,! ,e?ical ,libr>y ,,social ,,rights ,,& ,,duties ,addresses to ,e?ical ,societies by ,,leslie ,,/eph5 ,9 ,two ,volumes ,,vol4 ,i4 ,london ,swan ,sonn5s*e9 ,co41 ,limit$ ,new ,york3 ,mac,millan ,co4 #ahif ,,note4 ,! foll[+ *apt]s are *iefly a republication ( addresses deliv]$ to ! ,e?ical ,societies ( ,london4 ,"s h previ\sly appe>$ 9 ! ,int]national ,j\rnal ( ,e?ics1 ! ,national ,review1 & ! ,contempor>y ,review4 ,! au?or has to ?ank ! proprietors ( ^! p]iodicals = _! cons5t to ! republication4 ,l4 ,s4 ,,cont5ts4 ,,page ,,! ,,aims ,,( ,,e?ical ,,societies1 #a ,,sci5ce ,,& ,,politics1 #de ,,! ,,sph]e ,,( ,,political ,,economy1 #ia ,,! ,,morality ,,( ,,competition1 #acc ,,social ,,equality1 #age ,,e?ics ,,& ,,! ,,/ruggle ,,= ,,exi/5ce1 #bba ,,! ,,aims ,,( ,,e?ical ,,societies4#a ,i am ab\t to say a few words ^u ! aims ( ?is society3 & ,i %\ld be sorry ei!r to exagg]ate or to depreciate our legitimate pret5sions4 ,x w\ld be altoge!r impossible to speak too /rongly ( ! importance ( ! great que/ions 9 :i* our memb]%ip ( ! society %[s u to be int]e/$4 ,x w\ld1 ,i fe>1 be easy en\gh to make an ov]-e/imate ( ! "p :i* we c expect to play 9 _! solution4 ,i hold inde$1 or ,i %\ld n be "h1 t we may be ( "s s]vice at any rate to ea* o!r4 ,i ?9k t any?+ :i* /imulates an active int]e/ 9 ! vital problems ( ! day des]ves ! support ( all ?9k+ m52 & ,i propose to consid] briefly "s ( ! pr9ciples by :i* we %\ld be guid$ 9 do+ :atev] we c to promote su* an int]e/4 #a ,address to ,we/ ,london ,e?ical ,society1 #d? ,decemb]1 #ahib4 ,we are told (t5 en\gh t we are liv+ 9 a p]iod ( important intellectual & social revolutions4 ,9 "o way we are p]haps incl9$ ev5 to /ate ! fact a little too /rongly4 ,we suff] at times f ! common illusion t ! problems ( to-day are entirely new3 we fancy t nobody ev] ?\ght ( !m be=e1 & t :5 we h solv$ !m1 nobody w ev] ne$ to look = ano!r solution4 ,to ard5t re=m]s 9 all ages x seems z if ! mill5nium mu/ beg9 ) _! triumph1 & t _! triumph w be e/abli%$ by a s+le victory4 ,& :ile "s ( u are ?us sangu9e1 !re are _m :o see 9 ! /ruggles ( to-day ! approa* ( a deluge :i* is to sweep away all t once ennobl$ life4 ,! believ] 9 ! old cre$s1 :o fe>s t fai? is decay+1 & ! sup]natural life fad+ f ! _w1 d5\nces ! mod]n _s z mat]ialis+ & degrad+4 ,! consci5ce ( mank9d1 he ?9ks1 has become drugg$ & le?>gic2 our m9ds are fix$ ^u s5sual pleasures1 & our conduct regulat$ by a bl9d /ruggle = ! maximum ( luxuri\s enjoym5t4 ,! p]iod 9 8 eyes is a p]iod ( gr[+ corruption2 mod]n society suff]s "u a complication ( mortal diseases1 s widely spread & deeply seat$ t at pres5t !re is no hope ( reg5]ation4 ,! be/ hope is t its decay may provide ! soil 9 :i* se$ may be s[n ( a f>-di/ant gr[? ( happi] augury4 ,su* dismal =ebod+s are no novelty4 ,e age produces its prophecies ( com+ woes4 ,no?+ w\ld be easi] ?an to make out a cat5a ( te/imonies f great m5 at e /age ( ! _w's hi/ory1 decl>+ ea* 9 turn t ! cup ( iniquity 0 n[ at la/ ov]fl[+1 & t corruption _h rea*$ s unprec$5t$ a /ep t "s great cata/rophe mu/ be approa*+4 ,a man ( unusually l(ty morality is1 = t reason1 m ke5ly s5sitive to ! l[ness ( ! av]age /&>d1 & too easily accepts ! belief t ! evils be=e 8 eyes mu/ be 9 fact great]1 & n1 z may p]haps be ! case1 only m vividly p]ceiv$1 ?an ^? ( ! bygone ages4 ,a call to rep5tance easily takes ! =m ( an ass]tion t ! devil is gett+ ! upp] h&2 & we may hope t ! pessimi/ view is only a =m ( ! discont5t :i* is a necess>y condition ( improvem5t4 ,anyh[1 ! diametrical conflict ( prophecies sugge/s "o rem>k :i* (t5 impresses me4 ,we are b\nd to call ea* o!r by t]ribly h>d names4 ,a g5tleman assures me 9 pr9t t ,i am play+ ! devil's game2 depriv+ my victims1 if ,i h any1 ( all ! beliefs t c make life noble or happy1 & do+ my be/ to de/roy ! v fir/ pr9ciples ( morality4 ,yet ,i meet my adv]s>y 9 ! fle%1 & f9d t he treats me n only ) c\rtesy1 b ) no inconsid]able am\nt ( sympa?y4 ,he admits--by 8 actions & 8 argum5t--t ,i--! mis]able sophi/ & s$uc]--h n only "s good impulses1 b h really some?+ to say :i* des]ves a c>eful & respectful answ]4 ,an infidel1 a c5tury or two ago1 0 suppos$ to h =feit$ all claim to ! ord9>y dec5cies ( life4 ,n[ ,i c say1 & c say ) real satisfaction1 t ,i d n f9d any diff]5ce ( cre$1 h[ev] va/ 9 words1 to be an ob/acle to dec5t & ev5 fri5dly treatm5t4 ,i am at times tempt$ to ask :e!r my oppon5t c be q logical 9 be+ s c\rte\s2 :e!r1 if he is z sure z he says t ,i am 9 ! devil's s]vice1 ,i ought n1 z a matt] ( duty1 to be enc\nt]$ ) ! old dogmatism & arrogance4 ,i %all1 h[ev]1 leave my fri5ds ( a diff]5t way ( ?9k+ to settle t po9t = !mselves4 ,i _c d\bt ! s9c]ity ( _! c\rtesy1 & ,i w hope t x is someh[ consi/5t ) _! logic4 ,r ,i w try to meet !m 9 a correspond+ _s by a brief confession4 ,i h (t5 en\gh spok5 too h>%ly & vehem5tly ( my antagoni/s4 ,i h tri$ to fix ^u !m too unres]v$ly :at seem$ to me ! logical consequ5ces ( _! dogmas4 ,i h condemn$ _! attempts at a mild] int]pretation ( _! cre$ z pro(s ( ins9c]ity1 :5 ,i ought to h done m ju/ice to ! legitimate & l(ty motives :i* prompt$ !m4 ,& ,i at lea/ am b\nd by my own views to admit t ev5 ! antagoni/ f ^: utt]ances ,i diff] mo/ widely may be an unconsci\s ally1 supplem5t+ r ?an contradict+ my !ories1 & 9 great "p mov$ by aspirations :i* ,i ought to recognise ev5 :5 alli$ ) :at ,i take to be defective reason+4 ,we are all am5able to "o great influ5ce4 ,! va/ %uttle ( mod]n life is weav+ toge!r all races & cre$s & classes4 ,we are no long] %ut up 9 sep>ate comp>tm5ts1 :]e ! m5tal horizon is limit$ by ! area visible f ! p>i% /eeple2 ea* little section c no long] fancy1 9 ! old *ildi% fa%ion1 t its own arbitr>y prejudices & dogmas are p>ts ( ! et]nal ord] ( ?+s2 or inf] t 9 ! indef9ite region beyond1 !re live no?+ b mon/]s & an?ropophagi1 & m5 ^: heads gr[ b5ea? _! %\ld]s4 ,! annihilation ( space has made u fell[s z by a k9d ( me*anical compulsion2 & e advance ( k has increas$ ! impossibility ( tak+ our little *ur*--little 9 comp>ison ) mank9d1 be x ev5 z great z ! ,ca?olic ,*ur*--= ! "o patt]n ( "r belief4 ,! fir/ effect ( br++ remote nations & classes into clos] contact is (t5 an explosion ( antipa?y2 b 9 ! long run x means a developm5t ( human sympa?y4 ,wide1 !re=e1 z is ! opposition ( op9ions z to :at is ! true !ory ( ! _w--z to :i* is ! div9e & :i* ! diabolical elem5t--,i fully believe t b5ea? ! w> ( words & dogmas !re is a gr[? ( g5u9e tol]ation1 &1 we mu/ hope1 ( ultimate conciliation4 ,?is is manife/ 9 ano!r direction4 ,! *ur*es are rapidly mak+ at lea/ "o discov]y4 ,!y are beg9n+ to f9d out t _! vitality dep5ds n ^u success 9 !ological controv]sy1 b ^u _! success 9 meet+ c]ta9 social ne$s & aspirations common to all classes4 ,x is simply impossible = any ?9k+ man at ! pres5t day to take any liv+ int]e/1 = example1 9 ! anci5t controv]sies4 ,! drum ecclesia/ic ( ! sev5te5? c5tury w\ld s\nd a m]e lullaby to u4 ,"h & !re a prie/ or a belat$ diss5t+ m9i/] may amuse himself by ?re%+ out once m ! old *aff ( dead & buri$ dogmas4 ,!re are p :o c argue gravely ab\t baptismal reg5]ation or apo/olical succession4 ,su* doctr9es 7 once alive1 no d\bt1 because !y repres5t$ ! =m 9 :i* c]ta9 /ill liv+ problems _h !n to pres5t !mselves4 ,!y n[ require to be /at$ 9 a totally diff]5t %ape1 be=e we c ev5 guess :y !y 7 once s excit+1 or h[ m5 c\ld h suppos$ _! modes ( attack+ ! "q to be adequate4 ,! ,pope & ,g5]al ,boo? /ill condemn ea* o!r's t5ets2 & 9 case ( ne$ w\ld1 ,i suppose1 take d[n ! old ru/y weapons f ! arm\ry4 ,b ea* sees ) equal cle>ness t ! real /ress ( battle lies else:]e4 ,ea* tries1 aft] 8 own fa%ion1 to give a bett] answ] ?an ! ,sociali/s to ! critical problems ( to-day4 ,we ought s f> to congratulate bo? !m & ourselves on ! direction ( _! en]gies4 ,nay1 c we n ev5 co-op]ate1 & put ^! hopeless controv]sies aside8 ,:y n agree to diff] ab\t ! que/ions :i* no "o d5ies to be all b insoluble1 & become allies 9 promot+ morality8 ,enorm\s social =ces f9d _! natural *annel ?r\gh ! *ur*es2 & if ! beliefs inculcat$ by ! *ur* 7 n1 z believ]s ass]t1 ! ultimate cause ( progress1 x is at lea/ cle> t !y 7 n incompatible ) progress4 ,! *ur*1 we all n[ admit1 :e!r by reason ( or 9 spite ( its dogmatic cre$1 0 = ages "o great organ ( civilisation1 & /ill ex]cises an incalculable influ5ce4 ,:y1 !n1 %\ld we1 :o _c believe 9 ! dogmas1 yet fall into l9e ) believ]s = practical purposes8 ,*ur*es insi/ v]bally ^u ! importance ( _! dogma3 !y are b\nd to d s by _! logical position2 b1 9 reality1 = !m1 z = u1 ! dogma has become 9 _m ways a m]e excresc5ce--a survival ( b>r5 =mul :i* d little h>m to anybody4 ,c>lyle1 9 8 qua9t phrase1 talk$ ab\t ! exodus f ,h\ndsdit*1 b d\bt$ :e!r x 7 yet "t to ca/ aside ! ,hebrew old clo!s4 ,!y h become ?readb>e & antiquat$4 ,t gives a reason to ! intellig5t = ab&on+ !m2 b1 also1 p]haps a reason = n qu>rell+ ) ^? :o /ill c>e to masqu]ade 9 !m4 ,or?odox p h made a dem& t ! ,bo>d ,s*ools %\ld tea* c]ta9 anci5t doctr9es ab\t ! nature ( ,*ri/2 & ! dem& /rikes "s ( u z prepo/]\s if n hypocritical4 ,b putt+ aside ! audacity ( ask+ unbeliev]s to pay = su* tea*+1 "o might be tempt$ to ask1 :at h>m c\ld x really d8 ,d y fancy = a mom5t t y c really tea* a *ild ( t5 ! true mean+ ( ! ,inc>nation8 ,c y give him m ?an a /r+ ( words z mean+less z magical =mul8 ,i 0 br\ght up at ! mo/ or?odox ( ,anglican sem9>ies4 ,i le>n$ ! ,cate*ism1 & he>d lectures ^u ! ,?irty-n9e ,articles4 ,i nev] f\nd t ! tea*+ _h ev] any p>ticul> effect ^u my m9d4 ,z ,i grew up1 ! obsolete exuvi ( doctr9e dropp$ (f my m9d l dead leaves f a tree4 ,!y c\ld n get any vital hold 9 an atmosph]e ( tol]able enlight5m5t4 ,:y %\ld we fe> ! attempt to in/il ^! fragm5ts ( decay$ =mul into ! m9ds ( *ildr5 ( t5d] age8 ,might we n be c]ta9 t !y w\ld vani% ( !mselves8 ,!y are sup]flu\s1 no d\bt1 b too futile to be ( any la/+ importance4 ,i rememb] t1 :5 ! fir/ ,education ,act 0 be+ discuss$1 m5tion 0 made ( a c]ta9 ,jew :o n only s5t 8 son to a ,*ri/ian s*ool1 b insi/$ ^u 8 att5d+ all ! lessons4 ,he _h paid 8 fees1 he said1 = education 9 ! ,gospels among o!r ?+s1 & he meant to h 8 money's wor?4 ,b y\r son1 x 0 urg$1 w become a ,*ri/ian4 ,i1 he repli$1 w take good c>e ( t at home4 ,0 n ! ,jew a man ( s5se8 ,c we suppose t ! me*anical repetition ( a few b>r5 phrases w d ei!r h>m or good8 ,z ! *ild develops he w1 we may hope1 rememb] 8 multiplication table1 & =get 8 fragm5ts ( ! ,a?anasian ,cre$4 ,let ! :eat & t>es be plant$ toge!r1 & tru/ to ! sup]ior vitality ( ! m valuable plant4 ,! s5tim5t might be express$ s5tim5tally z easily z cynically4 ,we may urge1 l _m sceptics ( ! la/ c5tury1 t ,*ri/ianity %\ld be kept = ! use ( ! poor1 & r5\nc$ 9 ! esot]ic cre$ ( ! educat$4 ,or we may urge ! lit]>y & /hetic beauty ( ! old tra9+1 & wi% x to be pres]v$ to discipl9e ! imag9ation1 ?\gh we may reject its value z a hi/orical /atem5t ( fact4 ,! audi5ce :i* ,i am address+ has1 ,i presume1 made up its m9d ^u su* views4 ,!y come too late4 ,x might h be5 a good ?+1 _h x be5 possible1 to effect ! transition f old to new )\t a viol5t convulsion3 good1 if ,*ri/ian conceptions _h be5 sl[ly develop$ into m simple =ms2 if ! beautiful symbols _h be5 reta9$ till !y c\ld be impregnat$ ) a new mean+2 & if ! new tea*+ ( sci5ce & philosophy _h gradually p]colat$ into ! anci5t =mul )\t caus+ a disruption4 ,possibly ! ,prote/ant ,re=mation 0 a mis=tune1 & ,erasmus saw ! tru? m cle>ly ?an ,lu!r4 ,i _c g into might-h-be5s4 ,we h to deal ) facts4 ,a conspiracy ( sil5ce is impossible ab\t matt]s :i* h be5 vehem5tly discuss$ = c5turies4 ,we h to take sides2 & we at lea/ h agre$ to take ! side ( ! d[nright ?9k]1 :o w say no?+ t he does n believe1 & hide no?+ t he does believe1 & speak out 8 m9d )\t res]vation or economy & accommodation4 ,inde$1 z ?+s are1 any o!r c\rse seems to me to be impossible4 ,i h spok51 = example1 ( ,g5]al ,boo?4 ,_m p he>tily admire 8 s*emes ( social re=m1 & h be5 will+ to subscribe = its support1 )\t tr\bl+ !mselves ab\t 8 !ology4 ,i w make no objection2 b ,i confess t ,i c\ld n !re=e treat t !ology z ei!r morally or intellectually respectable4 ,x has happ5$ to me once or twice to li/5 to expositions f orators ( ! ,salvation ,army4 ,"s ( !m /ruck me z s9c]e ?\gh limit$1 & o!rs z ! victims ( an ov]we5+ vanity4 ,! oratory1 s f> z ,i c\ld he>1 consi/$ 9 /r++ toge!r an endless set ( phrases ab\t ! blood ( ,*ri/1 :i*1 if !y really meant any?+1 meant a doctr9e z l[ 9 ! intellectual scale z t ( any ( ! objects ( mission>y ent]prise4 ,! conception ( ! transactions betwe5 ,god & man 0 app>5tly modell$ ^u ! deal+s ( a petty tradesman4 ,! blood ( ,*ri/ 0 reg>d$ l ! panacea ( a quack doctor1 :i* w cure ! s9s ( anybody :o accepts ! prescription4 ,= any?+ ,i c say1 su* a cre$ may be elevat+--relatively3 elevat+ z slav]y is said to h be5 elevat+ :5 x 0 a sub/itute = ext]m9ation4 ,! hymns ( ! ,army may be bett] ?an public-h\se melodies1 & ! excitem5t produc$ less mis*iev\s ?an t due to g94 ,b ! be/ t ,i c wi% = its adh]5ts is1 t !y %\ld spe$ily rea* a po9t at :i* !y c\ld p]ceive _! doctr9es to be debas+4 ,i hope1 inde$1 t !y d n realise _! own mean+3 b ,i c\ld almo/ z soon jo9 9 "s old pagan c]emonies1 ga% my body ) knives1 or sw+ myself f a hook1 z indulge 9 ?is v>iety ( spiritual intoxication4 ,!re are1 x is true1 pl5ty ( m ref9$ & intellectual prea*]s1 ^: s5tim5ts des]ve at lea/ ! respect due to t5d] & humane feel+4 ,!y h f\nd a solution1 satisfactory to !mselves1 ( ! great dilemma :i* presses on s _m m9ds4 ,a religion really to affect ! vulg> mu/ be a sup]/ition2 to satisfy ! ?\ghtful1 x mu/ be a philosophy4 ,is x possible to contrive s to fuse ! crude ) ! ref9$ z to make at lea/ a work+ compromise8 ,to me p]sonally1 & to mo/ ( u liv+ at ! pres5t day1 ! ent]prise appe>s to be impracticable4 ,my own exp]i5ce is1 ,i imag9e1 a v common "o4 ,:5 ,i ceas$ to accept ! tea*+ ( my y\?1 x 0 n s mu* a process ( giv+ up beliefs1 z ( discov]+ t ,i _h nev] really believ$4 ,! contra/ betwe5 ! g5u9e convictions :i* guide & gov]n our conduct1 & ! pr(essions :i* we 7 taught to repeat 9 *ur*1 :5 once realis$1 0 too gl>+4 ,"o belong$ to ! _w ( realities1 & ! o!r to ! _w ( dreams4 ,! or?odox =mul repres5t1 no d\bt1 a s5tim5t1 an attempt to symbolise emotions :i* might be beautiful1 or to indicate vague impressions ab\t ! t5d5cy ( ?+s 9 g5]al2 b to put !m side by side ) real beliefs ab\t facts 0 to reveal _! flims9ess4 ,! ,i believe ( ! cre$ seem$ to mean some?+ q diff]5t f ! ,i believe ( politics & hi/ory & sci5ce4 ,lat] exp]i5ce has only deep5$ & /r5g!n$ t feel+4 ,k9d & lov+ & noble-m9d$ p h s\ght to press ^u me ! consolations ( _! religion4 ,i ?ank !m 9 all s9c]ity2 & ,i feel1--:y %\ld ,i n admit x8--t x may be a g5u9e com=t to set y\r melan*oly to ! old /ra9 9 :i* s _m g5]ations h embodi$ _! sorr[s & _! aspirations4 ,& yet to me1 its consolation is an invitation to reject pla9 facts2 to seek = refuge 9 a %ad[y _w ( dreams & conjectures1 :i* dissolve z y try to grasp !m4 ,! doctr9e (f]$ = my acceptance _c be /at$ )\t qualifications & res]ves & modifications1 :i* make x z useless z x is vague & conjectural4 ,i may le>n 9 "t to submit to ! inevitable2 ,i _c drug myself ) phrases :i* evaporate z soon z !y are expos$ to a s]i\s te/4 ,y pr(ess to give me ! only motives ( conduct2 & ,i "k t at ! fir/ dem& to def9e !m hone/ly--to say precisely :at y believe & :y y believe x--y w be =c$ to )draw1 & expla9 & evade1 & at la/ retire to ! safe refuge ( a my/]y1 :i* might z well be admitt$ at />t+4 ,z ,i h read & ?\ght1 ,i h be5 m & m impress$ ) ! obvi\s explanation ( ^! obs]vations4 ,h[ %\ld ! beliefs be o!rwise ?an %ad[y & illusory1 :5 _! v sub/ance is made ( d\bts labori\sly & +5i\sly twi/$ into ! semblance ( convictions8 ,9 "o way or o!r t is ! *>act]i/ic m>k ( ! !ological sy/ems ( ! pres5t day4 ,pro( is ab&on$ = p]suasion4 ,! or?odox believ] pr(ess$ once to prove ! facts :i* he ass]t$ & to %[ t 8 dogmas express$ ! tru?4 ,he n[ only tries to %[ t ! alleg$ facts don't matt]1 & t ! dogmas are mean+less4 ,ne>ly two c5turies ago1 = example1 a dei/ po9t$ out t ! writ] ( ! ,book ( ,daniel1 l o!r p1 mu/ h writt5 aft] ! ev5ts :i* he m5tion$4 ,all ! le>n$1 d[n to ,dr4 ,pusey1 d5\nc$ 8 !ory1 & decl>$ 8 argum5t to be utt]ly de/ructive ( ! fai?4 ,n[ an or?odox pr(essor w admit t ! dei/ 0 p]fectly "r1 & only tries to p]suade himself t argum5ts f facts are sup]flu\s4 ,! suppos$ f\ndation is gone3 ! sup]/ructure is n to be affect$4 ,:at ! ke5e/ disputant n[ seeks to %[ is1 n t ! tru? ( ! records c be e/abli%$ beyond reasonable d\bt2 b t no absolute contradiction 9 t]ms is involv$ 9 suppos+ t !y correspond m or less r\ghly to some?+ :i* may possibly h happ5$4 ,s long z a ?+ is n prov$ false by ma!matical demon/ration1 ,i may /ill cont9ue to take x = a div9e revelation1 & to li/5 respectfully :5 exp]i5c$ /atesm5 & le>n$ pr(essors assure me ) p]fect gravity t !y c believe 9 ,noah's flood or 9 ! sw9e ( ,gad>a4 ,!y h an unque/ionable "r to believe if !y please3 & !y expect me to accept ! facts = ! sake ( ! doctr9e4 ,!re1 unluckily1 ,i h a simil> difficulty4 ,x is ! or?odox :o are ! sy/ematic sceptics4 ,! mo/ fam\s philosoph]s ( my y\? endeav\r$ to upset ! dei/ by lay+ ! f\ndation ( ,agno/icism1 arbitr>ily tagg$ to an or?odox conclusion4 ,!y told me to believe a doctr9e because x 0 totally impossible t ,i %\ld "k :e!r x 0 true or n1 or inde$ atta* any real mean+ to x :atev]4 ,! highe/ alt>1 z ,sir ,w4 ,hamilton said1 0 ! alt> to ! unkn[n & unkn[able ,god4 ,o!rs1 see+ ! inevitable t5d5cy ( su* me?ods1 h done _! be/ to f9d 9 t ! ,*ri/ian doctr9e1 rightly und]/ood1 ! embodim5t ( ! highe/ philosophy4 ,x is ! div9e voice :i* speaks 9 our he>ts1 ?\gh x has caught "s accretion ( human passion & sup]/ition4 ,! popul> v]sions are false & debas$2 ! old v]sions ( ! ,atonem5t1 = example1 mon/r\s2 & ! belief 9 ! ev]la/+ torture ( s9n]s1 a hide\s & gr\ndless c>icature4 ,) mu* t su* m5 h said ,i c\ld1 ( c\rse1 agree he>tily2 =1 inde$1 x expresses ! /ronge/ feel+s :i* h caus$ religi\s revolt4 ,b w\ld x n be simpl] to say1 ! doctr9e is n true1 ?an to say1 x is true1 b means j ! rev]se ( :at x 0 also tak5 to mean8 ,i pref] pla9 t]ms2 & )\t d\bt he %all p]i% ev]la/+ly seems to be an awkw>d way ( d5y+ ! endlessness ( puni%m5t4 ,y _c d5\nce ! immorality ( ! old dogmas ) ! infidel1 & !n proclaim _! inf9ite value ) ! believ]4 ,y def5d ! doctr9e by %[+ t 9 its pla9 d[nright s5se1--! s5se 9 :i* x embodi$ popul> imag9ations1--x 0 false & %ock+4 ,! proposal to hold by ! words evacuat$ ( ! old mean+ is a concession ( ! :ole case to ! unbeliev]1 & a sub/itution ( s5tim5t & aspiration = a g5u9e intellectual belief4 ,expla9+ away1 h[ev] dext]\sly & delicately1 is n def5d+1 b at once confess+ error1 & encumb]+ y\rself ) all ! trammels ( mislead+ associations4 ,! m popul> me?od1 !re=e1 at ! pres5t day is n to rationalise1 b to try to outsceptic ! sceptic4 ,we are told t we h no solid gr\nd f reason at all1 & t ev5 physical sci5ce is z full ( contradictions z !ology4 ,su* ent]prises1 conduct$ ) :atev] +5uity1 are1 z ,i believe1 hopeless2 b at lea/ !y are fundam5tally & radically sceptical4 ,t1 "u :atev] disguises1 is ! true mean+ ( ! ,ca?olic argum5t1 :i* is s p]suasive to _m4 ,to prove ! tru? ( ,*ri/ianity by ab/ract reason+ may be hopeless2 b no?+ is easi] ?an to p]suade y\rself to believe x1 if once y w tru/ in/9ct 9 place ( reason1 & =get t in/9ct proves any?+ & ev]y?+4 ,! success ( su* argum5ts ) ?\ghtful m5 is simply a measure ( ! spread ( scepticism4 ,! conviction t tru? is unatta9able is ! ma/] argum5t = submitt+ to au?ority4 ,! au?ority1 9 ! sci5tific s5se ( any set ( m5 :o agree ^u a doctr9e1 v>ies directly z _! indep5d5ce ( ea* o!r4 ,_! au?ority 9 ! legal s5se v>ies z ! clos5ess ( _! mutual dep5d5ce4 ,z ! cons5t loses its value logically1 x ga9s 9 p[] ( co]cion4 ,& !re=e x is easy to sub/itute drill+ = argu+1 & to take up a belief z y accept admission to a society1 z a matt] ( ta/e & feel+1 ) :i* ab/ract logic has no?+ to d4 ,! common dilemma--y mu/ be a ,ca?olic or an a!i/--means1 t !ology is only t5able if y drill p into belief by a va/ organisation appeal+ to o!r ?an logical motives4 ,i d n argue ^! po9ts3 ,i only indicate :at ,i take to be y\r own conviction z well z m9e4 ,x seems to me1 9 fact1 t ! pres5t /ate ( m9d--if we look to m5's real ?\ghts & actions1 n to _! conv5tional phrases--is easily def9able4 ,x is simply a tacit recognition t ! old or?odoxy _c be ma9ta9$ ei!r by ! evid5ce ( facts or by philosophical argum5t4 ,x has puzzl$ me sometimes to und]/& :y ! *ur*es %\ld insi/ ^u nail+ !mselves d[n to ! tru? ( _! dogmas & _! leg5d>y hi/ory4 ,:y _c !y say frankly1 :at !y seem to be con/antly on ! v]ge ( say+--,our dogmas & our hi/ory are n true1 or n true 9 ! hi/orical or sci5tific s5se ( ! ^w8 ,to ask = su* tru? 9 ! sph]e ( !ology is z p$antic z to ask = x 9 ! sph]e ( poetry4 ,poetical tru? means1 n t c]ta9 ev5ts actually happ5$1 or t ! poetical ma*9]y is to be tak5 z an exi/+ fact2 b t ! poem is1 s to speak1 ! projection ( tru?s ^u ! cl\dl& ( imag9ation4 ,x reflects & gives s5su\s images ( tru?2 b x is only ! ,phili/9e or ! blockhead :o c s]i\sly ask1 is x true8 ,"s su* position seems to be really conceivable z an ultimate compromise4 ,put aside ! prosaic insi/5ce ^u lit]al matt]-(-fact tru?1 & we may all agree to use ! same symbolism1 & int]pret x z we please4 ,?is seems to me to be actually ! view ( _m ?\ghtful p1 ?\gh = obvi\s reasons x is n (t5 explicitly /at$4 ,"o reason is1 ( c\rse1 ! consci\sness t ! great mass ( mank9d requires pla91 tangible motives = gov]n+ its life2 & if x once be admitt$ t s mu* ( ! or?odox doctr9e is m]e symbolism or adumbration ( tru?s1 ! admission w\ld involve ! loss ( ! tru?s s indicat$4 ,moral conduct1 aga91 & moral beliefs are suppos$ to dep5d ^u "s affirmation ( ^! tru?s2 & excell5t p are naturally %y ( any op5 admission :i* may appe> to ?r[ d\bt ^u ! ultimate gr\nds ( morality4 ,inde$1 if x c\ld be really prov$ t m5 h to *oose betwe5 r5\nc+ moral tru?s & accept+ unprov$ !ories1 x might be "r--,i w n argue ! po9t--to commit intellectual suicide4 ,if ! tru? is t we are m]e animals or m]e automata1 %all we sacrifice ! tru?1 or sacrifice :at we h at lea/ agre$ to call our high] nature8 ,= u ! dilemma has no =ce3 = we d n admit ! discrepancy4 ,we believe t morality dep5ds ^u some?+ deep] & m p]man5t ?an any ( ! dogmas t h hi!rto be5 curr5t 9 ! *ur*es4 ,x is a product ( human nature1 n ( any ( ^! transc5d5tal speculations or fa9t survivals ( traditional sup]/itions4 ,morality has gr[n up indep5d5tly (1 & (t5 9 spite (1 !ology4 ,! cre$s h be5 good s f> z !y h accept$ or reflect$ ! moral convictions2 b x is an illusion to suppose t !y h g5]at$ x4 ,!y repres5t ! dialect & ! imag]y by :i* moral tru?s h be5 convey$ to m9ds at c]ta9 /ages ( ?\ght2 b x is a complete inv]sion ( ! tru? to suppose t ! morality sprang out ( !m4 ,f ?is po9t ( view we mu/ ( necessity treat ! great e?ical que/ions indep5d5tly4 ,we _c =m a real alliance ) ?9k]s radically oppos$ to u4 ,div9es tell u t we reject ! "o possible basis ( morality4 ,to u x appe>s t we are /r5g!n+ x1 by sev]+ x f a connection ) doctr9es arbitr>y1 incapable ( pro(1 & incapable ( reta9+ any consi/5t mean+4 ,!ologians once believ$ t hell-fire 0 ! ultimate s5t5ce1 & p]secution ! absolute duty ( e ,*ri/ian rul]4 ,! *ur*es :i* once burnt & ext]m9at$ are n[ only anxi\s to proclaim fre$om ( belief1 & to ca/ ! blame ( p]secution ^u _! rivals4 ,div9es h discov]$ t ! doctr9e ( hell-fire des]ves all t infidels h said ( x2 & a memb] ( ,dante's *ur* 0 argu+ ! o!r day t hell might on ! :ole be a r pleasant place ( resid5ce4 ,doctr9es :i* c ?us be turn$ inside out are h>dly desirable bases = morality4 ,s ! e>ly ,*ri/ians1 aga91 7 ! ,sociali/s ( _! age1 & took a view ( ,dives & ,laz>us :i* w\ld comm5d itself to ! ,nihili/s ( to-day4 ,! *ur* is n[ (t5 held up to u z ! great b>ri] aga9/ ,socialism1 & ! "o refuge aga9/ subv]sive doctr9es4 ,9 a well-kn[n essay on ,p :om "o w\ld h wi%$ to h se51 ,lamb & 8 fri5ds are repres5t$ z agree+ t if ,*ri/ 7 to ent] !y w\ld all fall d[n & wor%ip ,him4 ,x may h be5 s2 b if ! man :o be/ repres5ts ! ideas ( e>ly ,*ri/ians 7 to ent] a respectable society ( to-day1 w\ld x n be m likely to s5d = ! police8 ,:5 we consid] su* *anges1 & m>k 9 ano!r direction h[ ! dogmas :i* once set half ! _w to cut ! ?roats ( ! o!r half1 h sunk into m]e comb9ations ( h>d words1 c we s]i\sly look to ! ma9t5ance ( dogmas1 ev5 9 ! tee? ( reason1 z a gu>antee = e?ical convictions8 ,:at y call reta9+ ! only base ( morality1 appe>s to u to be try+ to associate morality ) dogmas ess5tially arbitr>y & unreasonable4 ,f ?is po9t ( view x is naturally our op9ion t we %\ld promote all ?or\gh discussion ( great e?ical problems 9 a _s & by me?ods :i* are indep5d5t ( ! or?odox dogmas4 ,!re are _m su* problems und\bt$ly ( ! highe/ importance4 ,! root ( all ! great social que/ions ( :i* ,i h spok5 lies 9 ! region ( ,e?ics2 & ^u t po9t1 at lea/1 we c g along ) mu* t is said ^u ! or?odox side4 ,we _c1 inde$1 agree t ,e?ics c be adequately treat$ by m5 pl$g$ to anci5t traditions1 employ+ antiquat$ me?ods1 & always tempt$ to h an eye to ! int]e/ ( _! own cre$s & *ur*es4 ,b we c fully agree t e?ical pr9ciples und]lie all ! mo/ important problems4 ,e great religi\s re=m has be5 /imulat$ by ! conviction t ! "o ess5tial ?+ is a *ange ( _s1 n a m]e modification ( ! ext]nal law1 :i* has ceas$ to correspond to g5u9e beliefs & p[]ful motives4 ,! commone/ criticism1 inde$1 ( all projectors ( new ,utopias is t !y propose a *ange ( human nature4 ,! criticism really sugge/s a s\nd crit]ion4 ,unless ! *ange propos$ be practicable1 ! ,utopia w d\btless be impossible4 ,& unless "s practicable *ange be propos$1 ! ,utopia1 ev5 7 x embodi$ 9 practice1 w\ld be useless4 ,if ! sole result ( rais+ wages 7 an increase 9 ! consumption ( g91 wages might z well /ay at a m9imum4 ,b ! tacit assumption t all *anges ( human nature are impracticable is simply a cynical & unprov$ ass]tion4 ,all ( u "h hold1 ,i imag9e1 t human nature has 9 a s5se be5 *ang$4 ,we hold t1 ) all its drawbacks1 progress is n an illusion2 t m5 h become at lea/ m tol]ant & m humane2 t anci5t brutalities h become impossible2 & t ! suff]+ ( ! weak] excites a ke5] sympa?y4 ,to say t1 9 t s5se1 human nature mu/ be *ang$1 is to say only t ! "o s\nd crit]ion ( all s*emes = social improvem5t lies 9 _! e?ical t5d5cy4 ,! /&>d ( life _c be p]man5tly rais$ unless y c raise ! /&>d ( motive4 ,old-fa%ion$ political !ori/s ?\ght t a simple *ange ( ! con/itutional ma*9]y w\ld ( itself rem$y all evils1 & fail$ to recognise t beh9d ! in/itutions lie all ! in/9cts & capabilities ( ! m5 :o are to "w !m4 ,a simil> fallacy is preval5t1 ,i fancy1 9 reg>d to :at we call social re=ms4 ,"s s*eme = a new mode ( di/ribut+ ! products ( indu/ry w\ld1 x is (t5 assum$1 rem$y all social evils4 ,to my ?9k+1 no su* *ange w\ld d m ?an t\* ! sup]ficial evils1 unless x _h also "s t5d5cy to call out ! high] & repress ! l[] impulses4 ,unless we c to "s ext5t *ange human nature1 we %all be weav+ ropes ( s&1 or devis+ s*emes = p]petual motion1 = driv+ our ma*9]y m effectively )\t apply+ fre% en]gy4 ,we %all be fall+ into ! old blund]s2 approv+ ,jack ,cade's proposal--z record$ by ,%akespe>e--t ! ?ree-hoop$ pot %\ld h sev5 hoops2 or attempt+ to get rid ( pov]ty by conv]t+ ! :ole nation into paup]s4 ,no "o1 p]haps1 w d5y ?is 9 t]ms2 & to admit x frankly is to admit t e s*eme mu/ be judg$ by its t5d5cy to raise ! manhood ( ! poor1 & to make e man1 ri* & poor1 feel t he is dis*>g+ a useful function 9 society4 ,old ,rob]t ,ow51 :5 he began 8 re=ms1 re/$ 8 doctr9e & 8 hopes ( p]fectibility ^u ! sci5tific application ( a s*eme = ! =mation ( "*4 ,8 plans 7 crude en\gh1 & fell %ort ( success4 ,b he _h se5 ! real conditions ( success2 & :51 9 aft] ye>s1 he imag9$ t a new society might be made by simply collect+ m5 ( any "* 9 a cr[d1 & invit+ !m to %>e alike1 he fell into ! inevitable failure4 ,mod]n ,sociali/s might d well to rememb] 8 hi/ory4 ,n[ x is1 z ,i und]/&1 prim>ily ! aim ( an ,e?ical ,society to promote ! rational discussion ( ^! und]ly+ e?ical pr9ciples4 ,we wi% to contribute to ! cle>e/ und]/&+ we c ( ! "r ends to :i* human en]gy %\ld be devot$1 & ( ! conditions "u :i* su* devotion is mo/ likely to be rew>d$ ) success4 ,we desire to see ! great controv]sy c>ri$ on 9 ! ne>e/ possible approa* to a sci5tific _s4 ,t phrase implies1 z ,i h said1 t we mu/ ab&on mu* ( ! old guidance4 ,! lights by :i* our ance/ors pr(ess$ to direct _! c\rse are n = u sup]natural signs1 %9+ 9 a transc5d5tal region1 b at mo/ ! beacons :i* !y _h !mselves erect$1 & valuable z indications1 ?\gh c]ta9ly n z infallible guides1 to ! "r pa?4 ,we mu/ "q ev]y?+1 & be prep>$ to modify or ab&on :atev] is unt5able4 ,we mu/ be sci5tific 9 _s1 9 s f> z we mu/ tru/ no?+ b a ?or\gh & sy/ematic inve/igation ( facts1 h[ev] ! facts may be int]pret$4 ,und\bt$ly1 ! c\rse m>k$ out is long & ardu\s4 ,x is p]fectly true1 moreov]1 z our antagoni/s w ha/5 to obs]ve1 t pr(ess$ly sci5tific reason]s are h>dly bett] agre$ ?an _! oppon5ts4 ,if !y jo9 ^u "s negative conclusions1 & ^u "s g5]al pr9ciples ( me?od1 !y c]ta9ly d n rea* ! same results4 ,!y h at pres5t no def9ite cre$ to lay d[n4 ,i ne$ only ref]1 = example1 to "o v obvi\s illu/ration4 ,! m5 :o 7 mo/ conspicu\s = _! attempt to solve social problems by sci5tific me?ods1 & mo/ confid5t t !y _h succe$$1 71 probably1 ^? :o f\nd$ ! s-call$ classical political economy1 & repres5t$ :at is n[ call$ ! individuali/ po9t ( view4 ,gov]nm5t1 !y 7 apt to ?9k1 %\ld d no?+ b /& aside1 see fair-play1 & keep our knives f ea* o!r's ?roats & our h&s out ( ea* o!r's pockets4 ,mu* z _! doctr9es 7 d5\nc$1 ?is view is /ill repres5t$ by ! mo/ popul> philosoph] ( ! day4 ,& und\bt$ly we %all d well to take to he>t ! obvi\s moral4 ,if we /ill believe 9 ! old-fa%ion$ doctr9es1 we mu/ inf] t to "w out a sci5tific doctr9e is by no means to secure its acceptance4 ,if we reject !m we mu/ argue t ! m]e claim to be sci5tific may inspire m5 ) a premature self-confid5ce1 :i* t5ds only to make _! errors m sy/ematic4 ,:51 h[ev]1 ,i look at ! actual c\rse ( controv]sy1 ,i am m impress$ by ano!r fact4 ,individualism is sometimes met by g5u9e argum5t4 ,m frequ5tly1 ,i ?9k1 x is met by simple appeal to s5tim5t4 ,?is k9d ( ?+1 we are told1 is explod$2 x is n up to date2 x is z obsolete z ! plesiosaurus2 & !re=e1 )\t bo!r+ ourselves ab\t y\r reason+1 we %all simply neglect x4 ,talk z mu* z y please1 we c get a majority on ! o!r side4 ,we %all disreg>d y\r argum5ts1 &1 !re=e--x is a common piece ( logic at ! pres5t day--y\r argum5ts mu/ be all wrong4 ,i mu/ be cont5t "h ) simply indicat+ my own view4 ,i ?9k1 9 fact1 t1 9 ?is z 9 o!r cases1 ! true answ] to extreme !ori/s w\ld be v diff]5t4 ,i hold t we w\ld beg9 by admitt+ ! imm5se value ( ! lesson taught by ! old individuali/s1 if t be _! "r "n4 ,if !y 7 precipitate 9 lay+ d[n iron laws & proclaim+ inexorable necessity1 !y 7 p]fectly "r 9 po9t+ out t !re are c]ta9 laws ( human nature1 & conditions ( social welf>e1 :i* w n be alt]$ by simply decl>+ !m to be unpleasant4 ,!y did an ine/imable s]vice 9 emphatically prote/+ aga9/ ! sy/em ( =cibly suppress+1 or try+ to suppress1 deep-seat$ evils1 )\t an accurate prelim9>y diagnosis ( ! causes4 ,&--n to g into remote que/ions--! individuali/ cre$ _h ?is m]it1 :i* is relat$ to our especial aims4 ,! e?ical doctr9e :i* !y prea*$ may h _h--,i ?9k t x _h--_m grave defects2 b at lea/ x involv$ a recognition ( ! tru? :i* _! oppon5ts are too apt to %un or reject4 ,!y1 at lea/1 ass]t$ /r5u\sly ! c>d9al doctr9e ( ! importance ( individual responsibility4 ,!y might draw "s errone\s inf]5ces1 b !y c\ld n put too emphatically ! doctr9e t m5 mu/ n be taught to %ift ! blame ( all _! suff]+s ^u "s my/]i\s entity call$ society1 or expect improvem5t unless1 among o!r virtues1 !y w cultivate ! virtue ( /r5u\s1 unremitt+1 mascul9e self-help4 ,if ?is be at all true1 x may indicate :at ,i take to be ! aim ( our society1 or r ( u z memb]s ( an e?ical society4 ,we hold1 t is1 t ! great problems ( to-day h _! root1 s to speak1 9 an e?ical soil4 ,!y w be decid$ "o way or o!r by ! view :i* we take ( e?ical que/ions4 ,! que/ions1 = example1 ( :at is meant by social ju/ice1 :at is ! ju/ification ( private prop]ty1 or ! limits ( p]sonal lib]ty1 all lead u ultimately to e?ical f\ndations4 ,! same is1 ( c\rse1 true ( _m o!r problems4 ,! dem& = political rights ( wom5 is discuss$1 rightly no d\bt1 ^u gr\nds ( ju/ice1 & takes u to "s knotty po9ts4 ,does ju/ice imply ! equality ( ! sexes2 &1 if s1 9 :at s5se ( equality8 ,&1 beyond ?is1 we come to ! "q1 ,:at w\ld be ! be>+ ( our pr9ciples ^u ! in/itution ( m>riage1 & ^u ! family bond8 ,no "q c be m important1 or m vitally connect$ ) ,e?ics4 ,we1 at any rate1 c no long] answ] su* problems by any traditional dogmatism4 ,!y--& _m o!r que/ions :i* ,i ne$ n specify--h be5 ask$1 & h yet to be answ]$4 ,!y w probably n be answ]$ by a simple yes or no1 nor by any isolat$ solution ( a metaphysical puzzle4 ,und\bt$ly1 a va/ mass ( p w insi/ ^u be+ consult$1 & w adopt me?ods :i* _c be reg>d$ z philosophical4 ,!re=e1 x is a matt] ( press+ importance t all p :o c ?9k at all %\ld use _! own m9ds1 & %\ld d _! be/ to wid5 & /r5g!n ! influ5ce ( ! able/ ?9k]s4 ,! *aotic condition ( ! av]age m9d is our reason = try+ to /r5g!n ! influ5ce1 always too feeble1 ( ! g5u9e ?9k]s4 ,mu* t passes itself (f = ?\ght is simply old prejudice 9 a new dress4 ,tradition has always ?is1 inde$1 to say = itself3 t x repres5ts ! product ( mu* unconsci\s reason+ f exp]i5ce1 & t x is at lea/ compatible ) su* progress z has be5 hi!rto a*iev$4 ,progress has 9 future to take place 9 ! daylight1 & "u ! /ress ( ke5 discussion f e possible po9t ( view4 ,x w\ld be ra% inde$ to assume t we c hope to see ! sub/itution ( purely rational & sci5tific me?ods = ! old haphaz>d & t5tative blund]+ into slightly bett] ?+s4 ,x is possible en\gh t ! cre$ ( ! future may1 aft] all1 be a compromise1 admitt+ "s elem5ts ( high] tru?1 b attract+ ! popul> m9d by concessions to sup]/ition & ignorance4 ,we c h>dly hope to get rid ( ! root$ errors :i* h s a/oni%+ a vitality4 ,b we %\ld desire1 &1 s f> z 9 u lies1 endeav\r to secure ! pres5ce ( ! l>ge/ possible elem5t ( g5u9e & reason$ conviction 9 ! fai? ( our own & ! ris+ g5]ation4 ,i h n s\ght to say any?+ new4 ,i h only endeav\r$ to def9e ! g5]al position :i* we1 z ,i imag9e1 h agre$ to accept4 ,we hold 9 common t ! old dogmas are no long] t5able1 ?\gh we are v f> f be+ agre$ z to :at %\ld replace !m4 ,we h ea*1 ,i d>e say1 our own !ory2 we agree t our !ories1 :atev] !y may be1 are 9 ne$ ( /rict exam9ation1 ( v]ification1 x may be1 b x may be also ( modification or rejection4 ,we hope t su* societies z ?is may 9 ! fir/ place s]ve z c5tres = enc\rag+ & popul>is+ ! full & free discussion ( ! great que/ions4 ,we wi% t p :o h rea*$ a c]ta9 /age ( cultivation %\ld be made aw>e ( ! c\rse :i* is be+ tak5 by ^? :o may rightly claim to be 9 ! van4 ,we (t5 wi% to "k1 z well z we c1 :at is ! direction ( ! deep] curr5ts ( ?\ght2 :at g5u9e results1 = example1 h be5 obta9$ by hi/orical criticism1 especially z appli$ to ! religi\s hi/ory ( ! _w2 we want to "k :at are ! real po9ts n[ at issue 9 ! _w ( sci5ce2 ! true be>+ ( ! !ories ( evolution1 & s =?1 :i* are kn[n by "n f> beyond ! circle 9 :i* _! logical reason+ is really appreciat$2 we want to "k1 aga91 :at are ! problems :i* really int]e/ mod]n metaphysicians or psy*ologi/s2 9 :at directions !re seems to be a real promise ( future a*ievem5t1 & 9 :at directions x seems to be prov$ by exp]i5ce t any fur!r expansion ( intellectual en]gy is c]ta9 to result only 9 ! discov]y ( m>es' ne/s4 ,mat!w ,arnold w\ld h express$ ?is by say+ t we are requir$ to be made accessible to ! influ5ce ( ! ,zeitgei/4 ,!re is a difficulty1 no d\bt1 9 discov]+ by :at signs we may recognise ! utt]ances ( ! ,zeitgei/2 & di/+ui% betwe5 loyalty to ! real intellectual lead]s & a simple desire to be array$ 9 ! la/ new fa%ion 9 philosophy4 ,!re is no infallible sign2 &1 yet1 a g5u9e desire to discov] ! true l9es 9 :i* ?\ght is develop+1 is n ( ! less importance4 ,arnold1 l o!rs1 po9t$ ! moral by a contra/ betwe5 ,engl& & ,g]many4 ,! be/ t has be5 done 9 ,engl&1 x is said1 has g5]ally be5 done by amateurs & outsid]s4 ,!y h1 p]haps1 c]ta9 advantages1 z be+ less afraid to /rike into orig9al pa?s1 & ev5 ! orig9ality ( ignorance is n always1 ?\gh x may be 9 n9e cases out ( t51 a "n = fre% blund]+4 ,b if sporadic ,engli% writ]s h n[ & !n hit (f valuable ?\ghts1 !re c be no d\bt t we h _h a heavy price to pay4 ,! comp>ative abs5ce ( any class1 devot$1 l ,g]man pr(essors1 to a sy/ematic & comb9$ attempt to spread ! bord]s ( k & speculation1 has be5 an evil :i* is ! m felt 9 proportion z specialisation ( sci5ce & famili>ity ) previ\s a*ievem5ts become m important4 ,x w\ld be v easy to give p>ticul> in/ances ( our backw>dness4 ,h[ diff]5t w\ld h be5 ! c\rse ( ,engli% *ur* hi/ory1 said somebody1 if ,newman _h only kn[n ,g]man6 ,he w\ld h brea!d a l>g] air1 & might h desi/$--,i suppose t 0 ! mean+--f ! attempt to put life into c]ta9 dead bones4 ,& ) equal tru?1 x may be urg$1 h[ mu* bett] "w might h be5 done by ,j4 ,s4 ,mill if he _h really read ,kant6 ,he might n h be5 conv]t$1 b he w\ld h be5 sav$ f ma9ta9+ 9 _! crude =m1 doctr9es :i* und\bt$ly require modification4 ,"u 8 reign1 ,engli% ?\ght 0 con/antly busi$ ) false issues1 simply f ignorance ( ! mo/ effective criticism4 ,x is ne$less to po9t out h[ mu* "t is wa/$ 9 ! def5ce ( positions t h long be5 turn$ by ! enemy f %e] want ( acqua9tance ) ! relevant evid5ce1 or ) ! logic t has be5 reveal$ by ! sl[ ?ra%+ out ( ?or\gh controv]sy4 ,x w\ld be invidi\s p]haps to insi/ too mu* ^u ano!r obvi\s result3 ! ease ) :i* a man end[$ ) a gift ( popul> rhetoric1 & a facility = cat*+ at ! curr5t phrases1 c set up z a tea*]1 h[ev] palpable to ! initiat$ may be 8 ignorance4 ,sci5tific ?\ght has p]haps z mu* to fe> f ! false prophets :o take its "n z f ! op5 enemies :o try to /ifle its voice4 ,i w\ld r emphasise ano!r po9t1 p]haps less g5]ally rem>k$4 ,! /udy has its idols z well z its m>ket-place4 ,c]ta9 weaknesses are develop$ 9 ! academical atmosph]e z well z 9 ! ar5as ( public discussion4 ,freeman us$ to say t ,engli% hi/orians _h avoid$ c]ta9 errors into :i* ,g]man writ]s ( f> great] k & m ?or\gh s*ol>%ip _h fall51 simply because po9ts 7 miss$ by a pr(essor 9 a ,g]man univ]sity :i* 7 pla9 to ^? :o1 l _m ,engli%m51 _h to take a "p 9 actual political "w4 ,i ?9k t ?is is n )\t a mean+ = u4 ,we h le>nt1 v prop]ly1 to respect ,g]man rese>* & indu/ry2 & we are try+ 9 v>i\s directions to imitate _! example4 ,p]haps x w\ld be z well to keep an eye ^u "s ,g]man weaknesses4 ,a philosophy made = pr(essors is apt to be a philosophy = p$ants4 ,a pr(essor is b\nd to be omnisci5t2 he has to h an answ] to ev]y?+2 he is tempt$ to con/ruct sy/ems :i* w pass mu/] 9 ! lecture-room1 & to despise ! re/ ( _! applicability to daily life4 ,i confess myself to be old-fa%ion$ en\gh to %>e "s ( ! old ,engli% prejudices aga9/ ^? gigantic /ructures :i* h be5 ?r[n out by impos+ philosoph]s1 :o evolv$ complete sy/ems ( metaphysics & logic & religion & politics & /hetics out ( _! own consci\sness4 ,we h multipli$ pr(essors ( late1 & pr(essors are b\nd to write books1 & to magnify ! value ( _! own /udies4 ,!y mu/ make a %[ ( possess+ an encyclopdic !ory :i* w expla9 ev]y?+ & take into acc\nt all previ\s !ories4 ,sometimes1 p]haps1 !y w lose !mselves 9 endless subtleties & logoma*ies & con/ruct cobwebs ( ! bra91 pr$e/9$ to ! rubbi%-heap ( ext9ct philosophies4 ,x is en\gh1 h[ev]1 to urge t a m]e /ud5t may be ! bett] = keep+ 9 m9d ! necessity ( keep+ 9 m9d real imm$iate human int]e/s2 z ! s5tim5tali/ has to be rem9d$ ( ! importance ( /rictly logical consid]ations4 ,& ,i ?9k too t a v brief /udy ( ! mo/ fam\s sy/ems ( old days w conv9ce u t philosoph]s %\ld be cont5t ) a m mode/ attitude ?an !y h sometimes adopt$2 give up ! pret5sions to fram+ (f-h& !ories ( ?+s 9 g5]al1 & be cont5t to puzzle out a few imp]fect tru?s :i* may sl[ly "w _! way into ! g5]al /ructure ( ?\ght4 ,i wi% to speak humbly z befits "o :o _c claim any p>ticul> au?ority = 8 op9ion4 ,b1 9 all humility1 ,i sugge/ t if we c p]suade m5 ( reputation 9 ! regions :]e subtle ?\ght & accurate rese>* are duly valu$1 we %all be do+ good1 n only to ourselves1 b1 if ,i may :isp] x1 to !m4 ,we value _! atta9m5ts s highly t we desire _! influ5ce to spread beyond ! n>r[ prec9ct ( univ]sity lecture-rooms2 & _! ?\ghts be1 at ! same "t1 /imulat$ & vitalis$ by br++ !m into clos] contact ) ! problems :i* are daily =c$ ^u u 9 ! bus9ess ( daily life4 ,a divorce betwe5 ! m5 ( ?\ght & ! m5 ( action is really bad = bo?4 ,:atev] t5ds to break up ! intellectual /upor ( l>ge classes1 to r\se _! m9ds1 to increase _! k ( ! g5u9e "w t is be+ done1 to provide !m ev5 ) m ( su* recreations z ref9e & invigorate1 mu/ h our sympa?y1 & w be useful bo? to ^? :o conf] & to ^? :o receive in/ruction4 ,s1 aft] all1 a philosoph] c le>n few ?+s ( m importance ?an ! art ( translat+ 8 doctr9es into language intelligible & really in/ructive to ! outside _w4 ,!re 0 a p]iod :5 real ?9k]s1 z ,locke & ,b]keley & ,butl] & ,hume1 tri$ to express !mselves z pi?ily & po9t$ly z possible4 ,!y 71 say "s ( _! critics1 v %all[3 !y 7 ov]-anxi\s to suit ! ta/e ( wits & ! t[n3 & 9 too mu* fe> ( ! *>ge ( p$antry4 ,well1 if "s ( our pr(\nd] ?9k]s w\ld try = once to pack all t !y really h to say z closely z !y c1 in/ead ( try+ to play e conceivable *ange ^u e ?\ght t occurs to !m1 ,i fancy t !y w\ld be surpris$ bo? at ! n>r[ness ( ! space :i* !y w\ld occupy & ! comp>ative greatness ( ! effect !y w\ld produce4 ,an e?ical society %\ld aim at supply+ a meet+-place betwe5 ! exp]t & speciali/ on "o side1 &1 on ! o!r1 ) ! m5 :o h to apply ideas to ! complex concretes ( political & social activity4 ,h[ f> we c succe$ 9 fur!r+ t aim ,i ne$ n attempt to say4 ,b ,i w conclude by rev]t+ to "s ?\ghts at :i* ,i h9t$ at />t+4 ,y may ?9k t ,i h h>dly spok5 9 a v sangu9e or optimi/ic tone4 ,i h c]ta9ly admitt$ ! exi/5ce ( enorm\s difficulties & ! probabilities ( v imp]fect success4 ,i _c ?9k t ! promis$ l& ( :i* we are tak+ a ,pisgah sight is s ne> or ! view s satisfactory z might be wi%$4 ,a mirage l t :i* att5d$ our pr$ecessors may /ill be ex]cis+ illusions = u2 & ,i anticipate less an imm$iate fruition1 ?an a beg9n+ ( ano!r long cycle ( w&]+s ?r\gh a des]t1 let u hope r m f]tile ?an t :i* we h pass$4 ,if ?is be some?+ ( a confession y may easily expla9 x by p]sonal consid]ations4 ,9 an old controv]sy :i* ,i 0 read+ ! o!r day1 "o ( ! disputants obs]v$ t 8 adv]s>y held t ! _w 0 go+ f bad to worse4 ,i d n wond] at ! op9ion1 he rem>ks2 = ,i am e day m tempt$ to embrace x myself1 s9ce e day ,i am leav+ y\? fur!r beh9d4 ,i am old en\gh to feel ! =ce ( t rem>k4 ,)\t admitt+ s5ility1 ,i h liv$ long en\gh1 t is1 to "k well t = me ! bright] happ9ess is a ?+ ( ! pa/2 t ,i h to look back ev5 to realise :at x means2 & to feel t a sadd] col\r+ is conf]r$ ^u ! int]nal _w by ! eye :i* ha? kept wat* o'er man's mortality4 ,i h wat*$ ! brilliant promise ( _m contempor>ies eclips$ by premature dea?2 & h too (t5 _h to apply ,newton's rem>k1 ,if t man _h liv$1 we might h kn[n some?+4 ,lights :i* once *e]$ me h gone out1 & are go+ out all too rapidly2 &1 to say no?+ ( individuals1 ,i h also liv$ long en\gh to wat* ! decay ( once fl\ri%+ beliefs4 ,i c rememb]1 only too vividly1 ! confid5t hope ) :i* _m "y m51 :om ,i reg>d$ z ! de/9$ lead]s ( progress1 affirm$ t ! doctr9es :i* !y advocat$ 7 go+ =? conqu]+ & to conqu]2 & ?\gh ,i may /ill ?9k t ^? doctr9es _h a p]man5t value1 & 7 f> f des]v+ ! reproa*es n[ (t5 levell$ at !m1 ,i mu/ admit t we greatly exagg]at$ our omnisci5ce4 ,i am (t5 tempt$1 ,i confess1 to draw ! r melan*oly moral t "s ( my y\ng] fri5ds may be de/9$ to disillusionm5t1 & may be driv5 "s ?irty ye>s h5ce to admit t _! pres5t confid5ce 0 a little 9 excess4 ,i admit all ?is3 b ,i d n admit t my view c\ld sanction despond5cy4 ,i c see p]haps gr\nd = =ebod+ :i* ,i %\ld once h reject$4 ,i c realise m di/9ctly1 n only ! am\nt ( mis]y 9 ! _w1 b ! am\nt ( misdirect$ en]gy1 ! dulness ( ! av]age intellect1 & ! va/ deadweight ( sup]/ition & dread ( ! light ) :i* all improvem5t mu/ h to reckon4 ,& yet ,i also feel t1 if a complac5t optimism be impossible1 ! _w 0 nev] s full ( int]e/4 ,:5 we compla9 ( ! /ress & /ra9 & ov]-excitem5t ( mod]n society we indicate1 ,i ?9k1 a real evil2 b we also tacitly admit t no "o has any excuse = be+ dull4 ,9 e direction !re is abundant opportunity = brave & ?\ghtful m5 to f9d ! fulle/ occupation = :atev] en]gy !y may possess4 ,!re is "w to be f\nd ev]y:]e 9 ?is s5se1 & none b ! mo/ torpid c f9d an excuse = jo9+ ! spiritually unemploy$4 ,! fields1 surely1 are :ite = ! h>ve/1 ?\gh !re are we$s en\gh to be extirpat$1 & h>d en\gh furr[s to be pl\gh$4 ,we "k :at has be5 done 9 ! field ( physical sci5ce4 ,x has made ! _w inf9ite4 ,! days ( ! old pagan1 suckl$ 9 "s cre$ outworn1 are regrett$ 9 ,wordswor?'s sonnet2 = ! old pagan held to ! poetical view t a /> 0 ! *>iot ( a deity4 ,! poor deity1 h[ev]1 _h1 9 fact1 a duty z monoton\s z t ( a driv] 9 ! ,und]gr\nd ,railway4 ,to u a /> is a signal ( a new _w2 x sugge/s univ]se beyond univ]se2 s9k+ into ! inf9ite abysses ( space2 we see worlds =m+ or decay+ & rais+ at e mom5t problems ( a /range fasc9ation4 ,! prosaic tru? is really m poetical ?an ! old figm5t ( ! *ildi% imag9ation4 ,! fir/ great discov]y ( ! real nature ( ! />s did1 9 fact1 logically or n1 break up m effectually ?an p]haps any o!r cause1 ! old n>r[ & /ifl+ conception ( ! univ]se repres5t$ by ,dante's sup]lative p[]2 & made incr$ible ! sy/ems bas$ on ! conception t man c be ! c5tre ( all ?+s & ! univ]se creat$ = ! sake ( ?is place4 ,x is en\gh to po9t to ! simil> *ange due to mod]n !ories ( evolution4 ,! impassable b>ri]s ( ?\ght are brok5 d[n4 ,in/ead ( ! v]bal explanation1 :i* made e plant & animal an ultimate & inexplicable fact1 we n[ see 9 ea* a movem5t 9 an indef9ite s]ies ( complex processes1 /ret*+ back fur!r ?an ! eye c rea* into ! indef9ite pa/4 ,if we are sometimes /unn$ by ! s5se ( inconceivable va/ness1 we feel1 at lea/1 t no intellectual conqu]or ne$ ev] be affect$ by ! old fe>4 ,= him !re w always be fre% regions to conqu]4 ,e discov]y sugge/s new problems2 & ?\gh k may be simplifi$ & codifi$1 x w always supply a base = fre% explanations ( ! indef9ite regions beyond4 ,c t :i* is true ( ! physical sci5ces be appli$ 9 any degree to ! s-call$ moral sci5ces8 ,to ,b5?am1 ,i believe1 is ascrib$ ! wi% t he c\ld fall asleep & be wak$ at ! end ( successive c5turies1 to take note ( ! victories a*iev$ 9 ! int]vals by 8 utilit>ianism4 ,t5nyson1 9 "o ( 8 y\?ful poems1 play$ ) ! same ?\ght4 ,x w\ld be pleasant1 z ! /ory ( ! sleep+ beauty sugge/$1 to rise e hundr$ ye>s to m>k ! progress made 9 sci5ce & politics2 & to see ! ,titanic =ces t w\ld come to ! bir? 9 div]s climes & seasons2 = we1 he says-- ,= we are ,anci5ts ( ! e>?1 ,& 9 ! morn+ ( ! times4 ,t5nyson1 if ?is express$ 8 s]i\s belief1 seems to h lo/ 8 illusions2 & x is probable en\gh t ,b5?am's w\ld h _h "s unpleasant surprises c\ld 8 wi% h be5 grant$4 ,x is m ?an a c5tury s9ce 8 doctr9e 0 fir/ reveal$1 & yet ! _w has n become conv]t$2 & "s p d\bt :e!r x ev] w be4 ,if1 inde$1 ,b5?am's speculations _h be5 adopt$2 if we _h all become conv9c$ t morality means aim+ at ! greate/ happ9ess ( ! greate/ numb]2 if we 7 agre$ z to :at is happ9ess1 & :at is ! be/ way ( promot+ x1--!re w\ld /ill h be5 a va/ /ep to take1 no less ?an to p]suade p to desire to foll[ ! l9es ( conduct :i* t5d to m9imise unhapp9ess4 ,! m]e intellectual conviction t ?is or t w be useful is q a diff]5t ?+ f ! desire4 ,y no m tea* m5 to be moral by giv+ !m a s\nd e?ical !ory1 ?an y tea* !m to be good %ots by expla9+ ! !ory ( projectiles4 ,a religion implies a philosophy1 b a philosophy is n by itself a religion4 ,! dem& t x %\ld be is1 ,i hold1 f\nd$ ^u a wrong view z to ! relation betwe5 ! ab/ract !ory & ! art ( conduct4 ,to conv]t ! _w y h n m]ely to prove y\r !ories1 b to /imulate ! imag9ation1 to discipl9e ! passions1 to provide modes ( utt]ance = ! emotions & symbols :i* may repres5t ! fundam5tal beliefs--briefly1 to d :at is done by ! f\nd]s ( ! great religions4 ,to transmute speculation into action is a problem ( trem5d\s difficulty1 & ,i only glance 9 ! briefe/ way at its nature4 ,we1 ,i take x1 z memb]s ( ,e?ical ,societies1 h no claim to be1 ev5 9 ! humble/ way1 mission>ies ( a new religion3 b are simply int]e/$ 9 do+ :at we c to discuss 9 a pr(itable way ! tru?s :i* x ought to embody or reflect4 ,b t is itself a "w ( no trifl+ importance2 & we may imag9e t a ,b5?am1 refre%$ by 8 c5tury's slumb]1 & hav+ dropp$ "s ( 8 little p]sonal vanities1 w\ld on ! :ole be satisfi$ ) :at he saw4 ,if ,bacon c\ld aga9 come to life1 he too w\ld f9d t ! me?ods :i* he contemplat$ & ! doctr9es :i* he prea*$ 7 n>r[ & refutive2 yet 8 prophecies ( sci5tific gr[? h be5 m ?an realis$ by 8 successors1 modify+1 9 "s ways1 reject+ 8 pr9ciples4 ,& s ,b5?am might hold to-day t1 al?\gh 8 sacr$ =mula 0 n s exhau/ive or precise z he fanci$1 yet ! consci\s & delib]ate pursuit ( ! happ9ess ( mank9d _h tak5 a mu* m important place 9 ! aspirations ( ! "t4 ,he w\ld see t ! va/ *anges :i* h tak5 place 9 society1 va/ beyond all previ\s conception1 7 br++ up ev] new problems1 requir+ m elaborate me?ods1 & m sy/ematic reason+4 ,he w\ld obs]ve t _m ( ! abuses :i* he d5\nc$ h disappe>$1 & t ?\gh progress does n take place along ! precise l9es :i* he laid d[n1 !re is bo? a cle>] recognition ( ! great ends ( conduct1 & a g5]al advance 9 ! direction :i* he desir$4 ,t ?is c be c>ri$ on by promot+ a free & full discussion ( fir/ pr9ciples2 t ! great social evils :i* /ill exi/ c be dim9i%$1 & ! cre$ ( ! future1 h[ev] dim its outl9es may be to our p]ception1 may be purifi$ z mu* z possible f anci5t prejudice & sup]/ition1 is our fai?2 & h[ev] little we c d to help 9 c>ry+ out t process1 we desire to d t little4 ,,sci5ce ,,& ,,politics4#b ,x is ) great pleasure t ,i address y z presid5t ( ?is ,society4 ,y\r ma9 purpose1 z ,i und]/&1 is to promote ! s]i\s /udy ( political & social problems 9 a _s purg$ f ! prejudice & n>r[ness ( m]e p>ty conflict4 ,y desire1 t is1 to promote a sci5tific inve/igation ( "s ( ! mo/ important topics to :i* ! human m9d c devote itself4 ,!re is no purpose ( :i* ,i approve m cordially3 yet ! v /atem5t sugge/s a d\bt4 ,to speak ( sci5ce & politics toge!r is almo/ to sugge/ irony4 ,& if politics be tak5 9 ! ord9>y s5se2 if we ?9k ( ! discussions by :i* ! imm$iate fate ( measures & ( m9i/ries is decid$1 ,i %\ld be incl9$ to ?9k t !y belong to a sph]e ( ?\ght to :i* sci5tific ?\ght is h>dly applicable1 & 9 :i* ,i %\ld be p]sonally an unw>rantable intrud]4 ,my fri5ds h sometimes accus$ me1 inde$1 ( indiff]5ce to politics4 ,i confess t ,i h nev] be5 able to foll[ ! details ( p>ty w>f>e ) ! int]e/ :i* !y excite 9 "s m9ds3 & reasons1 ne$less to indicate1 h caus$ me to /ray fur!r & fur!r away f int]c\rse ) ! society 9 :i* su* details excite a pr$om9ant--,i d n mean to ins9uate an excessive--int]e/4 ,i feel t if ,i 7 to sugge/ any argum5ts be>+ directly ^u home rule or dise/abli%m5t1 ,i %\ld at once come "u t damnatory epi!t academical1 :i* s neatly cuts ! gr\nd f "u ! feet ( ! political amateur4 ,moreov]1 ,i recognise a good deal ( ju/ice 9 ! impli$ criticism4 ,an active politician :o wi%es to impress 8 doctr9es ^u 8 c\ntrym51 %\ld h a k9d ( k to :i* ,i c make no pret5sion4 ,i %>e ! ord9>y feel+s ( awful rev]5ce ) :i* ! human bookworm looks up to ! man ( bus9ess4 ,he has faculties :i* 9 me are rudim5t>y1 b :i* ,i c appreciate by _! contra/ to my own feebl5ess4 ,! k ( ! _w ascrib$ to lawy]s1 to politicians1 f9anci]s1 & su* p]sons1 l ! k ( ! human he>t s (t5 ascrib$ to dramati/s & noveli/s1 repres5ts1 ,i take x1 a v real k9d ( k2 b x is r an in/9ct ?an a set ( def9ite pr9ciples2 a p[] ( someh[ e/imat+ ! t5d5cies & motives ( _! fell[-creatures 9 a mass by rule ( ?umb1 r ?an by any di/9ctly assignable logical process2 only to be ga9$ by long exp]i5ce & %rewd obs]vation ( m5 & cities4 ,su* a faculty1 z x rea*es s\nd results )\t employ+ explicit def9itions & syllogisms & inductive processes1 sometimes incl9es its possessors to look d[n too contemptu\sly ^u ! closet /ud5t4 #b ,address to ! ,social & ,political ,education ,league1 #bi? ,m>*1 #ahib4 ,:ile1 h[ev]1 ,i frankly confess my hopeless incapacity = tak+ any "p 9 ! process by :i* p>ty plat=ms are con/ruct$1 ,i %\ld be a%am$ to admit t ,i 0 n v ke5ly int]e/$ 9 political discussions :i* seem to me to t\* vitally important matt]s4 ,& fully recognis+ ! va/ sup]iority ( ! practical man 9 8 own _w1 ,i also hold t he %\ld n treat me & my l z if we1 accord+ to ! fam\s comp>ison1 7 black beetles1 & he at ! opposite pole ( ! univ]se4 ,!re exi/s1 9 books at lea/1 su* a ?+ z political !ory1 ap>t f t claim+ to und]lie ! imm$iate special applications4 ,y\r practical man is giv5 to appeal+ to su* !ories n[ & !n2 ?\gh ,i confess t he too (t5 leaves ! impression ( hav+ tak5 !m up on ! spur ( ! mom5t to r\nd a p]oration & to give dignity to a popul> cry2 & t1 9 8 lips1 !y are apt to s\nd s crude & artificial t "o c only wond] at 8 condesc5d+ to notice !m4 ,he ridicules !m z ! poore/ ( platitudes :5ev] !y are us$ by an antagoni/1 & "o c only hope t 8 occasional homage implies t he too has a c]ta9 belief t !re ought to be1 & p]haps may some:]e be1 a s\nd !ory1 ?\gh he has n paid x mu* att5tion4 ,well1 we1 ,i take x1 diff] f him simply 9 ?is respect1 t we believe m decid$ly t su* !ory has at lea/ a pot5tial exi/5ce2 & t if hi!rto x is a v unc]ta9 & ambigu\s guide1 ! m]e attempt to "w x out s]i\sly may d some?+ to /r5g!n & deep5 our practical political convictions4 ,a man ( real ability1 :o is actively engag$ 9 politics )\t be+ subm]g$ by m]ely political intrigues1 c h>dly fail to wi% at lea/ to in/itute "s k9d ( rese>* into ! pr9ciples :i* guide 8 practice4 ,to su* a desire we may attribute "s v /imulat+ books1 su*1 = example1 z ,bagehot's ,physics & ,politics or ,mr4 ,bryce's philosophical /udy ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,:at ,i propose to d is to sugge/ a few consid]ations z to ! real value & prop] direction ( ^! argum5ts1 :i* lie1 z x 71 on ! bord]l& betwe5 ! imm$iate plat=m & ! ab/ract !ory4 ,philosoph]s h giv5 u ! "n ,sociology--a b>b>\s "n1 say "s--= ! sci5ce :i* deals ) ! subject matt] ( our inquiries4 ,is x m ?an a "n = a sci5ce :i* may or may n "s day come into exi/5ce8 ,:at is sci5ce8 ,x is simply organis$ k2 t "p ( our k :i* is def9ite1 e/abli%$ beyond reasonable d\bt1 & :i* a*ieves its task by =mulat+ :at are call$ sci5tific laws4 ,laws 9 ?is s5se are g5]al =mul1 :i*1 :5 ! necess>y data are suppli$1 w enable u to ext5d our k beyond ! imm$iate facts ( p]ception4 ,giv5 a planet1 mov+ at a giv5 spe$ 9 a giv5 direction1 & controll$ by giv5 attractive =ces1 we c det]m9e its place at a future mom5t4 ,or giv5 a vegetable organism 9 a giv5 environm5t1 we c pr$ict )9 c]ta9 limits ! way 9 :i* x w gr[1 al?\gh ! laws are too obscure & too vague to enable u to speak ( x ) any approa* to ! precision ( a/ronomy4 ,& we %\ld h rea*$ a simil> /age 9 sociology if f a giv5 social or political con/itution adopt$ by a giv5 population1 we c\ld prophesy :at w\ld be ! results4 ,i ne$ n say t any approximation to su* a*ievem5ts is almo/ indef9itely di/ant4 ,p]sonal claims to su* p[]s ( pr$iction r t5d to br+ discr$it ^u ! embryo sci5ce4 ,col]idge gives 9 ! ,biographia ,lit]>ia a qua9t /atem5t ( 8 own me?od4 ,on e great occurr5ce1 he says1 he tri$ to discov] 9 pa/ hi/ory ! ev5t t mo/ ne>ly resembl$ x4 ,he exam9$ ! orig9al au?orities4 ,!n fairly subtract+ ! po9ts ( diff]5ce f ! po9ts ( lik5ess1 z ! balance fav\r$ ! =m] or ! latt]1 he conjectur$ t ! result w\ld be ! same1 or diff]5t4 ,s1 = example1 he 0 able to prophesy ! end ( ! ,spani% ris+ aga9/ ,napoleon f ! ev5t ( ! w> betwe5 ,philip ,,ii4 & ! ,dut* prov9ces4 ,t is1 he cri$1 ,heads6 & on ?is occasion ! co9 did n come d[n tails4 ,b ,i ne$ h>dly po9t out h[ impossible is ! process ( political ari?metic4 ,:at is meant by add+ or subtract+ 9 ?is connection8 ,su* a rule ( ?ree w\ld c]ta9ly puzzle me1 &1 ,i fancy1 mo/ o!r obs]v]s4 ,we may say t ! insurrection ( a patriotic p1 :5 !y are help$ f )\t1 & _! oppressors h to op]ate f a di/ant base & to fight all ,europe at ! same "t1 w (t5 succe$2 & we may (t5 be "r2 b we %\ld n give ourselves ! airs ( prophets on t acc\nt4 ,!re are _m sup]ficial analogies ( ! same "*4 ,my pr$ecessor1 ,pr(essor ,dicey1 po9t$ out "s ( !m1 to confirm 8 r depress+ !ory t hi/ory is no?+ b an old almanac4 ,let me take a common "o1 :i*1 ,i ?9k1 may illu/rate our problem4 ,!re is a c]ta9 analogy betwe5 ! cases ( ,cs>1 ,cromwell1 & ,napoleon4 ,9 ea* case we h a milit>y dictator%ip z ! f9al outcome ( a civil w>4 ,"s p imag9$ t ?is analogy w\ld apply to ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & t ,wa%+ton or ,grant w\ld be :at 0 call$ ! man on horseback4 ,! reason+ really involv$ 01 9 fact1 a v simple "o4 ,! de/ruction ( an old sy/em ( gov]nm5t makes "s =m ( dictator%ip ! only alt]native to *aos4 ,x !re=e gives a *ance to ! "o indisputable hold] ( p[] 9 its mo/ unmi/akable %ape1 namely1 to ! g5]al ( a discipl9$ army4 ,a soldi] accord+ly assum$ p[] 9 ea* ( ! ?ree fir/ cases1 al?\gh ! diff]5ces betwe5 ! societies rul$ by ! ,roman1 ! ,engli% & ! ,fr5* dictators are s va/ t fur!r comp>ison soon becomes idle4 ,nei!r ,wa%+ton nor ,grant _h ! lea/ *ance ( mak+ !mselves dictators _h !y wi%$1 because ! civil w>s _h left gov]nm5ts p]fectly un9jur$ & capable ( dis*>g+ all _! functions1 & _h n produc$ a regul> army ) int]e/s ( its own4 ,9 ?is & o!r cases1 ,i %\ld say t su* an analogy may be to "s ext5t in/ructive1 b ,i %\ld c]ta9ly d5y t !re 0 any?+ l a sci5tific induction4 ,we1 happily1 c reason to "s ext5t ^u political matt]s by ! help ( simple common s5se be=e x has und]gone t process ( organisation1 ( r$uction to precise measurable /atem5ts1 :i* entitles x to be call$ a sci5tific proc$ure4 ,! resemblance ( ,wa%+ton to ,cromwell 0 ( ! ext]nal & sup]ficial ord]4 ,x may be comp>$ to ^? analogies :i* exi/ betwe5 memb]s ( diff]5t natural ord]s )\t imply+ any deep] resemblance4 ,a :ale1 we "k1 is l a fi% 9 s f> z he swims ab\t 9 ! sea1 & he has :atev] fi%like qualities are impli$ 9 ! ability to swim4 ,he w die on l&1 ?\gh n f ! same causes4 ,b1 physiologically1 he belongs to a diff]5t race1 & we %\ld make blund]s if we argu$ f ! ext]nal lik5ess to a clos] resemblance4 ,or1 to drop :at may be too fanciful a comp>ison1 x may be obs]v$ t all assemblies ( human be+s may be contra/$ 9 respect ( be+ num]\s or select1 & h c]ta9 prop]ties 9 consequ5ce4 ,we may !re=e make "s true & g5]al propositions ab\t ! contra/s betwe5 ! action ( small & l>ge consultative bodies :i* w apply to _m widely diff]5t cases4 ,a good _m1 &1 ,i ?9k1 "s really valuable obs]vations ( ?is k9d h be5 made1 & =m ! sub/ance ( _m g5]alisations laid d[n z to ! relative advantages ( democracy & ari/ocracy4 ,n[ ,i %\ld be dispos$ to say t su* rem>ks belong r to ! morphology ?an ! physiology ( ! social organism4 ,!y indicate ext]nal resemblances betwe5 bodies ( :i* ! intimate con/itution & ! :ole mode ( gr[? & conditions ( vitality1 may be entirely diff]5t4 ,su* analogies1 !n1 ?\gh n )\t _! value1 are f> f be+ prop]ly sci5tific4 ,:at rema9s8 ,!re is1 %all we say1 no sci5ce ( sociology--m]ely a heap ( vague1 empirical obs]vations1 too flimsy to be useful 9 /rict logical inf]5ce8 ,i %\ld1 ,i confess1 be apt to say s myself4 ,!n1 y may proce$1 is x n idle to attempt to introduce a sci5tific me?od8 ,& to t ,i %\ld emphatically reply1 ,no6 x is ( ! highe/ importance4 ,! "q1 !n1 w foll[1 h[ ,i c ma9ta9 ^! two positions at once4 ,& to t ,i make1 9 ! fir/ place1 ?is g5]al answ]3 ,sociology is /ill ( necessity a v vague body ( approximate tru?s4 ,we h n ! data necess>y = obta9+ any?+ l precise laws4 ,a ma!matician c tell y precisely :at he means :5 he speaks ( bodies mov+ "u ! influ5ce ( an attraction :i* v>ies inv]sely z ! squ>e ( ! di/ance4 ,b :at are ! attractive =ces :i* hold toge!r ! body politic8 ,!y are a numb] ( human passions1 :i* ev5 ! acute/ psy*ologi/s are z yet q unable to analyse or to classify3 !y act accord+ to laws ( :i* we h h>dly ! vague/ inkl+2 &1 ev5 if we possess$ any def9ite laws1 ! facts to :i* !y h to be appli$ are s amaz+ly complex z to defy any attempt at assign+ results4 ,!re is1 s f> z ,i c see1 no gr\nd = suppos+ t !re is or ev] c be a body ( precise tru?s at all capable ( comp>ison ) ! exact sci5ces4 ,b ?is obvi\s tru?1 ?\gh x implies v n>r[ limits to our hopes ( sci5tific results1 does n =ce u to r5\nce ! application ( sci5tific me?od4 ,! difficulty applies 9 "s degree ev5 to physiology z comp>$ ) physics1 z ! vital ph5om5a are incomp>ably m complex ?an ^? ) :i* we h to deal 9 ! simpl] sci5ces2 & yet nobody d\bts t a sci5tific physiology is a possibility1 &1 to "s ext5t1 a reality4 ,n[1 9 sociology1 h[ev] imp]fect x may be1 we may /ill apply ! same me?ods :i* h be5 s fruitful 9 o!r dep>tm5ts ( ?\ght4 ,we may und]take x 9 ! sci5tific _s :i* dep5ds ^u pati5t appeal to obs]vation1 & be guid$ by ! con/ant recollection t we are deal+ ) an organism1 ! v>i\s relations ( ^: con/itu5t p>ts are det]m9$ by c]ta9 laws to :i* we may1 p]haps1 make "s approximation4 ,we may d s1 al?\gh _! mutual actions & reactions are s complex & subtle t we c nev] hope to dis5tangle !m ) any approa* to complet5ess4 ,& "o te/ ( ! legitimacy ( our me?ods w be1 t al?\gh we d n hope to rea* any precise & def9itely assignable law1 we yet rea*1 or aim at rea*+1 results :i*1 :ile want+ 9 precision1 want precision alone to be capable ( incorporation 9 an ideal sci5ce su* z might actually exi/ = a sup]natural obs]v] ( incomp>ably sup]ior p[]s4 ,a man :o kn[s1 ?\gh he kn[s no?+ m1 t ! moon is kept 9 its orbit by =ces simil> to or id5tical ) ^? :i* cause ! fall ( an apple1 kn[s some?+ :i* only requires m def9ite treatm5t to be made into a g5u9e !ory ( gravitation4 ,if1 on ! contr>y1 he m]ely pays himself ) words1 ) vague guesses ab\t occult prop]ties1 or a suppos$ angel :o directs ! moon's c\rse1 he is /ill 9 ! unsci5tific /age4 ,8 !ory is n sci5ce /ill 9 ! vague1 b some?+ :i* /ops ! way to sci5ce4 ,n[1 if we c nev] hope to get fur!r ?an ! /ep :i* 9 ! problem ( gravitation repres5ts ! fir/ /ep t[>ds sci5ce1 yet t /ep may be a highly important "o4 ,x repres5ts a div]sion ( ! curr5t ( ?\ght f su* *annels z end 9 m]e %ift+ s&s ( speculation1 into ! *annel :i* leads t[>ds "s def9ite conclusion1 v]ifiable by exp]i5ce1 & lead+ to conclusions1 n v precise1 b yet (t5 po9t+ to important practical results4 ,x may1 p]haps1 be said t1 z ! *ange :i* ,i am suppos+ repres5ts only a *ange ( me?od & _s1 x c a*ieve no great results 9 actual assignable tru?4 ,well6 a *ange ( me?od & _s is1 9 my op9ion1 ( consid]able importance1 & v vague results w\ld /ill imply an improvem5t 9 ! *aos ( :at n[ passes = political philosophy4 ,i w try to indicate v briefly ! k9d ( improvem5t ( :i* we ne$ n despair4 ,fir/ ( all1 ,i conceive t1 z ,i h indicat$1 a really sci5tific habit ( ?\ght w\ld dispel _m hopeless logoma*ies4 ,:5 ,burke1 incomp>ably ! greate/ ( our philosophical politicians1 0 argu+ aga9/ ! ,am]ican policy ( ! ,gov]nm5t1 he express$ 8 hatr$ ( metaphysics--! ,s]bonian bog1 z he call$ x1 9 :i* :ole armies _h be5 lo/4 ,! po9t at :i* he aim$ 0 ! fruitless discussion ( ab/ract rights1 :i* prev5t$ p f apply+ _! m9ds to ! actual facts1 & f see+ t metaphysical entities ( t k9d 7 utt]ly wor?less :5 !y ceas$ to correspond to ! wants & aspirations ( ! peoples conc]n$4 ,he c\ld n1 z he said1 draw up an indictm5t aga9/ a nation1 because he c\ld n see h[ su* tr\bles z _h aris5 betwe5 ,engl& & ! ,colonies 7 to be decid$ by te*nical di/9ctions su* z pass$ curr5t at nisi prius4 ,i am afraid t ! mode ( reason+ condemn$ by ,burke has n yet gone out ( fa%ion4 ,i d n wi% to draw d[n ^u myself ! wra? ( metaphysicians4 ,i am p]fectly will+ t !y %\ld g on amus+ !mselves by attempt+ to d$uce ! fir/ pr9ciples ( morality f ab/ract consid]ations ( logical affirmation & d5ial4 ,b ,i w say ?is1 t1 9 any case1 & :atev] ! ultimate mean+ ( "r & wrong1 all political & social que/ions mu/ be discuss$ ) a cont9ual ref]5ce to exp]i5ce1 to ! cont5ts z well z to ! =m ( _! metaphysical concepts4 ,x is1 to my m9d1 q z idle to attempt to det]m9e ! value1 say1 ( a political !ory by reason+ indep5d5t ( ! "* & circum/ances ( ! nation & its con/itu5t memb]s1 z to solve a m$ical "q by ab/ract =mul1 in/ead ( by c>eful1 prolong$1 & se>*+ inve/igation into ! con/itution ( ! human body4 ,i ?9k t ?is requires to be ass]t$ s long z popul> orators cont9ue to declaim1 = example1 ab\t ! rights ( man1 or ! doctr9es ( political equality4 ,i by no means d5y1 or r ,i %\ld on due occasion emphatically ass]t1 t ! dem&s cov]$ by su* =mul are p]fectly "r1 & t !y re/ ^u a base ( ju/ice4 ,b ,i am =c$ to ?9k t1 z !y are g5]ally /at$1 !y c lead to no?+ b logoma*y4 ,:5 a man lays d[n "s su* sweep+ pr9ciple1 8 real object is to save himself ! tr\ble ( ?9k+4 ,s long z ! fir/ pr9ciples f :i* he />ts are equally applicable1--& x is ( ! v nature ( ^! pr9ciples t !y %\ld be equally applicable to m5 9 all times & ages1 to ,engli%m5 & ,am]icans1 ,h9doos & ,*9ese1 ,negroes & ,au/ralians1--!y are wor?less = any p>ticul> case1 al?\gh1 ( c\rse1 !y may be accid5tally true 9 p>ticul> cases4 ,9 %ort1 leav+ to ! metaphysicians--t is1 po/pon+ till ! ,greek ,kal5ds--any decision z to ! ultimate pr9ciples1 ,i say t e political !ory %\ld be prep>$ to ju/ify itself by an accurate obs]vation ( ! hi/ory & all ! v>i\s *>act]i/ics ( ! social organisation to :i* x is to be appli$4 ,?is po9ts to ! contra/ to :i* ,i h ref]r$3 ! contra/ betwe5 ! ke5 vigor\s good s5se ^u imm$iate que/ions ( ! day1 to :i* ,i (t5 li/5 ) ! unfeign$ admiration due to ! %rewd man ( bus9ess1 & ! paltry little outworn platitudes :i* he introduces :5 he wants to tag 8 argum5ts ) s\nd+ pr9ciples4 ,i ?9k1 to take an example out ( h>m's way1 t an excell5t in/ance is f\nd 9 ! fam\s ,am]ican treatise1 ! ,f$]ali/4 ,x des]ves all ! cr$it x has won s long z ! au?ors are discuss+ ! "r way to =m a con/itution :i* may satisfy ! wants & appease ! prejudices !n actually exi/+4 ,9 spite ( su* miscalculations z beset all =eca/s ( ! future1 !y %[ admirable good s5se & cle> appreciation4 ,b :5 !y ?9k x necess>y to appeal to ,montesquieu1 to tag _! argum5ts f common s5se ) little ornam5tal =mul le>nt f philosophical writ+s1 !y %[ a v amiable simplicity2 b !y also seem to me to s9k at once to ! level ( a clev] prize essay 9 a univ]sity competition4 ,! mis*ief may be slight :5 we are m]ely consid]+ lit]>y effect4 ,b x po9ts to a grav] evil4 ,9 political discussions1 ! half-tra9$ m9d has /rong convictions ab\t "s p>ticul> case1 & !n f9ds x easie/ to ju/ify its conviction by "s sweep+ g5]al pr9ciple4 ,x really />ts1 speak+ 9 t]ms ( logic1 by assum+ ! tru? ( its m9or & takes = grant$ t any major :i* w cov] ! m9or is !re=e e/abli%$4 ,no?+ saves s mu* tr\ble 9 ?9k+ z ! acceptance ( a good s\nd+ g5]ality or a self-evid5t tru?4 ,:]e y\r poor sci5tific work] plods along1 te/+ ! tru? ( 8 argum5t at e po9t1 mak+ qualifications & res]vations1 & admitt+ t e g5]al pr9ciple may require to be modifi$ 9 concrete cases1 y c ?us bo? jump to y\r conclusion & assume ! airs ( a philosoph]4 ,x is1 ,i fancy1 = ?is reason t p h su* a t5d5cy to lay d[n absolute rules ab\t really difficult po9ts4 ,x is s mu* easi] to say at once t all dr9k+ ought to be suppress$1 ?an to consid] h[1 9 actual circum/ances1 sobriety c be judici\sly enc\rag$2 & by assum+ a good self-evid5t law & d5\nc+ y\r oppon5ts z immoral wor%ipp]s ( exp$i5cy1 y place y\rself 9 an enviable position ( moral dignity & inaccessibility4 ,no argum5t c t\* y4 ,^! ab/ract rules1 too1 h ! conv5i5ce ( be+ /rangely ambigu\s4 ,i h be5 almo/ pa!tically affect$ :5 ,i h obs]v$ h[ "s ?or\ghly commonplace p]son plumes himself on pres]v+ 8 consi/5cy because he /icks resolutely to 8 p>ty dogmas1 ev5 :5 _! :ole mean+ has evaporat$4 ,"s ,engli% radicals boa/$ ( consi/5cy because !y refus$ to be conv9c$ by exp]i5ce t republicans "u a milit>y dictator c\ld become tyrann\s & oppressive4 ,at ! pres5t day1 ,i see _m wor?y g5tlem51 :o f be+ ?or\gh-go+ individuali/s1 h come to swall[ unconsci\sly ! fir/ pr9ciples ( socialism )\t ! lea/ p]ception t !y h *ang$1 simply because a new mean+ has be5 gradually ins9uat$ into ! sacr$ =mul4 ,sci5tific habits ( ?\ght1 ,i v5ture to sugge/1 w\ld t5d to free a man f ! dom9ion ( ^! ab/ract phrases1 :i* sometimes make m5 pu% absolute dogmas to extravagant results1 & sometimes bl9d !m to ! complete trans=mation :i* has tak5 place 9 _! true mean+4 ,! great te/ ( /atesman%ip1 x is said1 is ! k h[ & :5 to make a compromise1 & :5 to hold fa/ to a pr9ciple4 ,! t5d5cy ( ! ?\ghtless is to d5\nce all compromise z wick$1 & to /ick to a =m ( words )\t bo!r+ ab\t ! real mean+4 ,belief 9 fads--,i _c avoid ! bit ( slang--& s+ul> malleability ( real convictions are sometimes g5]at$ j by want ( s]i\s ?\ght2 &1 at any rate1 bo? ph5om5a are v common at pres5t4 ,?is sugge/s ano!r aspect ( reason+ 9 a sci5tific _s1 namely1 ! importance :i* x atta*es to a "r compreh5sion ( ! practicable4 ,! sci5tific view is sometimes describ$ z fatali/ic4 ,a g5u9e sci5tific !ory implies a true e/imate ( ! great =ces :i* m\ld in/itutions1 & !re=e a true appreh5sion ( ! limits )9 :i* !y c be modifi$ by any propos$ *ange4 ,we all rememb] ,sydney ,smi?'s fam\s illu/ration1 9 reg>d to ! opposition to ! ,re=m ,bill1 ( ,mrs4 ,p>t+ton's attempt to /op ! ,atlantic ) h] mop4 ,su* an appeal is sometimes describ$ z immoral4 ,_m politicians1 no d\bt1 f9d 9 x an excuse = immoral conduct4 ,!y assume t su* & su* a measure is inevitable1 & !re=e !y ?9k !mselves ju/ifi$ = advocat+ x1 ev5 ?\gh !y hold x to be wrong4 ,inde$1 ,i obs]ve t _m excell5t j\rnali/s are app>5tly unable to p]ceive any di/9ction betwe5 ! ass]tion t a measure w be pass$1 & t x ought to be pass$4 ,und\bt$ly1 if ,i ?9k a measure unju/1 ,i ought to say t x is unju/1 ev5 if ,i am sure t x w nev]!less be c>ri$1 &1 9 "s cases1 ev5 ?\gh ,i may be a m>tyr to my opposition4 ,if x is inevitable1 x c be c>ri$ )\t my help1 & my prote/ may at lea/ s[ a se$ = future reaction4 ,b ?is is no answ] to ! argum5t ( ,sydney ,smi? :5 tak5 9 a reasonable s5se4 ,! opposition to ! ,re=m ,bill 0 a p>ticul> case ( ! opposition to ! advance ( democracy4 ,! /atem5t t democracy has advanc$ & w advance1 is sometimes tak5 to be fatali/ic4 ,p :o make ! ass]tion may answ] = !mselves4 ,i %\ld answ]1 z ,i ?9k we %\ld all answ] n[1 t ! advance ( democracy1 desirable or undesirable1 dep5d$ ^u causes f> too deep & g5]al to be p]man5tly affect$ by any ,re=m ,bill4 ,x 0 only "o aspect ( va/ social *anges :i* _h be5 go+ on = c5turies2 & to propose to /op x by ?r[+ out ! ,re=m ,bill 0 l propos+ to /op a *ild's gr[? by =c+ him to g on we>+ 8 long clo!s4 ,sydney ,smi?'s answ] might be immoral if x simply meant1 don't fight because y w be beat54 ,x may (t5 be a duty to take a beat+4 ,b x 01 p]haps1 r a way ( say+ t if y want to /op ! gr[? ( democracy1 y mu/ beg9 by alt]+ ! c\rse ( ! social1 intellectual & moral *anges :i* h be5 op]at+ ?r\gh _m g5]ations1 & t unless y c d t1 x is idle to oppose "o p>ticul> coroll>y1 & s to make a revolution inevitable1 in/ead ( a peaceful developm5t4 ,to say t any *ange is impossible 9 ! absolute s5se1 may be fatalism2 b x is simple good s5se1 & !re=e good sci5ce1 to say t to produce any *ange :atev] y mu/ br+ to be> a =ce adequate to ! *ange4 ,:5 a man's leg is brok51 y c't expect to heal x by a bit ( /ick+-pla/]2 a pill is n suppos$1 n[1 to be a cure = an e>?quake2 & to insi/ ^u su* facts is n to be fatali/ic1 b simply to say t a rem$y mu/ be> "s proportion to an evil4 ,x is a commonplace to obs]ve ^u ! advantage :i* w\ld h be5 ga9$ if our gr&fa!rs w\ld h look$ at ! ,fr5* ,revolution sci5tifically4 ,a t]rible cata/rophe _h occurr$ abroad4 ,! true moral1 z we all see n[1 0 t ,engl& %\ld make su* re=ms z w\ld obviate ! dang] ( a simil> cata/rophe at home4 ,! moral :i* too _m p drew 0 too (t51 t all re=ms %\ld be /opp$2 ) ! result t ! evils grew worse & social /rata m pr(\ndly ali5at$4 ,x is a fir/ pr9ciple ( sci5tific reason+1 t a break-d[n ( social ord] implies "s antec$5t defect1 dem&+ an adequate rem$y4 ,x is a prim>y assumption ( p>ty argum5t1 t ! opposite p>ty is :olly wrong1 t its action is p]fectly gratuit\s1 & ei!r causeless or produc$ by ! direct inspiration ( ! devil4 ,! /ruggle1 ^u ! sci5tific !ory1 repres5ts two elem5ts 9 an evolution :i* c be accompli%$ peacefully by su* a recon/ruction z w reconcile ! conflict+ aims & sub/itute h>mony = discord4 ,on ! o!r doctr9e1 x is a conflict ( hopelessly antagoni/ic pr9ciples1 "o ( :i* is to be =cibly cru%$4 ,i hope t ,i am n too sangu9e1 b ,i _c help believ+ t 9 ?is respect we h improv$1 & improv$ by imbib+ "s ( ! sci5tific doctr9e4 ,i ?9k t 9 rec5t discussions ( ! mo/ important topics1 h[ev] bitt] & h[ev] mu* di/ort$ by ! old p>ty _s1 !re is yet a cle>] recognition ?an ( old1 t widely-spread discont5t is n a reason = arbitr>y suppression1 b = seek+ to und]/& & remove its causes4 ,we %\ld act 9 ! _s ( ,sp9oza's great say+2 & x %\ld be our aim1 z x 0 8 c>e1 nei!r to mock1 to bewail1 nor to d5\nce m5's actions1 b to und]/& !m4 ,t is equally true ( m5's op9ions4 ,if !y are viol5t1 passionate1 subv]sive ( all ord]1 our duty is n b>e d5unciations1 b a cle> compreh5sion ( ! causes1 n ( ! o/5sible reasons1 ( _! op9ions1 & a resolution to remove ^? causes4 ,i ?9k ?is view has made "s way3 ,i am sure t x w make m way if we become m sci5tific 9 _s2 & x is "o ( ! ma9 reasons = enc\rag+ su* a _s4 ,! mo/ obvi\s difficulty j n[ is "o ^u :i* ,i mu/ t\*1 ?\gh ) "s fe> & trembl+4 ,a t]rible weapon has lately be5 com+ into p]fection1 to :i* its inv5tors h giv5 ! elegant "n ( a boom4 ,! pr9ciple is--s f> z ,i c und]/&--t ! "r frame ( m9d = deal+ ) ! grave/ problems is to g5]ate a /ate ( viol5t excitem5t1 to adopt any rem$y1 real or suppos$1 :i* sugge/s itself at ! mom5t1 & to d5\nce ev]ybody :o sugge/s difficulties z a cynic or a cold-blood$ egoi/2 & !re=e to treat grave *ronic & organic diseases ( society by spasmodic impulses1 to make /r+5t laws )\t condesc5d+ to ask :e!r !y w "w1 & try ! bolde/ exp]im5ts )\t consid]+ :e!r !y are likely to increase or dim9i% ! evil4 ,?is1 z "s p ?9k1 is "o ( ! inevitable consequ5ces ( democracy4 ,i hope t x is n2 b if x is1 x is "o ( ! inevitable consequ5ces aga9/ :i* we1 z cultivators ( sci5ce1 %\ld mo/ s]i\sly prote/1 9 ! hope t we may "s day f9d ,philip sob] en\gh to consid] ! consequ5ces ( 8 actions "u ! influ5ce ( spiritual intoxication4 ,pr(essor ,huxley1 9 "o ( ^? sm>t passages ( arms :i* s =cibly illu/rat$ 8 intellectual vig\r1 gave an apologue1 :i* ,i wi% t ,i c\ld /eal )\t ackn[l$gm5t4 ,he spoke ( an ,iri% c>man :o1 on be+ told t he 0 n go+ 9 ! "r direction1 repli$ t he 0 at any rate go+ at a great pace4 ,! sci5tific doctr9e is simply t we %\ld look at ! map be=e we set out = ,utopia2 & ,i ?9k t a doctr9e :i* requires to be en=c$ by e means 9 our p[]4 ,?is t5d5cy1 ( c\rse1 comes out prom95tly 9 ! important discussions ( social & economic problems4 ,t is a matt] ^u :i* ,i _c n[ dwell1 & :i* has be5 suffici5tly emphasis$ by _m em95t writ]s4 ,if mod]n orators conf9$ !mselves to urg+ t ! old economi/s exagg]at$ _! claims to sci5tific accuracy1 & 71 9 po9t ( fact1 guilty ( _m logical errors & ha/y g5]alisations1 ,i1 at lea/1 c\ld fully agree ) !m4 ,b ! g5]al impression seems to be1 t because ! old argum5ts 7 faulty1 all argum5t is irrelevant3 t because ! alleg$ laws ( nature 7 wrongly /at$1 !re are no laws ( nature at all2 & t we may proce$ to re>range society1 to fix ! rate ( wages or ! r5t ( l& or ! incomes ( capitali/s )\t any ref]5ce at all to ! conditions "u :i* social arrangem5ts h be5 work$ out & actually c>ri$ on4 ,?is is1 9 %ort1 to sanction ! mo/ obvi\s weakness ( popul> movem5ts1 & to assure ! ignorant & ?\ghtless t !y are above reason1 & _! crude guesses infallible guides to tru?4 ,"o view :i* tries to give "s plausibility to ^! assumptions is summ$ up 9 ! n[ curr5t phrase ab\t ! masses & ! classes4 ,we all "k ! regul> process ( logical f5ce ( ! j\rnali/1 i4e41 ?ru/ & p>ry1 :i* is repeat$ :5ev] su* que/ions turn up4 ,! ,radical calls 8 oppon5t ,tory & reaction>y4 ,! wick$ ,tory1 x is said1 ?9ks only ( ! class int]e/2 believes t ! nation exi/s = ! sake ( ! ,h\se ( ,lords2 lives 9 a little citadel provid$ ) all ! good ?+s1 :i* he is ready to def5d aga9/ e attempt at a ju/] di/ribution2 selfi%ness is 8 "o motive2 repression by brute =ce 8 only !ory ( gov]nm5t2 & 8 views ( life 9 g5]al are ^? ( ! wick$ cynics :o gaze f _! w9d[s 9 ,pall ,mall4 ,!n we h ! roll ( all ! abuses :i* h be5 def5d$ by ?is miscreant & 8 l s9ce ! days ( ,george ,,iii4--slav]y & capital puni%m5t1 & p5sions & s9ecures1 & protection & ! *ur* e/abli%m5t4 ,! popul> in/9ct1 x is urg$1 has be5 9 ! "r 9 s _m cases t !re is an enorm\s presumption 9 fav\r ( ! infallibility ( all its in/9cts4 ,! reply1 ( c\rse1 is equally obvi\s4 ,y\r boa/1 says ! ,cons]vative1 t y please ! masses1 is 9 effect a confession t y truckle to ! mob4 ,y mean t y\r doctr9es spread 9 proportion to ! ignorance ( y\r con/itu5ts4 ,y prove ! m]its ( y\r !ories by %[+ t !y disgu/ p ! m !y ?9k4 ,! ,lib]alism ( a di/rict1 x has be5 argu$1 v>ies ) ! numb] ( convictions = drunk5ness4 ,if x be easy to d5\nce our ance/ors1 x is also easy to %[ h[ !y built up ! great empire :i* n[ %elt]s u2 & h[1 if !y _h truckl$1 z y w\ld h u truckle1 to popul> :ims1 we %\ld h be5 depriv$ ( our comm]ce1 our manufactures1 & our position 9 ! civilis$ _w4 ,& !n x is easy to produce a li/ ( all ! base demagogues :o h misl$ popul> impati5ce & ignorance f ! days ( ,cleon to ^? ( ! ,fr5* ,conv5tion1 or ( ! la/ disreputable boss bloat$ ) corruption & ! plund] ( "s great ,am]ican city4 ,?is is ! result1 x is sugge/$1 ( p&]+ to ! mob1 & g5]ally o/racis+ ! intellig5t citiz54 ,i m]ely sket* ! famili> argum5ts :i* any j\rnali/ has ready at h&1 &1 by a suffici5t spice ( ref]5ces to actual affairs1 c "w up into any numb] ( po9t$ lead+ articles4 ,i w only obs]ve t su* argum5ts seem to me to illu/rate t curi\s unreality ( political !ories ( :i* ,i h spok54 ,x seems to be tacitly assum$ on bo? sides1 t votes are det]m9$ by a process ( g5u9e reason+4 ,"o side may be ignorant & ! o!r prejudic$2 b ! argum5ts ,i h recapitulat$ seem to imply ! assumption t ! con/itu5ts really reflect ^u ! reasons = & aga9/ ! measures propos$1 & make up _! m9ds accord+ly4 ,!y are spok5 ( z ?\gh !y 7 a body ( exp]ts1 inve/igat+ a sci5tific doctr9e1 or at lea/ a jury guid$ by ! evid5ce laid be=e !m4 ,^u t assumption1 z x seems to me1 ! moral w\ld be t ! :ole sy/em is a palpable absurdity4 ,! va/ majority ( vot]s sc>cely ?9k at all1 & w\ld be incapable ( judg+ if !y did4 ,hundr$s ( ?\s&s c>e m = ,dr4 ,grace's la/ score or ! w9n] ( ! ,d]by ?an = any political "q :atev]4 ,if !y h op9ions1 !y h nei!r ! tra9+ nor ! k necess>y to =m any conclusion :atev]4 ,consid] ! /ate ( m9d ( ! av]age vot]--( n9e m5 out ( t51 say1 :om y meet 9 ! ,/r&4 ,ask y\rselves hone/ly :at value y w\ld atta* to 8 op9ion ^u any great "q--say1 ( =eign politics or political economy4 ,has he ev] really ?\ght ab\t !m8 ,is he sup]ficially acqua9t$ ) any ( ! relevant facts8 ,is he ev5 capable ( ! imag9ative ef=t necess>y to set be=e him ! va/ int]e/s (t5 affect$8 ,& w\ld ! simple fact t he said ,yes to a giv5 "q e/abli% 9 y\r m9d ! smalle/ presumption aga9/ ! probability t ! "r answ] w\ld be ,no8 ,:at are ! *ances t a majority ( p1 ( :om n "o 9 a hundr$ has any qualifications = judg+1 w give a "r judgm5t8 ,yet t is ! te/ sugge/$ by mo/ ( ! conv5tional argum5ts on bo? sides2 = ,i d n say ?is z int5d+ to accept ! anti-democratic application4 ,x is j z applicable1 ,i believe1 to ! educat$ & ! well-(f4 ,i ne$ n lab\r ! po9t1 :i* is suffici5tly obvi\s4 ,i am q conv9c$ t1 = example1 ! vot]s = a univ]sity w be guid$ by unreasonable prejudices z ! vot]s = a metropolitan con/itu5cy4 ,9 "s ways !y w be worse4 ,to f9d p :o believe hone/ly 9 antiquat$ prejudices1 y mu/ g to ! p :o h be5 tra9$ to believe !m4 ,an ecclesia/ical sem9>y c manage to drill ! pupils into pr(ess+ absurdities f :i* av]age common s5se w\ld %r9k1 & only supply logical ma*9]y = w>r+ aga9/ reason4 ,! ref]5ce to enlight5$ ari/ocracies is common en\gh2 b ,i _c discov] t1 tak5 9 a lump1 any p>ticul> ari/ocracy _c be z n>r[-m9d$1 %ort-sight$1 & selfi%1 z ! mo/ rampant democracy4 ,9 po9t ( fact1 we all "k t political action is det]m9$ by in/9ct r ?an by reason4 ,i d n mean t in/9ct is oppos$ to reason3 x is simply a crude1 undevelop$1 in>ticulate =m ( reason2 x is bl5d$ ) prejudices = :i* no reason is assign$1 or ev5 reg>d$ z requisite4 ,su* bl9d in/9cts1 imply+ at mo/ a k9d ( grop+ aft] error1 necess>ily gov]n ! majority ( m5 ( all classes1 9 political z 9 o!r movem5ts4 ,! old apologi/s us$ to argue on ! hypo!sis t m5 mu/ h accept$ ,*ri/ianity on ! /r5g? ( a s]i\s inquiry into ! evid5ces4 ,! fallacy ( ! doctr9e is suffici5tly pla93 !y accept$ x because x suit$ !m on ! :ole1 & 0 fitt$1 no d\bt1 to _! intellectual ne$s1 b 0 also fitt$ to _! emotional & moral ne$s z develop$ "u c]ta9 social conditions4 ,! inf]5ce f ! g5]al acceptance ( any !ory is n t x is true1 b t x is true en\gh to satisfy ! v feeble dem& = logic--t x is n palpably absurd or self-contradictory2 & t1 = "s reason or o!r1 x satisfies also ! imag9ation1 ! affections1 & ! aspirations ( ! believ]s4 ,n to g into o!r que/ions1 ?is s+le rem>k indicates1 ,i ?9k1 ! attitude :i* ! sci5tific obs]v] w\ld adopt 9 reg>d to ?is anci5t controv]sy4 ,he w\ld /udy ! causes z well z ! alleg$ reasons assignable = any g5]al in/9ct1 & admit t its exi/5ce is "o ( ! prim>y data :i* h to be tak5 into acc\nt4 ,to d5\nce democracy or ari/ocracy is easy en\gh2 & x saves tr\ble to assume t ,god is on "o side & ! devil on ! o!r4 ,! true me?od1 ,i take x1 is t :i* 0 indicat$ by ,tocqueville's great book ^u democracy 9 ,am]ica2 a book :i*1 if ,i may tru/ my own impressions1 ?\gh necess>ily imp]fect z reg>ds ,am]ica1 is a p]fectly admirable example ( ! fruitful me?od ( /udy+ su* problems4 ,?\gh an ari/ocrat by bir? & bre$+1 ,tocqueville _h ! wisdom to exam9e democratic beliefs & in/itutions 9 a ?or\ghly imp>tial _s2 &1 in/ead ( simply d5\nc+ or admir+1 to trace ! g5esis ( ! preval5t ideas & _! close connection ) ! g5]al /ate ( social developm5t4 ,an inquiry conduct$ 9 t _s w\ld n lead to ! absolute dogmatic conclusions 9 :i* ! sup]ficial controv]siali/ delights4 ,x w\ld %[1 p]haps1 t !re 0 at lea/ ?is mu* tru? 9 ! democratic cont5tion1 t ! masses are1 by _! position1 exempt f "s ( ! prejudices :i* are +ra9$ 9 ! memb]s ( a small] ca/e2 t !y are !re=e m accessible to c]ta9 moral consid]ations1 & m anxi\s to promote ! greate/ happ9ess ( ! great] numb]4 ,b x might also %[ h[ ! weakness ( ! ignorant & untra9$ m9d produces ! *>act]i/ic evils ( s5tim5talism & impati5ce1 ( a belief 9 ! omnipot5ce ( legislation1 & an excessive jeal\sy ( all sup]iorities2 & might possibly1 too1 exhibit c]ta9 m]its :i* are impress$ ^u ! ari/ocrat by 8 s5se ( ! obligations ( nobility4 ,i d n 9 ! lea/ mean to express any op9ion ab\t su* que/ions2 ,i desire only to indicate ! temp] 9 :i* ,i conceive t !y %\ld be approa*$4 ,i h liv$ long en\gh to be utt]ly unable to believe--?\gh "s old] politicians ?an ,i seem /ill to believe1 especially on ! eve ( a dissolution--t any ( our p>ty l9es co9cide ) ! l9es betwe5 good & bad1 wise & fooli%4 ,e "o1 ( c\rse1 w repudiate ! ab/ract !ory4 ,yet we may notice h[ con/antly x is assum$2 & c see to :at fallacies x leads :5 we look = a mom5t at ! hi/orical que/ions :i* no long] unite p>ty feel+4 ,few1 inde$1 ev5 ( our hi/orians1 c write )\t tak+ p>ty views ( su* que/ions4 ,ev5 ! c&id & imp>tial seem to des]ve ^! epi!ts *iefly because !y want imag9ation1 & c ca/ blame or applaud alt]nately1 because !y d n ent] into ! real _s ( ei!r p>ty4 ,_! views are sometimes a m$ley ( inconsi/5t !ories1 r ?an a deep] view :i* might reconcile app>5t inconsi/5cies4 ,i w only m5tion "o po9t :i* (t5 /rikes me1 & may lead to a relevant rem>k4 ,e royali/ hi/orian1 we all "k1 lab\rs to prove t ,*>les ,i4 0 a sa9t1 & ,cromwell a hypocrite4 ,! view 0 natural at ! "t ( ! civil w>s2 b x n[ %\ld sugge/ an obvi\s logical dilemma4 ,if ! mon>*ical !ory :i* ,*>les repres5t$ 0 s\nd1 & ,*>les 0 also a wise & good man1 :at caus$ ! rebellion8 ,a p]fect man driv+ a p]fect eng9e %\ld surely n h run x (f ! rails4 ,! royali/ ought to seek to prove t ,*>les 0 a fool & a knave1 to acc\nt = ! collapse ( royalty2 & ! case aga9/ royalty is all ! /rong]1 if y c\ld %[ t ,*>les1 9 spite ( impeccable virtue1 0 =c$ by 8 position to end on ! scaffold4 ,*oose betwe5 him & ! sy/em :i* he appli$4 ,s ,ca?olics & cons]vatives are nev] tir$ ( d5\nc+ ,h5ry ,,viii4 & ! ,fr5* revolutioni/s4 ,s f> z ,i c guess 7,i "k v little ab\t x71 _! case is a v /rong "o4 ,i someh[ believe1 9 spite ( ,fr\de1 t ,h5ry ,,viii4 0 a tyrant2 & eulogies ^u ! reign ( t]ror g5]ally conv9ce me t a great] set ( sc\ndrels seldom came to ! surface1 ?an ! p]petrators ( ^? enormities4 ,b !n ! real inf]5ce is1 to my m9d1 v diff]5t4 ,h5ry ,,viii4 0 ! product ( ! previ\s "t2 ! ultimate outcome ( t ideal /ate ( ?+s 9 :i* ! *ur* _h its own way dur+ ! ages ( tru?4 ,mu/ n ! sy/em h be5 wrong1 :5 x _h s lo/ all moral weight z to be at ! m]cy ( a ruffianly plund]]8 ,& s1 z we all admit n[1 ! /ronge/ condemnation ( ! old ,fr5* rgime is ! fact t x _h n only produc$ su* a set ( miscreants z ^? :o h ca/ p]man5t odium ev5 ^u s\nd pr9ciples2 b t its k+ & rul]s w5t d[n be=e !m )\t ev5 an attempt at manly resi/ance4 ,a revolution does n1 p]haps1 ju/ify itself2 x does n prove t its lead]s judg$ rightly & act$ virtu\sly3 b1 beyond a d\bt1 x condemns ! previ\s ord] :i* br\ght x ab\t4 ,:at a horrid ?+ is ! explosion6 ,:y1 is ! obvi\s answ]1 did y all[ ! explosive mat]ials to accumulate1 till ! fir/ mat* mu/ fire ! tra98 ,! greate/ blot ^u ,burke1 ,i ne$ h>dly say1 is t 8 passions bl9d$ him 9 8 age1 to ?is1 z we n[ see1 inevitable conclusion4 ,! old-fa%ion$ view1 ,i fancy1 is a relic ( t view ( hi/ory 9 :i* all ! great ev5ts & *anges 7 p]sonifi$ 9 "s individual h]o4 ,! old legislators1 ,lycurgus & ,solon & ! l1 7 suppos$ to h creat$ ! in/itutions :i* 7 really ! products ( a sl[ gr[?4 ,:5 a fav\rable *ange due to economical causes took place 9 ! position ( ! ,fr5* peasantry1 ! peasants1 says ,mi*elet some:]e1 call$ x good k+ ,h5ry4 ,c>lyle's !ory ( h]o wor%ip is p>tly an application ( ! same mode ( ?\ght4 ,y embody y\r pr9ciple 9 "s concrete p]son2 canonise him or damn him1 z he repres5ts tru? or error2 & take cr$it to y\rself = insight & = a l(ty morality4 ,x becomes a k9d ( blasphemy to sugge/ t y\r great man1 :o ?us /&s = an inspir$ lead] dropp$ /raight out ( heav51 0 probably at be/ v imp]fect1 "o-sid$1 & at lea/ z mu* ( a product z a produc]4 ,! crudity ( ! me?od is ev5 reg>d$ z a pro( ( its morality4 ,y\r common-place morali/ likes to call ev]y?+ black or :ite2 he despises all qualifications z casui/ical ref9em5ts1 & plumes himself on ! decisive v]dict1 sa9t or s9n]1 ) :i* he labels ! adh]5ts & oppon5ts ( 8 p>ty4 ,& yet we "k z a fact1 h[ absurd are su* judgm5ts4 ,we "k h[ m5 are betray$ into bad causes f good motives1 or put on ! "r side because x happ5s to h>monise ) _! l[] int]e/s4 ,sa9ts--s we are told--h be5 ! cruelle/ p]secutors2 & k+s1 act+ f purely selfi% ambition1 h consolidat$ nations or cru%$ effete & mis*iev\s in/itutions4 ,if we c make up our m9ds z to :i* 01 on ! :ole1 ! be/ cause1--&1 g5]ally speak+1 bo? sides repres5t$ "s s\nd pr9ciple1--x does n foll[ t x 0 also ! cause ( all ! be/ m54 ,be=e we c judge ( ! individual1 we mu/ answ] a hundr$ difficult que/ions3 ,if he took ! "r side1 did he take x f ! "r motives8 ,0 x f p]sonal ambition or pure patriotism8 ,did he see :at 0 ! real "q at issue8 ,did he =esee ! inevitable effect ( ! measures :i* he advocat$8 ,if he did n see1 0 x because he 0 human1 & !re=e %ort-sight$2 or because he 0 brutal1 & !re=e want+ 9 sympa?y2 or because he _h intellectual defects1 :i* made x impossible = him to escape f ! common illusions ( ! "t8 ,^!1 & any numb] ( simil> difficulties1 arise :5 we try to judge ( ! great m5 :o =m l&m>ks 9 our hi/ory1 f ! "t ( ,boadicea to t ( ,que5 ,victoria4 ,!y are always amus+1 & sometimes important2 b !re is always a dang] t !y may w>p our views ( ! vital facts4 ,! beauty ( ,m>y ,que5 ( ,scots /ill disqualifies _m p f judg+ calmly ! great issues ( a mo/ important hi/orical epo*4 ,i w leave x to y to apply ?is to our views ( mod]n politics1 & judge ! value ( ! ord9>y assumption :i* assumes t all good m5 mu/ be on "o side4 ,n[ we may say t ! rem$y = su* illusions po9ts to ! importance ( a doctr9e :i* is by no means new1 b :i* has1 ,i ?9k1 be>+s n always recognis$4 ,we h be5 told1 aga9 & aga91 s9ce ,plato wrote 8 ,republic1 t society is an organism4 ,x is repli$ t ?is is at be/ an analogy ^u :i* too great /ress mu/ n be laid2 & we are w>n$ aga9/ ! fanciful comp>isons :i* "s writ]s h drawn betwe5 ! body corporate & ! actual physical body1 ) its cells1 tissues1 n]v\s sy/em1 & s =?4 ,n[1 :atev] may be ! dang] ( t mode ( reason+1 ,i ?9k t ! /atem5t1 prop]ly und]/ood1 corresponds to a simple logical canon too (t5 neglect$ 9 hi/orical & political reason+s4 ,x means1 ,i take x1 9 ! fir/ place1 t e man is a product z well z a produc]2 t !re is no su* ?+ z ! imag9>y individual ) fix$ prop]ties1 :om !ori/s are apt to take = grant$ z ! base ( _! reason+2 t no man or gr\p ( m5 is intelligible )\t tak+ into acc\nt ! mass ( in/9cts transmitt$ ?r\gh _! pr$ecessors1 & !re=e )\t ref]r+ to _! position 9 ! g5]al hi/ory ( human developm5t4 ,&1 secondly1 x is ess5tial to rememb] 9 speak+ ( any great man1 or ( any in/itution1 _! position z p>ts ( a complicat$ sy/em ( actions & emotions4 ,! ^w if1 ,i may say1 *anges its mean+4 ,if ,h>old _h won ! battle ( ,ha/+s1 :at w\ld h be5 ! result8 ,! answ] w\ld be comp>atively simple1 if we c\ld1 9 ! old fa%ion1 attribute to ,william ! ,conqu]or all ! results 9 :i* he play$ a conspicu\s "p3 if1 !re=e1 we c\ld make out a def9ite li/ ( effects ( :i* he 0 ! cause1 &1 by simply d$uct+ !m1 aft] ,col]idge's fa%ion1 f ! effects :i* actually foll[$1 det]m9e :at 0 ! precise balance4 ,b :5 we consid] h[ _m causes 7 actually 9 op]ation1 h[ impossible x is to dis5tangle & sep>ate !m1 & say ?is foll[$ f t1 & t o!r f some?+ else1 we h to admit t ! might h be5 is simply indiscov]able4 ,! great man may h ha/5$ :at 0 o!rwise inevitable2 he may simply h suppli$ ! p>ticul> po9t1 r\nd :i* a cry/allisation took place ( =ces :i* w\ld h o!rwise discov]$ "s o!r c5tre2 & ! fact t he succe$$ 9 e/abli%+ c]ta9 in/itutions or laws may be simply a pro( t he saw a little m cle>ly ?an o!rs ! direction t[>ds :i* m g5]al causes 7 inevitably propell+ ! nation4 ,briefly1 we _c isolate ! p>ticul> cause 9 ?is case1 & h to rememb] at e mom5t t x 0 only "o factor 9 a va/ & complex s]ies ( *anges1 :i* w\ld no d\bt h tak5 a diff]5t turn )\t x1 b ( :i* x may be indef9itely difficult to say :at 0 ! precise deflection due to its action4 ,9 try+ to indicate ! importance1 ,i h _h to dwell ^u ! difficulty1 ( apply+ any?+ l sci5tific me?ods to political problems4 ,i %all conclude by try+ once m to indicate :y1 9 spite ( ?is1 ,i hold t ! attempt is desirable1 & may be fruitful4 ,p sometimes say t sci5tific me?ods are inapplicable because we _c try exp]im5ts 9 social matt]s4 ,i rememb] be+ long ago /ruck by a rem>k ( ,dr4 ,arnold1 :i* has "s be>+ ^u ?is ass]tion4 ,he obs]v$ ^u ! great advantage possess$ by ,ari/otle 9 ! va/ numb] ( little republics 9 8 "t1 ea* ( :i* 0 virtually an exp]im5t 9 politics4 ,i always ?\ght t ?is 0 fallaci\s someh[1 & ,i fancy t x is n h>d to indicate ! g5]al nature ( ! fallacy4 ,freeman1 ^u ^: s]vices to ?or\gh & accurate /udy ( hi/ory ,i am unwor?y to pron\nce an eulogy1 fell into ! same fallacy1 ,i fancy1 :5 he und]took to write a hi/ory ( ,f$]al ,gov]nm5ts4 ,he fanci$ t because ! ,a*an ,league & ! ,swiss ,cantons & ! ,unit$ ,/ates ( ,am]ica all _h ?is po9t 9 common1 & t !y repres5t$ ! comb9ations ( p>tially indep5d5t ,/ates1 _! hi/ory w\ld be 9 a s5se cont9u\s4 ,! obvi\s consid]ation t ! f$]ations diff]$ 9 e possible way1 9 _! religions & /ate ( civilisation & :ole social /ructure1 might be neglect$4 ,freeman's t5d5cy to be indiff]5t to ev]y?+ :i* 0 n 9 ! n>r[e/ s5se political l$ him to ?is--z x seems to me--p$antic conception4 ,if ! prosp]ity ( a nation dep5d$ exclusively ^u ! =m ( its gov]nm5t1 ,ari/otle1 z ,arnold rem>ks1 w\ld h _h be=e him a great] numb] ( exp]im5ts ?an ! mod]n obs]v]4 ,b ! assumption is obvi\sly wrong4 ,e "o ( ^! anci5t ,/ates dep5d$ = its prosp]ity ^u a va/ numb] ( conditions--its race1 its geographical position1 its /age ( developm5t1 & s =?1 q impossible to tabulate or analyse2 & ! =m ( gov]nm5t :i* suit$ "o w\ld be entirely inapplicable to ano!r4 ,to extricate f all ^! conflict+ elem5ts ! precise influ5ce due to any in/itutions w\ld be a task beyond ! p[]s ( any numb] ( philosoph]s2 & inde$ ! p]plexity w\ld probably be increas$ by ! v numb] ( exp]im5ts4 ,to make an exp]im5t fruitful1 x is necess>y to elim9ate all ! irrelevant elem5ts :i* intrude into ! concrete cases spontane\sly (f]$ by nature1 &1 = example1 to obta9 two cases diff]+ only 9 "o elem5t1 to :i* we may !re=e plausibly attribute o!r contra/s4 ,n[1 ! hi/ory ( a hundr$ or a ?\s& small ,/ates w\ld probably only pres5t ! introduction ( new & p]plex+ elem5ts = e new case4 ,! influ5ce1 aga91 ( individuals1 or accid5t ( w>1 or natural cata/rophes1 is great] 9 proportion z ! ,/ate is small]1 & !re=e makes x m difficult to obs]ve ! p]man5t & und]ly+ influ5ces4 ,x seems to me1 !re=e1 t ! /udy1 say ( ,engli% hi/ory1 :]e we h a cont9u\s gr[? ov] _m c5turies1 :]e ! di/urb+ influ5ces ( individuals or *ance are 9 a great] degree cancell$ by ! g5]al t5d5cies work+ b5ea? !m1 we h really a f> m in/ructive field = political obs]vation4 ,?is may help u to see :at are ! k9ds ( results :i* may be anticipat$ f sociological /udy und]tak5 9 a s]i\s _s4 ,! gr[?1 = example1 ( ! indu/rial sy/em ( ,engl& is a pr(\ndly int]e/+ subject ( inquiry1 to :i* we are ev5 n[ only beg9n+ to d ju/ice4 ,hi/orians h admitt$1 ev5 f ! "t ( ,hume1 t ! ideal hi/ory %\ld give less ( m]e battles & intrigues1 & m acc\nt ( ^? deep] & m cont9u\s processes :i* lie1 s to speak1 b5ea? ! surface4 ,!y h h>dly1 ,i ?9k1 ev5 yet realis$ ! full be>+ & importance ( ?is obs]vation4 ,yet1 ( late1 mu* has be5 done1 ?\gh mu* /ill rema9s to d1 9 ! way ( a truly sci5tific /udy ( ! developm5t ( in/itutions1 political1 ecclesia/ical1 indu/rial1 & s =?1 ( ?is & o!r c\ntries4 ,z ?is t5d5cy gr[s1 we may hope gradually to h a g5u9e hi/ory ( ! ,engli% p2 an acc\nt--n ( ! virtues & vices ( ,m>y ,que5 ( ,scots1 or argum5ts z to ! propriety ( cutt+ (f ,*>les ,i4's head--b a tru/wor?y acc\nt ( ! way 9 :i* ! actual /ructure ( mod]n society has be5 develop$ out ( its simpl] g]ms4 ,! biographies ( great k+s & g5]als1 & s =?1 w always be int]e/+2 b to ! g5u9e hi/orian ( ! future !y w be int]e/+ n s mu* z giv+ room = psy*ological analyses or = dramatic portraits1 b z indications ( ! great social =ces :i* produc$ !m1 & ! direction ( :i* at ! mom5t may be illu/rat$ by _! cases4 ,i h spok5 ( ! hi/ory ( our indu/rial sy/em4 ,to "k :at 0 ! position ( ! ,engli% lab\r] at v>i\s times1 h[ x 0 affect$ by ! political *anges or by ! great me*anical discov]ies1 to obs]ve :at grievances arose1 :at rem$ies 7 appli$ or s\ght to be appli$1 & ) :at result1--to treat all ?is ) due ref]5ce to ! :ole social & intellectual evolution ( :i* x =m$ a "p1 may well call =? ! p[]s ( our acute/ & mo/ ?or\ghgo+ inquir]s1 & w1 :5 x is done1 give ess5tial data = "s ( ! mo/ vitally important problems ( ! day4 ,?is is :at ,i und]/& by an application ( ! sci5tific _s to social & political problems4 ,we _c try exp]im5ts1 x is said1 9 hi/orical que/ions4 ,we _c help always try+ exp]im5ts1 & exp]im5ts ( va/ importance4 ,e man has to try an exp]im5t ^u himself :5 he *ooses 8 c>e]2 & ! results are frequ5tly v unpleasant1 ?\gh v in/ructive4 ,we h to be our own exp]im5ts4 ,e man :o sets up 9 bus9ess tries an exp]im5t1 end+ 9 =tune or 9 bankruptcy4 ,e /rike is an exp]im5t1 & g5]ally a co/ly "o4 ,e attempt at />t+ a new *>itable organisation1 or a new sy/em ( socialism or co-op]ation1 is an exp]im5t4 ,e new law is an exp]im5t1 ra% or o!rwise4 ,& f all ^! exp]im5ts we d at lea/ collect a c]ta9 numb] ( g5]al obs]vations1 :i*1 ?\gh g5]ally consign$ to copybooks1 are n )\t value4 ,:at is true1 h[ev]1 is t we _c try su* exp]im5ts z a man ( sci5ce c sometimes try 9 8 laboratory1 :]e he c select & isolate ! necess>y elem5ts 9 any giv5 process1 & decide1 by subject+ !m to prop] conditions1 h[ a def9ite "q is to be answ]$4 ,our fir/ exp]im5ts are all 9 ! r\gh1 s to speak1 tri$ at haphaz>d1 & ea* involv+ an indef9ite numb] ( irrelevant conditions4 ,b !re is a p>tial comp5sation4 ,we _c tabulate ! c\ntless exp]im5ts :i* h be5 tri$ ) all _! di/ract+ v>ieties4 ,yet 9 a c]ta9 s5se ! answ] is giv5 = u4 ,= ! social /ructure at any p]iod is 9 fact ! net product ( all ! exp]im5ts t h be5 made by ! individuals ( :i* x is & has be5 compos$4 ,!re=e1 s f> z we c obta9 "s g5]al views ( ! successive *anges 9 social ord] :i* h be5 gradually & /eadily develop+ !mselves ?r\gh\t ! m noisy & conspicu\s b comp>atively sup]ficial political di/urbances1 we c detect ! true mean+ ( "s g5]al ph5om5a 9 :i* ! actors !mselves 7 unconsci\s ( ! det]m9+ causes4 ,we c see m or less :at 7 ! g5]al causes :i* h l$ to v>i\s =ms ( associations1 to ! old guilds1 or ! mod]n factory sy/em1 to ! trades unions or ! co-op]ative societies2 & correct+ & v]ify+ our g5]al results by a c>eful exam9ation ( ! p>ticul> in/ances1 approximate1 vaguely x may be & di/antly1 to "s su* conception ( ! laws ( developm5t ( diff]5t social tissues z1 if n prop]ly sci5tific1 may yet belong to ! sci5tific ord] ( ?\ght4 ,?us1 :5 di/ract$ by ?is or t p>ticul> dem&1 by promises ( ! mill5nium to be inaugurat$ to-morr[ by an ,act ( ,p>liam5t1 or ?reats ( "s social cataclysm to ov]:elm u if we conc$e an in* to wick$ agitators1 we may succe$ 9 plac+ ourselves at a high] po9t ( view1 f :i* x is possible to look ov] wid] horizons1 to reg>d :at is happ5+ to-day 9 its relations to sl[ processes ( elaboration1 & to =m judgm5ts bas$ ^u wide & sy/ematic inquiry1 :i*1 if !y d n entitle u to pr$ict p>ticul> ev5ts1 z an a/ronom] pr$icts an eclipse1 w at lea/ be a guide to sane & sob] m9ds1 & sugge/ at once a humbl] appreciation ( :at is )9 our p[]1 &--,i ?9k also--a m really hopeful anticipation ( g5u9e progress 9 ! future4 ,all sci5tific inquiry is an int]rogation ( nature4 ,we h1 9 ,bacon's gr& s5t5ti\s phrase1 to comm& nature by obey+4 ,we le>n :at are ! laws ( social gr[? by liv+ !m4 ,! great difficulty ( ! int]rogation is to "k :at que/ions we are to put4 ,"u ! guidance ( metaphysicians1 we h too (t5 ask$ que/ions to :i* no answ] is conceivable1 l *ildr51 :o 9 fir/ try+ to ?9k1 ask1 :y are we liv+ 9 ! n9ete5? c5tury1 :y is ,engl& an isl&1 or :y does pa9 hurt1 or :y d two & two make f\r8 ,! only answ] is by giv+ ! same facts 9 a diff]5t set ( words1 & t is a k9d ( answ] to :i* metaphysical dext]ity sometimes gives an air ( plausibility4 ,m frequ5tly our +5uity takes ! =m ( sanction+ preconceiv$ prejudices1 by wrapp+ up our conclusion 9 our premisses1 & !n br++ x out triumphantly ) ! air ( a rigor\s d$uction4 ,! progress ( social sci5ce implies1 9 ! fir/ place1 ! ab&onm5t ( ! we>y sy/em ( hunt+ = fruitful tru?s 9 ! region ( *im]as1 & try+ to make empty logical concepts d ! "w ( obs]vation ( facts4 ,x involves1 aga91 a cle> p]ception ( ! k9d ( que/ions :i* c be pr(itably ask$1 & ! limits )9 :i* an answ]1 n ( ! illusory k9d1 c really be expect$4 ,& !n we may come to see t1 )\t kn[+ x1 we h really be5 try+ a va/ & cont9u\s exp]im5t1 s9ce ! race fir/ began to be human4 ,we h1 bl9dly & unconsci\sly1 con/ruct$ a huge organism :i* does1 someh[ or o!r1 provide a great _m millions ( p ) a tol]able am\nt ( food & com=t4 ,we h accompli%$ ?is1 ,i say1 unconsci\sly2 = ea* man1 limit$ to 8 own little sph]e1 & limit$ to 8 own int]e/s1 & guid$ by 8 own prejudices & passions1 has be5 z ignorant ( m g5]al t5d5cies z ! coral insect ( ! reef :i* x has help$ to build4 ,to become di/9ctly consci\s ( :at x is t we h all be5 do+ all ?is "t1 is "o /ep 9 advance4 ,we h obey$ 9 ignorance2 & z ob$i5ce becomes consci\s1 we may hope1 )9 c]ta9 n>r[ limits1 to comm&1 or1 at lea/1 to direct4 ,an enl>g$ p]ception ( :at h be5 ! previ\s results may enable u to see :at results are possible1 & among !m to select :at may be wor?y ends4 ,x is n to be suppos$ t we %all ev] get beyond ! ne$ ( con/ant & c>eful exp]im5t4 ,b1 9 proportion z we c cultivate ! "r frame ( m9d1 z ea* memb] ( society requires wid] sympa?ies & a l>g] horizon1 x is p]missible to hope t ! exp]im5ts may become m intellig5t2 t we %all n1 z has s (t5 be5 done1 increase pov]ty by ! v rem$ies :i* are int5d$ to remove x1 or div]ge f ! pa? ( /eady progressive developm5t1 into ! *ase ( "s wild *im]a1 :i* requires = its a*ievem5t only ! radical alt]ation ( all ! data ( exp]i5ce4 ,annihilate space & "t1 & make two lov]s happy1 0 ! mode/ petition ( an en?usia/2 & he w\ld probably h be5 ready to jo9 9 ! pray]1 make all m5 angels1 & !n we %all h a model society4 ,al?\gh 9 say+ ?is my imm$iate moral is to prea* sobriety1 ,i d n int5d to d5\nce en?usiasm1 b to urge a necessity ( organis+ en?usiasm4 ,i only recomm5d p n to v5ture ^u fly+ ma*9es be=e !y h /udi$ ! laws ( me*anics2 b ,i e>ne/ly hope t "s day we may be able to call a balloon z we n[ call a cab4 ,to po9t out ! me?od1 & to admit t x is n labori\s1 is n to disc\rage aspiration1 b to look facts 9 ! face3 n to prea* ab&onm5t ( en?usiasm1 b to urge t en?usiasm %\ld be sy/ematic1 %\ld lead m5 to /udy ! conditions ( success1 & to make a bridge be=e !y leap ! gulf4 ,,! ,,sph]e ,,( ,,political ,,economy4 ,!re seem to be at pres5t _m conflict+ views z to ! nature ( ,political ,economy4 ,!re is a popul> impression t ,political ,economy1 or1 at any rate1 ! s-call$ classical doctr9e1 ! doctr9e :i* 0 made mo/ def9ite by ,ric>do1 & accept$ ) modifications by ,j4 ,s4 ,mill1 is altoge!r explod$4 ,_! ma9 doctr9es1 x is sugge/$1 7 little bett] ?an m>es' ne/s1 & we may set aside _! pret5sions to h f\nd$ an exact sci5ce4 ,:at1 !n1 is to come 9 its place8 ,are we simply to admit t !re is no c]ta9ty ab\t economical problems1 & to fall back ^u m]e empiricism8 ,ev]y?+1--%all we say8--is to be reg>d$ z an op5 "q4 ,t is1 p]haps1 a common impression 9 ! popul> m9d4 ,yet1 on ! o!r h&1 we may f9d "s v able ?9k]s apply+ ma!matical =mul to economics2 & t seems to suppose1 t )9 a c]ta9 region !y obta9 results comp>able 9 precision & accuracy to ^? ( ! great physical sci5ces4 ,! topic is a v wide "o2 & x w\ld be presumptu\s 9 me to speak dogmatically4 ,i wi%1 h[ev]1 to sugge/ c]ta9 consid]ations :i* may1 p]haps1 be wor? tak+ into acc\nt2 &1 z ,i mu/ speak briefly1 ,i mu/ n attempt to supply all ! necess>y qualifications4 ,i c only attempt to indicate :at seems to me to be ! correct po9t ( view1 & apologise if ,i appe> to speak too dogmatically1 simply because ,i _c wa/e "t by expressions ( diffid5ce1 by ref]5ce to probable criticisms1 or ev5 by a full /atem5t ( my own reasons4 ,a full exposition w\ld h to def9e ! sph]e ( ,political ,economy by describ+ its data & its me?ods4 ,:at d we assume1 & h[ d we reason8 ,a complete answ] to ^! que/ions w\ld indicate ! limits )9 :i* we c hope = valid conclusions4 ,i w fir/ ref]1 briefly1 to a common /atem5t ( "o !ory advocat$ by ! old-fa%ion$ or classical s*ool4 ,economic doctr9e1 !y h said1 supposes a c]ta9 process ( ab/raction4 ,we h to d ) :at has be5 call$ ! economic man4 ,he is n1 happily1 ! real man4 ,he is an imag9>y be+1 ^: sole pr9ciple ( action is to buy 9 ! *eape/ & sell 9 ! de>e/ m>ket3 a man1 m briefly1 :o always pref]s a gu9ea--ev5 a dirty gu9ea--to a p\nd ( ! cleane/4 ,economi/s reply to ! remon/rances ( ^? :o d5y ! exi/5ce ( su* a mon/]1 by add+ t !y d n = a mom5t suppose t m5 9 g5]al1 or ev5 tradesm5 or /ockbrok]s1 are 9 reality su* be+s1--m]e money-mak+ ma*9es1 /ripp$ b>e ( all g5]\s or altrui/ic s5tim5t--b simply t1 z a matt] ( fact1 mo/ p d1 cet]is p>ibus1 pref] a gu9ea to a p\nd2 & t s l>ge a "p ( our indu/rial activity is c>ri$ on f motives ( ?is k9d1 t we may obta9 a fair approximation to ! actual c\rse ( affairs by consid]+ !m z ! sole motives4 ,we %all n g wrong1 = example1 9 f9ancial que/ions1 by assum+ t ! sole motive ( speculators 9 ! ,/ock ,ex*ange is ! desire to make money4 ,n[1 x is possible1 p]haps1 to ju/ify ?is way ( putt+ ! case1 by c]ta9 qualifications4 ,i ?9k1 h[ev]1 t1 if /rictly int]pret$1 x is apt to cov] a s]i\s fallacy4 ,! economic man !ory1 we may say1 assumes too mu* 9 "o direction1 & too little 9 ano!r4 ,x assumes too mu* if x is und]/ood z imply+ t ! desire = weal? is a purely selfi% desire4 ,a man may desire to make money 9 ord] simply to gratify 8 own s5sual appetites4 ,b he may also desire to be indep5d5t2 & t may include a desire to d 8 "p 9 ! "w ( society1 & probably does include "s desire to relieve o!rs ( a burd54 ,! wi% to be self-support+ is n necess>ily or purely selfi%4 ,& obvi\sly1 too1 "o great motive 9 all su* occupations is ! desire to support a family1 & "o ma9 inducem5t to sav+ is ! desire to support x aft] y\r own dea?4 ,remove su* motives1 & half ! impulses to regul> indu/rial en]gy ( all k9ds w\ld be de/roy$4 ,we mu/1 !re=e1 give our economic man cr$it = motives ref]r+ to _m int]e/s besides ^? :i* he buttons into 8 own wai/coat4 ,& !re=e1 too1 z ,i h said1 ! assumption is insuffici5t4 ,! v conception ( economic sci5ce supposes all t is suppos$1 9 ! gr[? ( a settl$ ord] ( society4 ,! pure/ type ( ! economic man1 z he is sometimes describ$1 w\ld be realis$ 9 ! l[e/ savage1 z sometimes describ$1 :o is absolutely selfi%1 :o knocks 8 *ild on ! head because x cries1 & eats 8 ag$ p>5t if he _c f9d a supply ( roots4 ,b su* a be+ c\ld only =m h]ds1 n societies4 ,political ,economy only becomes conceivable :5 we suppose c]ta9 in/itutions to h be5 develop$4 ,x assumes1 obvi\sly1 & 9 ! fir/ place1 ! in/itution ( prop]ty2 x becomes applicable1 ) less qualification1 9 proportion to ! gr[? ( ! correspond+ s5tim5ts2 x takes = grant$ all t highly elaborate set ( in/9cts :i* induce me1 :5 ,i want some?+1 to produce an equival5t 9 ex*ange = x1 in/ead ( go+ out to take x by =ce4 ,! m ?or\gh ! respect = prop]ty1 ! m applicable are rules ( economics2 & t respect implies a long tra9+ 9 t s5se ( o!r p's rights1 :i*1 un=tunately1 is by no means s p]fect z might be desir$4 ,x foll[s1 !n1 t ! economi/ really assumes m--& rightly assumes m--?an he sometimes claims4 ,he assumes :at ,adam ,smi? assum$ at ! op5+ ( 8 great treatise3 t is1 ! division ( lab\r4 ,b ! division ( lab\r implies ! organisation ( society4 ,x implies t "o man is gr[+ corn :ile ano!r is digg+ gold1 because ea* is confid5t t he w be able to ex*ange ! products ( 8 own lab\r = ! products ( ! o!r man's lab\r4 ,?is1 ( c\rse1 implies settl$ ord]1 respect = contracts1 ! pres]vation ( peace1 & ! abolition ( =ce ?r\gh\t ! area occupi$ by ! society4 ,& ?is1 aga91 is only possible 9 s f> z c]ta9 political & ecclesia/ical & milit>y in/itutions h be5 def9itely con/ruct$4 ,! economic assumption is really an assumption--n ( a c]ta9 psy*ological condition ( ! av]age man1 b--( ! exi/5ce ( a c]ta9 social me*anism4 ,a complete sci5ce w\ld cle> up fully a problem :i* mu/ occur (t5 to all ( u3 ,h[ d y acc\nt = ,london8 ,h[ is x t f\r or five millions ( p manage to subsi/ on an area ( a few squ>e miles1 :i* itself produces no?+8 t o!r millions all ov] ! _w are engag$ 9 provid+ = _! wants8 t food & clo!s & fuel1 9 suffici5t quantities to pres]ve life1 are be+ di/ribut$ ) tol]able regul>ity to ea* unit 9 ?is va/ & app>5tly *aotic cr[d8 & t1 someh[ or o!r1 we /ruggle on1 well or ill1 by ! help ( a gigantic commiss>iat1 p]=m+ functions incomp>ably m complex ?an 7 ev] ne$$ = milit>y purposes8 ,! answ] supposes t !re is1 z a matt] ( fact1 a great indu/rial organisation :i* dis*>ges ! v>i\s functions ( produc+1 ex*ang+1 di/ribut+1 & s =?2 & t its mutual relations are j z capable ( be+ inve/igat$ & /at$ z ! relations betwe5 diff]5t p>ts ( an army4 ,! m5 & (fic]s d n we> uni=ms2 !y are n explicitly drill$ or subject to a def9ite code ( discipl9e2 & _! rates ( pay are n settl$ by any c5tral au?ority4 ,b !re are capitali/s1 und]tak]s & lab\r]s1 m]*ants & retail deal]s & contractors1 & s =?1 j z c]ta9ly z !re are g5]als & privates1 horse1 foot1 & artill]y2 & _! mutual relations are equally def9able4 ,! economi/ has to expla9 ! work+ ( ?is indu/rial me*anism2 & ! ?\ght may sometimes occur to u1 t x is /range t he %\ld f9d ! task s difficult4 ,s9ce we ourselves h made1 or at any rate con/itute1 ! me*anism1 :y %\ld x be s puzzl+ to f9d out :at x is8 ,we are coop]at+ 9 a sy/ematic production & di/ribution ( weal?1 & we surely ought n to f9d any imp5etrable my/]y 9 discov]+ :at x is t we are do+ e day ( our lives4 ,c]ta9 economi/s writ+ )9 ?is c5tury h (t5 be5 cr$it$ ) ! discov]y ( ! true !ory ( r5t1 or1 :i* is equally good = my purpose1 ( />t+ a false !ory4 ,yet l&[n]s & ag5ts _h be5 lett+ f>ms & h\ses = g5]ations2 & surely !y ought to h kn[n :at x 0 t !y 7 !mselves do+4 ,"o explanation ( ! difficulty is1 t :]eas an army is con/itut$ by c]ta9 regulations ( a c5tral au?ority1 ! indu/rial army has gr[n up unconsci\sly & spontane\sly4 ,its multitud9\s memb]s h only look$ ea* at 8 own little circle2 ! lab\r] only ?9ks ( 8 wages1 & ! capitali/ ( 8 pr(its1 )\t consid]+ 8 relations to ! :ole sy/em ( :i* he =ms a "p4 ,! peasant drives 8 pl\gh = wages1 & buys 8 tea z if ! tea fell l manna f ! skies1 )\t ?9k+ ( ! curi\s relation into :i* he is ?us br\ght ) ! natives ( ano!r hemisph]e4 ,! ord] :i* results f all ^! indep5d5t activities appe>$ to ! old] economi/s z an illu/ration ( ! doctr9e ( ,f9al ,causes4 ,provid5ce _h s ord]$ ?+s t ea* man1 by pursu+ 8 own int]e/s1 pursu$ ! int]e/s ( all4 ,to a lat] s*ool x appe>s r z an illu/ration ( ! doctr9e by :i* organisms are con/ruct$ ?r\gh ! /ruggle = exi/5ce & ! survival ( ! fitte/4 ,9 ei!r case1 x seems z ?\gh ! me*anism 7 made r = u ?an by u2 t x is ! product ( conditions :i* we _c control1 in/ead ( be+ an arrangem5t put toge!r by consci\s volitions4 ,&1 !re=e1 :5 ! economi/ %[s u :at 9 fact are ! exi/+ arrangem5ts & _! mutual relations1 he appe>s to be mak+ a discov]y ( a sci5tific fact z mu* z if he 7 describ+ ! anatomy ( "s newly-discov]$ animal or plant4 ,! real assumption ( ! economi/ !re=e is1 z ,i ?9k1 simply ! exi/5ce ( a c]ta9 indu/rial organisation1 :i* has a real exi/5ce z mu* z an army or a *ur*2 & !re is no reason :y 8 description %\ld n be z accurate z ! complexity ( ! facts all[s4 ,he is giv+ u ! anatomy ( society consid]$ z a huge me*anism = produc+ & di/ribut+ weal?1 & he makes an ab/raction only 9 ! s5se t he is consid]+ "o set ( facts at a "t4 ,! milit>y writ] w\ld describe ! con/itution ( an army )\t go+ into ! psy*ological or political conditions :i* are ( c\rse impli$1 & )\t consid]+ ! soldi]s 9 any o!r relations ?an ^? impli$ 9 _! milit>y s]vices4 ,9 ! same way1 ! economi/ describes ! army ( indu/ry1 & classifies its con/itu5t p>ts4 ,9 ord] to expla9 _! mutual relations1 he has to make c]ta9 fur!r assumptions1 ( :i* x w\ld be ra% to attempt a precise summ>y4 ,he assumes z a fact1 :at has ( c\rse always be5 kn[n1 t sc>city implies de>ness & pl5ty *eapness2 t commodities fl[ to ! m>kets :]e !y w fet* ! highe/ prices2 t !re is a c]ta9 gravitation t[>ds equalisation ( pr(its among capitali/s1 & ( wages among lab\r]s2 s t capital or lab\r w fl[ t[>ds ! employm5ts 9 :i* !y w secure ! highe/ rew>d4 ,he endeav\rs to give ! greate/ accuracy to su* =mul1 ( :i* nobody1 s f> z ,i "k1 d5ies a c]ta9 approximate tru?4 ,s long z !y hold good1 8 inf]5ces1 if logically drawn1 w also hold good4 ,!y take = grant$ c]ta9 psy*ological facts1 su* z are impli$ 9 all /atem5ts ab\t human nature4 ,b ! economi/1 z an economi/1 is cont5t to take !m = grant$ )\t inve/igat+ ! ultimate psy*ological laws ^u :i* !y dep5d4 ,^? laws1 or r _! results1 are a "p ( 8 prim>y data1 al?\gh he may g s f> into psy*ological problems z to try to /ate !m m accurately4 ,! selfi%ness or unselfi%ness ( ! economic man has to be consid]$ by ! psy*ologi/ or by ! morali/2 b ! economi/ has only to consid] _! conclusions s f> z !y affect ! facts4 ,s long z x is true1 = example1 t sc>city causes de>ness1 t pr(its attract capital1 t dem& & supply t5d to equalise ea* o!r1 & s =?1 8 reason+s are ju/ifi$2 & ! fur!r que/ions ( ! e?ical & psy*ological implications ( ^! facts mu/ be treat$ by a diff]5t sci5ce4 ,! "q ( ! play ( economic =ces ?us g5]ally r$uces itself to a problem :i* may be ?us /at$3 ,:at are ! conditions ( indu/rial equilibrium8 ,h[ mu/ prices1 rates ( wages1 & pr(it be relat$ 9 ord] t ! v>i\s classes conc]n$ may receive su* proportions ( produce z are compatible ) ! ma9t5ance ( ! exi/+ sy/em ( organisation8 ,if any specifi$ *ange occurs1 if production becomes easi] or m difficult1 if a tax be impos$1 or a regulation ( any k9d affects previ\s conditions1 :at *anges w be necess>y to re/ore ! equilibrium8 ,^! are ! ma9 problems ( ,political ,economy4 ,to solve1 or attempt to solve !m1 we h to describe accurately ! exi/+ me*anism1 & to suppose t x w regulate itself on ! assumption :i* ,i h indicat$ z to dem& & supply1 ! fl[ ( capital & lab\r1 & s =?4 ,to g beyond ^! assumptions1 & to ju/ify !m by psy*ological & o!r consid]ations1 may be & is a mo/ int]e/+ task1 b x takes u beyond ! sph]e ( ,economics prop]4 ,i mu/ "h div]ge = a little1 to notice ! view ( ! s*ool ( economi/s :i* seems to reg>d sci5tific accuracy z atta9able by a diff]5t pa?4 ,jevons1 its mo/ di/+ui%$ lead] 9 ,engl&1 says r\ndly1 t political sci5ce mu/ be a ma!matical sci5ce1 because x deals ?r\gh\t ) quantities2 & we h be5 s9ce provid$ ) a numb] ( =mul1 correspond+ to ?is doctr9e4 ,! obvi\s g5]al reply w\ld be1 t ,political ,economy _c be an exact sci5ce because x also deals ?r\gh\t ) human desires4 ,! objection is n simply t our data are too vague4 ,t objection1 z ,jevons says1 w\ld1 p]haps1 apply to meteorology1 ( :i* nobody d\bts t x is capable ( be+ made an exact sci5ce4 ,b :y does nobody d\bt t meteorology might become an exact sci5ce8 ,because we are conv9c$ t all ! data :i* w\ld be ne$$ are expressible 9 precise t]ms ( "t & space2 we h to d ) volumes1 & masses1 & weights1 & =ces :i* c be exactly measur$ by l9es2 &1 9 %ort1 ) ?+s :i* c\ld be exactly measur$ & c\nt$4 ,! data are1 at pres5t1 insuffici5tly kn[n1 & possibly ! problems :i* w\ld result might be too complex = our p[]s ( calculation4 ,/ill1 if we c\ld once get ! data1 we c\ld express all relevant consid]ations by precise figures & numb]s4 ,n[1 is ?is true ( economic sci5ce8 ,)9 c]ta9 limits1 x is app>5tly true3 ,ric>do us$ ma!matical =mul1 ?\gh he kept to ari?metic1 in/ead ( algebra4 ,:5 ,mal?us spoke ( ari?metical & geometrical ratios1 ! /atem5t1 true or false1 01 ( c\rse1 capable ( precise num]ical expression1 s soon z ! ratios 7 assign$4 ,s !re 0 ! fam\s =mula prov+ a relation betwe5 ! numb] ( qu>t]s ( corn produc$ by a giv5 h>ve/1 & ! numb] ( %ill+s t w\ld be giv5 = a qu>t] ( corn4 ,if1 aga91 we took ! numb] ( m>riages correspond+ to a giv5 price ( corn1 we %\ld obta9 a =mula connect+ ! numb] ( m>riages ) ! numb] ( qu>t]s ( corn produc$4 ,! utility ( /ati/ics1 ( c\rse1 dep5ds ^u ! fact t we d empirically discov] "s tol]ably con/ant & simple num]ical =mul4 ,su* /ati/ical /atem5ts are useful1 inde$1 n only 9 economical1 b 9 o!r inquiries1 :i* are cle>ly beyond ! rea* ( ma!matics4 ,! proportion ( crim9als 9 a giv5 population1 ! numb] ( suicides1 or ( illegitimate bir?s1 may ?r[ "s light ^u judicial & political1 & ev5 religi\s or e?ical problems4 ,nor are su* =mul useless simply because empirical4 ,! law ( gravitation1 = example1 is empirical4 ,nobody kn[s ! cause ( ! obs]v$ t5d5cy ( bodies to gravitate to ea* o!r1 & !re=e no "o c say h[ f> ! law :i* repres5ts ! t5d5cy mu/ be univ]sal4 ,/ill1 ! fact t1 s f> z we h obs]v$1 x is inv>iably v]ifi$1 & t calculations f\nd$ ^u x enable u to br+ a va/ v>iety ( ph5om5a "u a s+le rule1 is q en\gh to ju/ify a/ronomical calculation4 ,if1 !re=e1 we c\ld f9d a ma!matical =mula :i* 01 z a matt] ( fact1 v]ifiable 9 economical problems ab\t prices1 & s =?1 we %\ld rightly apply to ma!maticians to help u ) _! me?ods4 ,b1 n only d we n f9d any su* simple relations1 b we c see conclusive reasons = be+ sure t we c nev] f9d !m4 ,take1 = example1 ! case ( ! numb] ( m>riages "u giv5 conditions4 ,i ne$ h>dly say t x is impossible = ! able/ ma!matician to calculate :e!r ! individual ,a w m>ry ! individual ,b4 ,b1 by tak+ av]ages1 & s elim9at+ individual ecc5tricities1 he might discov] t1 9 a giv5 c\ntry & at a giv5 "t1 a rise ( prices w dim9i% m>riages 9 c]ta9 proportion4 ,our k ( human nature is suffici5t to make t highly probable4 ,b our k also %[s t su* a *ange w act diff]5tly 9 diff]5t cases3 !re w be "o =mula = ,france1 & ano!r = ,engl&2 "o = ,lanca%ire1 & ano!r = ,cornwall2 "o = ! ri*1 & ano!r = ! poor2 & bo? ! total weal? ( a c\ntry & its di/ribution w affect ! rule4 ,diff]5ces ( national temp]am5t1 ( political & social con/itution1 ( religion & ecclesia/ical organisation1 w all h an effect2 &1 !re=e1 a =mula true "h & n[ mu/1 9 all probability1 fail altoge!r else:]e4 ,! =mula is1 9 ! ma!matical phrase1 a function ( s _m indep5d5t v>iables1 t x mu/ be complex beyond all conception1 if x takes !m all into acc\nt2 :ile x mu/ yet be necess>ily inaccurate if x does n take !m into acc\nt4 ,b1 besides ?is1 ! conditions ^u :i* ! law obvi\sly dep5ds are n !mselves capable ( be+ accurately def9$1 & /ill less ( be+ num]ically /at$4 ,+5i\s ?9k]s h1 inde$1 tri$ to apply ma!matical =mul to psy*ology2 b !y h n got v f>2 & x may1 ,i ?9k1 be assum$1 )\t fur!r argum5t1 t :ile y h to deal bo? ) psy*ological & sociological elem5ts1 ) human desires1 & ) ^? desires modifi$ by social relations1 x is impossible to f9d any data :i* c be ma!matically /at$4 ,!re is no ari?metical measure ( ! =ces ( love1 or hung]1 or av>ice1 by :i* 7among o!rs7 ! :ole problem is work$ out4 ,x seems to me1 !re=e1 t we mu/ accept ! alt]native :i* is only m5tion$ to be repudiat$ by ,jevons1 namely1 t ,political ,economy1 if n a ma!matical sci5ce1 mu/ be "p ( sociology4 ,i %\ld say t x cle>ly is s2 = if we wi% to inve/igate ! cause ( any ( ! ph5om5a conc]n$1 & n simply to tabulate f obs]vations1 we are at once conc]n$ ) ! social /ructure & ) ! und]ly+ psy*ology4 ,! ma!matical me?ods are q 9 _! place :5 deal+ ) /ati/ics4 ,! rise & fall ( prices1 & s =?1 c be /at$ precisely 9 figures2 &1 :5ev] we c discov] "s approximation to a ma!matical law 7z 9 ! cases ,i h notic$7 we may "w out ! results4 ,if1 = example1 ! price ( a commodity "u c]ta9 conditions be>s a c]ta9 relation to its sc>city1 we c discov] ! "o fact :5 ! o!r fact is giv51 rememb]+ only t our conclusions are n m c]ta9 ?an our premisses1 & t ! obs]v$ law dep5ds ^u unkn[n & mo/ imp]fectly kn[able conditions4 ,su* results1 aga91 may be v useful 9 v>i\s ways1 z illu/rative ( ! way 9 :i* c]ta9 laws w "w if !y hold good2 &1 aga91 z te/+ _m ( our g5]al !ories4 ,if y h argu$ t ! price ( gold or silv] _c be fix$1 ! fact t x has be5 fix$ "u c]ta9 conditions w ( c\rse lead to a revision ( y\r argum5ts4 ,b ,i _c help ?9k+ t x is an illusion to suppose t su* me?ods c ju/ify ! ass]tion t ! sci5ce z a :ole is ma!matical4 ,no?+1 inde$1 is easi] ?an to speak z if y _h got a ma!matical !ory4 ,let x mean ! desire = m>riage & y ! fe> ( want1 !n ! numb] ( m>riages is a function ( x & y1 & ,i c express ?is by symbols z well z by ord9>y words4 ,b !re is no magic ab\t ! use ( symbols4 ,ma!matical inquiries are n fruitful because symbols are us$1 b because ! symbols repres5t some?+ absolutely precise & assignable4 ,! highe/ ma!matical inquiries are simply +5i\s me?ods ( c\nt+2 & till y h got some?+ precise to c\nt1 !y c take y no fur!r4 ,i _c help ?9k+ t ?is fallacy imposes ^u "s mod]n reason]s2 t !y assume t !y h got ! data because !y h put toge!r ! =mul :i* w\ld be useful if !y _h ! data2 &1 9 %ort1 t y c get m out ( a mill ?an y put into x2 or1 9 o!r words1 t m conclusions ?an really foll[ c be got out ( premisses1 simply because y %[ :at w\ld foll[ if y _h ! requir$ k4 ,:5 ! attempt is made1 z x seems to me to be made sometimes1 to d$uce economical laws f "s law ( human desire--z f ! simple !orem t equal increm5ts ( a commodity imply dim9i%+ am\nts ( utility--,i %\ld reply n only t ! num]ical data are vaguely def9$ & incapable ( be+ accurately /at$1 b t ! attempt mu/ be illusory because ! conclusions are n det]m9able f ! premisses4 ,! economic laws d n foll[ f any simple rule ab\t human desires1 because !y v>y accord+ to ! v>y+ con/itution ( human society2 & any conclusion :i* y c\ld obta9 w\ld be necess>ily conf9$ to ! ab/ract man ( :om ! law is suppos$ to hold good4 ,e su* me?od1 !re=e1 if x c\ld be successful1 c\ld only lead to conclusions ab\t human desire 9 g5]al1 & c\ld ?r[ no light ^u ! special problems ( political economy1 :i* ess5tially dep5d ^u v>y+ indu/rial organisation4 ,i w n1 h[ev]1 g fur!r4 ,y mu/ ei!r1 ,i hold1 limit ,political ,economy to ! field ( /ati/ical inquiry1 or admit t1 z a "p ( sociology1 x deals ) que/ions altoge!r beyond ! rea* ( ma!matics4 ,l physiology1 x is conc]n$ ) results capable ( num]ical /atem5t4 ,! numb] ( beats ( ! pulse1 or ! numb] ( degrees ( temp]ature ( ! body1 are important data 9 physiological problems4 ,!y may be c\nt$1 & may give rise to ma!matically expressible =mul4 ,b ! fact does n excuse u f consid]+ ! physical conditions ( ! organs :i* are 9 "s way correlat$ ) ^! obs]v$ ph5om5a2 &1 9 ! case ( ,political ,economy1 we h to d ) ! social /ructure1 :i* is dep5d5t ^u =ces altoge!r incapable ( precise num]ical e/imates4 ,t1 at lea/1 is my view2 & ,i %all apply x to illu/rate "o rem>k1 :i* mu/1 ,i ?9k1 h (t5 occurr$ to u4 ,political ,economy1 t is1 (t5 appe>s to h a negative r ?an a positive value4 ,x is exce$+ly pot5t--s1 at lea/1 ,i ?9k--9 disp]s+ c]ta9 popul> fallacies2 b x fails :5 we reg>d x z a sci5ce :i* c give u positive concrete laws4 ,! g5]al reason is1 ,i %\ld say1 t al?\gh its fir/ pr9ciples may be true descriptions ( facts1 & any d5ial ( !m1 or any inconsi/5t applications ( !m1 may lead u into error1 !y are yet f> f suffici5t descriptions4 ,!y omit "s consid]ations :i* are relevant 9 any concrete case2 & ! facts :i* !y describe are s complex t1 ev5 :5 we look at !m consi/5tly & foll[ ! "r clue1 we _c solve ! complicat$ problems :i* occur4 ,x may be wor? :ile to insi/ a little ^u ?is1 & to apply x to "o or two peculi> problems4 ,let me />t f ! ord9>y analogy4 ,economic inquiry1 ,i h sugge/$1 describes a c]ta9 exi/+ me*anism1 :i* exi/s z really z ! physical /ructure describ$ by an anatomi/4 ,! indu/rial organism has1 ( c\rse1 _m prop]ties ( :i* ! economi/1 z su*1 does n take acc\nt4 ,! lab\r] has affections1 & imag9ations1 & op9ions outside ( 8 occupation z lab\r]2 he belongs to a /ate1 a *ur*1 a family1 & s =?1 :i* affect 8 :ole life1 includ+ 8 indu/rial life4 ,is x !re=e impossible to consid] ! indu/rial organisation sep>ately8 ,n m impossible1 ,i %\ld reply1 ?an to apply ! same me?od 9 reg>d to ! individual body4 ,7 ,i to reg>d my /oma* simply z a bag into :i* ,i put my food1 ,i %\ld le>n v little ab\t ! process ( dige/ion4 ,/ill1 x is su* a bag1 & x is important to "k :]e x is1 & :at are its purely me*anical relations to o!r p>ts ( ! body4 ,my arms & legs are lev]s1 & ,i c calculate ! pressure necess>y to support a weight on ! h&1 z ?\gh my bones & muscles 7 made ( iron & :ipcord4 ,i am a piece ( me*anism1 ?\gh ,i am m1 & all ! pr9ciples ( simple me*anics apply to my actions1 ?\gh !y d n1 by !mselves1 suffice to expla9 ! actions4 ,! discov]y ( ! circulation ( ! blood expla9$1 z ,i und]/&1 my /ructure z a hydraulic app>atus2 & x 0 ( va/ importance1 ev5 ?\gh x told u no?+ directly ( ! o!r processes necess>ily involv$4 ,9 ?is case1 !re=e1 we h an in/ance ( ! way 9 :i* a set ( p]fectly true propositions may1 s to speak1 be imb$d$ 9 a l>g] !ory1 & may be ( ! highe/ importance1 ?\gh !y are n by !mselves suffici5t to solve any concrete problem4 ,we _c1 t is1 d$uce ! physiological pr9ciples f ! me*anical pr9ciples1 al?\gh !y are ?r\gh\t impli$4 ,b ^? pr9ciples are n ! less true & useful 9 ! detection ( fallacies4 ,!y may enable u to %[ t an argum5t supposes facts :i* d n exi/2 or1 p]haps1 t x is1 at any rate1 inconsi/5t because x assumes "o /ructure 9 its premisses1 & ano!r 9 its conclusions4 ,i /ate ?is by way ( illu/ration3 b ! value ( ! rem>k may be be/ te/$ by apply+ x to "s economical doctr9es4 ,let u take1 = example1 ! fam\s argum5t ( ,adam ,smi? aga9/ :at he call$ ! m]cantile !ory4 ,t !ory1 accord+ to him1 suppos$ t ! weal? ( nations1 l ! weal? ( an individual1 0 9 proportion to ! am\nt ( money 9 _! possession4 ,he insi/$ ^u ! !ory t money1 z x is useful solely = ex*ange1 _c be1 9 itself1 weal?2 t its absolute am\nt is a matt] ( indiff]5ce1 because if e co9 9 exi/5ce 7 halv$ or d\bl$1 x w\ld dis*>ge precisely ! same function2 & he inf]r$ t ! doctr9e :i* te/$ ! advantages ( =eign comm]ce by ! balance ( trade or ! net return ( money1 0 altoge!r illusory4 ,8 !ory is exp\nd$ 9 e elem5t>y treatise on ! subject4 ,x may be urg$ t x 0 a m]e truism1 & !re=e useless2 or1 aga91 t x does n enable u to d$uce a complete !ory ( ! functions ( money4 ,9 reg>d to ! fir/ /atem5t1 ,i %\ld reply t1 al?\gh ,smi? probably misrepres5t$ "s ( 8 antagoni/s1 ! fallacy :i* he expos$ 0 n only curr5t at ! "t1 b is /ill con/antly cropp+ up 9 mod]n controv]sies4 ,s long z argum5ts are put =w>d :i* implicitly involve an errone\s1 because self-contradictory1 conception ( ! true functions ( money1 x is ess5tial to keep 9 m9d ^! fir/ pr9ciples1 h[ev] obvi\s !y may be 9 an ab/ract /atem5t4 ,euclid's axioms are useful because !y are self-evid5t2 & s long z p make mi/akes 9 geometry1 x w be necess>y to expose _! blund]+ by br++ out ! contradictions involv$4 ,z ,hobbes obs]v$1 p w\ld dispute ev5 geometrical axioms if !y _h an int]e/ 9 do+ s2 &1 c]ta9ly1 !y are ready to dispute ! pla9e/ doctr9es ab\t money4 ,! o!r rem>k1 t we _c d$uce a complete !ory f ! axiom is1 ( c\rse1 true4 ,?us1 = example1 al?\gh ! doctr9e may be unimpea*able1 !re is a difficulty 9 apply+ x to ! facts4 ,z gold has o!r uses besides its use z money1 its value is n regulat$ exclusively by ! pr9ciple assign$2 z o!r ?+s1 aga91 su* z bank-notes & *eques1 dis*>ge "s ( ! functions ( money1 we h all mann] ( difficult problems z to :at money precisely is1 & h[ ! mo/ elem5t>y pr9ciples w apply to ! concrete facts4 ,a v %rewd economi/ once rem>k$1 li/5+ to a metaphysical argum5t1 ,if !re _h be5 any money to be made out ( x1 we %\ld h solv$ t "q 9 ! city long ago4 ,yet1 !re is surely money to be made out ( a correct !ory ( ! curr5cy2 & p 9 ! city d n seem to h arriv$ at a complete agreem5t4 ,9 fact1 su* controv]sies illu/rate ! extreme difficulty :i* arises out ( ! complexity ( ! ph5om5a1 ev5 :]e ! economic assumption ( ! action ( purely money-lov+ activity is mo/ ne>ly v]ifi$4 ,! moral is1 ,i fancy1 t :ile inaccurate conclusions are extremely difficult1 we c only hope to approa* !m by a firm grasp ( ! fir/ pr9ciples reveal$ 9 ! simple/ cases4 ,ev5 9 su* a case1 we h also to notice h[ we h to make all[ance = ! intrusion ( o!r ?an purely economic cases4 ,! doctr9e j notic$ is1 ( c\rse1 closely connect$ ) ! !ory ( free trade4 ,! free trade argum5t is1 ,i %\ld m5tion1 p]fectly conclusive 9 a negative s5se4 ,x demon/rates1 t is1 ! fallacy :i* lurks 9 ! popul> argum5t = protection4 ,t argum5t belongs to ! commone/ class ( economic fallacies1 :i* consi/s 9 look+ at "o p>ticul> result )\t consid]+ ! necess>y implications4 ,! great advantage ( any rational !ory is1 t x =ces u to look ^u ! indu/rial me*anism z a :ole1 & to trace out ! correlative *anges involv$ 9 any p>ticul> op]ation4 ,x disposes ( ! !ories :i* virtually propose to improve our supply ( wat] by p\r+ a cup out ( "o vessel into ano!r2 & su* !ories h _h consid]able success 9 economy4 ,s f>1 9 %ort1 z a protectioni/ really ma9ta9s t ! advantage consi/s 9 accumulat+ money1 )\t ask+ :at w be ! effect ^u ! value ( money1 or t x consi/s 9 tell+ p to make = !mselves :at !y c\ld get on bett] t]ms by produc+ some?+ to ex*ange = x1 8 argum5ts may be conclusively %[n to be contradictory4 ,su* argum5ts1 at lea/1 _c be wor? consid]+4 ,b1 to say no?+ ( cases :i* may be put by an +5i\s disputant 9 :i* ?is may n q apply1 we h to consid] reasons :i* may be extra-economical4 ,:5 x is sugge/$1 = example1 t ! economic disadvantage is a fair price = political indep5d5ce2 or1 on ! o!r h&1 t ! /imulus ( competition is actually good = ! trade affect$2 or1 aga91 t protection t5ds naturally to corruption2 we h argum5ts :i*1 good or bad1 are outside ! sph]e ( economics prop]4 ,to answ] !m we h to ent] ! field ( political or e?ical inquiry1 :]e we h to take leave ( tangible facts & precise measures4 ,?is is a m prom95t elem5t z we approa* ! m human side 7if ,i may s call x7 ( ,political ,economy4 ,consid]1 = example1 ! doctr9e :i* made s pr(\nd an impression ^u ! old s*ool--,mal?us's !ory ( population4 ,x 0 summ$ up 9 ! fam\s--?\gh admitt$ly inaccurate--phrase1 t population _h a t5d5cy to increase 9 a geometrical ratio1 :ile ! means ( subsi/5ce increas$ only 9 an ari?metical ratio4 ,! food available = ea* unit w\ld !re=e dim9i% z ! population increas$4 ,! s-call$ law obvi\sly /ates only a possibility4 ,x describes a t5d5cy1 or1 9 o!r words1 only describes :at w\ld happ5 "u c]ta91 admitt$ly v>iable1 conditions4 ,x %[$ h[1 9 a limit$ area & ) ! effici5cy ( indu/ry rema9+ unalt]$1 ! necess>y limits ^u ! numb]s ( ! population w\ld come into play4 ,if1 !n1 ! law 7 tak51 or 9 s f> z x 0 tak51 to ass]t t1 9 po9t ( fact1 ! population mu/ always be increas+ 9 civilis$ c\ntries to ! /age at :i* ! l[e/ class w\ld be at />vation level1 x 0 c]ta9ly errone\s4 ,!re are cases 9 :i* /atesm5 are al>m$ by ! failure ( population to %[ its old ela/icity1 & beg9n+ to rev]t to ! view t an increas$ rate is desirable4 ,x _c be said to be ev5 necess>ily true t 9 all cases an increas$ population implies1 ( necessity1 increas$ difficulty ( support4 ,!re are c\ntries :i* are inadequately peopl$1 & :]e great] numb]s w\ld be able to support !mselves m effici5tly because !y c\ld adopt a m elaborate organisation4 ,nor c x be said ) c]ta9ty t "s pressure may n1 )9 limits1 be fav\rable to ultimate progress by /imulat+ ! en]gies ( ! p4 ,9 a purely /ation>y /ate p might be too cont5t ) a c]ta9 /age ( com=t to develop _! res\rces & atta9 a p]man5tly high] /age4 ,:atev] ! importance ( su* qualifications ( ! pr9ciple1 !re is a mo/ important conclusion to be drawn4 ,mal?us or 8 m rigid foll[]s summ$ up _! tea*+ by "o practical moral4 ,! ess5tial condition ( progress 01 accord+ to !m1 ! disc\ragem5t ( e>ly m>riages4 ,if1 !y held1 p c\ld only be p]suad$ n to produce families until !y _h an adequate prospect ( support+ _! families1 ev]y?+ w\ld g "r4 ,we %all n1 ,i imag9e1 be incl9$ to dispute ! proposition1 t a c]ta9 degree ( prud5ce & =esight is a quality ( enorm\s value2 & t su* a quality w manife/ itself by great] caution 9 tak+ ! mo/ important /ep 9 life4 ,:at su* reason]s d n appe> to h appreciat$ 01 ! imm5se complexity & difficulty ( ! dem& :i* !y 7 mak+4 ,!y seem to h fanci$ t x 0 possible simply to add ano!r clause--! clause ,?\ %alt n m>ry--to ! accept$ code ( morals2 & t1 z soon z ! evil consequ5ces ( ! condemn$ behavi\r 7 und]/ood1--prop]ly exp\nd$1 = example1 9 little manuals = ! use ( s*ool *ildr51--ob$i5ce to ! new regulation w\ld spontane\sly foll[4 ,:at !y did n see1 or did n fully appreciate1 0 ! enorm\s s]ies ( o!r ?+s--religi\s1 moral1 & intellectual--:i* are necess>ily impli$ 9 alt]+ ! relation ( ! /ronge/ human passion to ! g5]al con/itution1 & ! impossibility ( br++ home su* an alt]ation1 ei!r by an act ( legislation or by po9t+ out ! be>+ ( a p>ticul> set ( prud5tial consid]ations4 ,political ,economy might be a v good ?+2 b its expositors 7 c]ta9ly too apt to ?9k t x c\ld by itself at once become a new gospel = mank9d4 ,%\ld we !n inf] f su* criticisms t ! doctr9e ( ,mal?us 0 false1 or 0 ( no importance8 ,no?+ w\ld be fur!r f my op9ion4 ,i hold1 on ! contr>y1 t x 0 ( ! highe/ importance1 because x drew att5tion to a fact1 ! recognition ( :i* 0 ess5tial to all s\nd reason+ on social que/ions4 ,! fact is1 t population is n to be treat$ z a fix$ quantity1 b z capable ( rapid expansion2 & t ?is ela/icity may at any mom5t require consid]ation1 & does 9 fact give ! explanation ( _m important ph5om5a4 ,! ma9 fact :i* gave importance to ,mal?us's writ+s 0 ! rapid & enorm\s increase ( paup]ism dur+ ! fir/ qu>t] ( ?is c5tury4 ,! *>itable & s5tim5tal writ]s ( ! day 7 al>m$1 b propos$ to meet ! evil by a reckless increase ( *>ity1 ei!r ( ! (ficial or ! private v>iety4 ,pitt1 we "k1 decl>$ 7?\gh he qualifi$ ! /atem5t7 t to be ! fa!r ( a l>ge family %\ld be a s\rce ( hon\r1 n ( obloquy2 & ! measures adopt$ "u ! influ5ce ( su* notions did 9 fact t5d to dim9i% all s5se ( responsibility1 enc\rag$ p to rely ^u ! p>i% = ! support ( _! *ildr51 & br\ght ab\t a /ate ( ?+s :i* al>m$ all intellig5t obs]v]s4 ,! greate/ *eck to ! evil 0 giv5 by ! new ,poor-law1 adopt$ "u ! influ5ce ( ! pr9ciples advocat$ by ,mal?us & 8 fri5ds4 ,8 a*ievem5t1 !n1 0 n t he laid d[n any absolutely correct sci5tific tru?1 or ev5 said any?+ :i* _h n be5 m or less said by _m judici\s p be=e 8 "t2 b t he enc\rag$ ! application ( a m sy/ematic me?od ( reason+ ^u ! great problem ( ! "t4 ,in/ead ( simply giv+ way to ! fir/ k9dly impulse1 aboli%+ a h>d%ip "h & di/ribut+ alms else:]e1 he sub/antially argu$ t society =m$ a complex organism1 ^: diseases %\ld be consid]$ physiologically1 _! causes expla9$1 & ! appropriate rem$ies consid]$ 9 all _! be>+s4 ,we mu/ n ask simply :e!r we 7 giv+ a loaf to ?is or t />v+ man1 or indulge 9 priori reason+ z to ! "r ( e human be+ to be support$ by o!rs2 b treat ! "q z a physician %\ld treat a disease1 & consid] :e!r1 on ! :ole1 ! new regulations w\ld increase or dim9i% ! causes ( ! exi/+ evils4 ,he did n1 !re=e1 s mu* proclaim a new tru?1 z induce re=m]s to place !mselves at a new & a m rational po9t ( view4 ,! s-call$ law ( population :i* he ann\nc$ might be 9 v>i\s ways inaccurate1 b ! ann\ncem5t made x necess>y = rational ?9k]s to take con/antly into acc\nt consid]ations :i* are ess5tial 9 any satisfactory treatm5t ( ! great problems4 ,if x 7 "r to consid] paup]ism z a gulf ( fix$ dim5sions1 we might hope to fill x by simply tak+ a suffici5t quantity ( weal? f ! ri*] classes4 ,if1 z ,mal?us urg$1 ?is process _h a t5d5cy to enl>ge ! dim5sions ( ! gulf itself1 x 0 obvi\s t ! :ole problem requir$ a m elaborate treatm5t4 ,by impress+ p ) ?is tru?1 & by %[+ h[1 9 a great v>iety ( cases1 ! ela/icity ( ! population 0 a mo/ important factor 9 det]m9+ ! condition ( ! p1 ,mal?us did a great s]vice1 & introduc$ a m sy/ematic & sci5tific me?od ( discuss+ ! imm5sely important que/ions involv$4 ,i w v briefly try to indicate "o fur!r application ( economic pr9ciples4 ,a critical po9t 9 ! mod]n developm5t ( ! /udy 0 m>k$ by ,mill's ab&onm5t ( ! s-call$ wage fund !ory4 ,t doctr9e is n[ g5]ally m5tion$ ) contempt1 z ! mo/ conspicu\s in/ance ( an entirely explod$ !ory4 ,x is (t5 said t x is ei!r a falsity1 or a b>r5 truism4 ,i am n ab\t to argue ! po9t1 obs]v+ only t "s v em95t ,economi/s consid] t x 0 r inadequate ?an fallaci\s2 & t to me x has always seem$ t ! !ory :i* has really be5 confut$ is n s mu* a !ory :i* 0 ev] actually held by ,economi/s1 z a =mula into :i* !y blund]$ :5 !y tri$ to give a quasi-sci5tific def9ition ( _! mean+4 ,x is common en\gh = p to argue s5sibly1 :5 ! explicit /atem5ts ( _! argum5t may be altoge!r errone\s4 ,at any rate1 ,i ?9k x has be5 a mis=tune t a good phrase has be5 discr$it$2 & t ,mill's assailants1 9 expos+ ! errors ( t p>ticul> !ory ( a wage fund1 seem$ to imply t ! :ole conception ( a wage fund 0 a mi/ake4 ,= ! result has be51 t ! popul> m9d seems to reg>d ! am\nt sp5t 9 wages z an arbitr>y quantity2 z some?+ :i*1 z ,mal?us put x1 might be fix$ at pleasure by h] ,maje/y's ju/ices ( ! peace4 ,because ! law 0 inaccurately /at$1 x is assum$ t !re is no law at all1 & t ! %>e ( ! lab\r]s 9 ! total product ( indu/ry might be fix$ )\t ref]5ce to ! effect ( a *ange ^u ! g5]al organisation4 ,n[1 if ! wage fund means ! %>e :i*1 "u exi/+ circum/ances1 actually goes to ! class dep5d5t ^u wages1 x is ( ! highe/ importance to discov] h[ t %>e is actually det]m9$2 & x does n ev5 foll[ t a doctr9e :i* is 9 "s s5se a truism may n be a highly important doctr9e4 ,"o ( ! able/ ( ! old ,economi/s1 ,nassan ,s5ior1 aft] lay+ d[n 8 v]sion ( ! !ory1 obs]ves t x is s ne>ly self-evid5t t if ,political ,economy 7 a new sci5ce1 x might be tak5 = grant$4 ,b he proce$s to enum]ate sev5 diff]5t op9ions1 "s ( !m held by _m p1 & o!rs by writ]s ( au?ority1 ) :i* x is inconsi/5t4 ,&1 )\t foll[+ 8 argum5ts1 ?is /atem5t sugge/s :at ,i take to be a really relevant def5ce ( 8 reasons4 ,at ! "t :5 ! !ory 0 fir/ =mulat$1 !re 7 _m curr5t doctr9es :i* 7 self-contradictory1 & :i* c\ld1 !re=e1 be/ be met by ! ass]tion ( a truism4 ,:5 ! peace ( #ahae br\ght di/ress in/ead ( pl5ty1 "s p1 su* z ,s\!y1 ?\ght x a suffici5t explanation to say t ! manufactur] _h lo/ 8 be/ cu/om]1 because ! ,gov]nm5t want$ few] guns & less p[d]4 ,!y *ose to ov]look ! obvi\s fact t a cu/om] :o pays = 8 goods by tak+ money out ( ! pockets ( ! sell]1 is n an unmix$ bless+4 ,!n1 !re 0 ! !ory ( g5]al gluts1 & ( :at is /ill d5\nc$ z ov]-production4 ,! be/ cure = comm]cial di/ress w\ld be1 z "o disputant ass]t$1 to burn all ! goods 9 our w>eh\ses4 ,x 0 necess>y to po9t out t ?is !ory 7:5 /at$ 9 sup]ficial t]ms7 reg>d$ sup]abundance ( weal? z ! cause ( univ]sal pov]ty4 ,ano!r common !ory 0 ! evil effect ( manufactur]s 9 displac+ "w4 ,! excell5t ,rob]t ,ow5 /at$ x z an appall+ fact1 t ! cotton manufacture supplant$ ! lab\r ( a hundr$ 7p]haps x 0 two hundr$7 millions ( m54 ,he seems to assume t1 if ! ma*9]y _h n be5 !re1 !re w\ld /ill h be5 wages = ! hundr$ millions4 ,! curi\s confusion1 inde$1 :i* leads u to speak ( m5 want+ "w1 :5 :at we really mean is t !y want wages1 %[s ! t5acity ( an old fallacy4 ,m&eville argu$ long ago t ! fire ( ,london 0 a bless+1 because x set at "w s _m c>p5t]s1 plumb]s1 & glazi]s4 ,! ,prote/ant ,re=mation _h done less good ?an ! inv5tion ( hoop$ petticoats1 :i* _h provid$ employm5t = s _m mill9]s4 ,i %all n insult y by expos+ fallacies2 & yet1 s long z !y survive1 !y h to be met by truisms4 ,:ile p are propos+ to l5g!n _! blankets by cutt+ (f "o end to sew ^u ! o!r1 "o has to po9t out t ! total l5g? rema9s con/ant4 ,n[1 ,i fancy t1 9 po9t ( fact1 ^! fallacies are (t5 to be f\nd 9 mod]n times4 ,i read1 ! o!r day1 9 ! pap]s1 an argum5t1 adduc$ by "s advocate1 on behalf ( ! ,eight ,h\rs ,bill4 ,he wi%$1 he said1 to make lab\r de>1 & w\ld !re=e make x sc>ce4 ,?is app>5tly leads to ! conclusion t ! less p "w ! m !y w get1 :i* ,i take to be a fallacy4 ,s1 to m5tion no?+ else1 x is /ill app>5tly a common argum5t 9 fav\r ( protection 9 ,am]ica1 t ! native lab\r] requires to be support$ aga9/ ! paup]is$ lab\r ( ,europe4 ,am]icans 9 g5]al are to be made ri*] by pay+ high] prices1 & by be+ =c$ to produce commodities :i* !y c\ld get ) less lab\r employ$ on ! production ( o!r ?+s 9 ex*ange4 ,i w n g fur!r2 = ,i ?9k t no "o :o reads ! common argum5ts c be 9 want ( suffici5t illu/rations ( popul> fallacies4 ,?is1 ,i say1 is "s ju/ification = dwell+ ^u ! contr>y truisms4 ,i admit1 inde$1 t ev5 ^! fallacies may apply to p>ticul> cases 9 :i* !y may repres5t p>tial tru?s2 & ,i also agree t1 z sometimes /at$1 ! wage fund !ory 0 n only a truism1 b a fruitless truism4 ,x 01 h[ev]1 z ,i believe1 an attempt to g5]alise a v p]t95t & important doctr9e1 z to ! way 9 :i* ! actual competition 9 :i* lab\r]s & employ]s are involv$1 actually op]ates4 ,if s1 x requires r modification ?an indiscrim9ate d5unciation2 & x is1 ,i believe1 s treat$ by ! be/ mod]n ,economi/s4 ,i consid]1 !n1 t ! ,economi/s 7 virtually attempt+ to describe sy/ematically ! ma9 relations ( ! indu/rial me*anism4 ,!y %[$ :at 7 ! ma9 functions :i* x1 9 fact1 dis*>ges4 ,_! !ory 0 suffici5t to expose _m errors1 especially ^? :i* arise f look+ solely at "o "p ( a complex process1 & neglect+ ! impli$ reactions4 ,x enabl$ !m to po9t out ! inconsi/5cies & actual contradictions involv$ 9 _m popul> argum5ts1 :i* are /ill v f> f be+ de/roy$4 ,_! ma9 error--ap>t f any p>ticul> logical slips--01 namely1 t :5 !y _h laid d[n c]ta9 pr9ciples :i* belong prop]ly to ! prolegom5a ( ! sci5ce1 & :i* are v useful :5 reg>d$ z provid+ logical te/s ( valid reason+1 !y imag9$ t !y _h done a great deal m1 & t ! desir$ sci5ce 0 actually con/itut$4 ,!y laid d[n ?ree or f\r prim>y axioms1 su* z ! doctr9e t m5 desire weal?1 & fanci$ t ! :ole !ory c\ld be d$uc$ f !m4 ,?is1 if :at ,i h said be true1 0 really to misund]/& :at !y 7 really do+4 ,x 0 to suppose t y c\ld obta9 a description ( social ph5om5a )\t exam9+ ! actual /ructure ( society2 & 0 z errone\s z to suppose t y c\ld d$uce physiological tru?s f a few g5]al propositions ab\t ! me*anical relations ( ! skeleton4 ,su* criticisms h be5 made by ! hi/orical s*ool ( ,economi/s2 & ,i1 at lea/1 c fully accept _! g5]al view4 ,i q agree t ! old assumptions ( ! old] s*ool 7 frequ5tly unju/ifiable2 nor c ,i d5y t !y laid !m d[n ) a tone ( sup]lative dogmatism1 :i* 0 apt to be v (f5sive1 & :i* 0 n ju/ifi$ by _! position4 ,moreov]1 ,i entirely agree t ! progress ( economic sci5ce1 & ( all o!r moral sci5ces1 requires a hi/orical basis2 & t we %\ld make a v great blund] if we ?\ght t ! creation ( an economic man w\ld ju/ify u 9 disp5s+ ) an inve/igation ( concrete facts1 bo? ( ! pres5t day & ( e>li] /ages ( indu/rial evolution4 ,b to ?is !re is an obvi\s qualification4 ,:at d we mean by inve/igat+ facts8 ,x seems to be a v simple rule1 b x leads u at once to great difficulties4 ,s1 z ,mill & lat] writ]s h v rightly ask$1 h[ are we to settle ev5 ! mo/ obvi\s que/ions 9 inquiries :]e1 = obvi\s reasons1 we _c make exp]im5ts1 & :]e we h n su* a set ( facts z w\ld spontane\sly give u ! tru?s :i* we might seek by exp]im5t8 ,take1 z ,mill sugge/$1 su* a "q z free trade4 ,we _c get two c\ntries alike 9 all else1 & diff]+ only 9 respect to _! adoption or rejection ( a protective t>iff4 ,any?+ l a ?or\ghgo+ sy/em ( free trade has be5 tri$ 9 ,engl& alone2 & ! comm]cial prosp]ity ( ! c\ntry s9ce its adoption has be5 affect$ by innum]able conditions1 s t x is altoge!r impossible to isolate ! results :i* are to be attribut$ to ! negative condition ( ! abs5ce ( protection4 ,briefly1 ! result is t ! ph5om5a ) :i* we h to deal are s complex1 & our p[] ( arrang+ !m s z to unravel ! complexity is s limit$1 t ! direct me?od ( obs]vation breaks d[n altoge!r4 ,mill confess$ ! necessity ( apply+ a diff]5t me?od1 :i* he describ$ ) great ability1 & :i* sub/antially am\nts to ! me?od ( ! old] ,economi/s4 ,if1 ) "s writ]s ( ! hi/orical s*ool1 we admit ! objections :i* apply to ?is me?od1 we seem to be r$uc$ to a hopeless /ate ( unc]ta9ty4 ,a treatise on ,political ,economy becomes no?+ b a miscellane\s collection ( facts1 ) no def9ite clue or uni=m me?od ( reason+4 ,i mu/ beg1 9 conclusion1 to indicate :at1 s f> z ,i c guess1 seems to be ! view sugge/$ 9 pres5ce ( ?is difficulty4 ,if ,i am ask$ :e!r ,political ,economy1 und]/ood1 = example1 z ,mill und]/ood x1 is to be reg>d$ z a sci5ce1 ,i %\ld h to admit t ,i c\ld n simply reply1 ,yes4 ,to say no?+ ( any errors 9 8 logic1 ,i %\ld say t ,i d n believe t x gives u suffici5t guidance ev5 9 reg>d to economic ph5om5a4 ,we c\ld n1 t is1 d$uce f ! laws accept$ by ,economi/s ! necess>y work+ ( any giv5 measure--say1 ! effect ( protection or free trade1 or1 /ill m1 ! mak+ ( a poor-law sy/em4 ,su* problems involve elem5ts ( :i* ! ,economi/1 purely z an ,economi/1 is an incompet5t judge2 & ! fur!r we get f ^? que/ions 9 :i* purely economical consid]ations are dom9ant1 t[>ds ^? 9 :i* o!r factors become relevant1--f que/ions z to curr5cy1 = example1 to que/ions z to ! relations ( capitali/s & lab\r]s1--! great] ! inadequacy ( our me?ods4 ,b ,i also hold t ,political ,economi/s may rightly claim a c]ta9 sci5tific "* = _! speculations4 ,if _! ultimate aim is to frame a sci5ce ( economics :i* %all be "p ( ! sci5ce--n yet con/itut$--( sociology1 !n ,i %\ld say t :at !y h really done--s f> z !y h reason$ accurately--has be5 to frame an ess5tial "p ( ! prolegom5a to su* a sci5ce4 ,! laws :i* !y h tri$ to =mulate are n laws :i*1 ev5 if e/abli%$1 w\ld enable u to pr$ict ! results ( any giv5 action2 b !y are laws :i* w\ld h to be tak5 into acc\nt 9 attempt+ any su* pr$iction4 ,& ?is is s1 ,i ?9k1 because ! laws are descriptions--)9 limits accurate descriptions--( actually exi/+ facts z to ! social me*anism4 ,!y are n m]e ab/ract hypo!ses1 9 ! s5se sometimes atta*$ to t phrase2 b acc\nts ( ! plan ^u :i* ! indu/rial arrangem5ts ( civilis$ c\ntries are1 z a matt] ( fact1 con/ruct$4 ,su* a classification & sy/ematic acc\nt ( facts is1 z ,i %\ld sugge/1 absolutely necess>y = any s\nd hi/orical me?od4 ,facts are n simply ?+s ly+ ab\t1 :i* anybody c pick up & describe = ! m]e pa9s ( collect+ !m4 ,we _c ev5 see a fact )\t reflection & obs]vation & judgm5t2 & to arrange !m 9 an ord] :i* %all be bo? sy/ematic & fruitful1 to look at !m f t po9t ( view 9 :i* we c detect ! g5]al und]ly+ pr9ciples1 is1 9 all cases1 an ess5tial process be=e we c beg9 to apply a truly hi/orical me?od4 ,any?+1 x is said1 may be prov$ by facts2 & t is pa9fully true until we h ! "r me?od ( :at has be5 call$ colligat+ facts4 ,! ,ca?olic & ! ,prote/ant1 ! ,cons]vative & ! ,radical1 ! ,individuali/ & ! ,sociali/1 h equal facility 9 prov+ _! own doctr9es ) argum5ts1 :i* habitually beg91 ,all hi/ory %[s4 ,pr9t]s %\ld be in/ruct$ always to /rike out t phrase z an erratum2 & to sub/itute1 ,i *oose to take = grant$4 ,9 ord] to judge betwe5 !m we h to come to "s conclusion z to :at is ! "r me?od ( conceiv+ ( hi/ory1 & probably to try _m me?ods be=e rea*+ t :i* arranges ! %ift+ & complicat$ *aos ( ph5om5a 9 some?+ l an intelligible ord]4 ,a fir/ /ep & a necess>y basis1 z ,i believe1 = all ! m complex inquiries w h to be f\nd by dis5tangl+ ! v>i\s ord]s ( laws 7if ,i may s speak71 & consid]+ by !mselves ^? laws ( indu/rial gr[? :i* are ne>e/ to ! physical sci5ces 9 c]ta9 respects1 & :i*1 )9 c]ta9 limits1 c be consid]$ ap>t1 inasmu* z !y repres5t ! work+ ( =ces :i* are comp>atively indep5d5t ( =ces ( a high] ord]4 ,:at ,i %\ld say = ,political ,economi/s is t !y h done a good deal 9 ?is direction2 t !y h expla9$1 &1 ,i suppose1 ) consid]able accuracy1 :at is ! actual nature ( ! indu/rial me*anism2 t !y h expla9$ fairly its work+ 9 c]ta9 cases :]e ! economic are practically also ! sole or dom9ant motives2 & t !y h ?us laid d[n c]ta9 tru?s :i* require att5tion ev5 :5 we take into acc\nt ! play ( o!r m complex &1 z we g5]ally say1 high] motives4 ,we may inde$ hope & believe t society w ultimately be con/itut$ ^u a diff]5t sy/em2 & t = ! organisation :i* has spontane\sly & unconsci\sly develop$ itself1 ano!r w be sub/itut$ :i* w correspond m closely to "s pr9ciples ( ju/ice1 & give fre] scope = ! full developm5t ( ! human faculties4 ,t is a v l>ge "q3 ,i only say t1 9 any case1 all g5u9e progress consi/s 9 a developm5t ( in/itutions already exi/+1 & !re=e t a full und]/&+ ( ! work+ ( ! pres5t sy/em is ess5tial to a rational consid]ation ( possible improvem5ts4 ,! ,sociali/ may look =w>d to a "t--let u hope t x may come soon6--:5 nobody w h any grievances4 ,b 8 s*emes w be ! bett] adapt$ = ! realisation ( 8 hopes 9 proportion z he has fully und]/ood :at is ! "p play$ by ea* factor ( ! exi/+ sy/em2 :at is its function1 & h[ t function may be m effici5tly dis*>g$ by any sub/itute4 ,only ^u t condition c he avoid ! common error ( inv5t+ "s s*eme :i* is 9 sociology :at s*emes = p]petual motion are 9 me*anics2 plans = mak+ ev]y?+ g "r by condemn+ "s exi/+ portion ( ! sy/em )\t fully und]/&+ h[ x has come into exi/5ce1 & :at is ! "p :i* x plays 9 ! :ole4 ,i ?9k myself t a /udy ( ! good old or?odox sy/em ( ,political ,economy is useful 9 ?is s5se1 ev5 :]e x is wrong2 because at lea/ x does give a sy/em1 & !re=e =ces its oppon5ts to pres5t an alt]native sy/em1 in/ead ( simply cutt+ a hole 9 ! %oe :5 x p9*es1 or /rik+ out ! driv+ :eel because x happ5s to creak unpleasantly4 ,& ,i ?9k s ! m because ,i _c b obs]ve t :5ev] a real economic "q pres5ts itself1 x has to be argu$ on pretty mu* ! old pr9ciples1 unless we take ! h]oic me?od ( disc>d+ argum5t altoge!r4 ,i %\ld be ! la/ to d5y t ! old ,political ,economy requires c>eful revision & modification1 & equally sl[ to d5y t ! limits ( its applicability require to be c>efully def9$4 ,b1 ) ^! qualifications1 ,i say1 ) equal conviction1 t x does lay d[n pr9ciples :i* require /udy & consid]ation1 = ! simple reason t !y ass]t ! exi/5ce ( facts :i* are relevant & important 9 all ! mo/ vitally int]e/+ problems ( to-day4 ,,! ,,morality ,,( ,,competition4 ,:5 x has occurr$ to me to say--z ,i h occasionally said--t1 to my m9d1 ! :ole tru? lies nei!r ) ! individuali/ nor ) 8 antagoni/1 my fri5ds h (t5 assur$ me t ,i 0 illogical4 ,( two contradictory pr9ciples1 !y say1 y mu/ take "o4 ,!re are cases1 ,i admit1 9 :i* ?is rem>k applies4 ,x is true1 or x is n true1 t two & two make f\r4 ,we _c1 9 ari?metic1 adopt ,sir ,rog] de ,cov]ley's conciliatory view1 t !re is mu* to be said on bo? sides4 ,b ?is logical rule supposes t1 9 po9t ( fact1 ! two pr9ciples apply to ! same case1 & are mutually exclusive4 ,i also ?9k t ! habit ( tak+ = grant$ t social problems are r$ucible to su* an alt]native1 is ! s\rce ( innum]able fallacies4 ,i hold t1 z a rule1 any absolute solution ( su* problems is impossible2 & t a man :o boa/s ( be+ logical1 is g5]ally ann\nc+ 8 delib]ate int5tion to be "o-sid$4 ,he is confus+ ! und5iable canon t ( two contradictory propositions "o mu/ be true1 ) ! assumption t two propositions are really contradictory4 ,! app>5t contradiction may be illusory4 ,society1 says ! individuali/1 is made up ( all its memb]s4 ,c]ta9ly3 if all ,engli%m5 di$1 !re w\ld be no ,engli% race4 ,b x does n foll[ t e individual ,engli%man is n also ! product ( ! race4 ,society1 says ! ,sociali/1 is an organic :ole4 ,i q admit ! fact2 b x does n foll[ t1 z a :ole1 x has any qualities or aims indep5d5t ( ! qualities & aims ( ! con/itu5t p>ts4 ,metaphysicians h amus$ !mselves1 9 all ages1 ) ! puzzle ab\t ! _m & ! "o4 ,p]haps !y may f9d contradictions 9 ! /atem5t t a human society is bo? "o & _m2 a unit & yet complex2 b ,i am cont5t to assume t unless we admit ! fact1 we %all get a v little way 9 sociology4 ,society1 we say1 is an organism4 ,t implies t e "p ( a society is dep5d5t ^u ! o!r p>ts1 & t al?\gh1 = purposes ( argum5t1 we may f9d x conv5i5t to assume t c]ta9 elem5ts rema9 fix$ :ile o!rs v>y1 we mu/ always rememb] t ?is is an assumption :i*1 9 ! long run1 nev] precisely corresponds to ! facts4 ,we may1 = example1 9 economical que/ions1 att5d simply to ! play ( ! ord9>y indu/rial ma*9]y1 )\t tak+ into acc\nt ! fact t ! indu/rial ma*9]y is condition$ by ! political & ecclesia/ical con/itution1 by ! :ole social ord]1 &1 !re=e1 by ! acceptance ( correspond+ e?ical1 or philosophical or sci5tific cre$s4 ,! me?od is ju/ifiable s long z we rememb] t we are us+ a logical artifice2 b we blund] if we take our hypo!sis = a full /atem5t ( ! actual facts4 ,we are !n tempt$1 & x is1 p]haps1 ! commone/ ( all s\rces ( error 9 su* inquiries1 to assume t conditions are absolute :i* are really cont+5t2 or1 to att5d only to ! action1 )\t notic+ ! inevitable reactions ( ! :ole sy/em ( in/itutions4 ,& ,i w\ld sugge/1 t f ?is foll[s a v important lesson 9 su* inquiries4 ,to say t ?is or t "p ( a sy/em is bad1 is to say1 by implication1 t "s bett] arrangem5t is possible consi/5tly ) our prim>y assumptions4 ,9 o!r words1 we _c rationally propose simply to cut out "o "p ( a ma*9e1 dead or liv+1 )\t consid]+ ! effect ( ! omission ^u all ! o!r dep5d5t p>ts4 ,! :ole sy/em is necess>ily alt]$4 ,:at1 we mu/ !re=e ask1 is ! tacit implication z well z :at is ! imm$iate purpose ( a *ange8 ,may n ! bad effect be a necess>y "p ( ! sy/em to :i* we also owe ! good2 or necess>y "u "s conditions8 ,x is always1 !re=e1 a relevant "q1 :at is ! sugge/$ alt]native8 ,we c !n judge :e!r ! removal ( a p>ticul> evil is or is n to be produc$ at a great] co/ ?an x is wor?2 :e!r x w\ld be a process1 say1 ( really cur+ a smoky *imney or ( /opp+ ! *imney altoge!r1 & s aboli%+ n only ! smoke b ! fire4 ,i propose to apply ?is to ! "q ( competition4 ,competition is frequ5tly d5\nc$ z ! s\rce ( social evils4 ,! compla9t is f> f a new "o4 ,i might take = my text a passage f ,j4 ,s4 ,mill's fam\s *apt] on ! probable future ( ! lab\r+ classes4 ,mill1 aft] say+ t he agrees ) ! ,sociali/s 9 _! practical aims1 decl>es 8 utt] diss5t f _! declamations aga9/ competition4 ,!y =get1 he says1 t :]e competition is n1 monopoly is2 & t monopoly1 9 all its =ms1 is ! taxation ( ! indu/ri\s = ! support ( indol5ce1 if n ( plund]4 ,t sugge/s my "q3 ,if competition is bad1 :at is good8 ,:at is ! alt]native to competition8 ,is x1 z ,mill says1 monopoly1 or is any ?ird *oice possible8 ,if x is monopoly1 d y def5d monopoly1 or only monopoly 9 "s special cases8 ,i op5$1 n long ago1 an old book ( c>icatures1 9 :i* ! revolution>y lead] is c>ry+ a bann] ) ! d\ble inscription1 ,no monopoly6 ,no competition6 ,! impli$ *all5ge--h[ c y aboli% bo?8--seem$ to me to require a pla9 answ]4 ,directly aft]w>ds ,i !n took up ! newspap]1 & read ! report ( an address ^u ! prize-day ( a s*ool4 ,! speak] dwelt 9 ! usual t]ms ^u ! remorseless & cru%+ competition ( ! pres5t day1 :i* he m5tion$ z an incitem5t to e boy to get a good tra9+ = ! /ruggle4 ,! moral 0 excell5t2 b x seem$ to me curi\s t ! speak] %\ld be d5\nc+ competition 9 ! v same brea? ) pro(s ( its influ5ce 9 enc\rag+ education4 ,:5 ,i 0 a lad1 a clev] boy & a /upid boy _h an equal *ance ( gett+ an appo9tm5t to a public (fice4 ,! m]it :i* won a place might be relation%ip to a public (ficial1 or p]haps to a g5tleman :o _h an influ5ce 9 ! con/itu5cy ( ! (ficial4 ,! sy/em 0 a p>tial survival ( ! good old days 9 :i*1 accord+ to ,sam ,well]1 ! "y nobleman got a position because 8 "m's uncle's wife's gr&fa!r _h once light$ ! ,k+'s pipe4 ,! nobleman1 ,i ne$ h>dly add1 consid]$ ?is z an illu/ration ( ! pleasant belief1 ,:atev] is1 is "r4 ,z we _h ceas$ to accept t op9ion 9 politics1 (fices 7 soon aft]w>ds ?r[n op5 to competition1 ) ! g5]al impression t we 7 do+ ju/ice & op5+ a c>e] to m]it4 ,t ! result+ sy/em has grave defects is1 ,i ?9k1 q und5iable2 b s f> z x has succe$$ 9 det]m9+ t ! m5 %\ld be select$ = public duty1 = _! fitness1 & = no?+ else1 x is surely a /ep 9 advance :i* no "o w\ld n[ propose to retrace4 ,& yet x 0 simply a sub/itution ( competition = monopoly4 ,z x comes into wid] op]ation1 "s ( u beg9 to cry out aga9/ competition4 ,! respectable citiz5 asks1 ,:at are we to d ) our boys8 ,! obvi\s reply is1 t he really means1 ,:at are we to d ) our fools8 ,a clev] lad c n[ get on by 8 clev]ness2 & ( c\rse ^? :o are n clev] are ?ru/ aside4 ,t is a mis=tune1 p]haps1 = !m2 b we c h>dly reg>d x z a mis=tune = ! c\ntry4 ,& cle>ly1 too1 pressure ( ?is k9d is likely to increase4 ,we h come to believe t x is a ma9 duty ( ! nation to provide g5]al education4 ,:5 ! excell5t ,miss ,hannah ,m began to spread village s*ools1 %e prote/$ w>mly t %e w\ld n tea* *ildr5 any?+ :i* w\ld t5d to make ! poor discont5t$ ) _! /ation4 ,!y mu/ le>n to read ! ,bible1 b %e hop$ t !y w\ld /op %ort ( su* k z w\ld enable !m to read ,tom ,pa9e4 ,n[1 ,hannah ,m des]ves our gratitude = h] %>e 9 sett+ ! ball roll+2 b x has roll$ f> beyond ! limits %e w\ld h prescrib$4 ,we n[ desire n only t e *ild 9 ! c\ntry %\ld be able to acquire ! elem5ts ( le>n+ at lea/2 b1 fur!r1 we hope t ladd]s may be provid$ by :i* e promis+ *ild may be able to climb beyond ! elem5ts1 & to acquire ! fulle/ culture ( :i* 8 faculties are capable4 ,!re is n only no cr$it at ! pres5t day 9 wi%+ s mu*1 b x is discr$itable n to d :at lies 9 "o's p[] to fur!r its accompli%m5t4 ,b1 !n1 is n t to increase enorm\sly ! field ( competition8 ,i1 = example1 am a lit]>y p]son1 aft] a fa%ion2 ,i h1 t is1 done some?+ to e>n a liv+ by my p54 ,i _h ! advantage at />t+ ( belong+ to ! small class :i* 0 well en\gh (f to s5d its *ildr5 to ! be/ s*ools & univ]sities4 ,t is to say1 ,i 0 "o ( ! m9ority :i* _h virtually a monopoly ( education1 & b = t circum/ance ,i %\ld 9 all probability h tak5 to "s possibly m hone/1 b p]haps ev5 worse paid1 occupation4 ,e ext5sion ( ! m>g9 ( education1 ev]y?+ :i* diffuses k & intellectual tra9+ ?r\gh a wid] circle1 mu/ increase ! competition among au?ors4 ,if e man ) bra9s1 :e!r born 9 a palace or a cottage is to h a *ance ( mak+ ! be/ ( !m1 ! capacity = au?or%ip1 & !re=e ! numb] ( competitors1 w be enorm\sly spread4 ,x may also1 we w hope1 increase ! dem& = _! "w4 ,! same rem>k applies to e pr(ession = :i* intellectual culture is a qualification4 ,d we regret ! fact8 ,w\ld we s5t5ce ?ree-qu>t]s ( ! nation to rema9 /upid1 9 ord] t ! fools 9 ! rema9+ qu>t] may h a bett] *ance8 ,t w\ld be contr>y to e democratic in/9ct1 to ! highe/ z well z ! l[e/4 ,b if ,i say1 e (fice & e pr(ession %all be op5 to e man2 success 9 x %all dep5d ^u 8 abilities & m]its2 &1 fur!r1 e *ild 9 ! c\ntry %all h ! opportunity ( acquir+ ! necess>y qualifications1 :at is t b to accept & to /imulate ! _s ( competition8 ,:at1 ,i ask1 is ! alt]native8 ,%\ld p be appo9t$ by int]e/8 ,or is nobody to be anxi\s = (ficial or pr(essional or lit]>y or comm]cial success1 b only to develop 8 p[]s f a s5se ( duty1 & wait till "s infallible obs]v] comes r\nd & says1 ,fri5d1 take ?is position1 :i* y des]ve8 ,someh[ ,i d n ?9k t la/ s*eme practicable at pres5t4 ,b1 ev5 9 t case1 ,i d n see h[ ! m]its ( any man are to be te/$ )\t enabl+ him to prove by exp]im5t t he is ! mo/ m]itori\s p]son2 &1 if t be admitt$1 is n e /ep 9 promot+ education1 9 equalis+1 !re=e1 ! position f :i* m5 />t = ! race1 a direct enc\ragem5t to competition8 ,c>lyle 0 fond ( say+ t ,napoleon's great message to mank9d 0 ! decl>ation t c>e]s %\ld be op5 to tal5t1 or ! tools giv5 to him :o c\ld use !m4 ,surely t 0 a s\nd pr9ciple2 & "o :i*1 s f> z ,i c see1 _c be appli$ )\t /imulat+ competition4 ,! doctr9e1 inde$1 is unpalatable to _m ,sociali/s4 ,to me1 x seems to be "o to :i* only ! c[>dly & ! indol5t c object 9 pr9ciple4 ,w n a society be ! bett] (f1 9 :i* e man is set to "w ^u ! tasks = :i* he is mo/ fitt$8 ,if we all[$ our tea*+ & our ?9k+ to be done by blockheads2 our h>d lab\r to be done by m5 ^: muscles 7 less develop$ ?an _! bra9s2 made our soldi]s out ( our c[>ds1 & our sailors out ( ! sea-sick1--%\ld we be bett] (f8 ,x seems1 c]ta9ly1 to me1 t :atev] may be ! be/ con/itution ( society1 "o m>k ( x w be ! t5d5cy to di/ribute all social functions accord+ to ! fitness ( ! ag5ts2 to place tru/ :]e tru/ is ju/ifiable1 & to give ! fulle/ scope = e prov$ ability1 intellectual1 moral1 & physical4 ,( c\rse1 su* approximation to ?is result1 z we c obs]ve 9 ! pres5t ord] ( ?+s1 is v imp]fect4 ,_m ( ! mo/ obvi\s evils 9 ! p>ticul> sy/em ( competition n[ adopt$1 may be summ$ up 9 ! /atem5t1 t ! te/s accord+ to :i* success is aw>d$1 are n s contriv$ z to secure ! success ( ! be/ competitors4 ,"s ( !m1 = example1 are calculat$ to give an advantage to ! sup]ficial & ! %[y4 ,b t is to say t !y are incompatible ) ! true pr9ciple :i* !y 7 int5d$ to embody2 & t we %\ld re=m our me?od1 n 9 ! direction ( limit+ competition1 b 9 ! direction ( s fram+ our sy/em t x may be a g5u9e application ( ,c>lyle's doctr9e4 ,9 o!r words1 9 all ! pr(essions = :i* intellectual excell5ce is requir$1 ! conditions %\ld be su* z to give ! be/ man ! be/ *ance1 z f> z human arrangem5ts c secure t object4 ,:at o!r rule c be sugge/$8 ,competition1 9 ?is s5se1 means ! pres]vation ( ! v atmosph]e :i* is necess>y to heal?2 & to d5\nce x is ei!r to confirm ! mo/ selfi% & retrograde pr9ciples1 or to d5\nce some?+ :i* is only call$ competition by a confusion ( ideas4 ,h[ easy su* a confusion may be1 is obvi\s :5 we look at ! ord9>y language ab\t indu/rial competition4 ,we are told t wages are kept d[n by competition4 ,to ?is ,mill repli$ 9 ! passage ,i h quot$1 &1 ^u 8 own !ory1 at any rate1 repli$ ) p]fect ju/ice1 t !y 7 also kept up by competition4 ,! common language ^u ! subject is m]ely "o in/ance ( ! fallacies into :i* m5 fall :5 !y p]sonify an ab/raction4 ,competition becomes a k9d ( malevol5t & sup]natural be+1 to ^: p[]s no conceivable limits are assign$4 ,x is suppos$ to acc\nt = any am\nt ( degradation4 ,yet if1 by multiply+ _! numb]s1 workm5 increase supply1 & s l[] ! price ( lab\r1 x foll[s1 conv]sely1 by ! v same reason+1 t if !y refus$ to multiply1 !y w\ld dim9i% ! supply & raise ! price4 ,! =ce1 by its v nature1 op]ates z c]ta9ly 9 "o direction z 9 ! o!r4 ,if1 aga91 !re is competition among workm51 !re is competition among capitali/s4 ,9 e /rike1 ( c\rse1 workm5 apply ! pr9ciple1 & sometimes apply x v effectually1 9 ! attempt to raise _! wages4 ,x 0 (t5 argu$1 inde$1 t 9 ?is /ruggle1 ! employ] possess$ advantages p>tly due to 8 p[] ( =m+ tacit comb9ations4 ,! f>m]s 9 a p>i%1 or ! manufactur]s 9 a bus9ess1 7 pl$g$ to ea* o!r n to raise ! rate ( wages4 ,if t be s1 y aga9 compla91 n ( competition1 b ( ! want ( competition2 & y agree t ! lab\r] w b5efit1 z 9 fact1 ,i take x1 he has und\bt$ly b5efit$1 by fre] competition among capitali/s1 or by ! great] p[] ( remov+ 8 own lab\r to bett] m>kets4 ,9 su* cases1 ! v mean+ ( ! compla9t is n t !re is competition1 b t ! competition is s arrang$ z to give an unfair advantage to "o side4 ,& a simil> misund]/&+ is obvi\sly impli$ 9 o!r cases4 ,! ,au/ralian or ,am]ican workman fe>s t 8 wages w be l[]$ by ! competition ( ! ,*9ese2 & ! ,engli%man prote/s aga9/ ! competition ( paup] ali5s4 ,let u assume t he is "r 9 believ+ t su* competition w t5d to l[] 8 wages1 :atev] ! moral to be drawn f ! fact4 ,briefly1 d5unciations ( competition 9 ?is s5se are really compla9ts t we d n exclude ! ,*9ese immigrant & !re=e give a monopoly to ! native lab\r]4 ,t may be a good ?+ = him1 & if x be n a good ?+ = ! ,*9aman :o is exclud$ f ! field1 we p]haps d n c>e v mu* ab\t ! results to ,*9a4 ,we are s mu* bett] ?an ! hea!n t we ne$ n bo!r ab\t _! int]e/s4 ,b1 ( c\rse1 ! ,engli% workman1 :5 he compla9s ( ! int5sity ( competition1 does n propose to adopt ! analog\s rem$y ( giv+ a monopoly to "o section ( our own population4 ,! ,engli% paup] is "h2 we d n want to suppress him1 b only to suppress 8 paup]ism2 & he c]ta9ly _c be exclud$ f any %>e 9 ! fund devot$ to ! support ( lab\r4 ,! evil1 !re=e1 ( :i* we compla9 is prim>ily ! inadequacy ( ! support provid$1 n1--?\gh t may also be compla9$ (1--! undesirable me?od by :i* ^? funds are di/ribut$4 ,9 o!r words1 ! compla9t may s f> be tak5 to mean t !re are too _m competitors1 n t1 giv5 ! competitors1 _! %>es are det]m9$ by competition1 in/ead ( be+ det]m9$ by monopoly or by "s o!r pr9ciple4 ,we h !re=e to inquire :e!r any pr9ciple c be sugge/$ :i* w effect ! desir$ end1 & :i* w yet really exclude competition4 ,! popul> sugge/ion is t ! rem$y lies 9 suppress+ competition by equalis+ ! prizes4 ,if no prizes are to be won1 !re w s f> be less reason = compet+4 ,en\gh may be provid$ = all by simply tak+ some?+ f ^? :o h too mu*4 ,n[1 ,i may probably assume t we all agree 9 approv+ ! contemplat$ end--a great] equality ( weal?1 & especially an elevation ( ! l[] classes to a high] position 9 ! scale ( com=t4 ,e social re=m]1 :atev] 8 p>ticul> cre$1 w\ld probably agree t "s ( u are too ri*1 & t a great _m are too poor4 ,b we /ill h to ask1 9 :at s5se x is conceivable t a real suppression ( competition c contribute to ! desir$ end4 ,x is obvi\s t :5 we d5\nce competition we (t5 mean n t x is to be aboli%$1 b t x is to be regulat$ & limit$ 9 its application4 ,s1 = example1 p sometimes speak z if competition 7 ! anti!sis to co-op]ation4 ,b ,i ne$ h>dly say t individuali/s1 z well z _! oppon5ts1 may legitimately s+ ! praises ( co-op]ation4 ,nobody 0 m =w>d ?an ,mill1 = example1 & ,mill's foll[]s1 9 advocat+ ! pr9ciples ( ! e>ly co-op]ative societies4 ,he & !y rejoic$ to believe t ! co-op]ative societies _h reveal$ unsuspect$ virtues & capacities 9 ! class f :i* !y sprang2 t !y _h done mu* to raise ! /&>d ( life & to ext5d sympa?y & human relations among previ\sly disconnect$ units ( society4 ,b x is1 ( c\rse1 equally obvi\s t !y h gr[n up 9 a society :i* supposes free competition 9 e "p ( its indu/rial sy/em2 t co-op]ative societies1 s f> z ! outside _w is conc]n$1 h to buy 9 ! *eape/ & sell 9 ! de>e/ m>ket2 t ! rate ( wages ( _! memb]s is /ill fix$ by competition2 & t !y enc\rage habits ( sav+ & =e?\ght :i* presuppose t ea* man is to h private ends ( 8 own4 ,9 :at s5se1 !n1 c co-op]ation ev] be reg>d$ z really oppos$ to competition8 ,competition may exi/ among gr\ps ( m5 j z mu* z among individuals3 a /ate ( w> is n less a /ate ( w> if x is c>ri$ on by regim5ts & armies1 in/ead ( by m]e *aotic /ruggles 9 :i* ea* man fights = 8 own h&4 ,competition does n mean t !re %\ld be no comb9ation1 b t !re %\ld be no monopoly4 ,s long z a trade or a pr(ession is op5 to e "o :o *ooses to take x up1 its conduct w be equally regulat$ by competition1 :e!r x be competition z betwe5 societies or individuals1 or :e!r its pr(its be divid$ ^u "o sy/em or ano!r betwe5 ! v>i\s classes conc]n$4 ,co-op]ators1 ( c\rse1 may look =w>d to a day 9 :i* society at l>ge w be memb]s ( a s+le co-op]ative society2 or1 aga91 to a "t 9 :i* e indu/rial ent]prise may be conduct$ by ! ,/ate4 ,suppos+ any su* aspiration to be realis$1 ! "q /ill rema9s1 :e!r !y w\ld am\nt to ! abolition or /ill only to ! %ift+ ( ! incid5ce ( competition4 ,sociali/s tell u t hi!rto ! lab\r] has n _h 8 fair %>e ( ! produce ( indu/ry4 ,! exi/+ sy/em has sanction$ a complicat$ *ican]y1 by :i* "o class has be5 enabl$ to live z m]e bloodsuck]s & p>asites ^u ! re/ ( society4 ,prop]ty is ! result ( !ft1 in/ead ( be+1 z ,economi/s us$ to assure u1 ! rew>d ( ?rift4 ,x is hop$ t ^! evils may be rem$i$ by a recon/ruction ( society1 9 :i* ! means ( production %all all be public prop]ty1 & e man's income be simply a sal>y 9 proportion to ! quantity ( 8 lab\r4 ,if we1 !n1 ask h[ f> competition w\ld be aboli%$1 we may fir/ make "o rem>k4 ,su* a sy/em1 l e o!r sy/em1 requires1 = its successful work+1 t ! in/9cts & moral impulses %\ld correspond to ! dem&s ( ! society4 ,absolute equality ( prop]ty is j z compatible ) univ]sal mis]y z ) univ]sal prosp]ity4 ,a population made up ( ?or\ghly lazy1 s5sual1 /upid individuals c\ld1 if x *ose1 "w su* a ma*9]y s z to suppress all :o 7 indu/ri\s1 ref9$ & intellig5t4 ,h[ev] great may be ! rev5ue ( a nation1 x is a v simple problem ( ari?metic to discov] h[ _m p c\ld be support$ j above ! />vation level4 ,! nation at l>ge w\ld1 on ! suppos$ sy/em1 h to decide h[ its numb]s & wants are to be proportion$ to its means4 ,if individuals d n compete1 ! :ole society has1 presumably1 to compete ) o!r societies2 &1 9 e case :atev]1 ) ! g5]al =ces ( nature4 ,an indol5t & ineffici5t majority might decide1 if x pleas$1 t ! am\nt ( "w to be exact$ %\ld be t :i* w\ld be j en\gh to provide ! simple/ mat]ial necessities4 ,if1 aga91 ! indol5t & ineffici5t are to exi/ at all1--& we c sc>cely c\nt ^u _! disappe>ance1--& if fur!r1 !y are to %>e equally ) ! indu/ri\s & ! effici5t1 we mu/1 9 "s way1 co]ce !m into ! requir$ activity4 ,if e indu/rial organisation is to be work$ by ! ,/ate1 ! ,/ate1 x w\ld seem1 mu/ appeal to ! only means at its disposal1--namely1 ! prison & ! sc\rge4 ,if1 moreov]1 ! idle & s5sual *oose to multiply1 ! ,/ate mu/ =ce !m to refra91 or ! /&>d ( exi/5ce w be l[]$4 ,&1 !re=e1 z is (t5 argu$1 ,socialism logically c>ri$ out w\ld1 "u su* conditions1 lead to slav]y2 to a /ate 9 :i* lab\r w\ld be en=c$1 & ! :ole sy/em ( life absolutely regulat$ by ! w ( ! majority2 &1 9 ! la/ resort1 by physical =ce4 ,t seems1 ,i confess1 to be a necess>y result1 unless y c assume a moral *ange1 :i* is entirely diff]5t f ! m]e *ange ( ma*9]y1 & n necess>ily impli$1 nor ev5 made probable1 by ! *ange4 ,! intellectual lead]s ( ,socialism1 no d\bt1 assume t ! removal ( inju/ice w lead to ! developm5t ( a public _s :i* w cause ! total effici5cy to be z great z x is at pres5t1 or p]haps great]4 ,b ! mass :o call !mselves ,sociali/s take1 "o suspects1 a mu* simpl] view4 ,!y are mov$ by ! v natural1 b n especially l(ty1 desire to h m wages & less "w4 ,!y take = grant$ t if _! %>e ( ! total product is increas$1 !y w get a l>g] divid5d2 & d n /op to inquire :e!r ! advantage may be n m ?an c\nt]balanc$ by ! dim9ution ( ! :ole product1 :5 ! pres5t incitem5ts to indu/ry are remov$4 ,!y argue1--t is1 s f> z !y argue at all1--z ?\gh ! quantity to be di/ribut$ 7 a fix$ quantity1 & reg>d capitali/s z p]nici\s p]sons1 someh[ int]cept+ a lion's %>e ( ! /ream ( weal? :i*1 x is assum$1 w\ld fl[ equally if !y 7 aboli%$4 ,t is1 ( c\rse1 to beg ! :ole "q4 ,i1 h[ev]1 %all v5ture to assume t ! indu/rial ma*9]y requires a correspond+ moral =ce to "w x2 & ,i1 !re=e1 proce$ to ask h[ su* a =ce c be suppos$ to act )\t "s =m ( competition4 ,no?+1 z a rec5t writ] sugge/s1--ironically1 p]haps1--c\ld be easi] ?an to secure an abolition ( competition4 ,y h only to d two ?+s3 to draw a r+-f5ce r\nd y\r society1 & !n to proportion ! memb]s )9 ! f5ce to ! supplies4 ,! rem>k sugge/s ! difficulty4 ,a r+-f5ce1 = example1 r\nd ,london or ,man*e/] w\ld mean ! />vation ( millions 9 a mon?2 or1 if r\nd ,engl&1 ! ru9 ( ,engli% comm]ce1 ! enorm\s rise 9 ! co/ ( ! poor man's food1 & ! abolition ( all 8 little luxuries4 ,b1 if y include ev5 a population z l>ge z ,london1 :at y h next to d is to drill "s millions ( p--va/ numb]s ( !m poor1 reckless1 ignorant1 s5sual1 & selfi%--to regulate _! :ole mode ( life by a giv5 code1 & refra9 f all ! pleasures :i* !y mo/ appreciate4 ,! task is a big "o1 & n ! less if y h also to und]take t ev]ybody1 :atev] 8 p]sonal qualities1 %all h en\gh to lead a com=table life4 ,i d n suppose1 h[ev]1 t any rational ,sociali/ w\ld accept t programme ( isolation4 ,he w\ld hold t1 9 8 ,utopia1 we c d m effici5tly all t is done "u a sy/em :i* he reg>ds z wa/eful & unju/4 ,! exi/+ ma*9]y1 :atev] else may be said ( x1 does1 9 fact1 t5d to weld ! :ole _w m & m into a s+le indu/rial organism4 ,engli% workm5 are lab\r+ to satisfy ! wants ( o!r human be+s 9 e qu>t] ( ! _w2 :ile ,*9ese1 & ,africans1 & ,europeans1 & ,am]icans are also lab\r+ to satisfy !irs4 ,?is va/ & almo/ inconceivably complex ma*9]y has gr[n up 9 ! ma9 unconsci\sly1 or1 at lea/1 ) a v imp]fect anticipation ( ! ultimate results1 by ! indep5d5t ef=ts ( innum]able inv5tors1 & speculators1 & m]*ants1 & manufactur]s1 ea* ( !m int5t1 z a rule1 only ^u 8 own imm$iate pr(its & ! int]e/s ( ! little circle ) :i* he is 9 imm$iate contact4 ,! !ory is n1 ,i suppose1 t ?is gigantic sy/em ( mutual int]dep5d5ce %\ld be aboli%$ or re/rict$1 b t x %\ld be c>ri$ on consci\sly1 ) def9ite & intelligible purpose1 & 9 su* a way z to promote ! int]e/s ( e fraction ( society4 ,! :ole organism %\ld resemble "o work$ by a s+le bra91 in/ead ( repres5t+ ! resultant ( a multitude ( di/ract$ & conflict+ =ces4 ,! difficulties are obvi\s en\gh1 nor ne$ ,i dwell ^u !m "h4 ,i w n inquire :e!r x does n suppose some?+ l omnisci5ce 9 ! new indu/rial lead]s2 & :e!r ! re/less & multif>i\s en]gy n[ display$ 9 discov]+ new means ( satisfy+ human wants c\ld be suppli$ by a c5tral body1 or a numb] ( c5tral bodies1 made up ( human be+s1 &1 moreov]1 (ficial human be+s1 reluctant to try exp]im5ts & /rike into new c\rses1 & )\t ! pres5t motives = ent]prise1 ,individuali/s h enl>g$ suffici5tly ^u su* topics4 ,:at ,i h to note is t1 9 any case1 ! *ange supposes ! necessity ( a correspond+ morality 9 ! gr[? ( ! in/9cts1 ! public _s1 ! hatr$ ( indol5ce1 ! temp]ance & self-comm& :i* w\ld be requisite to "w x effici5tly4 ,! organisation into :i* we are born presupposes c]ta9 moral in/9cts1 &1 moreov]1 necess>ily implies a va/ sy/em ( moral discipl9e4 ,our hopes & aspirations1 our judgm5ts ( our neighb\rs & ( ourselves1 are at e mom5t guid$ & m\ld$ by ! great /ructure ( :i* we =m a "p4 ,:5ev] we ask h[ our lives are to be direct$1 :at are to be ! t]ms on :i* we =m our mo/ intimate ties1 :om we are to support or suppress1 h[ we are to w9 respect or incur contempt1 we are pr(\ndly affect$ by ! social relations 9 :i* we are plac$ at our bir?1 & ! correspond+ beliefs or prejudices :i* we h unconsci\sly imbib$4 ,su* influ5ces1 x may p]haps be said1 are ( incomp>ably great] importance ?an ! direct exhortations to :i* we li/51 or ?an ! ab/ract doctr9es :i* we accept 9 words1 b :i* receive _! :ole col\r+ f ! concrete facts to :i* !y con=m4 ,n[1 ,i ask h[ su* discipl9e c be conceiv$ )\t "s k9d ( competition2 or1 r1 :at w\ld be ! discipl9e :i* w\ld rema9 if1 9 "s s5se1 competition c\ld be suppress$8 ,if 9 ! ideal society !re are /ill prizes to be won1 positions :i* may be ! object ( legitimate desire1 & if ^? positions are to be op5 to e "o1 :atev] 8 circum/ances1 we might /ill h ! ke5e/ competition1 ?\gh c>ri$ on by diff]5t me?ods4 ,if1 on ! o!r h&1 no man's position 7 to be bett] ?an ano!r's1 we might suppress competition at ! price ( suppress+ e motive = social z well z individual improvem5t4 ,9 any conceivable /ate ( ?+s1 ! welf>e ( e society1 ! total means ( enjoym5t at its disposal1 mu/ dep5d ^u ! en]gy1 intellig5ce1 & tru/wor?9ess ( its con/itu5t memb]s4 ,su* qualities1 ,i ne$ h>dly say1 are qualities ( individuals4 ,unless ,john & ,pet] & ,?omas are /eady1 indu/ri\s1 sob]1 & hone/1 ! society z a :ole w be nei!r hone/ nor sob] nor prosp]\s4 ,! problem1 !n1 becomes1 h[ c y ensure ! exi/5ce ( su* qualities unless ,john & ,pet] & ! re/ h "s advantage 9 virtue ( possess+ !m8 ,someh[ or o!r1 a man mu/ be ! bett] (f = do+ 8 "w well & treat+ 8 neighb\r fairly4 ,he ought surely to hold ! positions 9 :i* su* qualities are mo/ requir$1 & to h1 if possible1 ! be/ *ance ( be+ a prog5itor ( ! ris+ g5]ation4 ,a social condition 9 :i* x made no diff]5ce to a man1 except s f> z 8 own consci5ce 0 conc]n$1 :e!r he 7 or 7 n hone/1 w\ld imply a society fav\rable to p )\t a consci5ce1 because giv+ full play to ! =ces :i* make = corruption & dis9tegration4 ,if y remove ! rew>ds accessible to ! virtu\s & peaceful1 h[ are y to keep ! p5alties :i* re/ra9 ! vici\s & improvid5t8 ,a b>e repeal ( ! law1 ,if a man w n "w1 nei!r %all he eat1 w\ld n ( itself promote indu/ry4 ,y w\ld at mo/ remove ! compulsion :i* arises f competition1 to introduce ! compulsion :i* uses physical =ce4 ,y w\ld get rid ( :at seems to "s p ! natural p5alty ( want foll[+ wa/e1 & be =c$ to introduce ! artificial or legislative p5alty ( compulsory lab\r4 ,b1 o!rwise1 y mu/ con/ruct y\r society s t1 by ! spontane\s play ( society1 ! pur] elem5ts may rise to ! surface1 & ! scum s9k to ! bottom4 ,s long z human nature v>ies indef9itely1 s long z we h knaves & hone/ m51 s9n]s & sa9ts1 c[>ds & h]oes1 "s process ( en]getic & active sift+ is surely ess5tial to ! pres]vation ( social heal?2 & x is difficult to see h[ t is conceivable )\t "s process ( active & ke5 competition4 ,! ,sociali/ w1 ( c\rse1 say1 & say ) too mu* tru?1 t ! pres5t =m ( competition is fav\rable to anti-social qualities4 ,if1 inde$1 a capitali/ is n a p]son :o increases ! productive p[]s ( indu/ry1 b a p]son :o manages simply to int]cept a %>e produc$ by ! indu/ry ( o!rs1 !re is1 ( c\rse1 mu* to be said = ?is view4 ,i _c n[ consid] t po9t1 = my subject to-day is ! moral aspect ( competition consid]$ g5]ally4 ,& :at ,i h j said sugge/s :at is1 ,i ?9k1 ! m purely moral aspect ( ! "q4 ,a reasonable ,sociali/ desires to ma9ta9 :at is good 9 ! exi/+ sy/em1 :ile suppress+ its abuses4 ,! "q1 ,:at is good8 is p>tly economical2 b x is p>tly also e?ical3 & x is ) t "p t ,i am at pres5t conc]n$4 ,any sy/em ( competition1 any sy/em :i* supposes a rew>d = virtue o!r ?an virtue itself1 may be accus$ ( promot+ selfi%ness & o!r ugly qualities4 ,! doctr9e t virtue is its own rew>d is v *>m+ 9 ! m\? ( ! virtu\s man2 b :5 8 neighb\rs use x z an excuse = n rew>d+ him1 x becomes r less attractive4 ,x saves a great deal ( tr\ble1 no d\bt1 & relieves u f an awkw>d responsibility4 ,i mu/1 h[ev]1 po9t out1 9 ! fir/ place1 t a fallacy is (t5 introduc$ into ^! discussions :i* ,mr4 ,h]b]t ,sp5c] has done a great deal to expose4 ,he has dwelt v =cibly1 = example1 on ! fact t x is a duty to be happy & heal?y2 & t selfi%ness1 if us$ 9 a bad s5se1 %\ld n mean simply reg>d = ourselves1 b only disreg>d = our neighb\rs4 ,we ought n1 9 o!r words1 to be unju/ because we ourselves happ5 to be ! objects ( inju/ice4 ,! p>able ( ! good ,sam>itan is g5]ally reg>d$ z a p]fect embodim5t ( a great moral tru?4 ,translat$ f poetry into an ab/ract logical =m1 x am\nts to say+ t we %\ld d good to ! man :o mo/ ne$s our s]vices1 :atev] be ! accid5ts :i* ali5ate ord9>y sympa?ies4 ,n[1 suppose t ! good ,sam>itan _h himself fall5 among ?ieves1 :at w\ld h be5 8 duty8 ,8 fir/ duty1 ,i %\ld say1 w\ld h be51 if possible1 to knock d[n ! ?ief2 8 second1 to tie up 8 own w\nds2 & 8 ?ird1 to call 9 ! police4 ,we %\ld n1 p]haps1 call him virtu\s = su* conduct2 b we %\ld cle>ly ?9k him wrong = omitt+ x4 ,n to resi/ a ?ief is c[>dly2 n to att5d to y\r own heal? is to incapacitate y\rself = duty2 n to apply to ! police is to be want+ 9 public _s4 ,assum+ robb]y to be wrong1 ,i am n ! less b\nd to suppress x because ,i happ5 to be ! p]son robb$2 ,i am only b\nd n to be v9dictive--t is1 n to all[ my p]sonal feel+s to make me act o!rwise ?an ,i %\ld act if ,i _h no special int]e/ 9 ! p>ticul> case4 ,adam ,smi?'s fav\rite rule ( ! indiff]5t spectator is ! prop] "o 9 ! case4 ,i %\ld be imp>tial1 & incl9e no m to sev]ity ?an to l5ity1 because ,i am =c$ by circum/ances to act bo? z judge & z pla9tiff4 ,s1 9 que/ions ( self-support1 x is obvi\sly a fallacy to assume t an action1 direct$ 9 ! fir/ in/ance to a man's own b5efit1 is !re=e to be /igmatis$ z selfi%4 ,on ! good ,sam>itan's pr9ciple1 a p]son %\ld be support$1 cet]is p>ibus1 by ! p]son :o c d x mo/ effici5tly1 & 9 n9e cases out ( t5 t p]son is himself4 ,if self-support is selfi% 9 ! s5se t ! s]vice is directly r5d]$ to self1 x is n ! less unselfi% 9 s f> z x is necess>ily also a s]vice to o!rs4 ,if ,i keep myself by my lab\r1 ,i am prev5t+ a burd5 f fall+ ^u my fell[s4 ,&1 ( c\rse1 ! case is /rong] :5 ,i include my family4 ,we 7 all impress$ ! o!r day by ! /ory ( ! poor boy :o got "s wret*$ly small pittance by 8 "w1 sp5t a small portion ( x ^u 8 own ne$s1 & devot$ ! *ief "p ( x to try+ to save 8 "m & h] o!r *ildr5 f />vation4 ,0 he selfi%8 ,0 he selfi% ev5 9 tak+ some?+ = himself1 z ! only prop ( 8 family8 ,:at may be ! imm$iate motive ( a man :5 he is work+ = 8 own bread & ! bread ( 8 family may (t5 be a difficult "q2 b z1 9 po9t ( fact1 he is help+ n only himself & ^? :o dep5d on him1 b also 9 "s degree reliev+ o!rs f a burd51 8 conduct mu/ cle>ly n be set d[n z selfi% 9 any s5se :i* involves moral disapproval4 ,let u apply ?is to ! case ( competition4 ,! ^w is g5]ally us$ to convey a sugge/ion ( selfi%ness 9 a bad s5se4 ,we ?9k ( ! h>d%ip ^u ! man :o is ou/$1 z mu* z ( ! b5efit to ! man :o gets 92 or p]haps we ?9k ( x m4 ,x sugge/s to u t "o man has be5 %ut out = ! b5efit ( 8 neighb\r2 & t1 ( c\rse1 sugge/s envy1 malice1 & all un*>itabl5ess4 ,we hold t su* competition mu/ g5]ate ill-w4 ,i us$--:5 ,i 0 intimately connect$ ) a competitive sy/em at ! univ]sity--to he> occasionally ( ! evil influ5ces ( competition1 z t5d+ to promote jeal\sy betwe5 competitors4 ,i always repli$ t1 s f> z my exp]i5ce w5t1 ! evil 0 altoge!r imag9>y4 ,s f> f competition g5]at+ ill-w1 ! ke5e/ competitors 71 z a rule1 ! close/ fri5ds4 ,!re 0 no /rong] bond ?an ! bond ( rivalry 9 our intellectual conte/s4 ,"o ma9 reason 01 ( c\rse1 t we _h absolute fai? 9 ! fairness ( ! competition4 ,we felt t x w\ld be unwor?y to compla9 ( be+ beat5 by a bett] man2 & we _h no d\bt t1 9 po9t ( fact1 ! w9n]s 7 ! bett] m52 or1 at any rate1 7 hone/ly believ$ to be ! bett] m5 by ^? :o di/ribut$ hon\rs4 ,! case1 ?\gh on a small scale1 may sugge/ "o pr9ciple4 ,s f> z ! end ( su* competitions is good1 ! normal motives _c be bad4 ,! end ( a fair competition is ! discov]y ( ! able/ m51 ) a view to plac+ !m 9 ! position :]e _! tal5ts may be turn$ to mo/ acc\nt4 ,x c only be a*iev$ s f> z ea* man does 8 be/ to tra9 8 own p[]s1 & is prep>$ to te/ !m fairly aga9/ ! p[]s ( o!rs4 ,to "w = t end is1 !n1 n only p]missible1 b a duty4 ,! _s 9 :i* ! end is pursu$ may be bad1 9 s f> z a man pursues x by unfair means2 9 s f> z he tries to make %am p]=mance pass (f = g5u9e2 or1 aga91 9 s f> z he sets an undue value ^u ! rew>d1 z ap>t f ! qualities by :i* x is ga9$4 ,b if he works simply ) ! desire ( mak+ ! be/ ( himself1 & if ! rew>d is simply su* a position z may enable him to be mo/ useful to society1 ! competition :i* results w be brac+ & invigorat+1 & w appeal to no su* motives z c be call$1 9 ! bad s5se1 selfi%4 ,he is dis*>g+ a function :i* is useful1 x is true1 to himself2 b :i* is also intr9sically useful to ! :ole society4 ,! same pr9ciple applies1 aga91 to intellectual activity 9 g5]al4 ,all g5u9e ?\ght is ess5tially useful to mank9d4 ,9 ! /ruggle to discov] tru?1 ev5 our antagoni/s are1 necess>ily1 our co-op]ators4 ,a philosoph]1 z a man ( sci5ce1 owes1 at lea/1 z mu* to ^? :o diff] f him1 z to ^? :o agree ) him4 ,! conflict ( _m m9ds1 f _m sides1 is ! ess5tial condition ( intellectual progress4 ,n[1 if a man plays 8 "p manfully & hon\rably 9 su* a /ruggle1 he des]ves our gratitude1 ev5 if he takes ! wrong side4 ,if he looks =w>d to ! recognition by ! be/ judges z "o motive = 8 activity1 ,i ?9k t he is ask+ = a wor?y rew>d4 ,he des]ves blame1 only s f> z 8 motives h a mixture ( unwor?y p]sonal s5tim5t4 ,obvi\sly1 if he aims at *eap fame1 at mak+ a tempor>y s5sation in/ead ( a p]man5t impression1 at flatt]+ prejudices in/ead ( spread+ tru?2 or1 if he %[s gre$9ess ( notoriety1 by try+ to get unju/ cr$it1 z we sometimes see sci5tific p squabbl+ ov] claims to ! fir/ promulgation ( "s trifl+ discov]y1 he is %[+ paltr9ess ( _s4 ,! m5 :om we rev]e are ^? :o1 l ,f>aday or ,d>w91 devot$ !mselves exclusively to ! advancem5t ( k1 & w\ld h scorn$ a reputation won by any?+ b g5u9e "w4 ,! fact t !re is a competition 9 su* matt]s implies1 no d\bt1 a temptation1--! temptation to set a high] value ^u praise ?an ^u praisewor?9ess2 b ,i ?9k x n only possible t ! competitors 9 su* rivalries may keep to ! hon\rable pa?1 b probable t1 z a matt] ( fact1 !y frequ5tly1--,i hope t ,i may say g5]ally1--d s4 ,if ! fame at :i* a man aims be n t :i* 9 broad rum\r lies1 b t :i* lives & spreads al(t 9 ^? pure eyes & p]fect witness ( all-judg+ ,jove1 !n ,i ?9k t ! desire = x is sc>cely to be call$ a la/ infirmity--r1 x is an insep>able quality ( noble m9ds4 ,we wi% to hon\r m5 :o h be5 good soldi]s 9 t w>f>e1 & we c h>dly wi% !m to be indiff]5t to our homage4 ,we may add1 !n1 t a competition ne$ n be demoralis+ :5 ! competitors h l(ty aims & use only hon\rable means4 ,:51 pass+ f purely intellectual aims1 we consid] ! case1 say1 ( ! race = weal?1 we may safely make an analog\s rem>k4 ,if a man's aim 9 becom+ ri* is ( ! vulg> k9d2 if he wi%es to make an o/5tati\s display ( weal?1 & to sp5d 8 money ^u demoralis+ amusem5t2 or if1 aga91 he tries to succe$ by quack]y in/ead ( by ! production ( hone/ "w1 he is1 ( c\rse1 s f> mis*iev\s & immoral4 ,b a man ^: aims are public-spirit$1 nay1 ev5 if !y be su* z simply t5d to improve ! g5]al com=t2 :o develops1 = example1 ! res\rces ( ! c\ntry1 & introduces new indu/ries or m effective modes ( manufacture1 is1 und\bt$ly1 9 fact conf]r+ a b5efit ^u 8 fell[s1 & may1 s f>1 be do+ 8 duty 9 ! mo/ effectual way op5 to him4 ,if he succe$s by be+ really a m effici5t man ( bus9ess ?an 8 neighb\rs1 he is only do+ :at1 9 ! int]e/s ( all1 x is desirable t he %\ld d4 ,he is dis*>g+ an ess5tial social function2 & :at is to be desir$ is1 t he %\ld feel ! responsibility involv$1 t he %\ld reg>d 8 "w z on "o side ! dis*>ge ( a social function1 & n simply z a means ( p]sonal aggr&isem5t4 ,x is n ! fact t he is compet+ t is aga9/ him2 b ! fact1 :5 x is a fact1 t !re is some?+ discr$itable ab\t ! means :i* he adopts1 or ! rew>d t he contemplates4 ,?is1 inde$1 sugge/s ano!r & a highly important "q--! "q1 namely1 :e!r1 9 our pres5t social /ate1 8 rew>d may n be excessive1 & won at too great a co/ to 8 rivals4 ,&1 )\t go+ into o!r que/ions involv$1 ,i w try to say a little1 9 conclusion1 ^u ?is1 :i* is c]ta9ly a press+ problem4 ,competition1 ,i h sugge/$1 is n immoral if x is a competition 9 do+ hone/ "w by hon\rable means1 & if x is also a fair competition4 ,b x mu/1 ( c\rse1 be add$1 t fairness includes m ?an ! simple equality ( *ances4 ,x supposes1 also1 t !re %\ld be "s proportion betwe5 ! rew>ds & ! m]its4 ,if x is simply a "q betwe5 two m51 :i* %all be capta9 ( a %ip1 & :i* %all be mate1 !n ! be/ plan is to decide by _! m]its z sailors2 &1 if _! m]its be fairly tri$1 ! los] ne$ be> no grudge aga9/ ! w9n]4 ,b :5 we h su* cases z sometimes occur1 :51 = example1 ! %ip is ca/ away1 & x becomes a "q :e!r ,i %all eat y or y %all eat me1 or1 let u say1 :i* ( u is to h ! la/ biscuit1 we get "o ( ^? t]rible cases ( temptation 9 :i* ! /ronge/ social bonds sometimes give way "u ! /ra94 ,! competition1 !n1 becomes1 9 ! highe/ degree1 demoralis+1 & ! /ruggle = exi/5ce resolves itself into a m]e unscrupul\s scramble = life1 at any sacrifice ( o!rs4 ,t1 x is sometimes said1 is a p>allel to our social /ate at pres5t4 ,if ,i gave an excessive prize to ! fir/ boy 9 a s*ool & flogg$ ! second1 ,i %\ld n be do+ ju/ice4 ,if "o man is rew>d$ = a mod]ate am\nt ( =e?\ght by becom+ a millionaire1 & 8 unsuccessful rivals puni%$ by />vation or ! workh\se1 ! lott]y ( life is n arrang$ on pr9ciples ( ju/ice4 ,a man mu/ be a v det]m9$ optimi/ if he d5i$ ! pa9ful tru? to be f\nd 9 su* /atem5ts4 ,he mu/ be bl9d to _m evils if he does n p]ceive ! dang] ( dull+ 8 sympa?ies by indiff]5ce to ! fate ( ! unsuccessful4 ,! ri* man 9 ,cl\gh's poem obs]ves t1 :e!r !re be a ,god matt]s v little-- ,= ,i & m9e1 ?ank somebody1 ,manage to get our victual4 ,b1 ev5 if we are n v ri*1 we mu/ (t51 ,i ?9k1 d\bt :e!r we are n wrapp+ ourselves 9 a _s ( selfi% complac5cy :5 we are return+ to a com=table home & pass+ outca/s ( ! /reet4 ,we mu/ sometimes reflect t our com=t is n simply a rew>d = virtue or intellig5ce1 ev5 if x be n sometimes ! prize ( actual di%one/y4 ,to %ut our eyes to ! mass ( wret*$ness ar\nd u is to h>d5 our he>ts1 al?\gh to op5 our h&s is too (t5 to d m h>m ?an good4 ,x is no wond] t we %\ld be tempt$ to declaim aga9/ competition1 :5 ! competition means t s _m un=tunates are to be cr[d$ (f _! n>r[ /&+-gr\nd into ! gulf ( paup]ism4 ,?is may sugge/ ! moral :i* ,i h be5 endeav\r+ to br+ out4 ,look+ at society at l>ge1 we may surely say t x w be bett] 9 proportion z e man is /r5u\sly endeav\r+ to play 8 "p1 & 9 :i* ! p>ts are di/ribut$ to ^? be/ fitt$ to play !m4 ,we mu/ admit1 too1 t = any p]iod to :i* we c look =w>d1 ! great mass ( mank9d w f9d en\gh to occupy _! en]gies 9 lab\r+ prim>ily = _! own support1 & s be>+ ! burd5 ( _! own ne$s & ! ne$s ( _! families4 ,we may inf]1 too1 t a society w be ! bett] s f> z x gives ! mo/ op5 c>e]s to all tal5ts1 :]ev] display$1 & z x %[s respect = ! homely virtues ( indu/ry1 integrity1 & =e?\ght1 :i* are ess5tial to ! :ole body z to its con/itu5t memb]s4 ,& we may fur!r say t ! correspond+ motives 9 ! individual _c be immoral4 ,a desire ( indep5d5ce1 ! self-respect :i* makes a man %r9k f accept+ z a gift :at he c w9 z a fair rew>d1 ! love ( fairplay1 :i* makes him use only hone/ means 9 ! /ruggle1 are qualities :i* c nev] lose _! value1 & :i* are n ! less valuable because 9 ! fir/ in/ance !y are mo/ pr(itable to _! possessors4 ,no?+ :i* t5ds to weak5 su* motives c be good2 b :ile !y pres]ve _! int5sity1 !y necess>ily imply ! exi/5ce ( competition 9 "s =m or o!r4 ,x is equally cle> t competition by itself is n a suffici5t panacea4 ,:5ev] we take an ab/ract quality1 p]sonify x by ! help ( capital lett]s1 & lay x d[n z ! "o pr9ciple ( a complex sy/em1 we g5]ally blund]4 ,competition is z f> z possible f be+ ! solit>y condition ( a heal?y society4 ,x mu/ be n only a competition = wor?y ends by hon\rable means1 b %\ld be a competition s regulat$ t ! rew>d may be> "s proportion to ! m]it4 ,monopoly is an evil 9 s f> z x means an exclusive possession ( "s advantages or privileges1 especially :5 !y are giv5 by ! accid5ts ( bir? or position4 ,x is some?+ if !y are giv5 to ! be/ & ! able/2 b ! evil /ill rema9s if ev5 ! be/ & able/ are rew>d$ by a position :i* cramps ! en]gies & l[]s ! necessity ( o!rs4 ,competition is only desirable 9 s f> z x is a process by :i* ! useful qualities are enc\rag$ by an adequate1 & n m ?an an adequate1 /imulus2 & 9 :i*1 !re=e1 !re is n involv$ ! degradation & ! mis]y on ! "o side1 ! excessive rew>d on ! o!r1 ( ! unsuccessful & ! successful 9 ! /ruggle4 ,competition1 !re=e1 we might say1 c\ld be unequivocally b5eficial only 9 an ideal society2 9 a /ate 9 :i* we might unres]v$ly devote ourselves to mak+ ! be/ ( our abilities & accept+ ! consequ5t results1 )\t ! pa9ful s5se 9 ! backgr\nd t o!rs 7 be+ sacrific$ & debas$2 cru%$ because !y _h less luck 9 ! /ruggle1 & 71 p]haps1 only less des]v+ 9 "s degree ?an ourselves4 ,s long z we are /ill f> en\gh f hav+ realis$ any su* /ate2 s long z we feel1 & _c b feel1 t ! di/ribution ( rew>ds is s mu* at ! m]cy ( *ance1 & s (t5 goes to qualities :i*1 9 an ideal /ate1 w\ld des]ve r reprobation ?an applause1 we c only aim at bett] ?+s4 ,we c d :at 9 u lies to level "s inequalities1 to "w1 s f> z our opportunities enable u1 9 ! causes :i* are mo/ly b5eficial = ! race1 to spread enlight5m5t & good feel+1 & to help ! un=tunate4 ,b x is also incumb5t ^u u to rememb] c>efully1 :at is s (t5 ov]look$ 9 ! d5unciations ( competition1 t ! end = :i* we mu/ hope1 & ! approa* to :i* we mu/ fur!r1 is "o 9 :i* ! equivocal virtue ( *>ity %all be suppress$2 t is1 9 :i* no man %all be dep5d5t ^u 8 neighb\r 9 su* a s5se z to be able to neglect 8 own duties2 9 :i* !re may be normally a reciprocity ( good s]vices1 & ! reciprocity n be 7z has be5 said7 all on "o side4 ,!re is a v explicable t5d5cy at pres5t to ask = su* "o-sid$ reciprocity4 ,x is natural en\gh1 = reasons too obvi\s to be m5tion$1 t re=m]s %\ld dwell exclusively ^u ! "r ( e "o to support1 & neglect to po9t out ! correlative duty ( e "o to d 8 be/ to support himself4 ,! popul> argum5ts ab\t old-age p5sions may illu/rate ! g5]al /ate ( m9d4 ,x is disgraceful1 p say1 t s l>ge a proportion ( ! ag$ poor %\ld come to dep5d ^u ! rates4 ,und\bt$ly x is disgraceful4 ,!n ^u :om does ! disgrace fall8 ,x s\nds h>% to say t x falls ^u ! suff]]s4 ,we %r9k f say+ to a paup]1 ,x s]ves y "r4 ,t s\nds brutal1 & is only 9 "p true4 ,/ill1 we %\ld n %r9k f /at+ :atev] is true1 pa9ful ?\gh x may be4 ,x s\nds bett] to lay all ! blame ^u ! oppressor ?an to lay x ^u ! oppress$2 & yet1 z a rule1 ! c[>dice or folly ( ! oppress$ has g5]ally be5 "o cause ( _! mis=tunes1 & _c be ov]look$ 9 a true e/imate ( ! case4 ,t drunk5ness1 improvid5ce1 love ( gambl+1 & s =?1 d 9 fact lead to paup]ism is und5iable2 & t !y are bad1 & s f> disgraceful1 is a necess>y consequ5ce4 ,9 su* cases1 !n1 paup]ism is a pro( ( bad qualities2 & ! fact1 l all o!r facts1 mu/ be recognis$4 ,! /ress ( argum5t1 !re=e1 is laid ^u ! h>d%ips suff]$ by ! hone/ & indu/ri\s poor4 ,! logical consequ5ce %\ld be1 t ! des]v+ poor %\ld become p5sion]s1 & ! undes]v+ paup]s4 ,?is at once op5s ! amaz+ly difficult "q ( moral m]it1 & ! p[] ( poor-law (ficials to solve problems :i* w\ld c]ta9ly puzzle ! ke5e/ psy*ologi/s4 ,suppose1 = example1 t a man1 )\t be+ def9itely vici\s1 has c\nt$ ^u ! promis$ p5sion1 & !re=e neglect$ any attempts to save4 ,if y give him a p5sion1 y virtually tell ev]ybody t sav+ is a folly2 if y don't1 y inflict ^u him ! /igma :i* is des]v$ by ! drunk>d & ! ?ief4 ,s difficult is x to arrange = ?is propos$ valuation ( a man's moral qualities t x has be5 propos$ to get rid ( all /igma by mak+ x ! "r & duty ( e "o to take a p5sion4 ,t might conceivably alt] ! praise1 b x w\ld surely n alt] ! praisewor?9ess4 ,x mu/ be wrong 9 me to take money f my neighb\rs :5 ,i don't want x2 &1 if wrong1 x surely ought to be disgraceful4 ,& ?is seems to indicate ! real po9t4 ,we may aim at alt]+ ! facts1 at mak+ !m m conducive to good qualities2 b we _c alt] or attempt to decide by laws ! degree ( praise or blame to be atta*$ to individuals4 ,x w\ld be v desirable to br+ ab\t a /ate ( ?+s 9 :i* no hone/ & provid5t man ne$ ev] fall into want2 &1 9 t /ate1 paup]ism w\ld be rightly discr$itable z an indication ( bad qualities4 ,b to say t nobody %all be a%am$ ( tak+ support w\ld be to ru9 ! ess5tial economic virtues1 & to paup]ise ! nation2 & to try to lay d[n precise rules z to ! di/ribution ( hon\r & discr$it1 seems1 to me1 to be a problem beyond ! p[] ( a legislature4 ,i express no op9ion ^u ! "q itself1 because ,i am q incompet5t to d s4 ,i only ref] to x z illu/rat+ ! difficulties :i* beset u :5 we try to remove ! evils ( ! pres5t sy/em1 & yet to pres]ve ! /imulus to indu/ry1 :i* is impli$ 9 competition4 ,! %orte/ plan is to %ut "o's eyes to ! difficulty1 & r\ndly d5y its exi/5ce4 ,i hope t our legislators may hit ^u "s m promis+ me?ods4 ,! ord9>y mode ( cutt+ ! knot too (t5 sugge/s t ! actually contemplat$ ideal is ! l& 9 :i* ! *ick5s run ab\t ready roa/$1 & ! curse ( lab\r is f9ally remov$ f mank9d4 ,! true ideal1 surely1 is ! /ate 9 :i* lab\r %all be g5]ally a bless+2 9 :i* we %all recognise ! fact--disagreeable or o!rwise--t ! race c only be elevat$ by ! univ]sal diffusion ( public _s1 & a g5]al conviction t x is e man's fir/ duty to cultivate 8 own capacities1 to turn !m to ! be/ possible acc\nt1 & to "w /r5u\sly & he>tily 9 :atev] position he has be5 plac$4 ,x is because ,i _c help ?9k+ t :5 we attack competition 9 g5]al t]ms1 we are1 too (t51 bl9d+ ourselves to ^? homely & (t5-repeat$1 &1 z ,i believe1 indisputable tru?s1 t ,i h v5tur$ to speak to-day1 namely1 on ! side ( competition--s f>1 at lea/1 on ! side ( competition z to sugge/ t our true ideal %\ld be1 n a /ate1 if su* a /ate be conceivable1 9 :i* !re is no competition1 b a /ate 9 :i* competition %\ld be s regulat$ t x %\ld be really equival5t to a process ( br++ ab\t ! be/ possible di/ribution ( ! :ole social =ces2 & %\ld be held to be1 because x w\ld really be1 n a /ruggle ( ea* man to seize ^u a l>g] %>e ( insuffici5t means1 b ! hone/ ef=t ( ea* man to d ! v utmo/ he c to make himself a ?or\ghly effici5t memb] ( society4 ,,social ,,equality4 ,! problem ( :i* ,i propose to speak is ! old dispute betwe5 ,dives & ,laz>us4 ,laz>us1 presumably1 0 a bett] man ?an ,dives4 ,h[ c\ld ,dives ju/ify himself = liv+ 9 purple & f9e l951 :ile ,laz>us 0 ly+ at ! gates1 ) ! dogs lick+ 8 sores8 ,! problem is "o ( all ages1 & takes _m =ms4 ,:5 ! old ,puritan saw a man go+ to ! gall[s1 ,!re1 he said1 b = ! grace ( ,god1 goes ,john ,brad=d4 ,:5 ! ri* man1 ent]+ 8 club1 sees "s wret*$ tatt]demalion1 sl\*+ on ! pavem5t1 !re1 he may say1 goes ,sir ,gorgius ,midas1 b =--:at8 ,i am "h & he !re1 he may say1 because ,i 0 ! son ( a successful /ock-jobb]1 & he ! son ( "s des]t$ "m at ! workh\se4 ,t is ! cause1 b is x a reason8 ,suppose1 z is likely en\gh1 t ,laz>us is z good a man z ,midas1 ought !y n to *ange places1 or to %>e _! prop]ty equally8 ,a "q1 c]ta9ly1 to be ask$1 &1 if possible1 to be answ]$4 ,x is (t5 answ]$1 & is mo/ simply answ]$1 by say+ t all m5 ought to be equal4 ,dives %\ld be cut up & di/ribut$ 9 equal %>es betwe5 ,laz>us & 8 bre?r54 ,! dogma :i* embodies ?is claim is "o :i* is easily refut$ 9 "s ( ! s5ses :i* x may be>1 ?\gh 9 spite ( su* refutations x has become an ess5tial "p ( ! mo/ g5u9e cre$ ( mank9d4 ,! man ( sci5ce says1 ) p]fect tru?1 t s f> f m5 be+ born equal1 "s are born ) ! capacity ( becom+ ,%akespe>es & ,newtons1 & o!rs ) sc>cely ! p[] ( ris+ above ,sally ! *impanzee4 ,! answ] w\ld be conclusive1 if anybody dem&$ t we %\ld all be j six feet high1 ) bra9s weigh+ sixty ounces1 nei!r m nor less4 ,x is also true1 &1 ,i conceive1 m relevant1 t1 z ! man ( sci5ce w aga9 say1 all improvem5t has come ?r\gh little gr\ps ( m5 sup]ior to _! neighb\rs1 ?r\gh races or ?r\gh classes1 :i*1 by elevat+ !mselves on ! %\ld]s ( o!rs1 h ga9$ leisure & means = sup]ior cultivation4 ,b equality may be dem&$ z facilitat+ ?is process1 by remov+ ! artificial advantages ( weal?4 ,x may be tak5 z a dem& = a fair />t1 n z a dem& t ! prizes %all be di/ribut$ irrespectively ( individual wor?4 ,&1 :e!r ! dem& is rightly or wrongly express$1 we mu/1 ,i ?9k1 admit t ! real =ce ) :i* we h to reckon is ! dem& = ju/ice & = equality z someh[ impli$ by ju/ice4 ,x is easy to br[beat a poor man :o wants bread & *eese = himself & 8 family1 by call+ 8 dem&s mat]iali/ic1 & advis+ him to turn 8 m9d to ! future /ate1 :]e he w h ! be/ ( ,dives4 ,x is equally easy to ascribe ! dem&s to m]e envy & selfi%ness1 or to ^? evil-m9d$ agitators :o1 = _! own wick$ purposes1 induce m5 to pref] a gu9ea to a p\nd ( wages4 ,b1 aft] all1 !re is some?+ 9 ! dem& = fair play & = ! means ( lead+ dec5t lives1 :i* requires a bett] answ]4 ,x is easy1 aga91 to say t all ,sociali/s are ,utopian4 ,make e man equal to-day1 & ! old inequalities w reappe> to-morr[4 ,pit* su* a "o ov] ,london ,bridge1 x 0 said1 ) no?+ on b 8 bree*es1 & he w turn up at ,woolwi* ) 8 pockets full ( gold4 ,x is z idle to try = a dead level1 :5 y "w ) su* het]og5e\s mat]ials1 z to p]suade a homog5e\s fluid to /& at any?+ b a dead level4 ,b surely x may be urg$ t ?is is z mu* a reason = decl9+ to believe t equal conditions ( life w produce m]e monotony1 z = insi/+ t equality 9 any /ate is impossible4 ,! pres5t sy/em includes a plan = keep+ ! scum at ! surface4 ,"o ( ! few lessons :i* ,i h le>nt f life1 & n f\nd already 9 copy-books1 is ! enorm\s difficulty :i* a man ( ! respectable classes f9ds 9 completely ru9+ himself1 ev5 by vice1 extravagance1 & folly2 :]eas1 !re are pl5ty ( hone/ p :o1 9 spite ( economy & prud5ce1 c sc>cely keep outside ( ! workh\se4 ,admitt+ ! appeal to ju/ice1 x is1 aga91 (t5 urg$ t ju/ice is oppos$ to ! dem& = equality4 ,prop]ty is sacr$1 x is said1 because a man has 7or ought to h7 a "r to :at he has made ei!r by lab\r or by a c\rse ( fair deal+s ) o!r m54 ,i am n ab\t to discuss ! ultimate gr\nd on :i* ! claim to private prop]ty is ju/ifi$1 &1 z ,i ?9k1 satisfactorily e/abli%$4 ,a man has a "r1 we say1 to all t he has fairly e>n$4 ,has he1 !n1 a "r to inh]it :at 8 fa!r has e>n$8 ,a man has _h ! advantage ( all t a ri* fa!r c d = him 9 education1 & s =?4 ,:y %\ld he also h ! fa!r's =tune1 )\t e>n+ x8 ,are ! m]its ( mak+ money s great t !y are transmissible to po/]ity8 ,%\ld a man :o has be5 s good z to become ri*1 be bless$ ev5 to ! ?ird & f\r? g5]ation8 ,:y1 z a matt] ( pure ju/ice1 %\ld n all =tunes be appli$ to public uses1 on ! dea? ( ! man :o made !m8 ,su* a law1 h[ev] impolitic1 w\ld n be incompatible ) ! moral pr9ciple to :i* an appeal is made4 ,!re are1 ( c\rse1 innum]able o!r ways 9 :i* laws may fav\r an equality ( prop]ty1 )\t break+ any ( ! fundam5tal pr9ciples4 ,:at1 = example1 is ! j me?od ( di/ribut+ taxation8 ,a ri* man c n only pay m money ?an a poor man1 9 proportion to 8 income1 b he c1 ) equal ease1 pay a great] proportion4 ,to d\ble ! income ( a lab\r] may be to raise him f />vation to com=t4 ,to d\ble ! income ( a millionaire may simply be to encumb] him ) weal? by :i* he is unable to increase 8 own pleasure4 ,!re is a limit beyond :i* x is exce$+ly difficult to f9d ways ( sp5d+ money on "o's own enjoym5t--?\gh ,i h nev] be5 able to fix x precisely4 ,on ?is gr\nd1 su* plans z a graduat$ income-tax are1 x w\ld seem1 compatible ) ! plea ( ju/ice2 &1 )9 c]ta9 limits1 we d1 9 fact1 approve ( v>i\s taxes1 on ! gr\nd1 real or suppos$1 t !y t5d to %ift burd5s f ! poor to ! ri*1 &1 s f>1 to equalise weal?4 ,9 fact1 ?is appeal to ju/ice is a tacit concession ( ! pr9ciple4 ,if we ju/ify prop]ty on ! gr\nd t x is fair t a man %\ld keep :at he has e>n$ by 8 own lab\r1 x seems to foll[ t x is unju/ t he %\ld h any?+ n e>n$ by 8 lab\r4 ,9 o!r words1 ! answ] admits ! ord9>y fir/ pr9ciple f :i* ,socialism />ts1 & :i*1 9 "s ,sociali/ !ories1 x def9itely tries to embody4 ,all t ,i h tri$ to d1 s f>1 is to %[ t ! b>e doctr9e ( equality1 :i* is 9 "s way connect$ ) ! dem& = ju/ice1 is n1 ( necessity1 ei!r unju/ or impracticable4 ,x may be us$ to cov] claims :i* are unju/1 to sanction b>e confiscation1 to take away motives = indu/ry1 &1 briefly1 may be a dem& ( ! drones to h an equal %>e ( ! honey4 ,f ! b>e ab/ract pr9ciple ( equality betwe5 m51 we c1 9 my own op9ion1 d$uce no?+2 &1 ,i d n ?9k t ! pr9ciple c itself be e/abli%$4 ,t is :y x is made a fir/ pr9ciple1 or1 9 o!r words1 "o :i* is n to be discuss$4 ,! ,fr5* revolutioni/s treat$ x 9 ?is way z priori & self-evid5t4 ,no s*ool 0 9 m deadly opposition to su* priori tru?s ?an ! s*ool ( ,b5?am & ! utilit>ians4 ,yet1 ,b5?am's fam\s doctr9e1 t 9 calculat+ happ9ess ea* man is to c\nt = "o1 & nobody = m ?an "o1 seems to be simply ! old pr9ciple 9 a new disguise4 ,james ,mill appli$ ! doctr9e to politics4 ,j4 ,s4 ,mill aga9 appli$ x1 ) /ill m ?or\ghness1 especially 9 8 doctr9e ( repres5tation & ( ! equality ( ! sexes4 ,accord+ly1 v>i\s morali/s h urg$ t ?is 0 an inconsi/5cy 9 utilit>ian doctr9e1 imply+ t !y1 too1 c\ld make priori fir/ pr9ciples :5 !y want$ !m4 ,x has become a sort ( or?odox dogma ) radicals1 :o d n always tr\ble !mselves ab\t a philosophical basis1 & is appli$ ) und\bt+ confid5ce to _m practical political problems4 ,"o man1 "o vote is n simply ! =mulation ( a dem&1 b seems to intimate a logical gr\nd = ! dem&4 ,if1 9 politics1 "o man is rightfully entitl$ to "o vote1 is x n also true t1 9 economics1 "o man %\ld h a "r to "o income1 or1 t money1 l political p[]1 %\ld be di/ribut$ into precisely equal %>es8 ,yet1 :y are we to take = grant$ ! equality ( m5 9 ! s5se requir$ = su* d$uctions8 ,s9ce m5 are n equally qualifi$ = political p[]1 x w\ld seem bett] prim facie t ea* man %\ld h ! %>e ( p[] & weal? :i* corresponds to 8 p[]s ( us+1 or1 p]haps1 to 8 p[]s ( enjoy+4 ,:y %\ld we n say1 ,to ea* man accord+ to 8 des]ts8 ,"o practical reason1 ( c\rse1 is ! extreme difficulty ( say+ :at are ! des]ts1 & h[ !y are to be asc]ta9$4 ,und\bt$ly1 equality is ! %orte/ & simple/ way b1 if we take x m]ely z ! mo/ conv5i5t assumption1 x loses its attractive appe>ance ( ab/ract ju/ice or priori self-c]ta9ty4 ,d a common lab\r] & ,mr4 ,glad/one des]ve ! same %>e ( vot+ p[]8 ,if n1 h[ _m votes %\ld ,mr4 ,glad/one possess to give him 8 j influ5ce8 ,to ask su* que/ions is to %[ t answ]+ is impossible1 ?\gh political !ori/s h1 n[ & !n1 tri$ to put toge!r "s o/5sible pretext = an answ]4 ,:at1 let u ask1 is ! true relation betwe5 ju/ice & equality8 ,a judge1 to take ! typical case1 is p]fectly j :5 he asc]ta9s ! facts by logical inf]5ces f ! evid5ce1 & !n applies ! law 9 ! _s ( a sci5tific reason]4 ,giv5 ! facts1 :at is ! rule "u :i* !y come8 ,to answ] t "q1 g5]ally speak+1 is 8 :ole duty4 ,9 o!r words1 he has to exclude all irrelevant consid]ations1 su* z 8 own private int]e/s or affections4 ,! p>ties are to be to him m]ely ,a & ,b1 & he has to "w out ! result z an ari?metician works out a sum4 ,among ! irrelevant consid]ations are frequ5tly "s moral aspects ( ! case4 ,a judge1 = example1 decides a w to be valid or invalid )\t ask+ :e!r ! te/ator act$ ju/ly or unju/ly 9 a moral s5se1 b simply :e!r 8 action 0 legal or illegal4 ,he _c g beh9d ! law1 ev5 f motives ( b5evol5ce or g5]al maxims ( ju/ice1 )\t be+ an unju/ judge4 ,cases may arise1 inde$1 z ,i mu/ say 9 pass+1 9 :i* ?is is h>dly true4 ,a law may be s flagrantly unju/ t a virtu\s judge w\ld refuse to adm9i/] x4 ,"o /rik+ case 0 t ( ! fugitive slave law 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 :]e a man _h to *oose betwe5 act+ legally & outrag+ humanity4 ,s we consid] a p>5t unju/ :o does n leave 8 =tune equally among 8 *ildr54 ,unless !re %\ld be "s special reason to ! contr>y1 we %all hold him to be unfair = mak+ di/9ctions out ( m]e pref]5ce ( "o *ild to ano!r4 ,yet 9 ! case ( primog5iture our op9ion w\ld h to be modifi$4 ,suppos+1 = example1 a /ate ( society 9 :i* primog5iture 0 g5]ally recognis$ z desirable = public int]e/s1 we c\ld h>dly call a man unju/ = leav+ 8 e/ates to 8 elde/ son4 ,if1 9 su* a /ate1 a man breaks ! g5]al rule1 our judgm5t ( 8 conduct w\ld be det]m9$ p]haps by consid]+ :e!r he 0 be=e or beh9d 8 age1 :e!r he 0 act+ f a ke5] p]ception ( ! evils ( inequality or actuat$ by spite or reg>dless ( ! public int]e/s :i* he believ$ to be conc]n$4 ,a p>5t treats 8 *ildr5 equally 9 8 w 9 reg>d to money2 b he does n1 unless he is a fool1 give ! same tra9+ or ! same op5+ to all 8 *ildr51 :e!r !y are /upid or clev]1 indu/ri\s or idle4 ,b :at ,i wi% to insi/ ^u is1 t ju/ice implies ess5tially indiff]5ce to irrelevant consid]ations1 & !re=e1 9 _m cases1 equality 9 ! treatm5t ( ! p]sons conc]n$4 ,a judge has to decide )\t ref]5ce to bribes1 & n be biass$ by ! position ( an accus$ p]son4 ,9 t s5se he treats ! m5 equally1 b ( c\rse he does n give equal treatm5t to ! crim9al & innoc5t1 to ! rightful & wrongful claimant4 ,! equality impli$ 9 ju/ice is !re=e to be und]/ood z an exclusion ( ! irrelevant1 & ?us supposes an und]/&+ z to :at is irrelevant4 ,x is n a m]e ab/ract ass]tion ( equality2 b ! ass]tion t1 9 a giv5 concrete case1 a c]ta9 rule is to be appli$ )\t consid]+ any?+ outside ( ! rule4 ,an ideally p]fect rule w\ld conta9 )9 itself a suffici5t indication ( :at is to be relevant4 ,all m5 ( full age1 s\nd m9d1 & s =?1 are to be treat$ 9 su* & su* a way4 ,!n all cases fall+ )9 ! rule are to be decid$ on ! same pr9ciples1 & 9 t s5se equally4 ,b ! problem rema9s1 :at consid]ations %\ld be tak5 into acc\nt by ! rule itself8 ,let u put ! canon ( equality 9 a diff]5t %ape1 namely1 t !re %\ld always be a suffici5t reason = any diff]5ce 9 ! treatm5t ( our fell[s4 ,?is rule does n imply t ,i %\ld act 9 all cases z ?\gh all m5 7 equal 9 "* or m9d1 b t my action %\ld 9 all cases be ju/ifi$ by "s appropriate consid]ation4 ,x does n prove t e man %\ld h a vote1 b t if "o man has a vote & ano!r has n1 !re %\ld be "s adequate reason = ! diff]5ce4 ,x does n prove t e man %\ld "w eight h\rs a day & h a %ill+ an h\r2 b t diff]5ces ( h\rs or ( pay &1 equally1 uni=mity ( h\rs & pay1 %\ld h "s suffici5t ju/ification4 ,?is is a deep] pr9ciple1 :i* 9 "s cases ju/ifies & 9 o!rs does n ju/ify ! rule ( equality4 ,! rule ( equality foll[s f x "u c]ta9 conditions1 & has ga9$ cr$it because1 9 po9t ( fact1 ^? conditions h (t5 be5 satisfi$4 ,! revolution>y dem& = equality 01 hi/orically speak+1 a prote/ aga9/ arbitr>y inequality4 ,x 0 a prote/ aga9/ ! exi/5ce ( privileges accompani$ by no duties4 ,:5 ! ri* man c\ld only answ] ! "q1 ,:at h y done to ju/ify y\r position8 by ! fam\s phrase ( ,beaum>*ais1 ,i took ! tr\ble to be born1 he 0 obvi\sly 9 a false position4 ,! dem& = a society f\nd$ ^u reason1 9 ?is s5se t a suffici5t reason %\ld be giv5 = all diff]5ces1 01 x seems to me1 p]fectly "r2 &1 moreov]1 0 en\gh to condemn ! !n e/abli%$ sy/em4 ,b :5 ?is dem& has be5 s con/ruct$ z to twi/ a logical rule1 applicable to all sci5tific reason+1 into a dogmatic ass]tion t c]ta9 concrete be+s 7 9 fact equal1 & to inf] t !y %\ld h equal rights1 x ceas$ to be logical at all1 & has be5 a fruitful p>5t ( _m fallacies4 ,reasonable be+s require a suffici5t reason = all diff]5ces ( conduct1 = ! diff]5ce betwe5 _! treatm5t ( a man & a monkey or a :ite man & a black1 z well z = diff]5ces betwe5 treatm5t ( ri* & poor or wise m5 & fools2 & !re mu/1 z ! same pr9ciple implies1 be also a suffici5t reason = treat+ all memb]s ( a giv5 class equally4 ,we h to consid] :e!r1 = any giv5 purpose1 ! diff]5ces betwe5 human be+s & animals1 ,engli%m5 & negroes1 m5 & wom51 are or are n ( importance = our purpose4 ,:5 ! diff]5ces are irrelevant we neglect !m or admit ! claim to equality ( treatm5t4 ,b ! "q z to relevance is n to be tak5 = grant$ ei!r way4 ,x w\ld be a v conv5i5t b a v unju/ifiable assumption 9 _m cases1 z x might save an a/ronom] tr\ble if he assum$ t e /> 0 equal to e o!r />4 ,! application ( ?is is1 ,i ?9k1 obvi\s4 ,! priori assumption ( ! equality ( m5 is1 9 "s s5se1 easily refut$4 ,b ! refutation does n entitle u to assume t arbitr>y inequality1 inequality = :i* no adequate gr\nd c be assign$1 is !re=e ju/ifiable4 ,x m]ely %[s t ! problem is m complex ?an has be5 assum$ at fir/ sight4 ,all m5 ought to be equal4 ,if y mean equal 9 natural capacity or "*1 x is en\gh to say t :at is impossible _c be4 ,if y propose t ! indu/ri\s & idle1 ! good & bad1 ! wise & fooli%1 %\ld %>e equally 9 social advantages1 ! reply is equally obvi\s1 t su* a s*eme1 if possible1 w\ld be injuri\s to ! qualities on :i* human welf>e dep5ds4 ,if y say t m5 %\ld be rew>d$ solely accord+ to _! intr9sic m]its1 we mu/ ask1 d y mean to ab/ract f ! adv5titi\s advantages ( education1 social surr\nd+s1 & s =?1 or to take m5 z !y actually are1 :atev] ! circum/ances to :i* _! developm5t is ow+8 ,to ask :at a man w\ld h be5 _h he be5 9 a diff]5t position f 8 y\?1 is to ask = an impossible solution1 & "o1 moreov]1 ( no practical be>+4 ,i %all n employ a drunk>d if ,i am 9 want ( a butl]1 :e!r he has become a drunk>d "u ov]p[]+ temptation or become a drunk>d f inh]it$ dipsomania4 ,b if1 on ! o!r h&1 ,i take ! man = :at he is1 )\t ask+ h[ he has come to be :at he is1 ,i leave ! s\rce at lea/ ( all ! va/ inequalities ( :i* we compla94 ,! difficulty1 :i* ,i w n try to develop fur!r1 und]lies1 z ,i ?9k1 ! really vital diff]5ce ( me?od by :i* diff]5t s*ools attempt to answ] ! appeal = social ju/ice4 ,! s*ool ( s-call$ individuali/s f9ds1 9 fact1 t equality 9 _! s5se is incompatible ) ! v>i$ diff]5ces due to ! complete gr[? ( ! social /ructure4 ,!y look ^u m5 simply z s _m indep5d5t units ( v>y+ qualities1 no d\bt1 b /ill capable ( be+ consid]$ = political & social purposes z equal4 ,!y ask virtually :at ju/ice w\ld dem& if we _h be=e u a cr[d ( indep5d5t applicants = ! good ?+s ( ! _w1 & ! simple/ answ] is to di/ribute ! good ?+s equally4 ,if x is repli$ t ! idle & ! indu/ri\s %\ld n be ^u ! same foot+1 !y are ready to agree1 p]haps1 t m5 %\ld be rew>d$ accord+ to _! s]vices to society1 h[ev] difficult x may be to arrange ! proportions4 ,b x soon appe>s t ! v>i\s classes into :i* society is actually divid$ imply diff]5ces n due to ! individual & 8 intr9sic m]its1 b to ! v>y+ surr\nd+s 9 :i* he is plac$4 ,to d ju/ice1 !n1 x becomes necess>y to get rid ( ^! diff]5ces4 ,! extreme case is t ( ! family4 ,e "o probably owes m to 8 "m & to 8 e>ly dome/ic environm5t ?an to any o!r ( ! circum/ances :i* h influ5c$ 8 developm5t4 ,if y & ,i />t$ z p]fectly equal babies1 & y h become a sa9t & ,i a s9n]1 ! div]g5ce probably began :5 our mo!rs wat*$ our cradles1 & 0 made inevitable be=e we _h left _! knees4 ,consequ5tly1 ! m ?or\gh-go+ design]s ( ,utopia h propos$ to aboli% ?is awkw>d diff]5ce4 ,m5 mu/ be diff]5t at _! bir?2 b we might conceivably arrange public nurs]ies :i* %\ld place !m all "u approximately equal conditions4 ,!n any diff]5ces w\ld result f a man's intr9sic qualities1 & he might be said to be rew>d$ simply accord+ to 8 own m]its4 ,! plan may be tempt+1 b has its disadvantages4 ,!re are inju/ices1 if we call all inequality inju/ice1 :i* we c only attribute to nature or to ! unkn[n p[] :i* makes m5 & monkeys1 ,%akespe>es & ,/eph5s4 ,& "o result is t ! "* & conduct ( human be+s dep5d to a great ext5t ^u circum/ances1 :i* are accid5tal 9 ! s5se t !y are circum/ances o!r ?an ! orig9al end[m5t ( ! individual4 ,9 ?is s5se1 mat]nal love1 = example1 is unju/4 ,! "m loves h] *ild because x is h] own1 n because x is bett] 7?\gh ( c\rse x is bett]7 ?an o!r *ildr54 ,s1 z ,adam ,smi?1 ,i ?9k1 obs]v$1 we are m mov$ by our neighb\r's suff]+ f a corn on 8 great toe ?an by ! />vation ( millions 9 ,*9a4 ,9 o!r words1 ! affections1 :i* are ! great mov+ =ces ( society1 are unju/ 9 s f> z !y cause u to be inf9itely m int]e/$ 9 our own little circle ?an 9 ! remot] memb]s ( humanity kn[n to u only by report4 ,)\t discuss+ ! ju/ice ( ?is arrangem5t1 we %all h1 ,i ?9k1 to admit t x is inevitable4 ,= ,i1 at lea/1 hold t ! vague & va/ organism ( humanity dep5ds = its cohesion ^u ! aff9ities & attractions1 & n vice v]s4 ,my int]e/s are /ronge/ :]e my p[] ( action is greate/4 ,! love ( mo!rs = *ildr5 is a =ce ( ess5tial value1 & !re=e to be cultivat$ r ?an repress$1 = no =ce kn[n to u c\ld replace x4 ,& :at is pre-em95tly true 9 ?is case is1 ( c\rse1 true to a degree 9 o!rs4 ,burke /at$ ?is ) admirable =ce 9 8 attack ^u ! revolutioni/s :o exp\nd$ ! opposite pr9ciple ( ab/ract equality4 ,to be atta*$ to ! subdivision1 to love ! little platoon we belong to 9 society1 is ! fir/ pr9ciple1 he says1 ! g]m1 z x 71 ( public affections4 ,x is ! fir/ l9k 9 ! s]ies by :i* we proce$ t[>ds a love to our c\ntry & mank9d4 ,! ass]tion t !y desir$ to inv]t ?is ord]1 to de/roy e social l9k 9 s f> z x t5d$ to produce inequalities1 0 ! pi? ( 8 great indictm5t aga9/ ! ,fr5* metaphysical revolutioni/s4 ,!y _h p]v]t$ ! g5]al logical precept ( ! suffici5t reason = all inequalities by conv]t+ x into an assum+ ( ! equality ( concrete units4 ,!y fell into ! fallacy ( :i* ,i h spok52 & _m radicals1 utilit>ians1 & o!rs h foll[$ !m4 ,!y assum$ t all ! v>ieties ( human "*1 or all ^? due to ! influ5ce ( ! social environm5t1 ?r\gh ^: /ructure & inh]it$ in/9cts e full-gr[n man has be5 m\ld$1 might be safely disreg>d$ = ! purpose ( political & social con/ruction4 ,!y h spok51 9 brief1 z if m5 7 ! equal & homog5e\s atoms ( physical inquiry & social problems capable ( solution by a simple re>rangem5t ( ! atoms 9 diff]5t ord]s1 in/ead ( rememb]+ t !y are deal+ ) a complex organism1 9 :i* n only ! :ole ord] b e con/itu5t atom is also a complex /ructure ( indef9itely v>y+ qualities4 ,9 ! recognition ( ?is tru? lies1 z ,i believe1 ! true secret ( any satisfactory me?od ( treatm5t4 ,does ?is fact ju/ify inequality 9 g5]al8 ,or does n ! pr9ciple ( equality /ill rema9 z ess5tially impli$ 9 ! ,utopia :i* we all desire to con/ruct8 ,we h to take x = grant$ t to ea* man ! fir/ & prim>y mov+ in/9ct is & mu/ be ! love ( ! little platoon ( :i* he is a memb]2 t ! problem is1 n to de/roy all ^! m9or attractions1 to oblit]ate ! /ructure & replace society by a va/ multitude ( indep5d5t atoms1 ea* suppos$ to aim directly at ! good ( ! :ole1 b s to h>monise & develop or re/ra9 ! small] int]e/s ( families1 ( gr\ps & associations1 t !y may spontane\sly co-op]ate t[>ds ! g5]al welf>e4 ,x is a long & difficult task to :i* we h to apply ourselves2 a task n to be effect$ by ! demon/ration or application ( a s+le ab/ract dogma1 b to be work$ out gradually by ! co-op]ation ( _m classes & ( _m g5]ations4 ,if x is fairly solv$ 9 ! c\rse ( a ?\s& ye>s or s1 ,i = "o %all be v fairly satisfi$4 ,b di/ant z ! realisation may be1 we may or r ought to consid] s]i\sly ! end to :i* we %\ld be work+4 ,! conception implies a di/9ction ( prim>y importance t[>ds any cle> treatm5t ( ! problem4 ,we h1 t is1 two diff]5t1 ?\gh n altoge!r di/9ct1 prov9ces ( :at ,i may1 p]haps1 call organic & functional morality4 ,we may take ! exi/+ ord] = grant$1 & ask :at is !n our duty2 or we may ask h[ f> ! /ructure itself requires modification1 &1 if s1 :at k9d ( modification4 ,a man :o assumes ! exi/5ce ( ! pres5t /ructure may act ju/ly or unju/ly )9 ! limits s prescrib$4 ,he mu/ g5]ally be guid$ 9 a numb] ( cases by "s pr9ciple ( equality4 ,! judge %\ld endeav\r to give ! same law to ri* & poor2 ! p>5t %\ld n make arbitr>y di/9ctions betwe5 8 *ildr52 ! /atesman %\ld try to di/ribute 8 burd5s )\t fav\r+ "o p>ticul> class1 & s =?4 ,a man :o1 9 su* a s5se1 acts ju/ly may be describ$ z up to ! level ( 8 age & its accept$ e/abli%$ moral ideas1 & is1 !re=e1 entitl$ at lea/ to ! negative praise ( n be+ corrupt or di%one/4 ,he fulfils accurately ! functions impos$ ^u him1 & is n gov]n$ by :at ,b5?am call$ ! s9i/] int]e/s :i* w\ld prev5t !m f be+ effectually dis*>g$ = ! welf>e ( ! community4 ,b ! problem :i* we h to consid] is ! deep] & m difficult "o ( organic ju/ice2 & our "q is :at ju/ice means 9 ?is case1 or :at are ! irrelevant consid]ations to be exclud$ f our motives ( conduct4 ,betwe5 ^! two classes ( ju/ice !re are di/9ctions :i* x is necess>y to /ate briefly4 ,ju/ice1 z we g5]ally use ! ^w1 implies t ! unju/ man des]ves to be hang$1 or1 at lea/1 is responsible = 8 actions4 ,:at responsibility precisely implies is1 ( c\rse1 a debatable "q4 ,i only ne$ assume t1 9 any case1 x implies t somebody is guilty ( wrong-do+1 = :i* he %\ld receive an appropriate p5alty4 ,b 9 organic que/ions x is n ! individual1 b ! race :i* is responsible2 & we require a re=m1 n a p5alty4 ,an impati5t temp] leads u to g5]alise too ha/ily f ! case ( ! individual to t ( ! c\ntry4 ,we be/[ ! blame = all ! wrongs ( an oppress$ nation1 = example1 ^u ! nation :i* oppresses4 ,b 9 simple po9t ( fact1 ! oppress$ nation g5]ally des]ves 7if ! ^w c be fairly us$7 to %>e ! blame4 ,! trodd5 worm w\ld n h be5 trodd5 ^u if x _h be5 a bit ( a vip]4 ,:atev] ! duty ( turn+ ! second *eek1 x is cle>ly n a national duty4 ,if we admire a ,tell or ,rob]t ,bruce = resi/+ oppressors1 we implicitly condemn ^? :o submitt$ to oppressors4 ,if a nation is divid$ or want+ 9 c\rage1 public _s1 & indep5d5ce1 x w be trampl$ d[n2 & ?\gh we may mo/ rightfully blame ! trampl]s1 x is idle to exon]ate ! trampl$4 ,x is easy1 9 ! same way1 to make ! ri* solely responsible = all ! mis]y ( ! poor4 ,! man :o has got ! booty is naturally reg>d$ z ! robb]4 ,b1 speak+ sci5tifically1 t is1 ) ! desire to /ate ! pla9 facts1 we mu/ admit t if ! poor are ^? :o h gone to ! wall 9 ! /ruggle = weal?2 !n1 :atev] unju/ weapons h be5 us$ 9 t /ruggle1 ! improvid5ce & vice & idl5ess h c]ta9ly be5 among ! ma9 causes ( defeat4 ,"h1 z be=e1 ! "q is n1 :o is to be puni%$8 ,we c only settle t :5 deal+ ) individual cases4 ,x is ! "q1 :at is ! cause ( c]ta9 evils8 & "h we mu/ resi/ ! temptation ( suppos+ t ! class :i* 9 "s s5se appe>s to pr(it by !m1 or1 at lea/1 to be exempt f !m1 has1 !re=e1 any m to d ) br++ !m ab\t ?an ! class :i* suff]s f !m4 ,! reflection may put u 9 m9d ( :at seems to be a g5]al law4 ,! ultimate cause ( ! adoption ( in/itutions & rules ( conduct is (t5 ! fact ( _! utility to ! race2 b x is only at a lat] p]iod t _! utility becomes ! consci\s or av[$ reason = ma9ta9+ !m4 ,! political fabric has be5 cle>ly built up1 9 great "p1 by purely selfi% ambition4 ,nations h be5 =m$ by en]getic rul]s1 :o _h no eye = any?+ beyond ! gratification ( _! own ambition1 al?\gh !y 7 cle>-head$ en\gh to see t _! own ambition c\ld be/ secure its objects by tak+ ! side ( ! /rong] social =ces1 & by giv+ sub/antial b5efit to o!rs4 ,! same holds good pre-em95tly ( indu/rial relations4 ,we all "k h[ ,adam ,smi?1 %>+ ! philosophical optimism ( 8 "t1 %[$ h[ ! pursuit ( 8 own welf>e by ea* man t5d$1 by a k9d ( pre-orda9$ h>mony1 to contribute to ! welf>e ( all4 ,s9ce 8 "t we h ceas$ to be s optimi/ic1 & h recognis$ ! fact t ! build+ up ( mod]n indu/rial sy/ems has involv$ mu* injury to l>ge classes4 ,& yet we may1 ,i ?9k1 9 great measure adopt 8 view4 ,! fact t ea* man 0 rogue en\gh to ?9k fir/ ( himself & ( 8 own wife & family is n a pro( or a presumption t he did n fl\ri% because1 9 po9t ( fact1 he 0 contribut+ 7q un9t5tionally p]haps7 to ! com=ts ( mank9d 9 g5]al4 ,:at we h to reflect is t1 :ile ! b>e exi/5ce ( c]ta9 in/itutions gives a /rong presumption ( _! utility1 !re is also a probability t :5 ! utility becomes a consci\s aim or a consci\sly adopt$ crit]ion ( _! advantage1 !y w require a correspond+ modification int5d$ to secure ! advantages at a m9imum co/ ( evil4 ,premis+ ^! rem>ks z to ! mean+ ( organic ju/ice1 we c n[ come to ! "q ( equality4 ,ju/ice 9 its ord9>y s5se may be reg>d$ f "o po9t ( view z ! fir/ condition ( ! effici5cy ( ! social organ4 ,9 say+ t a judge is j1 we imply t he is s f> effici5tly dis*>g+ 8 "p 9 society--! due application ( ! law--)\t ref]5ce to irrelevant consid]ations4 ,he is a ma*9e :i* rightly p>ts ! %eep & goats--tak+ ! legal def9ition ( goats & %eep--in/ead ( putt+ "s goats into ! %eepfold1 & vice v]s4 ,t is1 he secures ! accurate application ( ! purely legal rule4 ,organic ju/ice involves an application ( ! same pr9ciple because x equally dep5ds ^u ! exclusion ( irrelevant consid]ations4 ,x implies su* a di/ribution ( functions & ( ma9t5ance z may secure ! greate/ possible effici5cy ( society t[>ds "s end 9 itself good4 ,society ( c\rse may be organis$ ) great effici5cy = bad or d\btful ends4 ,a purely milit>y organisation1 h[ev] admirable = its purpose1 may imply a sacrifice ( ! highe/ welf>e ( ! nation4 ,assum+1 h[ev]1 ! goodness ( ! end1 ! greate/ effici5cy is ( c\rse desirable4 ,we may1 = our purposes1 assume t ! effici5cy ( a nation reg>d$ z a society = ! production ( weal? is a desirable end4 ,!re are1 ( c\rse1 _m o!r purposes :i* mu/ n be sacrific$ to ! production ( weal?4 ,b p[] ( produc+ weal?1 mean+ r\ghly :atev] contributes to ! physical support & com=t ( ! nation1 is und\bt$ly a necess>y condition ( all o!r happ9ess4 ,if we all />ve we c h nei!r art nor sci5ce nor morality4 ,:at ,i mean1 !re=e1 is t a nation is s f> bett] z x is able to raise all necess>y supplies ) ! lea/ exp5diture ( lab\r1 leav+ aside ! "q h[ f> ! sup]flu\s =ces %\ld be devot$ to rais+ comp>ative luxuries or to "s purely religi\s or moral or intellectual purposes4 ,! p]fect indu/rial organisation is1 ,i %all assume1 compatible ) or r a condition ( a p]fect organisation ( o!r k9ds4 ,9 ! mo/ g5]al t]ms we h to consid] :at are ! pr9ciples ( social organisation1 :i* ( c\rse implies a c]ta9 balance betwe5 ! v>i\s organs & a ?or\gh nutrition ( all1 :ile yet we may = a mom5t conf9e our att5tion to ! purely indu/rial or economic "p ( ! "q4 ,h[1 if at all1 does ! pr9ciple ( equality or ( social ju/ice ent] ! problem8 ,we may assume1 9 ! fir/ place1 f ?is po9t ( view1 t "o mo/ obvi\s condition is ! abs5ce ( all purely useless /ructures1 :e!r ( ! k9d :i* we call survivals or su* z may be call$ p>asitic gr[?s4 ,! organ :i* has ceas$ to dis*>ge correspond+ functions is simply a drag ^u ! vital =ces4 ,:5 a class1 su* z ! old ,fr5* ari/ocracy1 ceases to p]=m duties :ile reta9+ privileges1 x w be remov$1--too probably1 z 9 t case1 x w be remov$ by viol5t & mis*iev\s me?ods1--if ! society is to gr[ 9 vig\r4 ,! individuals1 z ,i h said1 may or may n des]ve puni%m5t1 = !y are n p]sonally responsible = ! g5]al ord] ( ?+s2 b !y are n unlikely to incur sev]e p5alties1 & :at we %\ld really hope is t !y may be 9 "s way absorb$ by judici\s m$ical treatm5t1 in/ead ( extirpat$ by ! knife4 ,at ! o!r end ( ! scale1 we h ! p>asitic class ( ! begg>s or ?ieves4 ,!y1 too1 are n p]sonally responsible = ! conditions into :i* !y are born4 ,b !y are n only to be piti$ individually1 b to be reg>d$1 9 ! mass1 z involv+ social disease & dang]4 ,m words ^u t topic are q sup]flu\s1 b ,i may j recall ! tru? t ! two evils are directly connect$4 ,we he> x (t5 said1 & (t5 d5i$1 t ! ri* are gr[+ ri*] & ! poor poor]4 ,s f>1 h[ev]1 z x is true1 x is "o v]sion ( ! v obvi\s fact t :]e !re are _m c>eless ri* p1 !re w be ! be/ *ance = ! begg>s4 ,! ?\ghtless exp5diture ( ! ri* )\t due responsibilities1 provides ! /eady /ream ( s-call$ *>ity1--! *>ity :i*1 z ,%akespe>e 7or somebody else7 obs]ves1 is twice curs$1 :i* curses him t gives & him t receives2 :i* is to ! ri* man z a m]e drug to /ill 8 consci5ce & (f] a spuri\s receipt 9 full = 8 neglect ( social duties1 & to ! poor man an enc\ragem5t to live )\t self-respect1 )\t provid5ce1 a m]e hang]-on & dead-weight ^u society1 & a /&+ injury & s\rce ( temptation to 8 hone/ neighb\rs4 ,briefly1 a :olesome social condition implies t e social organ dis*>ges a useful function2 x r5d]s "s s]vice to ! community :i* is equival5t to ! support :i* x d]ives2 bra9 & /oma* ea* get _! due %>e ( supply2 & !re is a ?or\gh reciprocity betwe5 all ! diff]5t memb]s ( ! body4 ,b :at k9d ( equality %\ld be desir$ 9 ord] to secure ?is desirable organic balance8 ,we h to d1 ,i may rem>k1 ) ! case ( a homog5e\s race4 ,by ?is ,i mean n only t !re is no reason to suppose t !re is any diff]5ce betwe5 ! innate qualities ( ri* & poor1 b t !re is ! /ronge/ reason = believ+ 9 an equality2 t is to say1 m def9itely1 t if y took a ?\s& poor babies & a ?\s& ri* babies1 & subject$ !m to ! same conditions1 !y w\ld %[ great individual diff]5ces1 b no diff]5ce traceable to ! m]e diff]5ce ( class orig94 ,i !re=e may leave aside su* problems z might arise 9 ! ,s\!rn ,/ates ( ,am]ica1 or ev5 9 ,briti% ,india1 :]e two diff]5t races are 9 pres5ce2 or1 aga91 ! case ( ! sexes1 :]e we _c assume z self-evid5t1 t ! organic diff]5ces are irrelevant to political or social ends4 ,s f> z we are conc]n$1 we may take x = grant$ t ! diff]5ces :i* em]ge are n due to any causes antec$5t to & ov]rid+ ! diff]5ces due to diff]5t social positions4 ,if we c say ju/ly 7z has be5 said7 t a poor man is g5]ally m *>itable 9 proportion to 8 means1 or1 aga91 t he is1 z a rule1 a great] li> or a great] drunk>d ?an ! ri* man1 ! diff]5ce is n due to a diff]5ce ( bre$1 b to ! education 79 ! wide/ s5se7 :i* ea* has receiv$4 ,s long z t diff]5ce rema9s1 we mu/ take acc\nt ( x = purposes ( obta9+ ! maximum effici5cy4 ,we mu/ n make ! poor man a pr(essor ( ma!matics1 or ev5 manag] ( a railway1 because he has tal5ts :i*1 if tra9$1 w\ld h qualifi$ him = ! po/2 b we may & mu/ assume t an equal tra9+ w\ld d z mu* = ! poor man z = ! ri*2 & ! "q is1 h[ f> x is desirable or possible to secure su* equality4 ,n[1 f ! po9t ( view ( secur+ a maximum effici5cy1 x seems to be a cle>ly desirable end t ! only qualities :i* %\ld indisputably help to det]m9e a man's position 9 life1 %\ld also be ^? :i* det]m9e 8 fitness = work+ 9 x effici5tly4 ,9 ,utopia1 x %\ld be ! rule t ea* man %all d :at he c d be/4 ,if "o man is a gamekeep] & ano!r a prime m9i/]1 x %\ld be because "o has ! gifts ( a gamekeep] & ! o!r ! gifts ( a prime m9i/]3 :]eas1 9 ! actual /ate1 z we all "k1 ! gamekeep] (t5 becomes ! prime m9i/]1 :ile ! pot5tial prime m9i/] is limit$ to look+ aft] poa*]s4 ,b ,i also urge t we mu/ take into acc\nt ! actual & n ! pot5tial qualities at any giv5 mom5t4 ,! inequality may be obviat$ by rais+ ! grade ( culture 9 all classes2 b we mu/ n assume t !re is an actual equality :]e1 9 fact1 !re is ! wide/ possible diff]5ce4 ,9 %ort1 ,i ass]t t x is our duty to try to make m5 equal2 ?\gh ,i d5y t we are cle>ly ju/ifi$ 9 assum+ an equality4 ,by mak+ !m equal1 ,i d n1 ( c\rse1 mean t we %\ld try to make !m all alike4 ,i recognise1 ) ,mill & e s5sible writ] on ! subject1 t su* a consummation repres5ts r a dang] ?an an advantage4 ,i wi% to see individuality /r5g!n$1 n cru%$1 to enc\rage m5 to develop ! wide/ possible div]sity ( ta/es1 tal5ts1 & pursuits1 & to atta9 unity ( op9ion1 n by a calm assumption t ?is or t cre$ is true1 b by enc\rag+ ! %>pe/ & free/ collision ( op9ions4 ,! equality ( :i* ,i speak is t :i* w\ld result1 if ! di/9ction into organs 7 n ( su* a nature z to make "o class m fav\rable ?an ano!r to ! full developm5t ( :atev] "* & tal5ts a man may possess4 ,9 o!r words1 ! di/ribution into classes w\ld correspond purely & simply to ! tell+ (f ( ea* man to ! duties :i* he is be/ fitt$ to dis*>ge4 ,! position into :i* he is born1 ! class surr\nd+s :i* det]m9e 8 developm5t1 mu/ n c>ry ) !m any disqualification = 8 acquir+ ! necess>y aptitude = any o!r position4 ,x 01 ,i ?9k1 ,f\ri] :o argu$ t a man ought to be paid m highly = be+ a *imney-sweep ?an = be+ a prime m9i/]1 because ! duties ( a sweep are ! m disagreeable1--a position :i* "s prime m9i/]s may1 p]haps1 see reason to d\bt4 ,my sugge/ion is1 t 9 ,utopia e human be+ w\ld be s plac$ z to be capable ( prep>+ himself = any o!r position1 & %\ld !n g to ! "w = :i* he is be/ fitt$4 ,! equality z ?us def9$ w\ld1 ,i submit1 leave no room = a s5se ( inju/ice1 because ! qualities :i* det]m9e a man's position w\ld be ! qualities = :i* he des]ves ! position1 des]t 9 ?is s5se be+ measurable by fitness4 ,discont5t ) class di/9ctions mu/ arise s long z a man feels t 8 position 9 a class limits & cramps 8 capacities bel[ ! level ( happi] =tunes4 ,discont5t is n altoge!r a bad ?+1 = x is (t5 an alias = hope2 remove all discont5t & y remove all gu>antee = improvem5t4 ,b discont5t is ( ! malignant v>iety :5 x is alli$ ) a s5se ( inju/ice2 t is1 ( re/rictions impos$ ^u "o class = no assignable reason4 ,! only suffici5t reason = classes is ! effici5t dis*>ge ( social functions4 ,! diff]5ces betwe5 ! positions ( m5 9 social /rata1 supply "s ( ! mo/ effective motives = ! /ruggle ( life2 & ! ef=t ( m5 to rise into ! weal?y or ! p[]ful class is n likely to cease s long z m5 are m52 b !y take an unwor?y =m s long z ! ambition is simply to atta9 privileges unconnect$ ) or disproportion$ to ! duties involv$1 & :i* !re=e g5]ate hatr$ to ! social /ructure4 ,if a class c\ld be simply an organ = ! dis*>ge ( c]ta9 functions1 & ea* man 9 ! :ole body politic able to fit himself = t class1 ! inju/ice1 & !re=e ! malignant v>iety ( discont5t1 w\ld disappe>4 ,( c\rse1 ,i am speak+ only ( ju/ice4 ,i d n attempt to def9e ! prop] ends ( society1 or reg>d ju/ice 9 itself z a suffici5t gu>antee = all desirable results4 ,su* ju/ice may exi/ ev5 9 a savage tribe or a l[ social type4 ,!re may be a j di/ribution ( food among a %ipwreck$ crew1 b ! atta9m5t ( su* ju/ice w\ld n satisfy all _! wants4 ,! abolition ( mis]y1 ! elevation ( a degrad$ class to a high] /age is a good ?+ 9 itself1 unless x c be %[n to involve "s c\nt]balanc+ evil4 ,i only argue t ! ideal society w\ld h ?is1 among o!r attributes1 &1 !re=e1 t to secure su* equality is a legitimate object ( aspiration4 ,i am speak+ ( ,utopia4 ,! "t is indef9itely di/ant :5 a man w *oose to be a sweep or a prime m9i/] accord+ to 8 aptitudes1 & be equally able to le>n 8 trade :e!r he is ! son ( a prime m9i/] or a sweep4 ,i only try to indicate ! goal to :i* our ef=ts %\ld be direct$4 ,b ! goal ?us def9$ implies me?ods diff]5t f t ( "s advocates ( equality4 ,!y propose at once to assume ! non-exi/5ce ( a disagreeable difficulty1 & to take m5 z equal 9 a s5se 9 :i* !y are n1 9 fact1 equal4 ,to me ! problem appe>s to be1 n ! in/ant introduction ( a new sy/em1 b a necess>ily long & v gradual process ( education direct$ t[>ds ! di/ant goal ( mak+ m5 equal 9 ! desirable s5se2 & t problem1 ,i add1 is 9 ! ma9 a moral problem4 ,x is idle to make in/itutions )\t mak+ ! qualities by :i* !y mu/ be work$4 ,i d n say--f> f x--t we are n to propose :at may r\ghly be call$ ext]nal *anges3 new regulations & new =ms ( association1 & s =?4 ,on ! contr>y1 ,i believe1 z ,i h intimat$1 t ?is me?od corresponds to ! normal ord] ( developm5t4 ,! new in/itution protects & /imulates ! g]ms ( ! moral in/9cts by :i* x mu/ be work$4 ,b ,i also hold t no m]e re>rangem5t does any p]man5t good unless x calls =? a correspond+ moral *ange1 &1 moreov]1 t ! moral *ange1 h[ev] sl[ & imp]ceptible1 does incomp>ably m ?an any ext]nal *ange4 ,if we assume our pres5t in/itutions to be p]man5t1 a slight improvem5t 9 moral qualities1 a gr[? ( sobriety1 ( *a/ity1 ( prud5ce & intellectual culture1 w\ld make an almo/ indef9ite improvem5t 9 ! condition ( ! masses4 ,if1 = example1 ,engli%m5 ceas$ to dr9k1 e ,engli% home might be made reasonably com=table4 ,! two k9ds ( *ange imply ea* o!r2 b x is ! mo/ *>act]i/ic error ( ! design]s ( ,utopias to suppose a m]e *ange ( regulations )\t suffici5tly att5d+ to ! moral implication4 ,to atta9 equality1 z ,i h tri$ to def9e ! ^w1 w\ld imply va/ moral *anges1 & !re=e a long & difficult elaboration4 ,we h n simply to make m5 happy1 z !y n[ c\nt happ9ess1 b to alt] _! views ( happ9ess4 ,! good old copy-books tell u t happ9ess is z common 9 poor m5's huts z 9 ri* m5's palaces4 ,we are apt to reply t ! /atem5t is a mock]y & a lie4 ,b x po9ts to ! consummation :i* 9 "s simple social /ates has be5 p>tly realis$1 & :i* 9 "s di/ant future may come to be an expression ( facts4 ,x is conceivable surely t ri* m5 may "s day f9d t !re are modes ( occupation :i* are m int]e/+ z well z m useful ?an accumulation ( luxuries or ! keep+ ( horses = ! turf2 t1 9 place ( propitiat+ fate by support+ ! in/itution ( begg>y1 !re is an indef9ite field = public-spirit$ en]gy 9 ! way n ( ?r[+ crumbs to ,laz>us1 b ( promot+ national culture ( m9d1 ( _s1 & ( body2 t b5evol5ce does n mean simple self-sacrifice1 except to ! selfi%1 b ! pursuit ( a noble & mo/ int]e/+ c>e]2 t m5's duty to _! *ildr5 is n to enable !m to lead idle lives1 b to fit !m = play+ a manly "p 9 ! great game ( life2 & t _! relation to ^? :om !y employ is n t ( p]sons exploit+ ! en]gies ( inf]ior animals1 b ( lead]s ( indu/ry ) a common int]e/ 9 ! prosp]ity ( _! occupation4 ,p1 no d\bt1 w h>dly pursue bus9ess f motives ( pure b5evol5ce to o!rs1 & ,i d n ?9k x desirable t !y %\ld4 ,b ! recognition t ! pursuit ( an hon\rable bus9ess is useful to o!rs may1 nev]!less1 guide _! en]gies1 make ! m]e scramble = weal? disreputable1 & induce !m to lab\r = solid & p]man5t advantages4 ,su* moral *anges are1 ,i conceive1 necess>y conditions ( ! equality ( :i* ,i h spok52 !y mu/ be br\ght ab\t to "s ext5t if ! indu/rial organism is to free itself f ! inju/ice necess>ily impli$ 9 a m]e bl9d /ruggle = p]sonal com=t4 ,moreov]1 h[ev] di/ant ! f9al consummation may be1 !re are1 ,i ?9k1 _m indications ( an approximation4 ,no?+ is m *>act]i/ic ( mod]n society ?an ! enorm\s developm5t ( ! p[] ( association = p>ticul> purposes4 ,9 =m] days a society _h to =m an indep5d5t organ1 a corporation1 a college1 & s =?1 to dis*>ge any p>ticul> function1 & ! result+ organ 0 s di/9ct z to absorb ! :ole life ( its memb]s4 ,! "w ( ! fell[ 0 absorb$ 9 ! corporate life ( 8 corporation1 & he _h no di/9ct p]sonal int]e/s4 ,n[ we are all memb]s ( societies by ! doz51 & society is con/antly acquir+ ! art ( =m+ associations = any purpose1 tempor>y or p]man5t1 :i* imply no deep /ructural division1 & unite p ( all classes & positions4 ,z ! pr(\nd] l9es are oblit]at$1 ! t5d5cy to =m sep>ate ca/es1 def5d$ by p]sonal privileges1 & hold+ !mselves ap>t f o!r classes1 rapidly dim9i%es2 & ! correspond+ prejudices are 9 process ( dim9ution4 ,b ,i c only h9t at ?is pr9ciple4 ,a correlative moral *ange 9 ! poor is1 ( c\rse1 equally ess5tial4 ,am]ica is describ$ by ,mr4 ,l[ell 9 ! noble/ panegyric ev] made ^u 8 own c\ntry1 z ,%e t lifts up ! manhood ( ! poor4 ,%e has tak5 "s r que] me?ods ( secur+ t object lately2 yet1 h[ev] imp]fect ! result1 e ,am]ican travell] w1 ,i believe1 sympa?ise ) :at ,mr4 ,bryce has rec5tly said 9 8 great book4 ,am]ica is /ill ! l& ( hope--! l& :]e ! poor man's horizon is n b\nd$ by a vi/a ( inevitable dep5d5ce on *>ity2 :]e--9 spite ( "s sup]ficially grotesque results--e man c speak to e o!r )\t ! oppressive s5se ( condesc5sion2 :]e a civil ^w f a poor man is n always a cov]t reque/ = a gratuity & a tacit confession ( dep5d5ce4 ,alas1 says ,wordswor?1 9 "o ( 8 pregnant phrases1 ! gratitude ( m5 has (t5] left me m\rn+ ?an _! cold-he>t$ness2 because1 ,i presume1 x is a pa9ful pro( ( ! r>ity ( k9dness4 ,:5 "o man c only receive a gift & ano!r c only be/[ x z a paym5t on acc\nt ( a long accumulation ( ! arre>s ( class inju/ice1 ! relations h>dly admit ( g5u9e gratitude on ei!r side4 ,:at grates mo/ pa9fully ^u me1 &1 ,i suppose1 ^u mo/ ( u1 is ! s]vility ( man2 ! acceptance ( a begg>'s code ( morals z natural & prop] = any "o 9 a %abby coat4 ,! m prom95t evil j n[1 accord+ to cons]vatives & pessimi/s1 is ! correlative "o ( ! begg> on horseback2 ( ! man :o has f\nd out t he c squeeze m out ( 8 ma/]s1 & uses 8 p[] ev5 )\t consid]+ :e!r x is wise to dra9 y\r mil* c[ too exhau/ively4 ,a hope ( bett] ?+s is enc\rag$ by s*emes = arbitration & conciliation betwe5 employ]s & employ$4 ,b we require a moral *ange if arbitration is to imply some?+ m ?an a truce betwe5 natural enemies1 & conciliation to be some?+ diff]5t f t employ$ by ,hood's but*] :51 aft] haul+ a %eep by ma9 =ce into ! slaught]-h\se1 he exclaim$1 ,!re1 ,i've conciliat$ him6 ,! only pr9ciple on :i* arbitration c proce$ is t ! pr(its %\ld be divid$ 9 su* a way z to be a suffici5t inducem5t to all p]sons conc]n$ to give _! money or _! lab\r1 m5tal or physical1 to promote ! prosp]ity ( ! bus9ess at l>ge4 ,b ! reconciliation c only be complete :5 ! capitali/ is capable ( employ+ 8 ri*es ) en\gh public _s & g5]osity to dis>m m]e envy by 8 obvi\s utility1 & ! poor man ju/ifies 8 increas$ wages by 8 desire to secure p]man5t b5efits & a bett] /&>d ( life4 ,9 ,utopia1 ! "q w /ill be1 :at plan %all be a suffici5t inducem5t to ! m5 :o co-op]ate z employ]s or lab\r]s1 b ! inducem5t w appeal to bett] motives1 & ! positions be s f> equalis$ t ea* w be mo/ tol]able to ! man be/ fitt$ = x4 ,"h a va/ s]ies ( problems op5s ab\t :i* ,i c only sugge/ ! briefe/ h9t4 ,! pr9ciple ,i n[ urge is ! old "o1 namely1 t ! usual m>k ( a quack rem$y is ! neglect ( ! moral aspect ( a "q4 ,we want a /ate ( op9ion 9 :i* ! poor are n objects to be slobb]$ ov]1 b m5 to help 9 a manly /ruggle = moral z well z mat]ial elevation4 ,a great deal is said1 = example1 ab\t ! evils ( competition4 ,x is rem>kable inde$ t few proposals = improvem5t ev51 s f> z ,i c discov]1 t5d to get rid ( competition4 ,co-op]ation1 z tradesm5 w tell u1 is n an abolition ( competition1 b a competition ( gr\ps in/ead ( units4 ,pr(it-%>+ is simply a plan by :i* workm5 may take a direct %>e 9 ! competition c>ri$ on by _! ma/]s4 ,i d n m5tion ?is z any objection to su* s*emes1 = ,i d n ?9k t competition is an evil4 ,i d n d\bt ! va/ utility ( s*emes :i* t5d to increase ! intellig5ce & prud5ce ( workm51 & give !m an insight into ! conditions ( successful bus9ess4 ,competition is no d\bt bad s f> z x means *eat+ or gambl+4 ,b competition is1 x seems to me1 inevitable s long z we are =c$ to apply ! exp]im5tal me?od 9 practical life1 & ,i fail to see :at o!r me?od is available4 ,competition means t ?\s&s ( p all ov] ! _w are try+ to f9d out h[ !y c supply m economically & effici5tly ! wants ( o!r p1 & t is a /ate ( ?+s to :i* ,i d n altoge!r object4 ,equality 9 my s5se implies t e "o %\ld be all[$ to compete = e place t he c fill4 ,! cry is m]ely1 z x seems to me1 an evasion ( ! fundam5tal difficulty4 ,t difficulty is n t p compete1 b t !re are too _m competitors2 n t a man's seat at ! table has to be decid$ by fair trial ( 8 abilities1 b t !re is n room en\gh to seat ev]ybody4 ,mal?us br\ght to ! front ! great /umbl+-block 9 ! way ( ,utopian optimism4 ,8 !ory 0 /at$ too absolutely1 & 8 view ( ! rem$y 0 und\bt$ly crude4 ,b he hit ! real difficulty2 & e s5sible obs]v] ( social evils admits t ! great ob/acle to social improvem5t is t social residuum1 ! p>asitic class1 :i* multiplies s z to keep d[n ! /&>d ( liv+1 & turns to bad purposes ! increas$ p[] ( man ov] nature4 ,we h aboli%$ pe/il5ce & fam9e 9 _! grimme/ %ape2 if we h n aboli%$ w>1 x no long] involves usurpation or slav]y or ! p]man5t desolation ( ! conqu]$2 b "o result is j ?is1 t great masses c be regul>ly kept alive at ! l[e/ /age ( exi/5ce )\t be+ p]iodically swept away by a black dea? or a horde ( brutal invad]s4 ,if we *oose to turn our advantages to acc\nt 9 ?is way1 no no/rums w put an end to pov]ty2 & ! evil c only be met--z ,i v5ture to assume--by an elevation ( ! moral level1 involv+ all t is impli$ 9 spread+ civilisation d[nw>d4 ,! difficulty %[s itself 9 discussions ( ! prop] sph]e ( gov]nm5t4 ,^u t va/ & mo/ puzzl+ topic ,i w only p]mit myself "o rem>k4 ,9 =m] times ! great aim ( re=m]s 0 ! limitation ( ! p[]s ( gov]nm5t4 ,!y came to reg>d x z a k9d ( bogy or extra-natural =ce1 :i* act$ to oppress ! poor 9 ord] to ma9ta9 c]ta9 p]sonal privileges4 ,"s1 l ,godw9 ( ! ,political ,ju/ice1 held t ! mill5nium impli$ ! abolition ( gov]nm5t & ! in/itution ( an>*y4 ,! e>ly utilit>ians held t gov]nm5t might be re=m$ by plac+ p[] 9 ! h&s ( ! subjects1 :o w\ld use x only = _! own int]e/s1 b /ill reta9$ ! prejudices eng5d]$ 9 _! long /ruggle aga9/ au?ority1 & held t its functions %\ld /ill be gradually re/rict$ on pa9 ( develop+ a worse tyranny ?an ! old4 ,! gov]nm5t has be5 h&$ ov] to ! p z !y desir$1 b ) ! natural result t ! new au?orities n only use x to support _! int]e/s1 b reta9 ! conviction ( its extra-natural1 or p]haps sup]natural1 efficacy4 ,x is reg>d$ z an omnipot5t body :i* c n only say 7z x c7 t :atev] x pleases %all be legal1 b t :atev] is made a law 9 ! juridical s5se %all at once become a law ( nature4 ,ev5 _! individuali/ oppon5ts1 :o pr(ess to foll[ ,mr4 ,h]b]t ,sp5c]1 seem (t5 to reg>d ! p[] ( gov]nm5t1 n z "o result ( evolution1 b z some?+ ext]nal :i* c con/ra9 & limit evolution4 ,x corresponds to a k9d ( outside pressure :i* int]f]es arbitr>ily ) ! s-call$ natural c\rse ( developm5t1 & %\ld !re=e be aboli%$4 ,to me1 on ! contr>y1 x seems t gov]nm5t is simply "o ( ! social organs1 ) p[]s /rictly limit$ by its relation to o!rs & by ! nature ( ! s5tim5t ^u :i* x re/s4 ,!re are obvi\s reasons1 9 ! c5tralisation ( va/ indu/rial int]e/s1 ! integration1 z ,mr4 ,sp5c] calls x1 :i* is ! correlative ( diff]5tiation1 9 ! gr[+ solid>ity ( diff]5t classes & c\ntries1 9 ! consequ5t gr[? ( natural monopolies1 :i* give a solid reason = believ+ t ! functions ( ! c5tral gov]nm5t may require expansion4 ,to decide by any priori pr9ciple :at %\ld be ! limits ( ?is expansion is1 to my m9d1 hopeless4 ,! problem is "o to be work$ out by exp]im5t1--t is1 by _m g5]ations & by repeat$ blund]+4 ,a fool1 said ,erasmus ,d>w91 is a man :o nev] makes an exp]im5t2 an exp]im5t is a new mode ( action :i* fails 9 its object n9ety-n9e times out ( a hundr$2 !re=e1 wise m5 make m blund]s1 ?\gh !y also make m discov]ies ?an fools4 ,n[1 exp]im5ts 9 gov]nm5t & social organisation are z necess>y to improvem5t z any o!r k9d ( exp]im5t1 & probably /ill m liable to failure4 ,"o ?+1 h[ev]1 is aga9 obvi\s4 ,! simple rem$y ( ?r[+ ev]y?+ ^u gov]nm5t1 ( all[+ x to settle ! rate ( wages1 ! h\rs ( lab\r1 ! prices ( commodities1 & s =?1 requires = success a moral & intellectual *ange :i* x is impossible to ov]-e/imate4 ,i w n repeat ! famili> argum5ts :i*1 to my m9d1 ju/ify ?is /atem5t4 ,x is en\gh to say t !re is no gr\nd 9 ! b>e proposal = putt+ all mann] ( indu/rial regulations into ! h&s ( gov]nm5t1 = suppos+ t x w\ld n drag d[n e "o into paup]ism in/ead ( rais+ ev]ybody to com=t4 ,i (t5 read essays ( :i* ! weakness seems to be t :ile !y purpose to e/abli% equality1 !y give no real reason = hold+ t x w\ld n be an equality ( begg>y4 ,if e "o is to be support$1 idle or n1 ! natural conclusion is univ]sal paup]ism4 ,if p are to be =c$ to "w by gov]nm5t1 or _! numb]s to be someh[ re/rict$ by gov]nm5t1 y ?r[ a /ress ^u ! p[]s ( gov]nm5t :i*1 ,i w n say1 x is impossible t x %\ld be>1 b :i*1 to speak 9 ! mo/ mod]ate t]ms1 implies a complete recon/ruction ( ! intellig5ce1 morality1 & conceptions ( happ9ess ( human be+s4 ,y\r gov]nm5t w\ld h to be omnisci5t & purely b5evol5t z well z omnipot5t1 & ,i confess t ,i _c see 9 ! exp]i5ce ( ^? c\ntries :]e ! p h ! mo/ direct influ5ce ^u ! gov]nm5t1 any promise t ?is /ate ( ?+s w be realis$ j yet4 ,?us1 ,i return to my conclusion1--to my platitude1 if y w4 ,pr(essor ,fawcett us$ to say t he c\ld lay d[n no rules = ! sph]e ( gov]nm5t influ5ce1 except ?is rule1 t no int]f]5ce w\ld d good unless x help$ p to help !mselves4 ,i ?9k t ! doctr9e 0 *>act]i/ic ( 8 good s5se1 & ,i fully subscribe to x4 ,i he>tily agree t equality 9 ! s5se ,i h giv51 is a mo/ desirable ideal2 ,i agree t we %\ld d all t 9 u lies to promote x2 ,i only say t our aims %\ld be always 9 consi/5ce ) ! pr9ciple t su* equality is only possible & desirable 9 s f> z ! l[e/ classes are lift$ to a high] /&>d1 morally z well z physically4 ,( c\rse1 t implies approval ( e v>iety ( new in/itutions & laws1 ( co-op]ation1 ( pr(it %>+1 ( bo>ds ( conciliation1 ( educational & o!r bodies = c>ry+ light into d>kness & elevat+ popul> /&>ds ( life3 b always ) ! express condition t no su* in/itution is really useful except z x t5ds to fo/] a g5u9e _s ( indep5d5ce1 & to supply ! moral improvem5t )\t :i* no outw>d *ange is wor? a button4 ,?is is a truism1 y may say4 ,yet1 :5 ,i read ! proposals to get rid ( pov]ty by summ>ily ord]+ p to be equal1 or to extirpate paup]ism by sp5d+ a million ^u c]ta9 in/itutions = out-door relief1 ,i _c help ?9k+ t x is a truism :i* requires to be en=c$4 ,! old ,political ,economy1 y say1 is obsolete2 mean+1 p]haps1 t y d n mean to be bo!r$ ) its ass]tions2 b ! old ,economi/s _h _! m]its4 ,!y 7 among ! fir/ :o realis$ ! va/ importance ( deep] social que/ions2 !y 7 ! fir/ :o tri$ to treat !m sci5tifically2 !y 7 n 7,i hope7 ! la/ :o d>$ to speak unpleasant tru?s1 simply because !y believ$ !m & believ$ 9 _! importance4 ,p]haps1 inde$1 !y r enjoy$ ! practice a little too mu*1 & indulg$ 9 x a little too o/5tati\sly4 ,yet1 ,i am sure t1 on ! :ole1 x 0 a v useful practice1 & "o :i* is n[ sc>cely z common z x %\ld be4 ,p are m anxi\s to pick holes 9 _! /atem5t ( economic laws ?an to insi/ ^u ! ess5tial fact t1 aft] all1 !re are laws1 n laws made by ,p>liam5t1 b laws ( nature1 :i* d1 & w1 det]m9e ! production & di/ribution ( weal?1 & ! recognition ( :i* is z important to human welf>e z ! recognition ( physiological laws to ! bodily heal?4 ,hold+ ?is fai?1 ! old ,economi/s 7 nev] tir$ ( ass]t+ :at is ! fundam5tal tru? ( s-call$ individualism1 t1 aft] all we may say ab\t ! social developm5t1 ! ess5tial condition ( all social improvem5t is n t we %\ld h ?is or t sy/em ( regulations1 b t ! individual %\ld be manly1 self-respect+1 do+ 8 duty z well z gett+ 8 pay1 & deeply conv9c$ t no?+ w d any p]man5t good :i* does n imply ! elevation ( ! individual 9 8 /&>ds ( hone/y1 indep5d5ce1 & good conduct4 ,we c only say to ,laz>us3 ,y are probably pa/ pray+ =1 & all we c d is to save y f />v+1 by any means :i* d n enc\rage o!r p to fall into y\r weaknesses2 b we recognise ! "r ( y\r class = any & e possible help t c be giv5 t[>ds mak+ m5 ( !m1 & putt+ !m on _! legs by tea*+ !m to /& upright4 ,,e?ics ,,& ,,! ,,/ruggle ,,= ,,exi/5ce4 ,9 8 deeply-int]e/+ ,romanes lecture1 ,pr(essor ,huxley has /at$ ! op9ion t ! e?ical progress ( society dep5ds ^u our combat+ ! cosmic process :i* we call ! /ruggle = exi/5ce4 ,s9ce1 z he adds1 we inh]it ! cosmic nature :i* is ! outcome ( millions ( ye>s ( sev]e tra9+1 x foll[s t ! e?ical nature may c\nt ^u hav+ to reckon ) a t5aci\s & p[]ful enemy z long z ! _w la/s4 ,?is is n a *e]ful prospect4 ,x is1 z he admits1 an audaci\s proposal to pit ! microcosm aga9/ ! macrocosm4 ,we _c help fe>+ t ! microcosm may get ! wor/ ( x4 ,pr(essor ,huxley has n fully exp&$ 8 mean+1 & says mu* to :i* ,i c\ld cordially subscribe4 ,b ,i ?9k t ! facts ^u :i* he relies admit or require an int]pretation :i* avoids ! awkw>d conclusion4 ,pa9 & suff]+1 z ,pr(essor ,huxley tells u1 are always ) u1 & ev5 increase 9 quantity & int5sity z evolution advances4 ,! fact _h be5 recognis$ 9 remote ages long be=e !ories ( evolution _h tak5 _! mod]n =m4 ,pessimism1 f ! "t ( ! anci5t ,h9doo philosoph]s to ! "t ( _! disciple1 ,s*op5hau]1 has be5 9 no want ( evid5ce to support its melan*oly conclusions4 ,x w\ld be idle to wa/e rhetoric 9 ! attempt to recapitulate s famili> a position4 ,?\gh ,i am n a pessimi/1 ,i _c d\bt t !re is m plausibility 9 ! doctr9e ?an ,i c\ld wi%4 ,moreov]1 x may be grant$ t any attempt to expla9 or to ju/ify ! exi/5ce ( evil is und5iably futile4 ,x is n s mu* t ! problem _c be answ]$1 z t x _c ev5 be ask$ 9 any intelligible s5se4 ,to expla9 a fact is to assign its causes--t is1 to give ! prec$+ set ( facts out ( :i* x arose4 ,h[ev] f> we might g backw>ds1 we %\ld get no ne>] to p]ceiv+ any reason = ! orig9al fact4 ,if we expla9 ! fall ( man by ,adam's eat+ ! apple1 we are q unable to say :y ! apple %\ld h be5 creat$4 ,if we c\ld discov] a g5]al !ory ( pa91 %[+1 say1 t x impli$ c]ta9 physiological conditions1 we %all be no ne>] to kn[+ :y ^? physiological conditions %\ld h be5 :at !y are4 ,! exi/5ce ( pa91 9 %ort1 is "o ( ! prim>y data ( our problem1 n "o ( ! accid5ts1 = :i* we c hope 9 any intelligible s5se to acc\nt4 ,to give any ju/ification is equally impossible4 ,! book ( ,job really sugge/s an impossible1 "o may almo/ say a mean+less1 problem4 ,we c give an intelligible mean+ to a dem& = ju/ice :5 we c suppose t a man has c]ta9 antec$5t rights1 :i* ano!r man may respect or neglect4 ,b ?is has no mean+ z betwe5 ! ab/raction nature & ! concrete facts :i* are !mselves nature4 ,x is unju/ to meet equal claims diff]5tly4 ,b x is n unju/ 9 any intelligible s5se t "o be+ %\ld be a monkey & ano!r a man1 any m ?an t "p ( me %\ld be a h& & ano!r head4 ,! "q w\ld only arise if we suppos$ t ! man & ! monkey _h exi/$ be=e !y 7 creat$1 & _h !n possess$ claims to equal treatm5t4 ,! mo/ logical !ologians1 inde$1 admit t z betwe5 creature & creator !re c be prop]ly no "q ( ju/ice4 ,! pot & ! pott] _c compla9 ( ea* o!r4 ,if ! writ] ( ,job _h be5 able to %[ t ! virtu\s 7 rew>d$ & ! vici\s puni%$1 he w\ld only h transf]r$ ! problem to ano!r issue4 ,! judge might be ju/ifi$1 b ! creator w\ld be condemn$4 ,h[ c x be j to place a be+ :]e he is c]ta9 to s91 & !n to damn him = s9n+8 ,t is ! problem to :i* no answ] c be giv52 & :i* already implies a confusion ( ideas4 ,we apply ! conception ( ju/ice 9 a sph]e :]e x is n applicable1 & naturally fail to get any intelligible answ]4 ,x is impossible to comb9e ! conceptions ( ,god z ! creator & ,god z ! judge2 & ! logical /raits into :i* ! attempt leads are repres5t$ by ! endless free-w controv]sy4 ,i w n n[ ent] t field ( controv]sy3 & ,i w only indicate :at seems to me to be ! position :i* we mu/ accept 9 any sci5tific discussion ( our problem4 ,hume1 z ,i ?9k1 laid d[n ! true pr9ciple :5 he said t !re c\ld be no priori pro( ( a matt] ( fact4 ,an priori tru? is a tru? :i* _c be d5i$ )\t self-contradiction1 b !re c nev] be a logical consid]ation 9 suppos+ ! non-exi/5ce ( any fact :atev]4 ,! ord9>y appeal to ! tru?s ( pure ma!matics is1 !re=e1 beside ! "q4 ,all su* tru?s are /atem5ts ( ! precise equival5ce ( two propositions4 ,to say t !re are f\r ?+s is also to say t !re are two pairs ( ?+s3 to say t !re is a plane triangle is also to say t !re is a plane trilat]al4 ,"o /atem5t involves ! o!r1 because ! diff]5ce is n 9 ! ?+ describ$1 b 9 our mode ( contemplat+ x4 ,we1 !re=e1 _c make "o ass]tion & d5y ! o!r )\t implicit contradiction4 ,f su* results1 aga91 is evolv$ 79 ! logical s5se ( evolution7 ! :ole va/ sy/em ( ma!matical tru?s4 ,! complexity ( t sy/em gives ! errone\s idea t we c1 someh[1 atta9 a k ( facts1 indep5d5tly ( exp]i5ce4 ,we fail to obs]ve t ev5 ! mo/ complex ma!matical =mula is simply a /atem5t ( an exact equival5ce ( two ass]tions2 & t1 till we "k by exp]i5ce ! tru? ( "o /atem5t1 we c nev] inf] ! tru?1 9 fact1 ( ! o!r4 ,h[ev] elaborate may be ! evolutions ( ma!matical tru?1 !y c nev] get beyond ! g]ms out ( :i* !y are evolv$4 ,!y are valid precisely because ! mo/ complex /atem5t is always ! exact equival5t ( ! simpl]1 out ( :i* x is con/ruct$4 ,!y rema9 to ! end tru?s ( numb] or tru?s ( geometry4 ,!y _c1 by !mselves1 tell u t ?+s exi/ :i* c be c\nt$ or :i* c be measur$4 ,! :ole claim1 h[ev] elaborate1 /ill requires its po9t ( susp5sion4 ,we may put _! claims to absolute or necess>y tru? z high z we please2 b !y _c give u by !mselves a s+le fact4 ,i c %[1 = example1 t a circle has an inf9ite numb] ( prop]ties1 all ( :i* are virtually impli$ 9 ! v exi/5ce ( a circle4 ,b t ! circle or t space itself exi/s1 is n a necess>y tru?1 b a datum ( exp]i5ce4 ,x is q true t su* tru?s are n1 9 "o s5se1 empirical2 !y c be discov]$ )\t any *ange ( exp]i5ce2 =1 by _! v nature1 !y ref] to ! con/ant elem5t ( exp]i5ce1 & are true on ! supposition ( ! absolute *angelessness ( ! objects contemplat$4 ,b x is a fallacy to suppose t1 because indep5d5t ( p>ticul> exp]i5ces1 !y are1 !re=e1 indep5d5t ( exp]i5ce 9 g5]al4 ,n[1 if we agree1 z ,huxley w\ld h agre$1 t ,hume's doctr9e is true1 if we _c "k a s+le fact except f exp]i5ce1 we are limit$ 9 moral que/ions1 z 9 all o!rs1 to elaborat+ & analys+ our exp]i5ce1 & c nev] prop]ly transc5d x4 ,a sci5tific treatm5t ( an e?ical "q1 at any rate1 mu/ take = grant$ all ! facts ( human nature4 ,x c %[ :at morality actually is2 :at are1 9 fact1 ! motives :i* make m5 moral1 & :at are ! consequ5ces ( moral conduct4 ,b x _c get outside ( ! univ]se & lay d[n moral pr9ciples indep5d5t ( all influ5ces4 ,i am well aw>e t 9 speak+ ( e?ical que/ions ^u ?is gr\nd1 ,i am expos$ to _m expressions ( metaphysical contempt4 ,i may hope to ?r[ light ^u ! usual work+ ( morality2 b my !ory ( ! facts _c make m5 moral ( itself4 ,i _c hope1 = example1 to %[ t immorality involves a contradiction1 = ,i "k t immorality exi/s4 ,i _c ev5 hope to %[ t x is necess>ily productive ( mis]y to ! individual1 = ,i "k t "s p take pleasure 9 vici\s conduct4 ,i _c d$uce facts f morals1 = ,i mu/ consi/5tly reg>d morals z "p ( ! obs]v$ consequ5ces ( human nature "u giv5 conditions4 ,metaphysicians may1 if !y c1 %[ me a m excell5t me?od4 ,i admit t _! language sometimes enables !m to take :at1 9 words at lea/1 is a sublim] position ?an m9e4 ,kant's fam\s phrase1 ,?\ mu/1 !re=e ?\ can/1 is impressive4 ,& yet1 x seems to me to involve an obvi\s piece ( logical juggl+4 ,x is q true t :5ev] x is my duty to act 9 a c]ta9 way1 x mu/ be a possibility2 b t is only because an impossibility _c be a duty4 ,x is n my duty to fly1 because ,i h n w+s2 & conv]sely1 no d\bt1 x w\ld foll[ t if x 7 my duty ,i mu/ possess ! organs requir$4 ,?us und]/ood1 h[ev]1 ! phrase loses its sublimity1 & yet1 x is only because we h s to und]/& x1 t x has any plausibility4 ,admitt+1 h[ev]1 t p :o diff] f me c use gr&] language1 & confess+ my read9ess to admit error :5ev] !y c po9t to a s+le fact atta9able by ! pure reason1 ,i mu/ keep to ! humbl] pa?4 ,i speak ( ! moral in/9cts z ( o!rs1 simply f ! po9t ( view ( exp]i5ce3 ,i _c myself discov] a s+le tru? f ! ab/ract pr9ciple ( non-contradiction2 & am cont5t to take = grant$ t ! _w exi/s z we "k x to exi/1 )\t seek+ to d$uce its peculi>ities by any high priori road4 ,^u ?is assumption1 ! "q really resolves itself into a diff]5t "o4 ,we c nei!r expla9 nor ju/ify ! exi/5ce ( pa92 b1 ( c\rse1 we c ask :e!r1 z a matt] ( fact1 pa9 pr$om9ates ov] pleasure2 & we c ask :e!r1 z a matt] ( fact1 ! cosmic processes t5d to promote or disc\rage virtu\s conduct4 ,does ! !ory ( ! /ruggle = exi/5ce ?r[ any new light ^u ! g5]al problem8 ,i am q unable to see1 = my own "p1 t x really makes any diff]5ce3 evil exi/s2 & ! "q :e!r evil pr$om9ates ov] good1 c only1 ,i %\ld say1 be decid$ by an appeal to exp]i5ce4 ,"o s\rce ( evil is ! conflict ( int]e/s4 ,e bea/ preys ^u o!rs2 & man1 accord+ to ! old say+1 is a wolf to man4 ,all t ! ,d>w9ian or any o!r !ory c d is1 to enable u to trace ! consequ5ces ( ?is fact 9 c]ta9 directions2 b x nei!r creates ! fact nor makes x m or less an ess5tial "p ( ! process4 ,x expla9s c]ta9 ph5om5a1 9 ! s5se ( %[+ _! connection ) previ\s ph5om5a1 b does n %[ :y ! ph5om5a %\ld pres5t !mselves at all4 ,if we indulge our m9ds 9 purely fanciful con/ructions1 we may reg>d ! actual sy/em z good or bad1 j z we *oose to imag9e = its alt]native a bett] or a worse sy/em4 ,if ev]ybody _h be5 put into a _w :]e !re 0 no pa91 or :]e ea* man c\ld get all he want$ )\t int]f]+ ) 8 neighb\rs1 we may fancy t ?+s w\ld h be5 pleasant]4 ,if ! /ruggle1 :i* we all "k to exi/1 _h no effect 9 prev5t+ ! survival ( ! fitte/1 ?+s--s1 at lea/1 "s ( u may ?9k--w\ld h be5 worse4 ,b su* fancies h no?+ to d ) sci5tific inquiries4 ,we h to take ?+s z !y are & make ! be/ ( !m4 ,! common feel+1 no d\bt1 is diff]5t4 ,! incessant /ruggle betwe5 diff]5t races sugge/s a pa9ful view ( ! univ]se1 z ,hobbes' natural /ate ( w> sugge/$ pa9ful !ories z to human nature4 ,w> is evid5tly immoral1 we ?9k2 & a doctr9e :i* makes ! :ole process ( evolution a process ( w> mu/ be radically immoral too4 ,! /ruggle1 x is said1 dem&s ru?less self-ass]tion & ! hunt+ d[n ( all competitors2 & su* phrases c]ta9ly h an unpleasant s\nd4 ,b 9 ! fir/ place1 ! use ( ! epi!ts implies an an?ropomorphism to :i* we h no "r s long z we are deal+ ) ! inf]ior species4 ,we are !n 9 a region to :i* su* ideas h no direct application1 & :]e ! moral s5tim5ts exi/ only 9 g]m1 if !y c prop]ly be said to exi/ at all4 ,is x fair to call a wolf ru?less because he eats a %eep & fails to consid] ! transaction f ! %eep's po9t ( view8 ,we mu/ surely admit t if ! wolf is )\t m]cy he is also )\t malice4 ,we call an animal f]oci\s because a man :o act$ 9 ! same way w\ld be f]oci\s4 ,b ! man is really f]oci\s because he is really aw>e ( ! pa9 :i* he inflicts4 ,! wolf1 ,i suppose1 has no m recognition ( ! %eep's feel+s ?an a man has ( feel+s 9 ! oy/] or ! potato4 ,= him1 !y are simply non-exi/5t2 & x is j z inappropriate to ?9k ( ! wolf z cruel1 z x w\ld be to call ! %eep cruel = eat+ grass4 ,are we to say t nature is cruel because ! arrangem5t increases ! sum ( undes]v$ suff]+8 ,t is a problem :i* ,i d n feel able to exam9e2 b x is1 at lea/1 obvi\s t x _c be answ]$ (f-h& 9 ! affirmative4 ,to ! individual %eep x matt]s no?+ :e!r he is eat5 by ! wolf or dies ( disease or />vation4 ,he has to die any way1 & ! p>ticul> way is unimportant4 ,! wolf is simply "o ( ! limit+ =ces ^u %eep1 & if he 7 remov$ o!rs w\ld come into play4 ,! %eep1 left to himself1 w\ld /ill give a practical illu/ration ( ! doctr9e ( ,mal?us4 ,if1 z evolutioni/s tell u1 ! ho/ility ( ! wolf t5ds to improve ! bre$ ( %eep1 to enc\rage him to ?9k m & to %>p5 8 wits1 ! %eep may be1 on ! :ole1 ! bett] = ! wolf1 9 ?is s5se at lea/3 t ! %eep ( a wolfless region might lead a m wret*$ exi/5ce1 & be less capable animals & m subject to disease & />vation ?an ! %eep 9 a wolf-haunt$ region4 ,! wolf may1 s f>1 be a bless+ 9 disguise4 ,?is sugge/s ano!r obvi\s rem>k4 ,:5 we speak ( ! /ruggle = exi/5ce1 ! popul> view seems to con/rue ?is into ! !ory t ! _w is a m]e cockpit1 9 :i* "o race c>ries on an int]m9able /ruggle ) ! o!r4 ,if ! wolves are turn$ 9 ) ! %eep1 ! fir/ result w be t all ! %eep w become mutton1 & ! la/ t !re w be "o big wolf ) all ! o!rs inside him4 ,b ?is is contr>y to ! ess5ce ( ! doctr9e4 ,e race dep5ds1 we all hold1 ^u its environm5t1 & ! environm5t includes all ! o!r races4 ,if "s1 !re=e1 are 9 conflict1 o!rs are mutually necess>y4 ,if ! wolf ate all ! %eep1 & ! %eep ate all ! grass1 ! result w\ld be ! extirpation ( all ! %eep & all ! wolves1 z well z all ! grass4 ,! /ruggle necess>ily implies reciprocal dep5d5ce 9 a c\ntless v>iety ( ways4 ,!re is n only a conflict1 b a sy/em ( tacit alliances4 ,"o species is necess>y to ! exi/5ce ( o!rs1 ?\gh ! multiplication ( "s implies also ! dy+ out ( p>ticul> rivals4 ,! conflict implies no cruelty1 z ,i h said1 & ! alliance no goodwill4 ,! wolf nei!r loves ! %eep 7except z mutton7 nor hates him2 b he dep5ds ^u him z absolutely z if he 7 aw>e ( ! fact4 ,! %eep is "o ( ! wolf's necess>ies ( life4 ,:5 we speak ( ! /ruggle = exi/5ce we mean1 ( c\rse1 t !re is at any giv5 p]iod a c]ta9 equilibrium betwe5 all ! exi/+ species2 x *anges1 ?\gh x *anges s sl[ly t ! process is imp]ceptible & difficult to realise ev5 to ! sci5tific imag9ation4 ,! survival ( any species involves ! disappe>ance ( rivals no m ?an ! pres]vation ( allies4 ,! /ruggle1 !re=e1 is s f> f int]nec9e t x necess>ily involves co-op]ation4 ,x _c ev5 be said t x necess>ily implies suff]+4 ,p1 inde$1 speak z ?\gh ! ext9ction ( a race involv$ suff]+ 9 ! same way z ! slaught] ( an individual4 ,x is pla9 t ?is is n a necess>y1 ?\gh x may sometimes be ! actual result4 ,a corporation may be suppress$ )\t injury to its memb]s4 ,e individual w die be=e long1 /ruggle or no /ruggle4 ,if ! rate ( reproduction fails to keep up ) ! rate ( ext9ction1 ! species mu/ dim9i%4 ,b ?is might happ5 )\t any increase ( suff]+4 ,if ! boys 9 a di/rict discov]$ h[ to take birds' eggs1 !y might soon extirpate a species2 b x does n foll[ t ! birds w\ld individually suff]4 ,p]haps !y w\ld feel !mselves reliev$ f a disagreeable responsibility4 ,! process by :i* a species is improv$1 ! dy+ out ( ! lea/ fit1 implies no m suff]+ ?an we "k to exi/ indep5d5tly ( any doctr9e z to a /ruggle4 ,:5 we use an?ropomorphic language1 we may speak ( self-ass]tion4 ,b self-ass]tion1 m9us ! an?ropomorphism1 means self-pres]vation2 & t is m]ely a way ( describ+ ! fact t an animal or plant :i* is well adapt$ to its conditions ( life is m likely to live ?an an animal :i* is ill-adapt$4 ,i h "s difficulty 9 imag9+ h[ any o!r arrangem5t c ev5 be suppos$ possible4 ,x seems to be almo/ an id5tical proposition t ! heal?ie/ & /ronge/ w g5]ally live longe/2 & ! conception ( a /ruggle = exi/5ce only enables u to und]/& h[ ?is results 9 c]ta9 progressive modifications ( ! species4 ,if we c\ld ev] = a mom5t h fanci$ t !re 0 no pa9 & disease1 & t "s be+s 7 n m liable ?an o!rs to ^? evils1 ,i might admit t ! new doctr9e has made ! _w d>k]4 ,z x is1 x seems to me t x leaves ! data j :at !y 7 be=e1 & only %[s u t !y h c]ta9 previ\sly unsuspect$ be>+s ^u ! hi/ory ( ! _w4 ,"o o!r po9t mu/ be m5tion$4 ,n only are species int]dep5d5t z well z p>tly 9 competition1 b !re is an absolute dep5d5ce 9 all ! high] species betwe5 its diff]5t memb]s :i* may be said to imply a de facto altruism1 z ! dep5d5ce ^u o!r species implies a de facto co-op]ation4 ,e animal1 to say no?+ else1 is absolutely dep5d5t = a consid]able "p ( its exi/5ce ^u its p>5ts4 ,! "y bird or bea/ c\ld n gr[ up unless its "m took c>e ( x = a c]ta9 p]iod4 ,!re is1 !re=e1 no /ruggle z betwe5 "m & prog5y2 b1 on ! contr>y1 ! close/ possible alliance4 ,o!rwise1 life w\ld be impossible4 ,! "y be+ def5celess1 _! p>5ts c\ld ext]m9ate !m if !y pleas$1 & by s do+ w\ld ext]m9ate ! race4 ,! p>5tal relation1 ( c\rse1 con/antly involves a p>tial sacrifice ( ! "m to h] "y4 ,%e has to g ?r\gh a :ole s]ies ( op]ations1 :i* /ra9 h] own /r5g? & endang] h] own exi/5ce1 b :i* are absolutely ess5tial to ! cont9uance ( ! race4 ,x may be an?ropomorphic to attribute any mat]nal emotions ( ! human k9d to ! animal4 ,! bird1 p]haps1 sits ^u h] eggs because !y give h] an agreeable s5sation1 or1 if y please1 f a bl9d in/9ct :i* someh[ det]m9es h] to ! practice4 ,%e does n look =w>d1 we may suppose1 to br++ up a family1 or speculate ^u ! delights ( dome/ic affection4 ,i only say t z a fact %e behaves 9 a way :i* is at once injuri\s to h] own *ances ( individual survival1 & absolutely necess>y to ! survival ( ! species4 ,! abnormal bird :o des]ts h] ne/ escapes _m dang]s2 b if all birds 7 devoid ( ! in/9ct1 ! birds w\ld n survive a g5]ation4 ,n[1 ,i ask1 :at is ! diff]5ce :i* takes place :5 ! monkey gradually loses 8 tail & sets up a sup]ior bra98 ,is x prop]ly to be describ$ z a developm5t or improvem5t ( ! cosmic process1 or z ! beg9n+ ( a prolong$ conte/ aga9/ x8 ,9 ! fir/ place1 s f> z man becomes a reasonable be+1 capable ( =esight & ( ! adoption ( means to ends1 he recognises ! nature ( ^! tacit alliances4 ,he believes x to be 8 int]e/ n to ext]m9ate ev]y?+1 b to ext]m9ate ^? species alone ^: exi/5ce is incompatible ) 8 own4 ,! wolf eats e %eep t he comes across z long z 8 appetite la/s4 ,if !re are too _m wolves1 ! process is *eck$ by ! />vation ( ! sup]num]>y eat]s4 ,man c ma9ta9 j z _m %eep z he wants1 & may also proportion ! numb]s ( 8 own species to ! possibilities ( future supply4 ,_m ( ! l[] species ?us become subord9ate p>ts ( ! social organism--t is to say1 ( ! new equilibrium :i* has be5 e/abli%$4 ,!re is s f> a reciprocal advantage4 ,! %eep t is pres]v$ ) a view to mutton gets ! advantage1 ?\gh he is n kept ) a view to 8 own advantage4 ,( all argum5ts = veget>ianism1 none is s weak z ! argum5t f humanity4 ,! pig has a /rong] int]e/ ?an any "o 9 ! dem& = bacon4 ,if all ! _w 7 ,jewi%1 !re w\ld be no pigs at all4 ,he has to pay = 8 privileges by an e>ly dea?2 b he makes a good b>ga9 ( x4 ,he dies "y1 &1 ?\gh we c h>dly inf] ! love ( ! gods1 we mu/ admit t he gets a sup]ior race ( be+s to att5d to 8 com=ts1 mov$ by ! /ronge/ possible int]e/ 9 8 heal? & vig\r1 & induc$ by its own ne$s1 p]haps1 to make him a little too fat = com=t1 b c]ta9ly also to see t he has a good /y1 & pl5ty to eat e day ( 8 life4 ,o!r races1 aga91 are extirpat$ z ru?lessly z 9 ! m]ely in/9ctive /ruggle = exi/5ce4 ,we get rid ( wolves & snakes z well z we c1 & m sy/ematically ?an c be done by _! animal competitors4 ,! process does n necess>ily involve cruelty1 & c]ta9ly does n involve a dim9ution ( ! total ( happ9ess4 ,! /ruggle = exi/5ce means ! sub/itution ( a new sy/em ( equilibrium1 9 :i* "o ( ! old discords has be5 remov$1 & ! survivors live 9 great] h>mony4 ,if ! wolf is extirpat$ z an int]nec9e enemy1 x is t !re may be m %eep :5 %eep h become our allies & ! objects ( our e>?ly provid5ce4 ,! result may be1 p]haps ,i might say mu/ be1 a /ate 9 :i*1 on ! :ole1 !re is a great] am\nt ( life support$ on ! planet2 & !re=e1 z ^? w ?9k :o are n pessimi/s1 a decid$ ga9 on ! balance4 ,at any rate1 ! diff]5ce s f> is t ! condition :i* 0 9 all cases necess>y1 is n[ consci\sly recognis$ z necess>y2 & t we delib]ately aim at a result :i* always _h to be a*iev$ on p5alty ( de/ruction4 ,s f>1 aga91 z morality c be e/abli%$ on purely prud5tial gr\nds1 ! same holds good ( relations betwe5 human be+s !mselves4 ,m5 beg9 to p]ceive t1 ev5 f a purely p]sonal po9t ( view1 peace is pref]able to w>4 ,if w> is unhappily /ill preval5t1 x is at lea/ n w> 9 :i* e clan is fight+ ) its neighb\rs1 & :]e conque/ means slav]y or extirpation4 ,millions ( m5 are at peace )9 ! limits ( a mod]n ,/ate1 & c g ab\t _! bus9ess )\t cutt+ ea* o!r's ?roats4 ,:5 !y fight ) o!r nations !y d n enslave nor massacre _! prison]s4 ,/>t+ f ! purely selfi% gr\nd ,hobbes c\ld prove conclusively t ev]ybody b5efit$ by ! social compact :i* sub/itut$ peace & ord] = ! orig9al /ate ( w>4 ,is ?is1 !n1 a rev]sal ( ! old /ate ( ?+s--a combat+ ( a cosmic process8 ,i %\ld r say t x is a developm5t ( ! tacit alliances1 & a modification s f> ( ! direct or int]nec9e conflict4 ,bo? 7 equally impli$ 9 ! old] conditions1 & bo? /ill exi/4 ,"s races =m alliances1 :ile o!rs are cr[d$ out ( exi/5ce4 ,( c\rse1 ,i cease to d "s ?+s :i* ,i %\ld h done be=e4 ,i don't attack ! fir/ man ,i meet 9 ! /reet & take 8 scalp4 ,"o reason is t ,i don't expect he w take m9e2 =1 if ,i did1 ,i fe> t1 ev5 z a civilis$ be+1 ,i %\ld try to anticipate 8 int5tions4 ,?is m]ely means t we h bo? come to see t we h a common int]e/ 9 keep+ ! peace4 ,& ?is1 aga91 m]ely means t ! tacit alliance :i* 0 always an absolutely necess>y condition ( ! survival ( ! species has n[ be5 ext5d$ ?r\gh a wid] area4 ,! species c\ld n h got on at all if !re _h n be5 s mu* alliance z is necess>y = its reproduction & = ! pres]vation ( its "y = "s ye>s ( helplessness4 ,! *ange is simply t ! small circle :i* includ$ only ! primitive family or class has ext5d$1 s t we c meet memb]s ( ! same nation1 or1 x may be1 ( ! same race1 on t]ms :i* 7 previ\sly conf9$ to ! m9or gr\p4 ,we h /ill to ext]m9ate & /ill to pres]ve4 ,! mode ( employ+ our en]gies has *ang$1 b n ! ess5tial nature4 ,morality prop]1 h[ev]1 has s f> n em]g$4 ,x beg9s :5 sympa?y beg9s2 :5 we really desire ! happ9ess ( o!rs2 or1 z ,kant says1 :5 we treat o!r m5 z an end & n simply z a means4 ,und\bt$ly ?is involves a new pr9ciple1 no less ?an ! ess5tial pr9ciple ( all true morality4 ,/ill1 ,i h to ask :e!r x implies a combat+ or a cont9uation ( a cosmic process4 ,n[1 z ,i h obs]v$1 ev5 ! animal "m %[s :at ,i h call$ a de facto altruism4 ,%e has in/9cts :i*1 ?\gh dang]\s to ! individual1 are ess5tial = ! race4 ,! human "m sacrifices h]self ) a consci\sness ( ! results to h]self1 & h] p]sonal fe>s are ov]come by ! /r5g? ( h] affections4 ,%e int5tionally endures a pa9ful dea? to save !m f suff]+4 ,! animal sacrifices h]self1 b )\t =esight ( ! result1 & !re=e )\t moral wor?4 ,?is is m]ely ! mo/ /rik+ exemplification ( ! g5]al process ( ! developm5t ( morality4 ,conduct is fir/ reg>d$ purely ) a view to ! effects ^u ! ag5t1 & is !re=e en=c$ by extr9sic p5alties1 by consequ5ces1 t is1 suppos$ to be atta*$ to u by ! w ( "s rul]1 natural or sup]natural4 ,! in/9ct :i* comes to reg>d su* conduct z bad 9 itself1 :i* implies a dislike ( giv+ pa9 to o!rs1 & n m]ely a dislike to ! gall[s1 gr[s up "u su* probation until ! really moralis$ be+ acquires feel+s :i* make ! ext]nal p5alty sup]flu\s4 ,?is1 indubitably1 is ! greate/ ( all *anges1 ! critical fact :i* decides :e!r we are to reg>d conduct simply z useful1 or also to reg>d x z moral 9 ! /ricte/ s5se4 ,b ,i %\ld /ill call x a developm5t & n a rev]sal ( ! previ\s process4 ,! conduct :i* we call virtu\s is ! same conduct ext]nally :i* we be=e reg>d$ z useful4 ,! diff]5ce is t ! simple fact ( its utility1 t is1 ( its utility to o!rs & to ! race 9 g5]al1 has n[ become also ! suffici5t motive = ! action z well z ! implicit cause ( ! action4 ,9 ! e>li] /ages1 :5 no true sympa?y exi/$1 m5 & animals 7 /ill =c$ to act 9 a c]ta9 way because x 0 b5eficial to o!rs4 ,!y n[ act 9 t way because !y are consci\s t x is b5eficial to o!rs4 ,! :ole hi/ory ( moral evolution seems to imply ?is4 ,we may g back to a p]iod at :i* ! moral law is id5tifi$ ) ! g5]al cu/oms ( ! race2 at :i* !re is no p]ception ( any cle> di/9ction betwe5 t :i* is moral & t :i* is simply cu/om>y2 betwe5 t :i* is impos$ by a law 9 ! /rict s5se & t :i* is dictat$ by g5]al moral pr9ciples4 ,9 su* a /ate ( ?+s1 ! motives = ob$i5ce p>take ( ! nature ( bl9d in/9cts4 ,no def9ite reason = !m is pres5t to ! m9d ( ! ag5t1 & x does n occur to him ev5 to dem& a reason4 ,our fa!rs did s & we d s is ! sole & suffici5t explanation ( _! conduct4 ,?us in/9ct aga9 may be trac$ back by evolutioni/s to ! e>lie/ p]iod at :i* ! in/9cts impli$ 9 ! relations betwe5 ! sexes or betwe5 p>5ts & (fspr+1 exi/$4 ,!y 7 ! g]m f :i* has sprung all morality su* z we n[ recognise4 ,morality1 !n1 implies ! developm5t ( c]ta9 in/9cts :i* are ess5tial to ! race1 b :i* may1 9 an indef9ite numb] ( cases1 be injuri\s to ! individual4 ,! p>ticul> "m is kill$ because %e obeys h] natural in/9cts2 b1 if x 7 n = mo!rs & _! in/9cts1 ! race w\ld come to an end4 ,pr(essor ,huxley speaks ( ! fanatical individualism ( our "t z fail+ to con/ruct morality f ! analogy ( ! cosmic process4 ,an individualism :i* reg>ds ! cosmic process z equival5t simply to an int]nec9e /ruggle ( ea* aga9/ all1 mu/ c]ta9ly fail to con/ruct a satisfactory morality ^u su* t]ms1 & ,i w add t any individualism :i* fails to recognise fully ! social "*1 :i* reg>ds society z an aggregate in/ead ( an organism1 w1 9 my op9ion1 f9d itself 9 difficulties4 ,b ,i also submit t ! developm5t ( ! in/9cts :i* directly correspond to ! ne$s ( ! race1 is m]ely ano!r case 9 :i* we aim consci\sly at an end :i* 0 be=e an un9t5tional result ( our actions4 ,e race1 above ! l[e/1 has in/9cts :i* are only intelligible by ! requirem5ts ( ! race2 & has bo? to compete ) "s & to =m alliances ) o!rs ( its fell[ occupants ( ! planet4 ,bo? 9 ! unmoralis$ condition & 9 t 9 :i* morality has become mo/ develop$1 ^! in/9cts h common *>act]i/ics1 & may be reg>d$ z conditions ( ! p[] ( ! race to :i* !y belong to ma9ta9 its position 9 ! _w1 &1 speak+ r\ghly1 to pres]ve or increase its own vitality4 ,i w n pause to insi/ ^u ?is s f> z reg>ds _m qualities :i* are c]ta9ly moral1 ?\gh !y may be said to ref] prim>ily to ! individual4 ,t *a/ity & temp]ance1 tru?fulness & en]gy1 are1 on ! :ole1 advantages bo? to ! individual & to ! race1 does n1 ,i fancy1 require elaborate pro(2 nor ne$ ,i argue at l5g? t ! races 9 :i* !y are common w !re=e h inevitable advantages 9 ! /ruggle = exi/5ce4 ,( all qualities :i* enable a race to hold its own1 none is m important ?an ! p[] ( organis+ individually1 politically1 & socially1 & t p[] implies ! exi/5ce ( ju/ice & ! in/9ct ( mutual confid5ce-9 %ort1 all ! social virtues4 ,! difficulty seems to be felt 9 reg>d to ^? purely altrui/ic impulses1 :i*1 at fir/ glance at any rate1 make x app>5tly our duty to pres]ve ^? :o w\ld o!rwise be unfit to live4 ,virtue1 says ,pr(essor ,huxley1 is direct$ n s mu* to ! survival ( ! fitte/1 z to ! fitt+ ( z _m z possible to survive4 ,i d n dispute ! /atem5t1 ,i ?9k x true 9 a s5se2 b ,i h a difficulty z to its application4 ,morality1 x is obvi\s1 mu/ be limit$ by ! conditions 9 :i* we are plac$4 ,:at is impossible is n a duty4 ,"o condition pla9ly is t ! planet is limit$4 ,!re is only room = a c]ta9 numb] ( liv+ be+s2 & ?\gh we may det]m9e :at %all be ! numb]1 we _c arbitr>ily say t x %all be indef9itely great4 ,x is "o consequ5ce t we d1 9 fact1 g on suppress+ ! unfit1 & _c help go+ on suppress+ !m4 ,is x desirable t x %\ld be o!rwise8 ,%\ld we wi%1 = example1 t ,am]ica c\ld /ill be a hunt+-gr\nd = savages8 ,is x bett] t x %\ld conta9 a million r$ m5 or sixty millions ( civilis$ :ites8 ,und\bt$ly ! morali/ w say ) absolute tru? t ! me?ods ( extirpation adopt$ by ,spani>ds & ,engli%m5 7 dete/able4 ,i ne$ n say t ,i agree ) him1 & hope t su* me?ods may be aboli%$ :]ev] any remnant ( !m exi/s4 ,b ,i say s p>tly because ,i believe 9 ! /ruggle = exi/5ce4 ,?is process und]lies morality1 & op]ates :e!r we are moral or n4 ,! mo/ civilis$ race1 t :i* has ! greate/ k1 skill1 p[] ( organisation1 w1 ,i hold1 h an inevitable advantage 9 ! /ruggle1 ev5 if x does n use ! brutal means :i* are sup]flu\s z well z cruel4 ,all ! natives :o liv$ 9 ,am]ica a hundr$ ye>s ago w\ld be dead n[ 9 any case1 ev5 if !y _h inv>iably be5 treat$ ) ! greate/ humanity1 fairness1 & consid]ation4 ,_h !y be5 unable to suit !mselves to new conditions ( life1 !y w\ld h suff]$ an eu?anasia in/ead ( a p>tial extirpation2 & _h !y suit$ !mselves !y w\ld ei!r h be5 absorb$ or become a useful "p ( ! population4 ,to aboli% ! old brutal me?od is n to aboli% ! /ruggle = exi/5ce1 b to make ! result dep5d ^u a high] ord] ( qualities ?an ^? ( ! m]e piratical vik+4 ,mr4 ,pe>son has be5 tell+ u 9 8 mo/ int]e/+ book1 t ! negro may n improbably hold 8 own 9 ,africa4 ,i _c say ,i reg>d ?is z an unmix$ evil4 ,:y %\ld !re n be p>ts ( ! _w 9 :i* races ( inf]ior intellig5ce or en]gy %\ld hold _! own8 ,i am n s anxi\s to see ! :ole e>? cov]$ by an indef9ite multiplication ( ! cockney type4 ,b ,i only quote ! sugge/ion = ano!r reason4 ,till rec5t ye>s ! /ruggle = exi/5ce 0 c>ri$ on z betwe5 ,europeans & negroes by simple viol5ce & brutality4 ,! slave trade & its consequ5ces h condemn$ ! :ole cont95t to b>b>ism4 ,t1 und\bt$ly1 0 "p ( ! /ruggle = exi/5ce4 ,b1 if ,mr4 ,pe>son's guess %\ld be v]ifi$1 ! results h be5 s f> futile z well z disa/r\s4 ,! negro has be5 degrad$1 & yet1 aft] all our brutality1 we _c take 8 place4 ,!re=e1 besides ! enorm\s evils to slave-trad+ c\ntries !mselves1 ! l[]+ ( _! moral tone1 ! sub/itution ( piracy = legitimate comm]ce1 & ! degradation ( ! c\ntries :i* b\ght ! slaves1 ! sup]ior race has n ev5 be5 able to suppress ! inf]ior4 ,b ! abolition ( ?is mon/r\s evil does n involve ! abolition b ! humanisation ( ! /ruggle4 ,! :ite man1 h[ev] m]ciful he becomes1 may gradually ext5d ov] su* p>ts ( ! c\ntry z are suitable to him2 & ! black man w hold ! re/ & acquire su* arts & civilisation z he is capable ( appropriat+4 ,! abs5ce ( cruelty w\ld n alt] ! fact t ! fitte/ race w\ld ext5d2 b x may ensure t :atev] is good 9 ! negro may h a *ance ( developm5t 9 8 own sph]e1 & t success 9 ! /ruggle w be decid$ by m valuable qualities4 ,)\t v5tur+ fur!r into a r speculative region1 ,i ne$ only indicate ! be>+ ( su* consid]ations ^u problems ne>] home4 ,x is (t5 compla9$ t ! t5d5cy ( mod]n civilisation is to pres]ve ! weakly1 & !re=e to l[] ! vitality ( ! race4 ,?is seems to involve inadmissible assumptions4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 ! process by :i* ! weak] are pres]v$ consi/s 9 suppress+ v>i\s conditions unfav\rable to human life 9 g5]al4 ,sanit>y legislation1 = example1 aims at de/roy+ ! causes ( _m ( ! diseases f :i* our =efa!rs suff]$4 ,if we c suppress ! smallpox1 we ( c\rse save _m weakly *ildr51 :o w\ld h di$ _h !y be5 attack$4 ,b we also remove "o ( ! causes :i* weak5$ ! con/itutions ( _m ( ! survivors4 ,i d n "k by :at "r we c say t su* legislation1 or aga91 ! legislation :i* prev5ts ! excessive lab\r ( *ildr51 does m h>m by pres]v+ ! weak ?an x does good by prev5t+ ! weak5+ ( ! /rong4 ,"o ?+ is at any rate cle>3 to pres]ve life is to increase ! population1 & !re=e to increase ! competition2 or1 9 o!r words1 to int5sify ! /ruggle = exi/5ce4 ,! process is z broad z x is long4 ,if we c\ld be sure t e *ild born %\ld gr[ up to maturity1 ! result w\ld be to d\ble ! sev]ity ( ! competition = support1 ,:at we %\ld h to %[1 !re=e1 9 ord] to ju/ify ! inf]5ce ( a det]ioration due to ?is process1 w\ld be1 n t x simply increas$ ! numb] ( ! c&idates = liv+1 b t x gave to ! feebl] c&idates a diff]5tial advantage2 t !y are n[ m fitt$ ?an !y 7 be=e = ou/+ _! sup]ior neighb\rs f ! *ances ( support4 ,b ,i c see no reason = suppos+ su* a consequ5ce to be probable or ev5 possible4 ,! /ruggle = exi/5ce1 z ,i h sugge/$1 re/s ^u ! unalt]able facts t ! _w is limit$ & population ela/ic4 ,"u all conceivable circum/ances we %all /ill h 9 "s way or o!r to proportion our numb]s to our supplies2 & "u all circum/ances ^? :o are fitte/ by reason ( intellectual or moral or physical qualities w h ! be/ *ance ( occupy+ good places1 & leav+ desc5dants to supply ! next g5]ation4 ,x is surely n less true t 9 ! civilis$ z mu* z 9 ! mo/ b>b>\s race1 ! heal?ie/ are ! mo/ likely to live1 & ! mo/ likely to be ance/ors4 ,if s1 ! /ruggle w /ill be c>ri$ on ^u ! same pr9ciples1 ?\gh c]ta9ly 9 a diff]5t %ape4 ,x is true t ?is sugge/s "o ( ! mo/ difficult que/ions ( ! "t4 ,x is sugge/$1 = example1 t 9 "s respects ! highe/ specim5s ( ! race are n ! heal?ie/ or ! fitte/4 ,g5ius1 accord+ to "s p1 is a v>iety ( disease1 & intellectual p[] is won by a dim9ution ( reproductive p[]4 ,a l[] race1 aga91 if we measure high & l[ by intellectual capacity1 may ou/ a high] race1 because x c support itself m *eaply1 or1 9 o!r words1 because x is m effici5t = indu/rial purposes4 ,)\t presum+ to pron\nce ^u su* que/ions1 ,i w simply ask :e!r ?is does n int]pret ,pr(essor ,huxley's rem>k ab\t t cosmic nature :i* is /ill s /rong1 & :i* is likely to be /rong s long z m5 require /oma*s4 ,we h n1 ,i ?9k1 to suppress x1 b to adapt x to new circum/ances4 ,we are engag$ 9 work+ out a gigantic problem3 ,:at is ! be/1 9 ! s5se ( ! mo/ effici5t1 type ( human be+8 ,:at is ! be/ comb9ation ( bra9s & /oma*8 ,we turn out sa9ts1 :o are too good to live1 & philosoph]s1 :o h run too rapidly to bra9s4 ,!y d n answ] 9 practice1 because !y are in/rum5ts too delicate = ! r\gh "w ( daily life4 ,!y may give u a =eta/e ( qualities :i* w be "s day possible = ! av]age man2 ( intellectual & moral qualities1 :i*1 ?\gh n[ exceptional1 may become commonplace4 ,b ! be/ /ock = ! race are ^? 9 :om we h be5 lucky en\gh to /rike out ! happy comb9ation1 9 :i* great] intellectual p[] is produc$ )\t ! loss ( physical vig\r4 ,su* m51 x is probable1 w n deviate s widely f ! av]age type4 ,! reconciliation ( ! two conditions c only be effect$ by a v gradual process ( sl[ly edg+ onw>ds 9 ! "r direction4 ,mean:ile ! !ory ( a /ruggle = exi/5ce ju/ifies u1 in/ead ( condemn+ u1 = pres]v+ ! delicate *ild1 :o may turn out to be a ,newton or a ,keats1 because he w leave to u ! advantage ( 8 discov]ies or 8 poems1 :ile 8 physical feebl5ess assures u t he w n propagate 8 race4 ,?is may lead to a f9al "q4 ,does ! morality ( a race /r5g!n or weak5 x2 fit x to hold its own 9 ! g5]al equilibrium1 or make its extirpation by l[ moral races m probable8 ,i d n suppose t anybody w\ld d5y :at ,i h already sugge/$1 t ! m moral ! race1 ! m h>moni\s & ! bett] organis$1 ! bett] x is fitt$ = hold+ its own4 ,b if ?is be admitt$1 we mu/ also admit t ! *ange is n t x has ceas$ to /ruggle1 b t x /ruggles by diff]5t means4 ,x holds its own1 n m]ely by brute =ce1 b by ju/ice1 humanity1 & intellig5ce1 :ile1 x may be add$1 ! possession ( su* qualities does n weak5 ! brute =ce1 :]e su* a quality is /ill requir$4 ,! mo/ civilis$ races are1 ( c\rse1 also ! mo/ =midable 9 w>4 ,b1 if we take ! opposite alt]native1 ,i mu/ ask h[ any quality :i* really weak5s ! vitality ( ! race c prop]ly be call$ moral4 ,i %\ld entirely repudiate any rule ( conduct :i* c\ld be %[n to h su* a t5d5cy4 ,?is1 inde$1 indicates :at seems to me to be ! moral difficulty ) mo/ p4 ,*>ity1 y say1 is a virtue2 *>ity increases begg>y1 & s f> t5ds to produce a feebl] population2 !re=e1 a moral quality t5ds d\bly to dim9i% ! vig\r ( a nation4 ,! answ] is1 ( c\rse1 obvi\s1 & ,i am confid5t t ,pr(essor ,huxley w\ld h s f> agre$ ) me4 ,x is t all *>ity :i* fo/]s a degrad$ class is !re=e immoral4 ,! fanatical individualism ( to-day has its weaknesses2 b 9 ?is matt] x seems to me t we see ! weakness ( ! n less fanatical collectivism4 ,! "q1 9 fact1 h[ f> any ( ! sociali/ic or e?ical s*emes ( to-day are "r or wrong1 dep5ds ^u our answ] to ! "q h[ f> !y t5d to produce a vigor\s or an en]vat$ population4 ,if ,i am ask$ to subscribe to ,g5]al ,boo?'s s*eme1 ,i inquire fir/ :e!r ! s*eme is likely to increase or dim9i% ! numb] ( helpless hang]s-on ^u ! effici5t "p ( society4 ,w ! :ole nation consi/ 9 l>g] proportions ( active & responsible work]s1 or ( p :o are simply burd5s ^u ! real work]s8 ,! answ] decides n only ! "q :e!r x is exp$i5t1 b also ! "q :e!r x is "r or wrong1 to support ! propos$ s*eme4 ,e *>itable action is s f> a good action t x implies sympa?y = suff]+2 b if x is s mu* 9 want ( prud5ce t x increases ! evil :i* x means to rem$y1 x becomes = t reason a bad action4 ,to develop sympa?y )\t develop+ =esight is j "o ( ! "o-sid$ developm5ts :i* fail to con/itute a real advance 9 morality1 ?\gh ,i w n d5y t x may incid5tally lead to an advance4 ,i hold1 !n1 t ! /ruggle = exi/5ce belongs to an und]ly+ ord] ( facts to :i* moral epi!ts _c be prop]ly appli$4 ,x d5otes a condition ( :i* ! morali/ has to take acc\nt1 & to :i* morality has to be adapt$2 b :i*1 j because x is a cosmic process1 _c be alt]$1 h[ev] mu* we may alt] ! conduct :i* x dictates4 ,"u all conceivable circum/ances1 ! race has to adapt itself to ! environm5t1 & t necess>ily implies a conflict z well z an alliance4 ,! pres]vation ( ! fitte/1 :i* is surely a good ?+1 is m]ely ano!r aspect ( ! dy+ out ( ! unfit1 :i* is h>dly a bad ?+4 ,! fea/ :i* ,nature spreads be=e u1 accord+ to ,mal?us's metaphor1 is only suffici5t = a limit$ numb] ( gue/s1 & ! "o "q is h[ to select !m4 ,! t5d5cy ( morality is to humanise ! /ruggle1 to m9imise ! suff]+ ( ^? :o lose ! game2 & to (f] ! prizes to ! qualities :i* are advantage\s to all1 r ?an to ^? :i* increase & int5sify ! bitt]ness ( ! conflict4 ,?is implies ! gr[? ( =esight1 :i* is an ext5sion ( ! e>li] in/9ct1 & enables m5 to adapt !mselves to ! future & to le>n f ! pa/1 z well z to act up to imm$iate impulse ( pres5t ev5ts4 ,x implies /ill m ! developm5t ( ! sympa?y :i* makes e man feel = ! hurts ( all1 & :i*1 z social organisation is clos]1 & ! dep5d5ce ( ea* con/itu5t atom ^u ! :ole organisation is m vividly realis$1 ext5ds ! range ( a man's int]e/s beyond 8 own private ne$s4 ,9 t s5se1 aga91 x mu/ /imulate collectivism at ! exp5se ( a crude individualism1 & condemns ! doctr9e :i*1 z ,pr(essor ,huxley puts x1 w\ld =bid u to re/ra9 ! memb] ( a community f do+ 8 be/ to de/roy x4 ,to re/ra9 su* conduct is surely to c>ry on ! conflict aga9/ all anti-social ag5ts or t5d5cies4 ,= ,i %\ld c]ta9ly hold any =m ( collectivism to be immoral :i* d5i$ ! ess5tial doctr9e ( ! abus$ individuali/1 ! necessity1 t is1 = individual responsibility4 ,we h surely to suppress ! murd]]1 z our ance/ors suppress$ ! wolf4 ,we h to suppress bo? ! ext]nal enemies1 ! noxi\s animals ^: exi/5ce is incompatible ) our own1 & ! int]nal enemies :i* are injuri\s elem5ts 9 ! society itself4 ,t is1 we h to "w = ! same end ( elim9at+ ! lea/ fit4 ,our me?ods are *ang$2 we desire to suppress pov]ty1 n to extirpate ! poor man4 ,we give inf]ior races a *ance ( tak+ :atev] place !y are fit =1 & try to supplant !m ) ! lea/ possible sev]ity if !y are unfit = any place4 ,b ! suppression ( pov]ty supposes n ! confiscation ( weal?1 :i* w\ld h>dly suppress pov]ty 9 ! long run1 nor ev5 ! adoption ( a sy/em ( liv+ :i* w\ld enable ! idle & ! good-=-no?+ to survive4 ,! progress ( civilisation dep5ds1 ,i %\ld say1 on ! ext5sion ( ! s5se ( duty :i* ea* man owes to society at l>ge4 ,t involves su* a con/itution ( society t1 al?\gh we ab&on ! old me?ods ( hang+ & flogg+ & %oot+ d[n--me?ods :i* corrupt$ ! inflict]s ( puni%m5t by dim9i%+ _! own s5se ( responsibility--may give an advantage to ! prud5t & indu/ri\s1 & make x m probable t !y w be ! ance/ors ( ! next g5]ation4 ,a sy/em :i* %\ld equalise ! advantages ( ! en]getic & ! helpless w\ld beg9 by demoralis+1 & w\ld v soon lead to an unprec$5t$ int5sification ( ! /ruggle = exi/5ce4 ,! probable result ( a ru?less socialism w\ld be ! adoption ( v sev]e means = suppress+ ^? :o did n contribute _! %>e ( "w4 ,b1 9 any case1 z x seems1 we nev] get away or break away f ! inevitable fact4 ,if individual ends c\ld be suppress$1 if e man work$ = ! good ( society z en]getically z = 8 own1 we %\ld /ill feel ! absolute necessity ( proportion+ ! :ole body to ! :ole supplies obta9able f ! planet1 & to pres]ve ! equilibrium ( mank9d relatively to ! re/ ( nature4 ,t day is probably di/ant2 b ev5 ^u t hypo!sis ! /ruggle = exi/5ce w\ld /ill be ) u1 & !re w\ld be ! same necessity = pres]v+ ! fitte/ & kill+ out1 z g5tly z might be1 ^? :o 7 unfit4