,,! ,,pa/ ,,condition ,,( ,,organic     
,,nature  ,lecture ,,ii4 7( ,,vi471     
,lectures ,to ,work+ ,m51 at ! ,museum (
 ,practical ,geology1 #ahfc1 ,on ,d>w9's
 "w3 ,orig9 ( ,species4   by ,?omas ,h4 
,huxley     ,,9 ! lecture :i* ,i deliv]$
 la/ ,monday ev5+1 ,i endeav\r$ to sket*
 9 a v brief mann]1 b z well z ! "t at  
my disposal w\ld p]mit1 ! pres5t        
condition ( organic nature1 mean+ by t  
l>ge title simply an indication ( !     
great1 broad1 & g5]al pr9ciples :i* are 
to be discov]$ by ^? :o look att5tively 
at ! ph5om5a ( organic nature z at      
pres5t display$4 ,! g5]al result ( our  
inve/igations might be summ$ up ?us3 we 
f\nd t ! multiplicity ( ! =ms ( animal  
life1 great z t may be1 may be r$uc$ to 
a comp>atively few primitive plans or   
types ( con/ruction2 t a fur!r /udy ( ! 
developm5t ( ^? diff]5t =ms reveal$ to u
 t !y 7 aga9 r$ucible1 until we at la/  
br\ght ! inf9ite div]sity ( animal1 &   
ev5 vegetable life1 d[n to ! primordial 
=m ( a s+le cell4  ,we f\nd t our       

analysis ( ! organic _w1 :e!r animals or
 plants1 %[$1 9 ! long run1 t !y might  
bo? be r$uc$ into1 & 71 9 fact1 compos$ 
(1 ! same con/itu5ts4 ,& we saw t !     
plant obta9$ ! mat]ials con/itut+ its   
sub/ance by a peculi> comb9ation (      
matt]s belong+ entirely to ! inorganic  
_w2 t1 !n1 ! animal 0 con/antly         
appropriat+ ! nitrog5\s matt]s ( ! plant
 to its own n\ri%m5t1 & return+ !m back 
to ! inorganic _w1 9 :at we spoke ( z   
its wa/e2 & t f9ally1 :5 ! animal ceas$ 
to exi/1 ! con/itu5ts ( its body 7      
dissolv$ & transmitt$ to t inorganic _w 
:5ce !y _h be5 at fir/ ab/ract$4 ,?us we
 saw 9 bo? ! blade ( grass & ! horse b !
 same elem5ts diff]5tly comb9$ &        
arrang$4 ,we discov]$ a cont9ual        
circulation go+ on1--! plant draw+ 9 !  
elem5ts ( inorganic nature & comb9+ !m  
into food = ! animal creation2 ! animal 
borr[+ f ! plant ! matt] = its own      
support1 giv+ (f dur+ its life products 
:i* return$ imm$iately to ! inorganic   
_w2 & t1 ev5tually1 ! con/itu5t mat]ials

 ( ! :ole /ructure ( bo? animals &      
plants 7 ?us return$ to _! orig9al      
s\rce3 !re 0 a con/ant passage f "o /ate
 ( exi/5ce to ano!r1 & a return+ back   
aga94  ,la/ly1 :5 we endeav\r$ to =m "s 
notion ( ! nature ( ! =ces ex]cis$ by   
liv+ be+s1 we discov]$ t !y--if n       
capable ( be+ subject$ to ! same m9ute  
analysis z ! con/itu5ts ( ^? be+s       
!mselves--t !y 7 correlative )--t !y 7 !
 equival5ts ( ! =ces ( inorganic        
nature--t !y 71 9 ! s5se 9 :i* ! t]m is 
n[ us$1 conv]tible ) !m4 ,t 0 our g5]al 
result4  ,& n[1 leav+ ! ,pres5t1 ,i mu/ 
endeav\r 9 ! same mann] to put be=e y ! 
facts t are to be discov]$ 9 ! ,pa/     
hi/ory ( ! liv+ _w1 9 ! pa/ conditions (
 organic nature4 ,we h1 to-night1 to    
deal ) ! facts ( t hi/ory--a hi/ory     
involv+ p]iods ( "t be=e :i* our m]e    
human records s9k into utt]             
insignificance--a hi/ory ! v>iety &     
physical magnitude ( ^: ev5ts _c ev5 be 
=e%ad[$ by ! hi/ory ( human life & human
 ph5om5a--a hi/ory ( ! mo/ v>i$ &       

complex "*4  ,we mu/ deal ) ! hi/ory1   
!n1 9 ! fir/ place1 z we %\ld deal ) all
 o!r hi/ories4 ,! hi/orical /ud5t kn[s t
 8 fir/ bus9ess %\ld be to inquire into 
! validity ( 8 evid5ce1 & ! nature ( !  
record 9 :i* ! evid5ce is conta9$1 t he 
may be able to =m a prop] e/imate ( !   
correctness ( ! conclusions :i* h be5   
drawn f t evid5ce4 ,s1 "h1 we mu/ pass1 
9 ! fir/ place1 to ! consid]ation ( a   
matt] :i* may seem =eign to ! "q "u     
discussion4 ,we mu/ dwell ^u ! nature ( 
! records1 & ! cr$ibility ( ! evid5ce !y
 conta92 we mu/ look to ! complet5ess or
 incomplet5ess ( ^? records !mselves1   
be=e we turn to t :i* !y conta9 &       
reveal4 ,! "q ( ! cr$ibility ( ! hi/ory1
 happily = u1 w n require mu*           
consid]ation1 =1 9 ?is hi/ory1 unlike ^?
 ( human orig91 !re c be no cavill+1 no 
diff]5ces z to ! reality & tru? ( !     
facts ( :i* x is made up2 ! facts /ate  
!mselves1 & are laid out cle>ly be=e u4 
,b1 al?\gh "o ( ! greate/ difficulties (
 ! hi/orical /ud5t is cle>$ out ( our   

pa?1 !re are o!r                        
difficulties--difficulties 9 rightly    
int]pret+ ! facts z !y are pres5t$ to   
u--:i* may be comp>$ ) ! greate/        
difficulties ( any o!r k9ds ( hi/orical 
/udy4  ,:at is ?is record ( ! pa/ hi/ory
 ( ! globe1 & :at are ! que/ions :i* are
 involv$ 9 an inquiry into its          
complet5ess or incomplet5ess8 ,t record 
is compos$ ( mud2 & ! "q :i* we h to    
inve/igate ?is ev5+ resolves itself into
 a "q ( ! =mation ( mud4 ,y may ?9k1    
p]haps1 t ?is is a va/ /ep--( almo/ f ! 
sublime to ! ridicul\s--f !             
contemplation ( ! hi/ory ( ! pa/ ages ( 
! _w's exi/5ce to ! consid]ation ( !    
hi/ory ( ! =mation ( mud6 ,b1 9 nature1 
!re is no?+ mean & unwor?y ( att5tion2  
!re is no?+ ridicul\s or contemptible 9 
any ( h] works2 & ?is inquiry1 y w soon 
see1 ,i hope1 takes u to ! v root &     
f\ndations ( our subject4  ,h[1 !n1 is  
mud =m$8 ,always1 ) "s trifl+ exception1
 :i* ,i ne$ n consid] n[--always1 z !   
result ( ! action ( wat]1 we>+ d[n &    

dis9tegrat+ ! surface ( ! e>? & rocks ) 
:i* x comes 9 contact--p\nd+ & gr9d+ x  
d[n1 & c>ry+ ! p>ticles away to places  
:]e !y cease to be di/urb$ by ?is       
me*anical action1 & :]e !y c subside &  
re/4 ,= ! ocean1 urg$ by w9ds1 wa%es1 z 
we "k1 a long ext5t ( coa/1 & e wave1   
load$ z x is ) p>ticles ( s& & gravel z 
x breaks ^u ! %ore1 does some?+ t[>ds ! 
dis9tegrat+ process4 ,& ?us1 sl[ly b    
surely1 ! h>de/ rocks are gradually     
gr\nd d[n to a p[d]y sub/ance2 & ! mud  
?us =m$1 co>s] or f9]1 z ! case may be1 
is c>ri$ by ! ru% ( ! tides1 or curr5ts1
 till x rea*es ! comp>atively deep] p>ts
 ( ! ocean1 9 :i* x c s9k to ! bottom1 t
 is1 to p>ts :]e !re is a dep? ( ab\t   
f\rte5 or fifte5 fa?oms1 a dep? at :i* !
 wat] is1 usually1 ne>ly motionless1 & 9
 :i*1 ( c\rse1 ! f9] p>ticles ( ?is     
detritus1 or mud z we call x1 s9ks to ! 
bottom4  ,or1 aga91 if y take a riv]1   
ru%+ d[n f its m\nta9 s\rces1 brawl+ ov]
 ! /ones & rocks t int]sect its pa?1    
loos5+1 remov+1 & c>ry+ ) x 9 its d[nw>d

 c\rse ! pebbles & light] matt]s f its  
banks1 x cru%es & p\nds d[n ! rocks &   
e>?s 9 precisely ! same way z ! we>+    
action ( ! sea waves4 ,! matt]s =m+ !   
deposit are torn f ! m\nta9-side & :irl$
 impetu\sly into ! valley1 m sl[ly ov] !
 pla91 !nce into ! e/u>y1 & f ! e/u>y !y
 are swept into ! sea4 ,! co>s] & heavi]
 fragm5ts are obvi\sly deposit$ fir/1 t 
is1 z soon z ! curr5t beg9s to lose its 
=ce by becom+ amalgamat$ ) ! /ill] dep?s
 ( ! ocean1 b ! f9] & light] p>ticles   
are c>ri$ fur!r on1 & ev5tually deposit$
 9 a deep] & /ill] portion ( ! ocean4   
,x cle>ly foll[s f ?is t mud gives u a  
*ronology2 = x is evid5t t suppos+ ?is1 
:i* ,i n[ sket*1 to be ! sea bottom1 &  
suppos+ ?is to be a coa/-l9e2 f ! wa%+  
action ( ! sea ^u ! rock1 we>+ & gr9d+ x
 d[n into a s$im5t ( mud1 ! mud w be    
c>ri$ d[n1 & at l5g?1 deposit$ 9 ! deep]
 p>ts ( ?is sea bottom1 :]e x w =m a    
lay]2 & !n1 :ile t fir/ lay] is h>d5+1  
o!r mud :i* is com+ f ! same s\rce w1 ( 
c\rse1 be c>ri$ to ! same place2 &1 z x 

is q impossible = x to get b5ea? ! lay] 
already !re1 x deposits itself above x1 
& =ms ano!r lay]1 & 9 t way y gradually 
h lay]s ( mud con/antly =m+ & h>d5+ "o  
above ! o!r1 & convey+ a record ( "t4   
,x is a necess>y result ( ! op]ation ( !
 law ( gravitation t ! upp]mo/ lay] %all
 be ! y\nge/ & ! l[e/ ! olde/1 & t !    
diff]5t b$s %all be old] at any p>ticul>
 po9t or spot 9 exactly ! ratio ( _!    
dep? f ! surface4 ,s t if !y 7 upheav$  
aft]w>ds1 & y _h a s]ies ( ^! diff]5t   
lay]s ( mud1 conv]t$ into s&/one1 or    
lime/one1 z ! case might be1 y might be 
sure t ! bottom lay] 0 deposit$ fir/1 & 
t ! upp] lay]s 7 =m$ aft]w>ds4 ,"h1 y   
see1 is ! fir/ /ep 9 ! hi/ory--^! lay]s 
( mud give u an idea ( "t4  ,! :ole     
surface ( ! e>?1--,i speak broadly1 &   
leave out m9or qualifications1--is made 
up ( su* lay]s ( mud1 s h>d1 ! majority 
( !m1 t we call !m rock :e!r lime/one or
 s&/one1 or o!r v>ieties ( rock4 ,&1    
see+ t e "p ( ! cru/ ( ! e>? is made up 
9 ?is way1 y might ?9k t ! det]m9ation (

 ! *ronology1 ! fix+ ( ! "t :i* x has   
tak5 to =m ?is cru/ is a comp>atively   
simple matt]4 ,take a broad av]age1     
asc]ta9 h[ fa/ ! mud is deposit$ ^u !   
bottom ( ! sea1 or 9 ! e/u>y ( riv]s2   
take x to be an in*1 or two1 or ?ree    
in*es a ye>1 or :atev] y may r\ghly     
e/imate x at2 !n take ! total ?ickness (
 ! :ole s]ies ( /ratifi$ rocks1 :i*     
geologi/s e/imate at twelve or ?irte5   
miles1 or ab\t sev5ty ?\s& feet1 make a 
sum 9 %ort division1 divide ! total     
?ickness by t ( ! quantity deposit$ 9 "o
 ye>1 & ! result w1 ( c\rse1 give y !   
numb] ( ye>s :i* ! cru/ has tak5 to =m4 
,truly1 t looks a v simple process6 ,x  
w\ld be s except = c]ta9 difficulties1 !
 v fir/ ( :i* is t ( f9d+ h[ rapidly    
s$im5ts are deposit$2 b ! ma9           
difficulty--a difficulty :i* r5d]s any  
c]ta9 calculations ( su* a matt] out ( !
 "q--is ?is1 ! sea-bottom on :i* !      
deposit takes place is cont9ually %ift+4
  ,in/ead ( ! surface ( ! e>? be+ t     
/able1 fix$ ?+ t x is popul>ly believ$  

to be1 be+1 9 common p>lance1 ! v emblem
 ( fixity itself1 x is incessantly mov+1
 & is1 9 fact1 z un/able z ! surface ( !
 sea1 except t its undulations are      
inf9itely sl[] & enorm\sly high] &      
deep]4  ,n[1 :at is ! effect ( ?is      
oscillation8 ,take ! case to :i* ,i h   
previ\sly ref]r$4 ,! f9] or co>s]       
s$im5ts t are c>ri$ d[n by ! curr5t ( ! 
riv]1 w only be c>ri$ out a c]ta9       
di/ance1 & ev5tually1 z we h already    
se51 on rea*+ ! /ill] "p ( ! ocean1 w be
 deposit$ at ! bottom4  ,let ,c y 7,fig4
 #d7 be ! sea-bottom1 y ,d ! %ore1 x y !
 sea-level1 !n ! co>s] deposit w subside
 ov] ! region ,b1 ! f9] ov] ,a1 :ile    
beyond ,a !re w be no deposit at all2 &1
 consequ5tly1 no record w be kept1      
simply because no deposit is go+ on4    
,n[1 suppose t ! :ole l&1 ,c1 ,d1 :i* we
 h reg>d$ z /ation>y1 goes d[n1 z x does
 s1 bo? ,a & ,b g fur!r out f ! %ore1   
:i* w be at y#a2 x#a1 y#a1 be+ ! new    
sea-level4 ,! consequ5ce w be t ! lay] (
 mud 7,a71 be+ n[1 = ! mo/ "p1 fur!r ?an

 ! =ce ( ! curr5t is /rong en\gh to     
convey ev5 ! f9e/ 'debris'1 w1 ( c\rse1 
receive no m deposits1 & hav+ atta9$ a  
c]ta9 ?ickness w n[ gr[ no ?ick]4  ,we  
%\ld be misl$ 9 tak+ ! ?ickness ( t     
lay]1 :5ev] x may be expos$ to our view1
 z a record ( "t 9 ! mann] 9 :i* we are 
n[ reg>d+ ?is subject1 z x w\ld give u  
only an imp]fect & p>tial record3 x w\ld
 seem to repres5t too %ort a p]iod ( "t4
  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4#d4  ,suppose1 on !
 o!r h&1 t ! l& 7,c ,d7 _h gone on ris+ 
sl[ly & gradually--say an in* or two    
in*es 9 ! c\rse ( a c5tury1--:at w\ld be
 ! practical effect ( t movem5t8 ,:y1 t 
! s$im5t ,a & ,b :i* has be5 already    
deposit$1 w\ld ev5tually be br\ght ne>] 
to ! %ore-level1 & aga9 subject$ to !   
we> & te> ( ! sea2 & directly ! sea     
beg9s to act ^u x1 x w\ld ( c\rse soon  
cut up & c>ry x away1 to a great] or    
less ext5t1 to be re-deposit$ fur!r out4
  ,well1 z !re is1 9 all probability1 n 
"o s+le spot on ! :ole surface ( ! e>?1 
:i* has n be5 up & d[n 9 ?is way a great

 _m times1 x foll[s t ! ?ickness ( !    
deposits =m$ at any p>ticul> spot _c be 
tak5 7ev5 suppos+ we _h at fir/ obta9$  
correct data z to ! rate at :i* !y took 
place7 z af=d+ reliable in=mation z to !
 p]iod ( "t occupi$ 9 its deposit4 ,s t 
y see x is absolutely necess>y f ^!     
facts1 see+ t our record entirely       
consi/s ( accumulations ( mud1          
sup]impos$ "o on ! o!r2 see+ 9 ! next   
place t any p>ticul> spots on :i*       
accumulations h occurr$1 h be5 con/antly
 mov+ up & d[n1 & sometimes out ( ! rea*
 ( a deposit1 & at o!r times its own    
deposit brok5 up & c>ri$ away1 x foll[s 
t our record mu/ be 9 ! highe/ degree   
imp]fect1 & we h h>dly a trace left (   
?ick deposits1 or any def9ite k ( ! area
 t !y occupi$1 9 a great _m cases4 ,&   
m>k ?is6 ,t suppos+ ev5 t ! :ole surface
 ( ! e>? _h be5 accessible to !         
geologi/1--t man _h _h access to e "p ( 
! e>?1 & _h made sections ( ! :ole1 &   
put !m all toge!r1--ev5 !n 8 record mu/ 
( necessity be imp]fect4  ,b to h[ mu*  

has man really access8 ,if y w look at  
?is ,map y w see t x repres5ts !        
proportion ( ! sea to ! e>?3 ?is col\r$ 
"p indicates all ! dry l&1 & ?is o!r    
portion is ! wat]4 ,y w notice at once t
 ! wat] cov]s ?ree-fif?s ( ! :ole       
surface ( ! globe1 & has cov]$ x 9 !    
same mann] ev] s9ce man has kept any    
record ( 8 own obs]vations1 to say no?+ 
( ! m9ute p]iod dur+ :i* he has         
cultivat$ geological inquiry4 ,s t      
?ree-fif?s ( ! surface ( ! e>? is %ut   
out f u because x is "u ! sea4 ,let u   
look at ! o!r two-fif?s1 & see :at are !
 c\ntries 9 :i* any?+ t may be t]m$     
se>*+ geological inquiry has be5 c>ri$  
out3 a good deal ( ,france1 ,g]many1 &  
,great ,brita9 & ,irel&1 bits ( ,spa91 (
 ,italy1 & ( ,russia1 h be5 exam9$1 b ( 
! :ole great mass ( ,africa1 except p>ts
 ( ! s\!rn extremity1 we "k next to     
no?+2 little bits ( ,india1 b ( ! great]
 "p ( ! ,asiatic cont95t no?+2 bits ( ! 
,nor!rn ,am]ican ,/ates & ( ,canada1 b (
 ! great] "p ( ! cont95t ( ,nor?        

,am]ica1 & 9 /ill l>g] proportion1 (    
,s\? ,am]ica1 no?+6  ,"u ^!             
circum/ances1 x foll[s t ev5 ) ref]5ce  
to t k9d ( imp]fect in=mation :i* we c  
possess1 x is only ( ab\t ! t5-?\s&? "p 
( ! accessible p>ts ( ! e>? t has be5   
exam9$ prop]ly4 ,!re=e1 x is ) ju/ice t 
! mo/ ?\ghtful ( ^? :o are conc]n$ 9 ^! 
inquiries insi/ cont9ually ^u !         
imp]fection ( ! geological record2 =1 ,i
 repeat1 x is absolutely necess>y1 f !  
nature ( ?+s1 t t record %\ld be ( ! mo/
 fragm5t>y & imp]fect "*4 ,un=tunately  
?is circum/ance has be5 con/antly       
=gott54 ,m5 ( sci5ce1 l "y colts 9 a    
fre% pa/ure1 are apt to be exhil>at$ on 
be+ turn$ into a new field ( inquiry1 to
 g (f at a h&-gallop1 9 total disreg>d (
 h$ges & dit*es1 los+ sight ( ! real    
limitation ( _! inquiries1 & to =get !  
extreme imp]fection ( :at is really     
kn[n4 ,geologi/s h imag9$ t !y c\ld tell
 u :at 0 go+ on at all p>ts ( ! e>?'s   
surface dur+ a giv5 epo*2 !y h talk$ (  
?is deposit be+ contemporane\s ) t      

deposit1 until1 f our little local      
hi/ories ( ! *anges at limit$ spots ( ! 
e>?'s surface1 !y h con/ruct$ a univ]sal
 hi/ory ( ! globe z full ( wond]s &     
port5ts z any o!r /ory ( antiquity4  ,b 
:at does ?is attempt to con/ruct a      
univ]sal hi/ory ( ! globe imply8 ,x     
implies t we %all n only h a precise k (
 ! ev5ts :i* h occurr$ at any p>ticul>  
po9t1 b t we %all be able to say :at    
ev5ts1 at any "o spot1 took place at !  
same "t ) ^? at o!r spots4  ,let u see  
h[ f> t is 9 ! nature ( ?+s practicable4
 ,suppose t "h ,i make a section ( !    
,lake ( ,kill>ney1 & "h ! section (     
ano!r lake--t ( ,lo* ,lomond 9 ,scotl& =
 in/ance4 ,! riv]s t fl[ into !m are    
con/antly c>ry+ d[n deposits ( mud1 &   
b$s1 or /rata1 are be+ z con/antly =m$1 
"o above ! o!r1 at ! bottom ( ^? lakes4 
,n[1 !re is n a %ad[ ( d\bt t 9 ^! two  
lakes ! l[] b$s are all old] ?an !      
upp]--!re is no d\bt ab\t t2 b :at does 
'?is' tell u ab\t ! age ( any giv5 b$ 9 
,lo* ,lomond1 z comp>$ ) t ( any giv5 b$

 9 ! ,lake ( ,kill>ney8 ,x is1 inde$1   
obvi\s t if any two sets ( deposits are 
sep>at$ & discont9u\s1 !re is absolutely
 no means :atev] giv5 y by ! nature ( ! 
deposit ( say+ :e!r "o is mu* y\ng] or  
old] ?an ! o!r2 b y may say1 z _m h said
 & ?9k1 t ! case is v mu* alt]$ if ! b$s
 :i* we are comp>+ are cont9u\s4        
,suppose two b$s ( mud h>d5$ into       
rock1--,a & ,b-are se5 9 section4 7,fig4
 #e47  ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #e4  ,well1 y
 say1 x is admitt$ t ! l[]mo/ b$ is     
always ! old]4 ,v well2 ,b1 !re=e1 is   
old] ?an ,a4 ,no d\bt1 'z a :ole'1 x is 
s2 or if any p>ts ( ! two b$s :i* are 9 
! same v]tical l9e are comp>$1 x is s4  
,b suppose y take :at seems a v natural 
/ep fur!r1 & say t ! "p 'a' ( ! b$ ,a is
 y\ng] ?an ! "p 'b' ( ! b$ ,b4 ,is ?is  
s\nd reason+8 ,if y f9d any record (    
*anges tak+ place at 'b'1 did !y occur  
be=e any ev5ts :i* took place :ile 'a' 0
 be+ deposit$8 ,x looks all v pla9      
sail+1 inde$1 to say t !y did2 & yet !re
 is no pro( ( any?+ ( ! k9d4 ,z ! =m]   

,director ( ?is ,in/itution1 ,sir ,h4   
,de la ,be*e1 long ago %[$1 ?is reason+ 
may involve an entire fallacy4 ,x is    
extremely possible t 'a' may h be5      
deposit$ ages be=e 'b'4 ,x is v easy to 
und]/& h[ t c be4 ,to return to ,fig4   
#d2 :5 ,a & ,b 7 deposit$1 !y 7         
'sub/antially' contemporane\s2 ,a be+   
simply ! f9] deposit1 & ,b ! co>s] ( !  
same detritus or wa/e ( l&4 ,n[ suppose 
t t sea-bottom goes d[n 7z %[n 9 ,fig4  
#d71 s t ! fir/ deposit is c>ri$ no f>!r
 ?an 'a'1 =m+ ! b$ ,al1 & ! co>se no    
f>!r ?an 'b'1 =m+ ! b$ ,b#a1 ! result w 
be ! =mation ( two cont9u\s b$s1 "o (   
f9e s$im5t 7,a ,a#a7 ov]-lapp+ ano!r (  
co>se s$im5t 7,b ,b#a74 ,n[ suppose !   
:ole sea-bottom is rais$ up1 & a section
 expos$ ab\t ! po9t ,al2 no d\bt1 'at   
?is spot'1 ! upp] b$ is y\ng] ?an ! l[]4
 ,b we %\ld obvi\sly greatly err if we  
conclud$ t ! mass ( ! upp] b$ at ,a 0   
y\ng] ?an ! l[] b$ at ,b2 = we h j se5 t
 !y are contemporane\s deposits4 ,/ill m
 %\ld we be 9 error if we suppos$ ! upp]

 b$ at ,a to be y\ng] ?an ! cont9uation 
( ! l[] b$ at ,bl2 = ,a 0 deposit$ long 
be=e ,b#a4 ,9 f9e1 if1 in/ead ( comp>+  
imm$iately adjac5t p>ts ( two b$s1 "o ( 
:i* lies ^u ano!r1 we comp>e di/ant     
p>ts1 x is q possible t ! upp] may be   
any numb] ( ye>s old] ?an ! "u1 & ! "u  
any numb] ( ye>s y\ng] ?an ! upp]4  ,n[ 
y mu/ n suppose t ,i put ?is be=e y = ! 
purpose ( rais+ a p>adoxical difficulty2
 ! fact is1 t ! great mass ( deposits h 
tak5 place 9 sea-bottoms :i* are        
gradually s9k+1 & h be5 =m$ "u ! v      
conditions ,i am "h suppos+4  ,d n run  
away ) ! notion t ?is subv]ts ! pr9ciple
 ,i laid d[n at fir/4 ,! error lies 9   
ext5d+ a pr9ciple :i* is p]fectly       
applicable to deposits 9 ! same v]tical 
l9e to deposits :i* are n 9 t relation  
to "o ano!r4  ,x is 9 consequ5ce (      
circum/ances ( ?is k9d1 & ( o!rs t ,i   
might m5tion to y1 t our conclusions on 
& int]pretations ( ! record are really &
 /rictly only valid s long z we conf9e  
ourselves to "o v]tical section4 ,i d n 

mean to tell y t !re are no qualify+    
circum/ances1 s t1 ev5 9 v consid]able  
areas1 we may safely speak ( con=mably  
sup]impos$ b$s be+ old] or y\ng] ?an    
o!rs at _m diff]5t po9ts4 ,b we c nev]  
be q sure 9 com+ to t conclusion1 &     
especially we _c be sure if !re is any  
break 9 _! cont9uity1 or any v great    
di/ance betwe5 ! po9ts to be comp>$4    
,well n[1 s mu* = ! record itself1--s   
mu* = its imp]fections1--s mu* = !      
conditions to be obs]v$ 9 int]pret+ x1 &
 its *ronological indications1 ! mom5t  
we pass beyond ! limits ( a v]tical l9e>
 section4  ,n[ let u pass f ! record to 
t :i* x conta9s1--f ! book itself to !  
writ+ & ! figures on its pages4 ,?is    
writ+ & ^! figures consi/ ( rema9s (    
animals & plants :i*1 9 ! great majority
 ( cases1 h liv$ & di$ 9 ! v spot 9 :i* 
we n[ f9d !m1 or at lea/ 9 ! imm$iate   
vic9ity4 ,y mu/ all ( y be aw>e--& ,i   
ref]r$ to ! fact 9 my la/ lecture--t !re
 are va/ numb]s ( creatures liv+ at !   
bottom ( ! sea4 ,^! creatures1 l all    

o!rs1 soon] or lat] die1 & _! %ells &   
h>d p>ts lie at ! bottom2 & !n ! f9e mud
 :i* is be+ con/antly br\ght d[n by     
riv]s & ! action ( ! we> & te> ( ! sea1 
cov]s !m ov] & protects !m f any fur!r  
*ange or alt]ation2 &1 ( c\rse1 z 9     
process ( "t ! mud becomes h>d5$ &      
solidifi$1 ! %ells ( ^! animals are     
pres]v$ & firmly imb$d$ 9 ! lime/one or 
s&/one :i* is be+ ?us =m$4 ,y may see 9 
! gall]ies ( ! ,museum up /airs specim5s
 ( lime/ones 9 :i* su* fossil rema9s (  
exi/+ animals are imb$d$4 ,!re are "s   
specim5s 9 :i* turtles' eggs h be5      
imb$d$ 9 calc>e\s s&1 & be=e ! sun _h   
hat*$ ! "y turtles1 !y became cov]$ ov] 
) calc>e\s mud1 & ?us h be5 pres]v$ &   
fossiliz$4  ,n only does ?is process (  
imb$d+ & fossilization occur ) m>9e &   
o!r aquatic animals & plants1 b x       
affects ^? l& animals & plants :i* are  
drift$ away to sea1 or become buri$ 9   
bogs or morasses2 & ! animals :i* h be5 
trodd5 d[n by _! fell[s & cru%$ 9 ! mud 
at ! riv]'s bank1 z ! h]d h come to     

dr9k4 ,9 any ( ^! cases1 ! organisms may
 be cru%$ or be mutilat$1 be=e or aft]  
putrefaction1 9 su* a mann] t p]haps    
only a "p w be left 9 ! =m 9 :i* x      
rea*es u4 ,x is1 inde$1 a mo/ rem>kable 
fact1 t x is q an exceptional case to   
f9d a skeleton ( any "o ( all ! ?\s&s ( 
wild l& animals t we "k are con/antly   
be+ kill$1 or dy+ 9 ! c\rse ( nature3 !y
 are prey$ on & dev\r$ by o!r animals or
 die 9 places :]e _! bodies are n       
aft]w>ds protect$ by mud4 ,!re are o!r  
animals exi/+ 9 ! sea1 ! %ells ( :i* =m 
exce$+ly l>ge deposits4 ,y are probably 
aw>e t be=e ! attempt 0 made to lay !   
,atlantic telegraphic cable1 ! ,gov]nm5t
 employ$ vessels 9 mak+ a s]ies ( v     
c>eful obs]vations & s\nd+s ( ! bottom (
 ! ,atlantic2 & al?\gh1 z we mu/ all    
regret1 up to ! pres5t "t t project has 
n succe$$1 we h ! satisfaction ( kn[+ t 
x yield$ "s mo/ rem>kable results to    
sci5ce4 ,! ,atlantic ,ocean _h to be    
s\nd$ "r across1 to dep?s ( sev]al miles
 9 "s places1 & ! nature ( its bottom 0 

c>efully asc]ta9$4 ,well1 n[1 a space ( 
ab\t #a1jjj miles wide f ea/ to we/1 &  
,i d n exactly "k h[ _m f nor? to s\?1 b
 at any rate #fjj or #gjj miles1 0      
c>efully exam9$1 & x 0 f\nd t ov] ! :ole
 ( t imm5se area an excessively f9e     
*alky mud is be+ deposit$2 & ?is deposit
 is entirely made up ( animals ^: h>d   
p>ts are deposit$ 9 ?is "p ( ! ocean1 & 
are d\btless gradually acquir+ solidity 
& becom+ metamorphos$ into a *alky      
lime/one4 ,?us1 y see1 x is q possible 9
 ?is way to pres]ve unmi/akable records 
( animal & vegetable life4 ,:5ev] !     
sea-bottom1 by "s ( ^? undulations ( !  
e>?'s cru/ t ,i h ref]r$ to1 becomes    
upheav$1 & sections or bor+s are made1  
or pits are dug1 !n we become able to   
exam9e ! cont5ts & con/itu5ts ( ^!      
anci5t sea-bottoms1 & f9d out :at mann] 
( animals liv$ at t p]iod4  ,n[ x is a v
 important consid]ation 9 its be>+ on ! 
complet5ess ( ! record1 to inquire h[ f>
 ! rema9s conta9$ 9 ^! fossilif]\s      
lime/ones are able to convey any?+ l an 

accurate or complete acc\nt ( ! animals 
:i* 7 9 exi/5ce at ! "t ( its =mation4  
,^u t po9t we c =m a v cle> judgm5t1 &  
"o 9 :i* !re is no possible room = any  
mi/ake4 ,!re are ( c\rse a great numb] (
 animals--su* z jelly-fi%es1 & o!r      
animals--)\t any h>d p>ts1 ( :i* we _c  
reasonably expect to f9d any traces     
:atev]3 !re is no?+ ( !m to pres]ve4 ,)9
 a v %ort "t1 y w h notic$1 aft] !y are 
remov$ f ! wat]1 !y dry up to a m]e     
no?+2 c]ta9ly !y are n ( a nature to    
leave any v visible traces ( _! exi/5ce 
on su* bodies z *alk or mud4 ,!n aga91  
look at l& animals2 x is1 z ,i h said1 a
 v uncommon ?+ to f9d a l& animal entire
 aft] dea?4 ,insects & o!r c>nivor\s    
animals v spe$ily pull !m to pieces1    
putrefaction takes place1 & s1 out ( !  
hundr$s ( ?\s&s t are kn[n to die e ye>1
 x is ! r>e/ ?+ 9 ! _w to see "o imb$d$ 
9 su* a way t its rema9s w\ld be pres]v$
 = a l5g!n$ p]iod4 ,n only is ?is !     
case1 b ev5 :5 animal rema9s h be5      
safely imb$d$1 c]ta9 natural ag5ts may  

:olly de/roy & remove !m4  ,almo/ all ! 
h>d p>ts ( animals--! bones & s on--are 
compos$ *iefly ( phosphate ( lime &     
c>bonate ( lime4 ,"s ye>s ago1 ,i _h to 
make an inquiry into ! nature ( "s v    
curi\s fossils s5t to me f ! ,nor? (    
,scotl&4 ,fossils are usually h>d bony  
/ructures t h become imb$d$ 9 ! way ,i h
 describ$1 & h gradually acquir$ !      
nature & solidity ( ! body ) :i* !y are 
associat$2 b 9 ?is case ,i _h a s]ies ( 
'holes' 9 "s pieces ( rock1 & no?+ else4
 ,^? holes1 h[ev]1 _h a c]ta9 def9ite   
%ape ab\t !m1 & :5 ,i got a skilful     
workman to make ca/+s ( ! int]ior ( ^!  
holes1 ,i f\nd t !y 7 ! impressions ( ! 
jo9ts ( a backbone & ( ! arm\r ( a great
 reptile1 twelve or m feet long4 ,?is   
great bea/ _h di$ & got buri$ 9 ! s&2 ! 
s& _h gradually h>d5$ ov] ! bones1 b    
rema9$ por\s4 ,wat] _h trickl$ ?r\gh x1 
& t wat] be+ probably *>g$ ) a          
sup]fluity ( c>bonic acid1 _h dissolv$  
all ! phosphate & c>bonate ( lime1 & !  
bones !mselves _h ?us decay$ & entirely 

disappe>$2 b z ! s&/one happ5$ to h     
consolidat$ by t "t1 ! precise %ape ( ! 
bones 0 reta9$4 ,if t s&/one _h rema9$  
s(t a little long]1 we %\ld h kn[n no?+ 
:atsoev] ( ! exi/5ce ( ! reptile ^:     
bones x _h encas$4  ,h[ c]ta9 x is t a  
va/ numb] ( animals :i* h exi/$ at "o   
p]iod on ?is e>? h entirely p]i%$1 &    
left no trace :atev] ( _! =ms1 may be   
prov$ to y by o!r consid]ations4 ,!re   
are l>ge tracts ( s&/one 9 v>i\s p>ts ( 
! _w1 9 :i* nobody has yet f\nd any?+ b 
foot/eps4 ,n a bone ( any description1 b
 an enorm\s numb] ( traces ( foot/eps4  
,!re is no "q ab\t !m4 ,!re is a :ole   
valley 9 ,connecticut cov]$ ) ^!        
foot/eps1 & n a s+le fragm5t ( ! animals
 :i* made !m has yet be5 f\nd4 ,let me  
m5tion ano!r case :ile ^u t matt]1 :i*  
is ev5 m surpris+ ?an ^? to :i* ,i h yet
 ref]r$4 ,!re is a lime/one =mation ne> 
,ox=d1 at a place call$ ,/onesfield1 :i*
 has yield$ ! rema9s ( c]ta9 v int]e/+  
mammalian animals1 & up to ?is "t1 if ,i
 recollect rightly1 !re h be5 f\nd sev5 

specim5s ( its l[] jaws1 & n a bit (    
any?+ else1 nei!r limb-bones nor skull1 
or any "p :atev]2 n a fragm5t ( ! :ole  
sy/em6 ,( c\rse1 x w\ld be prepo/]\s to 
imag9e t ! bea/s _h no?+ else b a l[]   
jaw6 ,! probability is1 z ,dr4 ,buckl&  
%[$1 z ! result ( 8 obs]vations on dead 
dogs 9 ! riv] ,?ames1 t ! l[] jaw1 n be+
 secur$ by v firm ligam5ts to ! bones ( 
! head1 & be+ a weighty affair1 w\ld    
easily be knock$ (f1 or might drop away 
f ! body z x float$ 9 wat] 9 a /ate (   
decomposition4 ,! jaw w\ld ?us be       
deposit$ imm$iately1 :ile ! re/ ( ! body
 w\ld float & drift away altoge!r1      
ultimately rea*+ ! sea1 & p]haps becom+ 
de/roy$4 ,! jaw becomes cov]$ up &      
pres]v$ 9 ! riv] silt1 & ?us x comes t  
we h su* a curi\s circum/ance z t ( !   
l[] jaws 9 ! ,/onesfield slates4 ,s t1 y
 see1 faulty z ^! lay]s ( /one 9 ! e>?'s
 cru/ are1 defective z !y necess>ily are
 z a record1 ! acc\nt ( contemporane\s  
vital ph5om5a pres5t$ by !m is1 by !    
necessity ( ! case1 inf9itely m         

defective & fragm5t>y4  ,x 0 necess>y t 
,i %\ld put all ?is v /rongly be=e y1   
because1 o!rwise1 y might h be5 l$ to   
?9k diff]5tly ( ! complet5ess ( our k by
 ! next facts ,i %all /ate to y4  ,!    
rese>*es ( ! la/ ?ree-qu>t]s ( a c5tury 
h1 9 tru?1 reveal$ a wond]ful ri*ness ( 
organic life 9 ^? rocks4 ,c]ta9ly n few]
 ?an ?irty or =ty ?\s& diff]5t species (
 fossils h be5 discov]$4 ,y h no m gr\nd
 = d\bt+ t ^! creatures really liv$ &   
di$ at or ne> ! places 9 :i* we f9d !m  
?an y h = l scepticism ab\t a %ell on ! 
sea-%ore4 ,! evid5ce is z good 9 ! "o   
case z 9 ! o!r4  ,our next bus9ess is to
 look at ! g5]al "* ( ^! fossil rema9s1 
& x is a subject :i* x w be requisite to
 consid] c>efully2 & ! fir/ po9t = u is 
to exam9e h[ mu* ! ext9ct ',flora' &    
',fauna' z a ':ole'--disreg>d+ altoge!r 
! 'succession' ( _! con/itu5ts1 ( :i* ,i
 %all speak aft]w>ds--diff] f ! ',flora'
 & ',fauna' ( ! pres5t day2--h[ f> !y   
diff] 9 :at we 'd' "k ab\t !m1 leav+    
altoge!r out ( consid]ation speculations

 bas$ ^u :at we 'd n' "k4  ,i /rongly   
imag9e t if x 7 n = ! peculi> appe>ance 
t fossilis$ animals h1 any ( y might    
readily walk ?r\gh a museum :i* conta9s 
fossil rema9s mix$ up ) ^? ( ! pres5t   
=ms ( life1 & ,i d\bt v mu* :e!r y\r    
un9/ruct$ eyes w\ld lead y to see any   
va/ or wond]ful diff]5ce betwe5 ! two4  
,if y look$ closely1 y w\ld notice1 9 ! 
fir/ place1 a great _m ?+s v l animals )
 :i* y are acqua9t$ n[3 y w\ld see      
diff]5ces ( %ape & proportion1 b on !   
:ole a close simil>ity4  ,i expla9$ :at 
,i meant by ,,ord]s ! o!r day1 :5 ,i    
describ$ ! animal k+dom z be+ divid$ 9  
sub-k+doms1 classes & ord]s4 ,if y      
divide ! animal k+dom into ord]s1 y w   
f9d t !re are ab\t "o hundr$ & tw5ty4 ,!
 numb] may v>y on "o side or ! o!r1 b   
?is is a fair e/imate4 ,t is ! sum total
 ( ! ord]s ( all ! animals :i* we "k n[1
 & :i* h be5 kn[n 9 pa/ times1 & left   
rema9s beh9d4  ,n[1 h[ _m ( ^? are      
absolutely ext9ct8 ,t is to say1 h[ _m (
 ^! ord]s ( animals h liv$ at a =m]     

p]iod ( ! _w's hi/ory1 b h at pres5t no 
repres5tatives8 ,t is ! s5se 9 :i* ,i   
meant to use ! ^w ext9ct4 ,i mean t ^?  
animals did live on ?is e>? at "o "t1 b 
h left no "o ( _! k9d ) u at ! pres5t   
mom5t4 ,s t e/imat+ ! numb] ( ext9ct    
animals is a sort ( way ( comp>+ ! pa/  
creation z a :ole ) ! pres5t z a :ole4  
,among ! mammalia & birds !re are none  
ext9ct2 b :5 we come to ! reptiles !re  
is a mo/ wond]ful ?+3 out ( ! eight     
ord]s1 or !reab\ts1 :i* y c make among  
reptiles1 "o-half are ext9ct4 ,^!       
diagrams ( ! plesiosaurus1 !            
i*?yosaurus1 ! pt]odactyle1 give y a    
notion ( "s ( ^! ext9ct reptiles4 ,& "h 
is a ca/ ( ! pt]odactyle & bones ( !    
i*?yosaurus & ! plesiosaurus1 j z fre% z
 if x _h be5 rec5tly dug up 9 a *ur*y>d4
 ,?us1 9 ! reptile class1 !re are no    
less ?an half ( ! ord]s :i* are         
absolutely ext9ct4 ,if we turn to !     
',amphibia'1 !re 0 "o ext9ct ord]1 !    
,labyr9?odonts1 typifi$ by ! l>ge       
salam&]-l bea/ %[n 9 ?is diagram4  ,no  

ord] ( fi%es is kn[n to be ext9ct4 ,e   
fi% t we f9d 9 ! /rata--to :i* ,i h be5 
ref]r+--c be id5tifi$ & plac$ 9 "o ( !  
ord]s :i* exi/ at ! pres5t day4 ,!re is 
n kn[n to be a s+le ord9al =m ( insect  
ext9ct4 ,!re are only two ord]s ext9ct  
among ! ',cru/acea'4 ,!re is n kn[n to  
be an ext9ct ord] ( ^! creatures1 !     
p>asitic & o!r worms2 b !re are two1 n  
to say ?ree1 absolutely ext9ct ord]s (  
?is class1 ! ',e*9od]mata'2 out ( all ! 
ord]s ( ! ',coel5t]ata' & ',protozoa'   
only "o1 ! ,rugose ,corals4  ,s t1 y    
see1 out ( some:]e ab\t #abj ord]s (    
animals1 tak+ !m altoge!r1 y w n1 at !  
outside e/imate1 f9d above t5 or a doz5 
ext9ct4 ,summ+ up all ! ord]s ( animals 
:i* h left rema9s beh9d !m1 y w n f9d   
above t5 or a doz5 :i* _c be arrang$ )  
^? ( ! pres5t day2 t is to say1 t !     
diff]5ce does n am\nt to mu* m ?an t5 p]
 c5t43 & ! proportion ( ext9ct ord]s (  
plants is /ill small]4 ,i ?9k t t is a v
 a/\nd+1 a mo/ a/oni%+ fact1 see+ !     
enorm\s epo*s ( "t :i* h elaps$ dur+ !  

con/itution ( ! surface ( ! e>? z x at  
pres5t exi/s2 x is1 inde$1 a mo/ a/\nd+ 
?+ t ! proportion ( ext9ct ord9al types 
%\ld be s exce$+ly small4  ,b n[1 !re is
 ano!r po9t ( view 9 :i* we mu/ look at 
?is pa/ creation4 ,suppose t we 7 to s9k
 a v]tical pit ?r\gh ! floor b5ea? u1 & 
t ,i c\ld succe$ 9 mak+ a section "r    
?r\gh 9 ! direction ( ,new ,zeal&1 ,i   
%\ld f9d 9 ea* ( ! diff]5t b$s ?r\gh :i*
 ,i pass$ ! rema9s ( animals :i* ,i %\ld
 f9d 9 t /ratum & n 9 ! o!rs4 ,fir/1 ,i 
%\ld come ^u b$s ( gravel or drift      
conta9+ ! bones ( l>ge animals1 su* z ! 
elephant1 rh9oc]os1 & cave tig]4 ,r     
curi\s ?+s to fall across 9 ,piccadilly6
 ,if ,i %\ld dig l[] /ill1 ,i %\ld come 
^u a b$ ( :at we call ! ,london clay1 & 
9 ?is1 z y w see 9 our gall]ies up/airs1
 are f\nd rema9s ( /range cattle1 rema9s
 ( turtles1 palms1 & l>ge tropical      
fruits2 ) %ell-fi% su* z y see ! l ( n[ 
only 9 tropical regions4 ,if ,i w5t bel[
 t1 ,i %\ld come ^u ! *alk1 & !re ,i    
%\ld f9d some?+ altoge!r diff]5t1 !     

rema9s ( i*?yosauri & pt]odactyles1 &   
ammonites1 & s =?4  ,i d n "k :at ,mr4  
,godw9 ,au/9 w\ld say comes next1 b     
probably rocks conta9+ m ammonites1 & m 
i*?yosauri & plesiosauri1 ) a va/ numb] 
( o!r ?+s2 & "u t ,i %\ld meet ) yet    
old] rocks1 conta9+ numb]s ( /range     
%ells & fi%es2 & 9 ?us pass+ f ! surface
 to ! l[e/ dep?s ( ! e>?'s cru/1 ! =ms (
 animal life & vegetable life :i* ,i    
%\ld meet ) 9 ! successive b$s w\ld1    
look+ at !m broadly1 be ! m diff]5t !   
fur!r t ,i w5t d[n4 ,or1 9 o!r words1   
inasmu* z we />t$ ) ! cle> pr9ciple1 t 9
 a s]ies ( naturally-dispos$ mud b$s !  
l[e/ are ! olde/1 we %\ld come to ?is   
result1 t ! fur!r we g back 9 "t ! m    
diff]5ce exi/s betwe5 ! animal &        
vegetable life ( an epo* & t :i* n[     
exi/s4 ,t 0 ! conclusion to :i* ,i wi%$ 
to br+ y at ! end ( ?is ,lecture4