,transcriber's ,note3 ,this e,text was produced from ,agriculture in ,virginia1 #afjg-afii as published in #aieg4 ,extensive research did not uncover any evidence that the ,u4,s4 copyright on this publication was renewed4 ,agriculture in ,virginia1 #afjg-afii ,by ,,lyman ,,carrier ,professor of ,agriculture1 ,ferrum ,junior ,college ,,virginia #cej,,th ,,anniversary ,,celebration ,,corporation ,,williamsburg1 ,,virginia #aieg ,,copyright1 #aieg ,,by ,,virginia #cej,,th ,,anniversary ,,celebration ,,corporation1 ,,williamsburg1 ,,virginia ,jamestown #cejth ,anniversary ,historical ,booklet ,number #ad ,agriculture in ,virginia1 #afjg-afii ,various events in the latter years of the sixteenth century did much to shape the future destiny of the ,english nation4 ,with the destruction of the ,spanish ,armada in #aehh1 ,england rose from a minor position in world affairs to one of major importance4 ,one of the first changes was reflected in her attitude towards trade and commerce4 ,england was no longer penned up on her tight little isle1 and her ships could sail the high seas in comparative safety4 ,expansion of her foreign trade seemed the only answer to her ambitions1 but foreign trade required a two way transfer of products4 ,in order to sell goods1 it was necessary to buy in exchange4 ,world commerce had already become well stabilized among friendly nations making it difficult for outside businessmen to share in these established commitments4 ,so ,england was soon to direct her attentions toward ,america4 ,it was with eyes focused on future trade that the businessmen who composed the ,london ,company contributed the huge sums that were required to finance the settlement at ,jamestown1 ,virginia4 ,agriculture was not of prime importance4 ,at that time ,england was self-sufficient so far as the production of grains and livestock was concerned4 ,ordinary farm products would not pay the cost of transportation across the ocean4 ,of course1 it was expected that the colonists would eventually produce their own food stuffs2 however1 until that stage of development occurred it was expected that the ,london ,company would supply the needs of the colony direct from ,england4 ,the men of the first expedition were not farmers and took little interest in farming4 ,a good many came1 hoping to share in riches1 that their imagination had created4 ,fantastic tales about the ,americas had been circulated in ,europe during the century following their discovery4 ,the most authentic of these foreign travel journals had been translated into ,english and published around the turn of the sixteenth century4 ,reports also of rich prizes1 laden with gold1 captured on the ,spanish ,main by ,english privateers1 had inflamed the ,english mind4 ,if the ,spaniards could find such vast treasures in ,america1 why should not the ,english do the same8 ,then too1 as the first colony of ,virginia lay between #cd and #da degrees north-latitude1 the same approximately as ,italy and ,spain1 it was expected that the much desired warm weather products enjoyed by the ,mediterranean people1 such as oranges1 lemons1 sugar1 and spices could be produced equally as well in ,america4 ,jamestown eventually contributed great financial benefits to the ,mother ,country from agricultural accomplishments4 ,these benefits could not in #afjg be visualized4 ,to understand the vicissitudes which beset the colonists in the early years of the settlement1 one should be familiar with the agricultural practices of both the ,old ,world and the ,new1 for it was by combining the farming wisdom of both sides of the ,atlantic into a new agriculture1 that the colony became firmly established4 ,,old ,,world ,,agriculture ,european agriculture reached a high degree of efficiency two thousand years ago in the scrub-forest region around the ,mediterranean ,sea4 ,to the ,greeks that part of the world alone was considered fit for habitation by human beings4 ,farming by the ,romans was regarded as a highly respectable and honorable occupation4 ,some of their most learned scholars wrote books on husbandry4 ,the ,romans have given us by far the most complete and satisfactory accounts of their agriculture of any ancient people4 ,during the ,revival of ,learning1 these old masterpieces were rediscovered1 constituting the principal agricultural literature of ,europe1 prior to the eighteenth century4 ,most of the early ,english books on husbandry were mere translations of the ,roman books on that subject1 with a few original observations added4 ,,agriculture ,,in ,,england ,the northern or colder parts of ,europe were many centuries behind the ,mediterranean nations in agricultural achievement4 ,at the time of the discovery of ,america1 ,england and most of the nations of ,europe were controlled by the feudal system4 ,the arable land was owned in large estates or manors by feudal barons1 the actual labor on the farms being performed by serfs4 ,these farm laborers belonged to the land and were exchanged with it when there was a change in ownership of the real estate4 ,farming was looked upon as necessary to existence1 but not as a business enterprise4 ,since trade and transportation in farm products were extremely limited1 consumption took place near the fields of production4 ,it was more economical for a baron to move his family and retinue of servants to different parts of his domain than it was to transport the food stuffs to one central habitation4 ,the possibility of serfs becoming land owners was too remote for consideration4 ,,continental ,,influences ,farming practices in ,england before the eighteenth century were largely adaptations from other ,european countries4 ,the ,romans1 about the beginning of the ,christian era1 took their husbandry to the ,british ,isles4 ,the ,anglo-,saxons in the fifth century1 brought in from the mainland their farm practices4 ,likewise the ,normans in the eleventh century brought over their methods of tillage4 ,owing to the close proximity to ,france1 ,flanders and ,holland1 agricultural innovations in those countries were not long in gaining attention and trial by the ,british farmers4 ,the long hours of sunlight during short summers1 with the opposite conditions prevailing in the winters1 have influenced the development of plant species in all northern latitudes4 ,such seasonal conditions have also made necessary a distinct type of farming4 ,many crops of the ,mediterranean region do not survive in north ,european countries4 ,people in the colder regions also require a different diet than do those living in the warmer climates4 ,by the seventeenth century an agriculture adapted to northern ,europe had come into general practice4 ,the implements used in farm work were1 by modern standards1 very crude and were customarily made by the local smith4 ,a few hoes and mattocks1 scythes1 reaping hooks1 spades and wooden plows with iron points and shares complete the list4 ,the entire supply of tools for an average sized farm could have been hauled in one load on one of their two-wheeled carts4 ,,crops ,,grown ,the chief grains of northern ,europe were wheat1 rye1 oats1 barley1 and buckwheat4 ,the common grasses1 clover and turnips1 were raised for forage4 ,it should be noted that all of these crops were broad-cast seeded1 none required row planting or intertillage4 ,a few ,american products had been brought to ,england prior to the settlement at ,jamestown4 ,they apparently came by the way of ,asia4 ,maize was first called ,turkey wheat4 ,the great ,american bird was named ,turkey4 ,thomas ,tusser in #aegc in his ,five ,hundred ,pointes of ,good ,husbandrie enumerates the meats suitable for a ,christmas dinner with the following verse3 ,beef1 mutton and pork4 ,shred pies of the best ,pig1 veal1 goose and capon ,and ,turkey well drest4 ,no earlier mention of anything strictly ,american in ,english literature has come to light4 ,,indian ,,agriculture ,let us turn now and take a look at the farming accomplishments of the ,american ,indians4 ,the oft repeated statement that the ,indians lived mainly by hunting and fishing so far as it pertains to the ,virginia tribes is far from the truth4 ,the bitter struggles between the white men and the ,indians during the colonial period created animosities and prejudices which have overshadowed the beneficial contributions the red men have made to civilization4 ,as plant breeders1 the ,american ,indians rank with the most skillful of the world4 ,take for instance1 maize or ,indian corn4 ,there is nothing closely comparable to it known to botanists4 ,it has been domesticated so long that its wild prototype is unknown4 ,maize1 now1 could not exist anywhere in the world without the aid of man4 ,the ,indians had all the varieties that are now known1 such as dent1 flint1 sweet1 early1 late1 pop1 and other special sorts which are no longer grown4 ,they had developed varieties that matured all the way from the tropics to the ,st4 ,lawrence ,river in ,canada4 ,the ,indians also practiced a mixed culture such as corn1 beans1 and squashes all in the same hill2 they had created a large number of varieties of beans 7,phaseolus genus73 the white1 red1 black1 and spotted sorts now so commonly grown1 and many others4 ,,indian ,,tillage ,the ,indians were able to clear fields1 of several hundred acres in extent1 without the aid of metal tools1 using fire as their chief agent4 ,trees1 too large to be cut with their stone hatchets1 were killed either by building a fire at the base or by girdling the bark4 ,the trees in dying furnished fire wood for domestic use4 ,planting began among the dead trees wherever enough loose dirt could be scraped together to make a hill for seeding4 ,in the course of time the fields became entirely free from forest growth4 ,these fields were cropped in most cases until their fertility was exhausted and then abandoned4 ,if there was no more available fertile land in the vicinity1 the tribe moved to a new location4 ,the early white settlers on the ,atlantic ,coast found many of these abandoned clearings4 ,because of their unproductiveness they were called poisoned fields4 ,the ,indians had only the crudest sorts of farming tools4 ,near the coast1 sea shells were the most efficient implements they possessed4 ,the fresh-water clam-shells came next in usefulness4 ,where these natural scrapers were not available1 pointed sticks1 and pieces of flat rock served the purpose4 ,one writer describing the ,illinois ,indians' method of farming says3 ,this tillage consists in breaking up just the surface of the earth with a sort of wooden instrument1 like a little pickaxe1 which they make by splitting the end of a thick piece of wood1 that serves for a handle1 and putting another piece of wood1 sharp pointed at one end into the slit4 ,this instrument serves them instead of a hoe or spade1 for they have no iron tools4 ,,indian ,,vs4 ,,old ,,world ,,culture ,attention has been called to the fact that all of the field crops of ,great ,britain1 at the time of the ,english settlements in ,america1 were broad-cast seeded4 ,the ,indians had developed a far different cultural treatment for their crops4 ,in their most common method1 that of hill planting1 the soil in the intervening spaces was not broken4 ,the hills1 two to four feet apart1 were from #ab to #bj or more inches in diameter4 ,the soil in these hills was all that was stirred or loosened4 ,all weeds1 both in the hills and the intervals between them1 were kept cut or pulled out4 ,four to six grains of maize and two or three beans were seeded in each hill1 separately spaced4 ,squashes and pumpkins were sometimes seeded with the corn and beans4 ,this mixed seeding is a unique feature of ,american agriculture4 ,the ,indians were fortunate in not having to contend with many of the weeds1 insects and plant-diseases which now plague farmers and gardeners4 ,practically all of these pests1 some of quite recent date1 are of ,old ,world origin and have been introduced by white men1 into ,america4 ,birds and small animals gave the ,indians more concern than all their other pests combined4 ,it was customary to build in their gardens small watch-houses in which the young folks took turns in staying to scare away crows and other troublesome birds4 ,the same hills were used year after year and became in time quite sizable mounds1 remains of which have persisted1 in some localities1 until modern times4 ,in the southwestern parts of ,michigan1 the early settlers found large tracts of ridged land1 evidently relics of ,indian agriculture4 ,it is now thought that these areas were corn fields in which the seeding was made in continuous rows instead of hills4 ,a ,french artist in ,florida in #aefd pictured the ,indians seeding their crops in rows4 ,after a few years of failure in their attempts to grow ,american crops1 the ,english colonists adopted the ,indian method of seeding1 but usually neglected the weeding1 and were subjected to ridicule for their shiftlessness by the painstaking squaws4 ,in using work-animals for cultivating corn1 it was found advantageous to destroy the weeds by stirring the ground in the intervening spaces4 ,,the ,,settlement ,,of ,,jamestown ,on the #bfth day of ,april1 #afjg1 three small ships carrying #aje colonists passed between ,cape ,charles and ,cape ,henry into ,chesapeake ,bay for the purpose of founding a colony in the land called ,virginia4 ,the voyagers took seventeen days to investigate the advantages and disadvantages of that region for such an undertaking4 ,first consideration for selecting the site was its possibilities for defense against a foreign foe1 especially the ,spaniards1 in ,florida and the ,west ,indies4 ,this was no idle fear4 ,spain and ,england had for many years been in conflict4 ,moreover1 ,spain claimed all of the ,americas by the right of discovery4 ,the second most important thing for consideration was adequate harbor facilities4 ,in both of these particulars1 the site selected about thirty miles up the ,james ,river left little to be desired4 ,the ,jamestown peninsula jutted out into the river far enough to give an unobstructed view for several miles4 ,the character of the land on either side of the river would have made difficult any attempt at an overland attack4 ,the ,james was sufficiently deep to take care of any ocean going vessels of that time4 ,the heavily forested surroundings furnished protection from violent storms4 ,the channel ran near the shore4 ,ships could be moored by cables to trees on the land4 ,from the standpoint of raising food stuffs1 the colonists could hardly have picked a more unfavorable situation4 ,the peninsula was connected with the shore to the north by a narrow neck of land thirty yards over4 ,as this narrow strip of land was usually flooded during times of high water1 the peninsula was for most purposes an island by which designation it is generally known4 ,there were about eight hundred and fifty acres of heavily timbered forest lands on the island and about eight hundred acres of marsh covered with coarse reedy grasses but there was no cleared land ready for seeding4 ,clearing forest lands even with modern tools and equipment is a slow laborious process4 ,cutting down the trees is only a beginning4 ,the stumps with their interlocking root systems have to be removed4 ,it takes many years for hardwood stumps to rot to a condition that they may be easily destroyed4 ,although the trees on ,jamestown ,island were large1 they could be cut1 and those with straight grained boles rived into clapboards1 or the logs rolled into piles and burned for their ashes1 a product that was in demand in ,england for use in the manufacture of soap4 ,the soil on the ,island may not have been very fertile4 ,the fact that the ,indians had never cleared any of the land indicates they did not consider it of the best quality4 ,,first ,,attempts ,,at ,,farming ,captain ,newport assigned a third of the settlers1 or about thirty-five men1 to husbandry4 ,nothing came from their labors4 ,at one of their first attempts to plant corn1 probably ,english grain1 they were assaulted by a few venturesome ,indians which so discouraged the settlers1 that they made no further efforts to provide crops for food that season4 ,one of the colonists complained about the difficulties of preparing land for corn4 ,another mentions that some made gardens4 ,the growing season was too far spent when they finally settled at ,jamestown to allow for clearing land for spring-seeded grains4 ,by mid-summer their food supply was becoming seriously depleted4 ,fortunately the ,indians remained friendly4 ,captain ,john ,smith informs us that in ,july3 ,it pleased ,god to move the ,indians to bring us corn ere it was halfe ripe to refresh us and in ,september they brought us great store both of corne and bread ready made4 ,they had four acres of ground prepared the following year which they seeded to corn 7wheat1 barley or peas74 ,no details are given except that nothing came from their efforts4 ,two growing seasons had passed and not a bushel of grain had been produced for their sustenance4 ,,livestock ,greater success came from their attempts to raise animals than attended their efforts to grow crops4 ,a few animals were brought in4 ,reverend ,w4 ,simmonds states that3 three sowes in eighteene moneths1 increased sixty and odd piggs4 ,and neere #ejj chickens brought up themselves without having any meat given them4 ,more livestock was evidently brought in the two supplies which arrived in #afjh as it was reported1 at the time ,smith left the colony in the fall of #afji1 that they had six mares and a horse2 five or sixe hundred swine2 as many hennes and chickens2 some goats some sheepe4 ,captain ,john ,smith during his two years with the colony was remarkably successful in obtaining from the ,indians several hundred bushels of corn and beans in exchange for ,english manufactured goods4 ,the fertile bottom lands of the rivers north of the ,james yielded bountiful harvests for the ,indians as they have since for ,virginians4 ,glass beads and tinkling bells intrigued the natives4 ,the white man's clothing was also a source of wonderment4 ,it was ,smith's contention that the white laborers should devote their time to getting out clapboards1 pitch and soap-ashes to ship to ,england and depend on the ,indians to keep the colony supplied with food4 ,smith was not a farmer4 ,he little realized that the ,indians' desire for trinkets would soon be satisfied4 ,then1 too1 public opinion in ,england1 aroused by the ,las ,casas exposures of ,spanish cruelties in the ,west ,indies would not sanction forced enslavement of the natives4 ,with the departure of ,smith1 in ,october1 #afji1 the lucrative ,indian trade came to an end4 ,no other member of the colony had the courage1 for sometime1 to visit the tribes along the ,york and ,rappahannock rivers for the exchange of products4 ,,first ,,white ,,farmer ,,in ,,virginia ,the first experienced ,english farmer to come to the colony was ,william ,spence1 who arrived on the ,phoenix1 ,april #bj1 #afjh4 ,he was variously described as a laborer1 gentleman1 and ensign4 ,ralph ,hamor certified to his character as an honest1 valiant1 and industrious man4 ,spence survived the ordeals of the early years and was a member of the first ,house of ,burgesses1 in #afai4 ,he probably lost his life in the ,indian massacre of #afbb4 ,five persons1 names not given1 were killed at that time on the ,spence farm4 ,alexander ,brown states that ,ensign ,spence is reported lost in #afbc but he may have been living in captivity4 ,it appears from this meager evidence that ,william ,spence lived on his farm outside of the fortified area4 ,if such were the case1 he may have set a precedent that has had a pronounced influence on the development of this country4 ,it was the belief of the authorities in the ,london ,company that the colonists would all live in small communities for mutual protection and perform their tillage operations1 if any1 outside the settlement4 ,these communities1 sometimes under the name of particular plantations and sometimes hundreds were necessary in the early days4 ,but from the beginning there were a few independent plantations1 or farms1 like that of ,william ,spence4 ,mention has been made of the impossibility of a farm laborer in the ,old ,country ever attaining land ownership4 ,but1 here in ,america with its boundless acres1 that great boon seemed within their reach4 ,when allotments of land were finally made to individuals it was found advantageous for the owner to live on his farm1 rather than to operate it from a remote village4 ,freedom1 independence1 and the importance of the individual1 which are characteristics of the ,american farmers1 came into existence4 ,the common storehouse for provisions1 tried at first in ,jamestown1 created friction and illwill and in a few years was abandoned4 ,the members of the ,council were accused of favoritism and self indulgence in using the food and other products in the storehouse4 ,to have and to hold a parcel of land and to enjoy the fruits of one's own labors has been a compelling force in changing a wilderness into a mighty nation4 ,that force had its inception in the infant colony at ,jamestown4 ,a ,,change ,,in ,,policy ,the two years of failure to produce crops was convincing evidence that ,english methods of farming were not suited to ,virginia conditions4 ,the colonists were ready to try something else4 ,they turned to the ,indians to learn the secret of their successful farming operations4 ,a fortunate event occurred in the early spring of #afji4 ,two young ,indians1 by the names of ,kemps and ,tussore were taken prisoners in retaliation for the depredations of other ,indians4 ,at the time of their arrest they were described as the two most exact villaines in the countrie1 that would have betrayed both their king and kindred for a piece of copper4 ,that this statement was not deserved was proven later4 ,these two young ,indians liked the ,englishmen and the ,english way of living4 ,it is also stated that while they were fettered prisoners they did double taske and taught us how to order and plant our fields4 ,food scarcity became in #afji a serious problem4 ,the eagerly looked for supply ships from ,england did not come4 ,to relieve the tension ,many were billetted among the salvages1 whereby we knewe all their passages1 fields and habitations2 how to gather and use their fruits as well as themselves4 ,kemps and ,tussore were given their liberty soon after corn planting time4 ,but so well they liked our companies they did not desire to goe from us4 ,nothing further is recorded as to the fate of ,tussore1 sometimes called ,kinsock4 ,strachey1 ,secretary of the ,colony who was in ,virginia #afaj-afaa1 mentions having obtained certain information from ,one ,kemps1 an ,indian1 who died the last year of the scurvye at ,jamestown1 after he had dwelt with us almost one whole year1 much made of by our lord generall and who could speake a pretty deale of ,english1 and came orderly to church every day to prayers1 and observed with us the keeping of the ,sabaoth both by ceassing from labour and repairing to church4 ,,starving ,,time ,dire disaster finally struck the colony4 ,food supplies were exhausted4 ,starvation became a reality4 ,a general drought blanketed eastern ,virginia4 ,the ,indians too were on short rations4 ,smith1 the provider1 who had been injured by an explosion of gunpowder1 had returned to ,england4 ,it was one of the most cruel experiences ever endured by a group of men4 ,the climax came during the winter of #afji-aj4 ,a few quotations from the records of that period paint the picture in its most terrible colors4 ,lord ,de ,la ,warr who arrived in #afaj just in time to save the colony from abandonment reported to the ,london ,company3 ,our people1 together with the ,indians 7not to friend71 had the last winter destroyed and kild up all our hoggs1 insomuch as of five or six hundred 7as it is supposed71 there was not above one sow1 that we can heare of1 left alive2 not a henn nor a chick in the forte 7and our horses and mares they had eaten with the first74 ,illustration3 ,a ,,new ,,instrvction ,,of ,,plowing ,,and ,,setting ,,of ,,corne1 ,,handled ,,in ,,manner1 ,,of ,a ,,dialogve betweene a ,ploughman and a ,scholler4 ,wherein is proved plainely that ,plowing and ,setting1 is much more profitable and lesse chargeable1 than ,plowing and ,sowing4 ,by ,,edvvard ,,maxey4 ,gent4 ,he that withdraweth the ,corne1 the people will curse him3 but blessing shall be upon the head of him that selleth ,corne4 ,prou4#aa4bf4 ,imprinted at ,london by ,felix ,kyngston1 dwelling in ,pater noster ,rowe1 over against the signe of the ,checker1 #afja4 ,photo by ,thomas ,l4 ,williams ,illustration3 ,indians boiling maple sap below and planting corn above4 ,picture by ,lafitau1 #agbd4 ,illustration3 ,the earliest picture of ,maize4 ,copied from ,leonhard ,fuchs #aedb4 ,and ,reverend ,william ,simmonds states in regard to this same starving time of the winter of #afji-aj3 as for our hogs1 hens1 goats1 sheepe1 horse1 or what lived2 our commanders and officers did daily consume them3 some small proportions 7sometimes7 we tasted1 till all was devoured4 ,thus after three years they had nothing of a material nature to show for their efforts4 ,their most valuable achievement had been their acquired knowledge of the ,indians' methods of farming4 ,to make a bad situation worse the ,indians began to make trouble4 ,lord ,de ,la ,warr speaks of their late injuries and murthering of our men4 ,it was not until #afaa that real farming got under way at ,jamestown4 ,then corn planting and fence building began in earnest4 ,,governor ,,dale ,,takes ,,charge ,sir ,thomas ,dale with three ships1 men1 and cattell 7#ajj kine1 #bjj swine7 arrived in ,virginia ,may #aj1 #afaa4 ,dale had seen military service in the ,old ,world and was a severe and strict disciplinarian4 ,the surviving colonists received a jolt in their manner of living4 ,from habits of indolence into which they had fallen1 owing to the hot climate and lack of food1 after the departure of ,captain ,john ,smith1 they were with little ceremony put to work4 ,his first care therefore was to imploy all hands in the setting of corne at the two forts at ,kecoughtan1 ,henry and ,charles1 wrote ,ralph ,hamor and about the end of ,may wee had an indifferent crop of good corne4 ,this corn was planted near what is now ,hampton where ,strachey says1 so much ground is there cleared and open2 enough with little labour alreddy prepared to receive corne or make viniards of two or three thowsand acres4 ,with corn planting completed1 two palisaded forts were built for the protection of a few men left to care for the crops4 ,they made another planting across ,chesapeake ,bay on the ,virginia ,cape4 ,they had learned the hard way that clearing the heavily timbered land at ,jamestown was hopeless for immediate results4 ,dale then returned to ,jamestown where the most companie were1 and their daily and usual works1 bowling in the streets4 ,this game was interrupted and the men put to work felling timber1 repairing their houses and providing pointed pickets for fencing a new town1 which ,dale proposed to build1 eighty miles above ,jamestown4 ,,henrico ,,settled ,in ,august1 #afaa1 ,sir ,thomas ,gates arrived with six tall ships with three hundred men1 and one hundred kine and other cattel4 ,gates thoroughly approved of ,dale's plans and policies and let him select about three hundred of the best workers in the colony to build at ,henrico1 now ,farrar's ,island1 at ,dutch ,gap4 ,within ten or twelve daies he had invironed it with a pale1 and in honour of our noble ,prince ,henry1 called it ,henrico4 ,the next worke he did1 was building at each corner of the towne a high commanding watch-house1 a church1 and store-houses3 which finished1 hee began to thinke upon convenient houses for himselfe and men1 which1 with all possible speed hee could1 he effected to the great content of his companie1 and all the colonie4 ,this towne is situated upon a necke of a plaine rising land1 three parts invironed with the maine river1 the necke of land well impaled1 makes it like an ile2 it hath three streets of well framed houses1 a handsome church1 and the foundation of a better laid 7to bee built of bricke71 besides store-houses1 watch-houses1 and such like4 ,upon the verge of the river there are five houses1 within live the honester sort of people1 as farmers in ,england1 and they keepe continuall centinell for the townes securitie4 ,about two miles from the towne1 into the maine1 is another pale1 neere two miles in length1 from river to river1 guarded with severall commanders1 with a good quantitie1 of corne-ground impailed1 sufficiently secured to maintaine more than ,i suppose will come this three yeeres4 ,,appomattox ,,lands ,,seized ,the ,appomattox ,indians1 at the time of the ,jamestown settlement1 were located on a neck of land lying between the ,james and ,appomattox ,rivers4 ,dale wanted this land4 ,it was cleared1 fertile1 and easy to fence1 so we are told3 ,about ,christmas following in this same year #afaa in regard of the injury done us 444 without the losse of any except some few salvages tooke it and their corne4 ,this newly acquired land he named ,new ,bermudas and he divided it into several tracts known as hundreds4 ,the term hundred was a relic of the feudal system4 ,it meant a political subdivision smaller than a county4 ,it appears to have been ,dale's intention that these hundreds or group plantations1 often referred to as particular plantations1 should include the land that could be worked conveniently by the farmers from their homes in a village or a town4 ,this plan was not popular4 ,as has been previously stated the colonial pioneers much preferred to live on the land they tilled4 ,the term hundred lost its significance4 ,ralph ,hamor described the operations at ,new ,bermudas in the following3 ,in the nether hundred he ,dale first began to plant1 for there is the most corne-ground and with a pale of two miles cut over from river to river1 whereby we have secured eight ,english miles in compasse4444 ,rochdale1 by a crosse pale wel nigh foure miles long1 is also planted with houses along the pale1 in which hundred our hogs and cattell have twentie miles circuit to graze in securely4 ,outstanding were the accomplishments of this taskmaster1 ,governor ,dale1 in one year1 with men many of whom were unaccustomed to manual labor4 ,while some were engaged in fence building and the construction of houses1 others were employed in getting out clapboards4 ,still others were gathering pitch and tar from the pine trees and burning logs to make soap-ashes4 ,the ,london ,company had incurred heavy expense in the settlement and was asking for something in return4 ,products from the forests were all that were available4 ,it is no wonder that the colonists complained bitterly about their hardships in their letters to the folks back home4 ,it was not ,gov4 ,dale's purpose to develop an agricultural colony4 ,surplus from food products would not pay the cost of shipment across the ocean4 ,his plantings of corn were purely for local consumption4 ,he limited the number engaged in farming1 and to each of those so engaged1 he allotted three acres of corn land4 ,these farmers were not allowed to devote their entire time to crop-raising4 ,the livestock as we have seen was allowed to run at large in the fenced ranges4 ,in a letter dated ,june #ad1 #afad1 ,gov4 ,dale reported that he had set the colonists to the task of husbanding our corne securely1 whereof wee have above five-hundred acres set1 and ,god be praised in more forwardness than any of the ,indians that ,i have seen or heard of this yeare4 ,when ,capt4 ,argall1 as deputy governor superseded ,dale in ,may1 #afag1 ,george ,yeardley having been acting governor from ,april #aa1 #afaf1 he reported that the colony had about four hundred people but not over #bjj fit for husbandry and tillage4 ,as for livestock1 they had #abh cattle1 #hh goats1 and a large number of hogs4 ,as to cattle there were about fortie bulls and oxen but they wanted men to bring them to labour and irons for the ploughs and harnesse for the cattell4 ,they had tried again to grow some small grains4 ,thirtie or fortie acres wee had sowne with one plough1 but it stood so long on the ground before it was reaped it was most shaken4 ,this was a pitiful showing for the ten years that had elapsed since ,capt4 ,newport established the colony4 ,it had been a decade of frustration and heart-breaking disappointments1 a decade of gruelling toil and misery4 ,no blame should be attached to the colonists4 ,they were thrust into a situation for which they were woefully unprepared4 ,virginia was destined to develop agriculturally4 ,attempts to suppress that industry only served to prolong the colony's troubles4 ,there were no natural resources except the forests in the tidewater region2 no ,indian trade of any great value2 no gems to be picked up at will2 no minerals to be exploited4 ,when the situation seemed most hopeless1 the culture of a crop new to ,english farming completely changed their mental and pecuniary outlook4 ,despair changed to violent optimism4 ,john ,rolfe is generally credited with having been1 in #afab1 the first ,virginia planter to engage in the growing of tobacco4 ,governor ,dale at the time frowned on its culture and ruled that two of each man's allotment of three acres of land should be seeded to corn4 ,hence the change in governorship was a momentous event4 ,,change ,,in ,,policy ,when ,sir ,thomas ,dale left1 in #afaf1 ,george ,yeardley took over the management of the colony as ,acting ,governor4 ,he lost no time in putting an end to the restrictions on tobacco culture4 ,the next year1 #afag1 saw a remarkable transformation in the colonists' way of life4 ,inertia gave way to frantic activity4 ,the market-place and streets and all other spare places were set with the crop and the colonie dispersed all about planting tobacco4 ,nor is this surprising4 ,tobacco alone promised them surcease from poverty and want4 ,hope for a bountiful harvest spurred them on as it has spurred farmers in all generations4 ,,tobacco ,,in ,,england ,many fantastic tales have been written about the introduction of the use of tobacco in ,england4 ,some of the most authentic historical items follow3 ,the ,spaniards found the natives in the ,west ,indies using the plant both for chewing and smoking4 ,they took seed to ,europe where its use soon spread to other countries around the ,mediterranean ,sea4 ,the first ,englishman to report on the addiction of the ,american ,indians to the use of tobacco appears to have been ,john ,sparke who wrote the account of the voyage of ,sir ,john ,hawkins who1 in the course of his travels1 spent some months1 in #aefe1 with an ill-fated ,french colony in ,florida4 ,sparke reported ,the ,floridians when they travell1 have a kinde of herbe dried1 who with a cane and an earthen cup in the end1 with fire1 and the dried herbs put together1 doe sucke thorow the cane the smoke thereof1 which smoke satisfieth their hunger1 and therewith they live foure or five dayes without meat or drinke1 and this the ,frenchmen used for this purpose4 ,it is quite likely that the sailors under ,hawkins command acquired the habit and took some of the dried herbs back to ,england4 ,sir ,walter ,raleigh is often credited with the introduction of the use of tobacco in ,england4 ,while he may not have been responsible for its introduction1 he apparently played an important role in the spread of the tobacco habit among the ,english aristocracy4 ,raleigh's interest in tobacco was no doubt aroused by the report of his protg1 the famous sixteenth century mathematician1 ,thomas ,hariot4 ,hariot spent a year1 ,june1 #aehe-;,june1 #aehf1 with the ,raleigh ,colony on ,roanoke ,island4 ,on his return to ,england he reported on the ,indians' farming operations in ,eastern ,north ,carolina4 ,for tobacco he wrote in part ,we ourselves1 during the time we were there1 used to sucke it after their manner1 as also since our returne1 and have found many rare and wonderful experiments of the virtues thereof1 of which the relation would require a volume by itselfe3 the use of it by so many1 of late1 men and women of great calling1 as els1 and some physicians also1 is sufficient witnesse4 ,raleigh later made a voyage to the ,island of ,trinidad and the ,orinoco ,river in ,south ,america from whence had come the most desirable sorts4 ,spain and ,portugal monopolized the ,european tobacco trade with these mild varieties since the tobacco grown by the ,virginia ,indians had a sharp1 biting taste4 ,plantings of these better sorts were made in ,england4 ,a violent controversy was soon raging4 ,king ,james ,i who detested ,raleigh and all his activities1 issued a ,counter ,blaste against tobacco4 ,this was a most bitter tirade as the following quotation shows3 ,a custom loathsome to the eye1 hateful to the nose1 harmful to the brain1 dangerous to the lungs1 and in the black stinking fume thereof nearest resembling the stygian smoke of the pit that is bottomless4 ,since the days of ,king ,james1 millions of words have been written condemning the use of the tawny weed4 ,the opposition of ,king ,james to tobacco led to the imposition of taxes on its import into ,england3 that from ,spain and ,portugal was #b;d a pound2 that from ,virginia #fs4 #aj;d4 ,in spite of all this array of evidence as to the detrimental effects of tobacco on the human body its consumption has steadily increased and spread over the entire world4 ,colossal fortunes have been made in its processing and trade4 ,no product of the soil with the exception of grains used in the manufacture of alcoholic beverages has ever returned such bounteous revenues to the ,united ,states government4 ,in the fiscal year ending ,june #cj1 #aied there was paid into the treasury of the ,united ,states1 the gigantic sum of #a1ehj1bii1jjj from taxes on various tobacco products4 ,of this vast total1 ,virginia tobacco manufacturers that year contributed #cef1hfg1jjj dollars4 ,municipal and other local taxes are not included in these figures4 ,tobacco culture in ,america was a highly profitable enterprise for ,england4 ,the colonists produced and sold the raw product4 ,very little tobacco is used in the raw state4 ,before tobacco is ready for the market it must be processed into the various forms demanded by the trade4 ,it was estimated that one man engaged in tobacco growing in ,virginia kept three ,englishmen employed1 that is1 sailors engaged in transportation1 processors and tradesmen4 ,the ,english government also derived considerable revenue on the surplus tobacco products resold on the ,european market4 ,,tobacco ,,became ,,money ,one of the needs of the colony was a medium of exchange3 something that could be used for money4 ,as the balance of trade was heavily in favor of the ,mother ,country1 there was no opportunity for an accumulation of ,english money in ,america4 ,so tobacco became acceptable for goods1 services1 and the payment of debts4 ,salaries were fixed in pounds of tobacco4 ,,fluctuating ,,prices ,the value placed on tobacco in ,england varied with the supply and demand4 ,with the introduction of ,negroes in #afai1 and the greatly increased immigration from ,england1 the acreage devoted to the culture of tobacco expanded rapidly4 ,the first serious effects of over-production occurred in #afcj1 when the price fell from three shillings1 six pence to one penny a pound4 ,this calamity proved to be a blessing in disguise4 ,the next year1 a boat of #ah tons burden1 loaded with corn and tobacco disposed of its cargo at ,salem1 ,massachusetts1 then but recently settled4 ,the corn brought six shillings a bushel4 ,this started a brisk trade and a ,dutch ship1 in #afcb1 took #b1jjj bushels of corn from ,virginia to ,new ,england4 ,in #afcc1 it was estimated that #aj1jjj bushels of corn from ,virginia were sold in ,massachusetts besides a number of beef cattle1 goats1 and hogs4 ,in spite of the ruinously low prices which sometimes prevailed1 the amount of tobacco shipped overseas continued to increase4 ,in #afci1 #a1ejj1jjj pounds were exported from ,virginia alone4 ,,growth ,,of ,,the ,,colony ,captain ,john ,smith summarized the condition of the colony in #afbi in these words3 ,master ,hutchins saith1 they have #b1jjj cattle1 and about #e1jjj people2 but ,master ,floud1 ,john ,davis1 ,william ,emerson1 and divers others1 say about five thousand people1 and five thousand kine1 calves1 oxen1 and bulls2 for goats1 hogs1 and poultry2 corne1 fish1 deere1 and many sorts of other wild beasts2 and fowle in their season1 they have so much more than they spend1 they are able to feed three or foure hundred men more than they have4 ,starving times as a rule were over4 ,periods of short rations occurred infrequently and then only in times of disaster such as the aftermath of the ,indian massacre of #afbb or when the planters became so engrossed in growing tobacco that they neglected to plant maize or other grains4 ,each succeeding crop was new wealth1 something that had not existed before4 ,gradually1 harvest after harvest1 the colonists were able to add to their possessions additional tools and equipment4 ,he was a shiftless man indeed who could not provide ample food for his own needs4 ,the history of ,virginia during colonial times was intimately connected with the tobacco crop4 ,the general welfare of the people rose and fell with the value placed on the leaf in ,england4 ,,efforts ,,to ,,sustain ,,higher ,,prices ,with the over supply of tobacco the ,english market became extremely discriminating in regard to the quality of the leaf it would purchase4 ,the colonial government from time to time resorted to legislative expedients to prevent the shipment of inferior grades4 ,governor ,wyatt1 in #afba ordered that for every head they should plant but #a1jjj plants of tobacco and upon each plant nine leaves4 ,john ,rolfe also stated1 in #afai1 that1 ,an industrious man not otherwaies imploied may well tend foure akers of corne1 and #a1jjj plants of tobacco4 ,a thousand plants would give each worker about #aab pounds of tobacco a year4 ,in #afbh1 an inspection law was enacted and in #afdj1 it was ordered that all bad tobacco and half the good should be destroyed4 ,governor ,berkeley1 in #affd1 made several ineffectual attempts to form agreements1 with the planters of ,maryland and ,north ,carolina1 to restrict the production of tobacco4 ,the planters of each colony were willing for those of the other to stop planting1 or to destroy as much tobacco as they pleased2 but looking to their own selfish interests they would increase rather than decrease their crop4 ,the ,virginia ,general ,assembly1 in #afff1 prohibited all culture of tobacco but the ,maryland authorities complained that the law was ignored by the ,virginia planters4 ,the ,virginia colonists developed a keen rivalry among themselves in efforts to improve the quality of the leaf grown4 ,reverend ,john ,clayton1 in #afhh1 says3 ,for there is not only two distinct sorts of sweet-scented and ,aranoko tobacco but of these be several sorts1 much different1 the seeds whereof are known by distinct names1 of those gentlemen most famed for such sort of tobacco1 as of prior seed etc4 ,the ,aranoko1 probably from the ,orinoco river region in ,south ,america1 was grown on the heavy clay soils4 ,the product was a strong tobacco that was most in demand in ,germany and other ,north ,european countries4 ,the sweet-scented was grown on the lighter sandy soils and although the yield was less it brought a better price on the market4 ,hugh ,jones1 in his ,present ,state of ,virginia1 in #agbd1 mentions one of the many localities in ,virginia which became noted for a particular variety of tobacco grown there4 ,to quote3 ,for on ,york ,river in a small tract of land called ,digges ,neck1 which is poorer than a great deal of other land in the same latitude1 by a particular seed and management1 is made the famous crop known by the name of ,e ,dees1 remarkable for its mild taste and fine smell4 ,topping the growing tobacco plants was a practice originated by the colonists4 ,the main purpose was to limit the production to the large lower leaves and to do away with the small immature leaves at the top of the stem4 ,the ,general ,assembly often specified the number of leaves which could be left2 the number1 varying with the value placed on the leaf in ,england1 ranged usually from six to nine4 ,tobacco is a soil exhausting crop4 ,the ,jamestown planters soon learned that continuous crops of tobacco1 on the same land1 soon reduced both the quantity and quality of the leaf4 ,the only resource left to the tobacco farmers was to clear new fields4 ,the more well-to-do planters began to seek favorable locations of uncleared land4 ,the depleted fields were abandoned and the task of restoring their productivity was usually left to nature4 ,much of the best tobacco soils of ,virginia have been cropped and then allowed to go back to brush and tress and again cleared several times4 ,finding the remains of old tobacco rows out in dense woods is not an uncommon experience4 ,this exhaustion of tobacco lands had a beneficial influence on the agricultural development of ,virginia4 ,by the time the fields were abandoned1 most of the stumps had decayed and the soil could be prepared for seeding to other crops with plow and harrows4 ,it was found that these depleted fields were still capable of producing satisfactory crops of grain4 ,many of the colonists who were not financially able to clear new grounds could often buy or rent these abandoned fields for a nominal price4 ,,crops ,,other ,,than ,,tobacco ,while tobacco played a very important part in building a prosperous colony at ,jamestown1 there were several other staples that also contributed to this result4 ,of prime importance should be rated maize or ,indian ,corn4 ,maize saved the colony from starvation on several occasions4 ,maize became an export commodity to the ,new ,england and ,west ,indian colonies when the price for tobacco fell below the cost of transportation to ,europe4 ,maize aided the colonists in the production of valuable livestock products4 ,this crop has done more to promote the wealth and welfare of this country than all the natural resources1 water-power1 and forests put together4 ,in order to increase the production of grain in #afbc1 the ,general ,assembly ordered3 ,for the encouragement of men to plant store of corne1 the prise shall not be stinted but it shall be free for every man to sell it as deere as he can4 ,this law had a wholesome effect4 ,it so increased the production of maize that seven years later as has already been noted1 the colonists had a surplus of this product to export to ,new ,england4 ,this is perhaps the first law passed in ,america for the direct benefit of the producers4 ,it stands out in strong contrast to some legislative enactments4 ,there were many other grain laws put on the statute books but the majority of them either fixed the maximum price for which the grain could be sold or else prohibited its exportation4 ,the authorities in ,england were continually clamoring for products to supplement the tobacco exports4 ,until #afhe1 each succeeding ,governor as he sailed to ,virginia was instructed to use every means in his power to encourage the production of silk1 wine1 hemp1 flax1 pitch and potashes4 ,the reason for finally omitting this clause is interesting4 ,the ,king was concerned about the revenue the government was deriving from tobacco and did not wish for the colonists to engage in any enterprise that might diminish the volume of leaf that was coming to ,england4 ,the omission of this clause marked a new era in the relation of the colony to the ,mother ,country4 ,during the sixty years the clause was in force1 several ,governors1 notably ,wyatt1 ,harvey and ,berkeley1 had tried to comply with the wishes of the authorities in ,england1 with extremely meager results to show for their efforts4 ,,silk ,,culture ,there is very little justification for including silk culture as an enterprise in the agricultural history of the ,jamestown ,colony4 ,it was one product that was usually placed first in recommendations of the authorities who sponsored the settlement of ,virginia4 ,in keeping with the improved status of the social and economic life of ,england1 in the latter years of the sixteenth century1 came a desire for finer and more lustrous fabrics in their articles of dress4 ,serges and tweeds1 woven from the fleeces of their coarse-wooled sheep1 no longer satisfied the fastidious tastes of the ruling aristocracy4 ,even calicos from far-away ,calcutta were esteemed fit for royal inaugural gowns4 ,silk was the last word in luxurious garb4 ,silkworms had been reared in the ,orient from ancient times4 ,these moths had been domesticated for so many years they had become fully dependent on human aid for existence4 ,they could crawl but could not fly4 ,while silk brought fabulous prices on the world's market there were numerous reasons why its culture never succeeded in ,america4 ,the handling of the creeping1 crawling1 ill-smelling worms was objectionable to anyone not accustomed from childhood to the task4 ,old people and young girls who were the ones employed in rearing silkworms in the ,orient received the equivalent of a few cents a day for their labor4 ,such cheap help was not available in ,virginia4 ,perhaps1 the most serious objection of all was the lack of a suitable food supply for the worms4 ,a silkworm from the time it hatches from the egg till it spins its cocoon devours a mass of green forage4 ,leaves of the mulberry tree are its favorite diet4 ,in fact1 without a supply of mulberry trees1 successful silk culture is out of the question4 ,growing a crop of trees had to precede the rearing of worms4 ,this took several years4 ,nevertheless1 the directions of the ,london ,company urged in season and out that the colonists should produce silk4 ,governor ,wyatt1 in #afba1 was instructed3 ,not to permit any1 but the council and heads of hundreds1 to wear gold in the clothes1 or to wear silk till they make it themselves4 ,nothing came from this order4 ,in #afef1 the agitation for silk became so intense1 the ,general ,assembly was forced to take action4 ,first1 an experienced silk grower1 an ,armenian by the name of ,george1 was sent to the colony1 and the ,general ,assembly was ordered to give him four thousand pounds of tobacco to keep him in the country4 ,another law1 passed that year1 ordered that each planter set out ten mulberry trees for each one hundred acres of land he owned4 ,these trees were to be fenced1 to protect them from horses and cattle1 and to be kept weeded4 ,this law was repealed1 two years later1 as it seems rather troublesome and burthensome than any waies advantageous to the country4 ,the law was re-enacted in #affa but given a three years delay as it was impossible to get mulberry trees4 ,the ,general ,assembly1 in #afeg1 voted a bounty of #ejjj pounds of tobacco to any planter producing #ajj pounds of wound silk4 ,there were no claimants4 ,two years later1 the bounty was increased to #aj1jjj pounds of tobacco and the amount of silk required was reduced to #ej pounds4 ,again the results were negative4 ,then a bounty of fifty pounds of tobacco for each pound of silk was ordered4 ,the effects from all these orders are summed up in an act of the ,general ,assembly in #affc which reads3 ,george1 the ,armenian1 having proved the making of ten pounds of wound silk1 it is ordered there be paid him for his encouragement in the levy according to act4 ,it is assumed that ,george received #ejj pounds of tobacco4 ,what became of the silk is not recorded4 ,a few years later the price per pound of wound silk was fixed by the ,general ,assembly at #bj shillings or two hundred pounds of tobacco4 ,,hemp ,,and ,,flax ,two plants1 the culture of which was strongly urged by the ,english authorities1 were hemp and flax4 ,in this case1 greater success was realized than occurred with most of the demands that came from across the ocean4 ,it had been ordered in #afeh1 by the ,general ,assembly3 ,that what person or persons1 soever1 shall at any time hereafter make1 in this colonie1 so much silke1 flax1 hopps or any other staple commodities 7except tobacco7 as is worth two hundred pounds sterling1 or ,english wheate to the value of five hundred pounds stirling in one yeare1 and exporte the same or cause the same to be exported1 or shall first make two tunne of wine raized out of a vineyard made in this collonie1 shall have given him by this country1 for an encouragement1 ten thousand pounds of ,virginia tobacco4 ,apparently no one qualified for the bounty on flax for1 in #affa1 provision was made for importing some flax seed from ,england4 ,no price was fixed1 in #afff1 on flax by reason of the uncertainty of the quality4 ,in #afhb1 bounties were offered3 ,for every peck of flax seeds1 four and twentie pounds of tobacco1 and for every peck of hemp seed twenty pounds of tobacco4 ,bounties were also offered for hemp and flax woven into cloth4 ,it was also ordered that every tithable person should produce one pound of dressed hemp and one pound of dressed flax or two pounds of either annually4 ,from that time on considerable hemp and flax were raised in ,virginia1 but most of the crop was used at home4 ,linen cloth was highly prized4 ,there was also a demand for cordage made of hemp fibers for ships4 ,,english ,,grain ,as already noted1 the initial attempts of the colonists to grow the grains with which they had been accustomed in ,england came to naught4 ,they were familiar with wheat1 rye1 barley and oats4 ,to make satisfactory yields1 these grains had to be broadcasted on well prepared seed beds4 ,newly cleared forests left the soil full of stumps and roots4 ,the wooden plows of those days were useless on these newly cleared lands4 ,preparation of the soil1 for tobacco or maize1 could be accomplished with a hand hoe or shovel4 ,these plants required space in which to develop their full growth4 ,a tobacco plant could be set or a hill of corn planted wherever a little loose dirt could be found4 ,some ,english grains were seeded in the cleared land near ,hampton and ,newport ,news but these old fields1 abandoned by the ,indians1 were also near to exhaustion4 ,an indifferent crop was reported4 ,in #afbg1 ,abraham ,piersey had #bjj acres each in wheat and barley4 ,from these crops he was able to furnish food daily to sixty persons4 ,how much of this seeding was on land that had been abandoned for tobacco1 or was old ,indian fields1 is not stated4 ,when ,de,vries visited ,virginia in #afdc1 he found the planters putting down1 in ,english grain1 lands which had been exhausted by successive crops of tobacco4 ,the ,general ,assembly had ruled in #afci1 that corn 7probably wheat and maize7 could be exported whenever the price fell below twelve shillings a bushel4 ,large exports of this valuable cereal were then being made to the near-by colonies of ,maryland1 ,manhattan1 ,carolina and the ,west ,indies4 ,it was estimated by ,edward ,williams1 in #afej1 that two able-bodied laborers could seed sixty acres in wheat in the course of one season and reap the grain when it was ripe4 ,the yield from such an area had a market value of four hundred and eighty pounds sterling4 ,it was reported that these fields which no longer produced the best grades of tobacco were better for wheat than newly cleared land4 ,as these exhausted fields could be rented or purchased at moderate cost compared with prime tobacco new ground1 many poorly financed colonists were able to get a start towards prosperity without resorting to the almost universal practice of growing tobacco4 ,,livestock ,as already shown1 the domestic animals brought to the ,colony1 in the first few years of its settlement1 were turned out in the woods to fend for themselves4 ,the original breeding stocks were of ordinary quality and the lack of care given them contributed to their inferiority4 ,predatory animals such as wolves1 bears1 panthers and wild cats exacted a heavy annual toll of young animals4 ,until ,governor ,dale constructed his miles of picket fences there was nothing to keep the animals from wandering up into the highlands where the colonists did not dare to venture4 ,in spite of the handicaps all classes of domestic animals increased in numbers when not slaughtered for food4 ,this was especially true of swine4 ,illustration3 #a ,hoscyamin ,perimianus4 ,tabaco or ,henbane of ,peru4 #b ,sana ,sancta ,indorum4 ,tabaco of ,trinidada4 ,two varieties of tobacco as pictured by ,gerard in #aeig4 ,the seeds of these two varieties were taken to ,virginia by the ,jamestown ,settlers4 ,illustration3 ,photo by ,thomas ,l4 ,williams ,trenching ,implements1 ,seventeenth ,century ,illustration3 ,thomas ,l4 ,williams1 ,photo ,seventeenth ,century ,plows ,,swine ,hogs contributed more to the material welfare of the ,jamestown ,colony than historians have generally recognized4 ,hogs have many advantages over other breeds of livestock4 ,they multiply much faster than any other domestic animal except poultry4 ,they make faster gains and double the weight for the food consumed than do cattle1 sheep or goats4 ,when slaughtered1 hogs dress out about #ge percent edible meat1 as compared with #ee to #fj percent for cattle4 ,when given wide open range in humid climates such as prevailed in the ,tidewater1 they do fairly well without other feed than what they can find for themselves4 ,in summer1 at ,jamestown1 they obtained most of their living in the numerous fresh-water swamps4 ,tuckahoe1 a flag-like swamp plant1 with an enormous root system1 was their favorite hot weather forage4 ,the roots of tuckahoe1 often as large as a man's arm1 contain a crystalline acid that burns the mouth of a human being like fire4 ,after a few trials1 hogs seem to relish it4 ,while tuckahoe is not a fattening feed1 hogs eating it make satisfactory gains in weight4 ,in the fall when the acorns and nuts ripened1 the hogs put on weight at a rapid pace4 ,the woods were stocked with oak1 hickory1 chestnut1 beech1 chinquapin1 and persimmon trees and shrubs1 the fruits of which were all grouped under the general term mast4 ,there is one difference between pork produced from grain-fed hogs and those fattened on mast4 ,the lard of the latter group melts at a temperature of about ten degrees below that of those fed corn4 ,to the connoisseur of well cured hams and bacon this low melting point is not a detriment but a distinct improvement4 ,the colonists adapted the ,indian practice of using smoke to aid in the curing of meat4 ,the natives built platforms of poles supported by posts about six feet from the ground4 ,the meat to be cured was salted and spread on these poles4 ,a small fire was built underneath to furnish the smoke4 ,this arrangement was called by the ,taino ,indians1 a barbacoa from which we get the ,english equivalent1 barbecue4 ,by #afcf1 hogs1 sheep and goats had increased in such numbers that ships coming to ,jamestown could supply their needs for meat from the colony's surplus4 ,this was advantageous to shipmasters and furnished a market for a product of a growing industry in the colony4 ,prior to that time ships coming to ,america from ,europe had to take on food stuffs for the round trip4 ,another benefit accrued to the colony4 ,the combined curing process of salt and smoke imparts a delicious flavor to hams and bacon that has never been excelled by any other method4 ,this applies especially to meat from hogs fattened on mast or peanuts4 ,virginia hams and bacon soon became noted for their excellence all over the world4 ,the fame of these products has never waned4 ,unfortunately1 most hotels and restaurants in the ,united ,state now use the term ,virginia ham on their menus to designate this sort of meat regardless of its origin or cure4 ,new ,england ships1 plying a coastwise traffic with the ,caribbean countries1 frequently stopped in ,jamestown for cargoes of salted meats4 ,this trade was especially desirable during times when the price of tobacco fell to ruinous levels4 ,most of the hogs ran wild4 ,some planters marked their animals by ear-cuts1 and then could claim an entire drove1 if they had a number of their branded hogs in it4 ,,cattle ,neat animals were kept near ,jamestown in the early years1 but they1 like the swine1 had to gather their own living4 ,a few were trained for draft purposes4 ,in new grounds where stumps and roots prevail1 oxen are more useful than horses4 ,they do not get in a panic when obstacles interfere4 ,then too1 they can be slaughtered for beef when they become too old for work4 ,during the period under study1 cattle1 in ,virginia1 often brought good prices4 ,many were purchased by the ,new ,england colonists as it was cheaper to buy animals1 in ,america1 than to go to the expense and loss of animals by shipping them across the ocean4 ,there was a market for oxen in the ,caribbean region1 where they were used for power1 in the sugar mills4 ,in the first thirty years1 some of the cattle went wild in the back country1 but many of the cows were kept in the vicinity of the ,jamestown headquarters4 ,while not notable as dairy cows1 they produced enough milk so that ,virginia gained a reputation among ship crews for its excellent butter and cheese4 ,in #afdi it was estimated that there were twenty thousand cattle in the ,colony4 ,,goats ,,and ,,sheep ,flocks of goats and sheep became noticeable to visitors about the middle of the century4 ,many were brought to ,virginia4 ,in the early years the numbers killed by wolves made them unprofitable4 ,heavy bounties paid for wolf heads eventually reduced the depredations of this predator until sheep and goats were fairly safe4 ,as producers of meat and wool for clothing sheep contributed to the general welfare of the colony4 ,by #afdi1 the number of sheep was estimated at three thousand2 and of goats at five thousand4 ,,horses ,of all the domestic animals brought from ,england to ,jamestown in the early days of the settlement1 the most expensive to transport and the most useless after they arrived in ,virginia were horses4 ,the estimate of the number in the ,colony in #afdi is #bjj4 ,there was no purpose for them to serve4 ,the fragile wooden plows of the seventeenth century were of no use among the stumps and roots in newly cleared forest lands4 ,horses were of no value for transportation as there were no roads through the forests or bridges over the rivers4 ,they were of little use as beasts of burden as there were few burdens to carry4 ,a horse was no match for an able-bodied man on ,indian trails through timbered country4 ,as late as #afga1 the ,batts and ,fallam expedition1 consisting of five white men and seven ,indians1 who were the discoverers of ,new ,river1 had horses for the white men when they left ,petersburg4 ,all of these animals were dead before they reached the mountains4 ,the colonists did all they could afford to do with the horses brought to them and that was to turn them loose to shift for themselves4 ,in a very few years there was a band of wild horses roaming the woods in the back country4 ,eventually these wild horses provided a great deal of recreation for the younger planters4 ,capturing and breaking to the saddle wild horses became a popular sport4 ,as soon as a horse was caught and accustomed to a rider the most natural thing was to try it for speed4 ,horse-racing began with local contests but developed into a major sport4 ,king ,charles ,,ii is credited with having imported ,turk and ,arabian horses to ,england4 ,some of this blooded stock may have been shipped to ,jamestown4 ,at any rate ,virginia saddle-horses at an early date began to attract attention because of their speed4 ,two other colonies1 ,rhode ,island and ,new ,york were famous for their fast horses4 ,racing became an inter-colonial sport4 ,the first regular race course was the ,new ,market on ,hempstead ,plains1 ,long ,island4 ,there the fleetest horses of ,long ,island were brought together to settle all arguments by actual trial4 ,this famous race course was described in #afgj by a contemporary1 ,daniel ,denton3 ,toward the middle of ,long ,island lyeth a plain sixteen miles long and four broad1 upon which plain grows very fine grass1 that makes exceeding good hay1 and is very good pasture for sheep or other cattel2 where you shall find neither stick nor stone to hinder the horse heels or endanger them in their races1 and once a year the best horses in the island are brought hither to try their swiftness1 and the swiftest rewarded with a silver cup1 two being annually procured for that purpose4 ,horse-racing became of economic importance to these colonies4 ,the sugar planters1 in the ,caribbean region1 also became interested in this sport of kings and sent agents to buy the fastest horses they could find4 ,high prices were sometimes paid for prize winning animals4 ,governor ,francis ,nicholson in #afij1 gave prizes to those that should excell in riding1 running1 wrestling and cudgeling4 ,of these sports1 riding became by far the most popular4 ,interest in horse-racing1 fox-chasing1 steeple-chasing1 and riding tournaments has never entirely died out in ,virginia4 ,,conclusion ,a great deal has been written about the events that occurred during the ninety-two years that elapsed1 from the settlement of the colony on ,jamestown ,island1 and the change of capital site to ,williamsburg4 ,judging from the recorded observations of visitors during that period1 no great difference in the general appearance of the landscape had taken place4 ,it still looked very much like a wilderness4 ,much forest land had been cleared1 farmed for a few years1 and then turned back to nature4 ,the mammoth trees with scanty undergrowth1 that the firstcomers found1 had been replaced with a luxuriant second or third growth4 ,if the top-soil is not eroded away a new forest can be produced in ,virginia in thirty or forty years4 ,one of the most noticeable improvements was in the dwelling houses4 ,substantial brick and frame buildings had replaced the hurriedly constructed shacks of the early days4 ,the accumulated wealth from the surplus products resulting from their farming activities was reflected in their flocks and herds of horses1 cattle1 sheep1 goats1 swine1 and poultry4 ,dire famine no longer stared them in face4 ,through insistence that only the best quality products should be shipped abroad1 favorable trade relations had been established in the commerce of the world4 ,perhaps the greatest achievement of all was the creation of the farm home where a family could own1 in fee simple1 the land they tilled1 live in peace1 and enjoy the fruits of their own labor4 ,,bibliography #a4 ,beverley1 ,robert4 ,history of ,virginia 444 ,reprinted from the author's #bnd4 rev4 ed41 ,london1 #agbb4 ,richmond1 ,virginia1 #ahee4 #b4 ,brown1 ,alexander4 ,the ,genesis of the ,united ,states4 ,boston and ,new ,york1 #ahij4 #b ,vols4 #c4 ,bruce1 ,p4 ,a4 ,economic ,history of ,virginia in the ,seventeenth ,century4 ,new ,york1 #ahie4 #b ,vols4 #d4 ,bullock1 ,william4 ,virginia ,impartially ,examined 444 ,london1 #afdi4 #e4 ,campbell1 ,charles4 ,history of the ,colony and ,ancient ,dominion of ,virginia 444 ,philadelphia1 #ahfj4 #f4 ,clayton1 ,rev4 ,john4 ,a letter 444 ,may #ab1 #afhh4 ,giving an ,account of ,several ,observables in ,virginia 444 ,reprint in ,force1 ,peter4 ,tracts 444 ,washington1 #ahcf-df4 ,vol4 #c4 #g4 ,devries1 ,david ,peterson4 ,voyages from ,holland to ,america4 ,new ,york1 #ahec4 #h4 ,force1 ,peter4 ,tracts and ,other ,papers1 ,relating ,principally to the ,origin1 ,settlement1 and ,progress of the ,colonies of ,north ,america4 ,washington4 #d ,vols4 ,gray1 ,lewis ,c4 ,history of ,agriculture in the ,southern ,united ,states to #ahfj4 ,washington1 ,d4 ,c4 #b ,vols4 #i4 ,hakluyt1 ,richard4 ,collection of ,early ,voyages1 ,travels and ,discoveries of the ,english ,nation4 ,london1 #ahji-ab4 #e ,vols4 ,also ,edinburgh1 #ahhe-ij4 #af ,vols4 #aj4 ,hamor1 ,ralph4 ,a ,true ,discourse of the ,present ,state of ,virginia 444 ,london1 #afae4 ,albany1 ,j4 ,munsell1 #ahfj4 #aa4 ,hariot1 ,thomas4 ,narrative of the ,first ,english ,plantation of ,virginia4 ,london1 #aehh4 ,reproduced after ,de,bry's illustrated edition printed in ,frankfort in #aeij1 the illustrations having been designed in ,virginia in #aehe by ,john ,white4 ,london1 ,b4 ,quaritch1 #ahic4 #ab4 ,hening1 ,w4 ,w4 ,virginia ,statutes at ,large1 #afai-agib4 #ac ,vols4 #ac4 ,jefferson1 ,thomas4 ,notes on the ,state of ,virginia44,richmond1 ,j4 ,w4 ,randolph1 #ahec4 #ad4 ,purchas1 ,samuel4 ,purchas his ,pilgrims4 ,london1 #afbf4 #e ,vols4 #ae4 ,smith1 ,captain ,john4 ,works4 ,edited by ,arber1 #ahhd4 ,also ,edinburgh #aiaj4 #b ,vols4 #af4 ,spotswood1 ,alexander4 ,official ,letters1 #agaj-agbb4 ,ed4 by ,r4 ,a4 ,brock4 ,virginia ,historical ,society ,collections4 ,richmond1 #ahhb-he4 #b ,vols4 #ag4 ,strachey1 ,william4 ,the ,historie of ,travaile ,into ,virginia ,britannia 444 ,london4 ,printed for the ,hakluyt ,society1 #ahdi4 #ah4 ,swem1 ,e4 ,g4 ,virginia ,historical ,index4 ,roanoke1 ,virginia4 #aicd-cf4 #b ,vols4 #ai4 ,virginia ,company of ,london4 ,abstract of the ,proceedings of the ,company 444 #afai-afbd4 ,by ,conway ,robinson4 ,edited by ,r4 ,a4 ,brock4 ,virginia ,historical ,society1 #ahhh-hi4 #bj4 ,virginia ,truly ,valued4 ,in ,force's ,tracts1 ,vol4 #c4 ,,appendix ,i ,a ,,plowman',s ,,day ,this is an extract from ,markham's ,farewell to ,husbandry1 or the ,enriching of all ,sorts of barren and ,steril grounds in our ,kingdome1 a well-known book on farming as carried on in ,england in the early years of the #agth century2 it is presented here in order to show what the daily tasks of a farmer were at that time1 and what might be expected1 according to this standard1 of a settler coming to ,virginia4 ,the author1 ,gervase ,markham1 issued several editions of the work4 ,this extract is from the fourth edition1 printed in #afch1 of which a title-page is reproduced in this booklet1 from the copy in the ,william and ,mary ,college ,library4 ,markham's book has an additional interest1 for the reason that in the supplies sent by ship ,supply in #afbj to ,berkeley ,hundred1 a copy of the current edition was included4 ,having thus generally runne over 7in a short computation7 the labours of the husbandman1 ,i will now briefly as ,i can1 goe over the particular daies labours of a farmer or plowman1 shewing the particular expence of every houre of the day1 from his first rising1 till his going to bed1 as thus for example3 ,we will suppose it to be after ,christmas1 and about plow-day 7which is the first letting out of the plough7 and at what time men either begin to fallow1 or to break up pease earth1 which is to lie to bait1 according to the custome of the country2 at this time the plough-man shall rise before foure of the clocke in the morning1 and after thankes given to ,god for his rest1 and the successe of his labours he shall go into his stable1 or beaste-house1 and first he shall fodder his cattell1 then cleanse the house1 and make the booths cleane1 rub downe the cattell1 and cleanse their skins of all filth1 then he shall curry his horses1 rub them with clothes and wisps1 and make both them and the stable as cleane as may be1 then he shall water both his oxen and horses1 and housing them againe1 give them more fodder1 and to his horse by all meanes provender1 as chaffe and dry pease or beanes1 or oat-hulls1 pease or beanes or cleane oates1 or clean garbage 7which is the hinder ends of any kinde of graine but rye7 with the straw chop'd small amongst it1 according as the ability of the husbandman is4 ,and whilst they are eating their meat1 he shall make ready his collars1 hames1 treats1 halters1 mullens1 and plough-geares1 seeing everything fit1 and in his due place1 and to these labours ,i will also allow full two houres1 that is1 from foure of the clocke till sixe1 then hee shall come in to breakfast1 and to that ,i allow him halfe an houre2 and then another halfe houre to the gearing and yoaking of his cattell1 so that at seven of the clocke hee may set forward to his labour1 and then he shall plow from seven of the clock in the morning1 till betwixt two and three in the afternoone1 then he shall unyoke1 and bring home his cattell1 and having rubb'd them1 drest them1 and cleansed away all durt and filth1 he shall fodder them1 and give them meate1 then shall the servants goe in to their dinner1 which allowed halfe an houre2 it will then be towards foure of the clocke1 at what time hee shall goe to his cattell againe1 and rubbing them downe1 and cleansing their stalls1 give them more fodder1 which done1 he shall go into the barnes1 and provide and make ready fodder of all kinds for the next day1 whether it be hay1 straw1 or blend fodder1 according to the ability of the husbandman3 this being done1 and carried into the stable1 oxe-house1 or other convenient place1 he shall then goe water his cattell1 and give them more meate1 and to his horse provender1 as before shewed2 and by this time it will draw past sixe of the clocke1 at which time he shall come in to supper1 and after supper1 he shall either by the fire side1 mend shooes both for himselfe and their family1 or beat and knock hemp1 or flaxe1 or picke and stampe apples1 or crabs for cider or verdjuce1 or else grind malt on the quernes1 picke candle rushes1 or do some husbandly office within dores1 till it be full eight a clocke3 then shall he take his lanthorne and candle1 and goe to his cattell1 and having cleansed the stalls and plankes1 litter them downe1 looke that they be safely tied1 and then fodder and give them meate for all night1 then giving ,god thankes for benefits received that day1 let him and the whole household goe to their rest till the next morning4 ,illustration3 ,,markhams ,farewell to ,,hvsbandry2 ,,or1 ,the ,enriching of all sorts of ,barren and ,steril grounds in our ,kingdome1 to be as fruitfull in all manner of ,graine1 ,pulse1 and ,grasse1 as the best grounds whatsoever4 ,together with the annoyances1 and preservation of all ,graine and ,seed1 from one yeare to many yeares4 ,as also a ,husbandly computation of men and ,cattels daily labours1 their expeences1 charges1 and utmost profits4 ,the fourth time1 revised1 corrected1 and amended1 together with many new ,additions1 and cheape experiments3 ,for the bettering of arable ,pasture1 and wooddy ,grounds4 ,of making good all grounds againe1 spoiled with overflowing of salt water by ,sea-breaches3 as also1 the ,enriching of the ,hop-garden2 and many other things never published before4 ,,london1 ,printed by ,,edvvard ,,griffin for ,,iohn ,,harison1 at the signe of the golden ,vnicorne in ,pater-noster-row4 #afch4 ,photo by ,thomas ,l4 ,williams ,now it may be intended1 that there may be in the houshold more servants than one2 and so you will demand of mee1 what the rest of the servants shall be imployed in before and after the time of plowing3 to this ,i answer1 that they may either goe into the barne and thrash1 fill or empty the maltfat1 load and unload the kilne1 or any other good and necessary work that is about the yard1 and after they come from plowing1 some may goe into the barne and thrash1 some hedge1 ditch1 stop gaps in broken fences1 dig in the orchard or garden1 or any other out-worke which is needfull to be done1 and which about the husbandman is never wanting1 especially one must have a care every night to looke to the mending or sharpening of the plough-irons1 and the repairing of the plough and plough-geares1 if any be out of order1 for to deferre them till the morrow1 were the losse of a daies worke1 and an ill point of husbandry4 ,,appendix ,,ii ,,the ,,transport ,,of ,,grain ,in the early years at ,jamestown1 much grain was shipped from ,england for the use of the colonists4 ,the extract1 which follows1 is from ,markham's ,farewell to ,husbandry1 #dth edition1 #afch4 ,the term corn as used by ,markham does not mean maize 7,indian corn71 but wheat1 barley1 rye1 or oats4 ,and first for transportation of graine by sea1 it is two waies to be done1 as either in great quantities for trade and the victuallyng of other nations1 or in smaller quantity for victualling the men in the ship1 prepared for a long and tedious voyage4 ,for the transporting of graine for trade in great quantities1 it is to be intended the voyage is seldom long1 but from neighbor to neighbor1 and therefore commonly they make close decks in the ships to receive the graine1 faire and even boorded1 yet if such decks be matted and lined both under and on each side1 it is much the better1 and this matting would be strong and thinne2 there bee some which make the decks only of mats1 and sure it is sweet1 but not so strong as the boord1 therefore the best way of transportation is to have strong boorded deckes well matted1 and then spreading the corne of a reasonable thicknesse1 to cover it with matting againe1 and then to lay corne on it againe1 and then mats againe1 that betweene every reasonable thicknesse of graine a mat may lie1 the profit whereof is1 that when the corne with his owne heate and the working of the sea shall beginne to sweate1 which sweat for want of aire to drie it up1 would turne to putrifaction1 then the mats thus lying betweene1 will not only exhale and sucke up the sweate1 but also keep the corne so coole and dry1 that no imperfection shall come unto it3 and here is to be noted1 that these mats should rather be made of dry white bents1 than of flagges and bulrush1 for the bent is a firme1 dry1 crispe thing1 and will not relent or sweat of it selfe1 but the flag or bulrush is a spungy and soft substance which is never empty of his own and other moystures4 ,now for transporting of graine1 for victualls for the ship1 which is in much smaller quantity1 because it is best for the private use of a few within the ship2 the only best and safest way1 is1 to take salt-fish barrells1 or any caske in which any salt-fish hath beene piled1 as cod1 herrings1 salmon1 sprats1 or any other powdred i4e41 salted fish2 and whilest the vessels are sweet1 you shall calke them both1 within and without1 plaster and daubing them all over2 then into them put your graine of what kinde soever it be1 and head them up close1 and then stow them in such convenient dry place of the ship1 as you shall thinke fit2 and questionlesse1 if beliefe may be given to the worthiest authors1 which hath writ in this kinde1 you may thus keepe your graine sweet1 sound and in full perfection from one yeere to an hundred and twenty yeers2 but certainly daily experience shows us1 that all kind of graine thus put up and kept1 will remaine sound and sweet1 three1 foure1 and as some say1 seven yeeres1 for so far hath lately been try'd2 and what here ,i speake of on ship-boord1 the like may be done in any town of war or garrison1 whether besieged1 or not besieged1 or in any other place1 where any necessity shall compell2 the proofe of this manner of piling or putting up of graine1 serveth as well for land as sea4