accomplished savors of  impropriety4 
,in the other place1 ,darwin is         
contemplating the patent fact that      
perfection here below is relative1 not  
absolute--and illustrating  this by the 
circumstance that ,european animals1 and
 especially plants1  are now proving to 
be better adapted for ,new ,zealand than
 many of the  indigenous ones--that the 
correction for the aberration of light  

is  said1 on high authority1 not to be  
quite perfect even in that most  perfect
 organ1 the eye4 ,and then follows the  
second extract of the  reviewer4 ,but   
what is the position of the reviewer    
upon his own  interpretation of these   
passages8 ,if he insists that green     
woodpeckers  were specifically created  
so in order that they might be less     
liable to  capture1 must he not equally 
hold that the black and pied ones were  
specifically made of these colors in    
order that they might be more  liable to
 be caught8 ,and would an explanation of
 the mode in which  those woodpeckers   
came to be green1 however complete1     
convince him that  the color was        
undesigned8    ,as to the other         
illustration1 is the reviewer so        
complete an optimist  as to insist that 
the arrangement and the weapon are      
wholly perfect  7quoad the insect7 the  
normal use of which often causes the    
animal  fatally to injure or to         
disembowel itself8 ,either way it seems 

to us  that the argument here1 as well  
as the insect1 performs hari-kari4 ,the 
,examiner adds3      ,we should in like 
manner object to the word favorable1 as 
implying  that some species are placed  
by the ,creator under unfavorable       
circumstances1 at least under such as   
might be advantageously  modified4      
,but are not many individuals and some  
races of men placed by the  ,creator    
under unfavorable circumstances1 at     
least under such as might  be           
advantageously modified8 ,surely these  
reviewers must be living in  an ideal   
world1 surrounded by the faultless      
monsters which our world  neer saw1 in  
some elysium where imperfection and     
distress were never  heard of6 ,such    
arguments resemble some which we often  
hear against the  ,bible1 holding that  
book responsible as if it originated    
certain facts  on the shady side of     
human nature or the apparently darker   
lines of  ,providential dealing1 though 
the facts are facts of common           

observation  and have to be confronted  
upon any theory4    ,the ,north         
,american reviewer also has a world of  
his own--just such a  one as an         
idealizing philosopher would be apt to  
devise--that is1 full  of sharp and     
absolute distinctions3 such1 for        
instance1 as the  absolute              
invariableness of instinct2 an absolute 
want of intelligence  in any brute      
animal2 and a complete monopoly of      
instinct by the brute  animals1 so that 
this instinct is a great matter for them
 only1 since  it sharply and perfectly  
distinguishes this portion of organic   
,nature  from the vegetable kingdom on  
the one hand and from man on the other3 
most convenient views for argumentative 
purposes1 but we suppose not  borne out 
in fact4    ,in their scientific        
objections the two reviewers take       
somewhat  different lines2 but their    
philosophical and theological arguments 
strikingly coincide4 ,they agree in     
emphatically asserting that ,darwins    

hypothesis of the origination of species
 through variation and natural          
selection repudiates the whole doctrine 
of final causes1 and all  indication of 
design or purpose in the organic world 4
 4 4 is neither  more nor less than a   
formal denial of any agency beyond that 
of a blind  chance in the developing or 
perfecting of the organs or instincts of
  created beings4 4 4 4 ,it is in vain  
that the apologists of this  hypothesis 
might say that it merely attributes a   
different mode and  time to the ,divine 
agency--that all the qualities          
subsequently  appearing in their        
descendants must have been implanted1   
and have  remained latent in the        
original pair4 ,such a view1 the        
,examiner  declares1 is nowhere stated  
in this book1 and would be1 we are sure1
  disclaimed by the author4    ,we      
should like to be informed of the       
grounds of this sureness4 ,the  marked  
rejection of spontaneous generation--the
 statement of a belief  that all animals

 have descended from four or five       
progenitors1 and  plants from an equal  
or lesser number1 or1 perhaps1 if       
constrained to  it by analogy1 from some
 one primordial form into which life was
 first  breathed--coupled with the      
expression1 ,to my mind it accords      
better  with what we know of the laws   
impressed on matter by the ,creator1    
that  the production and extinction of  
the past and present inhabitants of  the
 world should have been due to secondary
 causes1 than that each  species has    
been independently created--these and   
similar expressions  lead us to suppose 
that the author probably does accept the
 kind of  view which the ,examiner is   
sure he would disclaim4 ,at least1 we   
charitably see nothing in his scientific
 theory to hinder his adoption  of ,lord
 ,bacons ,confession of ,faith in this  
regard-- ,that1  notwithstanding ,god   
hath rested and ceased from creating1   
yet1  nevertheless1 he doth accomplish  
and fulfill his divine will in all      

things1 great and small1 singular and   
general1 as fully and exactly by        
providence as he could by miracle and   
new creation1 though his working  be not
 immediate and direct1 but by compass2  
not violating ,nature1  which is his own
 law upon the creature4      ,however   
that may be1 it is undeniable that ,mr4 
,darwin has purposely  been silent upon 
the philosophical and theological       
applications of his  theory4  ,this     
reticence1 under the circumstances1     
argues design1 and  raises inquiry as to
 the final cause or reason why4 ,here1  
as in higher  instances1 confident as we
 are that there is a final cause1 we    
must not  be overconfident that we can  
infer the particular or true one4       
,perhaps  the author is more familiar   
with natural-historical than with       
philosophical inquiries1 and1 not having
 decided which particular  theory about 
efficient cause is best founded1 he     
meanwhile argues the  scientific        
questions concerned--all that relates to

 secondary  causes--upon purely         
scientific grounds1 as he must do in any
 case4  ,perhaps1 confident1 as he      
evidently is1 that his view will finally
 be  adopted1 he may enjoy a sort of    
satisfaction in hearing it denounced as 
sheer atheism by the inconsiderate1 and 
afterward1 when it takes its  place with
 the nebular hypothesis and the like1   
see this judgment  reversed1 as we      
suppose it would be in such event4      
,whatever ,mr4 ,darwins philosophy may  
be1 or whether he has any1 is a  matter 
of no consequence at all1 compared with 
the important questions1  whether a     
theory to account for the origination   
and diversification of  animal and      
vegetable forms through the operation of
 secondary causes  does or does not     
exclude design2 and whether the         
establishment by  adequate evidence of  
,darwin s particular theory of          
diversification  through variation and  
natural selection would essentially     
alter the  present scientific and       

philosophical grounds for theistic views
 of  ,nature4 ,the unqualified          
affirmative judgment rendered by the two
 ,boston  reviewers1 evidently able and 
practised reasoners1 must give us       
pause4 ,we hesitate to advance our      
conclusions in opposition to theirs4    
,but1 after full and serious            
consideration1 we are constrained to say
  that1 in our opinion1 the adoption of 
a derivative hypothesis1 and of         
,darwins particular hypothesis1 if we   
understand it1 would leave the          
doctrines of final causes1 utility1 and 
special design1 just where they  were   
before4 ,we do not pretend that the     
subject is not environed with           
difficulties4 ,every view is so         
environed2 and every shifting of the    
view is likely1 if it removes some      
difficulties1 to bring others into      
prominence4 ,but we cannot perceive that
 ,darwins theory brings in any  new kind
 of scientific difficulty1 that is1 any 
with which  philosophical naturalists   

were not already familiar4    ,since    
natural science deals only with         
secondary or natural causes1 the        
scientific terms of a theory of         
derivation of species--no less than of  
a theory of dynamics--must needs be the 
same to the theist as to the  atheist4  
,the difference appears only when the   
inquiry is carried up to  the question  
of primary cause--a question which      
belongs to philosophy4  ,wherefore1     
,darwin s reticence about efficient     
cause does not disturb  us4 ,he         
considers only the scientific questions4
 ,as already stated1 we  think that a   
theistic view of ,nature is implied in  
his book1 and we  must charitably       
refrain from suggesting the contrary    
until the contrary  is logically deduced
 from his premises4 ,if1 however1 he    
anywhere  maintains that the natural    
causes through which species are        
diversified  operate without an         
ordaining  and directing intelligence1  
and that the  orderly arrangements and  

admirable adaptations we see all around 
us are  fortuitous or blind1 undesigned 
results--that the eye1 though it came   
to see1 was not designed for seeing1 nor
 the hand for handling--then1  we       
suppose1 he is justly chargeable with   
denying1 and very needlessly  denying1  
all design in organic ,nature2          
otherwise1 we suppose not4  ,why1  if   
,darwins well-known passage about the   
eye,,iii-#aj equivocal though  some of  
the language be--does not imply         
ordaining and directing  intelligence1  
then he refutes his own theory as       
effectually as any of  his opponents are
 likely to do4 ,he asks3      ,may we   
not believe that under variation        
proceeding long enough1  generation     
multiplying the better variations times 
enough1 and natural  selection securing 
the improvements a living optical       
instrument might  be thus formed as     
superior to one of glass as the works of
 the ,creator  are to those of man8     
,this must mean one of two things3      

either that the living instrument was   
made and perfected under 7which is the  
same thing as by7 an intelligent  ,first
 ,cause1 or that it was not4 ,if it was1
 then theism is asserted2  and as to the
 mode of operation1 how do we know1 and 
why must we  believe1 that1 fitting     
precedent forms being in existence1 a   
living  instrument 7so different from a 
lifeless manufacture7 would be          
originated and perfected in any other   
way1 or that this is not the  fitting   
way8 ,if it means that it was not1 if he
 so misuses words that  by the ,creator 
he intends an unintelligent power1      
undirected force1 or  necessity1 then he
 has put his case so as to invite       
disbelief in it4  ,for then blind forces
 have produced not only manifest        
adaptions of  means to specific         
ends--which is absurd enough--but better
 adjusted and  more perfect instruments 
or machines than intellect 7that is1    
human  intellect7 can contrive and human
 skill execute--which no sane person    

will believe4    ,on the other hand1 if 
,darwin even admits--we will not say    
adopts--the  theistic view1 he may save 
himself much needless trouble in the    
endeavor to account for the absence of  
every sort of intermediate form4  ,those
 in the line between one species and    
another supposed to be  derived from it 
he may be bound to provide2 but as to an
 infinite  number of other varieties not
 intermediate1 gross1 rude1 and         
purposeless1 the unmeaning creations of 
an unconscious cause1 born  only to     
perish1 which a relentless reviewer has 
imposed upon his  theory--rightly enough
 upon the atheistic alternative--the    
theistic  view rids him at once of this 
scum of creation4 ,for1 as species do   
not now vary at all times and places and
 in all directions1 nor produce  crude1 
vague1 imperfect1 and useless forms1    
there is no reason for  supposing that  
they ever did4 ,good-for-nothing        
monstrosities1 failures  of purpose     
rather than purposeless1 indeed1        

sometimes occur2 but these  are just as 
anomalous and unlikely upon ,darwins    
theory as upon any  other4 ,for his     
particular theory is based1 and even    
over-strictly  insists1 upon the most   
universal of physiological laws1 namely1
 that  successive generations shall     
differ only slightly1 if at all1 from   
their parents2 and this effectively     
excludes crude and impotent forms4      
,wherefore1 if we believe that the      
species were designed1 and that  natural
 propagation was designed1 how can we   
say that the actual  varieties of the   
species were not equally designed8 ,have
 we not similar  grounds for inferring  
design in the supposed varieties of     
species1 that  we have in the case of   
the supposed species of a genus8 ,when a
    naturalist comes to regard as three 
closely related species what he  before 
took to be so many varieties of one     
species how has he thereby  strengthened
 our conviction that the three forms are
 designed to have  the differences which

 they actually exhibit8 ,wherefore so   
long as  gradatory1 orderly1 and adapted
 forms in ,nature argue design1 and at  
least while the physical cause of       
variation is utterly unknown and        
mysterious1 we should advise ,mr4       
,darwin to assume in the philosophy of  
his hypothesis that variation has been  
led along certain beneficial  lines4    
,streams flowing over a sloping plain by
 gravitation 7here the  counterpart of  
natural selection7 may have worn their  
actual channels  as they flowed2 yet    
their particular courses may have been  
assigned2  and where we see them forming
 definite and useful lines of           
irrigation1  after a manner             
unaccountable on the laws of gravitation
 and dynamics1  we should believe that  
the distribution was designed4    ,to   
insist1 therefore1 that the new         
hypothesis of the derivative origin  of 
the actual species is incompatible with 
final causes and design1 is  to take a  
position which we must consider         

philosophically untenable4 ,we  must    
also regard it as highly unwise and     
dangerous1 in the present  state and    
present prospects of physical and       
physiological science4 ,we  should      
expect the philosophical atheist or     
skeptic to take this ground2  also1     
until better informed1 the unlearned and
 unphilosophical  believer2 but we      
should think that the thoughtful        
theistic philosopher  would take the    
other side4 ,not to do so seems to      
concede that only  supernatural events  
can be shown to be designed1 which no   
theist can  admit--seems also to        
misconceive the scope and meaning of all
 ordinary  arguments for design in      
,nature4 ,this misconception is shared  
both by  the reviewers and the reviewed4
 ,at least1 ,mr4 ,darwin uses           
expressions  which imply that the       
natural forms which surround us1 because
 they have  a history or natural        
sequence1 could have been only          
generally1 but not  particularly        

designed--a view at once superficial and
 contradictory2  whereas his true line  
should be1 that his hypothesis concerns 
the order  and not the cause1 the how   
and not the why of the phenomena1 and so
  leaves the question of design just    
where it was before4    ,to illustrate  
this from the theists point of view3    
,transfer the  question for a moment    
from the origination of species to the  
origination of individuals1 which       
occurs1 as we say1 naturally4 ,because  
natural1 that is1 stated1 fixed1 or     
settled1 is it any the less  designed on
 that account8 ,we acknowledge that ,god
 is our maker--not  merely the          
originator of the race1 but our maker as
 individuals--and  none the less so     
because it pleased him to make us in the
 way of  ordinary generation4 ,if any of
 us were born unlike our parents and    
grandparents1 in a slight degree1 or in 
whatever degree1 would the case  be     
altered in this regard8    ,the whole   
argument in natural theology proceeds   

upon the ground that  the inference for 
a final cause of the structure of the   
hand and of the  valves in the veins is 
just as valid now1 in individuals       
produced  through natural generation1 as
 it would have been in the case of the  
first man1 supernaturally created4 ,why 
not1 then1 just as good even on  the    
supposition of the descent of men from  
chimpanzees and gorillas1  since those  
animals possess these same contrivances8
 ,or1 to take a more  supposable case3  
,if the argument from structure to      
design is convincing  when drawn from a 
particular animal1 say a ,newfoundland  
dog1 and is not  weakened by the        
knowledge that this dog came from       
similar parents1  would it be at all    
weakened if1 in tracing his genealogy1  
it were  ascertained that he was a      
remote descendant of the mastiff or some
  other breed1 or that both these and   
other breeds came 7as is suspected7     
from some wolf8 ,if not1 how is the     
argument for design in the structure  of

 our particular dog affected by the     
supposition that his wolfish  progenitor
 came from a post-tertiary wolf1 perhaps
 less unlike an  existing one than the  
dog in question is to some other of the 
numerous  existing races of dogs1 and   
that this post-tertiary came from an    
equally or more different tertiary wolf8
 ,and if the argument from  structure to
 design is not invalidated by our       
present knowledge that  our             
individual dog was developed from a     
single organic cell1 how is it          
invalidated by the supposition of an    
analogous natural descent1 through  a   
long line of connected forms1 from such 
a cell1 or from some simple  animal1    
existing ages before there were any     
dogs8    ,again1 suppose we have two    
well-known and apparently most decidedly
  different animals or plants1 ,a and   
,d1 both presenting1 in their  structure
 and in their adaptations to the        
conditions of existence1 as  valid and  
clear evidence of design as any animal  

or plant ever  presented3 suppose we    
have now discovered two intermediate    
species1 ,b  and ,c1 which make up a    
series with equable differences from ,a 
to ,d4 ,is  the proof of design or final
 cause in ,a and ,d1 whatever it        
amounted to1  at all weakened by the    
discovery of the intermediate forms8    
,rather does  not the proof extend to   
the intermediate species1 and go to show
 that  all four were equally designed8  
,suppose1 now1 the number of            
intermediate forms to be much increased1
 and therefore the gradations  to be    
closer yet--as close as those between   
the various sorts of dogs1  or races of 
men1 or of horned cattle3 would the     
evidence of design1 as  shown in the    
structure of any of the members of the  
series1 be any  weaker than it was in   
the case of ,a and ,d8 ,whoever contends
 that it  would be1 should likewise     
maintain that the origination of        
individuals  by generation is           
incompatible with design1 or an         

impossibility in  ,nature4 ,we might all
 have confidently thought the latter1   
antecedently  to experience of the fact 
of reproduction4 ,let our experience    
teach us  wisdom4    ,these             
illustrations make it clear that the    
evidence of design from  structure and  
adaptation is furnished complete by the 
individual animal  or plant itself1 and 
that our knowledge or our ignorance of  
the history  of its formation or mode of
 production adds nothing to it and takes
  nothing away4  ,we infer design from  
certain arrangements and results2  and  
we have no other way of ascertaining it4
 ,testimony1 unless  infallible1 cannot 
prove it1 and is out of the question    
here4 ,testimony  is not the appropriate
 proof of design3 adaptation to purpose 
is4 ,some  arrangements in ,nature      
appear to be contrivances1 but may leave
 us in  doubt4 ,many others1 of which   
the eye and the hand are notable        
examples1  compel belief with a force   
not appreciably short of demonstration4 

,clearly to settle that such as these   
must have been designed goes far  toward
 proving that other organs and other    
seemingly less explicit  adaptations in 
,nature must also have been designed1   
and clinches our  belief1 from manifold 
considerations1 that all ,nature is a   
preconcerted  arrangement1 a manifested 
design4 ,a strange contradiction would  
it be  to insist that the shape and     
markings of certain rude pieces of      
flint1  lately found in drift-deposits1 
prove design1 but that nicer and        
thousand-fold more complex adaptations  
to use in animals and vegetables  do not
 a fortiori argue design4    ,we could  
not affirm that the arguments for design
 in ,nature are  conclusive to all      
minds4 ,but we may insist1 upon grounds 
already  intimated1 that1 whatever they 
were good for before ,darwins book      
appeared1 they are good for now4 ,to our
 minds the argument from design  always 
appeared conclusive of the being and    
continued operation of an  intelligent  

,first ,cause1 the ,ordainer of ,nature2
 and we do not see that  the grounds of 
such belief would be disturbed or       
shifted by the  adoption of ,darwins    
hypothesis4 ,we are not blind to the    
philosophical  difficulties which the   
thoroughgoing implication of design in  
,nature  has to encounter1 nor is it our
 vocation to obviate them ,it suffices  
us  to know that they are not new nor   
peculiar difficulties--that1 as  ,darwin
 s theory and our reasonings upon it did
 not raise these  perturbing spirits1   
they are not bound to lay them4         
,meanwhile1 that the  doctrine of design
 encounters the very same difficulties  
in the  material that it does in the    
moral world is ,just what ought to be   
expected4    ,so the issue between the  
skeptic and the theist is only the old  
one1  long ago argued out--namely1      
whether organic ,nature is a result of  
design or of chance4 ,variation and     
natural selection open no third         
alternative2 they concern only the      

question how the results1 whether       
fortuitous or designed1 may have been   
brought about4 ,organic ,nature  abounds
 with unmistakable and irresistible     
indications of design1 and1  being a    
connected and consistent system1 this   
evidence carries the  implication of    
design throughout the whole4 ,on the    
other hand1 chance  carries no          
probabilities with it1 can never be     
developed into a  consistent system1    
but1 when applied to the explanation of 
orderly or  beneficial results1 heaps up
 improbabilities at every step beyond   
all  computation4 ,to us1 a fortuitous  
,cosmos is simply inconceivable4  ,the  
alternative is a designed ,cosmos4      
,it is very easy to assume that1 because
 events in ,nature are in one  sense    
accidental1 and the operative forces    
which bring them to pass are  themselves
 blind and unintelligent 7physically    
considered1 all forces  are71 therefore 
they are undirected1 or that he who     
describes these  events as the results  

of such forces thereby assumes that they
 are  undirected4 ,this is the          
assumption of the ,boston reviewers1 and
 of ,mr4  ,agassiz1 who insists that the
 only alternative to the doctrine1 that 
all organized beings were supernaturally
 created just as they are1 is1  that    
they have arisen spontaneously through  
the omnipotence of  matter4,,iii-#aa    
,as to all this1 nothing is easier than 
to bring out in the conclusion  what you
 introduce in the premises4 ,if you     
import atheism into your  conception of 
variation and natural selection1 you can
 readily exhibit  it in the result4  ,if
 you do not put it in1 perhaps there    
need be none  to come out4 ,while the   
mechanician is considering a steamboat  
or  locomotive-engine as a material     
organism1 and contemplating the fuel1   
water1 and steam1 the source of the     
mechanical forces1 and how they         
operate1 he may not have occasion to    
mention the engineer4 ,but1 the  orderly
 and special results accomplished1 the  

why the movements are in  this or that  
particular direction1 etc41 is          
inexplicable without him4  ,if ,mr4     
,darwin believes that the events which  
he supposes to have  occurred and the   
results we behold were undirected and   
undesigned1 or  if the physicist        
believes that the natural forces to     
which he refers  phenomena are uncaused 
and undirected1 no argument is needed to
 show  that such belief is atheism4 ,but
 the admission of the phenomena  and of 
these natural processes and forces does 
not necessitate any such  belief1 nor   
even render it one whit less improbable 
than before4    ,surely1 too1 the       
accidental element may play its part in 
,nature without  negativing design in   
the theists view4 ,he believes that the 
earths  surface has been very gradually 
prepared for man and the existing       
animal races1 that vegetable matter has 
through a long series of  generations   
imparted fertility to the soil in order 
that it may support  its present        

occupants1 that even beds of coal have  
been stored up for  mans benefit ,yet   
what is more accidental1 and more simply
 the  consequence of physical agencies  
than the accumulation of vegetable      
matter in a peat bog and its            
transformation into coal8 ,no scientific
  person at this day doubts that our    
solar system is a progressive           
development1 whether in his conception  
he begins with molten masses1 or        
aeriform or nebulous masses1 or with a  
fluid revolving mass of vast  extent1   
from which the specific existing worlds 
have been developed one  by one ,what   
theist doubts that the actual results of
 the development in  the inorganic      
worlds are not merely compatible with   
design but are in  the truest sense     
designed re suits8 ,not ,mr4 ,agassiz1  
certainly1 who  adopts a remarkable     
illustration of design directly founded 
on the  nebular hypothesis drawing from 
the position and times of the           
revolution of the world1 so originated  

direct evidence that the  physical world
 has been ordained in conformity with   
laws which obtain  also among living    
beings ,but the reader of the           
interesting  exposition,,iii-#ab will   
notice that the designed result has been
  brought to pass through what1 speaking
 after the manner of men1 might  be     
called a chapter of accidents4    ,a    
natural corollary of this demonstration 
would seem to be1 that a  material      
connection between a series of created  
things--such as the  development of one 
of them from another1  or of all from a 
common  stock--is highly compatible with
 their intellectual connection1 namely1 
with their being designed and directed  
by one mind4 ,yet upon some  ground     
which is not explained1 and which we are
 unable to conjecture1  ,mr4 ,agassiz   
concludes to the contrary in the organic
 kingdoms1 and  insists that1 because   
the members of such a series have an    
intellectual  connection1 they cannot be
 the result of a material               

differentiation of  the objects         
themselves1,,iii-#ac that is1 they      
cannot have had a  genealogical         
connection4 ,but is there not as much   
intellectual  connection between the    
successive generations of any species as
 there  is between the several species  
of a genus1 or the several genera of an 
order8 ,as the intellectual connection  
here is realized through the  material  
connection1 why may it not be so in the 
case of species and  genera8 ,on all    
sides1 therefore1 the implication seems 
to be quite the  other way4             
,returning to the accidental element1 it
 is evident that the strongest  point   
against the compatibility of ,darwins   
hypothesis with design in  ,nature is   
made when natural selection is referred 
to as picking out  those variations     
which are improvements from a vast      
number which are  not improvements1 but 
perhaps the contrary1 and therefore     
useless or  purposeless1 and born to    
perish4 ,but even here the difficulty is

 not  peculiar2 for ,nature abounds with
 analogous instances4 ,some of our race 
are useless1 or worse1 as regards the   
improvement of mankind2 yet the  race   
may be designed to improve1 and may be  
actually improving4 ,or1 to  avoid the  
complication with free agency--the whole
 animate life of a  country depends     
absolutely upon the vegetation1 the     
vegetation upon the  rain4 ,the moisture
 is furnished by the ocean1 is raised by
 the suns  heat from the oceans surface1
 and is wafted inland by the winds4 ,but
  what multitudes of raindrops fall back
 into the ocean--are as much  without a 
final cause as the incipient varieties  
which come to  nothing6  ,does it       
therefore follow that the rains which   
are bestowed  upon the soil with such   
rule and average regularity were not    
designed  to support vegetable and      
animal life8 ,consider1 likewise1 the   
vast  proportion of seeds and pollen1 of
 ova and young--a thousand or more to   
one--which come to nothing1 and are     

therefore purposeless in the same       
sense1 and only in the same sense1 as   
are ,darwins unimproved and unused      
slight variations4 ,the world is full of
 such cases2 and these must  answer the 
argument--for we cannot1 except by thus 
showing that it  proves too much4       
,finally1 it is worth noticing that1    
though natural selection is             
scientifically explicable1 variation is 
not4 ,thus far the cause of  variation1 
or the reason why the offspring is      
sometimes unlike the  parents1 is just  
as mysterious as the reason why it is   
generally like  the parents4 ,it is now 
as inexplicable as any other            
origination2 and1  if ever explained1   
the explanation will only carry up the  
sequence of  secondary causes one step  
farther1 and bring us in face of a      
somewhat  different problem1 but which  
will have the same element of mystery   
that  the problem of variation has now4 
,circumstances may preserve or may      
destroy the variations man may use or   

direct them but selection whether       
artificial or natural no more originates
 them than man originates the  power    
which turns a wheel when he dams a      
stream and lets the water fall  upon it 
,the origination of this power is a     
question about efficient  cause4 ,the   
tendency of science in respect to this  
obviously is not  toward the omnipotence
 of matter1 as some suppose1 but to ward
 the  omnipotence of spirit4    ,so the 
real question we come to is as to the   
way in which we are to  conceive        
intelligent and efficient cause to be   
exerted1 and upon what  exerted4 ,are we
 bound to suppose efficient cause in all
 cases exerted  upon nothing to evoke   
something into existence--and this      
thousands of  times repeated1 when a    
slight change in the details would make 
all the  difference between successive  
species8 ,why may not the new species1  
or  some of them1 be designed           
diversifications of the old8    ,there  
are1 perhaps1 only three views of       

efficient cause which may claim  to be  
both philosophical and theistic3    #a4 
,the view of its exertion at the        
beginning of time1 endowing matter  and 
created things with forces which do the 
work and produce the  phenomena4    #b4 
,this same view1 with the theory of     
insulated interpositions1 or  occasional
 direct action1 engrafted upon it--the  
view that events and  operations in     
general go on in virtue simply of forces
 communicated at  the first1 but that   
now and then1 and only now and then1 the
 ,deity puts  his hand directly to the  
work4    #c4  ,the theory of the        
immediate1 orderly1 and constant1       
however  infinitely diversified1 action 
of the intelligent efficient ,cause4    
,it must be allowed that1 while the     
third is preeminently the ,christian    
view1 all three are philosophically     
compatible with design in ,nature4  ,the
 second is probably the popular         
conception4 ,perhaps most thoughtful    
people oscillate from the middle view   

toward the first or the  third--adopting
 the first on some occasions1 the third 
on others4 ,those  philosophers who like
 and expect to settle all mooted        
questions will  take one or the other   
extreme4 ,the ,examiner inclines toward1
 the ,north  ,american reviewer fully   
adopts1 the third view1 to the logical  
extent  of maintaining that the origin  
of an individual1 as well as the origin 
of a species or a genus1 can be         
explained only by the direct action of  
an intelligent creative cause4 ,to      
silence his critics1 this is the  line  
for ,mr4 ,darwin to take2 for it at once
 and completely relieves his  scientific
 theory from every theological objection
 which his reviewers  have urged against
 it4    ,at present we suspect that our 
author prefers the first conception1    
though he might contend that his        
hypothesis is compatible with either  of
 the three4 ,that it is also compatible 
with an atheistic or  pantheistic       
conception of the universe1 is an       

objection which1 being  shared by all   
physical1 and some ethical or moral     
science1 cannot  specially be urged     
against ,darwins system4 ,as he rejects 
spontaneous  generation1 and admits of  
intervention at the beginning of organic
  life1 and probably in more than one   
instance1 he is not wholly excluded     
from adopting the middle view1 although 
the interventions he would  allow are   
few and far back4 ,yet one interposition
 admits the principle  as well as more4 
,interposition presupposes particular   
necessity or  reason for it1 and raises 
the question1 when and how often it may 
have  been necessary4 ,it might be the  
natural supposition1 if we had only one 
set of species to account for1 or if the
 successive inhabitants of the  earth   
had no other connections or resemblances
 than those which  adaptation to similar
 conditions1 which final causes in the  
narrower  sense1 might explain4 ,but if 
this explanation of organic ,nature     
requires one to believe that1 at        

innumerable periods in the earths       
history1 certain elemental atoms have   
been commanded suddenly to flash  into  
living tissues1 and this when the       
results are seen to be strictly         
connected and systematic1 we cannot     
wonder that such interventions  should  
at length be considered1 not as         
interpositions or interferences1  but   
rather--to use the reviewers own        
language--as exertions so  frequent and 
beneficent that we come to regard them  
as the ordinary  action of ,him who laid
 the foundation of the earth1 and       
without whom  not a sparrow falleth to  
the ground4,,iii-#ad ,what does the     
difference  between ,mr4 ,darwin and his
 reviewer now amount to8 ,if we say that
  according to one view the origination 
of species is natural1 according  to the
 other miraculous1 ,mr4 ,darwin agrees  
that what is natural as  much requires  
and presupposes an intelligent mind to  
render it so--  that is1 to effect it   
continually or at stated times--as what 

is  supernatural does to effect it for  
once4,,iii-#ae ,he merely inquires  into
 the form of the miracle1 may remind us 
that all recorded miracles  7except the 
primal creation of matter7 were         
transformations or actions  in and upon 
natural things1 and will ask how many   
times and how  frequently may the       
origination of successive species be    
repeated before  the supernatural merges
 in the natural4    ,in short1 ,darwin  
maintains that the origination of a     
species1 no less  than that of an       
individual1 is natural2 the reviewer1   
that the natural  origination of an     
individual1 no less than the origination
 of a  species1 requires and presupposes
 ,divine power4 ,a fortiori1 then1 the  
origination of a variety requires and   
presupposes ,divine power4 ,and so      
between the scientific hypothesis of the
 one and the philosophical  conception  
of the other no contrariety remains4    
,and so1 concludes the  ,north ,american
 reviewer1 a proper view of the nature  

of causation  places the vital doctrine 
of the being and the providence of a    
,god on  ground that can never be       
shaken4,,iii-#af ,a worthy conclusion1  
and a  sufficient answer to the         
denunciations and arguments of the rest 
of the  article1 so far as philosophy   
and natural theology are concerned4 ,if 
a  writer must needs use his own        
favorite dogma as a weapon with which to
  give coup de grace to a pernicious    
theory1 he should be careful to  seize  
his edge-tool by the handle1 and not by 
the blade4    ,we can barely glance at a
 subsidiary philosophical objection of  
the  ,north ,american reviewer1 which   
the ,examiner also raises1 though less  
explicitly4  ,like all geologists1 ,mr4 
,darwin draws upon time in the  most    
unlimited manner4 ,he is not peculiar in
 this regard4 ,mr4 ,agassiz  tells us   
that the conviction is now universal1   
among well-informed  naturalists1 that  
this globe has been in existence for    
innumerable  ages1 and that the length  

of time elapsed since it first became   
inhabited cannot be counted in years2   
,pictet1 that the imagination  refuses  
to calculate the immense number of years
 and of ages during  which the faunas of
 thirty or more epochs have succeeded   
one another1  and developed their long  
succession of generations4  ,now1 the   
reviewer  declares that such indefinite 
succession of ages is virtually         
infinite1 lacks no characteristic of    
eternity except its name1 at  least1    
that the difference between such a      
conception and that of the  strictly    
infinite1 if any1 is not appreciable4   
,but infinity belongs to  metaphysics4  
,therefore1 he concludes1 ,darwin       
supports his theory1 not  by scientific 
but by metaphysical evidence2 his theory
 is essentially  and completely         
metaphysical in character1 resting      
altogether upon that  idea of the       
infinite which the human mind can       
neither put aside nor                   
comprehend4,,iii-#ag ,and so a theory   

which will be generally regarded  as    
much too physical is transferred by a   
single syllogism to  metaphysics4       
,well1 physical geology must go with it3
 for1 even on the soberest view1  it    
demands an indefinitely long time       
antecedent to the introduction of       
organic life upon our earth4 ,a fortiori
 is physical astronomy a branch  of     
metaphysics1 demanding1 as it does1     
still larger instalments of  infinity1  
as the reviewer calls them1 both as to  
time and number4  ,moreover1 far the    
greater part of physical inquiries now  
relate to  molecular actions1 which1 a  
distinguished natural philosopher       
informs  us1 we have to regard as the   
results of an infinite number of in     
finitely small material particles1      
acting on each other at infinitely      
small distances--a triad of             
infinities--and so physics becomes the  
most metaphysical of sciences4  ,verily1
 if this style of reasoning is  to      
prevail--    ,thinking is but an idle   

waste of thought1     ,and naught is    
everything1 and everything is naught4   
,the leading objection of ,mr4 ,agassiz 
is likewise of a philosophical          
character4 ,it is1 that species exist   
only as categories of  thought--that1   
having no material existence1 they can  
have had no  material variation1 and no 
material community of origin4 ,here the 
predication is of species in the        
subjective sense1 the inference in the  
objective sense4 ,reduced to plain      
terms1 the argument seems to be3        
,species are ideas2 therefore the       
objects from which the idea is derived  
cannot vary or blend1 and cannot have   
had a genealogical connection4    ,the  
common view of species is1 that1        
although they are generalizations1  yet 
they have a direct objective ground in  
,nature1 which genera1  orders1 etc41   
have not4 ,according to the succinct    
definition of  ,jussieu--and that of    
,linnaeus is identical in meaning--a    
species is the  perennial succession of 

similar individuals in continued        
generations4  ,the species is the chain 
of which the individuals are the links4 
,the  sum of the                        
genealogically-connected similar        
individuals constitutes the  species1   
which thus has an actuality and ground  
of distinction not  shared by genera and
 other groups which were not supposed to
 be  genealogically connected4 ,how a   
derivative hypothesis would modify this 
view1 in assigning to species only a    
temporary fixity1 is obvious4 ,yet1  if 
naturalists adopt that hypothesis1 they 
will still retain ,jussieus  definition1
 which leaves untouched the question as 
to how and when the  perennial          
successions were established4 ,the      
practical question will  only be1 ,how  
much difference between two sets of     
individuals entitles  them to rank under
 distinct species8 and that is the      
practical question  now1 on whatever    
theory4 ,the theoretical question is--as
 stated at the  beginning of this       

article--whether these specific lines   
were always as  distinct as now4    ,mr4
 ,agassiz has lost no opportunity of    
urging the idea that1 while  species    
have no material existence1 they yet    
exist as categories of  thought in the  
same way and only in the same way as    
genera1 families1  orders1 classes1 etc4
 ,he    has taken the ground that all   
the natural divisions in the animal     
kingdom are primarily distinct1 founded 
upon different categories of            
characters1 and that all exist in the   
same way1 that is1 as categories  of    
thought1 embodied in individual living  
forms4 ,i have attempted to  show that  
branches in the animal kingdom are      
founded upon different  plans of        
structure1 and for that very reason have
 embraced from the  beginning           
representatives between which there     
could be no community of  origin2 that  
classes are founded upon different modes
 of execution of  these plans1 and      
therefore they also embrace             

representatives which  could have no    
community of origin2 that orders        
represent the different  degrees of     
complication in the mode of execution of
 each class1 and  therefore embrace     
representatives which could not have a  
community of  origin any more than the  
members of different classes or         
branches2 that  families are founded    
upon different patterns of form1 and    
embrace1  representatives equally       
independent in their origin2 that genera
 are  founded upon ultimate             
peculiarities of structure1 embracing   
representatives which1 from the very    
nature of their peculiarities1  could   
have no community of origin2 and that1  
finally1 species are based  upon        
relations--and proportions that exclude1
 as much as all the  preceding          
distinctions1 the idea of a common      
descent4    ,as the community of        
characters among the beings belonging to
 these  different categories arises from
 the intellectual connection which      

shows them to be categories of thought1 
they cannot be the result of a  gradual 
material differentiation of the objects 
themselves4 ,the argument on  which     
these views are founded may be summed up
 in the following few  words3  ,species1
 genera1 families1 etc41 exist as       
thoughts1 individuals  as               
facts4,,iii-#ah    ,an ingenious dilemma
 caps the argument3      ,it seems to me
 that there is much confusion of ideas  
in the general  statement of the        
variability of species so often repeated
 lately4 ,if  species do not exist at   
all1 as the supporters of the           
transmutation  theory maintain1 how can 
they vary8 ,and if individuals alone    
exist1 how  can the differences which   
may be observed among them prove the    
variability of species8      ,now1 we   
imagine that ,mr4 ,darwin need not be   
dangerously gored by either  horn of    
this curious dilemma4 ,although we      
ourselves cherish  old-fashioned        
prejudices in favor of the probable     

permanence1 and  therefore of a more    
stable objective ground of species1 yet 
we  agree--and ,mr4 ,darwin will agree  
fully with ,mr4 ,agassiz--that species1 
and he will add varieties1 exist as     
categories of thought1 that is1  as     
cognizable distinctions--which is all   
that we can make of the phrase  here1   
whatever it may mean in the             
,aristotelian metaphysics4 ,admitting   
that species are only categories of     
thought1 and not facts or things1  how  
does this prevent the individuals1 which
 are material things1 from  having      
varied in the course of time1 so as to  
exemplify the present  almost           
innumerable categories of thought1 or   
embodiments of ,divine  thought in      
material forms1 or--viewed on the human 
side--in forms  marked with such orderly
 and graduated resemblances and         
differences as  to suggest to our minds 
the idea of species1 genera1 orders1    
etc41 and  to our reason the inference  
of a ,divine ,original8 ,we have no     

clear idea  how ,mr4 ,agassiz intends to
 answer this question1 in saying that   
branches are founded upon different     
plans of structure1 classes upon        
different mode of execution of these    
plans1 orders on different degrees  of  
complication in the mode of execution1  
families upon different  patterns of    
form1 genera upon ultimate peculiarities
 of structure1 and  species upon        
relations and proportions4 ,that is1 we 
do not perceive how  these several      
categories of thought exclude the       
possibility or the  probability that the
 individuals which manifest or suggest  
the thoughts  had an ultimate community 
of origin4    ,moreover1 ,mr4 ,darwin   
might insinuate that the particular     
philosophy of  classification upon which
 this whole argument reposes is as      
purely  hypothetical and as little      
accepted as is his own doctrine4 ,if    
both are  pure hypotheses1 it is hardly 
fair or satisfactory to extinguish the  
one by the other4 ,if there is no real  

contradiction between them1  nothing is 
gained by the attempt4    ,as to the    
dilemma propounded1 suppose we try it   
upon that category of  thought which we 
call chair4 ,this is a genus1 comprising
 a common chair  7,sella vulgaris71 arm 
or easy chair 7,s4 cathedra71 the       
rocking-chair  7,s4  oscillans7--widely 
distributed in the ,united ,states--and 
some  others1 each of which has sported1
 as the gardeners say1 into many        
varieties4 ,but now1 as the genus and   
the species have no material  existence1
 how can they vary8 ,if only individual 
chairs exist1 how can  the differences  
which may be observed among them prove  
the variability  of the species8 ,to    
which we reply by asking1 ,which does   
the question  refer to1 the category of 
thought1 or the individual embodiment8  
,if the  former1 then we would remark   
that our categories of thought vary from
  time to time in the readiest manner4  
,and1 although the ,divine thoughts  are
 eternal1 yet they are manifested to us 

in time and succession1 and  by their   
manifestation only can we know them1 how
 imperfectly6 ,allowing  that what has  
no material existence can have had no   
material connection  or variation1 we   
should yet infer that what has          
intellectual existence  and connection  
might have intellectual variation2 and1 
turning to the  individuals1 which      
represent the species1 we do not see how
 all this  shows that they may not vary4
 ,observation shows us that they do4    
,wherefore1 taught by fact that         
successive individuals do vary1 we      
safely infer that the idea must have    
varied1 and that this variation of  the 
individual representatives proves the   
variability of the species1  whether    
objectively or subjectively regarded4   
,each species or sort of chair1 as we   
have said1 has its varieties1 and  one  
species shades off by gradations into   
another4 ,and--note it  well--these     
numerous and successively slight        
variations and gradations1  far from    

suggesting an accidental origin to      
chairs and to their forms1  are very    
proofs of design4    ,again1 edifice is 
a generic category of thought4          
,egyptian1 ,grecian1  ,byzantine1 and   
,gothic buildings are well-marked       
species1 of which each  individual      
building of the sort is a material      
embodiment4 ,now1 the  question is1     
whether these categories or ideas may   
not have been  evolved1 one from another
 in succession1 or from some primal1    
less  specialized1 edificial category4  
,what better evidence for such          
hypothesis could we have than the       
variations and grades which connect     
these species with each other8 ,we might
 extend the parallel1 and get  some good
 illustrations of natural selection from
 the history of  architecture1 and the  
origin of the different styles under    
different  climates and conditions4 ,two
 considerations may qualify or limit the
  comparison4 ,one1 that houses do not  
propagate1 so as to produce  continuing 

lines of each sort and variety2 but this
 is of small moment  on ,agassizs view1 
he holding that genealogical connection 
is not of the  essence of a species at  
all4 ,the other1 that the formation and 
development of the ideas upon which     
human works proceed are gradual2  or1 as
 the same great naturalist well states  
it1 while human thought  is consecutive1
 ,divine thought is simultaneous4 ,but  
we have no right  to affirm this of     
,divine action4    ,we must close here4 
,we meant to review some of the more    
general  scientific objections which we 
thought not altogether tenable4 ,but1   
after all1 we are not so anxious just   
now to know whether the new  theory is  
well founded on facts1 as whether it    
would be harmless if it  were4 ,besides1
 we feel quite unable to answer some of 
these objections1  and it is pleasanter 
to take up those which one thinks he    
can4    ,among the unanswerable1 perhaps
 the weightiest of the objections1 is   
that of the absence1 in geological      

deposits1 of vestiges of the            
intermediate forms which the theory     
requires to have existed4 ,here all     
that ,mr4 ,darwin can do is to insist   
upon the extreme imperfection of  the   
geological record and the uncertainty of
 negative evidence4 ,but1  withal1 he   
allows the force of the objection almost
 as much as his  opponents urge it--so  
much so1 indeed1 that two of his        
,english critics  turn the concession   
unfairly upon him1 and charge him with  
actually  basing his hypothesis upon    
these and similar difficulties--as if he
  held it because of the difficulties1  
and not in spite of them2 a  handsome   
return for his candor6    ,as to this   
imperfection of the geological record1  
perhaps we should get  a fair and       
intelligible illustration of it by      
imagining the existing  animals and     
plants of ,new ,england1 with all their 
remains and products  since the arrival 
of the ,mayflower1 to be annihilated2   
and that1 in the  coming time1 the      

geologists of a new colony1 dropped by  
the ,new ,zealand  fleet on its way to  
explore the ruins of ,london1 undertake1
 after fifty  years of examination1 to  
reconstruct in a catalogue the flora and
 fauna  of our day1 that is1 from the   
close of the glacial period to the      
present time4 ,with all the advantages  
of a surface exploration1 what a        
beggarly account it would be6 ,how many 
of the land animals and plants  which   
are enumerated in the ,massachusetts    
official reports would it be  likely to 
contain8    ,another unanswerable       
question asked by the ,boston reviewers 
is1 ,why1  when structure and instinct  
or habit vary-- as they must have       
varied1  on ,darwins hypothesis--they   
vary together and harmoniously1 instead 
of  vaguely8 ,we cannot tell1 because we
 cannot tell why either varies at  all4 
,yet1 as they both do vary in successive
 generations--as is seen  under         
domestication--and are correlated1 we   
can only adduce the fact4  ,darwin may  

be precluded from our answer1 but we may
 say that they vary  together because   
designed to do so4 ,a reviewer says that
 the chance of  their varying together  
is inconceivably small2 yet1 if they do 
not1 the  variant individuals must all  
perish4 ,then it is well that it is not 
left to chance4 ,to refer to a parallel 
case3 before we were born1  nourishment 
and the equivalent to respiration took  
place in a certain  way4 ,but the moment
 we were ushered into this breathing    
world1 our  actions promptly conformed1 
both as to respiration and nourishment1 
to  the before unused structure and to  
the new surroundings4    ,now1 says the 
,examiner1 suppose1 for instance1 the   
gills of an  aquatic animal converted   
into lungs1 while instinct still        
compelled a  continuance under water1   
would not drowning ensue8 ,no doubt4    
,but--simply contemplating the facts1   
instead of theorizing--we notice  that  
young frogs do not keep their heads     
under water after ceasing to  be        

tadpoles4 ,the instinct promptly changes
 with the structure1 without            
supernatural interposition--just as     
,darwin would have it1 if the           
development of a variety or incipient   
species1 though rare1 were as  natural  
as a metamorphosis4    ,or if a         
quadruped1 not yet furnished with wings1
 were suddenly  inspired with the       
instinct of a bird1 and precipitated    
itself from a  cliff1 would not the     
descent be hazardously rapid8 ,doubtless
 the  animal would be no better         
supported than the objection4 ,but      
,darwin  makes very little indeed of    
voluntary efforts as a cause of change1 
and  even poor ,lamarck need not be     
caricatured4 ,he never supposed that an 
elephant would take such a notion into  
his wise head1 or that a  squirrel would
 begin with other than short and easy   
leaps2 yet might  not the length of the 
leap be increased by practice8    ,the  
,north ,american reviewers position1    
that the higher brute animals  have     

comparatively little instinct and no    
intelligence1 is a heavy blow  and great
 discouragement to dogs1 horses1        
elephants1 and monkeys4 ,thus  stripped 
of their all1 and left to shift for     
themselves as they may in  this hard    
world1 their pursuit and seeming        
attainment of knowledge  under such     
peculiar difficulties are interesting to
 contemplate4  ,however1 we are not so  
sure as is the critic that instinct     
regularly  increases downward and       
decreases upward in the scale of being4 
,now that  the case of the bee is       
reduced to moderate                     
proportions1,,iii-#ai we know  of       
nothing in instinct surpassing that of  
an animal so high as a bird1  the       
talegal1 the male of which plumes       
himself upon making a hot-bed in  which 
to batch his partners eggs--which he    
tends and regulates the beat  of about  
as carefully and skillfully as the      
unplumed biped does an                  
eccaleobion4,,iii-#bj    ,as to the real

 intelligence of the higher brutes1 it  
has been ably  defended by a far more   
competent observer1 ,mr4 ,agassiz1 to   
whose  conclusions we yield a general   
assent1 although we cannot quite place  
the best of dogs in that respect upon a 
level with a considerable  proportion of
 poor humanity1 nor indulge the hope1 or
 indeed the  desire1 of a renewed       
acquaintance with the whole animal      
kingdom in a  future life4    ,the      
assertion that acquired habitudes or    
instincts1 and acquired  structures1 are
 not heritable1 any breeder or good     
observer can  refute4       ,that the   
human mind has become what it is out of 
a developed  instinct1 is a statement   
which ,mr4 ,darwin nowhere makes1 and1  
we  presume1 would not accept4 ,that he 
would have us believe that  individual  
animals acquire their  instincts        
gradually1,,iii-#ba is a  statement     
which must have been penned in          
inadvertence both of the very           
definition of instinct1 and of          

everything we know of in ,mr4 ,darwins  
book4    ,it has been attempted to      
destroy the very foundation of ,darwins 
hypothesis by denying that there are any
 wild varieties1 to speak of1  for      
natural selection to operate upon4 ,we  
cannot gravely sit down to  prove that  
wild varieties abound4 ,we should think 
it just as necessary  to prove that snow
 falls in winter4 ,that variation among 
plants cannot  be largely due to        
hybridism1 and that their variation in  
,nature is not  essentially different   
from much that occurs in domestication1 
and1 in  the long-run1 probably hardly  
less in amount1 we could show if our    
space permitted4    ,as to the sterility
 of hybrids1 that can no longer be      
insisted upon as  absolutely true1 nor  
be practically used as a test between   
species and  varieties1 unless we allow 
that hares and rabbits are of one       
species4  ,that such sterility1 whether 
total or partial1 subserves a purpose in
  keeping species apart1 and was so     

designed1 we do not doubt4 ,but the     
critics fail to perceive that this      
sterility proves nothing whatever       
against the derivative origin of the    
actual species2 for it may as well  have
 been intended to keep separate those   
forms which have reached a  certain     
amount of divergence1 as those which    
were always thus  distinct4    ,the     
argument for the permanence of species1 
drawn from the identity  with those now 
living of cats1 birds1 and other animals
 preserved in  ,egyptian catacombs1 was 
good enough as used by ,cuvier against  
,st4-,hilaire1 that is1 against the     
supposition that time brings about a    
gradual alteration of whole species2 but
 it goes for little against  ,darwin1   
unless it be proved that species never  
vary1 or that the  perpetuation of a    
variety necessitates the extinction of  
the parent  breed4 ,for ,darwin clearly 
maintains--what the facts warrant--that 
the  mass of a species remains fixed so 
long as it exists at all1 though it  may

 set off a variety now and then4 ,the   
variety may finally supersede  the      
parent form1 or it may coexist with it2 
yet it does not in the  least hinder the
 unvaried stock from continuing true to 
the breed1  unless it crosses with it4  
,the common law of inheritance may be   
expected to keep both the original and  
the variety mainly true as long  as they
 last1 and none the less so because they
 have given rise to  occasional         
varieties4 ,the tailless ,manx cats1    
like the curtailed fox in  the fable1   
have not induced the normal breeds to   
dispense with their  tails1 nor have the
 ,dorkings 7apparently known to ,pliny7 
affected the  permanence of the common  
sort of fowl4    ,as to the objection   
that the lower forms of life ought1 on  
,darwins  theory1 to have been long ago 
improved out of existence1 and replaced 
by higher forms1 the objectors forget   
what a vacuum that would leave  below1  
and what a vast field there is to which 
a simple organization is  best adapted1 

and where an advance would be no        
improvement1 but the  contrary4 ,to     
accumulate the greatest amount of being 
upon a given  space1 and to provide as  
much enjoyment of life as can be under  
the  conditions1 is what ,nature seems  
to aim at2 and this is effected by      
diversification4    ,finally1 we advise 
nobody to accept ,darwins or any other  
derivative  theory as true4 ,the time   
has not come for that1 and perhaps never
 will4  ,we also advise against a       
similar credulity on the other side1 in 
a  blind faith that species--that the   
manifold sorts and forms of existing    
animals and vegetables--have no         
secondary cause4 ,the contrary is       
already not unlikely1 and we suppose    
will hereafter become more and  more    
probable4 ,but we are confident that1 if
 a derivative hypothesis  ever is       
established1 it will be so on a solid   
theistic ground4    ,meanwhile an       
inevitable and legitimate hypothesis is 
on trial--an  hypothesis thus far not   

untenable--a trial just now very useful 
to  science1 and1 we conclude1 not      
harmful to religion1 unless injudicious 
assailants temporarily make it so4      
,one good effect is already manifest2   
its enabling the advocates of the       
hypothesis of a multiplicity of human   
species to perceive the double          
insecurity of their ground4 ,when the   
races of men are admitted to be of  one 
species1 the corollary1 that they are of
 one origin1 may be  expected to follow4
 ,those who allow them to be of one     
species must  admit an actual           
diversification into strongly-marked and
 persistent  varieties1 and so admit the
 basis of fact upon which the ,darwinian
  hypothesis is built2 while those1 on  
the other hand1 who recognize  several  
or numerous human species1 will hardly  
be able to maintain that  such species  
were primordial and supernatural in the 
ordinary sense of  the word4    ,the    
,english mind is prone to positivism and
 kindred forms of  materialistic        

philosophy1 and we must expect the      
derivative theory to  be taken up in    
that interest4 ,we have no predilection 
for that school1  but the contrary4 ,if 
we had1 we might have looked            
complacently upon a  line of criticism  
which would indirectly1 but effectively1
 play into  the hands of positivists and
 materialistic atheists generally4 ,the 
wiser and stronger ground to take is1   
that the derivative hypothesis  leaves  
the argument for design1 and therefore  
for a designer1 as valid  as it ever    
was2 that to do any work by an          
instrument must require1 and  therefore 
presuppose1 the exertion rather of more 
than of less power  than to do it       
directly2 that whoever  would be a      
consistent theist  should believe that  
,design in the natural world is         
coextensive with  ,providence1 and hold 
as firmly to the one as he does to the  
other1 in  spite of the wholly similar  
and apparently insuperable difficulties 
which the mind encounters whenever it   

endeavors to develop the idea  into a   
system1 either in the material and      
organic1 or in the moral  world4 ,it is 
enough1 in the way of obviating         
objections1 to show that  the           
philosophical difficulties of the one   
are the same1 and only the  same1 as of 
the other4                              
,,iv4           ,,capital--,,the        
,,mother ,,of ,,labour        ,,an      
,,economical ,,problem ,,discussed      
,,from ,a          ,,physiological      
,,point ,,of ,,view                     
#ahij4    ,,the first act of a new-born 
child is to draw a deep breath4 ,in     
fact1 it  will never draw a deeper1     
inasmuch as the passages and chambers of
 the  lungs1 once distended with air1 do
 not empty themselves again2 it is  only
 a fraction of their contents which     
passes in and out with the  flow and the
 ebb of the respiratory tide4           
,mechanically1 this act of  drawing     
breath1 or inspiration1 is of the same  
nature as that by which  the handles of 

a bellows are separated1 in order to    
fill the bellows  with air2 and1 in like
 manner1 it involves that expenditure of
 energy  which we call exertion1 or     
work1 or labour4 ,it is1 therefore1 no  
mere  metaphor to say that man is       
destined to a life of toil3 the work of 
respiration which began with his first  
breath ends only with his last2  nor    
does one born in the purple get off with
 a lighter task than the  child who     
first sees light under a hedge4    #adh 
,how is it that the new-born infant is  
enabled to perform this  first          
instalment of the sentence of life-long 
labour which no man may  escape8        
,whatever else a child may be1 in       
respect of this particular  question1 it
 is a complicated piece of mechanism1   
built up out of  materials supplied by  
its mother2 and in the course of such   
building-up1 provided with a set of     
motors--the muscles4 ,each of these     
muscles contains a stock of substance   
capable of yielding energy under        

certain conditions1 one of which is a   
change of state in the nerve  fibres    
connected with it4 ,the powder in a     
loaded gun is such another  stock of    
substance capable of yielding energy in 
consequence of a  change of state in the
 mechanism of the lock1 which intervenes
 between  the finger of the man who     
pulls the trigger and the cartridge4 ,if
 that  change is brought about1 the     
potential energy of the powder passes   
suddenly into actual energy1 and does   
the work of propelling the  bullet4 ,the
 powder1 therefore1 may be appropriately
 called work-stuff1  not only because it
 is stuff which is easily made to yield 
work in the  physical sense1 but because
 a good deal of work in the economical  
sense  has contributed to its           
production4 ,labour was necessary to    
collect1  transport1 and purify the raw 
sulphur and saltpetre2 to cut wood and  
convert it into powdered charcoal2 to   
mix these ingredients in the  right     
proportions2 to give the mixture the    

proper grain1 and so on4  ,the powder   
#adi once formed part of the stock1 or  
capital1 of a  powder-maker3 and it is  
not only certain natural bodies which   
are  collected and stored in the        
gunpowder1 but the labour bestowed on   
the  operations mentioned may be        
figuratively said to be incorporated in 
it4    ,in principle1 the work-stuff    
stored in the muscles of the new-born   
child is comparable to that stored in   
the gun-barrel4 ,the infant is  launched
 into altogether new surroundings2 and  
these operate through  the mechanism of 
the nervous machinery1 with the result  
that the  potential energy of some of   
the work-stuff in the muscles which     
bring  about inspiration is suddenly    
converted into actual energy2 and this1 
operating through the mechanism of the  
respiratory apparatus1 gives  rise to an
 act of inspiration4 ,as the bullet is  
propelled by the  going off of the      
powder1 as it might be said that the    
ribs are  raised and the midriff        

depressed by the going off of certain   
portions of muscular work-stuff4 ,this  
work-stuff is part of a stock or        
capital of that commodity stored up in  
the child's organism before  birth1 at  
the expense of the mother2 and the      
mother has made good her  expenditure by
 drawing upon the capital of food-stuffs
 which furnished  her daily maintenance4
    ,under these circumstances1 it does 
not appear to me to be open to doubt    
that the primary act of outward labour  
in the series which necessarily         
accompany #aej the life of man is       
dependent upon the pre-existence of  a  
stock of material which is not only of  
use to him1 but which is  disposed in   
such a manner as to be utilisable with  
facility4 ,and ,i  further imagine that 
the propriety of the application of the 
term  'capital' to this stock of useful 
substance cannot be justly called in    
question2 inasmuch as it is easy to     
prove that the essential  constituents  
of the work-stuff accumulated in the    

child's muscles have  merely been       
transferred from the store of           
food-stuffs1 which everybody  admits to 
be capital1 by means of the maternal    
organism to that of the  child1 in which
 they are again deposited to await use4 
,every  subsequent act of labour1 in    
like manner1 involves an equivalent     
consumption of the child's store of     
work-stuff--its vital capital2 and  one 
of the main objects of the process of   
breathing is to get rid of  some of the 
effects of that consumption4 ,it        
follows1 then1 that1 even  if no other  
than the respiratory work were going on 
in the organism1  the capital of        
work-stuff1 which the child brought with
 it into the  world1 must sooner or     
later be used up1 and the movements of  
breathing  must come to an end2 just as 
the see-saw of the piston of a          
steam-engine stops when the coal in the 
fireplace has burnt away4    ,milk1     
however1 is a stock of materials which  
essentially consists of  savings from   

the food-stuffs supplied to the mother4 
,and these savings  are #aea in such a  
physical and chemical condition that the
 organism  of the child can easily      
convert them into work-stuff4 ,that is  
to say1  by borrowing directly from the 
vital capital of the mother1 indirectly 
from the store in the natural bodies    
accessible to her1 it can make  good the
 loss of its own4 ,the operation of     
borrowing1 however1  involves further   
work2 that is1 the labour of sucking1   
which is a  mechanical operation of much
 the same nature as breathing4 ,the     
child  thus pays for the capital it     
borrows in labour2 but as the value in  
work-stuff of the milk obtained is very 
far greater than the value of  that     
labour1 estimated by the consumption of 
work-stuff it involves1  the operation  
yields a large profit to the infant4    
,the overplus of  food-stuff suffices to
 increase the child's capital of        
work-stuff2 and  to supply not only the 
materials for the enlargement of the    

buildings  and machinery which is       
expressed by the child's growth1 but    
also the  energy required to put all    
these materials together1 and to carry  
them  to their proper places4 ,thus1    
throughout the years of infancy1 and so 
long thereafter as the youth or man is  
not thrown upon his own  resources1 he  
lives by consuming the vital capital    
provided by others4  ,to use a          
terminology which is more common than   
appropriate1 whatever  work he performs 
7and he does a good deal1 if only in    
mere locomotion7  is unproductive4      
#aeb ,let us now suppose the child come 
to man's estate in the  condition of a  
wandering savage1 dependent for his food
 upon what he  can pick up or catch1    
after the fashion of the ,australian    
aborigines4  ,it is plain that the place
 of mother1 as the supplier of vital    
capital1 is now taken by the fruits1    
seeds1 and roots of plants and by       
various kinds of animals4 ,it is they   
alone which contain stocks of  those    

substances which can be converted within
 the man's organism into  work-stuff2   
and of the other matters1 except air and
 water1 required  to supply the constant
 consumption of his capital and to keep 
his  organic machinery going4 ,in no way
 does the savage contribute to the      
production of these substances4         
,whatever labour he bestows upon such   
vegetable and animal bodies1 on the     
contrary1 is devoted to their           
destruction2 and it is a mere matter of 
accident whether a little  labour yields
 him a great deal--as in the case1 for  
example1 of a  stranded whale2 or       
whether much labour yields next to      
nothing--as in  times of long-continued 
drought4 ,the savage1 like the child1   
borrows  the capital he needs1 and1 at  
any rate1 intentionally1 does nothing   
towards repayment2 it would plainly be  
an improper use of the word  produce to 
say that his labour in hunting for the  
roots1 or the  fruits1 or the eggs1 or  
the grubs and snakes1 which he finds and

 eats1  produces or contributes to      
produce them4 ,the same thing is true   
of more advanced tribes1 who #aec are   
still merely hunters1 such as  the      
,esquimaux4 ,they may expend more labour
 and skill2 but it is spent  in         
destruction4    ,when we pass from these
 to men who lead a purely pastoral life1
 like  the ,south ,american ,gauchos1 or
 some ,asiatic nomads1 there is an      
important change4 ,let us suppose the   
owner of a flock of sheep to live  on   
the milk1 cheese1 and flesh which they  
yield4 ,it is obvious that  the flock   
stands to him in the economic relation  
of the mother to the  child1 inasmuch as
 it supplies him with food-stuffs       
competent to make  good the daily and   
hourly losses of his capital of         
workstuff4 ,if we  imagine our          
sheep-owner to have access to extensive 
pastures and to be  troubled neither by 
predacious animals nor by rival         
shepherds1 the  performance of his      
pastoral functions will hardly involve  

the  expenditure of any more labour than
 is needful to provide him with the     
exercise required to maintain health4   
,and this is true1 even if we  take into
 account the trouble originally devoted 
to the domestication  of the sheep4 ,it 
surely would be a most singular         
pretension for the  shepherd to talk of 
the flock as the produce of his labour  
in any  but a very limited sense4 ,in   
truth1 his labour would have been a mere
  accessory of production of very little
 consequence4 ,under the  circumstances 
supposed1 a ram and some ewes1 left to  
themselves for a  few years1 would      
probably generate as large a flock2 #aed
 and the  superadded labour of the      
shepherd would have little more effect  
upon  their production than upon that of
 the blackberries on the bushes  about  
the pastures4 ,for the most part the    
increment would be  thoroughly unearned2
 and1 if it is a rule of absolute       
political ethics  that owners have no   
claim upon betterment brought about     

independently of their own labour1 then 
the shepherd would have no  claim to at 
least nine-tenths of the increase of the
 flock4    ,but if the shepherd has no  
real claim to the title of producer1 who
  has8  ,are the rams and ewes the true 
producers8 ,certainly their  title is   
better if1 borrowing from the old       
terminology of chemistry1  they only    
claim to be regarded as the proximate   
principles of  production4 ,and yet1 if 
strict justice is to be dispensed1 even 
they  are to be regarded rather as      
collectors and distributors than as     
producers4 ,for all that they really do 
is to collect1 slightly  modify1 and    
render easily accessible1 the vital     
capital which already  exists in the    
green herbs on which they feed1 but in  
such a form as to  be practically out of
 the reach of man4    ,thus1 from an    
economic point of view1 the sheep are   
more comparable to  confectioners than  
to producers4 ,the usefulness of biscuit
 lies in the  raw flour of which it is  

made2 but raw flour does not answer as  
an  article of human diet1 and biscuit  
does4 ,so the usefulness of mutton  lies
 mainly in certain chemical compounds   
which it #aee contains3 the  sheep gets 
them out of grass2 we cannot live on    
grass1 but we can on  mutton4    ,now1  
herbaceous and all other green plants   
stand alone among  terrestrial natural  
bodies1 in so far as1 under the         
influence of  light1 they possess the   
power to build up1 out of the carbonic  
acid  gas in the atmosphere1 water and  
certain nitrogenous and mineral  salts1 
those substances which in the animal    
organism are utilised as  work-stuff4   
,they are the chief and1 for practical  
purposes1 the sole  producers of that   
vital capital which we have seen to be  
the necessary  antecedent of every act  
of labour4 ,every green plant is a      
laboratory  in which1 so long as the sun
 shines upon it1 materials furnished by 
the mineral world1 gases1 water1 saline 
compounds1 are worked up into  those    

foodstuffs without which animal life    
cannot be carried on4 ,and  since1 up to
 the present time1 synthetic chemistry  
has not advanced so  far as to achieve  
this feat1 the green plant may be said  
to be the  only living worker whose     
labour directly results in the          
production of  that vital capital which 
is the necessary antecedent of human    
labour499  ,nor is this statement a     
paradox involving perpetual motion1     
because  the energy by which the plant  
does its work is supplied by the        
sun--the primordial capitalist so far as
 we are concerned4 ,but #aef  it cannot 
be too strongly impressed upon the mind 
that sunshine1 air1  water1 the best    
soil that is to be found on the surface 
of the earth1  might co-exist2 yet      
without plants1 there is no known agency
 competent  to generate the so-called   
protein compounds1 by which alone animal
  life can be permanently supported4    
,and not only are plants thus           
essential2 but1 in respect of particular

 kinds of animals1 they must  be plants 
of a particular nature4 ,if there were  
no terrestrial green  plants but1 say1  
cypresses and mosses1 pastoral and      
agricultural life  would be alike       
impossible2 indeed1 it is difficult to  
imagine the  possibility of the         
existence of any large animal1 as the   
labour  required to get at a sufficiency
 of the store of food-stuffs1  contained
 in such plants as these1 could hardly  
extract from them an  equivalent for the
 waste involved in that expenditure of  
work4        99 ,it remains to be seen  
whether the plants which have no        
chlorophyll1 and flourish in darkness1  
such as the ,fungi1 can      live upon  
purely mineral food4    ,we are compact 
of dust and air2 from that we set out1  
and to that  complexion must we come at 
last4 ,the plant either directly1 or by 
some  animal intermediary1 lends us the 
capital which enables us to carry on    
the business of life1 as we flit through
 the upper world1 from the one  term of 

our journey to the other4 ,popularly1 no
 doubt1 it is  permissible to speak of  
the soil as a producer1 just as we may  
talk  of the daily movement of the sun4 
,but1 as ,i have elsewhere remarked1    
propositions which are to bear any      
deductive strain that may be put  upon  
them must run the risk of #aeg seeming  
pedantic1 rather than  that of being    
inaccurate4 ,and the statement that     
land1 in the sense of  cultivable soil1 
is a producer1 or even one of the       
essentials of  economic production1 is  
anything but accurate4 ,the process of  
water-culture1 in which a plant is not  
planted in any soil1 but is  merely     
supported in water containing in        
solution the mineral  ingredients       
essential to that plant1 is now         
thoroughly understood2  and1 if it were 
worth while1 a crop yielding abundant   
food-stuffs  could be raised on an acre 
of fresh water1 no less than on an acre 
of  dry land4 ,in the ,arctic regions1  
again1 land has nothing to do with      

production in the social economy of the 
,esquimaux1 who live on seals  and other
 marine animals2 and might1 like        
,proteus1 shepherd the flocks  of       
,poseidon if they had a mind for        
pastoral life4 ,but the seals and  the  
bears are dependent on other inhabitants
 of the sea1 until1  somewhere in the   
series1 we come to the minute green     
plants which  float in the ocean1 and   
are the real producers by which the     
whole of  its vast animal population is 
supported499 ,thus1 when we find set    
forth  as an absolute #aeh truth the    
statement that the essential factors  in
 economic production are land1 capital  
and labour--when this is  offered as an 
axiom whence all sorts of other         
important truths may be  deduced--it is 
needful to remember that the assertion  
is true only  with a qualification4     
,undoubtedly vital capital is essential2
 for1  as we have seen1 no human work   
can be done unless it exists1 not even  
that internal work of the body which is 

necessary to passive life4  ,but1 with  
respect to labour 7that is1 human       
labour7 ,i hope to have  left no doubt  
on the reader's mind that1 in regard to 
production1 the  importance of human    
labour may be so small as to be almost a
 vanishing  quantity4 ,moreover1 it is  
certain that there is no approximation  
to a  fixed ratio between the           
expenditure of labour and the production
 of  that vital capital which is the    
foundation of all wealth4 ,for1 suppose 
that we introduce into our suppositious 
pastoral paradise beasts of  prey and   
rival shepherds1 the amount of labour   
thrown upon the  sheep-owner may        
increase almost indefinitely1 and its   
importance as a  condition of production
 may be enormously augmented1 while the 
quantity of produce remains stationary4 
,compare for a moment the  unimportance 
of the shepherd's labour1 under the     
circumstances first  defined1 with its  
indispensability in countries in which  
the water for  the sheep has to be drawn

 from deep #aei wells1 or in which the  
flock  has to be defended from wolves or
 from human depredators4 ,as to land1   
it has been shown that1 except as       
affording mere room and standing        
ground1 the importance of land1 great as
 it may be1 is secondary4 ,the  one     
thing needful for economic production is
 the green plant1 as the  sole producer 
of vital capital from natural inorganic 
bodies4 ,men  might exist without labour
 7in the ordinary sense7 and without    
land2  without plants they must         
inevitably perish4        99 ,in some   
remarkable passages of the ,botany of   
,sir ,james ,ross's      ,antarctic     
voyage1 which took place half a century 
ago1 ,sir      ,joseph ,hooker          
demonstrated the dependence of the      
animal life of      the sea upon the    
minute1 indeed microscopic1 plants which
 float      in it3 a marvellous example 
of what may be done by                  
water-culture4 ,one might indulge in    
dreams of cultivating and      improving

 diatoms1 until the domesticated bore   
the same      relation to the wild      
forms1 as cauliflowers to the primitive 
,brassica oleracea1 without passing     
beyond the limits of fair               
scientific speculation4    ,that which  
is true of the purely pastoral condition
 is a fortiori true  of the purely      
agricultural99 condition1 in which the  
existence of the  cultivator is directly
 dependent on the production of vital   
capital by  the plants which he         
cultivates4 ,here1 again1 the condition 
precedent  of the work of each year is  
vital capital4 ,suppose that a man lives
  exclusively upon the plants which he  
cultivates4 ,it is obvious that he  must
 have food-stuffs to live upon1 while he
 prepares the soil for  sowing and      
throughout the period which elapses     
between this and  harvest4 ,these       
food-stuffs must be yielded by the stock
 remaining over  from former crops4 ,the
 result is the same as before--the      
pre-existence  of vital capital is the  

necessary antecedent of labour4         
,moreover1 the  amount of labour which  
contributes1 as an accessory condition1 
to the  production #afj of the crop     
varies as widely in the case of         
plant-raising as in that of             
cattle-raising4 ,with favourable soil1  
climate and other conditions1 it may be 
very small1 with unfavourable1  very    
great1 for the same revenue or yield of 
food-stuffs4        99 ,it is a pity    
that we have no word that signifies     
plant-culture      exclusively4 ,but for
 the present purpose ,i may restrict    
agriculture to that sense4    ,thus1 ,i 
do not think it is possible to dispute  
the following  proposition3  the        
existence of any man1 or of any number  
of men1  whether organised into a polity
 or not1 depends on the production of   
foodstuffs 7that is1 vital capital7     
readily accessible to man1 either       
directly or indirectly1 by plants4 ,but 
it follows that the number of  men who  
can exist1 say for one year1 on any     

given area of land1 taken  by itself1   
depends upon the quantity of food-stuffs
 produced by such  plants growing on the
 area in one year4 ,if a is that        
quantity1 and b  the minimum of         
food-stuffs required for each man1      
,a_/,b,n1 the maximum  number of men who
 can exist on the area4 ,now the amount 
of production  7a7 is limited by the    
extent of area occupied2 by the quantity
 of  sunshine which falls upon the area2
 by the range and distribution of       
temperature2 by the force of the winds2 
by the supply of water2 by the          
composition and the physical characters 
of the soil2 by animal and  vegetable   
competitors and destroyers4 ,the labour 
of man neither does1  nor can1 produce  
vital capital2 all that it can do is to 
modify1  favourably or unfavourably1 the
 conditions of its production4 ,the most
  important of these-- #afa namely1     
sunshine1 range of daily and  nightly   
temperature1 wind--are practically out  
of men's reach499 ,on the  other hand1  

the supply of water1 the physical and   
chemical qualities  of the soil1 and the
 influences of competitors and          
destroyers1 can  often1 though by no    
means always1 be largely affected by    
labour and  skill4 ,and there is no harm
 in calling the effect of such labour   
production1 if it is clearly understood 
that production in this  sense is a very
 different thing from the production of 
food-stuffs  by a plant4        99 ,i do
 not forget electric lighting1          
greenhouses and hothouses1      and the 
various modes of affording shelter      
against violent      winds3 but in      
regard to production of food-stuffs on  
the large      scale they may be        
neglected4 ,even if synthetic chemistry 
should      effect the construction of  
proteids1 the ,laboratory will          
hardly enter into competition with the  
,farm within any time      which the    
present generation need trouble itself  
about4    ,we have been dealing hitherto
 with suppositions the materials of     

which  are furnished by everyday        
experience1 not with mere a priori      
assumptions4 ,our hypothetical solitary 
shepherd with his flock1 or the         
solitary farmer with his grain field1   
are mere bits of such  experience1 cut  
out1 as it were1 for easy study4 ,still 
borrowing from  daily experience1 let us
 suppose that either sheep-owner or     
farmer1  for any reason that may be     
imagined1 desires the help of one or    
more  other men2 and that1 in exchange  
for their labour1 he offers so many     
sheep1 or quarts of milk1 or pounds of  
#afb cheese1 or so many  measures of    
grain1 for a year's service4 ,i fail to 
discover any a  priori rights of labour 
in virtue of which these men may insist 
on  being employed1 if they are not     
wanted4 ,but1 on the other hand1 ,i     
think it is clear that there is only one
 condition upon which the  persons to   
whom the offer of these wages is made   
can accept it2 and  that is that the    
things offered in exchange for a year's 

work shall  contain at least as much    
vital capital as a man uses up in doing 
the  year's work4 ,for no rational man  
could knowingly and willingly accept    
conditions which necessarily involve    
starvation4 ,therefore there is an      
irreducible minimum of wages2 it is such
 an amount of vital capital as  suffices
 to replace the inevitable consumption  
of the person hired4  ,now1 surely1 it  
is beyond a doubt that these wages1     
whether at or  above the irreducible    
minimum1 are paid out of the capital    
disposable  after the wants of the owner
 of the flock or of the crop of grain   
are  satisfied2 and1 from what has been 
said already1 it follows that there  is 
a limit to the number of men1 whether   
hired1 or brought in any other  way1 who
 can be maintained by the sheep owner or
 landowner out of his  own resources4   
,since no amount of labour can produce  
an ounce of  foodstuff beyond the       
maximum producible by a limited number  
of plants1  under the most favourable   

circumstances in regard to those        
conditions  which are not affected by   
labour1 it follows #afc that1 if the    
number  of men to be fed increases      
indefinitely1 a time must come when some
  will have to starve4 ,that is the     
essence of the so-called ,malthusian    
doctrine2 and it is a truth which1 to my
 mind1 is as plain as the  general      
proposition that a quantity which       
constantly increases will1  some time or
 other1 exceed any greater quantity the 
amount of which is  fixed4    ,the      
foregoing considerations leave no doubt 
about the fundamental  condition of the 
existence of any polity1 or organised   
society of men1  either in a purely     
pastoral or purely agricultural state1  
or in any  mixture of both states4 ,it  
must possess a store of vital capital to
  start with1 and the means of repairing
 the consumption of that capital  which 
takes place as a consequence of the work
 of the members of the  society4 ,and1  
if the polity occupies a completely     

isolated area of the  earth's surface1  
the numerical strength of that polity   
can never  exceed the quotient of the   
maximum quantity of food-stuffs         
producible  by the green plants on that 
area1 in each year1 divided by the      
quantity necessary for the maintenance  
of each person during the year4  ,but1  
there is a third mode of existence      
possible to a polity2 it may1           
conceivably1 be neither purely pastoral 
nor purely agricultural1 but  purely    
manufacturing4 ,let us suppose three    
islands1 like ,gran ,canaria1           
,teneriffe and ,lanzerote1 in the       
,canaries1 to be quite cut off from the 
rest of the world4 ,let ,gran ,canaria  
be #afd inhabited by  grain-raisers1    
,teneriffe by cattle-breeders2 while the
 population of  ,lanzerote 7which we may
 suppose to be utterly barren7 consists 
of  carpenters1 woollen manufacturers1  
and shoemakers4 ,then the facts of      
daily experience teach us that the      
people of ,lanzerote could never  have  

existed unless they came to the island  
provided with a stock of  food-stuffs2  
and that they could not continue to     
exist1 unless that  stock1 as it was    
consumed1 was made up by contributions  
from the vital  capital of either ,gran 
,canaria1 or ,teneriffe1 or both4       
,moreover1 the  carpenters of ,lanzerote
 could do nothing1 unless they were     
provided  with wood from the other      
islands2 nor could the wool spinners and
  weavers or the shoemakers work without
 wool and skins from the same  sources4 
,the wood and the wool and the skins    
are1 in fact1 the capital  without which
 their work as manufacturers in their   
respective trades  is impossible--so    
that the vital and other capital        
supplied by ,gran  ,canaria and         
,teneriffe is most indubitably the      
necessary antecedent of  the industrial 
labour of ,lanzerote4 ,it is perfectly  
true that by the  time the wood1 the    
wool1 and the skins reached ,lanzerote a
 good deal  of labour in cutting1       

shearing1 skinning1 transport1 and so   
on1 would  have been spent upon them4   
,but this does not alter the fact that  
the  only production which is essential 
to the existence of the  population of  
,teneriffe and ,gran ,canaria is that   
effected by the #afe  green plants in   
both islands2 and that all the labour   
spent upon the  raw produce useful in   
manufacture1 directly or indirectly     
yielded by  them--by the inhabitants of 
these islands and by those of ,lanzerote
  into the bargain--will not provide one
 solitary ,lanzerotian with a  dinner1  
unless the ,teneriffians and ,canariotes
 happen to want his  goods and to be    
willing to give some of their vital     
capital in  exchange for them4    ,under
 the circumstances defined1 if          
,teneriffe and ,gran ,canaria           
disappeared1 or if their inhabitants    
ceased to care for carpentry1  clothing1
 or shoes1 the people of ,lanzerote must
 starve4 ,but if they  wish to buy1 then
 the ,lanzerotians1 by cultivating the  

buyers1  indirectly favour the          
cultivation of the produce of those     
buyers4    ,thus1 if the question is    
asked whether the labour employed in    
manufacture in ,lanzerote is productive 
or unproductive there can  be only one  
reply4 ,if anybody will exchange vital  
capital1 or that  which can be exchanged
 for vital capital1 for ,lanzerote      
goods1 it is  productive2 if not1 it is 
unproductive4    ,in the case of the    
manufacturer1 the dependence of labour  
upon capital  is still more intimate    
than in that of the herdsman or         
agriculturist4  ,when the latter are    
once started they can go on1 without    
troubling  themselves about the         
existence of any other people4 ,but the 
manufacturer depends on pre-existing    
capital1 not only at the #aff           
beginning1 but at the end of his        
operations4 ,however great the          
expenditure of his labour and of his    
skill1 the result1 for the  purpose of  
maintaining his existence1 is just the  

same as if he had  done nothing1 unless 
there is a customer able and willing to 
exchange  food-stuffs for that which his
 labour and skill have achieved4        
,there is another point concerning which
 it is very necessary to have  clear    
ideas4 ,suppose a carpenter in          
,lanzerote to be engaged in making      
chests of drawers4 ,let us suppose that 
a1 the timber1 and b1 the grain  and    
meat needful for the man's sustenance   
until he can finish a chest  of drawers1
 have to be paid for by that chest4     
,then the capital with  which he starts 
is represented by a  b4 ,he could not   
start at all  unless he had it2 day by  
day1 he must destroy more or less of the
  substance and of the general          
adaptability of a in order to work it up
  into the special forms needed to      
constitute the chest of drawers2 and1   
day by day1 he must use up at least so  
much of b as will replace his  loss of  
vital capital by the work of that day4  
,suppose it takes the  carpenter and his

 workmen ten days to saw up the timber1 
to plane the  boards1 and to give them  
the shape and size proper for the       
various  parts of the chest of drawers4 
,and suppose that he then offers his    
heap of boards to the advancer of a  b  
as an equivalent for the wood   ten     
days' supply of vital capital8 ,the     
latter will surely say3 ,no4  #afg ,i   
did not ask for a heap of boards4 ,i    
asked for a chest of  drawers4 ,up to   
this time1 so far as ,i am concerned1   
you have done  nothing and are as much  
in my debt as ever4 ,and if the         
carpenter  maintained that he had       
virtually created two-thirds of a chest 
of  drawers1 inasmuch as it would take  
only five days more to put together  the
 pieces of wood1 and that the heap of   
boards ought to be accepted  as the     
equivalent of two-thirds of his debt1 ,i
 am afraid the creditor  would regard   
him as little better than an impudent   
swindler4 ,it  obviously makes no sort  
of difference whether the ,canariote or 

,teneriffian buyer advanced the wood and
 the food-stuffs1 on which the          
carpenter had to maintain himself2 or   
whether the carpenter had a stock  of   
both1 the consumption of which must be  
recouped by the exchange of  a chest of 
drawers for a fresh supply4 ,in the     
latter case1 it is even  less doubtful  
that1 if the carpenter offered his      
boards to the man who  wanted a chest of
 drawers1 the latter would laugh in his 
face4 ,and if  he took the chest of     
drawers for himself1 then so much of his
 vital  capital would be sunk in it past
 recovery4 ,again1 the payment of goods 
in a lump1 for the chest of drawers1    
comes to the same thing as the  payment 
of daily wages for the fifteen days that
 the carpenter was  occupied in making  
it4 ,if1 at the end of each day1 the    
carpenter chose  to say to himself ,i   
have 'virtually' created1 by my day's   
labour1 a  fifteenth of what ,i shall   
get for the chest #afh of               
drawers--therefore my wages are the     

produce of my day's labour--there  is no
 great harm in such metaphorical speech1
 so long as the poor man  does not      
delude himself into the supposition that
 it represents the  exact truth4        
,virtually is apt to cover more         
intellectual sins than  charity does    
moral delicts4 ,after what has been     
said1 it surely must  be plain enough   
that each day's work has involved the   
consumption of  the carpenter's vital   
capital1 and the fashioning of his      
timber1 at  the expense of more or less 
consumption of those forms of capital4  
,whether the a  b to be exchanged for   
the chest has been advanced as a  loan1 
or is paid daily or weekly as wages1 or1
 at some later time1 as  the price of a 
finished commodity--the essential       
element of the  transaction1 and the    
only essential element1 is1 that it     
must1 at  least1 effect the replacement 
of the vital capital consumed4 ,neither 
boards nor chest of drawers are eatable2
 and1 so far from the  carpenter having 

produced the essential part of his wages
 by each  day's labour1 he has merely   
wasted that labour1 unless somebody who 
happens to want a chest of drawers      
offers to exchange vital capital1  or   
something that can procure it1          
equivalent to the amount consumed       
during the process of manufacture499    
99 ,see the discussion of this subject  
further on4    ,that it should be       
necessary1 at this time of day1 to set  
forth such  elementary truths as these  
may #afi well seem strange2 but no one  
who  consults that interesting museum of
 political delusions1 ,progress and     
,poverty1 some of the treasures of which
 ,i have already brought to  light1 will
 doubt the fact1 if he bestows proper   
attention upon the  first book of that  
widely-read work4 ,at page #ae it is    
thus written3    ,the proposition ,i    
shall endeavour to prove is3 that wages1
 instead of  being drawn from capital1  
are1 in reality1 drawn from the product 
of  the labour for which they are paid4 

,again at page #ah3--    ,in every case 
in which labour is exchanged for        
commodities1  production really precedes
 enjoyment 4 4 4 wages are the          
earnings--that is to say1 the           
makings--of labour--not the advances  of
 capital4    ,and the proposition which 
the author endeavours to disprove is the
  hitherto generally accepted doctrine  
444that labour is maintained and paid   
out of existing capital1          before
 the product which constitutes the      
ultimate object is          secured 7p4 
#af74    ,the doctrine respecting the   
relation of capital and wages1 which is 
thus opposed in ,progress and ,poverty1 
is that illustrated in the  foregoing   
pages2 the truth of which1 ,i conceive1 
must be plain to any  one who has       
apprehended the very simple arguments by
 which ,i have  endeavoured to #agj     
demonstrate it4 ,one conclusion or the  
other must  be hopelessly wrong2 and1   
even at the cost of going once more over
  some of the ground traversed in this  

essay and that on ,natural and          
,political ,rights199 ,i propose to show
 that the error lies with  ,progress and
 ,poverty2 in which work1 so far as     
political science is  concerned1 the    
poverty is1 to my eye1 much more        
apparent than the  progress4        99  
,collected ,essays1 vol4 i4 pp4         
#cei-chb4    ,to begin at the beginning4
 ,the author propounds a definition of  
wealth3  ,nothing which nature supplies 
to man without his labour is  wealth 7p4
 #bh74  ,wealth consists of natural     
substances or products  which have been 
adapted by human labour to human use or 
gratification1  their value depending   
upon the amount of labour which1 upon   
the  average1 would be required to      
produce things of like kind 7p4 #bg74   
,the following examples of wealth are   
given3--         4 4 4 ,buildings1      
cattle1 tools1 machinery1 agricultural  
and             mineral products1       
manufactured goods1 ships1 waggons1     
furniture1 and the like 7p4 #bg74    ,i 

take it that native metals1 coal and    
brick clay1 are mineral  products2 and  
,i quite believe that they are properly 
termed wealth4  ,but when a seam of coal
 crops out at the surface1 and lumps of 
coal  are to be had for the picking up2 
or when native copper lies about in     
nuggets1 or #aga when brick clay forms a
 superficial stratum1 it  appears to me 
that these things are supplied to1 nay  
almost thrust  upon1 man without his    
labour4 ,according to the definition1   
therefore1  they are not wealth4        
,according to the enumeration1 however1 
they are  wealth3 a tolerably fair      
specimen of a contradiction in terms4   
,or  does ,progress and ,poverty really 
suggest that a coal seam which  crops   
out at the surface is not wealth2 but   
that if somebody breaks  off a piece and
 carries it away1 the bestowal of this  
amount of labour  upon that particular  
lump makes it wealth2 while the rest    
remains not  wealth8 ,the notion that   
the value of a thing bears any necessary

  relation to the amount of labour      
7average or otherwise7 bestowed upon    
it1 is a fallacy which needs no further 
refutation than it has already          
received4  ,the average amount of labour
 bestowed upon warming-pans  confers no 
value upon them in the eyes of a        
,gold-,coast negro2 nor  would an       
,esquimaux give a slice of blubber for  
the most elaborate of  ice-machines4    
,so much for the doctrine of ,progress  
and ,poverty touching the nature  of    
wealth4 ,let us now consider its        
teachings respecting capital as  wealth 
or a part of wealth4 ,adam ,smith's     
definition that part of a  man's stock  
which he expects to yield him a revenue 
is called his  capital is quoted with   
approval 7p4 #cb72 elsewhere capital is 
said to  be that part of wealth which   
#agb is devoted to the aid of           
production 7p4 #bh72 and yet again it is
 said to be         4 4 4 wealth in     
course of exchange199 understanding     
exchange to             include1 not    

merely the passing from hand to hand1   
but             also such transmutations
 as occur when the reproductive         
or transforming forces of nature are    
utilised for the             increase of
 wealth 7p4 #cb74        99 ,the italics
 are the author's4    ,but if too much  
pondering over the possible senses and  
scope of these  definitions should weary
 the reader1 he will be relieved by the 
following acknowledgment3--         4 4 
4 ,nor is the definition of capital ,i  
have suggested of             any       
importance 7p4 #cc74    ,the author     
informs us1 in fact1 that he is not     
writing a text-book1  thereby intimating
 his opinion that it is less important  
to be clear  and accurate when you are  
trying to bring about a political       
revolution  than when a merely academic 
interest attaches to the subject        
treated4  ,but he is not busy about     
anything so serious as a textbook3 no1  
he is  only attempting to discover the  
laws which control a great social       

problem--a mode of expression which     
indicates perhaps the high-water  mark  
of intellectual muddlement4 ,i have     
heard1 in my time1 of laws  which       
control other laws2 but this is the     
first occasion on which  laws which     
control a problem have come under my    
notice4 ,even the  disquisitions of #agc
 those flabby writers who have burdened 
the  press and darkened counsel by      
numerous volumes which are dubbed       
political economy 7p4 #bh7 could hardly 
furnish their critics with a  finer     
specimen of that which a hero of the    
,dunciad1 by the one flash  of genius   
recorded of him1 called clotted         
nonsense4    ,doubtless it is a sign of 
grace that the author of these          
definitions  should attach no importance
 to any of them2 but since1             
unfortunately1  his whole argument turns
 upon the tacit assumption that they are
  important1 ,i may not pass them over  
so lightly4 ,the third ,i give up4  ,why
 anything should be capital when it is  

in course of exchange1 and  not be      
capital under other circumstances1      
passes my understanding4 ,we  are told  
that that part of a farmer's crop held  
for sale or for seed1  or to feed his   
help1 in part payment of wages1 would be
 accounted  capital2 that held for the  
care of his family would not be 7p4     
#ca74  ,but ,i fail to discover any     
ground of reason or authority for the   
doctrine that it is only when a crop is 
about to be sold or sown1 or  given as  
wages1 that it may be called capital4   
,on the contrary1  whether we consider  
custom or reason1 so much of it as is   
stored away  in ricks and barns during  
harvest1 and remains there to be used in
 any  of these ways months or years     
afterwards1 is customarily and rightly  
termed capital4  ,surely1 the meaning of
 the clumsy phrase that capital  is     
wealth in the #agd course of exchange   
must be that it is wealth  capable of   
being exchanged against labour or       
anything else4 ,that1 in  fact1 is the  

equivalent of the second definition1    
that capital is  that part of wealth    
which is devoted to the aid of          
production4  ,obviously1 if you possess 
that for which men will give labour1 you
 can  aid production by means of that   
labour4 ,and1 again1 it agrees with the 
first definition 7borrowed from ,adam   
,smith7 that capital is that part  of a 
man's stock which he expects to yield   
him a revenue4 ,for a  revenue is both  
etymologically and in sense a return4 ,a
 man gives  his labour in sowing grain1 
or in tending cattle1 because he expects
 a  return--a revenue--in the shape of  
the increase of the grain or of  the    
herd2 and also1 in the latter case1 in  
the shape of their labour  and manure   
which aid the production of such        
increase4 ,the grain and  cattle of     
which he is possessed immediately after 
harvest is his  capital2 and his revenue
 for the twelvemonth1 until the next    
harvest1  is the surplus of grain and   
cattle over and above the amount with   

which he started4 ,this is disposable   
for any purpose for which he may  desire
 to use it1 leaving him just as well off
 as he was at the  beginning of the     
year4 ,whether the man keeps the surplus
 grain for  sowing more land1 and the   
surplus cattle for occupying more       
pasture2  whether he exchanges them for 
other commodities1 such as the use of   
the land 7as rent72 or labour 7as #age  
wages72 or whether he feeds  himself and
 his family1 in no way alters their     
nature as revenue1 or  affects the fact 
that this revenue is merely disposable  
capital4    ,that 7even apart from      
etymology7 cattle are typical examples  
of  capital cannot be denied 7,progress 
and ,poverty1 p4 #be72 and if we  seek  
for that particular quality of cattle   
which makes them capital1  neither has  
the author of ,progress and ,poverty    
supplied1 nor is any  one else very     
likely to supply1 a better account of   
the matter than  ,adam ,smith has done4 
,cattle are capital because they are    

stock  which yields revenue4 ,that is to
 say1 they afford to their owner a      
supply of that which he desires to      
possess4  ,and1 in this particular      
case1 the revenue is not only desirable1
 but of supreme importance1  inasmuch as
 it is capable of maintaining human     
life4 ,the herd yields a  revenue of    
food-stuffs as milk and meat2 a revenue 
of skins2 a revenue  of manure2 a       
revenue of labour2 a revenue of         
exchangeable commodities  in the shape  
of these things1 as well as in that of  
live cattle4  ,in  each and all of these
 capacities cattle are capital2 and1    
conversely1  things which possess any or
 all of these capacities are capital4   
,therefore what we find at page #be of  
,progress and ,poverty must be  regarded
 as a welcome lapse into clearness of   
apprehension3--    ,a fertile field1 a  
rich vein of ore1 a falling stream which
 supplies  power1 may give the possessor
 advantages #agf equivalent to the      
possession of capital2 but to class such

 things as capital would be to  put an  
end to the distinction between land and 
capital4    ,just so4 ,but the fatal    
truth is that these things are capital2 
and  that there really is no fundamental
 distinction between land and  capital4 
,is it denied that a fertile field1 a   
rich vein of ore1 or a  falling stream1 
may form part of a man's stock1 and     
that1 if they do1  they are capable of  
yielding revenue8 ,will not somebody pay
 a share of  the produce in kind1 or in 
money1 for the privilege of cultivating 
the  first royalties for that of working
 the second2 and a like equivalent  for 
that of erecting a mill on the third8   
,in what sense1 then1 are  these things 
less capital than the buildings and     
tools which on page  #bg of ,progress   
and ,poverty are admitted to be capital8
 ,is it not  plain that if these things 
confer advantages equivalent to the     
possession of capital1 and if the       
advantage of capital is nothing  but the
 yielding of revenue1 then the denial   

that they are capital is  merely a      
roundabout way of self-contradiction8   
,all this confused talk about capital1  
however1 is lucidity itself  compared   
with the exposition of the remarkable   
thesis1 ,wages not  drawn from capital1 
but produced by labour1 which occupies  
the third  chapter of ,progress and     
,poverty4    ,if1 for instance1 ,i      
devote my labour to gathering birds'    
eggs or  picking wild berries1 the eggs 
or berries ,i thus #agg get are my      
wages4 ,surely no one will contend that1
 in such a case1 wages are  drawn from  
capital4 ,there is no capital in the    
case 7p4 #cd74    ,nevertheless1 those  
who have followed what has been said in 
the first  part of this essay surely    
neither will1 nor can1 have any         
hesitation  about substantially adopting
 the challenged contention1 though they 
may possibly have qualms as to the      
propriety of the use of the term        
wages499 ,they will have no difficulty  
in apprehending the fact that  birds'   

eggs and berries are stores of          
foodstuffs1 or vital capital2  that the 
man who devotes his labour to getting   
them does so at the  expense of his     
personal vital capital2 and that1 if the
 eggs and the  berries are wages for his
 work1 they are so because they enable  
him  to restore to his organism the     
vital capital which he has consumed in  
doing the work of collection4 ,so that  
there is really a great deal of  capital
 in the case4        99 ,not merely on  
the grounds stated below1 but on the    
strength      of ,mr4 ,george's own     
definition4 ,does the gatherer of eggs1 
or      berries1 produce them by his    
labour8 ,if so1 what do the hens        
and the bushes do8    ,our author       
proceeds3--    ,an absolutely naked man1
 thrown on an island where no human     
being has  before trod1 may gather      
birds' eggs or pick berries 7p4 #cd74   
,no doubt4 ,but those who have followed 
my argument thus far will be  aware that
 a man's vital capital does not reside  

in his clothes2 and1  therefore1 #agh   
they will probably fail1 as completely  
as ,i do1 to  discover the relevancy of 
the statement4    ,again3--         4 4 
4 ,or1 if ,i take a piece of leather and
 work it up into a             pair of  
shoes1 the shoes are my wages--the      
reward of my             exertion4      
,surely they are not drawn from         
capital--either             my capital  
or anybody else's capital--but are      
brought             into existence by   
the labour of which they became the     
wages2 and1 in obtaining this pair of   
shoes as the wages             of my    
labour1 capital is not even momentarily 
lessened             one iota4 ,for if  
we call in the idea of capital1 my      
capital at the beginning consists of the
 piece of             leather1 the      
thread1 c4 7p4 #cd74    ,it takes away  
one's breath to have such a             
concatenation of fallacies  administered
 in the space of half a paragraph4 ,it  
does not seem to  have occurred to our  

economical reformer to imagine whence   
his  capital at the beginning1 the      
leather1 thread1 c4 came4 ,i venture  to
 suppose that leather to have been      
originally cattle-skin2 and since       
calves and oxen are not flayed alive1   
the existence of the leather  implies   
the lessening of that form of capital by
 a very considerable  iota4 ,it is1     
therefore1 as sure as anything can be   
that1 in the long  run1 the shoes are   
drawn from that which is capital par    
excellence2 to  wit1 cattle4 ,it is     
further beyond doubt that the operation 
of tanning  must involve loss of capital
 in the shape of bark1 to say nothing of
  other losses2 and that the use of the 
awls and knives of the shoemaker        
involves loss of capital in the shape of
 the store of #agi iron2  further1 the  
shoemaker has been enabled to do his    
work not only by the  vital capital     
expended during the time occupied in    
making the pair of  shoes1 but by that  
expended from the time of his birth1 up 

to the time  that he earned wages that  
would keep him alive4    ,progress and  
,poverty continues3--         4 4 4 ,as 
my labour goes on1 value is steadily    
added until1             when my labour 
results in the finished shoes1 ,i have  
my             capital plus the         
difference in value between the         
material and the shoes4 ,in obtaining   
this additional             value--my   
wages--how is capital1 at any time1     
drawn             upon8 7p1 #cd74    ,in
 return we may inquire1 how can any one 
propound such a question8  ,capital is  
drawn upon all the time4 ,not only when 
the shoes are  commenced1 but while they
 are being made1 and until they are     
either  used by the shoemaker himself or
 are purchased by somebody else2 that   
is1 exchanged for a portion of another  
man's capital4 ,in fact  7supposing that
 the shoemaker does not want shoes      
himself71 it is the  existence of vital 
capital in the possession of another    
person and the  willingness of that     

person to part with more or less of it  
in exchange  for the shoes--it is these 
two conditions1 alone1 which prevent the
  shoemaker from having consumed his    
capital unproductively1 just as  much as
 if he had spent his time in chopping up
 the leather into  minute fragments4    
,thus1 the examination of the very case 
selected #ahj by the advocate  of the   
doctrine that labour bestowed upon      
manufacture1 without any  intervention  
of capital1 can produce wages1 proves to
 be a delusion of  the first magnitude2 
even though it be supported by the      
dictum of ,adam  ,smith which is quoted 
in its favour 7p4 #cd7--         4 4 4  
,the produce of labour constitutes the  
natural recompense             or wages 
of labour4 ,in that original state of   
things which             precedes both  
the appropriation of land and the       
accumulation of stock1 the whole produce
 of labour belongs             to the   
labourer4 ,he has neither landlord nor  
master to             share with him    

7,wealth of ,nations1 ch4 viii74    ,but
 the whole of this passage exhibits the 
influence of the ,french  ,physiocrats  
by whom ,adam ,smith was inspired1 at   
their worst2 that is to  say1 when they 
most completely forsook the ground of   
experience for a  priori speculation4   
,the confident reference to that        
original state of  things is quite in   
the manner of the ,essai sur            
l',inegalie4 ,now1 the  state of men    
before the appropriation of land and the
 accumulation  of stock must surely have
 been that of purely savage hunters4    
,as1 by  the supposition1 nobody would  
have possessed land1 certainly no man   
could have had a landlord2 and1 if there
 was no accumulation of stock  in a     
transferable form1 as surely there could
 be no master1 in the  sense of hirer4  
,but hirer and hire 7that is1 wages7 are
 correlative  terms1 like mother and    
child4 ,as child implies mother1 so does
  hire or wages imply a #aha hirer or   
wage-giver4 ,therefore1  when a man in  

the original state of things gathered   
fruit or killed  game for his own       
sustenance1 the fruit or the game could 
be called his  wages only in a          
figurative sense2 as one sees if the    
term hire1  which has a more limited    
connotation1 is substituted for wage4   
,if  not1 it must be assumed that the   
savage hired himself to get his own     
dinner2 whereby we are led to the       
tolerably absurd conclusion that1 as  in
 the state of nature he was his own     
employer1 the master and the  labourer1 
in that model age1 appropriated the     
produce in equal shares6  ,and if this  
should be not enough1 it has already    
been seen that1 in  the hunting state1  
man is not even an accessory of         
production of vital  capital2 he merely 
consumes what nature produces4          
,according to the author of ,progress   
and ,poverty political economists  have 
been deluded by a fallacy which has     
entangled some of the most  acute minds 
in a web of their own spinning4    ,it  

is in the use of the term capital in two
 senses4 ,in the primary  proposition   
that capital is necessary to the        
exertion of productive  labour1 the term
 capital is understood as including all 
food1  clothing1 shelter1 c42 whereas in
 the deductions finally drawn from  it1 
the term is used in its common and      
legitimate meaning of wealth  devoted1  
not to the immediate gratification of   
desire1 but to the  procurement of more 
wealth--of wealth in the hands of       
employers as  distinguished from        
labourers 7p4 #dj74    #ahb ,i am by no 
means concerned to defend the political 
economists who  are thus charged with   
blundering2 but ,i shall be surprised to
 learn  that any have carried the art of
 self-entanglement to the degree of     
perfection exhibited by this passage4   
,who has ever imagined that  wealth     
which1 in the hands of an employer1 is  
capital1 ceases to be  capital if it is 
in the hands of a labourer8 ,suppose a  
workman to be  paid thirty shillings on 

,saturday evening for six days' labour1 
that  thirty shillings comes out of the 
employer's capital1 and receives the    
name of wages simply because it is      
exchanged for labour4 ,in the  workman's
 pocket1 as he goes home1 it is a part  
of his capital1 in  exactly the same    
sense as1 half an hour before1 it was   
part of the  employer's capital2 he is a
 capitalist just as much as if he were a
  ,rothschild4 ,suppose him to be a     
single man1 whose cooking and  household
 matters are attended to by the people  
of the house in which  he has a room2   
then the rent which he pays them out of 
this capital  is1 in part1 wages for    
their labour1 and he is1 so far1 an     
employer4  ,if he saves one shilling out
 of his thirty1 he has1 to that extent1 
added to his capital when the next      
,saturday comes round4 ,and if he  puts 
his saved shillings week by week into   
the ,savings ,bank1 the  difference     
between him and the most bloated of     
bankers is simply one  of degree4    ,at

 page #db1 we are confidently told that 
#ahc labourers by receiving  wages      
cannot lessen even temporarily the      
capital of the employer1  while at page 
#dd it is admitted that in certain cases
 the capitalist  pays out capital in    
wages4 ,one would think that the paying 
out of  capital is hardly possible      
without at least a temporary diminution 
of the capital from which payment is    
made4 ,but ,progress and ,poverty       
changes all that by a little verbal     
legerdemain3--         4 4 4 ,for where 
wages are paid before the object of the 
labour             is obtained1 or is   
finished--as in agriculture1 where      
ploughing and sowing must precede by    
several months the                      
harvesting of the crop2 as in the       
erection of buildings1             the  
construction of ships1 railroads1       
canals1 c4--it is             clear that
 the owners of the capital paid in wages
 cannot             expect an immediate 
return1 but1 as the phrase is1 must     

outlay it or lie out of it for a time   
which sometimes             amounts to  
many years4 ,and hence1 if first        
principles are             not kept in  
mind1 it is easy to jump to the         
conclusion             that wages are   
advanced by capital 7p4 #dd74    ,those 
who have paid attention to the argument 
of former parts of this  paper may not  
be able to understand how1 if sound     
first principles  are kept in mind1 any 
other conclusion can be reached1 whether
 by  jumping1 or by any other mode of   
logical progression4 ,but the first     
principle which our author keeps in mind
 possesses just that amount  of         
ambiguity which enables him to play     
hocus-pocus with it4 ,it is  this2 that 
the creation of value does not depend   
upon the finishing  of the product 7p4  
#dd74    #ahd ,there is no doubt that1  
under certain limitations1 this         
proposition is correct4 ,it is not true 
that labour always adds to  capital by  
its exertion before it takes from       

capital its wages 7p4  #dd71 but it is  
true that it may1 and often does1       
produce that effect4    ,to take one of 
the examples given1 the construction of 
a ship4 ,the  shaping of the timbers    
undoubtedly gives them a value 7for a   
shipbuilder7 which they did not possess 
before4 ,when they are put  together to 
constitute the framework of the ship1   
there is a still  further addition of   
value 7for a shipbuilder72 and when the 
outside  planking is added1 there is    
another addition 7for a shipbuilder74   
,suppose everything else about the hull 
is finished1 except the one  little item
 of caulking the seams1 there is no     
doubt that it has still  more value for 
a shipbuilder4 ,but for whom else has it
 any value1  except perhaps for a       
fire-wood merchant8 ,what price will any
 one who  wants a ship--that is to say1 
something that will carry a cargo from  
one port to another--give for the       
unfinished vessel which would take      
water in at every seam and go down in   

half an hour1 if she were  launched8    
,suppose the shipbuilder's capital to   
fail before the vessel  is caulked1 and 
that he cannot find another shipbuilder 
who cares to  buy and finish it1 what   
sort of proportion does the value       
created by  the labour1 for which he has
 paid out of his capital1 stand to that 
of  his advances8    #ahe ,surely no one
 will give him one-tenth of the capital 
disbursed  in wages1 perhaps not so much
 even as the prime cost of the raw      
materials4  ,therefore1 though the      
assertion that the creation of  value   
does not depend on the finishing of the 
product may be strictly  true under     
certain circumstances1 it need not be   
and is not always  true4 ,and1 if it is 
meant to imply or suggest that the      
creation of  value in a manufactured    
article does not depend upon the        
finishing of  that article1 a more      
serious error could hardly be           
propounded4    ,is there not a          
prodigious difference in the value of an

 uncaulked and  in that of a finished   
ship2 between the value of a house in   
which only  the tiles of the roof are   
wanting and a finished house2 between   
that  of a clock which only lacks the   
escapement and a finished clock8    ,as 
ships1 house1 and clock1 the unfinished 
articles have no value  whatever--that  
is to say1 no person who wanted to      
purchase one of  these things1 for      
immediate use1 would give a farthing for
 either4 ,the  only value they can have1
 apart from that of the materials they  
contain1 is that which they possess for 
some one who can finish them1  or for   
some one who can make use of parts of   
them for the construction  of other     
things4 ,a man might buy an unfinished  
house for the sake of  the bricks2 or he
 might buy an incomplete clock to use   
the works for  some other piece of      
machinery4    ,thus1 though every stage 
of the labour #ahf bestowed on raw      
material1  for the purpose of giving    
rise to a certain product1 confers some 

additional value on that material in the
 estimation of those who are  engaged in
 manufacturing that product1 the ratio  
of that accumulated  value1 at any stage
 of the process1 to the value of the    
finished  product is extremely          
inconstant1 and often small2 while1 to  
other  persons1 the value of the        
unfinished product may be nothing1 or   
even a  minus quantity4 ,a house-timber 
merchant1 for example1 might consider   
that wood which had been worked into the
 ribs of a ship was  spoiled--that is1  
had less value than it had as a log4    
,according to ,progress and ,poverty1   
there was1 really1 no advance of        
capital while the great ,st4 ,gothard   
tunnel was cut4 ,suppose that1 as  the  
,swiss and the ,italian halves of the   
tunnel approached to within  half a     
kilometre1 that half-kilometre had      
turned out to be composed of            
practically impenetrable rock--would    
anybody have given a centime for  the   
unfinished tunnel8 ,and if not1 how     

comes it that the creation of  value    
does not depend on the finishing of the 
product8    ,i think it may be not too  
much to say that1 of all the political  
delusions which are current in this     
queer world1 the very stupidest  are    
those which assume that labour and      
capital are necessarily  antagonistic2  
that all capital is produced by labour  
and therefore1 by  natural right1 is the
 property of #ahg the labourer2 that the
  possessor of capital is a robber who  
preys on the workman and  appropriates  
to himself that which he has had no     
share in producing4    ,on the contrary1
 capital and labour are1 necessarily1   
close allies2  capital is never a       
product of human labour alone2 it exists
 apart from  human labour2 it is the    
necessary antecedent of labour2 and it  
furnishes the materials on which labour 
is employed4 ,the only  indispensable   
form of capital--vital capital--cannot  
be produced by  human labour4 ,all that 
man can do is to favour its formation by

 the  real producers4 ,there is no      
intrinsic relation between the amount of
  labour bestowed on an article and its 
value in exchange4 ,the claim of  labour
 to the total result of operations which
 are rendered possible  only by capital 
is simply an a priori iniquity4    #ahh 
,v4                  ,,social ,,diseases
 ,,and ,,worse ,,remedies               
,,letters ,,to ,,the ,,times ,,on ,,mr4 
,,booth',s ,,scheme4             ,,with 
,a ,,preface ,,and ,,introductory       
,,essay4                                
#ahia                                   
,,preface    ,the letters which are here
 collected together were published in   
the  ,times in the course of the months 
of ,december1 #ahij1 and ,january1      
#ahia4    ,the circumstances which led  
me to write the first letter are        
sufficiently set forth in its opening   
sentences2 and the materials on  which  
,i based my criticisms of ,mr4 ,booth's 
scheme1 in this and in the  second      
letter1 were wholly derived from ,mr4   

,booth's book4 ,i had some  reason to   
know1 however1 that when anybody allows 
his sense of duty so  far to prevail    
over his sense of the blessedness of    
peace as to write  a letter to the      
,times1 on any subject of public        
interest1 his  reflections1 before he   
has done with the business1 will be very
 like  #ahi those of ,johnny ,gilpin1   
who little thought1 when he set out1 of 
running such a rig4 ,such undoubtedly   
are mine when ,i contemplate  these     
twelve documents1 and call to mind the  
distinct addition to the  revenue of the
 ,post ,office which must have accrued  
from the mass of  letters and pamphlets 
which have been delivered at my door2 to
 say  nothing of the unexpected light   
upon my character1 motives1 and         
doctrines1 which has been thrown by some
 of the ,times'  correspondents1 and by 
no end of comments elsewhere4    ,if    
self-knowledge is the highest aim of    
man1 ,i ought by this time to  have     
little to learn4 ,and yet1 if ,i am     

awake1 some of my  teachers--unable1    
perhaps1 to control the divine fire of  
the poetic  imagination which is so     
closely akin to1 if not a part of1 the  
mythopoeic faculty--have surely dreamed 
dreams4 ,so far as my humbler  and      
essentially prosaic faculties of        
observation and comparison go1  plain   
facts are against them4 ,but1 as ,i may 
be mistaken1 ,i have  thought it well to
 prefix to the letters 7by way of       
,prolegomena7 an  essay which appeared  
in the ,nineteenth ,century for         
,january1 #ahhh1 in  which the          
principles that1 to my mind1 lie at the 
bottom of the  social question are      
stated4 ,so far as ,individualism and   
,regimental  ,socialism are concerned1  
this paper simply emphasizes and expands
 the  opinions expressed in an address  
to the members of the ,midland          
,institute1 delivered seventeen years   
earlier1 #aij and still more  fully     
developed in several essays published in
 the ,nineteenth  ,century in #ahhi1    

which ,i hope1 before long1 to          
republish499        99 ,see ,collected  
,essays1 vol4 i4 p4 #bij to end2 and    
this volume1      p4 #adg4    ,the      
fundamental proposition which runs      
through the writings1 which  thus extend
 over twenty years1 is1 that the common 
a priori  doctrines and methods of      
reasoning about political and social    
questions are essentially vicious2 and  
that argumentation on this  basis leads1
 with equal logical force1 to two       
contradictory and  extremely mischievous
 systems1 the one that of ,anarchaic    
,individualism1 the other that of       
despotic or ,regimental ,socialism4     
,whether ,i am right or wrong1 ,i am at 
least consistent in opposing both  to   
the best of my ability4 ,mr4 ,booth's   
system appears to me1 and1 as ,i  have  
shown1 is regarded by ,socialists       
themselves1 to be mere  autocratic      
,socialism1 masked by its theological   
exterior4 ,that the  fantastic religious
 skin will wear away1 and the           

,socialistic reality  it covers will    
show its real nature1 is the expressed  
hope of one  candid ,socialist1 and may 
be fairly conceived to be the           
unexpressed  belief of the despotic     
leader of the new ,trades ,union1 who   
has shown  his zeal1 if not his         
discretion1 in championing ,mr4 ,booth's
 projects4  ,see ,letter ,,viii4    ,yet
 another word to commentators upon my   
letters4 ,there are some who  rather    
chuckle1 and #aia some who sneer1 at    
what they seem to  consider the         
dexterity of an old controversial hand1 
exhibited by  the contrast which ,i have
 drawn between the methods of conversion
  depicted in the ,new ,testament and   
those pursued by fanatics of the        
,salvationist type1 whether they be such
 as are now exploited by ,mr4  ,booth1  
or such as those who1 from the time of  
the ,anabaptists1 to go  no further     
back1 have worked upon similar lines4   
,whether such observations were intended
 to be flattering or sarcastic1  ,i must

 respectfully decline to accept the     
compliment1 or to apply the  sarcasm to 
myself4 ,i object to obliquity of       
procedure and ambiguity of  speech in   
all shapes4 ,and ,i confess that ,i find
 it difficult to  understand the state  
of mind which leads any one to suppose1 
that deep  respect for single-minded    
devotion to high aims is incompatible   
with  the unhesitating conviction that  
those aims include the propagation of   
doctrines which are devoid of           
foundation--perhaps even mischievous4   
,the most degrading feature of the      
narrower forms of ,christianity 7of     
which that professed by ,mr4 ,booth is a
 notable example7 is their  insistence  
that the noblest virtues1 if displayed  
by those who reject  their pitiable     
formulae1 are1 as their pet phrase goes1
 splendid  sins4 ,but there is1 perhaps1
 one step lower2 and that is that men1  
who profess freedom of thought1 should  
fail to see and #aib  appreciate that   
large soul of goodness which often      

animates even the  fanatical adherents  
of such tenets4 ,i am sorry for any man 
who can  read the epistles to the       
,galatians and the ,corinthians without 
yielding a large meed of admiration to  
the fervent humanity of ,paul of        
,tarsus2 who can study the lives of     
,francis of ,assisi1 or of ,catherine   
of ,siena1 without wishing that1 for the
 furtherance of his own ideals1  he     
might be even as they2 or who can       
contemplate unmoved the steadfast       
veracity and true heroism which loom    
through the fogs of mystical  utterance 
in ,george ,fox4 ,in all these great men
 and women there lay  the root of the   
matter2 a burning desire to amend the   
condition of  their fellow-men1 and to  
put aside all other things for that end4
 ,if1  in spite of all the dogmatic     
helps or hindrances in which they were  
entangled1 these people are not to be   
held in high honour1 who are8    ,i have
 never expressed a doubt--for ,i have   
none--that1 when ,mr4 ,booth  left the  

,methodist connection1 and started that 
organisation of the  ,salvation ,army   
upon which1 comparatively recently1 such
 ambitious  schemes of social reform    
have been grafted1 he may have deserved 
some  share of such honour4 ,i do not   
say that1 so far as his personal        
desires and intentions go1 he may not   
still deserve it4 ,but the  correlate of
 despotic authority is unlimited        
responsibility4 ,if ,mr4  ,booth is to  
take #aic credit for any good that the  
,army system has  effected1 he must be  
prepared to bear blame for its inherent 
evils4 ,as  it seems to me1 that has    
happened to him which sooner or later   
happens  to all despots3 he has become  
the slave of his own creation--the      
prosperity and glory of the soul-saving 
machine have become the end1  instead of
 a means1 of soul-saving2 and to        
maintain these at the  proper pitch1 the
 ,general is led to do things which the 
,mr4 ,booth of  twenty years ago would  
probably have scorned4    ,and those who

 desire1 as ,i most emphatically desire1
 to be just to ,mr4  ,booth1 however    
badly they may think of the working of  
the organization  he has founded1 will  
bear in mind that some astute backers of
 his  probably care little enough for   
,salvationist religion2 and1 perhaps1   
are not very keen about many of ,mr4    
,booth's projects4 ,i have referred  to 
the rubbing of the hands of the         
,socialists over ,mr4 ,booth's          
success299 but1 unless ,i err greatly1  
there are politicians of a  certain     
school to whom it affords still greater 
satisfaction4 ,consider  what           
electioneering agents the captains of   
the ,salvation ,army1  scattered through
 all our towns1 and directed from a     
political  bureau in ,london1 would     
make6 ,think how political adversaries  
could  be harassed by our local         
attorney--tribune of the people1 ,i     
mean2  and how a troublesome man1 on the
 other side1 could be hunted #aid  down 
upon any convenient charge1 whether true

 or false1 brought by  our              
,vigilance-familiar69999        99 ,see 
,letter ,,viii4      9999 ,see ,letter  
,,ii4    ,i entirely acquit ,mr4 ,booth 
of any complicity in far-reaching       
schemes  of this kind2 but ,i did not   
write idly when1 in my first letter1 ,i 
gave no vague warning of what might grow
 out of the organised force1  drilled in
 the habit of unhesitating obedience1   
which he has created4    #aie           
,,introductory ,,essay4                 
,,the ,,struggle ,,for ,,existence ,,in 
,,human ,,society4                      
#ahhh4    ,the vast and varied          
procession of events1 which we call     
,nature1 affords  a sublime spectacle   
and an inexhaustible wealth of          
attractive problems  to the speculative 
observer4 ,if we confine our attention  
to that  aspect which engages the       
attention of the intellect1 nature      
appears a  beautiful and harmonious     
whole1 the incarnation of a faultless   
logical  process1 from certain premises 

in the past to an inevitable conclusion 
in the future4 ,but if it be regarded   
from a less elevated1 though more       
human1 point of view2 if our moral      
sympathies are allowed to influence  our
 judgment1 and we permit ourselves to   
criticise our great mother as  we       
criticise one another2 then our verdict1
 at least so far as  sentient nature is 
concerned1 can hardly be so favourable4 
,in sober truth1 to those who have made 
a study of the phenomena of life  as    
they exhibited by the higher forms of   
the animal world1 #aif the  optimistic  
dogma1 that this is the best of all     
possible worlds1 will  seem little      
better than a libel upon possibility4   
,it is really only  another instance to 
be added to the many extant1 of the     
audacity of a  priori speculators who1  
having created ,god in their own image1 
find no  difficulty in assuming that the
 ,almighty must have been actuated by   
the same motives as themselves4 ,they   
are quite sure that1 had any  other     

course been practicable1 ,he would no   
more have made infinite  suffering a    
necessary ingredient of ,his handiwork  
than a respectable  philosopher would   
have done the like4    ,but even the    
modified optimism of the time-honoured  
thesis of  physico-theology1 that the   
sentient world is1 on the whole1        
regulated  by principles of benevolence1
 does but ill stand the test of         
impartial  confrontation with the facts 
of the case4 ,no doubt it is quite true 
that sentient nature affords hosts of   
examples of subtle contrivances         
directed towards the production of      
pleasure or the avoidance of pain2  and 
it may be proper to say that these are  
evidences of benevolence4  ,but if so1  
why is it not equally proper to say of  
the equally numerous  arrangements1 the 
no less necessary result of which is the
 production  of pain1 that they are     
evidences of malevolence8    ,if a vast 
amount of that which1 in a piece of     
human workmanship1 we  should call      

skill1 is #aig visible in those parts of
 the organization  of a deer to which it
 owes its ability to escape from beasts 
of prey1  there is at least equal skill 
displayed in that bodily mechanism of   
the wolf which enables him to track1 and
 sooner or later to bring  down1 the    
deer4 ,viewed under the dry light of    
science1 deer and wolf  are alike       
admirable2 and1 if both were            
non-sentient automata1 there  would be  
nothing to qualify our admiration of the
 action of the one on  the other4 ,but  
the fact that the deer suffers1 while   
the wolf inflicts  suffering1 engages   
our moral sympathies4 ,we should call   
men like the  deer innocent and good1   
men such as the wolf malignant and bad2 
we  should call those who defended the  
deer and aided him to escape brave  and 
compassionate1 and those who helped the 
wolf in his bloody work  base and cruel4
 ,surely1 if we transfer these judgments
 to nature  outside the world of man at 
all1 we must do so impartially4 ,in that

  case1 the goodness of the right hand  
which helps the deer1 and the           
wickedness of the left hand which eggs  
on the wolf1 will neutralize  one       
another3 and the course of nature will  
appear to be neither moral  nor immoral1
 but non-moral4    ,this conclusion is  
thrust upon us by analogous facts in    
every part of  the sentient world2 yet1 
inasmuch as it not only jars upon       
prevalent  prejudices1 but arouses the  
natural dislike to that which is        
painful1  much ingenuity has been       
exercised in devising an escape from it4
    ,from the theological side1 we are  
told that #aih this is a state of       
probation1 and that the seeming         
injustices and immoralities of nature   
will be compensated by and by4 ,but how 
this compensation is to be  effected1 in
 the case of the great majority of      
sentient things1 is not  clear4 ,i      
apprehend that no one is seriously      
prepared to maintain that  the ghosts of
 all the myriads of generations of      

herbivorous animals  which lived during 
the millions of years of the earth's    
duration1  before the appearance of man1
 and which have all that time been      
tormented and devoured by carnivores1   
are to be compensated by a  perennial   
existence in clover2 while the ghosts of
 carnivores are to  go to some kennel   
where there is neither a pan of water   
nor a bone  with any meat on it4        
,besides1 from the point of view of     
morality1 the  last stage of things     
would be worse than the first4 ,for the 
carnivores1 however brutal and          
sanguinary1 have only done that which1  
if there is any evidence of contrivance 
in the world1 they were  expressly      
constructed to do4  ,moreover1          
carnivores and herbivores  alike have   
been subject to all the miseries        
incidental to old age1  disease1 and    
over-multiplication1 and both might well
 put in a claim  for compensation on    
this score4    ,on the evolutionist     
side1 on the other hand1 we are told to 

take  comfort from the reflection that  
the terrible struggle for existence     
tends to final good1 and that the       
suffering of the ancestor is paid  for  
by the increased perfection of the      
progeny4 ,there would be  something in  
this argument if1 in #aii ,chinese      
fashion1 the present  generation could  
pay its debts to its ancestors2         
otherwise it is not  clear what         
compensation the ,eohippus gets for his 
sorrows in the fact  that1 some millions
 of years afterwards1 one of his        
descendants wins  the ,derby4 ,and1     
again1 it is an error to imagine that   
evolution  signifies a constant tendency
 to increased perfection4 ,that process 
undoubtedly involves a constant         
remodelling of the organism in          
adaptation to new conditions2 but it    
depends on the nature of those          
conditions whether the direction of the 
modifications effected shall  be upward 
or downward4 ,retrogressive is as       
practicable as progressive              

metamorphosis4 ,if what the physical    
philosophers tell us1 that our  globe   
has been in a state of fusion1 and1 like
 the sun1 is gradually  cooling down1 is
 true2 then the time must come when     
evolution will  mean adaptation to an   
universal winter1 and all forms of life 
will die  out1 except such low and      
simple organisms as the ,diatom of the  
arctic  and antarctic ice and the       
,protococcus of the red snow4 ,if our   
globe is  proceeding from a condition in
 which it was too hot to support any but
  the lowest living thing to a condition
 in which it will be too cold to  permit
 of the existence of any others1 the    
course of life upon its  surface must   
describe a trajectory like that of a    
ball fired from a  mortar2 and the      
sinking half of that course is as much a
 part of the  general process of        
evolution as the rising4    ,from the   
point of view of the moralist the #bjj  
animal world is on  about the same level
 as a gladiator's show4 ,the creatures  

are fairly  well treated1 and set to    
fight--whereby the strongest1 the       
swiftest1  and the cunningest live to   
fight another day4 ,the spectator has no
  need to turn his thumbs down1 as no   
quarter is given4 ,he must admit  that  
the skill and training displayed are    
wonderful4 ,but he must shut  his eyes  
if he would not see that more or less   
enduring suffering is  the meed of both 
vanquished and victor4 ,and since the   
great game is  going on in every corner 
of the world1 thousands of times a      
minute2  since1 were our ears sharp     
enough1 we need not descend to the gates
 of  hell to hear--        4 4 4        
sospiri1 pianti1 ed alti guai4          
,voci alte e floche1 e suon di man con  
elle    --it seems to follow that1 if   
the world is governed by benevolence1 it
  must be a different sort of           
benevolence from that of ,john ,howard4 
,but the old ,babylonians wisely        
symbolized ,nature by their great       
goddess ,istar1 who combined the        

attributes of ,aphrodite with those of  
,ares4 ,her terrible aspect is not to be
 ignored or covered up with  shams2 but 
it is not the only one4 ,if the optimism
 of ,leibnitz is a  foolish though      
pleasant dream1 the pessimism of        
,schopenhauer is a  nightmare1 the more 
foolish because of its hideousness4     
,error which is  not pleasant is surely 
the worst form of wrong4    #bja ,this  
may not be the best of all possible     
worlds1 but to say that  it is the worst
 is mere petulant nonsense4 ,a worn-out 
voluptuary may  find nothing good under 
the sun1 or a vain and inexperienced    
youth1  who cannot get the moon he cries
 for1 may vent his irritation in        
pessimistic moanings2 but there can be  
no doubt in the mind of any  reasonable 
person that mankind could1 would1 and in
 fact do1 get on  fairly well with      
vastly less happiness and far more      
misery than find  their way into the    
lives of nine people out of ten4 ,if    
each and all of  us had been visited by 

an attack of neuralgia1 or of extreme   
mental  depression1 for one hour in     
every twenty-four--a supposition which  
many tolerably vigorous people know1 to 
their cost1 is not  extravagant--the    
burden of life would have been immensely
 increased  without much practical      
hindrance to its general course4 ,men   
with any  manhood in them find life     
quite worth living under worse          
conditions  than these4    ,there is    
another sufficiently obvious fact1 which
 renders the  hypothesis that the course
 of sentient nature is dictated by      
malevolence quite untenable4 ,a vast    
multitude of pleasures1 and these  among
 the purest and the best1 are           
superfluities1 bits of good which  are  
to all appearances unnecessary as       
inducements to live1 and are1 so  to    
speak1 thrown into the bargain of life4 
,to those who experience  them1 few     
delights can be more entrancing than    
such as are afforded by  natural #bjb   
beauty1 or by the arts1 and especially  

by music2 but  they are products of1    
rather than factors in1 evolution1 and  
it is  probable that they are known1 in 
any considerable degree1 to but a  very 
small proportion of mankind4    ,the    
conclusion of the whole matter seems to 
be that1 if ,ormuzd has not  had his way
 in this world1 neither has ,ahriman4   
,pessimism is as little  consonant with 
the facts of sentient existence as      
optimism4 ,if we  desire to represent   
the course of nature in terms of human  
thought1  and assume that it was        
intended to be that which it is1 we must
 say  that its governing principle is   
intellectual and not moral2 that it is  
a materialized logical process1         
accompanied by pleasures and pains1  the
 incidence of which1 in the majority of 
cases1 has not the  slightest reference 
to moral desert4 ,that the rain falls   
alike upon  the just and the unjust1 and
 that those upon whom the ,tower of     
,siloam  fell were no worse than their  
neighbours1 seem to be ,oriental modes  

of  expressing the same conclusion4     
,in the strict sense of the word nature1
 it denotes the sum of the  phenomenal  
world1 of that which has been1 and is1  
and will be2 and  society1 like art1 is 
therefore a part of nature4  ,but it is 
convenient to distinguish those parts of
 nature in which man plays the  part of 
immediate cause1 as some thing apart2   
and1 therefore1 society1  like art1 #bjc
 is usefully to be considered as        
distinct from nature4  ,it is the more  
desirable1 and even necessary1 to make  
this  distinction1 since society differs
 from nature in having a definite  moral
 object2 whence it comes about that the 
course shaped by the  ethical man--the  
member of society or                    
citizen--necessarily runs  counter to   
that which the non-ethical man--the     
primitive savage1 or  man as a mere     
member of the animal kingdom--tends to  
adopt4 ,the latter  fights out the      
struggle for existence to the bitter    
end1 like any  other animal2 the former 

devotes his best energies to the object 
of  setting limits to the struggle499   
,in the cycle of phenomena presented by 
the life of man1 the animal1 no  more   
moral end is discernible than in that   
presented by the lives of  the wolf and 
of the deer4 ,however imperfect the     
relics of prehistoric  men may be1 the  
evidence which they afford clearly tends
 to the  conclusion that1 for thousands 
and thousands of years1 before the      
origin of the oldest known              
civilizations1 men were savages of a    
very  low type4 ,they strove with their 
enemies and their competitors2 they     
preyed upon things weaker or less       
cunning than themselves2 they were      
born1 multiplied without stint1 and     
died1 for thousands of generations      
alongside the mammoth1 the urus1 the    
lion1 and the hyaena1 whose lives  were 
spent in the same way2 #bjd and they    
were no more to be praised  or blamed on
 moral grounds1 than their less erect   
and more hairy  compatriots4        99  

,the reader will observe that this is   
the argument of the      ,romanes       
,lecture1 in brief4--#ahid4    ,as among
 these1 so among primitive men1 the     
weakest and stupidest went  to the wall1
 while the toughest and shrewdest1 those
 who were best  fitted to cope with     
their circumstances1 but not the best in
 any other  sense1 survived4 ,life was a
 continual free fight1 and beyond the   
limited and temporary relations of the  
family1 the ,hobbesian war of  each     
against all was the normal state of     
existence4 ,the human species1  like    
others1 plashed and floundered amid the 
general stream of  evolution1 keeping   
its head above water as it best might1  
and thinking  neither of whence nor     
whither4    ,the history of             
civilization--that is1 of society--on   
the other hand1 is  the record of the   
attempts which the human race has made  
to escape  from this position4 ,the     
first men who substituted the state of  
mutual  peace for that of mutual war1   

whatever the motive which impelled them 
to take that step1 created society4     
,but1 in establishing peace1 they       
obviously put a limit upon the struggle 
for existence4 ,between the  members of 
that society1 at any rate1 it was not to
 be pursued a  outrance4 ,and of all the
 successive shapes which society has    
taken1  that most nearly approaches     
perfection in which the war of          
individual  against individual is most  
strictly limited4    #bje ,the primitive
 savage1 tutored by ,istar1 appropriated
 whatever  took his fancy1 and killed   
whomsoever opposed him1 if he could4 ,on
 the  contrary1 the ideal of the ethical
 man is to limit his freedom of  action 
to a sphere in which he does not        
interfere with the freedom of  others2  
he seeks the common weal as much as his 
own2 and1 indeed1 as  an essential part 
of his own welfare4 ,peace is both end  
and means with  him2 and he founds his  
life on a more or less complete         
self-restraint1  which is the negation  

of the unlimited struggle for existence4
 ,he  tries to escape from his place in 
the animal kingdom1 founded on the  free
 development of the principle of        
non-moral evolution1 and to  establish a
 kingdom of ,man1 governed upon the     
principle of moral  evolution4 ,for     
society not only has a moral end1 but in
 its  perfection1 social life1 is       
embodied morality4    ,but the effort of
 ethical man to work towards a moral end
 by no means  abolished1 perhaps has    
hardly modified1 the deep-seated organic
  impulses which impel the natural man  
to follow his non-moral course4  ,one of
 the most essential conditions1 if not  
the chief cause1 of the  struggle for   
existence1 is the tendency to multiply  
without limit1  which man shares with   
all living things4 ,it is notable that  
increase  and multiply is a commandment 
traditionally much older than the ten2  
and that it is1 perhaps1 the only one   
which has been spontaneously and  ex    
animo obeyed by #bjf the great majority 

of the human race4 ,but1 in  civilized  
society1 the inevitable result of such  
obedience is the  re-establishment1 in  
all its intensity1 of that struggle for 
existence--the war of each against      
all--the mitigation or abolition of     
which was the chief end of social       
organization4    ,it is conceivable     
that1 at some period in the history of  
the fabled ,atlantis1  the production of
 food should have been exactly          
sufficient to meet the  wants of the    
population1 that the makers of the      
commodities of the  artificer should    
have amounted to just the number        
supportable by the  surplus food of the 
agriculturists4 ,and1 as there is no    
harm in adding  another monstrous       
supposition to the foregoing1 let it be 
imagined  that every man1 woman1 and    
child was perfectly virtuous1 and aimed 
at  the good of all as the highest      
personal good4 ,in that happy land1 the 
natural man would have been finally put 
down by the ethical man4 ,there  would  

have been no competition1 but the       
industry of each would have  been       
serviceable to all2 nobody being vain   
and nobody avaricious1  there would have
 been no rivalries2 the struggle for    
existence would  have been abolished1   
and the millennium would have finally   
set in4 ,but  it is obvious that this   
state of things could have been         
permanent only  with a stationary       
population4 ,add ten fresh mouths2 and  
as1 by the  supposition1 there was only 
exactly enough before1 somebody must go 
on  short rations4 ,the #bjg ,atlantis  
society might have been a heaven  upon  
earth1 the whole nation might have      
consisted of just men1 needing  no      
repentance1 and yet somebody must       
starve4 ,reckless ,istar1 non-moral     
,nature1 would have riven the ethical   
fabric4 ,i was once talking with a  very
 eminent physician99 about the vis      
medicatrix naturae4 ,stuff6  said he2   
nine times out of ten nature does not   
want to cure the man3  she wants to put 

him in his coffin4 ,and ,istar-,nature  
appears to have  equally little sympathy
 with the ends of society4 ,stuff6 she  
wants  nothing but a fair field and free
 play for her darling the strongest4    
99 ,the late ,sir ,w4 ,gull    ,our     
,atlantis may be an impossible figment1 
but the antagonistic  tendencies which  
the fable adumbrates have existed in    
every society  which was ever           
established1 and1 to all appearance1    
must strive for  the victory in all that
 will be4 ,historians point to the greed
 and  ambition of rulers1 to the        
reckless turbulence of the ruled1 to the
  debasing effects of wealth and luxury1
 and to the devastating wars  which have
 formed a great part of the occupation  
of mankind1 as the  causes of the decay 
of states and the foundering of old     
civilizations1  and thereby point their 
story with a moral4  ,no doubt immoral  
motives  of all sorts have figured      
largely among the minor causes of these 
events4 ,but beneath all this #bjh      

superficial turmoil lay the  deep-seated
 impulse given by unlimited             
multiplication4 ,in the swarms  of      
colonies thrown out by ,phoenicia and by
 old ,greece2 in the ver  sacrum of the 
,latin races2 in the floods of ,gauls   
and of ,teutons which  burst over the   
frontiers of the old civilization of    
,europe2 in the  swaying to and fro of  
the vast ,mongolian hordes in late      
times1 the  population problem comes to 
the front in a very visible shape4 ,nor 
is  it less plainly manifest in the     
everlasting agrarian questions of       
ancient ,rome than in the ,arreoi       
societies of the ,polynesian ,islands4  
,in the ancient world1 and in a large   
part of that in which we live1  the     
practice of infanticide was1 or is1 a   
regular and legal custom2  famine1      
pestilence1 and war were and are normal 
factors in the  struggle for existence1 
and they have served1 in a gross and    
brutal  fashion1 to mitigate the        
intensity of the effects of its chief   

cause4    ,but1 in the more advanced    
civilizations1 the progress of private  
and  public morality has steadily tended
 to remove all these checks4 ,we        
declare infanticide murder1 and punish  
it as such2 we decree1 not  quite so    
successfully1 that no one shall die of  
hunger2 we regard  death from           
preventible causes of other kinds as a  
sort of constructive  murder1 and       
eliminate pestilence to the best of our 
ability2 we  declaim against the curse  
#bji of war1 and the wickedness of the  
military spirit1 and we are never weary 
of dilating on the blessedness  of peace
 and the innocent beneficence of        
,industry4 ,in their moments of         
expansion1 even statesmen and men of    
business go thus far4 ,the finer        
spirits look to an ideal civitas ,dei2 a
 state when1 every man having  reached  
the point of absolute self-negation1 and
 having nothing but  moral perfection to
 strive after1 peace will truly reign1  
not merely  among nations1 but among    

men1 and the struggle for existence will
 be  at an end4    ,whether human nature
 is competent1 under any circumstances1 
to reach1  or even seriously advance    
towards1 this ideal condition1 is a     
question  which need not be discussed4  
,it will be admitted that mankind has   
not  yet reached this stage by a very   
long way1 and my business is with the   
present4 ,and that which ,i wish to     
point out is that1 so long as the       
natural man increases and multiplies    
without restraint1 so long will  peace  
and industry not only permit1 but they  
will necessitate1 a  struggle for       
existence as sharp as any that ever went
 on under the  regime of war4 ,if ,istar
 is to reign on the one hand1 she will  
demand  her human sacrifices on the     
other4    ,let us look at home4 ,for    
seventy years peace and industry have   
had  their way among us with less       
interruption and under more favourable  
conditions than in any other country on 
the face of the earth4 ,the  wealth of  

,croesus was nothing to #baj that which 
we have accumulated1  and our prosperity
 has filled the world with envy4 ,but   
,nemesis did not  forget ,croesus3 has  
she forgotten us8    ,i think not4      
,there are now #cf1jjj1jjj of people in 
our islands1 and  every year            
considerably more than #cjj1jjj are     
added to our numbers499  ,that is to    
say1 about every hundred seconds1 or so1
 a new claimant to  a share in the      
common stock or maintenance presents him
 or herself  among us4 ,at the present  
time1 the produce of the soil does not  
suffice to feed half its population4    
,the other moiety has to be  supplied   
with food which must be bought from the 
people of  food-producing countries4    
,that is to say1 we have to offer them  
the  things which they want in exchange 
for the things we want4 ,and the  things
 they want and which we can produce     
better than they can are  mainly        
manufactures--industrial products4      
99 ,these numbers are only approximately

 accurate4 ,in #ahha1 our               
population amounted to #ce1bda1dhb1     
exceeding the number in #ahga      by   
#c1cif1ajc4 ,the average annual increase
 in the decennial4      #ahga--ahha is  
therefore #cci1faj4 ,the number of      
minutes in a      calendar year is      
#ebe1fjj4    ,the insolent reproach of  
the first ,napoleon had a very solid    
foundation4 ,we not only are1 but1 under
 penalty of starvation1 we are  bound to
 be1 a nation of shopkeepers4 ,but other
 nations also lie under  the same       
necessity of keeping shop1 and some of  
them deal in the same  goods as         
ourselves4 ,our customers naturally seek
 to get the most and  #baa the best in  
exchange for their produce4 ,if our     
goods are  inferior to those of our     
competitors1 there is no ground1        
compatible  with the sanity of the      
buyers1 which can be alleged1 why they  
should  not prefer the latter4 ,and1 if 
that result should ever take place on a 
large and general scale1 five or six    

millions of us would soon have  nothing 
to eat4 ,we know what the cotton famine 
was2 and we can  therefore form some    
notion of what a dearth of customers    
would be4    ,judged by an ethical      
standard1 nothing can be less           
satisfactory than  the position in which
 we find ourselves4 ,in a real1 though  
incomplete1  degree we have attained the
 condition of peace which is the main   
object of social organization2 and1 for 
argument's sake1 it may be  assumed that
 we desire nothing but that which is in 
itself innocent  and                    
praiseworthy--namely1 the enjoyment of  
the fruits of honest  industry4 ,and lo6
 in spite of ourselves1 we are in       
reality engaged in  an internecine      
struggle for existence with our         
presumably no less  peaceful and        
well-meaning neighbours4 ,we seek peace 
and we do not  ensue it4 ,the moral     
nature in us asks for no more than is   
compatible  with the general good2 the  
non-moral nature proclaims and acts upon

  that fine old ,scottish family motto1 
,thou shalt starve ere ,i want4  ,let us
 be under no illusions1 then4 ,so long  
as unlimited multiplication  goes on1 no
 social organization which has ever been
 devised1 or is  likely to #bab be      
devised1 no fiddle-faddling with the    
distribution  of wealth1 will deliver   
society from the tendency to be         
destroyed by  the reproduction within   
itself1 in its intensest form1 of that  
struggle for existence the limitation of
 which is the object of  society4 ,and  
however shocking to the moral sense this
 eternal  competition of man against man
 and of nation against nation may be2   
however revolting may be the            
accumulation of misery at the negative  
pole of society1 in contrast with that  
of monstrous wealth at the  positive    
pole299 this state of things must abide1
 and grow continually  worse1 so long as
 ,istar holds her way unchecked4 ,it is 
the true riddle  of the ,sphinx2 and    
every nation which does not solve it    

will sooner or  later be devoured by the
 monster itself has generated4    ,the  
practical and pressing question for us1 
just now1 seems to me to be  how to gain
 time4 ,time brings counsel1 as the     
,teutonic proverb has  it2 and wiser    
folk among our posterity may see their  
way out of that  which at present looks 
like an impasse4    ,it would be folly  
to entertain any ill-feeling towards    
those neighbours  and rivals who1 like  
ourselves1 are slaves of ,istar2 but1 if
 somebody  is to be starved1 the modern 
world has no ,oracle of ,delphi to which
  the nations can appeal for an #bac    
indication of the victim4 ,it is  open  
to us to try our fortune2 and1 if we    
avoid impending fate1 there  will be a  
certain ground for believing that we are
 the right people to  escape4 ,securus  
judicat orbis4        99 ,it is hard to 
say whether the increase of the         
unemployed      poor1 or that of the    
unemployed rich1 is the greater social  
evil4 -- #ahid    ,to this end1 it is   

well to look into the necessary         
condition of our  salvation by works4   
,they are two1 one plain to all the     
world and  hardly needing insistence2   
the other seemingly not so plain1 since 
too  often it has been theoretically and
 practically left out of sight4 ,the    
obvious condition is that our produce   
shall be better than that of  others4   
,there is only one reason why our goods 
should be preferred to  those of our    
rivals--our customers must find them    
better at the price4  ,that means that  
we must use more knowledge1 skill1 and  
industry in  producing them1 without a  
proportionate increase in the cost of   
production2 and1 as the price of labour 
constitutes a large element in  that    
cost1 the rate of wages must be         
restricted within certain limits4  ,it  
is perfectly true that cheap production 
and cheap labour are by no  means       
synonymous2 but it is also true that    
wages cannot increase  beyond a certain 
proportion without destroying cheapness4

  ,cheapness1  then1 with1 as part and  
parcel of cheapness1 a moderate price of
  labour1 is essential to our success as
 competitors in the markets of  the     
world4    ,the second condition is      
really quite as plainly indispensable as
 the  first1 if one thinks seriously    
#bad about the matter4 ,it is social    
stability4  ,society is stable1 when the
 wants of its members obtain as  much   
satisfaction as1 life being what it is1 
common sense and  experience show may be
 reasonably expected4 ,mankind1 in      
general1 care  very little for forms of 
government or ideal considerations of   
any  sort2 and nothing really stirs the 
great multitude to break with  custom   
and incur the manifest perils of revolt 
except the belief that  misery in this  
world1 or damnation in the next1 or     
both1 are  threatened by the continuance
 of the state of things in which they   
have been brought up4 ,but when they do 
attain that conviction1 society  becomes
 as unstable as a package of dynamite1  

and a very small matter  will produce   
the explosion which sends it back to the
 chaos of  savagery4    ,it needs no    
argument to prove that when the price of
 labour sinks below  a certain point1   
the worker infallibly falls into that   
condition which  the ,french            
emphatically call la misere--a word for 
which ,i do not  think there is any     
exact ,english equivalent4 ,it is a     
condition in  which the food1 warmth1   
and clothing which are necessary for the
 mere  maintenance of the functions of  
the body in their normal state cannot   
be obtained2 in which men1 women1 and   
children are forced to crowd  into dens 
wherein decency is abolished and the    
most ordinary  conditions of healthful  
existence are impossible of attainment2 
in  which the #bae pleasures within     
reach are reduced to bestiality and     
drunkenness2 in which the pains         
accumulate at compound interest1 in  the
 shape of starvation1 disease1 stunted  
development1 and moral  degradation2 in 

which the prospect of even steady and   
honest industry  is a life of           
unsuccessful battling with hunger1      
rounded by a pauper's  grave4    ,that a
 certain proportion of the members of   
every great aggregation of  mankind     
should constantly tend to establish and 
populate such a ,slough  of ,despond as 
this is inevitable1 so long as some     
people are by nature  idle and vicious1 
while others are disabled by sickness or
 accident1  or thrown upon the world by 
the death of their bread-winners4 ,so   
long  as that proportion is restricted  
within tolerable limits1 it can be      
dealt with2 and1 so far as it arises    
only from such causes1 its  existence   
may and must be patiently borne4  ,but1 
when the organization  of society1      
instead of mitigating this tendency1    
tends to continue and  intensify it2    
when a given social order plainly makes 
for evil and not  for good1 men         
naturally enough begin to think it high 
time to try a  fresh experiment4 ,the   

animal man1 finding that the ethical man
 has  landed him in such a slough1      
resumes his ancient sovereignty1 and    
preaches anarchy2 which is1             
substantially1 a proposal to reduce the 
social cosmos to chaos1 and begin the   
brute struggle for existence  once      
again4    ,any one who is acquainted    
with the state of #baf the population of
  all great industrial centres1 whether 
in this or other countries1 is  aware   
that1 amidst a large and increasing body
 of that population1 la  misere reigns  
supreme4 ,i have no pretensions to the  
character of a  philanthropist1 and ,i  
have a special horror of all sorts of   
sentimental rhetoric2 ,i am merely      
trying to deal with facts1 to some      
extent within my own knowledge1 and     
further evidenced by abundant           
testimony1 as a naturalist2 and ,i take 
it to be a mere plain truth  that1      
throughout industrial ,europe1 there is 
not a single large  manufacturing city  
which is free from a vast mass of people

 whose  condition is exactly that       
described2 and from a still greater mass
  who1 living just on the edge of the   
social swamp1 are liable to be          
precipitated into it by any lack of     
demand for their produce4 ,and1  with   
every addition to the population1 the   
multitude already sunk in  the pit and  
the number of the host sliding towards  
it continually  increase4               
,argumentation can hardly be needful to 
make it clear that no society  in which 
the elements of decomposition are thus  
swiftly and surely  accumulating can    
hope to win in the race of industries4  
,intelligence1 knowledge1 and skill are 
undoubtedly conditions of  success2 but 
of what avail are they likely to be     
unless they are  backed up by honesty1  
energy1 goodwill1 and all the physical  
and moral  faculties that go to the     
making of manhood1 and unless they are  
stimulated by hope of such #bag reward  
as men may fairly look to8 ,and  what   
dweller in the slough of want1 dwarfed  

in body and soul1  demoralized1         
hopeless1 can reasonably be expected to 
possess these  qualities8    ,any full  
and permanent development of the        
productive powers of an  industrial     
population1 then1 must be compatible    
with and1 indeed1  based upon a social  
organization which will secure a fair   
amount of  physical and moral welfare to
 that population2 which will make for   
good and not for evil4 ,natural science 
and religious enthusiasm rarely  go hand
 in hand1 but on this matter their      
concord is complete2 and the  least     
sympathetic of naturalists can but      
admire the insight and the  devotion of 
such social reformers as the late ,lord 
,shaftesbury1 whose  recently published 
,life and ,letters gives a vivid picture
 of the  condition of the working       
classes fifty years ago1 and of the pit 
which  our industry1 ignoring these     
plain truths1 was then digging under its
  own feet4    ,there is1 perhaps1 no   
more hopeful sign of progress among us1 

in the  last half-century1 than the     
steadily increasing devotion which has  
been and is directed to measures for    
promoting physical and moral  welfare   
among the poorer classes4 ,sanitary     
reformers1 like most other  reformers   
whom ,i have had the advantage of       
knowing1 seem to need a  good dose of   
fanaticism1 as a sort of moral coca1 to 
keep them up to  the mark1 and1         
doubtless1 they have made many mistakes2
 but that the  #bah endeavour to improve
 the condition under our industrial     
population live1 to amend the drainage  
of densely peopled streets1 to  provide 
baths1 washhouses1 and gymnasia1 to     
facilitate habits of  thrift1 to furnish
 some provision for instruction and     
amusement in  public libraries and the  
like1 is not only desirable from a      
philanthropic point of view1 but an     
essential condition of safe  industrial 
development1 appears to me to be        
indisputable4 ,it is by  such means     
alone1 so far as ,i can see1 that we can

 hope to check the  constant gravitation
 of industrial society towards la       
misere1 until  the general progress of  
intelligence and morality leads men to  
grapple  with the sources of that       
tendency4 ,if it is said that the       
carrying out  of such arrangements as   
those indicated must enhance the cost of
  production1 and thus handicap the     
producer in the race of competition1  ,i
 venture1 in the first place1 to doubt  
the fact2 but if it be so1 it  results  
that industrial society has to face a   
dilemma1 either  alternative of which   
threatens destruction4    ,on the one   
hand1 a population the labour of which  
is sufficiently  remunerated may be     
physically and morally healthy and      
socially stable1  but may fail in       
industrial competition by reason of the 
dearness of  its produce4  ,on the other
 hand1 a population the labour of which 
is  insufficiently remunerated must     
become physically and morally           
unhealthy1 and socially unstable2 and   

though it #bai may succeed for  a while 
in industrial competition1 by reason of 
the cheapness of its  produce1 it must  
in the end fall1 through hideous misery 
and  degradation1 to utter ruin4        
,well1 if these are the only possible   
alternatives1 let us for ourselves  and 
our children choose the former1 and1 if 
need be1 starve like men4  ,but ,i do   
not believe that the stable society made
 up of healthy1  vigorous1 instructed1  
and self-ruling people would ever incur 
serious  risk of that fate4 ,they are   
not likely to be troubled with many     
competitors of the same character1 just 
yet2 and they may be safely  trusted to 
find ways of holding their own4         
,assuming that the physical and moral   
well-being and the stable social  order1
 which are the indispensable conditions 
of permanent industrial  development1   
are secured1 there remains for          
consideration the means of  attaining   
that knowledge and skill without which1 
even then1 the  battle of competition   

cannot be successfully fought4 ,let us  
consider  how we stand4 ,a vast system  
of elementary education has now been in 
operation among us for sixteen years1   
and has reached all but a very  small   
fraction of the population4 ,i do not   
think that there is any  room for doubt 
that1 on the whole1 it has worked well1 
and that its  indirect no less than its 
direct benefits have been immense4 ,but1
 as  might be expected1 it exhibits the 
defects of all our educational          
systems--fashioned #bbj as they were to 
meet the wants of a bygone  condition of
 society4 ,there is a widespread and1 ,i
 think1  well-justified complaint that  
it has too much to do with books and too
  little to do with things4 ,i am as    
little disposed as any one can well  be 
to narrow early education and to make   
the primary school a mere  annexe of the
 shop4 ,and it is not so much in the    
interests of  industry1 as in that of   
breadth of culture1 that ,i echo the    
common  complaint against the bookish   

and theoretical character of our primary
  instruction4    ,if there were no such
 things as industrial pursuits1 a system
 of  education which does nothing for   
the faculties of observation1 which     
trains neither the eye nor the hand1 and
 is compatible with utter  ignorance of 
the commonest natural truths1 might     
still be reasonably  regarded as        
strangely imperfect4 ,and when we       
consider that the  instruction and      
training which are lacking are exactly2 
those which  are of most importance for 
the great mass of our population1 the   
fault  becomes almost a crime1 the more 
that there is no practical difficulty   
in making good these defects4 ,there    
really is no reason why drawing  should 
not be universally taught1 and it is an 
admirable training for  both eye and    
hand4 ,artists are born1 not made2 but  
everybody may be  taught to draw        
elevations1 plans1 and sections2 and    
pots and pans are  as good1 indeed      
better1 models for #bba this purpose    

than the ,apollo  ,belvedere4 ,the plant
 is not expensive2 and there is this    
excellent  quality about drawing of the 
kind indicated1 that it can be tested   
almost as easily and severely as        
arithmetic4 ,such drawings are either   
right or wrong1 and if they are wrong   
the pupil can be made to see  that they 
are wrong4 ,from the industrial point of
 view1 drawing has  the further merit   
that there is hardly any trade in which 
the power of  drawing is not of daily   
and hourly utility4  ,in the next place1
 no  good reason1 except the want of    
capable teachers1 can be assigned why   
elementary notions of science should not
 be an element in general  instruction4 
,in this case1 again1 no expensive or   
elaborate apparatus  is necessary4 ,the 
commonest thing--a candle1 a boy's      
squirt1 a piece  of chalk--in the hands 
of a teacher who knows his business1 may
 be  made the starting-point whence     
children may be led into the regions of 
science as far as their capacity        

permits1 with efficient exercise of     
their observational and reasoning       
faculties on the road4 ,if object       
lessons often prove trivial failures1 it
 is not the fault of object  lessons1   
but that of the teacher1 who has not    
found out how much the  power of        
teaching a little depends on knowing a  
great deal1 and that  thoroughly2 and   
that he has not made that discovery is  
not the fault  of the teachers1 but of  
the detestable system of training them  
which  is widely prevalent499        99 
,training in the use of simple tools is 
no doubt desirable1      on all grounds4
 ,from the point of view of culture1 the
      man whose fingers are all thumbs  
is but a stunted      creature4 ,but the
 practical difficulties in the way of   
introducing handiwork of this kind into 
elementary schools      appear to me to 
be considerable4    #bbb ,as ,i have    
said1 ,i do not regard the proposal to  
add these to the  present subjects of   
universal instruction as made merely in 

the  interests of industry4 ,elementary 
science and drawing are just as  needful
 at ,eton 7where ,i am happy to say both
 are now parts of the  regular course7  
as in the lowest primary school4 ,but   
their importance  in the education of   
the artisan is enhanced1 not merely by  
the fact  that the knowledge and skill  
thus gained--little as they may amount  
to--will still be of practical utility  
to him2 but1 further1 because  they     
constitute an introduction to that      
special training which is  commonly     
called technical education4    ,i       
conceive that our wants in this last    
direction may be grouped under  three   
heads3 7#a7 ,instruction in the         
principles of those branches of  science
 and of art which are peculiarly        
applicable to industrial  pursuits1     
which may be called preliminary         
scientific education4 7#b7  ,instruction
 in the special branches of such applied
 science and art1  as technical         
education proper4 7#c7 ,instruction of  

teachers in both  these branches4 7#d7  
,capacity-catching machinery4    ,a     
great deal has already been done in each
 of these directions1 but  much remains 
to be done4 ,if elementary education is 
amended in the way  #bbc that has been  
suggested1 ,i think that the school     
boards will  have quite as much on their
 hands as they are capable of doing     
well4  ,the influences under which the  
members of these bodies are elected do  
not tend to secure fitness for dealing  
with scientific or technical  education2
 and it is the less necessary to burden 
them with an  uncongenial task as there 
are other organizations1 not only much  
better fitted to do the work1 but       
already actually doing it4    ,in the   
matter of preliminary scientific        
education1 the chief of these  is the   
,science and ,art ,department1 which has
 done more during the last  quarter of a
 century for the teaching of elementary 
science among the  masses of the people 
than any organization which exists      

either in this  or in any other country4
 ,it has become veritably a people's    
university1 so far as physical science  
is concerned4 ,at the foundation  of our
 old universities they were freely open 
to the poorest1 but the  poorest must   
come to them4 ,in the last quarter of a 
century1 the  ,science and ,art         
,department1 by means of its classes    
spread all over  the country and open to
 all1 has conveyed instruction to the   
poorest4  ,the ,university ,extension   
movement shows that our older learned   
corporations have discovered the        
propriety of following suit4            
,technical education1 in the strict     
sense1 has become a necessity for  two  
reasons4 ,the old apprenticeship system 
has broken down1 partly by  #bbd reason 
of the changed conditions of industrial 
life1 and partly  because trades have   
ceased to be crafts1 the traditional    
secrets  whereof the master handed down 
to his apprentices4 ,invention is       
constantly changing the face of our     

industries1 so that use and  wont1 rule 
of thumb1 and the like1 are gradually   
losing their  importance1 while that    
knowledge of principles which alone can 
deal  successfully with changed         
conditions is becoming more and more    
valuable4 ,socially1 the master of four 
or five apprentices is  disappearing in 
favour of the employer of forty1 or four
 hundred1 or  four thousand1 hands1 and 
the odds and ends of technical          
knowledge1  formerly picked up in a     
shop1 are not1 and cannot be1 supplied  
in the  factory4 ,the instruction       
formerly given by the master must       
therefore  be more than replaced by the 
systematic teaching of the technical    
school4    ,institutions of this kind on
 varying scales of magnitude and        
completeness1 from the splendid edifice 
set up by the ,city and ,guilds         
,institute to the smallest local        
technical school1 to say nothing of     
classes1 such as those in technology    
instituted by the ,society of ,arts     

7subsequently taken over by the ,city   
,guilds71 have been established in      
various parts of the country1 and the   
movement in favour of their  increase   
and multiplication is rapidly growing in
 breadth and  intensity4 ,but there is  
much difference of opinion as to the    
best  #bbe way in which the technical   
instruction1 so generally desired1      
should be given4 ,two courses appear to 
be practicable3 the one is the          
establishment of special technical      
schools with a systematic and           
lengthened course of instruction        
demanding the employment of the whole   
time of the pupils4 ,the other is the   
setting afoot of technical  classes1    
especially evening classes1 comprising a
 short series of  lessons on some       
special topic1 which may be attended by 
persons  already earning wages in some  
branch of trade or commerce4    ,there  
is no doubt that technical schools1 on  
the plan indicated under  the first     
head1 are extremely costly2 and1 so far 

as the teaching of  artisans is         
concerned1 it is very commonly objected 
to them that1 as  the learners do not   
work under trade conditions1 they are   
apt to fall  into amateurish habits1    
which prove of more hindrance than      
service in  the actual business of life4
  ,when such schools are attached to    
factories under the direction of an     
employer who desires to train up a      
supply of intelligent workmen1 of course
 this objection does not  apply2 nor can
 the usefulness of such schools for the 
training of  future employers and for   
the higher grade of the employed be     
doubtful2  but they are clearly out of  
the reach of the great mass of the      
people1  who have to earn their bread as
 soon as possible4 ,we must therefore   
look to the classes1 and especially to  
evening classes1 as the great           
instrument for the technical #bbf       
education of the artisan4 ,the  utility 
of such classes has now been placed     
beyond all doubt2 the only  question    

which remains is to find the ways and   
means of extending  them4    ,we are    
here1 as in all other questions of      
social organization1 met by  two        
diametrically opposed views4 ,on the one
 hand1 the methods pursued  in foreign  
countries are held up as our example4   
,the ,state is exhorted  to take the    
matter in hand and establish a great    
system of technical  education4 ,on the 
other hand1 many economists of the      
individualist  school exhaust the       
resources of language in condemning and 
repudiating1 not merely the interference
 of the general government in  such     
matters1 but the application of a       
farthing of the funds raised by  local  
taxation to these purposes4 ,i entertain
 a strong conviction  that1 in this     
country1 at any rate1 the ,state had    
much better leave  purely technical and 
trade instruction alone4 ,but1 although 
my  personal leanings are decidedly     
towards the individualists1 ,i have     
arrived at that conclusion on merely    

practical grounds4 ,in fact1 my         
individualism is rather of a sentimental
 sort1 and ,i sometimes think ,i  should
 be stronger in the faith if it were    
less vehemently advocated499  ,i am     
unable to see that civil society is     
anything but a corporation  established 
#bbg for a moral object only--namely1   
the good of its  members--and therefore 
that it may take such measures as seem  
fitting  for the attainment of that     
which the general voice decides to be   
the  general good4 ,that the suffrage of
 the majority is by no means a          
scientific test of social good and evil 
is unfortunately too true2  but1 in     
practice1 it is the only test we can    
apply1 and the refusal to  abide by it  
means anarchy4 ,the purest despotism    
that ever existed is  as much based upon
 that will of the majority 7which is    
usually  submission to the will of a    
small minority7 as the freest republic4 
,law is the expression of the opinion of
 the majority2 and it is law1  and not  

mere opinion1 because the many are      
strong enough to enforce  it4        99 
,in what follows ,i am only repeating   
and emphasizing      opinions which ,i  
expressed seventeen years ago1 in an    
,address to the members of the ,midland 
,institute      7republished in         
,critiques and ,addresses in #ahgc1 and 
in ,vol4      ,i4 of these ,essays 74 ,i
 have seen no reason to modify them1    
notwithstanding high authority on the   
other side4    ,i am as strongly        
convinced as the most pronounced        
individualist can be1  that it is       
desirable that every man should be free 
to act in every way  which does not     
limit the corresponding freedom of his  
fellow-man4 ,but  ,i fail to connect    
that great induction of political       
science with the  practical corollary   
which is frequently drawn from it3 that 
the  ,state--that is1 the people in     
their corporate capacity--has no        
business to meddle with anything but the
 administration of justice and  external

 defence4 ,it appears to me that the    
#bbh amount of freedom  which           
incorporate society may fitly leave to  
its members is not a  fixed quantity1 to
 be determined a priori by deduction    
from the  fiction called natural rights2
 but that it must be determined by1  and
 vary with1 circumstances4 ,i conceive  
it to be demonstrable that  the higher  
and the more complex the organization of
 the social body1  the more closely is  
the life of each member bound up with   
that of the  whole2 and the larger      
becomes the category of acts which cease
 to be  merely self-regarding1 and which
 interfere with the freedom of others   
more or less seriously4    ,if a        
squatter1 living ten miles away from any
 neighbour1 chooses to  burn his house  
down to get rid of vermin1 there may be 
no necessity  7in the absence of        
insurance offices7 that the law should  
interfere  with his freedom of action2  
his act can hurt nobody but himself4    
,but1  if the dweller in a street       

chooses to do the same thing1 the ,state
  very properly makes such a proceeding 
a crime1 and punishes it as  such4 ,he  
does meddle with his neighbour's        
freedom1 and that seriously4  ,so it    
might1 perhaps1 be a tenable doctrine1  
that it would be  needless1 and even    
tyrannous1 to make education compulsory 
in a sparse  agricultural population1   
living in abundance on the produce of   
its own  soil2 but1 in a densely        
populated manufacturing country1        
struggling  for existence with          
competitors1 every ignorant person tends
 to #bbi  become a burden upon1 and1 so 
far1 an infringer of the liberty of1 his
  fellows1 and an obstacle to their     
success4 ,under such circumstances an   
education rate is1 in fact1 a war tax1  
levied for purposes of defence4    ,that
 ,state action always has been more or  
less misdirected1 and always  will be   
so1 is1 ,i believe1 perfectly true4 ,but
 ,i am not aware that it  is more true  
of the action of men in their corporate 

capacity than it  is of the doings of   
individuals4 ,the wisest and most       
dispassionate man  in existence1 merely 
wishing to go from one stile in a field 
to the  opposite1 will not walk quite   
straight--he is always going a little   
wrong1 and always correcting himself2   
and ,i can only congratulate the        
individualist who is able to say that   
his general course of life has  been of 
a less undulatory character4 ,to abolish
 ,state action1 because  its direction  
is never more than approximately        
correct1 appears to me  to be much the  
same thing as abolishing the man at the 
wheel  altogether1 because1 do what he  
will1 the ship yaws more or less4 ,why  
should ,i be robbed of my property to   
pay for teaching another man's          
children8 is an individualist question1 
which is not unfrequently put  as if it 
settled the whole business4 ,perhaps it 
does1 but ,i find  difficulties in      
seeing why it should4 ,the parish in    
which ,i live makes  me pay my share for

 the paving and lighting of a great many
 streets  that ,i never pass through2   
#bcj and ,i might plead that ,i am      
robbed to  smooth the way and lighten   
the darkness of other people4 ,but ,i am
  afraid the parochial authorities would
 not let me off on this plea2  and ,i   
must confess ,i do not see why they     
should4    ,i cannot speak of my own    
knowledge1 but ,i have every reason to  
believe  that ,i came into this world a 
small reddish person1 certainly without 
a gold spoon in my mouth1 and in fact   
with no discernible abstract or         
concrete rights or property of any      
description4 ,if a foot was not  set    
upon me1 at once1 as a squalling        
nuisance1 it was either the  natural    
affection of those about me1 which ,i   
certainly had done  nothing to deserve1 
or the fear of the law which1 ages      
before my  birth1 was painfully built up
 by the society into which ,i intruded1 
that prevented that catastrophe4 ,if ,i 
was nourished1 cared for1  taught1 saved

 from the vagabondage of a wastrel1 ,i  
certainly am not  aware that ,i did     
anything to deserve those advantages4   
,and1 if ,i  possess anything now1 it   
strikes me that1 though ,i may have     
fairly  earned my day's wages for my    
day's work1 and may justly call them my 
property--yet1 without that organization
 of society1 created out of  the toil   
and blood of long generations before my 
time1 ,i should  probably have had      
nothing but a flint axe and an          
indifferent hut to  call my own2 and    
even those would be mine only so long as
 no stronger  savage came my way4    ,so
 that if society1 having1 quite         
gratuitously1 #bca done all these       
things for me1 asks me in turn to do    
something towards its                   
preservation--even if that something is 
to contribute to the teaching  of other 
men's children--,i really in spite of   
all my individualist  leanings1 feel    
rather ashamed to say no4 ,and if ,i    
were not ashamed1 ,i  cannot say that ,i

 think that society would be dealing    
unjustly with me  in converting the     
moral obligation into a legal one4      
,there is a  manifest unfairness in     
letting all the burden be borne by the  
willing  horse4    ,it does not appear  
to me1 then1 that there is any valid    
objection to  taxation for purposes of  
education2 but1 in the case of technical
  schools and classes1 ,i think it is   
practically expedient that such a       
taxation should be local4 ,our          
industrial population accumulates in    
particular towns and districts2 these   
districts are those which  immediately  
profit by technical education2 and it is
 only in them that  we can find the men 
practically engaged in industries1 among
 whom some  may reasonably be expected  
to be competent judges of that which is 
wanted1 and of the best means of meeting
 the want4    ,in my belief1 all methods
 of technical training are at present   
tentative1 and1 to be successful1 each  
must be adapted to the special          

peculiarities of its locality4 ,this is 
a case in which we want twenty  years1  
not of strong government1 but of        
cheerful and hopeful  blundering2 and we
 may be #bcb thankful if we get things  
straight in  that time4    ,the         
principle of the ,bill introduced1 but  
dropped1 by the ,government  last       
session1 appears to me to be wise1 and  
some of the objections to  it ,i think  
are due to a misunderstanding4 ,the bill
 proposed in  substance to allow        
localities to tax themselves for        
purposes of  technical education--on the
 condition that any scheme for such     
purpose  should be submitted to the     
,science and ,art ,department1 and      
declared by  that department to be in   
accordance with the intention of the    
,legislature4    ,a cry was raised that 
the ,bill proposed to throw technical   
education  into the hands of the        
,science and ,art ,department4 ,but1 in 
reality1 no  power of initiation1 nor   
even of meddling with details1 was given

 to  that ,department--the sole function
 of which was to decide whether any     
plan proposed did or did not come within
 the limits of technical  education4    
,the necessity for such control1        
somewhere1 is obvious4 ,no  legislature1
 certainly not ours1 is likely to grant 
the power of  self-taxation without     
setting limits to that power in some    
way2 and it  would neither have been    
practicable to devise a legal definition
 of  technical education1 nor           
commendable to leave the question to the
  ,auditor-,general1 to be fought out in
 the law-courts4 ,the only  alternative 
was to leave the decision to an         
appropriate ,state  authority4 ,if it is
 #bcc asked what is the need of such    
control if  the people of the localities
 are the best judges1 the obvious reply 
is  that there are localities and       
localities1 and that while ,manchester1 
or ,liverpool1 or ,birmingham1 or       
,glasgow might1 perhaps1 be safely left 
to do as they thought fit1 smaller      

towns1 in which there is less  certainty
 of full discussion by competent people 
of different ways of  thinking1 might   
easily fall a prey to crocheteers4      
,supposing our intermediate science     
teaching and our technical schools  and 
classes are established1 there is yet a 
third need to be supplied1  and that is 
the want of good teachers4 ,and it is   
necessary not only to  get them1 but to 
keep them when you have got them4    ,it
 is impossible to insist too strongly   
upon the fact that the  efficient       
teachers of science and of technology   
are not to be made by  the processes in 
vogue at ordinary training colleges4    
,the memory  loaded with mere bookwork  
is not the thing wanted--is1 in fact1   
rather  worse than useless--in the      
teacher of scientific subjects4 ,it is  
absolutely essential that his mind      
should be full of knowledge and not  of 
mere learning1 and that what he knows   
should have been learned in  the        
laboratory rather than in the library4  

,there are happily already1  both in    
,london and in the provinces1 various   
places in which such  training is to be 
had1 and the main thing at present is to
 make it in  the first place accessible1
 and in the next #bcd indispensable1 to 
those who undertake the business of     
teaching4 ,but when the well-trained    
men are supplied1 it must be recollected
 that the profession of  teacher is not 
a very lucrative or otherwise tempting  
one1 and that it  may be advisable to   
offer special inducements to good men to
 remain in  it4 ,these1 however1 are    
questions of detail into which it is    
unnecessary to enter further4    ,last1 
but not least1 comes the question of    
providing the machinery for  enabling   
those who are by nature specially       
qualified to undertake the  higher      
branches of industrial work1 to reach   
the position in which  they may render  
that service to the community4 ,if all  
our educational  expenditure did nothing
 but pick one man of scientific or      

inventive  genius1 each year1 from      
amidst the hewers of wood and drawers of
  water1 and give him the chance of     
making the best of his inborn           
faculties1 it would be a very good      
investment4  ,if there is one such      
child among the hundreds of thousands of
 our annual increase1 it would  be worth
 any money to drag him either from the  
slough of misery1 or  from the hotbed of
 wealth1 and teach him to devote himself
 to the  service of his people4 ,here1  
again1 we have made a beginning with our
  scholarships and the like1 and need   
only follow in the tracks already  worn4
    ,the programme of industrial        
development briefly set forth in the    
preceding pages is not what ,kant calls 
a ,hirngespinnst1 a cobweb  #bce spun in
 the brain of a ,utopian philosopher4   
,more or less of it  has taken bodily   
shape in many parts of the country1 and 
there are  towns of no great size or    
wealth in the manufacturing districts   
7,keighley1 for example7 in which almost

 the whole of it has1 for some  time1   
been carried out1 so far as the means at
 the disposal of the  energetic and     
public-spirited men who have taken the  
matter in hand  permitted4 ,the thing   
can be done2 ,i have endeavoured to show
 good  grounds for the belief that it   
must be done1 and that speedily1 if we  
wish to hold our own in the war of      
industry4 ,i doubt not that it will  be 
done1 whenever its absolute necessity   
becomes as apparent to all  those who   
are absorbed in the actual business of  
industrial life as it  is to some of the
 lookers on4    ,perhaps it is necessary
 for me to add that technical education 
is not  here proposed as a panacea for  
social diseases1 but simply as a        
medicament which will help the patient  
to pass through an imminent  crisis4    
,an ophthalmic surgeon may recommend an 
operation for cataract in a man  who is 
going blind1 without being supposed to  
undertake that it will  cure him of     
gout4 ,and ,i may pursue the metaphor so

 far as to remark1  that the surgeon is 
justified in pointing out that a diet of
  pork-chops and burgundy will probably 
kill his patient1 though he may  be     
quite able to suggest a mode of living  
#bcf which will free him  from his      
constitutional disorder4    ,mr4 ,booth 
asks me1 ,why do you not propose some   
plan of your own8  ,really1 that is no  
answer to my argument that his treatment
 will make  the patient very much worse4
 ,note added in ,social ,diseases and   
,worse  ,remedies1 ,january1 #ahia4     
#bcg                ,,letters ,,to ,,the
 ,times                    ,,on ,,the   
,,darkest ,,england ,,scheme4           
,i4    ,the ,times1 ,december #ast1     
#ahij    ,,sir3 ,a short time ago a     
generous and philanthropic friend wrote 
to me1  placing at my disposal a large  
sum of money for the furtherance of the 
vast scheme which the ,general of the   
,salvation ,army has propounded1  if ,i 
thought it worthy of support4 ,the      
responsibility of advising my           

benevolent correspondent has weighed    
heavily upon me1 but ,i felt that  it   
would be cowardly1 as well as           
ungracious1 to refuse to accept it4 ,i  
have therefore studied ,mr4 ,booth's    
book with some care1 for the  purpose of
 separating the essential from the      
accessory features of his  project1 and 
,i have based my judgment--,i am sorry  
to say an  unfavourable one--upon the   
data thus obtained4 ,before             
communicating my  conclusions to my     
friend1 however1 ,i am desirous to know 
what there  may be to be said in arrest 
of that judgment2 #bch and the matter is
  of such vast public importance that ,i
 trust you will aid me by  publishing   
this letter1 notwithstanding its length4
    ,there are one or two points upon   
which ,i imagine all thinking men have  
arrived at the same convictions as those
 from which ,mr4 ,booth starts4  ,it is 
certain that there is an immense amount 
of remediable misery  among us1 that1 in
 addition to the poverty1 disease1 and  

degradation  which are the consequences 
of causes beyond human control1 there is
 a  vast1 probably a very much larger1  
quantity of misery which is the  result 
of individual ignorance1 or misconduct1 
and of faulty social  arrangements4     
,further1 ,i think it is not to be      
doubted that1 unless  this remediable   
misery is effectually dealt with1 the   
hordes of vice  and pauperism will      
destroy modern civilization as          
effectually as  uncivilized tribes of   
another kind destroyed the great social 
organization which preceded ours4       
,moreover1 ,i think all will agree  that
 no reforms and improvements will go to 
the root of the evil  unless they attack
 it in its ultimate source--namely1 the 
motives of  the individual man4 ,honest1
 industrious1 and self-restraining men  
will  make a very bad social            
organization prosper2 while vicious1    
idle1 and  reckless citizens will bring 
to ruin the best that ever was1 or ever 
will be1 invented4    ,the leading      

propositions which are peculiar to ,mr4 
,booth ,i take to be  these3--    #bci  
7#a7 ,that the only adequate means to   
such reformation of the  individual man 
is the adoption of that form of somewhat
 corybantic  ,christianity of which the 
soldiers of the ,salvation ,army are the
  militant missionaries4 ,this implies  
the belief that the excitement of  the  
religious emotions 7largely by processes
 described by their  employers as       
rousing and convivial7 is a desirable   
and trustworthy  method of permanently  
amending the conduct of mankind4    ,i  
demur to these propositions4 ,i am of   
opinion that the testimony of  history1 
no less than the cool observation of    
that which lies within  the personal    
experience of many of us1 is wholly     
adverse to it4       7#b7 ,that the     
appropriate instrument for the          
propagation and  maintenance of this    
peculiar sacramental enthusiasm is the  
,salvation  ,army--a body of devotees1  
drilled and disciplined as a military   

organization1 and provided with a       
numerous hierarchy of officers1  every  
one of whom is pledged to blind and     
unhesitating obedience to  the ,general1
 who frankly tells us that the first    
condition of the  service is implicit1  
unquestioning obedience4 ,a telegram    
from me  will send any of them to the   
uttermost parts of the earth2 every one 
has taken service on the express        
condition that he or she will obey1     
without questioning1 or gainsaying1 the 
orders from headquarters  7,darkest     
,england1 p4 #bdc74    #bdj ,this       
proposition seems to me to be           
indisputable4 ,history confirms  it4    
,francis of ,assisi and ,ignatius       
,loyola made their great  experiments on
 the same principle4 ,nothing is more   
certain than that a  body of religious  
enthusiasts 7perhaps we may even say    
fanatics7  pledged to blind obedience to
 their chief1 is one of the most        
efficient instruments for effecting any 
purpose that the wit of man  has yet    

succeeded in devising4 ,and ,i can but  
admire the insight into  human nature   
which has led ,mr4 ,booth to leave his  
unquestioning and  unhesitating         
instruments unbound by vows4 ,a         
volunteer slave is worth  ten sworn     
bondsmen4       7#c7 ,that the success  
of the ,salvation ,army1 with its       
present force  of #idaf officers wholly 
engaged in the work1 its capital of     
three  quarters of a million1 its income
 of the same amount1 its #acge corps  at
 home1 and #adii in the colonies and    
foreign countries 7,appendix1 pp4  #c   
and #d71 is a proof that ,divine        
assistance has been vouchsafed to its   
efforts4    ,here ,i am not able to     
agree with the sanguine                 
,commander-in-chief of  the new model1  
whose labours in creating it have       
probably interfered  with his           
acquisition of information respecting   
the fate of previous  enterprises of    
like kind4    ,it does not appear to me 
that his success is in any degree more  

remarkable than that of ,francis of     
,assisi or that of ,ignatius ,loyola1   
than that #bda of ,george ,fox1 or even 
than that of the ,mormons1 in  our own  
time4 ,when ,i observe the discrepancies
 of the doctrinal  foundations from     
which each of these great movements set 
out1 ,i find  it difficult to suppose   
that supernatural aid has been given to 
all of  them2 still more1 that ,mr4     
,booth's smaller measure of success is  
evidence that it has been granted to    
him4    ,but what became of the         
,franciscan experiment899 ,if there was 
one rule  rather than another on which  
the founder laid stress1 it was that his
  army of friars should be absolute     
mendicants1 keeping themselves  sternly 
apart from all worldly entanglements4   
,yet1 even before the  death of         
,francis1 in #abbf1 a strong party1     
headed by ,elias of ,cortona1  the      
deputy of his own appointment1 began to 
hanker after these very  things2 and1   
within thirty years of that time1 the   

,franciscans had  become one of the most
 powerful1 wealthy1 and worldly         
corporations in  ,christendom1 with     
their fingers in every sink of political
 and social  corruption1 if so be profit
 for the order could be fished out of   
it2  their principal interest being to  
fight their rivals1 the ,dominicans1    
and to persecute such of their own      
brethren as were honest enough to  try  
to carry out their founder's plainest   
injunctions4 ,we also know  what has    
become of ,loyola's experiment4 ,for two
 centuries the ,jesuits  have been the  
hope of the enemies of the ,papacy2     
whenever it becomes  too prosperous1    
they are sure to bring about a          
catastrophe by their  corrupt use of the
 political and social influence which   
their  organization and their wealth    
secure4        99 ,see note pp4 #bde-bdg
    #bdb ,with these examples of that   
which may happen to institutions        
founded by noble men1 with high aims1 in
 the hands of successors of a  different

 stamp1 armed with despotic authority1  
before me1 common  prudence surely      
requires that1 before advising the      
handing over of a  large sum of money to
 the general of a new order of          
mendicants1 ,i  should ask what         
guarantee there is that1 thirty years   
hence1 the  ,general who then           
autocratically controls the action1 say1
 of #ajj1jjj  officers pledged to blind 
obedience1 distributed through the whole
  length and breadth of the poorer      
classes1 and each with his finger on    
the trigger of a mine charged with      
discontent and religious  fanaticism2   
with the absolute control1 say1 of eight
 or ten millions  sterling of capital   
and as many of income2 with barracks in 
every town1  with estates scattered over
 the country1 and with settlements in   
the  colonies--will exercise his        
enormous powers1 not merely honestly1   
but  wisely8 ,what shadow of security is
 there that the person who wields  this 
uncontrolled authority over many        

thousands of men shall use it  solely   
for those philanthropic and religious   
objects which1 ,i do not  doubt1 are    
alone in the mind of ,mr4 ,booth8 ,who  
is to say that the  ,salvation ,army1 in
 the year #bdc #aibj1 shall not be a    
replica of what  the ,franciscan order  
had become in the year #abfj8    ,the   
personal character and the intentions of
 the founders of such  organizations as 
we are considering count for very little
 in the  formation of a forecast of     
their future2 and if they did1 it is no 
disrespect to ,mr4  ,booth to say that  
he is not the peer of ,francis of       
,assisi4 ,but if ,francis's judgment of 
men was so imperfect as to permit  him  
to appoint an ambitious intriguer of the
 stamp of ,brother ,elias  his deputy1  
we have no right to be sanguine about   
the perspicacity of  ,mr4 ,booth in a   
like matter4    ,adding to all these    
considerations the fact that ,mr4       
,llewelyn ,davies1  the warmth of whose 
philanthropy is beyond question1 and in 

whose  competency and fairness ,i1 for  
one1 place implicit reliance1 flatly    
denies the boasted success of the       
,salvation ,army in its professed       
mission1 ,i have arrived at the         
conclusion that1 as at present advised1 
,i cannot be the instrument of carrying 
out my friend's proposal4    ,mr4 ,booth
 has pithily characterized certain      
benevolent schemes as  doing            
sixpennyworth of good and a shilling's  
worth of harm4 ,i grieve  to say that1  
in my opinion1 the definition exactly   
fits his own  project4 ,few social evils
 are of greater magnitude than          
uninstructed  and unchastened religious 
fanaticism2 no personal habit more      
surely  degrades the conscience and the 
intellect than #bdd blind and           
unhesitating obedience to unlimited     
authority4 ,undoubtedly1 harlotry  and  
intemperance are sore evils1 and        
starvation is hard to bear1 or  even to 
know of2 but the prostitution of the    
mind1 the soddening of  the conscience1 

the dwarfing of manhood are worse       
calamities4 ,it is a  greater evil to   
have the intellect of a nation put down 
by organized  fanaticism2 to see its    
political and industrial affairs at the 
mercy  of a despot whose chief thought  
is to make that fanaticism prevail2 to  
watch the degradation of men1 who should
 feel themselves individually           
responsible for their own and their     
country's fates1 to mere brute          
instruments1 ready to the hand of a     
master for any use to which he may  put 
them4    ,but that is the end to which1 
in my opinion1 all such organizations as
  that to which kindly people1 who do   
not look to the consequences of  their  
acts1 are now giving their thousands1   
inevitably tend4 ,unless  clear proof   
that ,i am wrong is furnished1 another  
thousand shall not  be added by my      
instrumentality4                  ,i am1
 ,sir1 your obedient servant1           
,t4 ,h4 ,huxley4    #bde                
,,note4    ,an authoritative            

contemporary historian1 ,matthew ,paris1
 writes thus of  the ,minorite1 or      
,franciscan1 ,friars in ,england in     
#abce1 just nine  years after the death 
of ,francis of ,assisi3--    ,at this   
time some of the ,minorite brethren1 as 
well as some of the  ,order of          
,preachers1 unmindful of their          
profession and the restrictions  of     
their order1 impudently entered the     
territories of some noble  monasteries1 
under pretense of fulfilling their      
duties of preaching1  as if intending to
 depart after preaching the next day4   
,under pretence  of sickness1 or on some
 other pretext1 however1 they remained1 
and1  constructing an altar of wood1    
they placed on it a consecrated stone   
altar1 which they had brought with them1
 and clandestinely and in a  low voice  
performed mass1 and even received the   
confessions of many of  the             
parishioners1 to the prejudice of the   
priests4  ,and if by chance  they were  
not satisfied with this1 they broke     

forth in insults and  threats1 reviling 
every other order except their own1 and 
asserting  that all the rest were doomed
 to damnation1 and that they would not  
spare the soles of their feet till they 
had exhausted the wealth of  their      
opposers1 however great it might be4    
,the religious men1  therefore1 gave way
 to them in many points1 yielding to    
avoid scandal1  and offending those in  
power4 ,for they were the councillors   
and  messengers of the nobles1 and even 
secretaries of the ,pope1 and  therefore
 obtained much #bdf secular favour4     
,some1 however1 finding  themselves     
opposed by the ,court of ,rome1 were    
restrained by obvious  reasons1 and went
 away in confusion2 for the ,supreme    
,pontiff1 with a  scowling look1 said to
 them1 ',what means this1 my brethren8  
,to what  lengths are you going8 ,have  
you not professed voluntary poverty1 and
  that you would traverse towns and     
castles and distant places1 as the  case
 required1 barefooted and               

unostentatiously1 in order to preach the
  word of ,god in all humility8 ,and do 
you now presume to usurp these  estates 
to yourselves against the will of the   
lords of these fees8  ,your religion    
appears to be in a great measure dying  
away1 and your  doctrines to be         
confuted4    ,under date of #abdc1      
,matthew writes3--    ,for three or four
 hundred years or more the monastic     
order did not  hasten to destruction so 
quickly as their order ,minorites and   
,preachers of whom now the brothers1    
twenty-four years having scarcely       
elapsed1 had first built in ,england    
dwellings which rivalled regal  palaces 
in height4 ,these are they who daily    
expose to view their  inestimable       
treasures1 in enlarging their sumptuous 
edifices1 and  erecting lofty walls1    
thereby impudently transgressing the    
limits of  their original poverty and   
violating the basis of their religion1  
according to the prophecy of ,german    
,hildegarde4 ,when noblemen and rich    

men are at the point of death1 whom they
 know to be possessed of great  riches1 
they1 in their love of gain1 diligently 
urge them1 to the  injury and loss of   
the ordinary pastors1 and extort        
confessions and  hidden wills1 lauding  
themselves and their own order only1    
#bdg and  placing themselves before all 
others4 ,so no faithful man now believes
  he can be saved1 except he is directed
 by the counsels of the  ,preachers and 
,minorites4--,matthew ,paris's ,english 
,history4 ,translated  by the ,rev4 ,j4 
,a4  ,giles1 #ahhi1 ,vol4 ,i4           
,,ii    ,the ,times1 ,december #ith1    
#ahij    ,sir1--,the purpose of my      
previous letter about ,mr4 ,booth's     
scheme was  to arouse the contributors  
to the military chest of the ,salvation 
,army  to a clear sense of what they are
 doing4 ,i thought it desirable that    
they should be distinctly aware that    
they are setting up and endowing  a     
sect1 in many ways analogous to the     
,ranters and ,revivalists of            

undesirable notoriety in former times2  
but with this immensely  important      
difference1 that it possesses a strong1 
far-reaching1  centralized organization1
 the disposal of the physical1 moral1   
and  financial strength of which rests  
with an irresponsible chief1 who1       
according to his own account1 is assured
 of the blind obedience of  nearly      
#aj1jjj subordinates4 ,i wish them to   
ask themselves1 ,ought  prudent men and 
good citizens to aid in the             
establishment of an  organization which1
 under sundry1 by no means improbable1  
contingencies1 may easily become a worse
 and more #bdh dangerous  nuisance than 
the mendicant friars of the middle ages8
 ,if this is an  academic question1 ,i  
really do not know what questions       
deserve to be  called practical4 ,as you
 divined1 ,i purposely omitted any      
consideration of the details of the     
,salvationist scheme1 and of the        
principles which animate those who work 
it1 because ,i desired that the  public 

appreciation of the evils1 necessarily  
inherent in all such  plans of despotic 
social and religious regimentation      
should not be  obscured by the raising  
of points of less comparative1 however  
great  absolute1 importance4    ,but it 
is now time to undertake a more         
particular criticism of  ,darkest       
,england4 ,at the outset of my          
examination of that work1 ,i was        
startled to find that ,mr4 ,booth had   
put forward his scheme with an  almost  
incredibly imperfect knowledge of what  
had been done and is  doing in the same 
direction4 ,a simple reader might well  
imagine that  the author of ,darkest    
,england posed as the ,columbus1 or at  
any rate  the ,cortez1 of that region4  
,go to ,mudie's1 he tells us1 and you   
will be surprised to see how few books  
there are upon the social  problem4     
,that may or may not be correct2 but if 
,mr4 ,booth had gone to  a certain      
reading-room not far from ,mudie's1 ,i  
undertake to say that  the well-informed

 and obliging staff of the national     
library in  ,bloomsbury would have      
provided him with more books on this    
topic1 in  almost all ,european         
languages1 than he would #bdi read in   
three  months4  ,has socialism no       
literature8 ,and what is socialism but  
an  incarnation of the social question8 
,moreover1 ,i am persuaded that even    
,mudie's resources could have furnished 
,mr4 ,booth with the ,life of  ,lord    
,shaftesbury and ,carlyle's works4 ,mr4 
,booth seems to have  undertaken to     
instruct the world without having heard 
of ,past and  ,present or of            
,latter-,day ,pamphlets2 though1        
somewhat late in the  day1 a judicious  
friend calls his attention to them4 ,to 
those of my  contemporaries on whom1 as 
on myself1 ,carlyle's writings on this  
topic  made an ineffaceable impression  
forty years ago1 who know that1 for  all
 that time1 hundreds of able and devoted
 men1 both clerical and  lay1 have      
worked heart and soul for the permanent 

amendment of the  condition of the poor1
 ,mr4 ,booth's ,go to ,mudie's affords  
an apt  measure of the depth of his     
preliminary studies4 ,however1 ,i am    
bound  to admit that these earlier      
labourers in the field laboured in such 
a  different fashion1 that the          
originality of the plan started by ,mr4 
,booth remains largely unaffected4 ,for 
them no drums have beat1 no  trombones  
brayed2 no sanctified buffoonery1 after 
the model of the  oration of the ,friar 
in ,wallenstein's camp dear to the      
readers of  ,schiller1 has tickled the  
ears of the groundlings on their behalf4
  ,sadly behind the great age of rowdy  
self-advertisement in which their  lot  
has fallen1 they seem not to have       
advanced one whit #bej beyond  ,john the
 ,baptist and the ,apostles1 #ahjj years
 ago1 in their notions of  the way in   
which the metanoia1 the change of mind  
of the ill-doer1 is  to be brought      
about4 ,yet the new model was there1    
ready for the  imitation of those       

ancient savers of souls4 ,the ranting   
and roaring  mystagogues of some of the 
most venerable of ,greek and ,syrian    
cults  also had their processions and   
banners1 their fifes and cymbals and    
holy chants1 their hierarchy of officers
 to whom the art of making  collections 
was not wholly unknown2 and who1 as     
freely as their modern  imitators1      
promised an ,elysian future to          
contributory converts4 ,the  success of 
these antique ,salvation armies was     
enormous4 ,simon ,magus  was quite as   
notorious a personage1 and probably had 
as strong a  following as ,mr4 ,booth4  
,yet the ,apostles1 with their          
old-fashioned  ways1 would not accept   
such a success as a satisfactory sign of
 the  ,divine sanction1 nor depart from 
their own methods of leading the way  to
 the higher life4    ,i deem it         
unessential to verify ,mr4 ,booth's     
statistics4 ,the exact  strength of the 
population of the realm of misery1 be it
 one1 two1 or  three millions1 has      

nothing to do with the efficacy of any  
means  proposed for the highly desirable
 end of reducing it to a minimum4 ,the  
sole question for consideration at      
present is whether the scheme1  keeping 
specially in view the spirit in which it
 is to be worked1 is  likely to do more 
good than harm4    #bea ,mr4 ,booth     
tells us1 with commendable frankness1   
that it is  primarily and mainly for the
 sake of saving the soul that ,i seek   
the  salvation of the body 7p4 #de71    
which language1 being interpreted1      
means that the propagation of the       
special ,salvationist creed comes       
first1 and the promotion of the         
physical1 intellectual1 and purely      
moral welfare of mankind second in his  
estimation4 ,men are to be made  sober  
and industrious1 mainly1 that1 as       
washed1 shorn1 and docile  sheep1 they  
may be driven into the narrow           
theological fold which ,mr4  ,booth     
patronizes4 ,if they refuse to enter1   
for all their moral  cleanliness1 they  

will have to take their place among the 
goats as  sinners1 only less dirty than 
the rest4    ,i have been in the habit  
of thinking 7and ,i believe the opinion 
is  largely shared by reasonable men7   
that self-respect and thrift are the    
rungs of the ladder by which men may    
most surely climb out of the  slough of 
despond of want2 and ,i have regarded   
them as perhaps the  most eminent of the
 practical virtues4 ,that is not ,mr4   
,booth's  opinion4 ,for him they are    
mere varnished sins--nothing better than
  ,pride re-baptised 7p4 #df74 ,shutting
 his eyes to the necessary  consequences
 of the struggle for life1 the existence
 of which he  accepts as fully as any   
,darwinian199 ,mr4 ,booth tells men1    
whose evil  case is one of those        
consequences1 that envy is a            
corner-stone of our  #beb competitive   
system4 ,with thrift and self-respect   
denounced as  sin1 with the suffering of
 starving men referred to the sins of   
the  capitalist1 the gospel according to

 ,mr4 ,booth may save souls1 but it     
will hardly save society4        99 ,see
 p4 #ajj    ,in estimating the social   
and political influence which the       
,salvation  ,army is likely to exert1 it
 is important to reflect that the       
officers  7pledged to blind obedience to
 their ,general7 are not to confine     
themselves to the functions of mere     
deacons and catechists 7though1  under a
 ,general like ,cyril1 ,alexandria knew 
to her cost what even  they could       
effect72 they are to be tribunes of the 
people1 who are  to act as their        
gratuitous legal advisers2 and1 when law
 is not  sufficiently effective1 the    
whole force of the army is to obtain    
what  the said tribunes may conceive to 
be justice1 by the practice of  ruthless
 intimidation4 ,society1 says ,mr4      
,booth1 needs mothering2 and  he sets   
forth1 with much complacency1 a variety 
of cases1 by which  we may estimate the 
sort of mothering to be expected at his 
parental  hands4 ,those who study the   

materials thus set before them will1 ,i 
think1 be driven to the conclusion that 
the mother has already  proved herself a
 most unscrupulous meddler1 even if she 
has not fallen  within reach of the arm 
of the law4    ,consider this case4 ,a1 
asserting herself to have been seduced  
twice1  applied to our people4 ,we      
hunted up the man1 followed him to the  
country1 #bec threatened him with public
 exposure1 and forced from  him the     
payment to his victim of ,pounds #fj    
down1 an allowance of  ,pounds #a a     
week1 and an insurance policy on his    
life for ,pounds  #dej in her favour 7p4
 #bbb7 4    ,jedburgh justice this4 ,we 
constitute ourselves prosecutor1 judge1 
jury1 sheriff's officer1 all in one2 we 
practice intimidation as  deftly as if  
we were a branch of another ,league2    
and1 under threat of  exposure1 we      
extort a tolerably heavy hush-money in  
payment of our  silence4     ,well1     
really1 my poor moral sense is unable to
 distinguish these  remarkable          

proceedings of the new popular tribunate
 from what1 in  ,french1 is called      
chantage and1 in plain ,english1        
blackmailing4 ,and  when we consider    
that anybody1 for any reason of         
jealousy1 or personal  spite1 or party  
hatred1 might be thus hunted1 followed1 
threatened1 and financially squeezed or 
ruined1 without a particle  of legal    
investigation1 at the will of a man whom
 the familiar charged  with the         
inquisitorial business dare not hesitate
 to obey1 surely it  is not unreasonable
 to ask how far does the ,salvation     
,army1 in its  tribune of the people    
aspect1 differ from a ,sicilian ,mafia8 
,i am no  apologist of men guilty of the
 acts charged against the person who    
yet1 ,i think1 might be as fairly called
 a victim1 in this case1 as  his partner
 in wrong-doing4 ,it is possible that1  
in so peculiar a  case1 ,solomon himself
 might have been puzzled #bed to        
apportion the  relative moral           
delinquency of the parties4 ,however    

that may be1 the  man was morally and   
legally bound to support his child1 and 
any one  would have been justified in   
helping the woman to her legal rights1  
and the man to the legal consequences   
7in which exposure is included7  of his 
fault4    ,the action of the ,general of
 the ,salvation ,army in extorting the  
heavy fine he chose to impose as the    
price of his silence1 however  excellent
 his motives1 appears to me to be as    
immoral as1 ,i hope1 it  is illegal4    
,so much for the ,salvation ,army as a  
teacher of questionable ethics and  of  
eccentric economics1 as the legal       
adviser who recommends and  practices   
the extraction of money by intimidation1
 as the fairy  godmother who proposes to
 mother society1 in a fashion which is  
not  to my taste1 however much it may   
commend itself to some of ,mr4 ,booth's 
supporters4                      ,i am1 
,sir1 your obedient servant1            
,t4 ,h4 ,huxley4    #bee                
,,iii           ,the ,times1 ,december  

#aath1 #ahij    ,sir1--,when ,i first   
addressed you on the subject of the     
projected  operations of the ,salvation 
,army1 all that ,i knew about that body 
was  derived from the study of ,mr4     
,booth's book1 from common repute1 and  
from occasional attention to the sayings
 and doings of his noisy  squadrons1    
with which my walks about ,london1 in   
past years1 have made  me familiar4 ,i  
was quite unaware of the existence of   
evidence  respecting the present        
administration of the ,salvation forces1
 which  would have enabled me to act    
upon the sagacious maxim of the         
,american  humourist1 ,don't prophesy   
unless you know4 ,the letter you were   
good  enough to publish has brought upon
 me a swarm of letters and  pamphlets4  
,some favour me with abuse2 some        
thoughtful correspondents  warmly agree 
with me1 and then proceed to point out  
how much worthier  certain schemes of   
their own are of my friend's support2   
some send  valuable encouragement1 for  

which ,i offer my hearty thanks1 and ask
  them to excuse any more special       
acknowledgment4 ,but that which ,i find 
most to the purpose1 just now1 is the   
revelation made by some of the          
documents which have reached me1 of a   
fact of which ,i was wholly             
ignorant--namely1 that #bef persons who 
have faithfully and zealously  served in
 the ,salvation ,army1 who express      
unchanged attachment to its  original   
principles and practice1 and who have   
been in close official  relations with  
the ,general have publicly declared that
 the process  of degradation of the     
organization into a mere engine of      
fanatical  intolerance and personal     
ambition1 which ,i declared was         
inevitable1  has already set in and is  
making rapid progress4    ,it is out of 
the question1 ,sir1 that ,i should      
occupy the columns of  the ,times with a
 detailed exposition and criticism of   
these pieces  justificatives of my      
forecast4 ,i say criticism1 because the 

assertions  of persons who have quitted 
any society must1 in fairness1 be taken 
with the caution that is required in the
 case of all ex parte  statements of    
hostile witnesses4 ,but it is1 at any   
rate1 a notable  fact that there are    
parts of my first letter1 indicating the
 inherent  and necessary evil           
consequences of any such organization1  
which might  serve for abstracts of     
portions of this evidence1 long since   
printed  and published under the public 
responsibility of the witnesses4    ,let
 us ask the attention of your readers1  
in the first place1 to ,an              
ex-,captain's ,experience of the        
,salvation ,army1 by ,j4 ,j4 ,r4        
,redstone1  the genuineness of which is 
guaranteed by the preface 7dated ,april 
#eth1 #ahhh7 which the ,rev4 ,dr4       
,cunningham ,geikie has supplied4 ,mr4  
,redstone's story is well worth reading 
on its own account4    #beg ,told in    
simple1 direct language such as ,john   
,bunyan might have  used1 it permits no 

doubt of the single-minded sincerity of 
the man1  who gave up everything to     
become an officer of the ,salvation     
,army1  but1 exhibiting a sad want of   
that capacity for unhesitating and blind
  obedience on which ,mr4  ,booth lays  
so much stress1 was thrown aside1       
penniless--no1 ,i am wrong1 with #bs4   
#d;d4 for his last week's salary--to    
shift1 with his equally devoted wife1 as
 he best might4 ,i wish ,i could  induce
 intending contributors to ,mr4         
,booth's army chest to read ,mr4        
,redstone's story4 ,i would particularly
 ask them to contrast the pure          
simplicity of his plain tale with the   
artificial pietism and  slobbering      
unction of the letters which ,mr4       
,ballington ,booth addresses  to his    
dear boy 7a married man apparently older
 than himself71 so  long as the said    
dear boy is facing brickbats and        
starvation1 as per  order4    ,i confess
 that my opinion of the chiefs of the   
,salvation ,army has been  so distinctly

 modified by the perusal of this        
pamphlet that ,i am glad  to be relieved
 from the necessity of expressing it4   
,it will be much  better that ,i should 
cite a few sentences from the preface   
written by  ,dr4 ,cunningham ,geikie1   
who expresses warm admiration for the   
early and  uncorrupted work of the      
,salvation ,army1 and cannot possibly be
 accused  of prejudice against it on    
religious grounds3--       7#a7 ,the    
,salvation ,army is emphatically a #beh 
family concern4 ,mr4  ,booth1 senior1 is
 ,general2 one son is chief of the      
staff1 and the  remaining sons and      
daughters engross the other chief       
positions4 ,it is  ,booth all over2     
indeed1 like the sun in your eyes1 you  
can see nothing  else wherever you turn4
 ,and1 as ,dr4 ,geikie shrewdly remarks1
 'to be  the head of a widely spread    
sect carries with it many               
advantages--not  all exclusively        
spiritual4'       7#b7 ,whoever becomes 
a ,salvation officer is henceforth a    

slave1  helplessly exposed to the       
caprice of his superiors4    ,mr4       
,redstone bore an excellent character   
both before he entered the  army and    
when he left it4 ,to join it1 though a  
married man1 he gave up  a situation    
which he had held for five years1 and he
 served ,mr4 ,booth  two years1 working 
hard in most difficult posts4 ,his one  
fault1 ,major  ,lawley tells us1 was1   
that he was 'too straight'--that is1 too
 honest1  truthful1 and manly--or1 in   
other words1 too real a ,christian4 ,yet
  without trial1 without formulated     
charges1 on the strength of secret      
complaints which were never1 apparently1
 tested1 he was dismissed with  less    
courtesy than most people would show a  
beggar--with #bs4 #d;d4 for  his last   
week's salary4 ,if there be any mistake 
in this matter1 ,i  shall be glad to    
learn it4       7#c7 ,dr4 ,geikie       
confirms1 on the ground of information  
given  confidentially by other officers1
 #bei ,mr4 ,redstone's assertion that   

they are watched and reported by spies  
from headquarters4       7#d7 ,mr4      
,booth refuses to guarantee his officers
 any fixed amount of  salary4 ,while he 
and his family of high officials live in
 comfort1 if  not in luxury1 the pledged
 slaves whose devotion is the foundation
 of  any true success the ,army has met 
with often have hardly food enough  to  
sustain life4 ,one good fellow frankly  
told me that when he had  nothing he    
just went and begged4    ,at this point1
 it is proper that ,i should interpose  
an apology for  having hastily spoken of
 such men as ,francis of ,assisi1 even  
for  purposes of warning1 in connection 
with ,mr4 ,booth4 ,whatever may be      
thought of the wisdom of the plans of   
the founders of the great  monastic     
orders of the middle ages1 they took    
their full share of  suffering and      
privation1 and never shirked in their   
own persons the  sacrifices they imposed
 on their followers4    ,i have already 
expressed the opinion1 that whatever the

 ostensible  purpose of the scheme under
 discussion1 one of its consequences    
will  be the setting up and endowment of
 a new ,ranter-,socialist sect4 ,i may  
now add that another effect will        
be--indeed1 has been--to set up and     
endow the ,booth dynasty with unlimited 
control of the physical1 moral1  and    
financial resources of the sect4 ,mr4   
,booth is already a printer  and        
publisher1 who1 it is plainly declared1 
utilizes the officers of  the #bfj ,army
 as agents for advertising and selling  
his publications2  and some of them are 
so strongly impressed with the belief   
that active  pushing of ,mr4 ,booth's   
business is the best road to their      
master's  favour1 that when the public  
obstinately refuse to purchase his      
papers  they buy them themselves and    
send the proceeds to headquarters4 ,mr4 
,booth is also a retail trader on a     
large scale1 and the ,dean of ,wells    
has1 most seasonably1 drawn attention to
 the very notable banking  project which

 he is trying to float4 ,any one who    
follows ,dean  ,plumptre's clear        
exposition of the principles of this    
financial  operation can have little    
doubt that1 whether they are1 or are    
not1  adequate to the attainment of the 
first and second of ,mr4 ,booth's       
ostensible objects1 they may be trusted 
to effect a wide extension of  any      
kingdom in which worldly possessions are
 of no value4 ,we are1 in  fact1 in     
sight of a financial catastrophe like   
that of ,law a century  ago4 ,only it is
 the poor who will suffer4    ,i have   
already occupied too much of your space1
 and yet ,i have drawn  upon only one of
 the sources of information about the   
inner working of  the ,salvation ,army  
at my disposition4 ,far graver charges  
than any here  dealt with are publicly  
brought in the others4                  
,i am1 ,sir1 your obedient servant1     
,t4 ,h4 ,huxley4    #bfa ,p4,s4-- ,i    
have just read ,mr4 ,buchanan's letter  
in the ,times of  to-day4  ,mr4         

,buchanan is1 ,i believe1 an imaginative
 writer4 ,i am not  acquainted with his 
works1 but nothing in the way of fiction
 he has  yet achieved can well surpass  
his account of my opinions and of the   
purport of my writings4                 
,,iv    ,the ,times ,december #bjth1    
#ahij    ,sir1--,in discussing ,mr4     
,booth's projects ,i have hitherto left 
in the  background a distinction which  
must be kept well in sight by those who 
wish to form a fair judgment of the     
influence1 for good or evil1 of  the    
,salvation ,army4 ,salvationism1 the    
work of saving souls by  revivalist     
methods1 is one thing2 ,boothism1 the   
utilization of the  workers for the     
furtherance of ,mr4  ,booth's peculiar  
projects1 is  another4 ,mr4 ,booth has  
captured1 and harnessed with sharp bits 
and  effectual blinkers1 a multitude of 
ultra-,evangelical missionaries of  the 
revivalist school who were wandering at 
large4 ,it is this  skilfully1 if       
somewhat mercilessly1 driven team which 

has dragged the  ,general's coach-load  
of projects into their present position4
    #bfb ,looking1 then1 at the host of 
,salvationists proper1 from the         
captains downwards 7to whom1 in my      
judgment1 the family hierarchy  stands  
in the relation of the ,old ,man of the 
,sea to ,sinbad71 as an  independent    
entity1 ,i desire to say that the       
evidence before me1  whether hostile or 
friendly to the ,general and his        
schemes1 is  distinctly favourable to   
them4  ,it exhibits them as1 in the     
main1  poor1 uninstructed1 not          
unfrequently fanatical1 enthusiasts1 the
  purity of whose lives1 the sincerity  
of whose belief1 and the  cheerfulness  
of whose endurance of privation and     
rough usage1 in what  they consider a   
just cause1 command sincere respect4    
,for my part1  though ,i conceive the   
corybantic method of soul-saving to be  
full of  dangers1 and though the        
theological speculations of these good  
people  are to me wholly unacceptable1  

yet ,i believe that the evils which must
  follow in the track of such errors1 as
 of all other errors1 will be  largely  
outweighed by the moral and social      
improvement of the people  whom they    
convert4 ,i would no more raise my voice
 against them 7so  long as they abstain 
from annoying their neighbours7 than ,i 
would  quarrel with a man1 vigorously   
sweeping out a stye1 on account of the  
shape of his broom1 or because he made a
 great noise over his work4 ,i  have    
always had a strong faith in the        
principle of the injunction1  ,thou     
shalt not muzzle the ox that treadeth   
out the corn4 ,if a  kingdom is worth a 
,mass1 as a great #bfc ruler said1      
surely the reign  of clean living1      
industry1 and thrift is worth any       
quantity of  tambourines and eccentric  
doctrinal hypotheses4 ,all that ,i have 
hitherto said1 and propose further to   
say1 is directed against ,mr4  ,booth's 
extremely clever1 audacious1 and        
hitherto successful attempt  to utilize 

the credit won by all this honest       
devotion and  self-sacrifice for the    
purposes of his socialistic autocracy4  
,i now propose to bring forward a little
 more evidence as to how things  really 
stand where ,mr4 ,booth's system has had
 a fair trial4 ,i obtain  it1 mainly1   
from a curious pamphlet1 the title of   
which runs3 ,the ,new  ,papacy4  ,behind
 the ,scenes in the ,salvation ,army1 by
 an ex-,staff  ,officer4 ,make not my   
,father's house a house of merchandise  
7,john ii4  #af74 #ahhi4 ,published at  
,toronto1 by ,a4 ,britnell4 ,on the     
cover it is  stated that ,this is the   
book which was burned by the authorities
 of  the ,salvation ,army4 ,i remind the
 reader1 once more1 that the  statements
 which ,i shall cite must be regarded as
 ex parte2 all ,i can  vouch for is     
that1 on grounds of internal evidence   
and from other  concurrent testimony    
respecting the ways of the ,booth       
hierarchy1 ,i  feel justified in using  
them4    ,this is the picture the writer

 draws of the army in the early days of 
its invasion of the ,dominion of        
,canada3--    #bfd ,then1 it will be    
remembered1 it professed to be the      
humble  handmaid of the existing        
churches2 its professed object was the  
evangelization of the masses4 ,it       
repudiated the idea of building up a    
separate religious body1 and it         
denounced the practice of gathering     
together wealth and the accumulation of 
property4 ,men and women other  than its
 own converts gathered around it and    
threw themselves heart  and soul into   
the work1 for the simple reason that it 
offered1 as they  supposed1 a more      
extended and widely open field for      
evangelical  effort4 ,ministers         
everywhere were invited and welcomed to 
its  platforms1 majors and colonels were
 few and far between1 and the  supremacy
 and power of the ,general were things  
unknown 4 4 4  ,care was  taken to avoid
 anything like proselytism2 its converts
 were never  coerced into joining its   

ranks444  ,in a word1 the organization  
occupied the position of an auxiliary   
mission and recruiting agency  for the  
various religious bodies4444 ,the       
meetings were crowded1 people  professed
 conversion by the score1 the public    
liberally supplied the  means to carry  
on the work in their respective         
communities2 therefore  every corps was 
wholly self-supporting1 its officers    
were properly1 if  not luxuriously1     
cared for1 the local expenditure was    
amply provided1  and1 under the         
supervision of the secretary1 a local   
member1 and the  officer in charge1 the 
funds were disbursed in the towns where 
they  were collected1 and the #bfe      
spirit of satisfaction and confidence   
was mutual all around 7pp4 #d1 #e74     
,such was the army as the green tree4   
,now for the dry3--    ,those who have  
been daily conversant with the army's   
machinery are  well aware how entirely  
and radically the whole system has      
changed1  and how1 from a band of       

devoted and disinterested workers1      
united in  the bonds of zeal and charity
 for the good of their fellows1 it has  
developed into a colossal and aggressive
 agency for the building up of  a system
 and a sect1 bound by rules and         
regulations altogether  subversive of   
religious liberty and antagonistic to   
every 7other87  branch of ,christian    
endeavour1 and bound hand and foot to   
the will of  one supreme head and       
ruler4444 ,as the work has spread       
through the  country1 and as the area of
 its endeavours has enlarged1 each      
leading  position has been filled1 one  
after the other1 by individuals         
strangers  to the country1 totally      
ignorant of the sentiments and          
idiosyncrasies  of the ,canadian people1
 trained in one school under the        
teachings and  dominance of a member of 
the ,booth family1 and out of whom every
 idea  has been crushed1 except that of 
unquestioning obedience to the          
,general1 and the absolute necessity of 

going forward to his bidding  without   
hesitation or question 7p4 #f74    #bff 
,what is the result of all this8 ,in the
 first place1 whilst  material          
prosperity has undoubtedly been         
attained1 spirituality has  been        
quenched1 and1 as an evangelical agency1
 the army has become  almost a dead     
letter444  ,in seventy-five per cent of 
its stations its  officers suffer need  
and privation1 chiefly on account of the
 heavy  taxation that is placed upon    
them to maintain an imposing            
headquarters  and a large ornamental    
staff4 ,the whole financial arrangements
 are  carried on by a system of         
inflation and a hand-to-mouth           
extravagance  and blindness as to future
 contingencies4 ,nearly all of its      
original  workers and members have      
disappeared 7p4 #g74 ,in reference to   
the  religious bodies at large the army 
has become entirely antagonistic4       
,soldiers are forbidden by its rules to 
attend other places of worship  without 

the permission of their officers444     
,officers or soldiers who  may          
conscientiously leave the service or the
 ranks are looked upon and  often       
denounced publicly as backsliders444    
,means of the most  despicable          
description have been resorted to in    
order to starve them  back to the       
service 7p4 #h74 ,in its inner workings 
the army system is  identical with      
,jesuitism444  ,that 'the end justifies 
the means1' if  not openly taught1 is as
 tacitly agreed as in that celebrated   
order  7p4 #i74    ,surely a bitter1    
overcharged1 anonymous libel1 is the    
reflection which  will occur to many who
 read #bfg these passages1 especially   
the last4  ,well1 ,i turn to other      
evidence which1 at any rate1 is not     
anonymous4  ,it is contained in a       
pamphlet entitled ,general ,booth1 the  
,family1 and  the ,salvation ,army1     
showing its ,rise1 ,progress1 and ,moral
 and  ,spiritual ,decline1 by ,s4 ,h4   
,hodges1 ,,ll4,b41 late ,major in the   

,army1  and formerly private secretary  
to ,general ,booth 7,manchester1 #ahij74
 ,i  recommend potential contributors to
 ,mr4  ,booth's wealth to study this    
little work also4 ,i have learned a     
great deal from it4 ,among other        
interesting novelties1 it tells me that 
,mr4 ,booth has discovered the          
necessity of a third step or blessing1  
in the work of ,salvation4 ,he  said to 
me one day1 ',hodges1 you have only two 
barrels to your gun2 ,i  have three' 7p4
 #ca74 ,and if ,mr4 ,hodges's           
description of this third  barrel is    
correct--giving up your conscience and1 
for ,god and the  army1 stooping to do  
things which even honourable worldly men
 would  not consent to do 7p4 #cb7--;it 
is surely calculated to bring down a    
good many things1 the first principles  
of morality among them4    ,mr4 ,hodges 
gives some remarkable examples of the   
army practice with  the ,general's new  
rifle4 ,but ,i must refer the curious to
 his  instructive pamphlet4 ,the        

position ,i am about to take up is a    
serious  one2 and ,i prefer to fortify  
it by the help of evidence which1 though
  some of it may be anonymous1 cannot be
 sneered away4 ,and ,i shall #bfh  be   
believed1 when ,i say that nothing but a
 sense of the great social  danger of   
the spread of ,boothism could induce me 
to revive a scandal1  even though it is 
barely entitled to the benefit of the   
,statute of  ,limitations4    ,on the   
#gth of ,july1 #ahhc1 you1 ,sir1 did the
 public a great service by  writing a   
leading article on the notorious ,eagle 
case1 from which ,i  take the following 
extract3--    ,mr4 ,justice ,kay refused
 the application1 but he was induced to 
refuse  it by means which1 as ,mr4      
,justice ,stephen justly remarked1 were 
highly  discreditable to ,mr4 ,booth4   
,mr4 ,booth filed an affidavit which    
appears  totally to have misled ,mr4    
,justice ,kay1 as it would have misled  
any one  who regarded it as a frank and 
honest statement by a professed teacher 

of religion4    ,when ,i addressed my   
first letter to you ,i had never so much
 as heard of  the ,eagle scandal4 ,but  
,i am thankful that my perception of the
  inevitable tendency of all religious  
autocracies towards evil was  clear     
enough to bring about a provisional     
condemnation of ,mr4 ,booth's  schemes  
in my mind4  ,supposing that ,i had     
decided the other way1 with  what sort  
of feeling should ,i have faced my      
friend1 when ,i had to  confess that the
 money had passed into the absolute     
control of a  person about the character
 of whose administration this #bfi      
concurrence of damnatory evidence was   
already extant8    ,i have nothing to   
say about ,mr4 ,booth personally1 for ,i
 know nothing4  ,on that subject1 as on 
several others1 ,i profess myself an    
agnostic4  ,but1 if he is1 as he may be1
 a saint actuated by the purest of      
motives1 he is not the first saint who1 
as you have said1 has shown  himself in 
the ardour of prosecuting a well-meant  

object to be  capable of overlooking the
 plain maxims of every-day morality4 ,if
 ,i  were a ,salvationist soldier1 ,i   
should cry with ,othello1 ,cassio1 ,i   
love thee2 but never more be officer of 
mine4                   ,i am1 ,sir1    
your obedient servant1                  
,t4 ,h4 ,huxley4                        
,v    ,the ,times1 ,december #bdth1     
#ahij--    ,sir1--,if ,i have any strong
 points1 finance is certainly not one of
  them4 ,but the financial1 or rather   
fiscal1 operations of the ,general  of  
the ,salvation ,army1 as they are set   
forth and exemplified in ,the  ,new     
,papacy1 possess that grand simplicity  
which is the mark of  genius2 #bgj and  
even ,i can comprehend them--or1 to be  
more modest1 ,i  can portray them in    
such a manner that every lineament1     
however harsh1  and every shade1 however
 dark1 can be verified by published     
evidence4    ,suppose there is a        
thriving1 expanding colonial town1 and  
that1  scattered among its artisans and 

labourers1 there is a sprinkling of     
,methodists1 or other such              
ultra-evangelical good people1 doing    
their  best1 in a quiet way1 to save    
souls4 ,clearly1 this is an outpost     
which it is desirable to capture4 ,we1  
therefore1 take measures to  get up a   
,salvation boom of the ordinary pattern4
 ,enthusiasm is  roused4 ,a score or two
 of soldiers are enlisted into the ranks
 of the  ,salvation ,army4 ,we select   
the man who promises to serve our       
purposes  best1 make a captain of him1  
and put him in command of the corps4    
,he is very pleased and grateful2 and   
indeed he ought to be4 ,all he has  done
 is that he has given up his trade2 that
 he has promised to work  at least nine 
hours a day in our service 7none of your
 eight-hour  nonsense for us7 as        
collector1 bookseller1 general agent1   
and anything  else we may order him to  
be4 ,we1 on the other hand1 guarantee   
him  nothing whatever2 to do so might   
weaken his faith and substitute  worldly

 for spiritual ties between us4 ,knowing
 that1 if he exerts  himself in a right 
spirit1 his labours will surely be      
blessed1 we  content ourselves with     
telling him that if1 after all #bga     
expenses  are paid and our demands are  
satisfied each week1 #bes4 remains1 he  
may  take it4 ,and1 if nothing remains1 
he may take that1 and stay his  stomach 
with what the faithful may give him4    
,with a certain grim  playfulness1 we   
add that the value of these             
contributions will be  reckoned as so   
much salary4 ,so long as our captain is 
successful1  therefore1 a beneficent    
spring of cash trickles unseen into our 
treasury2 when it begins to dry up we   
say1 ,god bless you1 dear boy1  turn him
 adrift 7with or without #bs4 #d;d4 in  
his pocket71 and put some  other willing
 horse in the shafts4    ,the ,general1 
,i believe1 proposes1 among other       
things1 to do away  with sweating4 ,may 
he not as well set a good example by    
beginning at  home8 ,my little sketch1  

however1 looks so like a monstrous      
caricature  that1 after all1 ,i must    
produce the original from the pages of  
my  ,canadian authority4 ,he says that a
 captain has to pay #aj per cent4  of   
all collections and donations to the    
divisional fund for the  support of his 
divisional officer1 who has also the    
privilege of  arranging for such special
 meetings as he shall think fit1 the    
proceeds of which he takes away for the 
general needs of the division4          
,headquarters1 too1 has the right to    
hold such special meetings at the  corps
 and send around such special           
attractions as its wisdom sees fit1  and
 to take away the proceeds for the      
purposes it decides upon4    #bgb ,he   
has to pay the rent of his building1    
either to headquarters or  a private    
individual2 he has to send the whole    
collection of the  afternoon meeting of 
the first ,sunday in the month to the   
',extension  ,fund' at headquarters2 he 
has to pay for the heating1 lighting1   

and  cleaning of his hall1 together with
 such necessary repairs as may be       
needed2 he has to provide the food1     
lodging1 and clothing of his  cadet1 if 
he has one2 headquarters taxes him with 
so many copies of  the army papers each 
week1 for which he has to pay1 sold or  
unsold2  and when he has done this1 he  
may take #f 7or #e1 being a woman71 or  
such proportion of it as may be left1   
with which to clothe and feed  himself  
and to pay the rent and provide for the 
heating and lighting  of his quarters4  
,if he has a lieutenant he has to pay   
him #f per week1  or such proportion of 
it as he himself gets1 and share the    
house  expenses with him4 ,now1 it will 
be easily understood that at least #fj  
per cent4 of the stations in ,canada the
 officer gets no money at all1  and he  
has to beg specially amongst his people 
for his house-rent and  food4 ,there are
 few places in the ,dominion in which   
the soldiers do  not find their officers
 in all the food they need2 but it must 

be  remembered that the value of the    
food so received has to be accounted    
for at headquarters and entered upon the
 books of the corps as cash  received1  
the amount being deducted from any      
moneys that the officer  is able to take
 from the #bgc week's collections4 ,so  
that1 no matter  how much may be        
specially given1 the officer cannot     
receive more than  the value of #f per  
week4 ,the officer cannot collect any   
arrears of  salary1 as each week has to 
pay its own expenses2 and if there is   
any  surplus cash after all demands are 
met it must be sent to the 'war  chest' 
at headquarters4--,the ,new ,papacy 7pp4
 #ce1 #cf74    ,evidently1 ,sir1        
headquarters has taken to heart the     
injunction about  casting your bread    
upon the waters4 ,it casts the crumb of 
a day or  two's work of an emissary1 and
 gets back any quantity of loaves of    
cash1 so long as captains present       
themselves to be used up and  replaced  
by new victims4  ,what can be said of   

these devoted poor  fellows except1 ,o  
sancta simplicitas6    ,but it would be 
a great mistake to suppose that the     
money-gathering  efficacy of ,mr4       
,booth's fiscal agencies is exhausted by
 the foregoing  enumeration of their    
regular operations4 ,consider the       
following  edifying history of the      
,rescue ,home in ,toronto3--    ,it is a
 fine building in the heart of the city2
 the lot cost #g1jjj1  and a building   
was put up at a cost of #g1jjj more1 and
 there is a  mortgage on it amounting to
 half the cost of the whole4 ,the land  
to-day would probably fetch double its  
original price1 and every year  enhances
 its value4444,in the first five months 
of its #bgd existence  this institution 
received from the public an income of   
#a1hab #gj;c42  out of this #fjj was    
paid to headquarters for rent1 #eij     
#eb;c4 was  spent upon the building in  
various ways1 and the balance of #fbb   
#ah;c4  paid the salaries of the staff  
and supported the inmates 7pp4 #bd1     

#be74    ,said ,i not truly that ,mr4   
,booth's fisc bears the stamp of genius8
 ,who  else could have got the public to
 buy him a corner lot1 put a  building  
upon it1 pay all its working expenses3  
and then1 not content  with paying him a
 heavy rent for the use of the handsome 
present they  had made him1 they say not
 a word against his mortgaging it to    
half  its value8 ,and1 so far as any one
 knows1 there is nothing to stop        
headquarters from selling the whole     
estate tomorrow1 and using the  money as
 the ,general may direct4    ,once more 
listen to the author of ,the ,new       
,papacy1 who affirms that  out of the   
funds given by the ,dominion for the    
evangelization of the  people by means  
of the ,salvation ,army1 one sixth had  
been spent in the  extension of the     
,kingdom of ,god1 and the other five    
sixths had been  invested in valuable   
property1 all handed over to ,mr4 ,booth
 and his  heirs and assigns1 as we have 
already stated 7p4 #bf74    ,and this   

brings me to the last point upon which  
,i wish to touch4 ,the  answer to all   
inquiries as to what has become of the  
enormous #bge  personal and real estate 
which has been given over to ,mr4 ,booth
 is  that it is held in trust4 ,the     
supporters of ,mr4 ,booth may feel      
justified in taking that statement on   
trust4 ,i do not4 ,anyhow1 the  more    
completely satisfactory this trust is1  
the less can any man who  asks the      
public to put blind faith in his        
integrity and his wisdom  object to     
acquaint them exactly with its          
provisions4 ,is the trust  drawn up in  
favour of the ,salvation ,army8 ,but    
what is the legal status  of the        
,salvation ,army8 ,have the soldiers any
 claim8  ,certainly not4  ,have the     
officers any legal interest in the      
trust8 ,surely not4 ,the  ,general has  
taken good care to insist on their      
renouncing all claims  as a condition of
 their appointment4 ,thus1 to all       
appearance1 the  army1 as a legal       

person1 is identical with ,mr4 ,booth4  
,and1 in that  case1 any trust          
ostensibly for the benefit of the army  
is--what  shall we say that is at once  
accurate and polite8    ,i conclude with
 these plain questions--,will ,mr4      
,booth take counsel's  opinion as to    
whether there is anything in such legal 
arrangements as  he has at present made 
which prevents him from disposing of the
 wealth  he has accumulated at his own  
will and pleasure8 ,will anybody be in a
  position to set either the civil or   
the criminal law in motion against  him 
or his successors if he or they choose  
to spend every farthing in  ways very   
different from those contemplated by the
 donors8    #bgf ,i may add that a      
careful study of the terms of a         
,declaration of  ,trust by ,william     
,booth in favour of the ,christian      
,mission1 made in  #ahgh1 has not       
enabled persons of much greater         
competence than myself  to answer these 
questions satisfactorily499             

,i am1 ,sir1 your obedient servant1     
,t4 ,h4 ,huxley4        99 ,see ,preface
 to this volume1 pp4 ix-xiii4    ,on    
,december #bdth a letter appeared in the
 ,times signed ,j4 ,s4  ,trotter1 in    
which the following passages appear3--  
,it seems a pity to put a damper on the 
spirits of those who agree  with        
,professor ,huxley in his denunciation  
of ,general ,booth and all his  works4  
,may ,i give a few particulars as to the
 'book' which was  published in ,canada8
 ,i had the pleasure of an interview    
with the  author of a book written in   
,canada4 ,the book was printed at       
,toronto1  and two copies only struck   
off by the printers2 one of these copies
  was stolen from the printer1 and the  
quotation sent to you by  ,professor    
,huxley was inserted in the book1 and is
 consequently a  forgery4 ,the book was 
published without the consent and       
against the  will of the author4    #bgg
 ,so the quotation is not only 'a       
bitter1 overcharged anonymous  libel1'  

as ,professor ,huxley intimates1 but a  
forgery as well4 ,as to  ,mr4 ,hodges1  
it seems to me to be simply trifling    
with your readers to  bring him in as an
 authority4 ,he was turned out of the   
army1 out of  kindness taken on again1  
and again dismissed4 ,if this had       
happened to  one of your staff1 would   
his opinion of the ',times' as a        
newspaper be  taken for gospel8    ,but 
in the ,times of ,december #bith ,mr4   
,j4 ,s4 ,trotter writes3--    ,i find ,i
 was mistaken in saying1 in my letter of
 ,wednesday1 to the  ',times' that ,mr4 
,hodges was dismissed from the service  
of ,general  ,booth1 and regret any     
inconvenience the statement may have    
caused to  ,mr4 ,hodges4    ,and on     
,december #cjth the ,times published a  
letter from ,mr4 ,hodges in  which he   
says that ,mr4 ,trotter's statements as 
they regard himself  are the very       
reverse of truth4--,i was never turned  
out of the  ,salvation ,army4 ,nor1 so  
far as ,i was made acquainted with      

,general  ,booth's motives1 was ,i taken
 on again out of kindness4 ,in order to 
rejoin the ,salvation ,army1 ,i resigned
 the position of manager in a  mill     
where ,i was in #bgh receipt of a salary
 of ,pounds #bej per  annum1 with       
house-rent and one third of the profits4
 ,instead of this  ,mr4 ,booth allowed  
me ,pounds #b per week and house-rent4  
,,vi    ,the ,times1 ,december #bfth1   
#ahij    ,sir1--,i am much obliged to   
,mr4 ,j4 ,s4 ,trotter for the letter    
which you  published this morning4 ,it  
furnishes evidence1 which ,i much       
desired to  possess on the following    
points3--       #a4 ,the author of ,the 
,new ,papacy is a responsible1          
trustworthy  person2 otherwise ,mr4     
,trotter would not speak of having had  
the  pleasure of an interview with him4 
#b4 ,after this responsible person had  
taken the trouble to write a  pamphlet  
of sixty-four closely printed pages1    
some influence was  brought to bear upon
 him1 the effect of which was that he   

refused his  consent to its publication4
 ,mr4 ,trotter's excellent information  
will  surely enable him to tell us what 
influence that was4       #c4 ,how does 
,mr4 ,trotter know that any passage ,i  
have quoted is an  interpolation8 ,does 
he possess that other copy of the two   
which  alone1 as he affirms1 were       
printed8    #bgi #d4 ,if so1 he will be 
able to say which of the passages ,i    
have  cited is genuine and which is not2
 and whether the tenor of the whole     
uninterpolated copy differs in any      
important respect from that of the  copy
 ,i have quoted4    ,it will be         
interesting to hear what ,mr4 ,j4 ,s4   
,trotter has to say upon  these points4 
,but the really important thing which he
 has done is that  he has testified1 of 
his own knowledge1 that the anonymous   
author of  ,the ,new ,papacy is no mere 
irresponsible libeller1 but a person of 
whom even an ardent ,salvationist has to
 speak with respect4                ,i  
am1 ,sir1 your obedient servant1        

,t4 ,h4 ,huxley4    ,i may add that the 
unfortunate ,mr4 ,trotter did me the    
further service  of eliciting the letter
 from ,mr4 ,hodges referred to on p4    
#bgg--which  sufficiently establishes   
that gentleman's credit1 and leads me to
  attach full weight to his evidence    
about the third barrel4                 
,january1 #ahia4    #bhj                
,,vii    ,the ,times1 ,december #bgth1  
#ahij    ,,sir1--,in making use of the  
only evidence of the actual working of  
,mr4  ,booth's autocratic government    
accessible to me1 ,i was fully aware of 
the slippery nature of the ground upon  
which ,i was treading4 ,for1 as ,i      
pointed out in my first letter1 no      
personal habit more surely  degrades the
 conscience and the intellect than blind
 and unhesitating  obedience to         
unlimited authority4 ,now we have it1 on
 ,mr4 ,booth's own  showing that every  
officer of his has undertaken to obey   
without  questioning or gainsaying the  
orders from headquarters4 ,and the      

possible relations of such orders to    
honour and veracity are  demonstrated   
not only by the judicial deliverance on 
,mr4 ,booth's  affidavit in the ,eagle  
case1 which ,i have already cited2 not  
only by  ,mr4 ,bramwell ,booth's        
admission before ,mr4 ,justice ,lopes   
that he had  stated what was not quite  
correct because he had promised ,mr4    
,stead  not to divulge the facts of the 
case 7the ,times1 ,november #dth1       
#ahhe72 but by the following passage in 
,mr4 ,hodges's account of the  reasons  
of his withdrawal from the ,salvation   
,army3--    ,the general and ,chief did 
not and could #bha not deny doing these 
things2 the only question was this1 ,was
 it right to practise this  deception8  
,these points of difference were fully  
discussed between  myself and the ,chief
 of the ,staff on my withdrawal1        
especially the  ,leamington incident1   
which was the one that finally drove me 
to  decision4 ,i had come to the        
conclusion1 from the first1 that they   

had  acted as they supposed with a      
single eye to the good of ,god's cause1 
and had persuaded myself that the things
 were1 as against the devil1  right to  
be done1 that as in battle one party    
captured and turned the  enemy's own    
guns upon them1 so1 as they were        
fighting against the  devil1 it would be
 fair to use against him his weapons4   
,and ,i wrote to  this effect to the    
,general 7p4 #fc74    ,now1 ,i do not   
wish to say anything needlessly harsh1  
but ,i ask any  prudent man these       
questions4 ,could ,i1 under these       
circumstances1 trust  any uncorroborated
 statement emanating from headquarters1 
or made by  the ,general's order8 ,had  
,i any reason to doubt the truth of ,mr4
  ,hodges's naive confession of the     
corrupting influence of ,mr4 ,booth's   
system8 ,and did it not behove me to    
pick my way carefully through the  mass 
of statements before me1 many of them   
due to people whose moral  sense might1 
by possibility1 have been as much       

blunted by the army  discipline in the  
#bhb use of the weapons of the devil as 
,mr4 ,hodges  affirms that his was8     
,therefore1 in my third letter1 ,i      
commenced my illustrations of the       
practical working of ,boothism with the 
evidence of ,mr4 ,redstone1  fortified  
and supplemented by that of a           
non-,salvationist1 ,dr4  ,cunningham    
,geikie4 ,that testimony has not been   
challenged1 and1 until  it is1 ,i shall 
assume that it cannot be4 ,in my fourth 
letter1 ,i cited  a definite statement  
by ,mr4 ,hodges in evidence of the      
,jesuitical  principles of headquarters4
 ,what sort of answer is it to tell us  
that  ,mr4 ,hodges was dismissed the    
army8 ,a child might expect that some   
such  red herring would be drawn across 
the trail2 and1 in anticipation of  the 
stale trick1 ,i added the strong prima  
facie evidence of the  trustworthiness  
of my witness1 in this particular1 which
 is afforded  by the ,eagle case4 ,it   
was not until ,i wrote my fourth letter 

to you1  ,sir--until the exploitation of
 the captains and the ,jesuitry of      
headquarters could be proved up to the  
hilt--that ,i ventured to have  recourse
 to ,the ,new ,papacy4 ,so far as the   
pamphlet itself goes1 this  is an       
anonymous work2 and1 for sufficient     
reasons1 ,i did not choose to  go beyond
 what was to be found between its       
covers4 ,to any one  accustomed to deal 
with the facts of evolution1 the        
,boothism of ,the  ,new ,papacy was     
merely the natural and necessary        
development of the  ,boothism of ,mr4   
,redstone's case and of the #bhc ,eagle 
case4  ,therefore1 ,i felt fully        
justified in using it1 at the same time 
carefully warning my readers that it    
must be taken with due caution4    ,mr4 
,trotter's useful letter admits that    
such a book was written by a  person    
with whom he had the pleasure of an     
interview1 and that a  version of it    
7interpolated1 according to his         
assertion7 was published  against the   

will of the author4 ,hence ,i am        
justified in believing that  there is a 
foundation of truth in certain          
statements1 some of which  have long    
been in my possession1 but which for    
lack of ,mr4 ,trotter's  valuable       
corroboration ,i have refrained from    
using4 ,the time is come  when ,i can   
set forth some of the heads of this     
information1 with the  request that ,mr4
 ,trotter1 who knows all about the      
business1 will be so  good as to point  
out any error that there may be in them4
 ,i am bound  to suppose that his sole  
object1 like mine1 is the elucidation of
 the  truth1 and to assume his          
willingness to help me therein to the   
best of  his ability4       #a4 ,the    
author of ',the ,new ,papacy' is a ,mr4 
,sumner1 a person of  perfect           
respectability1 and greatly esteemed in 
,toronto1 who held a  high position in  
the ,army4 ,when he left1 a large public
 meeting1  presided over by a popular   
,methodist minister1 passed a vote of   

sympathy with him4    #bhd ,is this true
 or false8       #b4 ,on ,saturday last1
 about noon1 ,mr4 ,sumner1 the author of
 the  book1 and ,mr4 ,fred ,perry1 the  
,salvation ,army printer1 accompanied by
 a  lawyer1 went down to ,messrs4 ,imrie
 and ,graham's establishment1 and  asked
 for all the manuscript1 stereotype     
plates1 c41 of the book4 ,mr4  ,sumner  
explained that the book had been sold to
 the ,army1 and1 on a  cheque for the   
amount due being given1 the printing    
material was  delivered up4    ,did     
these paragraphs appear in the ,toronto 
,telegram of ,april #bdth1  #ahhi1 or   
did they not8 ,are the statements they  
contain true or false8    #c4 ,public   
interest in the fate or probable outcome
 of that mysterious  book called ',the  
,new ,papacy2 or1 ,behind the ,scenes in
 the ,salvation  ,army1' continues      
unabated1 though the line of proceedings
 by the  publisher and his solicitor1   
,mr4 ,smoke1 of ,watson1 ,thorne1       
,smoke1 and  ,masten1 has not been      

altered since yesterday4 ,the book1 no  
doubt1 will  be issued in some form4 ,so
 far as known1 only one complete copy   
remains1 and the whereabouts of this is 
a secret which will be  profoundly kept4
 ,it is safe to say that if the         
,commissioner kept on  guessing until   
the next anniversary1 he would not      
strike the secluded  #bhe location of   
the one volume among five thousand which
 escaped1  when he and his assistant1   
,mr4 ,fred ,perry1 believed they had    
cast  every vestige of the forbidden    
work into the fiery furnace4 ,on        
,tuesday  last1 when the discovery was  
made that a copy of ',the ,new ,papacy' 
was  in existence1 ,publisher ,britnell1
 of ,yonge ,street1 was at once the     
suspected holder1 and in a short time   
his book-store was the resort of  army  
agents sent to reconnoitre 7,toronto    
,news1 ,april #bhth1 #ahhi74    ,is this
 a forgery1 or is it not8 ,is it in     
substance true or false8    ,when ,mr4  
,trotter has answered these inquiries   

categorically1 we may  proceed to       
discuss the question of interpolations  
in ,mr4 ,sumner's  book4              ,i
 am1 ,sir1 your obedient servant1       
,t4 ,h4 ,huxley4    ,on the #bfth of    
,december a letter1 signed ,j4 ,t4      
,cunningham1 late ,fellow of            
,university ,college1 ,oxford1 called   
forth the following commentary4    #bhf 
,,viii    ,the ,times1 ,december #bith1 
#ahij--    ,sir1--,if ,mr4 ,cunningham  
doubts the efficacy of the struggle for 
existence1 as a factor in social        
conditions1 he should find fault with   
,mr4 ,booth and not with me4    ,i am   
labouring under no delusion as to the   
possibility of inaugurating  the        
millennium by my social specific4 ,in   
the struggle of life the  weakest will  
go to the wall1 and there are so many   
weak4 ,the fittest  in tooth and claw   
will survive4 ,all that we can do is to 
soften the  lot of the unfit1 and make  
their suffering less horrible than it is
 at  present 7,in ,darkest ,england1 p4 

#dd74    ,that is what ,mr4 ,cunningham 
would have found if he had read ,mr4    
,booth's  book with attention4 ,and1 if 
he will bestow equal pains on my second 
letter1 he will discover that he has    
interpolated the word wilfully  in his  
statement of my argument1 which runs    
thus3 ,shutting his eyes  to the        
necessary consequences of the struggle  
for life1 the existence  of which he    
admits as fully as any ,darwinian1 ,mr4 
,booth tells men  whose evil case is one
 of those consequences that envy is a   
corner-stone of our competitive system4 
,mr4  #bhg ,cunningham's  physiological 
studies will have informed him that the 
process of  shutting the eyes1 in the   
literal sense of the words1 is not      
always  wilful2 and ,i propose to       
illustrate1 by the crucial instance his 
own  letter furnishes1 that the shutting
 of the eyes of the mind to the  obvious
 consequences of accepted propositions  
may also be involuntary4  ,at least1 ,i 
hope so4       #a4 ,sooner or later1    

says ,mr4 ,cunningham1 the population   
problem  will block the way once more4  
,what does this mean1 except that       
multiplication1 excessive in relation to
 the contemporaneous means of  support1 
will create a severe competition for    
those means8 ,and this  seems to me to  
be a pretty accurate reflection of the  
conceptions of  ,malthus and the other  
poor benighted folks of a past          
generation at  whom ,mr4 ,cunningham    
sneers4       #b4 ,by way of leaving no 
doubt upon this subject1 ,mr4           
,cunningham  further tells us1 ,the     
struggle for existence is always going  
on1 of  course2 let us thank ,darwin for
 making us realize it4 ,it is pleasant  
to meet with a little gratitude to      
,darwin among the epigoni who are       
squabbling over the heritage he         
conquered for them1 but ,mr4            
,cunningham's personal expression of    
that feeling is hasty4 ,for it is       
obvious that he has not realized the    
significance of ,darwin's               

teaching--indeed1 ,i fail to discover in
 ,mr4  ,cunningham's letter any  sign   
that he has even realized what #bhh he  
would be at4 ,if the  struggle for      
existence is always going on2 and if1 as
 ,i suppose will  be granted1 industrial
 competition is one phase of that       
struggle1 ,i  fail to see how my        
conclusion that it is sheer wickedness  
to tell  ignorant men that envy is a    
corner-stone of competition can be      
disputed4    ,mr4 ,cunningham has       
followed the lead of that polished and  
instructed  person1 ,mr4 ,ben ,tillett1 
in rebuking me for 7as the associates   
say7  attacking ,mr4  ,booth's personal 
character4 ,of course1 when ,i was      
writing1 ,i did not doubt that this very
 handy1 though not too clean1  weapon   
would be used by one or other of ,mr4   
,booth's supporters4 ,and my  action was
 finally decided by the following       
considerations3 ,i happen  to be a      
member of one of the largest life       
insurance societies4 ,there  is a       

vacancy in the directory at present1 for
 which half a dozen  gentlemen are      
candidates4 ,now1 ,i said to myself1    
supposing that one of  these gentlemen  
7whose pardon ,i humbly beg for starting
 the  hypothesis71 say ,mr4 ,a41 in his 
administrative capacity and as a man  of
 business1 has been the subject of such 
observations as a ,judge on  the ,bench 
bestowed upon ,mr4 ,booth1 is he a      
person for whom ,i can  properly vote8  
,and1 if ,i find1 when ,i go to the     
meeting of the  policy-holders1 that    
most of them know nothing of this and   
other  evidences of what1 by the mildest
 judgment1 must be termed ,mr4 ,a4's    
unfitness for administrative #bhi       
responsibilities1 am ,i to let them     
remain in their ignorance8 ,i leave the 
answer and its application to  men of   
sense and integrity4    ,the mention of 
,mr4 ,cunningham's ally reminds me that 
,i have omitted to  thank ,mr4 ,tillett 
for his very useful and instructive     
letter2 and ,i  hasten to repair a      

neglect which ,i assure ,mr4 ,tillett   
was more  apparent than real4 ,mr4      
,tillett's letter is dated ,december    
#bjth4 ,on  the #bast the following     
pregnant 7however unconscious7          
commentary upon  it appeared in         
,reynolds's ,newspaper3-    ,i have     
always maintained that the ,salvation   
,army is one of the  mightiest          
,socialistic agencies in the country2   
and now ,professor  ,huxley comes in to 
confirm that view4 ,how could it be     
otherwise8 ,the  fantastic religious    
side of ,salvationism will disappear in 
the course  of time1 and what will be   
left8  ,a large number of men and women 
who  have been organized1 disciplined1  
and taught to look for something  better
 than their present condition1 and who  
have become public  speakers and not    
afraid of ridicule4 ,there you have the 
raw materials  for a ,socialist army4   
,mr4 ,ben ,tillett evidently knows      
,latin enough to construe proximus      
ardet4    ,i trust that the public will 

not allow themselves to be led away by  
the false issues which are #bij dangled 
before them4 ,a man really may  love his
 fellow-men2 cherish any form of        
,christianity he pleases2 and  hold not 
only that ,darwinism is tottering to its
 fall1 but1 if he  pleases1 the equally 
sane belief that it never existed2 and  
yet may  feel it his duty to oppose1 to 
the best of his capacity1 despotic      
,socialism in all its forms1 and1 more  
particularly1 in its ,boothian          
disguise4                 ,i am1 ,sir1  
your obedient servant1                  
,t4,h4 ,huxley4    ,persons who have not
 had the advantage of a classical       
education might  fairly complain of my  
use of the word epigoni4 ,to say truth1 
,i had  been reading ,droysen's         
,geschichte des ,hellenismus1 and the   
familiar  historical title slipped out  
unawares4 ,in replying to me1 however1  
the  late ,fellow of ,university        
,college1 ,oxford1 declares he had to   
look  the word out in a ,lexicon4 ,i    

commend the fact to the notice of the   
combatants over the desirability of     
retaining the present compulsory        
modicum of ,greek in our ,universities4 
#bia                        ,,ix4       
,the ,times1 ,december #cjth1 #ahij     
,sir1--,i am much obliged to ,messrs4   
,ranger1 ,burton1 and ,matthews for     
their prompt answer to my questions4 ,i 
presume it applies to all money         
collected by the agency of the          
,salvation ,army1 though not            
specifically  given for the purposes of 
the ,christian ,mission named in the    
deed of  #ahgh2 to all sums raised by   
mortgage upon houses and land so given2 
and1 further1 to funds subscribed for   
,mr4 ,booth's various projects1  which  
have no apparent reference to the       
objects of the ,christian  ,mission as  
defined in the deed4  ,otherwise1 to use
 a phrase which has  become classical1  
it does not assist us much4 ,but ,i must
 leave these  points to persons learned 
in the law4    ,and1 indeed1 with many  

thanks to you1 ,sir1 for the amount of  
valuable  space which you have allowed  
me to occupy1 ,i now propose to leave   
the  whole subject4 ,my sole purpose in 
embarking upon an enterprise which  was 
extremely distasteful to me was to      
prevent the skilful ,general1  or rather
 ,generals1 who devised the plan of     
campaign from sweeping  all before them 
with a rush4 ,i found the pass already  
held by such  stout defenders as ,mr4   
,loch and the ,dean #bib of ,wells1 and1
 with  your powerful help1 we have given
 time for the reinforcements1 sure to   
be sent by the abundant1 though somewhat
 slowly acting1 common sense  of our    
countrymen1 to come up4    ,i can no    
longer be useful1 and ,i return to more 
congenial occupations4            ,i am1
 ,sir1 your obedient servant1           
,t4 ,h4 ,huxley4    ,the following      
letter appeared in the ,times of        
,january #bnd1 #ahia3--    ,dear ,mr4   
,tillett1--,i have not had patience to  
read ,professor ,huxley's  letters4 ,the

 existence of hunger1 nakedness1 misery1
 'death from  insufficient food1' even  
of starvation1 is certain1 and no agency
 as  yet reaches it4 ,how can any man   
hinder or discourage the giving of  food
 or help8  ,why is the house called a   
workhouse8 ,because it is for  those who
 cannot work8 ,no1 because it was the   
house to give work or  bread4 ,the very 
name is an argument4 ,i am very sure    
what ,our ,lord and  ,his ,apostles     
would do if they were in ,london4 ,let  
us be thankful even  to have a will to  
do the same4    ,yours faithfully1      
,henry ,e4 ,card4 ,manning4    #bic     
,x4    ,the ,times1 ,january #crd1 #ahia
    ,,sir1--,in my old favourite1 ,the  
,arabian ,nights1 the motive of the     
whole series of delightful narratives is
 that the sultan1 who refuses  to attend
 to reason1 can be got to listen to a   
story4 ,may ,i try  whether ,cardinal   
,manning is to be reached in the same   
way8 ,when ,i was  attending the meeting
 of the ,british ,association in        

,belfast nearly  forty years ago1 ,i had
 promised to breakfast with the eminent 
scholar  ,dr4 ,hincks4 ,having been up  
very late the previous night1 ,i was    
behind  time2 so1 hailing an outside    
car1 ,i said to the driver as ,i jumped 
on1  ,now drive fast1 ,i am in a hurry4 
,whereupon he whipped up his horse  and 
set off at a hand-gallop4 ,nearly jerked
 off my seat1 ,i shouted1  ,my good     
friend1 do you know where ,i want to go8
 ,no1 yer honner1  said the driver1 but1
 any way1 ,i am driving fast4 ,i have   
never  forgotten this object-lesson in  
the dangers of ill-regulated            
enthusiasm4 ,we are all invited to jump 
on to the ,salvation ,army car1  which  
,mr4 ,booth is undoubtedly driving very 
fast4 ,some of us have a  firm          
conviction1 not only that he is taking a
 very different direction  from that in 
which we wish to go1 but that1 before   
long1 car and  driver will come to      
grief4 ,are we to accept #bid the       
invitation1 even  at the bidding of the 

eminent person who appears to think     
himself  entitled to pledge the credit  
of ,our ,lord and ,his ,apostles in     
favour  of ,boothism8       ,i am1 ,sir1
 your obedient servant1                 
,t4 ,h4 ,huxley4                        
,,xi4    ,the ,times1 ,january #acth1   
#ahia    ,,sir1--,a letter from ,mr4    
,booth-,clibborn1 dated ,january #crd1  
appeared in  the ,times of yesterday4   
,this elaborate document occupies three 
columns of small print--space enough1   
assuredly1 for an effectual  reply to   
the seven letters of mine to which the  
writer refers1 if any  such were        
forthcoming4  ,mr4 ,booth-,clibborn     
signs himself ,commissioner  of the     
,salvation ,army for ,france and        
,switzerland1 but he says that he       
accepts my challenge without the        
knowledge of his chiefs4  ,considering  
the self-damaging character of his      
letter1 it was1  perhaps1 hardly        
necessary to make that statement4       
,mr4 ,commissioner ,booth-,clibborn     

speaks of my challenge4 ,i presume  that
 he refers to my request for information
 about the authorship and  fate of ,the 
,new ,papacy1 in the letter #bie        
published in the ,times  on ,december   
#bgth1 #ahij4 ,the ,commissioner deals  
with this matter in  paragraph ,no4 #d  
of his letter2 and ,i observe1 with no  
little  satisfaction1 that he does not  
venture to controvert any one of the    
statements of my witnesses4 ,he tacitly 
admits that the author of ,the  ,new    
,papacy was a person greatly esteemed in
 ,toronto1 and that he  held a high     
position in the army2 further1 that the 
,canadian  ,commissioner thought it     
worth while to pay the printer's bill1  
in  order that the copies already       
printed off might be destroyed and the  
pamphlet effectually suppressed4 ,thus  
the essential facts of the case  are    
admitted and established beyond         
question4    ,how does ,mr4             
,booth-,clibborn try to explain them    
away8    ,mr4 ,sumner1 who wrote the    

little book in a hot fit1 soon regretted
 it  7as any man would do whose         
conscience showed him in a calmer moment
  when his 'respectability' returned    
with his repentance1 that he had        
grossly misrepresented71 and just before
 it appeared offered to order  its      
suppression if the army would pay the   
costs already incurred1 and  which he   
was unable to bear4    ,the ,new ,papacy
 fills sixty closely printed duodecimo  
pages4 ,it is  carefully written1 and   
for the most part in studiously moderate
  language2 moreover1 it contains many  
precise details and #bif  figures1 the  
ascertainment of which must have taken  
much time and  trouble4 ,yet1 forsooth1 
it was written in a hot fit4    ,i      
sincerely hope1 for the sake of his own 
credit1 that ,mr4  ,commissioner        
,booth-,clibborn does not know as much  
about this  melancholy business as ,i   
do4  ,my hands are unfortunately tied1  
and ,i  am not at liberty to use all the
 information in my possession4 ,i must  

content myself with quoting the         
following passage from the preface to   
,the ,new ,papacy3--    ,it has not been
 without considerable thought and a good
 deal of urging  that the following     
pages have been given to the public4    
,but though we  would have shrunk from a
 labour so distasteful1 and have gladly 
avoided a notoriety anything but        
pleasant to the feelings1 or  conducive 
to our material welfare1 we have felt   
that in the interests  of the benevolent
 public1 in the interests of religion1  
in the  interests of a band of devoted  
men and women whose personal ends are   
being defeated1 and the fruit of whose  
labour is being destroyed1 and1  above  
all1 in the interests of that future    
which lies before the  ,salvation ,army 
itself1 if purged and purified in its   
executive and  returned to its original 
position in the ranks of ,canadian      
,christian  effort1 it is no more than  
our duty to throw such light as we are  
able  upon its true inwardness1 and with

 that object and for the #big           
furtherance of those ends we offer our  
pages to the public view4    ,the       
preface is dated ,april #ahhi4          
,according to the statement in the      
,toronto ,telegram which ,mr4           
,commissioner ,booth-,clibborn does not 
dare to dispute1 his ,canadian          
fellow-,commissioner bought and         
destroyed the whole edition of ,the ,new
 ,papacy about the end of the  third    
week in ,april4 ,it is clear that the   
writer of the paragraph  quoted from the
 preface was well out of a hot fit1 if  
he had ever  been in one1 while he had  
not entered on the stage of repentance  
within three weeks of that time4 ,mr4   
,commissioner ,booth-,clibborn's        
scandalous insinuations that ,mr4       
,sumner was bribed by a few  sovereigns1
 and that he was bought off1 in the face
 of his own  admission that ,mr4 ,sumner
 offered to order its suppression if the
  army would pay the costs already      
incurred1 and which he was unable to    

bear is a crucial example of that       
,jesuitry with which the officials  of  
the army have been so frequently        
charged4    ,mr4 ,commissioner          
,booth-,clibborn says that when ,london 
headquarters  heard of the affair1 it   
disapproved of the action of the        
,commissioner4 ,that circumstance       
indicates that headquarters is not      
wholly devoid of intelligence2 but it   
has nothing to do with the value  of    
,mr4 ,sumner's evidence1 which is all ,i
 am concerned about4 ,very  likely      
,london headquarters will disapprove of 
its ,french #bih  ,commissioner's       
present action4 ,but what then8 ,the    
upshot of all this  is that ,mr4        
,booth-,clibborn has made as great a    
blunder as simple ,mr4  ,trotter did4   
,the pair of ,balaams greatly desired to
 curse1 but have  been compelled to     
bless4 ,they have1 between them1        
completely justified  my reliance on    
,mr4 ,sumner as a perfectly trustworthy 
witness2 and  neither of them has dared 

to challenge the accuracy of one        
solitary  statement made by that worthy 
gentleman1 whose full story ,i hope some
  day or other to see set before the    
public4 ,then the true causes of his    
action will be made known4    ,paragraph
 #b of the ,commissioner's letter says  
many things1 but not  much about ,mr4   
,hodges4 ,the columns of the ,times     
recently showed that  ,mr4 ,hodges was  
able to compel an apology from ,mr4     
,trotter4 ,i leave it  to him to deal   
with the ,commissioner4    ,as to the   
,eagle case1 treated of in paragraph    
,no4 #c1 a gentleman  well versed in the
 law1 who was in court during the       
hearing of the  appeal1 has assured me  
that the argument was purely technical2 
that  the facts were very slightly gone 
into2 and that1 so far as he knows1  no 
dissenting comment was made on the      
strictures of the ,judge before  whom   
the case first came4  ,moreover1 in the 
judgment of the ,master of  the ,rolls1 
fully recorded in the ,times of         

,february #adth1 #ahhd1 the  following  
passages occur3--    #bii ,the case had 
been heard by a learned ,judge1 who had 
exercised  his discretion upon it1 and  
the ,court would not interfere with his 
discretion unless they could see that he
 was wrong4 ,the learned ,judge  had    
taken a strong view of the conduct of   
the defendant1 but  nevertheless had    
said that he would have given relief if 
he could have  seen how far protection  
and compensation could be given4 ,and if
 this  ,court differed from him in that 
view1 and could give relief without     
forfeiture1 they would be acting on his 
own principle in doing so4  ,certain    
suggestions had been made with that     
view1 and the ,court had to  consider   
the case under all the circumstances4444
 ,he himself 7the  ,master of the       
,rolls7 considered that it was probable 
the defendant1  with his principles1 had
 intended to destroy the property as a  
public-house1 and that it was not right 
thus to take property under a  covenant 

to keep it up as a public-house1        
intending to destroy it as  such4  ,he  
did not1 however1 think this was enough 
to deprive him of  all relief4 ,the     
defendant could only expect severe      
terms4    ,yet1 ,sir1 ,mr4 ,commissioner
 ,booth-,clibborn1 this high official of
 the  ,salvation ,army1 has the audacity
 to tell the public that if ,i had made 
inquiries ,i should have found that in  
the ,court of ,appeal the ,judge        
reversed the decision of his predecessor
 as regards seven eighths of  the       
property1 and the ,general was declared 
to have acted #cjj all  along with      
straight forwardness and good faith4    
,but the nature of ,mr4 ,commissioner   
,booth-,clibborn's conceptions of       
straightforwardness and good faith is so
 marvellously illustrated by  the       
portions of his letter with which ,i    
have dealt that ,i doubt not  his       
statements are quite up to the level of 
the ,army ,regulations and              
,instructions in regard to those        

cardinal virtues4 ,as ,i pointed out    
must  be the case1 the slave is subdued 
to that he works in4    ,for myself1 ,i 
must confess that the process of wading 
through ,mr4  ,commissioner's verbose   
and clumsy pleadings has given me a hot 
fit1 which1 ,i undertake to say1 will be
 followed by not so much as a  passing  
shiver of repentance4 ,and it is under  
the influence of the  genial warmth     
diffused through the frame1 on one of   
those rare  occasions when one may be   
angry and sin not1 that ,i infringe my  
resolution to trouble you with no more  
letters4 ,on reflection1 ,i am          
convinced that it is undesirable that   
the public should be misled1 for  even a
 few days1 by misrepresentations so     
serious4    ,i am copiously abused for  
speaking of the ,jesuitical methods of  
the  superior officials of the          
,salvation ,army4 ,but the following    
facts have  not been1 and1 ,i believe1  
cannot be1 denied3--       #a4 ,mr4     
,booth's conduct in the ,eagle case has 

been censured by two  of the ,judges4   
#cja #b4 ,mr4 ,bramwell ,booth admitted 
before ,mr4 ,justice ,lopes that he  had
 made an untrue statement because of a  
promise he had made to ,mr4  ,stead499  
99 ,this statement has been disputed1   
but not yet publicly4 7,see p4 #cje47   
,and ,i have just proved that ,mr4      
,commissioner ,booth-,clibborn asserts  
the exact contrary of that which your   
report of the judgment of the  ,master  
of the ,rolls tells us that             
distinguished judge said4    ,under     
these circumstances1 ,i think that my   
politeness in applying no  harder       
adjective than ,jesuitical to these     
proceedings is not  properly            
appreciated4          ,i am1 ,sir1 your 
obedient servant1                       
,t4 ,h4 ,huxley4                        
,,xii4    ,the ,times1 ,january #bbnd1  
#ahia    ,,sir1--,i think that your     
readers will be interested in the       
accompanying  opinion1 written in       
consultation with an eminent ,chancery  

,queen's  ,counsel1 with which ,i have  
been favoured4 ,it will be observed that
  this important legal deliverance #cjb 
justifies much stronger  language than  
any which ,i have applied to the only   
security 787 for  the proper            
administration of the funds in ,mr4     
,booth's hands which  appears to be in  
existence4    ,i am1 ,sir1 your obedient
 servant1                               
,t4 ,h4 ,huxley4           #a1 ,dr4     
,johnson's ,buildings1 ,temple1 ,e4,c41 
,january #ad1 #ahia4    ,,mr4 ,,booth',s
 ,,declaration ,,of ,,trust ,,deed1     
#ahgh4    ,i am of opinion1 subject to  
the question whether there may be any   
provision in the ,charitable ,trusts    
,acts which can be made available  for  
enforcing some scheme for the           
appropriation of the property1 and  with
 regard to the real and leasehold       
properties whether the  conveyances and 
leases are not altogether void1 as      
frauds on the  ,mortmain ,acts1 that    
nothing can be done to control or to    

interfere  with ,booth in the           
disposition or application of the       
properties or  moneys purported to be   
affected by the deed4    ,as to the     
properties vested in ,booth himself1 it 
appears to me that  such are placed     
absolutely under his power and control  
both as to the  disposal and application
 thereof1 and that there are no trusts  
for any  specific purposes declared     
which #cjc could be enforced1 and that  
there are no defined persons nor classes
 of persons who can claim to  be        
entitled to the benefits of them1 or at 
whose instance they could  be enforced  
by any legal process4    ,as to the     
properties 7if any7 vested in trustees  
appointed by ,booth1  it appears to me  
that the only person who has a locus    
standi to  enforce these trusts is      
,booth himself1 and that he would have  
absolute  power over the trusts and the 
property1 and might deal with the       
property as he pleased1 and that1 as in 
the former case1 nothing could  be done 

in the way of enforcing any trusts      
against him4    ,as to the moneys       
contributed or raised by mortgage for   
the general  purposes of the mission1 it
 appears to me that ,booth may expend   
them  as he pleases1 without being      
subject to any legal control1 and that  
he  cannot even be compelled to publish 
any balance-sheets4    ,whether there   
are any provisions in the ,charitable   
,trusts ,acts which  could be made      
available for enforcing some scheme for 
the application  of the property or     
funds is a question to which ,i should  
require to  give a closer consideration 
should it become necessary to go into   
it2  but at present1 after perusing     
these ,acts1 and especially #af and #ag 
,vict4 c4 #acg and #ah and #ai ,vict4 c4
 #abd1 ,i cannot see how they could  be 
made applicable to the trusts as        
declared in this deed4    #cjd ,as to   
the ,mortmain ,acts1 the matter is      
clearly charitable1 and  unless in the  
conveyances and leases to ,booth1 or to 

the trustees 7if  any7 named by him1 all
 the provisions of the ,acts have been  
complied  with1 and the deeds have been 
enrolled under the ,acts1 they would be 
void4 ,it is probable1 however1 that    
every conveyance and lease has  been    
taken without disclosing any charitable 
trust1 for the purpose of  preventing it
 from being void on the face of it4 ,it 
is to be noted  that the deed is a mere 
deed poll by ,booth himself1 without any
 other  party to it1 who1 as a          
contracting party1 would have a right to
  enforce it4    ,whether there are any 
objects of the trust ,i cannot say4 ,if 
there is1  as the recital indicates1 a  
society of enrolled members called ',the
  ,christian ,mission1' those members   
would be objects of the trust1 but      
then1 it appears to me1 ,booth has      
entire control and determination of  the
 application4 ,and1 as to the trusts    
enuring for the benefit of the          
',salvation ,army1' ,i am not aware what
 is the constitution of the  ',salvation

 ,army1' but there is no reference      
whatever to any such body  in the deed4 
,i have understood the army as being    
merely the  missionaries1 and not the   
society of worshippers4    ,if there is 
no ,christian ,mission ,society of      
enrolled members1 then  there are no    
objects of the trust4 ,the trusts are   
purely religious1  and trading is       
entirely beyond its purposes4 ,booth can
 #cje 'give  away' the property1 simply 
because there is no one who has any     
right  to prevent his doing so4         
,ernest ,hatton4    ,it is probably my  
want of legal knowledge which prevents  
me from  appreciating the value of the  
professed corrections of ,mr4 ,hatton's 
opinion contained in the letters of     
,messrs4 ,ranger1 ,burton1 and          
,matthews1 ,times1 ,january #bhth and   
#bith1 #ahia4    ,the note on page #cja 
refers to a correspondence1 incomplete  
at the  time fixed for the publication  
of my pamphlet1 the nature of which is  
sufficiently indicated by the subjoined 

extracts from ,mr4 ,stead's  letter in  
the ,times of ,january #bjth1 and from  
my reply in the  ,times of ,january     
#bdth4 ,referring to the paragraphs     
numbered #a1 #b1 at  the end of my      
letter ,,xi41 ,mr4 ,stead says3--    ,on
 reading this1 ,i at once wrote to      
,professor ,huxley1 stating that1 as  he
 had mentioned my name1 ,i was justified
 in intervening to explain  that1 so far
 as the second count in his indictment  
went--for the ,eagle  dispute is no     
concern of mine--he had been misled by  
an error in the  reports of the case    
which appeared in the daily papers #cjf 
of  ,november #d1 #ahhe4 ,i have his    
reply to-day1 saying that ,i had better 
write to you direct4 ,may ,i ask you1   
then1 seeing that my name has been      
brought into the affair1 to state that1 
as ,i was in the dock when ,mr4         
,bramwell ,booth was in the witness-box1
 ,i am in a position to give the  most  
unqualified denial to the statement as  
to the alleged admission  on his part of

 falsehood8 ,nothing was heard in ,court
 of any such  admission4 ,neither the   
prosecuting counsel nor the ,judge who  
tried the  case ever referred to it1    
although it would obviously have had a  
direct bearing on the credit of the     
witness2 and the jury1 by  acquitting   
,mr4  ,bramwell ,booth1 showed that they
 believed him to be a  witness of truth4
 ,but fortunately the facts can be      
verified beyond all  gainsaying by a    
reference to the official               
shorthand-writer's report of  the       
evidence4 ,during the hearing of the    
case for the prosecution1  ,inspector   
,borner was interrupted by the ,judge1  
who said3--    ',i want to ask you a    
question4 ,during the whole of that     
conversation1  did ,booth in any way    
suggest that that child had been sold8' 
,borner  replied3--    ',not at that    
interview1 my ,lord4'    ,it was to this
 that ,mr4 ,bramwell ,booth referred    
when1 after  examination1               
cross-examination1 #cjg and             

re-examination1 during which  no        
suggestion had been made that he had    
ever made the untrue statement  now     
alleged against him1 he asked and       
received leave from the ,judge to  make 
the following explanation1 which ,i     
quote from the official  report3--      
',will you allow me to explain a matter 
mentioned yesterday in  reference to a  
question asked by your ,lordship some   
days ago with  respect to one matter    
connected with my conduct8 ,your        
,lordship asked1  ,i think it was       
,inspector ,borner1 whether ,i had said 
to him at either  of our interviews that
 the child was sold by her parents1 and 
he  replied ,no4 ,that is quite correct2
 ,i did not say so to him1 and what  ,i 
wish to say now is that ,i had been     
specially requested by ,mr4 ,stead1  and
 had given him a promise1 that ,i would 
not under any circumstances  divulge the
 fact of that sale to any person which  
would ma ke it at  all probable that any
 trouble would be brought upon the      

persons who  had taken part in this     
investigation4' 7,central ,criminal     
,court ,reports1  ,vol4  ,,cii41 part   
#fab1 pp4 #a1jce-f47    ,in the daily   
papers of the following day this        
statement was  misreported as follows3--
    ',i wish to explain1 in regard to   
your ,lordship's condemnation of my     
having said ,no to #cjh ,inspector      
,borner when he asked me whether  the   
child had been sold by her parents--the 
reason why ,i stated what  was not      
correct was that ,i had promised ,mr4   
,stead not to divulge the  fact of the  
sale to any person which would make it  
probable that any  trouble should be    
brought on persons taking part in this  
proceeding4'    ,hence the mistake into 
which ,professor ,huxley has unwittingly
 fallen4    ,i may add that1 so far from
 the statement never having been        
challenged  for five years1 it was      
denounced as 'a remarkably striking lie'
 in the  ',war ,cry' of ,november #adth1
 and again the same official organ of   

the  ,salvation ,army of ,november #ahth
 specifically adduced this misreport as 
an instance of 'the most disgraceful    
way' in which the reports of the  trial 
were garbled by some of the papers4     
,what1 then1 becomes of one  of the two 
main pillars of ,professor ,huxley's    
argument8    ,in my reply1 ,i point out 
that1 on the #ajth of ,january1 ,mr4    
,stead  addressed to me a letter1 which 
commences thus3 ,i see in the ',times'  
of this morning that you are about to   
republish your letters on  ,booth's     
book4    ,i replied to this letter on   
the #abth of ,january3--    #cji ,dear  
,mr4 ,stead1--,i charge ,mr4 ,bramwell  
,booth with nothing4 ,i  simply quote   
the ',times' report1 the accuracy of    
which1 so far as ,i  know1 has never    
been challenged by ,mr4 ,booth4 ,i say  
,i quote the  ',times' and not ,mr4     
,hodges199 because ,i took some pains   
about the  verification of ,mr4         
,hodges's citation4        99 ,this is a
 slip of the pen4 ,mr4 ,hodges had      

nothing to do      with the citation of 
which ,i made use4    ,i should have    
thought it rather appertained to ,mr4   
,bramwell ,booth to  contradict a       
statement which refers1 not to what you 
heard1 but to what  he said4 ,however1  
,i am the last person to wish to give   
circulation to  a story which may not be
 quite correct2 and ,i will take care1  
if you  have no objection 7your letter  
is marked 'private'71 to make public as 
much of your letter as relates to the   
point to which you have called  my      
attention4               ,i am1 yours   
very faithfully1                        
,t4 ,h4 ,huxley4    ,to this ,mr4 ,stead
 answered1 under date of ,january #acth1
 #ahia3--    ,dear ,professor           
,huxley1--,i thank you for your letter  
of the #abth inst4  ,i am quite sure you
 would not wish to do any injustice in  
this matter4  ,but1 instead of          
publishing any extract from my letter1  
might ,i ask you  to read the passage as
 it #caj appears in the verbatim report 

of the  trial which was printed day by  
day1 and used by counsel on both sides1 
and by the ,judge during the case8 ,i   
had hoped to have got you a copy        
to-day1 but find that ,i was too late4  
,i shall have it first thing  to-morrow 
morning4 ,you will find that it is quite
 clear1 and  conclusively disposes of   
the alleged admission of untruthfulness4
  ,again thanking you for your courtesy1
               ,i am1 yours faithfully1 
,w4 ,t4 ,stead4    ,thus it appears that
 the letter which ,mr4 ,stead wrote to  
me on the #acth  of ,january does not   
contain one word of that which he ways  
it  contains1 in the statement which    
appears in the ,times to-day4           
,moreover1 the letter of mine to which  
,mr4 ,stead refers in his first         
communication to me is not the letter   
which appeared on the #acth1 as  he     
states1 but that which you published on 
,december #bgth1 #ahij4  ,therefore1 it 
is not true that ,mr4 ,stead wrote at   
once4 ,on the  contrary1 he allowed     

nearly a fortnight to elapse before he  
addressed  me on the #ajth of ,january  
#ahia4 ,furthermore1 ,mr4 ,stead        
suppresses the  fact that1 since the    
#acth of ,january1 he has had in his    
possession my  offer to publish his     
version of the story2 and he leads the  
reader to  suppose that my only answer  
was that he had better write to #caa you
  direct4 ,all the while1 ,mr4 ,stead   
knows perfectly well that ,i was        
withheld from making public use of his  
letter of the #ajth by nothing  but my  
scruples about using a document which   
was marked private2 and  that he did not
 give me leave to quote his letter of   
the #ajth of  ,january until after he   
had written that which appeared         
yesterday4    ,and ,i add3--    ,as to  
the subject-matter of ,mr4 ,stead's     
letter1 the point which he  wishes to   
prove appears to be this--that ,mr4     
,bramwell ,booth did not  make a false  
statement1 but that he withheld from the
 officers of  justice1 pursuing a most  

serious criminal inquiry1 a fact of     
grave  importance1 which lay within his 
own knowledge4 ,and this because he  had
 promised ,mr4 ,stead to keep the fact  
secret4 ,in short1 ,mr4 ,bramwell       
,booth did not say what was wrong2 but  
he did what was wrong4    ,i will take  
care to give every weight to the        
correction4 ,most people1  ,i think1    
will consider that one of the main      
pillars of my argument1  as ,mr4  ,stead
 is pleased to call them1 has become    
very much  strengthened4    #cab        
,,legal ,,opinions ,,respecting         
,,general ,,booth',s ,,acts4    ,in     
referring to the course of action       
adopted by ,general ,booth and  ,mr4    
,bramwell ,booth in respect of their    
legal obligations to other  persons1 or 
to the criminal and civil law1 ,i have  
been as careful as ,i  was bound to be1 
to put any difficulties suggested by    
mere lay  commonsense in an             
interrogative or merely doubtful form2  
and to  confine myself1 for any positive

 expressions1 to citations from         
published declarations of the judges    
before whom the acts of ,general  ,booth
 came2 from reports of the ,law ,courts2
 and from the deliberate  opinions of   
legal experts4 ,i have now some further 
remarks to make on  these topics4       
,i4 ,the observations at p4 #cje        
express1 with due reserve1 the          
impression which the counsel's opinions1
 quoted by ,general ,booth's            
solicitors1 made on my mind4 ,they were 
written and sent to the printer  before 
,i saw the letter from a ,barrister     
,,not ,practising on the ,common  ,law  
,side1 and those from ,messrs4 ,clarke  
and ,calkin and ,mr4 ,george  ,kebbell1 
which appeared in the ,times of         
,february #crd and #dth4    ,these      
letters fully bear out the conclusion   
which ,i had formed1 but  which it would
 have #cac been presumptuous on my part 
to express1  that the opinions cited by 
,general ,booth's solicitors were like  
the  famous broken tea-cups wisely      

ranged for show2 and that1 as ,messrs4  
,clarke and ,calkin say1 they do not at 
all meet the main points on  which ,mr4 
,hatton advised4 ,i do not think that   
any one who reads  attentively the able 
letter of ,a ,barrister ,,not           
,practicing on the  ,common ,law ,side  
will arrive at any other conclusion2 or 
who will not  share the very natural    
desire of ,mr4 ,kebbell to be provided  
with clear  and intelligible answers to 
the following inquiries3--       7#a7   
,does the trust deed by its operation   
empower any one legally to  call upon   
,mr4 ,booth to account for the          
application of the funds8       7#b7 ,in
 the event of the funds not being       
properly accounted for1 is  any one1    
and1 if so1 who1 in a position to       
institute civil or criminal  proceedings
 against any one1 and whom1 in respect  
of such refusal or  neglect to account8 
7#c7 ,in the event of the proceedings1  
civil or criminal1 failing to  obtain   
restitution of misapplied funds1 is or  

are any other person or  persons liable 
to make good the loss8    ,on ,december 
#bdth1 #ahij1 a letter of mine appeared 
in the ,times 7,no4  ,v4  above7 in     
which ,i put questions of the same      
import1 and asked ,mr4  ,booth if he    
would not be so good as to take         
counsel's opinion on the  trusts of     
which so #cad much has been heard and so
 little seen1 not  as they stood in     
#ahgh1 or in #ahhh1 but as they stand   
now8 ,six weeks  have elapsed1 and ,i   
wait for a reply4    ,it is true that   
,dr4 ,greenwood has been authorized by  
,mr4 ,booth to  publish what he calls a 
,rough outline of the intended ,trust   
,deed  7,general ,booth and ,his        
,critics1 p4 #abj71 but unfortunately we
 are  especially told that it does not  
profess to be an absolutely accurate    
analysis4 ,under these circumstances ,i 
am afraid that neither lawyers  nor     
laymen of moderate intelligence will pay
 much attention to the  assertion1 that 
it gives a fair idea of the general     

effect of the  draft1 even although the 
words in quotation marks are taken from 
it  verbatim4    ,these words1 which ,i 
give in italics1 7#a7 define the        
purposes of the  scheme to be for the   
social and moral regeneration and       
improvement of  persons needy1          
destitute1 degraded1 or criminal1 in    
some manner  indicated1 implied1 or     
suggested in the book called ',in       
,darkest  ,england4' ,whence ,i         
apprehend that1 if the whole funds      
collected are  applied to mothering     
society by the help of speculative      
attorney  tribunes of the people1 the   
purposes of the trust will be           
unassailably fulfilled4 7#b7 ,the name  
is to be ,darkest ,england  ,scheme1    
7#c7 the ,general of the ,salvation     
,army is to be ,director of  the        
,scheme4 ,truly valuable information all
 this6 ,but taking it for  what it is   
worth1 the #cae public must not be      
misled into supposing  that it has the  
least bearing upon the questions to     

which neither ,i1  nor anybody else1 has
 yet been able to obtain an intelligible
 answer1  and that is1 where are the    
vast funds which have been obtained1 in 
one  way or another1 during the last    
dozen years in the name of the          
,salvation ,army8 ,where is the         
presumably amended ,trust ,deed of      
#ahhh8 ,i  ask once more3 ,will ,mr4    
,booth submit to competent and impartial
 legal  scrutiny the arrangements by    
which he and his successors are         
prevented  from dealing with the funds  
of the so-called army chest exactly as  
he or they may please8    ,,ii4 ,with   
respect to the ,eagle case1 ,i am       
advised that ,dr4 ,greenwood1  whose    
good faith ,i do not question1 has been 
misled into  misrepresenting it in the  
appendix to his pamphlet4 ,and          
certainly1 the  evidence of             
authoritative records which ,i have had 
the opportunity of  perusing1 appears to
 my non-legal mind to be utterly at     
variance with  the statement to which   

,dr4  ,greenwood stands committed4 ,i   
may observe1  further1 that the excuse  
alleged on behalf of ,mr4 ,booth1 that  
he  signed the affidavit set before him 
by his solicitors without duly          
considering its contents1 is one which  
,i should not like to have put  forward 
were the case my own4 ,it may be1 and   
often is1 necessary for a  person to    
sign an affidavit without #caf being    
able fully to  appreciate the technical 
language in which it is couched4 ,but   
his  solicitor will always instruct him 
as to the effect of these terms4  ,and1 
in this particular case where the whole 
matter turns on ,mr4  ,booth's personal 
intentions1 it was his plainest duty to 
inquire1 very  seriously1 whether the   
legal phraseology employed would convey 
neither  more nor less than such        
intentions to those who would act on the
  affidavit1 before he put his name to  
it4    ,,iii4 ,with respect to ,mr4     
,bramwell ,booth's case1 ,i refer the   
reader to  p4 #caa4    ,,iv4 ,as to ,mr4

 ,booth-,clibborn's misrepresentations1 
see above1 pp4 #bih1  #bii4    ,this    
much for the legal questions which have 
been raised by various  persons since   
the first edition of the pamphlet was   
published4    ,,dr4 ,,greenwood',s      
,,general ,,booth ,,and ,,his ,,critics 
,so far as ,i am concerned1 there is    
little or nothing in this brochure      
beyond a reproduction of the            
vituperative stuff which has been going 
the round of those newspapers which     
favour ,general ,booth for some  weeks4 
,those who do not want to see the real  
worth of it all will not  read #cag the 
preceding pages2 and those who do will  
need no help  from me4    ,i fear1      
however1 that in justice to other people
 ,i must put one of ,dr4  ,greenwood's  
paragraphs in the pillory4 ,he says that
 ,i have built up1  on the flimsy       
foundation of stories told by three or  
four deserters  from the ,army 7p4      
#aad71 a sweeping indictment against    
,general ,booth4  ,this is the sort of  

thing to which ,i am well accustomed at 
the hands  of anonymous newspaper       
writers4 ,but in view of the following  
easily  verifiable statements1 ,i do not
 think that an educated and1 ,i have no 
doubt1 highly respectable gentleman like
 ,dr4 ,greenwood can1 in cold  blood1   
contemplate that assertion with         
satisfaction4    ,the persons here      
alluded to as three or four deserters   
from the army  are3--       7#a7 ,mr4   
,redstone1 for whose character ,dr4     
,cunningham ,geikie is  guarantee1 and  
whom it has been left to ,dr4 ,greenwood
 to attempt to  besmirch4       7#b7    
,mr4 ,sumner1 who is a gentleman quite  
as worthy of respect as  ,dr4           
,greenwood1 and whose published evidence
 not one of the champions  of the       
,salvation ,army has yet ventured to    
impugn4       7#c7 ,mr4 ,hodges1        
similarly libelled by that unhappy      
meddler ,mr4  ,trotter1 who was         
compelled to the prompt confession of   
his error 7see  p4 #bgg74       7#d7    

,notwithstanding this evidence of ,mr4  
,trotter's claims to  attention1 ,dr4   
,greenwood quotes a #cah statement of   
his as evidence  that a statement quoted
 by me from ,mr4 ,sumner's work is a    
forgery4  ,but ,dr4 ,greenwood          
unfortunately forgets to mention that on
 the #bgth of  ,december #ahij 7,letter 
,no4 ,,vii4 above7 ,mr4 ,trotter was    
publicly  required to produce proof of  
his assertion2 and that he has not      
thought fit to produce that proof4      
,if ,i were disposed to use to ,dr4     
,greenwood language of the sort he so   
freely employs to me1 ,i think that he  
could not complain of a handsome        
scolding4  ,for what is the real state  
of the case8 ,simply this--that  having 
come to the conclusion1 from the perusal
 of ,in ,darkest  ,england1 that        
,general ,booth's colossal scheme 7as   
apart from the  local action of         
,salvationists7 was bad in principle and
 must produce  certain evil             
consequences1 and having warned the     

public to that  effect1 ,i quite        
unexpectedly found my hands full of     
evidence that the  exact evils predicted
 had1 in fact1 already shown themselves 
on a  great scale2 and1 carefully       
warning the public to criticize this    
evidence1 ,i produced a small part of   
it4 ,when ,dr4 ,greenwood talks  about  
my want of regard to the opinion of the 
nine thousand odd who  still remain     
among the faithful 7p4 #aad71 he commits
 an imprudence4  ,he would obviously be 
surprised to learn the extent of the    
support1  encouragement1 and information
 which ,i have received from active and 
sincere members of the ,salvation ,army 
#cai --but of which ,i can make  no use1
 because of the terroristic discipline  
and systematic espionage  which my      
correspondents tell me is enforced by   
its chief4 ,some of  these days1 when   
nobody can be damaged by their use1 a   
curious light  may be thrown upon the   
inner workings of the organization which
 we are  bidden to regard as a happy    

family1 by these documents4    #cbj     
7blank page7  #cba                      
,,the ,,salvation ,,army                
,,articles ,,of ,,war1    ,to be signed 
by all who wish to be entered on the    
roll as soldiers4    ,having received   
with all my heart the ,salvation offered
 to me by the  tender mercy of ,jehovah1
 ,i do here and now publicly acknowledge
 ,god to  be my ,father and ,king1      
,jesus ,christ to be my ,saviour1 and   
the ,holy  ,spirit to be my ,guide1     
,comforter1 and ,strength2 and that ,i  
will1 by  ,his help1 love1 serve1       
worship1 and obey this glorious ,god    
through all  time and through all       
eternity4    ,believing solemnly that   
,the ,salvation ,army has been raised up
 by ,god1  and is sustained and directed
 by ,him1 ,i do here declare my full    
determination1 by ,god's help1 to be a  
true soldier of the ,army till ,i  die4 
,i am thoroughly convinced of the truth 
of the ,army's teaching4       ,i       
believe that repentance towards ,god1   

faith in our ,lord ,jesus  ,christ1 and 
conversion by the ,holy ,spirit1 are    
necessary to ,salvation1  and that all  
men may be saved4       ,i believe that 
we are saved by grace1 through faith in 
our ,lord  ,jesus ,christ1 and he that  
believeth hath the witness of it in     
himself4  ,i have got it4 ,thank ,god6  
,i believe that the ,scriptures were    
given by inspiration of ,god1 and  that 
they teach that not only does           
continuance in the favour of ,god       
depend upon continued faith in1 and     
obedience to1 ,christ1 #cbb but  that it
 is possible for those who have been    
truly converted to fall  away and be    
eternally lost4       ,i believe that it
 is the privilege of all ,god's people  
to be  wholly sanctified1 and that their
 whole spirit and soul and body  may be 
preserved blameless unto the coming of  
our ,lord ,jesus ,christ4  ,that is to  
say1 ,i believe that after conversion   
there remain in the  heart of the       
believer inclinations to evil1 or roots 

of bitterness1  which1 unless           
overpowered by ,divine grace1 produce   
actual sin2 but  these evil tendencies  
can be entirely taken away by the       
,spirit of ,god1  and the whole heart   
thus cleansed from anything contrary to 
the will  of ,god1 or entirely          
sanctified1 will then produce the fruit 
of the  ,spirit only4 ,and ,i believe   
that persons thus entirely sanctified   
may1  by the power of ,god1 be kept     
unblamable and unreprovable before ,him4
       ,i believe in the immortality of 
the soul2 in the resurrection of  the   
body2 in the general judgment at the end
 of the world2 in the  eternal happiness
 of the righteous2 and in the           
everlasting punishment  of the wicked4  
,,therefore1 ,i do here1 and now1 and   
for ever1 renounce the world with  all  
its sinful pleasures1 companionship     
treasures1 and objects1 and  declare my 
full determination boldly to show myself
 a ,soldier of ,jesus  ,christ in all   
places and companies1 no matter what ,i 

may have to  suffer1 do1 or lose1 by so 
doing4       ,i do here and now declare 
that ,i will abstain from the use of all
  intoxicating liquors1 and also from   
the habitual use of opium1  laudanum1   
morphia1 and all other baneful drugs1   
except when in illness  such drugs shall
 be ordered for me by a doctor4       ,i
 do here and now declare that ,i will   
abstain from #cbc the use of  all low or
 profane language2 from the taking of   
the name of ,god in  vain2 and from all 
impurity1 or from taking part in any    
unclean  conversation or the reading of 
any obscene book or paper at any time1  
in any company1 or in any place4        
,i do here declare that ,i will not     
allow myself in any falsehood1  deceit1 
misrepresentation1 or dishonesty2       
neither will ,i practise any  fraudulent
 conduct1 either in my business1 my     
home1 or in any other  relation in which
 ,i may stand to my fellow men1 but that
 ,i will deal  truthfully1 fairly1      
honourably1 and kindly with all those   

who may  employ me or whom ,i may myself
 employ4       ,i do here declare that  
,i will never treat any woman1 child1 or
  other person1 whose life1 comfort1 or 
happiness may be placed within  my      
power1 in an oppressive1 cruel1 or      
cowardly manner1 but that ,i will       
protect such from evil and danger so far
 as ,i can1 and promote1 to the  utmost 
of my ability1 their present welfare and
 eternal salvation4       ,i do here    
declare that ,i will spend all the time1
 strength1 money1  and influence ,i can 
in supporting and carrying on this ,war1
 and that ,i  will endeavour to lead my 
family1 friends1 neighbours1 and all    
others  whom ,i can influence1 to do the
 same1 believing that the sure and only 
way to remedy all the evils in the world
 is by bringing men to submit           
themselves to the government of the     
,lord ,jesus ,christ4       ,i do here  
declare that ,i will always obey the    
lawful orders of my  ,officers1 and that
 ,i will carry out to the utmost of my  

power all the  ,orders and ,regulations 
of ,the ,army2 and further1 that ,i will
 be an  example of faithfulness to its  
principles1 advance to the utmost of my 
ability its operations1 and never allow1
 where ,i can prevent it1 any  injury to
 its interests or hindrance to its      
success4    #cbd ,and ,i do here and now
 call upon all present to witness that  
,i  enter into this undertaking and sign
 these ,articles of ,war of my own  free
 will1 feeling that the love of ,christ 
who died to save me  requires from me   
this devotion of my life to ,his service
 for the  ,salvation of the whole world1
 and therefore wish now to be enrolled  
as  a ,soldier of the ,salvation ,army4 
,,corps #ah                             
,corps                                  
,division                               
#ah                                     
7,,single7                              
,,form ,,of ,,application               
,,for ,,an ,,appointment ,,as ,,an      
,,officer ,,in ,,the ,,salvation ,,army 

,name     ,address     #a4 ,what was    
your ,,age last birthday8      ,what is 
the date of your birthday8     #b4 ,what
 is your height8     #c4 ,are you free  
from bodily defect or disease8     #d4  
,what serious illnesses have you had1   
and when8       #e4 ,have you ever had  
fits of any kind8   ,if so how long1 and
 what kind8     #f4 ,do you consider    
your health good1 and that you are      
strong enough for  the work of an       
officer8   ,if not1 or if you are       
doubtful1 write a letter and explain the
 matter4    #g4 ,is your doctor's       
certificate a full and correct statement
 so far as you  know8     #h4 ,are you1 
or have you ever been1 married8     #i4 
,when and where ,,converted8     #aj4   
,what other ,religious ,societies have  
you belonged to8       #aa4 ,were you   
ever a ,junior ,soldier8   ,if so1 how  
long8     #ab4 ,how long have you been  
enrolled as a ,,soldier8   and signed   
,articles of ,war8     #ac4 ,if you hold
 any office in your ,corps1 say what and

 how long held8       #ad4 ,do you      
intend to live and die in the ranks of  
the ,salvation ,army8                   
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -    #ae4 
,have you ever been an open             
,,backslider8   ,if so1 how long8       
#af4 ,why8   ,date of your ,restoration8
     #ag4 ,are you in ,,debt8   ,if so1 
how much8     #ah4 ,how long owing8     
#ai4 ,did you ever use ,intoxicating    
,drink8   ,if so1 how long is it since  
you entirely gave up its use8     #bj4  
,did you ever use ,tobacco or ,snuff8   
,if so1 how long is it since you gave up
 using either8                          
------------------------    #ba4 ,what  
,,uniform do you wear8     #bb4 ,how    
long have you worn it8     #bc4 ,do you 
agree to dress in accordance with the   
direction of ,headquarters8      #bd4   
,can you provide your own uniform and   
,list of ,necessaries before  entering  
the ,service8                           
--------------------------------    #be4
 ,are you in a ,situation8   ,if so1 how

 long8     #bf4 ,nature of duties1 and  
salary     #bg4 ,name and address of    
employer8     #bh4 ,if out1 date of     
leaving last situation8   ,how long     
there8     #bi4 ,why did you leave8     
#cj4 ,name and address of last employer8
       #ca4 ,can you start the          
,,singing8     #cb4 ,can you play any   
musical instrument8   ,if so1 what8     
#cc4 ,is this form filled up by you8    
,can you read well at first sight8      
#cd4 ,can you write ,,shorthand8   ,if  
so1 what speed and system8     #ce4 ,can
 you speak any language other than      
,english8   ,if so1 what8     #cf4 ,have
 you had any experience and success in  
the ,,junior ,,soldiers' ,,war8     #cg4
 ,if so1 what8         #ch4 ,are you    
willing to sell the ,,war ,,cry on      
,sundays8     #ci4 ,do you engage not to
 publish any books1 songs1 or music     
except for the  benefit of the          
,salvation ,army1 and then only with the
 consent of  ,headquarters8     #dj4 ,do
 you promise not to engage in any trade1

 profession1 or other money-  making    
occupation1 except for the benefit of   
the ,salvation ,army1 and then  only    
with the consent of ,headquarters8      
#da4 ,would you be willing to go        
,,abroad if required8     #db4 ,do you  
promise to do your utmost to help       
forward the ,junior ,soldiers'  work if 
accepted8     #dc4 ,do you pledge       
yourself to spend not less than nine    
hours every day in  the active service  
of the ,army1 of which not less than    
three hours of each  week day shall be  
spent in ,,visitation8     #dd4 ,do you 
pledge yourself to fill up and send to  
,headquarters forms as to  how your day 
is spent8                               
----------------------------    #de4    
,have you read1 and do you believe1 the 
,,doctrines printed on the other  side8 
#df4 ,have you read the ,orders and     
,regulations for ,field ,officers of the
  ,army8     ,if you have not got a copy
 of ,orders and ,regulations1 get one   
from  ,candidates' ,department at once4 

,the price to ,candidates is #bs4 #f;d4 
#dg4 ,do you pledge yourself to study   
and carry out and to endeavour to  train
 others to carry out all ,orders and    
,regulations of the ,army8     #dh4     
,have you read the ,order on page #c of 
this ,form as to ,,presents and         
,,testimonials1 and do you engage to    
carry it out8     #di4 ,do you pledge   
yourself never to receive any sum in the
 form of pay  beyond the amount of      
allowances granted under the scale which
  follows8         ,,allowances-- ,from 
the day of arrival at his station1 each 
officer is  entitled to draw the        
following allowances1 provided the      
amount remains in  hand after meeting   
all local expenses1 namely3    -- ,for  
,single ,men3 ,lieutenants1 #afs4       
weekly1 and ,captains1 #ahs4    -- for  
,single ,women3 ,lieutenants1 #abs4     
weekly1 and ,captains1 #aes4 weekly4    
-- ,married ,men1 #bgs4 per week1 and   
ls4 per week for each child under #ad   
years of age2 in all cases without      

house-rent4    #ej4 ,do you perfectly   
understand that no salary or allowance  
is guaranteed  to you1 and that you will
 have no claim against the ,salvation   
,army1 or  against any one connected    
therewith1 on account of salary or      
allowances  not received by you8        
-----------------------------    #ea4   
,have you ever ,,applied ,,before8   ,if
 so1 when8     #eb4 ,with what result8  
#ec4 ,if you have ever been in the      
service of the ,salvation ,army in any  
position1 say what8     #ed4 ,why did   
you leave8     #ee4 ,are you willing to 
come into ,,training that we may see    
whether you  have the necessary goodness
 and ability for an ,officer in the     
,salvation  ,army1 and should we        
conclude that you have not the necessary
 qualifications1  do you pledge yourself
 to return home and work in your ,corps 
without  creating any dissatisfaction8  
#ef4 ,will you pay your own travelling  
expenses if we decide to receive you  in
 ,training8     #eg4 ,how much can you  

pay for your maintenance while in       
,training8       #eh4 ,can you deposit  
,pound #a so that we can provide you    
with a suit of  ,uniform when you are   
,commissioned8      #ei4 ,what is the   
shortest ,,notice you require should we 
want you8     #fj4 ,are your ,,parents  
willing that you should become an       
,officer8     #fa4 ,does any one depend 
upon you for support8  ,if so1 who8     
#fb4 ,to what extent8     #fc4 ,give    
your parents'1 or nearest living        
relatives'1 full address                
---------------------------------       
#fd4 ,are you ,,courting8  ,if so1 give 
name and address of the person3         
#fe4 ,how long have you been engaged8   
,what is the person's age8      #ff4    
,what is the date of ,birthday8   ,how  
long enrolled as a ,,soldier8     #fg4  
,what ,uniform does the person wear8    
,how long worn8     #fh4 ,what does the 
person do in the ,corps8     #fi4 ,has  
the person applied for the work8        
#gj4 ,if not1 when does the person      

intend doing so8     #ga4 ,do the       
parents agree to the person coming into 
,training8                              
---------------------------------       
#gb4 ,do you understand that you may not
 be allowed to marry until three  years 
after your appointment as an ,officer1  
and do you engage to abide  by this8    
#gc4 ,if you are not courting1 do you   
pledge yourself to abstain from         
anything of the kind during ,training   
and for at least twelve months  after   
your appointment as a ,commissioned     
,field ,officer8     #gd4 ,do you pledge
 yourself not to carry on courtship with
 any one at the  station to which you   
are at the time appointed8     #ge4 ,do 
you pledge yourself never to commence1  
or allow to commence1 or  break off     
anything of the sort1 without first     
informing your ,divisional  ,officer1 or
 ,headquarters1 of your intention to do 
so8     #gf4 ,do you pledge yourself    
never to marry any one marriage with    
whom would  take you out of the ,army   

altogether8     #gg4 ,have you read1 and
 do you agree to carry out1 the         
following  ,regulations as to ,courtship
 and ,marriage8     7a7 ,officers must  
inform their ,divisional ,officer or    
,headquarters of  their desire to enter 
into or break off any engagement1 and no
 ,officer is  permitted to enter into or
 break off an engagement without the    
consent of  his or her ,d4,o4    7b7    
,officers will not be allowed to carry  
on any courtship in the ,town in  which 
they are appointed2 nor until twelve    
months after the date of their          
,commission4    7c7 ,headquarters cannot
 consent to the engagement of ,male     
,lieutenants1  until their ,divisional  
,officer is prepared to recommend them  
for command  of a ,station as ,captain4 
7d7 ,before ,headquarters can consent to
 the marriage of any ,officer1 the      
,divisional ,officer must be prepared to
 give him three stations as a married   
man4    7e7 ,no ,officer accepted will  
be allowed to marry until he or she has 

been  at least three years in the field1
 except in cases of long-standing       
engagements before application for the  
work4    7f7 ,no ,male ,officer will1   
under any circumstances1 be allowed to  
marry  before he is twenty-two years of 
age1 unless required by ,headquarters   
for  special service4    7g7            
,headquarters will not agree to the     
,marriage of any ,male ,officer  7except
 under extraordinary circumstances7     
until twelve months after  consenting to
 his engagement4    7h7 ,consent will   
not be given to the engagement of any   
male ,officer  unless the young woman is
 likely to make a suitable wife for an  
,officer1  and 7if not already an       
,officer7 is prepared to come into      
,training at once4    7i7 ,consent will 
be given to engagements between ,female 
,officers and  ,soldiers1 on condition  
that the latter are suitable for        
,officers1 and are  willing to come into
 ,training if called upon4    7j7       
,consent will never be given to any     

engagement or marriage which would  take
 an ,officer out of the ,army4    7k7   
,every ,officer must sign before        
marriage the ,articles of ,marriage1    
contained in the ,orders and            
,regulations for ,field ,officers4      
----------------------------            
,,presents ,,and ,,testimonials4    #a4 
,officers are expected to refuse        
utterly1 and to prevent1 if possible1   
even the proposal of any present or     
testimonial to them4    #b4 ,of course1 
an ,officer who is receiving no salary1 
or only part salary1  may accept food or
 other gifts1 such as are needed to meet
 his wants2 but  it is dishonourable for
 any one who is receiving their salary  
to accept  gifts of food also4          
,,the ,,doctrines ,,of ,,the ,,salvation
 ,,army4    ,the principal ,doctrines   
taught in the ,army are as follows3 --  
#a4 ,we believe that the ,scriptures of 
the ,old and ,new ,testament were given 
by inspiration of ,god1 and that they   
only constitute the ,divine rule of     

,christian faith and practice4    #b4   
,we believe there is only one ,god1 who 
is infinitely perfect1 the  ,creator1   
,preserver1 and ,governor of all things4
    #c4 ,we believe that there are three
 persons in the ,godhead--the ,father1  
the  ,son1 and the ,holy ,ghost1        
undivided in essence1 coequal in power  
and glory1  and the only proper object  
of religious worship4    #d4 ,we believe
 that1 in the person of ,jesus ,christ1 
the ,divine and human  natures are      
united1 so that ,he is truly and        
properly ,god1 and truly and  properly  
man4    #e4 ,we believe that our first  
parents were created in a state of      
innocency1  but by their disobedience   
they lost their purity and happiness2   
and that1  in consequence of their fall1
 all men have become sinners1 totally   
depraved1 and as such are justly exposed
 to the wrath of ,god4    #f4 ,we       
believe that the ,lord ,jesus ,christ   
has1 by ,his suffering and death1  made 
an atonement for the whole world1 so    

that whosoever will may be  saved4      
#g4 ,we believe that repentance towards 
,god1 faith in our ,lord ,jesus ,christ1
  and regeneration by the ,holy ,spirit1
 are necessary to ,salvation4    #h4 ,we
 believe that we are justified by grace1
 through faith in our ,lord  ,jesus     
,christ1 and that he that believeth hath
 the witness in himself4    #i4 ,we     
believe the ,scriptures teach that not  
only does continuance in the  favour of 
,god depend upon continued faith in1 and
 obedience to1 ,christ1  but that it is 
possible for those who have been truly  
converted to fall  away and be eternally
 lost4    #aj4 ,we believe that it is   
the privilege of all believers to be    
wholly  sanctified1 and that the whole  
spirit and soul and body may be         
preserved blameless unto the coming of  
our ,lord ,jesus ,christ4 ,that is to   
say1 we believe that after conversion   
there remain in the heart of the        
believer inclinations to evil1 or roots 
of bitterness1 which1 unless            

overpowered by ,divine grace1 produce   
actual sin2 but that these evil         
tendencies can be entirely taken away by
 the ,spirit of ,god1 and the whole     
heart1 thus cleansed from everything    
contrary to the will of ,god1 or        
entirely sanctified1 will then produce  
the fruit of the ,spirit only4 ,and  we 
believe that persons thus entirely      
sanctified may1 by the power of ,god1   
be kept unblamable and unreprovable     
before ,him4    #aa4 ,we believe in the 
immortality of the soul2 in the         
resurrection of the  body2 in the       
general judgment at the end of the      
world2 in the eternal  happiness of the 
righteous2 and in the everlasting       
punishment of the  wicked4              
-----------------------------           
,,declaration4    ,i ,,hereby ,,declare 
that ,i will never1 on any              
consideration1 do anything  calculated  
to injure ,the ,salvation ,army1 and    
especially1 that ,i will  never1 without
 first having obtained the consent of   

,the ,general1 take any  part in any    
religious services or in carrying on    
services held in  opposition to the     
,army4    ,i ,,pledge ,,myself to make  
true records1 daily1 on the forms       
supplied to me1  of what ,i do1 and to  
confess1 as far as ,i am concerned1 and 
to report1 as  far as ,i may see in     
others1 any neglect or variation from   
the orders or  directions of ,the       
,general4    ,i ,,fully ,,understand    
that he does not undertake to employ or 
to retain in  the service of ,the ,army 
any one who does not appear to him to be
 fitted  for the work1 or faithful and  
successful in it1 and ,i solemnly pledge
  myself quietly to leave any ,army     
,station to which ,i may be sent1       
without  making any attempt to disturb  
or annoy ,the ,army in any way1 should  
,the  ,general desire me to do so4 ,and 
,i hereby discharge ,the ,army and ,the 
,general from all liability1 and pledge 
myself to make no claim on account  of  
any situation1 property1 or interest ,i 

may give up in order to secure  an      
engagement in ,the ,army4    ,i         
understand that ,the ,general will not  
be responsible in any way for any  loss 
,i may suffer in consequence of being   
dismissed from ,training2 as ,i am      
aware that the ,cadets are received into
 ,training for the very purpose of      
testing their suitability for the work  
of ,salvation ,army ,officers4    ,i    
hereby declare that the foregoing       
answers appear to me to fully express   
the truth as to the questions put to me1
 and that ,i know of no other facts     
which would prevent my engagement by    
,the ,general1 if they were known to    
him4    ,candidate to sign              
here444444444444444444444444444444444444
44444                                   
--------------------------              
,,notice ,,to ,,candidates4    #a4 ,all 
,candidates are expected to fill up and 
sign this form themselves1  if they can 
write at all4    #b4 ,you are expected  
to have obtained and read ,orders and   

,regulations for  ,field ,officers      
before you make this application4    #c4
 ,making this application does ,,not    
imply that we can receive you as an     
officer1 and you are1 therefore1 ,,not  
to leave your home1 or give notice to   
leave your situation1 until you hear    
again from us4    #d4 ,if you are       
appointed as an ,officer1 or received   
into ,training and it is  afterwards    
discovered that any of the questions in 
this form have not been  truthfully     
answered1 you will be instantly         
dismissed4    #e4 ,if you do not        
understand any question in this form1 or
 if you do not  agree to any of the     
requirements stated upon it1 return it  
to  ,headquarters1 and say so in a      
straightforward manner4    #f4 ,make the
 question for this appointment a matter 
of earnest prayer1 as  it is the most   
important step you have taken since your
 conversion4    ,we must have your      
,photo4 ,please enclose it with your    
forms1 and address  them to ,candidate  

,department1 #aja1 ,queen ,victoria     
,street1 ,london1 ,e4,c4