,ver4#jd4jg4jj99;,,end99 ,this etext was prepared by ,sue ,asscher asschersdingoblue4net4au ,,the ,,variation ,,of ,,animals ,,and ,,plants ,,under ,,domestication ,,by ,,charles ,,darwin1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,r4,s41 ,,etc4 ,,in ,,two ,,volumes ,,volume ,i4 ,,preface ,,to ,,the ,,second ,,edition4 ,during the seven years which have elapsed since the publication in #ahfh of the first edition of this ,work1 ,i have continued to attend to the same subjects1 as far as lay in my power2 and ,i have thus accumulated a large body of additional facts1 chiefly through the kindness of many correspondents4 ,of these facts ,i have been able here to use only those which seemed to me the more important4 ,i have omitted some statements1 and corrected some errors1 the discovery of which ,i owe to my reviewers4 ,many additional references have been given4 ,the eleventh chapter1 and that on ,pangenesis1 are those which have been most altered1 parts having been re- modelled2 but ,i will give a list of the more important alterations for the sake of those who may possess the first edition of this book4 ,,contents4 ,,introduction4 ,,chapter #a4;,i4 ,,domestic ,,dogs ,,and ,,cats4 ,,ancient ,,varieties ,,of ,,the ,,dog--,,resemblance ,,of ,,domestic ,,dogs ,,in ,,various ,,countries ,,to ,,native ,,canine ,,species--,,animals ,,not ,,acquainted ,,with ,,man ,,at ,,first ,,fearless--,,dogs ,,resembling ,,wolves ,,and ,,jackals--,,habit ,,of ,,barking ,,acquired ,,and ,,lost--,,feral ,,dogs--,,tan-,,coloured ,,eye-,,spots--,,period ,,of ,,gestation- -,,offensive ,,odour--,,fertility ,,of ,,the ,,races ,,when ,,crossed--,,differences ,,in ,,the ,,several ,,races ,,in ,,part ,,due ,,to ,,descent ,,from ,,distinct ,,species--,,differences ,,in ,,the ,,skull ,,and ,,teeth--,,differences ,,in ,,the ,,body1 ,,in ,,constitution--,,few ,,important ,,differences ,,have ,,been ,,fixed ,,by ,,selection--,,direct ,,action ,,of ,,climate--,,water-,,dogs ,,with ,,palmated ,,feet--,,history ,,of ,,the ,,changes ,,which ,,certain ,,english ,,races ,,of ,,the ,,dog ,,have ,,gradually ,,undergone ,,through ,,selection--,,extinction ,,of ,,the ,,less ,,improved ,,sub-,,breeds4 ,,cats1 ,,crossed ,,with ,,several ,,species--,,different ,,breeds ,,found ,,only ,,in ,,separated ,,countries--,,direct ,,effects ,,of ,,the ,,conditions ,,of ,,life--,,feral ,,cats-- ,,individual ,,variability4 ,,chapter #a4;,,ii4 ,,horses ,,and ,,asses4 ,,horse--,,differences ,,in ,,the ,,breeds--,,individual ,,variability ,,of--,,direct ,,effects ,,of ,,the ,,conditions ,,of ,,life--,,can ,,withstand ,,much ,,cold--,,breeds ,,much ,,modified ,,by ,,selection--,,colours ,,of ,,the ,,horse--,,dappling--,,dark ,,stripes ,,on ,,the ,,spine1 ,,legs1 ,,shoulders1 ,,and ,,forehead--,,dun-,,coloured ,,horses ,,most ,,frequently ,,striped-- ,,stripes ,,probably ,,due ,,to ,,reversion ,,to ,,the ,,primitive ,,state ,,of ,,the ,,horse4 ,,asses--,,breeds ,,of--,,colour ,,of--,,leg- ,,and ,,shoulder-,,stripes--,,shoulder-,,strip es ,,sometimes ,,absent1 ,,sometimes ,,forked4 ,,chapter #a4;,,iii4 ,,pigs--,,cattle--,,sheep--,,goats4 ,,pigs ,,belong ,,to ,,two ,,distinct ,,types1 ,,sus ,,scrofa ,,and ,,indicus--,,torfschwein-- ,,japan ,,pigs--,,fertility ,,of ,,crossed ,,pigs--,,changes ,,in ,,the ,,skull ,,of ,,the ,,highly ,,cultivated ,,races--,,convergence ,,of ,,character--,,gestation--,,solid-,,hoof ed ,,swine-- ,,curious ,,appendages ,,to ,,the ,,jaws--,,decrease ,,in ,,size ,,of ,,the ,,tusks--,,young ,,pigs ,,longitudinally ,,striped--,,feral ,,pigs--,,crossed ,,breeds4 ,,cattle--,,zebu ,a ,,distinct ,,species--,,european ,,cattle ,,probably ,,descended ,,from ,,three ,,wild ,,forms--,,all ,,the ,,races ,,now ,,fertile ,,together--,,british ,,park ,,cattle-- ,,on ,,the ,,colour ,,of ,,the ,,aboriginal ,,species--,,constitutional ,,differences--,,south ,,african ,,races--,,south ,,american ,,races--,,niata ,,cattle--,,origin ,,of ,,the ,,various ,,races ,,of ,,cattle4 ,,sheep--,,remarkable ,,races ,,of--,,variations ,,attached ,,to ,,the ,,male ,,sex-- ,,adaptations ,,to ,,various ,,conditions--,,gestation ,,of--,,changes ,,in ,,the ,,wool--,,semi- ,,monstrous ,,breeds4 ,,goats--,,remarkable ,,variations ,,of4 ,,chapter #a4;,,iv4 ,,domestic ,,rabbits4 ,,domestic ,,rabbits ,,descended ,,from ,,the ,,common ,,wild ,,rabbit--,,ancient ,,domestication--,,ancient ,,selection--,,large ,,lop-,,eared ,,rabbits--,,various ,,breeds-- ,,fluctuating ,,characters--,,origin ,,of ,,the ,,himalayan ,,breed--,,curious ,,case ,,of ,,inheritance--,,feral ,,rabbits ,,in ,,jamaica ,,and ,,the ,,falkland ,,islands--,,porto ,,santo ,,feral ,,rabbits--,,osteological ,,characters--,,skull--,,skull ,,of ,,half-,,lop ,,rabbits-- ,,variations ,,in ,,the ,,skull ,,analogous ,,to ,,differences ,,in ,,different ,,species ,,of ,,hares--,,vertebrae--,,sternum--,,scapu la--,,effects ,,of ,,use ,,and ,,disuse ,,on ,,the ,,proportions ,,of ,,the ,,limbs ,,and ,,body--,,capacity ,,of ,,the ,,skull ,,and ,,reduced ,,size ,,of ,,the ,,brain--,,summary ,,on ,,the ,,modifications ,,of ,,domesticated ,,rabbits4 ,,chapter #a4,v4 ,,domestic ,,pigeons4 ,,enumeration ,,and ,,description ,,of ,,the ,,several ,,breeds--,,individual ,,variability-- ,,variations ,,of ,a ,,remarkable ,,nature--,,osteological ,,characters3 ,,skull1 ,,lower ,,jaw1 ,,number ,,of ,,vertebrae--,,correlation ,,of ,,growth3 ,,tongue ,,with ,,beak2 ,,eyelids ,,and ,,nostrils ,,with ,,wattled ,,skin--,,number ,,of ,,wing-,,feathers ,,and ,,length ,,of ,,wing- -,,colour ,,and ,,down--,,webbed ,,and ,,feathered ,,feet--,,on ,,the ,,effects ,,of ,,disuse-- ,,length ,,of ,,feet ,,in ,,correlation ,,with ,,length ,,of ,,beak--,,length ,,of ,,sternum1 ,,scapula1 ,,and ,,furculum--,,length ,,of ,,wings--,,summary ,,on ,,the ,,points ,,of ,,difference ,,in ,,the ,,several ,,breeds4 ,,chapter #a4,,vi4 ,,pigeons--continued4 ,,on ,,the ,,aboriginal ,,parent-,,stock ,,of ,,the ,,several ,,domestic ,,races--,,habits ,,of ,,life--,,wild ,,races ,,of ,,the ,,rock-,,pigeon--,,dovecote-,,pigeons--, ,proofs ,,of ,,the ,,descent ,,of ,,the ,,several ,,races ,,from ,,columba ,,livia--,,fertility ,,of ,,the ,,races ,,when ,,crossed--,,reversion ,,to ,,the ,,plumage ,,of ,,the ,,wild ,,rock-,,pigeon-- ,,circumstances ,,favourable ,,to ,,the ,,formation ,,of ,,the ,,races--,,antiquity ,,and ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,principal ,,races--,,manner ,,of ,,their ,,formation--,,selection-- ,,unconscious ,,selection--,,care ,,taken ,,by ,,fanciers ,,in ,,selecting ,,their ,,birds-- ,,slightly ,,different ,,strains ,,gradually ,,change ,,into ,,well-,,marked ,,breeds-- ,,extinction ,,of ,,intermediate ,,forms--,,certain ,,breeds ,,remain ,,permanent1 ,,whilst ,,others ,,change--,,summary4 ,,chapter #a4,,vii4 ,,fowls4 ,,brief ,,descriptions ,,of ,,the ,,chief ,,breeds--,,arguments ,,in ,,favour ,,of ,,their ,,descent ,,from ,,several ,,species--,,arguments ,,in ,,favour ,,of ,,all ,,the ,,breeds ,,having ,,descended ,,from ,,gallus ,,bankiva--,,reversion ,,to ,,the ,,parent-,,stock ,,in ,,colour-- ,,analogous ,,variations--,,ancient ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,fowl--,,external ,,differences ,,between ,,the ,,several ,,breeds--,,eggs--,,chickens--,,secondar y ,,sexual ,,characters-- ,,wing-,,and ,,tail-,,feathers1 ,,voice1 ,,disposition1 ,,etc4--,,osteological ,,differences ,,in ,,the ,,skull1 ,,vertebrae1 ,,etc4--,,effects ,,of ,,use ,,and ,,disuse ,,on ,,certain ,,parts-- ,,correlation ,,of ,,growth4 ,,chapter #a4,,viii4 ,,duck--,,goose--,,peacock--,,turkey--,, guinea-,,fowl--,,canary-,,bird--,,gold-, ,fish--,,hive- ,,bees--,,silk-,,moths4 ,,ducks1 ,,several ,,breeds ,,of--,,progress ,,of ,,domestication--,,origin ,,of ,,from ,,the ,,common ,,wild-,,duck--,,differences ,,in ,,the ,,different ,,breeds--,,osteological ,,differences--,,effects ,,of ,,use ,,and ,,disuse ,,on ,,the ,,limb-,,bones4 ,,goose1 ,,anciently ,,domesticated--,,little ,,variation ,,of--,,sebastopol ,,breed4 ,,peacock1 ,,origin ,,of ,,black-,,shouldered ,,breed4 ,,turkey1 ,,breeds ,,of--,,crossed ,,with ,,the ,,united ,,states ,,species--,,effects ,,of ,,climate ,,on4 ,,guinea-,,fowl1 ,,canary-,,bird1 ,,gold-,,fish1 ,,hive-,,bee4 ,,silk-,,moths1 ,,species ,,and ,,breeds ,,of--,,anciently ,,domesticated--,,care ,,in ,,their ,,selection--,,differences ,,in ,,the ,,different ,,races--,,in ,,the ,,egg1 ,,caterpillar1 ,,and ,,cocoon ,,states--,,inheritance ,,of ,,characters--,,imperfect ,,wings--,,lost ,,instincts-- ,,correlated ,,characters4 ,,chapter #a4;,,ix4 ,,cultivated ,,plants3 ,,cereal ,,and ,,culinary ,,plants4 ,,preliminary ,,remarks ,,on ,,the ,,number ,,and ,,parentage ,,of ,,cultivated ,,plants--,,first ,,steps ,,in ,,cultivation--,,geographical ,,distribution ,,of ,,cultivated ,,plants4 ,,cerealia--,,doubts ,,on ,,the ,,number ,,of ,,species--,,wheat3 ,,varieties ,,of--,,individual ,,variability--,,changed ,,habits--,,selection--,,ancient ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,varieties-- ,,maize3 ,,great ,,variation ,,of--,,direct ,,action ,,of ,,climate ,,on4 ,,culinary ,,plants--,,cabbages3 ,,varieties ,,of1 ,,in ,,foliage ,,and ,,stems1 ,,but ,,not ,,in ,,other ,,parts--,,parentage ,,of--,,other ,,species ,,of ,,brassica--,,peas3 ,,amount ,,of ,,difference ,,in ,,the ,,several ,,kinds1 ,,chiefly ,,in ,,the ,,pods ,,and ,,seed--,,some ,,varieties ,,constant1 ,,some ,,highly ,,variable--,,do ,,not ,,intercross--,,beans-- ,,potatoes3 ,,numerous ,,varieties ,,of--,,differ ,,little ,,except ,,in ,,the ,,tubers-- ,,characters ,,inherited4 ,,chapter #a4,x4 ,,plants continued--,,fruits--,,ornamental ,,trees--,,flowers4 ,,fruits--,,grapes--,,vary ,,in ,,odd ,,and ,,trifling ,,particulars--,,mulberry--,,the ,,orange ,,group--,,singular ,,results ,,from ,,crossing--,,peach ,,and ,,nectarine--,,bud-,,variation-- ,,analogous ,,variation--,,relation ,,to ,,the ,,almond--,,apricot--,,plums--,,variatio n ,,in ,,their ,,stones--,,cherries--,,singular ,,varieties ,,of--,,apple--,,pear--,,strawberry-- ,,interblending ,,of ,,the ,,original ,,forms--,,gooseberry--,,steady ,,increase ,,in ,,size ,,of ,,the ,,fruit--,,varieties ,,of--,,walnut--,,nut--,,cucurbitaceous ,,plants--,,wonderful ,,variation ,,of4 ,,ornamental ,,trees--,,their ,,variation ,,in ,,degree ,,and ,,kind--,,ash-,,tree--,,scotch-,,fir- -,,hawthorn4 ,,flowers--,,multiple ,,origin ,,of ,,many ,,kinds--,,variation ,,in ,,constitutional ,,peculiarities--,,kind ,,of ,,variation--,,roses--,,several ,,species ,,cultivated--,,pansy- -,,dahlia--,,hyacinth--,,history ,,and ,,variation ,,of4 ,,chapter #a4,,xi4 ,,on ,,bud-,,variation1 ,,and ,,on ,,certain ,,anomalous ,,modes ,,of ,,reproduction ,,and ,,variation4 ,,bud-,,variation ,,in ,,the ,,peach1 ,,plum1 ,,cherry1 ,,vine1 ,,gooseberry1 ,,currant1 ,,and ,,banana1 ,,as ,,shown ,,by ,,the ,,modified ,,fruit--,,in ,,flowers3 ,,camellias1 ,,azaleas1 ,,chrysanthemums1 ,,roses1 ,,etc4--,,on ,,the ,,running ,,of ,,the ,,colour ,,in ,,carnations --,,bud-,,variations ,,in ,,leaves--,,variations ,,by ,,suckers1 ,,tubers1 ,,and ,,bulbs--,,on ,,the ,,breaking ,,of ,,tulips--,,bud-,,variations ,,graduate ,,into ,,changes ,,consequent ,,on ,,changed ,,conditions ,,of ,,life--,,graft-,,hybrids--,,on ,,the ,,segregation ,,of ,,the ,,parental ,,characters ,,in ,,seminal ,,hybrids ,,by ,,bud-,,variation--,,on ,,the ,,direct ,,or ,,immediate ,,action ,,of ,,foreign ,,pollen ,,on ,,the ,,mother-,,plant--,,on ,,the ,,effects ,,of ,a ,,previous ,,impregnation ,,on ,,the ,,subsequent ,,offspring ,,of ,,female ,,animals-- ,,conclusion ,,and ,,summary4 ,,chapter #a4,,xii4 ,,inheritance4 ,,wonderful ,,nature ,,of ,,inheritance--,,pedigrees ,,of ,,our ,,domesticated ,,animals-- ,,inheritance ,,not ,,due ,,to ,,chance--,,trifling ,,characters ,,inherited--,,diseases ,,inherited--,,peculiarities ,,in ,,the ,,eye ,,inherited--,,diseases ,,in ,,the ,,horse-- ,,longevity ,,and ,,vigour--,,asymmetrical ,,deviations ,,of ,,structure--,,polydactylism ,,and ,,regrowth ,,of ,,supernumerary ,,digits ,,after ,,amputation--,,cases ,,of ,,several ,,children ,,similarly ,,affected ,,from ,,non-,,affected ,,parents--,,weak ,,and ,,fluctuating ,,inheritance3 ,,in ,,weeping ,,trees1 ,,in ,,dwarfness1 ,,colour ,,of ,,fruit ,,and ,,flowers-- ,,colour ,,of ,,horses--,,non-,,inheritance ,,in ,,certain ,,cases--,,inheritance ,,of ,,structure ,,and ,,habits ,,overborne ,,by ,,hostile ,,conditions ,,of ,,life1 ,,by ,,incessantly ,,recurring ,,variability1 ,,and ,,by ,,reversion--,,conclusion4 ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations4 ,,figure4 #a4 ,,dun ,,devonshire ,,pony1 ,,with ,,shoulder1 ,,spinal1 ,,and ,,leg ,,stripes4 #b4 ,,head ,,of ,,japan ,,or ,,masked ,,pig4 #c4 ,,head ,,of ,,wild ,,boar1 ,,and ,,of ,,golden ,,days1 ,a ,,pig ,,of ,,the ,,yorkshire ,,large ,,breed4 #d4 ,,old ,,irish ,,pig ,,with ,,jaw-,,appendages4 #e4 ,,half-,,lop ,,rabbit4 #f4 ,,skull ,,of ,,wild ,,rabbit4 #g4 ,,skull ,,of ,,large ,,lop-,,eared ,,rabbit4 #h4 ,,part ,,of ,,zygomatic ,,arch1 ,,showing ,,the ,,projecting ,,end ,,of ,,the ,,malar ,,bone ,,of ,,the ,,auditory ,,meatus1 ,,of ,,rabbits4 #i4 ,,posterior ,,end ,,of ,,skull1 ,,showing ,,the ,,inter-,,parietal ,,bone1 ,,of ,,rabbits4 #aj4 ,,occipital ,,foramen ,,of ,,rabbits4 #aa4 ,,skull ,,of ,,half-,,lop ,,rabbit4 #ab4 ,,atlas ,,vertebrae ,,of ,,rabbits4 #ac4 ,,third ,,cervical ,,vertebrae ,,of ,,rabbits4 #ad4 ,,dorsal ,,vertebrae1 ,,from ,,sixth ,,to ,,tenth ,,inclusive1 ,,of ,,rabbits4 #ae4 ,,terminal ,,bone ,,of ,,sternum ,,of ,,rabbits4 #af4 ,,acromion ,,of ,,scapula ,,of ,,rabbits4 #ag4 ,,the ,,rock-,,pigeon1 ,,or ,,columba ,,livia4 #ah4 ,,english ,,pouter4 #ai4 ,,english ,,carrier4 #bj4 ,,english ,,barb4 #ba4 ,,english ,,fantail4 #bb4 ,,african ,,owl4 #bc4 ,,short-,,faced ,,english ,,tumbler4 #bd4 ,,skulls ,,of ,,pigeons1 ,,viewed ,,laterally4 #be4 ,,lower ,,jaws ,,of ,,pigeons1 ,,seen ,,from ,,above4 #bf4 ,,skull ,,of ,,runt1 ,,seen ,,from ,,above4 #bg4 ,,lateral ,,view ,,of ,,jaws ,,of ,,pigeons4 #bh4 ,,scapulae ,,of ,,pigeons4 #bi4 ,,furcula ,,of ,,pigeons4 #cj4 ,,spanish ,,fowl4 #ca4 ,,hamburgh ,,fowl4 #cb4 ,,polish ,,fowl4 #cc4 ,,occipital ,,foramen ,,of ,,the ,,skulls ,,of ,,fowls4 #cd4 ,,skulls ,,of ,,fowls1 ,,viewed ,,from ,,above1 ,a ,,little ,,obliquely4 #ce4 ,,longitudinal ,,sections ,,of ,,skulls ,,of ,,fowls1 ,,viewed ,,laterally4 #cf4 ,,skull ,,of ,,horned ,,fowl1 ,,viewed ,,from ,,above1 ,a ,,little ,,obliquely4 #cg4 ,,sixth ,,cervical ,,vertebrae ,,of ,,fowls1 ,,viewed ,,laterally4 #ch4 ,,extremity ,,of ,,the ,,furcula ,,of ,,fowls1 ,,viewed ,,laterally4 #ci4 ,,skulls ,,of ,,ducks1 ,,viewed ,,laterally1 ,,reduced ,,to ,,two-,,thirds ,,of ,,the ,,natural ,,size4 #dj4 ,,cervical ,,vertebrae ,,of ,,ducks1 ,,of ,,natural ,,size4 #da4 ,,pods ,,of ,,the ,,common ,,pea4 #db4 ,,peach ,,and ,,almond ,,stones1 ,,of ,,natural ,,size1 ,,viewed ,,edgeways4 #dc4 ,,plum ,,stones1 ,,of ,,natural ,,size1 ,,viewed ,,laterally4 ,,table #a3 ,,principal ,,additions ,,and ,,corrections ,,in ,,this 7,,second7 ,,edition4 ,first ,edition1 ,volume ,i41 ,page #cd4 ,second ,edition ,volume ,i41 ,page #ce4 ,dr4 ,burt ,wilder's observations on the brains of different breeds of the ,dog4 ,first ,edition1 ,volume ,i41 ,page #ch4 ,second ,edition ,volume ,i41 ,page #dj4 ,degeneracy of ,dogs imported into ,guinea4 ,first ,edition1 ,volume ,i41 ,page #ea4 ,second ,edition ,volume ,i41 ,page #ed4 ,difference in the number of the lumbar vertebrae in the races or species of the ,horse4 ,first ,edition1 ,volume ,i41 ,page #ajb4 ,second ,edition ,volume ,i41 ,page #ajf4 ,hairy appendages to the throats of ,goats4 ,first ,edition1 ,volume ,i41 ,page #afb4 ,second ,edition ,volume ,i41 ,page #agj4 ,sexual differences in colour in the domestic ,pigeon4 ,first ,edition1 ,volume ,i41 ,page #bag4 ,second ,edition ,volume ,i41 ,page #bbh4 ,movements like those of the ,tumbler-pigeon1 caused by injury to the brain4 ,first ,edition1 ,volume ,i41 ,page #bij4 ,second ,edition ,volume ,i41 ,page #cjf4 ,additional facts with respect to the ,black-shouldered ,peacock4 ,first ,edition1 ,volume ,i41 ,page #bif4 ,second ,edition ,volume ,i41 ,page #cab4 ,ancient selection of ,gold-fish in ,china4 ,first ,edition1 ,volume ,i41 ,page #cad4 ,second ,edition ,volume ,i41 ,page #ccb4 ,major ,hallett's ',pedigree ,wheat4' ,first ,edition1 ,volume ,i41 ,page #cbf4 ,second ,edition ,volume ,i41 ,page #cde4 ,the common radish descended from ,raphanus raphanistrum4 ,first ,edition1 ,volume ,i41 ,page #cgd4 ,second ,edition ,volume ,i41 ,page #cih4 ,several additional cases of bud-variation given4 ,first ,edition1 ,volume ,i41 ,page #cif4 ,second ,edition ,volume ,i41 ,page #dbj4 ,an abstract of all the cases recently published of graft-hybrids in the potato1 together with a general summary on graft-hybridisation4 ,first ,edition1 ,volume ,i41 ,page #cii4 ,second ,edition ,volume ,i41 ,page #dbi4 ,an erroneous statement with respect to the pollen of the date-palm affecting the fruit of the ,chamaerops omitted4 ,first ,edition1 ,volume ,i41 ,page #djj4 ,second ,edition ,volume ,i41 ,page #dcj4 ,new cases of the direct action of pollen on the mother-plant4 ,first ,edition1 ,volume ,i41 ,page #djd4 ,second ,edition ,volume ,i41 ,page #dce4 ,additional and remarkable instances of the action of the male parent on the future progeny of the female4 ,first ,edition1 ,volume ,,ii41 ,page #ad4 ,second ,edition ,volume ,i41 ,page #dei4 ,an erroneous statement corrected1 with respect to the regrowth of supernumerary digits after amputation4 ,first ,edition1 ,volume ,,ii41 ,page #bc4 ,second ,edition ,volume ,i41 ,page #dfg4 ,additional facts with respect to the inherited effects of circumcision4 ,first ,edition1 ,volume ,,ii41 ,page #bc4 ,second ,edition ,volume ,i41 ,page #dfg4 ,dr4 ,brown-,sequard on the inherited effects of operations on the ,guinea-pig4 ,first ,edition1 ,volume ,,ii41 ,page #bd4 ,second ,edition ,volume ,i41 ,page #dfi4 ,other cases of inherited mutilations4 ,first ,edition1 ,volume ,,ii41 ,page #dc4 ,second ,edition ,volume ,,ii41 ,page #ag4 ,an additional case of reversion due to a cross4 ,first ,edition1 ,volume ,,ii41 ,page #gb4 ,second ,edition ,volume ,,ii41 ,page #dh4 ,inheritance as limited by sex4 ,first ,edition1 ,volume ,,ii41 ,page #aje4 ,second ,edition ,volume ,,ii41 ,page #hc4 ,two varieties of maize which cannot be crossed4 ,first ,edition1 ,volume ,,ii41 ,page #abj4 ,second ,edition ,volume ,,ii41 ,page #ii4 ,some additional facts on the advantages of cross-breeding in animals4 ,first ,edition1 ,volume ,,ii41 ,page #abc4 ,second ,edition ,volume ,,ii41 ,page #ajc4 ,discussion on the effects of close interbreeding in the case of man4 ,first ,edition1 ,volume ,,ii41 ,page #ace to #ada4 ,second ,edition ,volume ,,ii41 ,page #aag to #abb4 ,additional cases of plants sterile with pollen from the same plant4 ,first ,edition1 ,volume ,,ii41 ,page #adi4 ,second ,edition ,volume ,,ii41 ,page #aca4 ,mr4 ,sclater on the infertility of animals under confinement4 ,first ,edition1 ,volume ,,ii41 ,page #aeb4 ,second ,edition ,volume ,,ii41 ,page #acd4 ,the ,aperea a distinct species from the ,guinea-pig4 ,first ,edition1 ,volume ,,ii41 ,page #bcj4 ,second ,edition ,volume ,,ii41 ,page #bae4 ,professor ,jager on hawks killing light-coloured pigeons4 ,first ,edition1 ,volume ,,ii41 ,page #bgc4 ,second ,edition ,volume ,,ii41 ,page #bfb4 ,professor ,weismann on the effects of isolation in the development of species4 ,first ,edition1 ,volume ,,ii41 ,page #bha4 ,second ,edition ,volume ,,ii41 ,page #bga4 ,the direct action of the conditions of life in causing variation4 ,first ,edition1 ,volume ,,ii41 ,page #cag4 ,second ,edition ,volume ,,ii41 ,page #cji4 ,mr4 ,romanes on rudimentary parts4 ,first ,edition1 ,volume ,,ii41 ,page #cbd to #cbh4 ,second ,edition ,volume ,,ii41 ,page #caf to #cbg4 ,some additional cases of correlated variability4 ,first ,edition1 ,volume ,,ii41 ,page #cci4 ,second ,edition ,volume ,,ii41 ,page #ccc4 ,on ,geoffroy ,st4-,hilaire's law of soi pour soi4 ,first ,edition1 ,volume ,,ii41 ,page #ceg to #djd4 ,second ,edition ,volume ,,ii41 ,page #cdi to #cii4 ,the chapter on ,pangenesis has been largely altered and re-modelled2 but the essential principles remain the same4 ,,the ,,variation ,,of ,,animals ,,and ,,plants ,,under ,,domestication4 ,,introduction4 ,the object of this work is not to describe all the many races of animals which have been domesticated by man1 and of the plants which have been cultivated by him2 even if ,i possessed the requisite knowledge1 so gigantic an undertaking would be here superfluous4 ,it is my intention to give under the head of each species only such facts as ,i have been able to collect or observe1 showing the amount and nature of the changes which animals and plants have undergone whilst under man's dominion1 or which bear on the general principles of variation4 ,in one case alone1 namely in that of the domestic pigeon1 ,i will describe fully all the chief races1 their history1 the amount and nature of their differences1 and the probable steps by which they have been formed4 ,i have selected this case1 because1 as we shall hereafter see1 the materials are better than in any other2 and one case fully described will in fact illustrate all others4 ,but ,i shall also describe domesticated rabbits1 fowls1 and ducks1 with considerable fulness4 ,the subjects discussed in this volume are so connected that it is not a little difficult to decide how they can be best arranged4 ,i have determined in the first part to give1 under the heads of the various animals and plants1 a large body of facts1 some of which may at first appear but little related to our subject1 and to devote the latter part to general discussions4 ,whenever ,i have found it necessary to give numerous details1 in support of any proposition or conclusion1 small type has been used4 7,here shown with 47 ,the reader will1 ,i think1 find this plan a convenience1 for1 if he does not doubt the conclusion or care about the details1 he can easily pass them over2 yet ,i may be permitted to say that some of the discussions thus printed deserve attention1 at least from the professed naturalist4 ,it may be useful to those who have read nothing about ,natural ,selection1 if ,i here give a brief sketch of the whole subject and of its bearing on the origin of species4 7,introduction_/#a4 ,to any one who has attentively read my ',origin of ,species' this ,introduction will be superfluous4 ,as ,i stated in that work that ,i should soon publish the facts on which the conclusions given in it were founded1 ,i here beg permission to remark that the great delay in publishing this first work has been caused by continued ill- health47 ,this is the more desirable1 as it is impossible in the present work to avoid many allusions to questions which will be fully discussed in future volumes4 ,from a remote period1 in all parts of the world1 man has subjected many animals and plants to domestication or culture4 ,man has no power of altering the absolute conditions of life2 he cannot change the climate of any country2 he adds no new element to the soil2 but he can remove an animal or plant from one climate or soil to another1 and give it food on which it did not subsist in its natural state4 ,it is an error to speak of man tampering with nature and causing variability4 ,if a man drops a piece of iron into sulphuric acid1 it cannot be said strictly that he makes the sulphate of iron1 he only allows their elective affinities to come into play4 ,if organic beings had not possessed an inherent tendency to vary1 man could have done nothing4 7,introduction_/#b4 ,m4 ,pouchet has recently 7',plurality of ,races' ,english ,translation #ahfd page #hc etc47 insisted that variation under domestication throws no light on the natural modification of species4 ,i cannot perceive the force of his arguments1 or1 to speak more accurately1 of his assertions to this effect47 ,he unintentionally exposes his animals and plants to various conditions of life1 and variability supervenes1 which he cannot even prevent or check4 ,consider the simple case of a plant which has been cultivated during a long time in its native country1 and which consequently has not been subjected to any change of climate4 ,it has been protected to a certain extent from the competing roots of plants of other kinds2 it has generally been grown in manured soil2 but probably not richer than that of many an alluvial flat2 and lastly1 it has been exposed to changes in its conditions1 being grown sometimes in one district and sometimes in another1 in different soils4 ,under such circumstances1 scarcely a plant can be named1 though cultivated in the rudest manner1 which has not given birth to several varieties4 ,it can hardly be maintained that during the many changes which this earth has undergone1 and during the natural migrations of plants from one land or island to another1 tenanted by different species1 that such plants will not often have been subjected to changes in their conditions analogous to those which almost inevitably cause cultivated plants to vary4 ,no doubt man selects varying individuals1 sows their seeds1 and again selects their varying offspring4 ,but the initial variation on which man works1 and without which he can do nothing1 is caused by slight changes in the conditions of life1 which must often have occurred under nature4 ,man1 therefore1 may be said to have been trying an experiment on a gigantic scale2 and it is an experiment which nature during the long lapse of time has incessantly tried4 ,hence it follows that the principles of domestication are important for us4 ,the main result is that organic beings thus treated have varied largely1 and the variations have been inherited4 ,this has apparently been one chief cause of the belief long held by some few naturalists that species in a state of nature undergo change4 ,i shall in this volume treat1 as fully as my materials permit1 the whole subject of variation under domestication4 ,we may thus hope to obtain some light1 little though it be1 on the causes of variability1--on the laws which govern it1 such as the direct action of climate and food1 the effects of use and disuse1 and of correlation of growth1--and on the amount of change to which domesticated organisms are liable4 ,we shall learn something of the laws of inheritance1 of the effects of crossing different breeds1 and on that sterility which often supervenes when organic beings are removed from their natural conditions of life1 and likewise when they are too closely interbred4 ,during this investigation we shall see that the principle of ,selection is highly important4 ,although man does not cause variability and cannot even prevent it1 he can select1 preserve1 and accumulate the variations given to him by the hand of nature almost in any way which he chooses2 and thus he can certainly produce a great result4 ,selection may be followed either methodically and intentionally1 or unconsciously and unintentionally4 ,man may select and preserve each successive variation1 with the distinct intention of improving and altering a breed1 in accordance with a preconceived idea2 and by thus adding up variations1 often so slight as to be imperceptible by an uneducated eye1 he has effected wonderful changes and improvements4 ,it can1 also1 be clearly shown that man1 without any intention or thought of improving the breed1 by preserving in each successive generation the individuals which he prizes most1 and by destroying the worthless individuals1 slowly1 though surely1 induces great changes4 ,as the will of man thus comes into play1 we can understand how it is that domesticated breeds show adaptation to his wants and pleasures4 ,we can further understand how it is that domestic races of animals and cultivated races of plants often exhibit an abnormal character1 as compared with natural species2 for they have been modified not for their own benefit1 but for that of man4 ,in another work ,i shall discuss1 if time and health permit1 the variability of organic beings in a state of nature2 namely1 the individual differences presented by animals and plants1 and those slightly greater and generally inherited differences which are ranked by naturalists as varieties or geographical races4 ,we shall see how difficult1 or rather how impossible it often is1 to distinguish between races and sub-species1 as the less well- marked forms have sometimes been denominated2 and again between sub-species and true species4 ,i shall further attempt to show that it is the common and widely ranging1 or1 as they may be called1 the dominant species1 which most frequently vary2 and that it is the large and flourishing genera which include the greatest number of varying species4 ,varieties1 as we shall see1 may justly be called incipient species4 ,but it may be urged1 granting that organic beings in a state of nature present some varieties1--that their organisation is in some slight degree plastic2 granting that many animals and plants have varied greatly under domestication1 and that man by his power of selection has gone on accumulating such variations until he has made strongly marked and firmly inherited races2 granting all this1 how1 it may be asked1 have species arisen in a state of nature8 ,the differences between natural varieties are slight2 whereas the differences are considerable between the species of the same genus1 and great between the species of distinct genera4 ,how do these lesser differences become augmented into the greater difference8 ,how do varieties1 or as ,i have called them incipient species1 become converted into true and well-defined species8 ,how has each new species been adapted to the surrounding physical conditions1 and to the other forms of life on which it in any way depends8 ,we see on every side of us innumerable adaptations and contrivances1 which have justly excited the highest admiration of every observer4 ,there is1 for instance1 a fly 7,cecidomyia 7,introduction_/#c4 ,leon ,dufour in ',annales des ,science4 ,nat4' 7#crd series1 ,zoolog47 tome #e page #f477 which deposits its eggs within the stamens of a ,scrophularia1 and secretes a poison which produces a gall1 on which the larva feeds2 but there is another insect 7,misocampus7 which deposits its eggs within the body of the larva within the gall1 and is thus nourished by its living prey2 so that here a hymenopterous insect depends on a dipterous insect1 and this depends on its power of producing a monstrous growth in a particular organ of a particular plant4 ,so it is1 in a more or less plainly marked manner1 in thousands and tens of thousands of cases1 with the lowest as well as with the highest productions of nature4 ,this problem of the conversion of varieties into species1--that is1 the augmentation of the slight differences characteristic of varieties into the greater differences characteristic of species and genera1 including the admirable adaptations of each being to its complex organic and inorganic conditions of life1--has been briefly treated in my ',origin of ,species4' ,it was there shown that all organic beings1 without exception1 tend to increase at so high a ratio1 that no district1 no station1 not even the whole surface of the land or the whole ocean1 would hold the progeny of a single pair after a certain number of generations4 ,the inevitable result is an ever-recurrent ,struggle for ,existence4 ,it has truly been said that all nature is at war2 the strongest ultimately prevail1 the weakest fail2 and we well know that myriads of forms have disappeared from the face of the earth4 ,if then organic beings in a state of nature vary even in a slight degree1 owing to changes in the surrounding conditions1 of which we have abundant geological evidence1 or from any other cause2 if1 in the long course of ages1 inheritable variations ever arise in any way advantageous to any being under its excessively complex and changing relations of life2 and it would be a strange fact if beneficial variations did never arise1 seeing how many have arisen which man has taken advantage of for his own profit or pleasure2 if then these contingencies ever occur1 and ,i do not see how the probability of their occurrence can be doubted1 then the severe and often-recurrent struggle for existence will determine that those variations1 however slight1 which are favourable shall be preserved or selected1 and those which are unfavourable shall be destroyed4 ,this preservation1 during the battle for life1 of varieties which possess any advantage in structure1 constitution1 or instinct1 ,i have called ,natural ,selection2 and ,mr4 ,herbert ,spencer has well expressed the same idea by the ,survival of the ,fittest4 ,the term natural selection is in some respects a bad one1 as it seems to imply conscious choice2 but this will be disregarded after a little familiarity4 ,no one objects to chemists speaking of elective affinity2 and certainly an acid has no more choice in combining with a base1 than the conditions of life have in determining whether or not a new form be selected or preserved4 ,the term is so far a good one as it brings into connection the production of domestic races by man's power of selection1 and the natural preservation of varieties and species in a state of nature4 ,for brevity sake ,i sometimes speak of natural selection as an intelligent power2--in the same way as astronomers speak of the attraction of gravity as ruling the movements of the planets1 or as agriculturists speak of man making domestic races by his power of selection4 ,in the one case1 as in the other1 selection does nothing without variability1 and this depends in some manner on the action of the surrounding circumstances on the organism4 ,i have1 also1 often personified the word ,nature2 for ,i have found it difficult to avoid this ambiguity2 but ,i mean by nature only the aggregate action and product of many natural laws1--and by laws only the ascertained sequence of events4 ,it has been shown from many facts that the largest amount of life can be supported on each area1 by great diversification or divergence in the structure and constitution of its inhabitants4 ,we have1 also1 seen that the continued production of new forms through natural selection1 which implies that each new variety has some advantage over others1 inevitably leads to the extermination of the older and less improved forms4 ,these latter are almost necessarily intermediate in structure1 as well as in descent1 between the last-produced forms and their original parent-species4 ,now1 if we suppose a species to produce two or more varieties1 and these in the course of time to produce other varieties1 the principal of good being derived from diversification of structure will generally lead to the preservation of the most divergent varieties2 thus the lesser differences characteristic of varieties come to be augmented into the greater differences characteristic of species1 and1 by the extermination of the older intermediate forms1 new species end by being distinctly defined objects4 ,thus1 also1 we shall see how it is that organic beings can be classed by what is called a natural method in distinct groups--species under genera1 and genera under families4 ,as all the inhabitants of each country may be said1 owing to their high rate of reproduction1 to be striving to increase in numbers2 as each form comes into competition with many other forms in the struggle for life1--for destroy any one and its place will be seized by others2 as every part of the organisation occasionally varies in some slight degree1 and as natural selection acts exclusively by the preservation of variations which are advantageous under the excessively complex conditions to which each being is exposed1 no limit exists to the number1 singularity1 and perfection of the contrivances and co-adaptations which may thus be produced4 ,an animal or a plant may thus slowly become related in its structure and habits in the most intricate manner to many other animals and plants1 and to the physical conditions of its home4 ,variations in the organisation will in some cases be aided by habit1 or by the use and disuse of parts1 and they will be governed by the direct action of the surrounding physical conditions and by correlation of growth4 ,on the principles here briefly sketched out1 there is no innate or necessary tendency in each being to its own advancement in the scale of organisation4 ,we are almost compelled to look at the specialisation or differentiation of parts or organs for different functions as the best or even sole standard of advancement2 for by such division of labour each function of body and mind is better performed4 ,and as natural selection acts exclusively through the preservation of profitable modifications of structure1 and as the conditions of life in each area generally become more and more complex from the increasing number of different forms which inhabit it and from most of these forms acquiring a more and more perfect structure1 we may confidently believe1 that1 on the whole1 organisation advances4 ,nevertheless a very simple form fitted for very simple conditions of life might remain for indefinite ages unaltered or unimproved2 for what would it profit an infusorial animalcule1 for instance1 or an intestinal worm1 to become highly organised8 ,members of a high group might even become1 and this apparently has often occurred1 fitted for simpler conditions of life2 and in this case natural selection would tend to simplify or degrade the organisation1 for complicated mechanism for simple actions would be useless or even disadvantageous4 ,the arguments opposed to the theory of ,natural ,selection1 have been discussed in my ',origin of ,species1' as far as the size of that work permitted1 under the following heads3 the difficulty in understanding how very simple organs have been converted by small and graduated steps into highly perfect and complex organs2 the marvellous facts of ,instinct2 the whole question of ,hybridity2 and1 lastly1 the absence in our known geological formations of innumerable links connecting all allied species4 ,although some of these difficulties are of great weight1 we shall see that many of them are explicable on the theory of natural selection1 and are otherwise inexplicable4 ,in scientific investigations it is permitted to invent any hypothesis1 and if it explains various large and independent classes of facts it rises to the rank of a well-grounded theory4 ,the undulations of the ether and even its existence are hypothetical1 yet every one now admits the undulatory theory of light4 ,the principle of natural selection may be looked at as a mere hypothesis1 but rendered in some degree probable by what we positively know of the variability of organic beings in a state of nature1--by what we positively know of the struggle for existence1 and the consequent almost inevitable preservation of favourable variations1--and from the analogical formation of domestic races4 ,now this hypothesis may be tested1--and this seems to me the only fair and legitimate manner of considering the whole question1--by trying whether it explains several large and independent classes of facts2 such as the geological succession of organic beings1 their distribution in past and present times1 and their mutual affinities and homologies4 ,if the principle of natural selection does explain these and other large bodies of facts1 it ought to be received4 ,on the ordinary view of each species having been independently created1 we gain no scientific explanation of any one of these facts4 ,we can only say that it has so pleased the ,creator to command that the past and present inhabitants of the world should appear in a certain order and in certain areas2 that ,he has impressed on them the most extraordinary resemblances1 and has classed them in groups subordinate to groups4 ,but by such statements we gain no new knowledge2 we do not connect together facts and laws2 we explain nothing4 ,it was the consideration of such large groups of facts as these which first led me to take up the present subject4 ,when ,i visited during the voyage of ,h4,m4,s4 ,beagle1 the ,galapagos ,archipelago1 situated in the ,pacific ,ocean about #ejj miles from ,south ,america1 ,i found myself surrounded by peculiar species of birds1 reptiles1 and plants1 existing nowhere else in the world4 ,yet they nearly all bore an ,american stamp4 ,in the song of the mocking- thrush1 in the harsh cry of the carrion-hawk1 in the great candlestick-like opuntias1 ,i clearly perceived the neighbourhood of ,america1 though the islands were separated by so many miles of ocean from the mainland1 and differed much in their geological constitution and climate4 ,still more surprising was the fact that most of the inhabitants of each separate island in this small archipelago were specifically different1 though most closely related to each other4 ,the archipelago1 with its innumerable craters and bare streams of lava1 appeared to be of recent origin2 and thus ,i fancied myself brought near to the very act of creation4 ,i often asked myself how these many peculiar animals and plants had been produced3 the simplest answer seemed to be that the inhabitants of the several islands had descended from each other1 undergoing modification in the course of their descent2 and that all the inhabitants of the archipelago were descended from those of the nearest land1 namely ,america1 whence colonists would naturally have been derived4 ,but it long remained to me an inexplicable problem how the necessary degree of modification could have been effected1 and it would have thus remained for ever1 had ,i not studied domestic productions1 and thus acquired a just idea of the power of ,selection4 ,as soon as ,i had fully realised this idea1 ,i saw1 on reading ,malthus on ,population1 that ,natural ,selection was the inevitable result of the rapid increase of all organic beings2 for ,i was prepared to appreciate the struggle for existence by having long studied the habits of animals4 ,before visiting the ,galapagos ,i had collected many animals whilst travelling from north to south on both sides of ,america1 and everywhere1 under conditions of life as different as it is possible to conceive1 ,american forms were met with--species replacing species of the same peculiar genera4 ,thus it was when the ,cordilleras were ascended1 or the thick tropical forests penetrated1 or the fresh waters of ,america searched4 ,subsequently ,i visited other countries1 which in all their conditions of life were incomparably more like parts of ,south ,america1 than the different parts of that continent are to each other2 yet in these countries1 as in ,australia or ,southern ,africa1 the traveller cannot fail to be struck with the entire difference of their productions4 ,again the reflection was forced on me that community of descent from the early inhabitants of ,south ,america would alone explain the wide prevalence of ,american types throughout that immense area4 ,to exhume with one's own hands the bones of extinct and gigantic quadrupeds brings the whole question of the succession of species vividly before one's mind2 and ,i found in ,south ,america great pieces of tesselated armour exactly like1 but on a magnificent scale1 that covering the pigmy armadillo2 ,i had found great teeth like those of the living sloth1 and bones like those of the cavy4 ,an analogous succession of allied forms had been previously observed in ,australia4 ,here then we see the prevalence1 as if by descent1 in time as in space1 of the same types in the same areas2 and in neither the case does the similarity of the conditions by any means seem sufficient to account for the similarity of the forms of life4 ,it is notorious that the fossil remains of closely consecutive formations are closely allied in structure1 and we can at once understand the fact if they are closely allied by descent4 ,the succession of the many distinct species of the same genus throughout the long series of geological formations seems to have been unbroken or continuous4 ,new species come in gradually one by one4 ,ancient and extinct forms of life are often intermediate in character1 like the words of a dead language with respect to its several offshoots or living tongues4 ,all these facts seemed to me to point to descent with modification as the means of production of new species4 ,the innumerable past and present inhabitants of the world are connected together by the most singular and complex affinities1 and can be classed in groups under groups1 in the same manner as varieties can be classed under species and sub-varieties under varieties1 but with much higher grades of difference4 ,these complex affinities and the rules for classification1 receive a rational explanation on the theory of descent1 combined with the principle of natural selection1 which entails divergence of character and the extinction of intermediate forms4 ,how inexplicable is the similar pattern of the hand of a man1 the foot of a dog1 the wing of a bat1 the flipper of a seal1 on the doctrine of independent acts of creation6 how simply explained on the principle of the natural selection of successive slight variations in the diverging descendants from a single progenitor6 ,so it is with certain parts or organs in the same individual animal or plant1 for instance1 the jaws and legs of a crab1 or the petals1 stamens1 and pistils of a flower4 ,during the many changes to which in the course of time organic beings have been subjected1 certain organs or parts have occasionally become at first of little use and ultimately superfluous2 and the retention of such parts in a rudimentary and useless condition is intelligible on the theory of descent4 ,it can be shown that modifications of structure are generally inherited by the offspring at the same age at which each successive variation appeared in the parents2 it can further be shown that variations do not commonly supervene at a very early period of embryonic growth1 and on these two principles we can understand that most wonderful fact in the whole circuit of natural history1 namely1 the close similarity of the embryos within the same great class--for instance1 those of mammals1 birds1 reptiles1 and fish4 ,it is the consideration and explanation of such facts as these which has convinced me that the theory of descent with modification by means of natural selection is in the main true4 ,these facts have as yet received no explanation on the theory of independent ,creation2 they cannot be grouped together under one point of view1 but each has to be considered as an ultimate fact4 ,as the first origin of life on this earth1 as well as the continued life of each individual1 is at present quite beyond the scope of science1 ,i do not wish to lay much stress on the greater simplicity of the view of a few forms or of only one form having been originally created1 instead of innumerable miraculous creations having been necessary at innumerable periods2 though this more simple view accords well with ,maupertuis's philosophical axiom of least action4 ,in considering how far the theory of natural selection may be extended1 --that is1 in determining from how many progenitors the inhabitants of the world have descended1--we may conclude that at least all the members of the same class have descended from a single ancestor4 ,a number of organic beings are included in the same class1 because they present1 independently of their habits of life1 the same fundamental type of structure1 and because they graduate into each other4 ,moreover1 members of the same class can in most cases be shown to be closely alike at an early embryonic age4 ,these facts can be explained on the belief of their descent from a common form2 therefore it may be safely admitted that all the members of the same class are descended from one progenitor4 ,but as the members of quite distinct classes have something in common in structure and much in common in constitution1 analogy would lead us one step further1 and to infer as probable that all living creatures are descended from a single prototype4 ,i hope that the reader will pause before coming to any final and hostile conclusion on the theory of natural selection4 ,the reader may consult my ',origin of ,species' for a general sketch of the whole subject2 but in that work he has to take many statements on trust4 ,in considering the theory of natural selection1 he will assuredly meet with weighty difficulties1 but these difficulties relate chiefly to subjects--such as the degree of perfection of the geological record1 the means of distribution1 the possibility of transitions in organs1 etc4--on which we are confessedly ignorant2 nor do we know how ignorant we are4 ,if we are much more ignorant than is generally supposed1 most of these difficulties wholly disappear4 ,let the reader reflect on the difficulty of looking at whole classes of facts from a new point of view4 ,let him observe how slowly1 but surely1 the noble views of ,lyell on the gradual changes now in progress on the earth's surface have been accepted as sufficient to account for all that we see in its past history4 ,the present action of natural selection may seem more or less probable2 but ,i believe in the truth of the theory1 because it collects1 under one point of view1 and gives a rational explanation of1 many apparently independent classes of facts4 7,introduction_/#d4 ,in treating the several subjects included in the present and my other works ,i have continually been led to ask for information from many zoologists1 botanists1 geologists1 breeders of animals1 and horticulturists1 and ,i have invariably received from them the most generous assistance4 ,without such aid ,i could have effected little4 ,i have repeatedly applied for information and specimens to foreigners1 and to ,british merchants and officers of the ,government residing in distant lands1 and1 with the rarest exceptions1 ,i have received prompt1 open-handed1 and valuable assistance4 ,i cannot express too strongly my obligations to the many persons who have assisted me1 and who1 ,i am convinced1 would be equally willing to assist others in any scientific investigation47 ,,chapter #a4;,i4 ,,domestic ,,dogs ,,and ,,cats4 ,,ancient ,,varieties ,,of ,,the ,,dog4 ,,resemblance ,,of ,,domestic ,,dogs ,,in ,,various ,,countries ,,to ,,native ,,canine ,,species4 ,,animals ,,not ,,acquainted ,,with ,,man ,,at ,,first ,,fearless4 ,,dogs ,,resembling ,,wolves ,,and ,,jackals4 ,,habit ,,of ,,barking ,,acquired ,,and ,,lost4 ,,feral ,,dogs4 ,,tan-,,coloured ,,eye-,,spots4 ,,period ,,of ,,gestation4 ,,offensive ,,odour4 ,,fertility ,,of ,,the ,,races ,,when ,,crossed4 ,,differences ,,in ,,the ,,several ,,races ,,in ,,part ,,due ,,to ,,descent ,,from ,,distinct ,,species4 ,,differences ,,in ,,the ,,skull ,,and ,,teeth4 ,,differences ,,in ,,the ,,body1 ,,in ,,constitution4 ,,few ,,important ,,differences ,,have ,,been ,,fixed ,,by ,,selection4 ,,direct ,,action ,,of ,,climate4 ,,water-,,dogs ,,with ,,palmated ,,feet4 ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,changes ,,which ,,certain ,,english ,,races ,,of ,,the ,,dog ,,have ,,gradually ,,undergone ,,through ,,selection4 ,,extinction ,,of ,,the ,,less ,,improved ,,sub-,,breeds4 ,,cats1 ,,crossed ,,with ,,several ,,species4 ,,different ,,breeds ,,found ,,only ,,in ,,separated ,,countries4 ,,direct ,,effects ,,of ,,the ,,conditions ,,of ,,life4 ,,feral ,,cats4 ,,individual ,,variability4 ,the first and chief point of interest in this chapter is1 whether the numerous domesticated varieties of the dog have descended from a single wild species1 or from several4 ,some authors believe that all have descended from the wolf1 or from the jackal1 or from an unknown and extinct species4 ,others again believe1 and this of late has been the favourite tenet1 that they have descended from several species1 extinct and recent1 more or less commingled together4 ,we shall probably never be able to ascertain their origin with certainty4 ,palaeontology 7#a_/a4 ,owen ',british ,fossil ,mammals' pages #abc to #acc4 ,pictet ',traite de ,pal4' #ahec tome #a page #bjb4 ,de ,blainville in his ',osteographie1 ,canidae' page #adb has largely discussed the whole subject1 and concludes that the extinct parent of all domesticated dogs came nearest to the wolf in organisation1 and to the jackal in habits4 ,see also ,boyd ,dawkins1 ',cave ,hunting' #ahgd page #aca etc4 and his other publications4 ,jeitteles has discussed in great detail the character of the breeds of pre-historic dogs3 ',die vorgeschichtlichen ,alterthumer der ,stadt ,olmutz' ,,ii4 ,theil1 #ahgb page #dd to end47 does not throw much light on the question1 owing1 on the one hand1 to the close similarity of the skulls of extinct as well as living wolves and jackals1 and owing1 on the other hand1 to the great dissimilarity of the skulls of the several breeds of the domestic dogs4 ,it seems1 however1 that remains have been found in the later tertiary deposits more like those of a large dog than of a wolf1 which favours the belief of ,de ,blainville that our dogs are the descendants of a single extinct species4 ,on the other hand1 some authors go so far as to assert that every chief domestic breed must have had its wild prototype4 ,this latter view is extremely improbable3 it allows nothing for variation2 it passes over the almost monstrous character of some of the breeds2 and it almost necessarily assumes that a large number of species have become extinct since man domesticated the dog2 whereas we plainly see that wild members of the dog-family are extirpated by human agency with much difficulty2 even so recently as #agaj the wolf existed in so small an island as ,ireland4 ,the reasons which have led various authors to infer that our dogs have descended from more than one wild species are as follows4 7#a_/b4 ,pallas1 ,i believe1 originated this doctrine in ',act4 ,acad4 ,st4 ,petersburgh' #aghj ,part #b4 ,ehrenberg has advocated it1 as may be seen in ,de ,blainville's ',osteographie' page #gi4 ,it has been carried to an extreme extent by ,col4 ,hamilton ,smith in the ',naturalist ,library' volumes #i and #aj4 ,mr4 ,w4,c4 ,martin adopts it in his excellent ',history of the ,dog' #ahde2 as does ,dr4 ,morton1 as well as ,nott and ,gliddon1 in the ,united ,states4 ,prof4 ,low1 in his ',domesticated ,animals' #ahde page #fff1 comes to this same conclusion4 ,no one has argued on this side with more clearness and force than the late ,james ,wilson1 of ,edinburgh1 in various papers read before the ,highland ,agricultural and ,wernerian ,societies4 ,isidore ,geoffroy ,saint-,hilaire 7',hist4 ,nat4 ,gen4' #ahfj tome #c page #ajg71 though he believes that most dogs have descended from the jackal1 yet inclines to the belief that some are descended from the wolf4 ,prof4 ,gervais 7',hist4 ,nat4 ,mamm4' #ahee tome #b page #fi1 referring to the view that all the domestic races are the modified descendants of a single species1 after a long discussion1 says1 ,cette opinion est1 suivant nous du moins1 la moins probable47 ,firstly1 the great difference between the several breeds2 but this will appear of comparatively little weight1 after we shall have seen how great are the differences between the several races of various domesticated animals which certainly have descended from a single parent-form4 ,secondly1 the more important fact1 that1 at the most anciently known historical periods1 several breeds of the dog existed1 very unlike each other1 and closely resembling or identical with breeds still alive4 ,we will briefly run back through the historical records4 ,the materials are remarkably deficient between the fourteenth century and the ,roman classical period4 7#a_/c4 ,berjeau ',the ,varieties of the ,dog2 in old ,sculptures and ,pictures' #ahfc4 ',der ,hund' von ,dr4 ,f4,l4 ,walther1 ,giessen #ahag s4 #dh3 this author seems carefully to have studied all classical works on the subject4 ,see also ,volz ',beitrage zur ,kulturgeschichte' ,leipzig #aheb s4 #aae1 ',youatt on the ,dog' #ahde page #f4 ,a very full history is given by ,de ,blainville in his ',osteographie1 ,canidae4'7 ,at this latter period various breeds1 namely hounds1 house-dogs1 lapdogs1 etc1 existed2 but1 as ,dr4 ,walther has remarked1 it is impossible to recognise the greater number with any certainty4 ,youatt1 however1 gives a drawing of a beautiful sculpture of two greyhound puppies from the ,villa of ,antoninus4 ,on an ,assyrian monument1 about #fdj ,b4,c41an enormous mastiff 7#a_/d4 ,i have seen drawings of this dog from the tomb of the son of ,esar ,haddon1 and clay models in the ,british ,museum4 ,nott and ,gliddon1 in their ',types of ,mankind' #ahed page #cic1 give a copy of these drawings4 ,this dog has been called a ,thibetan mastiff1 but ,mr4 ,h4,a4 ,oldfield1 who is familiar with the so-called ,thibet mastiff1 and has examined the drawings in the ,british ,museum1 informs me that he considers them different47 is figured2 and according to ,sir ,h4 ,rawlinson 7as ,i was informed at the ,british ,museum71 similar dogs are still imported into this same country4 ,i have looked through the magnificent works of ,lepsius and ,rosellini1 and on the ,egyptian monuments from the fourth to the twelfth dynasties 7i4e4 from about #cdjj ,b4,c4 to #bajj ,b4,c47 several varieties of the dog are represented2 most of them are allied to greyhounds2 at the later of these periods a dog resembling a hound is figured1 with drooping ears1 but with a longer back and more pointed head than in our hounds4 ,there is1 also1 a turnspit1 with short and crooked legs1 closely resembling the existing variety2 but this kind of monstrosity is so common with various animals1 as with the ancon sheep1 and even1 according to ,rengger1 with jaguars in ,paraguay1 that it would be rash to look at the monumental animal as the parent of all our turnspits3 ,colonel ,sykes 7#a_/e4 ',proc4 ,zoolog4 ,soc4' ,july #ab1 #ahca47 also has described an ,indian pariah dog as presenting the same monstrous character4 ,the most ancient dog represented on the ,egyptian monuments is one of the most singular2 it resembles a greyhound1 but has long pointed ears and a short curled tail3 a closely allied variety still exists in ,northern ,africa2 for ,mr4 ,e4 ,vernon ,harcourt 7#a_/f4 ',sporting in ,algeria' page #ea47 states that the ,arab boar-hound is an eccentric hieroglyphic animal1 such as ,cheops once hunted with1 somewhat resembling the rough ,scotch deer-hound2 their tails are curled tight round on their backs1 and their ears stick out at right angles4 ,with this most ancient variety a pariah-like dog coexisted4 ,we thus see that1 at a period between four and five thousand years ago1 various breeds1 viz4 pariah dogs1 greyhounds1 common hounds1 mastiffs1 house-dogs1 lapdogs1 and turnspits1 existed1 more or less closely resembling our present breeds4 ,but there is not sufficient evidence that any of these ancient dogs belonged to the same identical sub-varieties with our present dogs4 7#a_/g4 ,berjeau gives facsimiles of the ,egyptian drawings4 ,mr4 ,c4,l4 ,martin in his ',history of the ,dog' #ahde copies several figures from the ,egyptian monuments1 and speaks with much confidence with respect to their identity with still living dogs4 ,messrs4 ,nott and ,gliddon 7',types of ,mankind' #ahed page #chh7 give still more numerous figures4 ,mr4 ,gliddon asserts that a curl-tailed greyhound1 like that represented on the most ancient monuments1 is common in ,borneo2 but the ,rajah1 ,sir ,j4 ,brooke1 informs me that no such dog exists there47 ,as long as man was believed to have existed on this earth only about #fjjj years1 this fact of the great diversity of the breeds at so early a period was an argument of much weight that they had proceeded from several wild sources1 for there would not have been sufficient time for their divergence and modification4 ,but now that we know1 from the discovery of flint tools embedded with the remains of extinct animals in districts which have since undergone great geographical changes1 that man has existed for an incomparably longer period1 and bearing in mind that the most barbarous nations possess domestic dogs1 the argument from insufficient time falls away greatly in value4 ,long before the period of any historical record the dog was domesticated in ,europe4 ,in the ,danish ,middens of the ,neolithic or ,newer ,stone period1 bones of a canine animal are embedded1 and ,steenstrup ingeniously argues that these belonged to a domestic dog2 for a very large proportion of the bones of birds preserved in the refuse consists of long bones1 which it was found on trial dogs cannot devour4 7#a_/h4 ,these1 and the following facts on the ,danish remains1 are taken from ,m4 ,morlot's most interesting memoir in ',soc4 ,vaudoise des ,sc4 ,nat4' tome #f #ahfj pages #bha1 #bii1 #cbj47 ,this ancient dog was succeeded in ,denmark during the ,bronze period by a larger kind1 presenting certain differences1 and this again during the ,iron period1 by a still larger kind4 ,in ,switzerland1 we hear from ,prof4 ,rutimeyer 7#a_/i4 ',die ,fauna der ,pfahlbauten' #ahfa s4 #aag1 #afb471 that during the ,neolithic period a domesticated dog of middle size existed1 which in its skull was about equally remote from the wolf and jackal1 and partook of the characters of our hounds and setters or spaniels 7,jagdhund und ,wachtelhund74 ,rutimeyer insists strongly on the constancy of form during a very long period of time of this the most ancient known dog4 ,during the ,bronze period a larger dog appeared1 and this closely resembled in its jaw a dog of the same age in ,denmark4 ,remains of two notably distinct varieties of the dog were found by ,schmerling in a cave 7#a_/aj4 ,de ,blainville ',osteographie1 ,canidae4'72 but their age cannot be positively determined4 ,the existence of a single race1 remarkably constant in form during the whole ,neolithic period1 is an interesting fact in contrast with what we see of the changes which the races underwent during the period of the successive ,egyptian monuments1 and in contrast with our existing dogs4 ,the character of this animal during the ,neolithic period1 as given by ,rutimeyer1 supports ,de ,blainville's view that our varieties have descended from an unknown and extinct form4 ,but we should not forget that we know nothing with respect to the antiquity of man in the warmer parts of the world4 ,the succession of the different kinds of dogs in ,switzerland and ,denmark is thought to be due to the immigration of conquering tribes bringing with them their dogs2 and this view accords with the belief that different wild canine animals were domesticated in different regions4 ,independently of the immigration of new races of man1 we know from the wide-spread presence of bronze1 composed of an alloy of tin1 how much commerce there must have been throughout ,europe at an extremely remote period1 and dogs would then probably have been bartered4 ,at the present time1 amongst the savages of the interior of ,guiana1 the ,taruma ,indians are considered the best trainers of dogs1 and possess a large breed which they barter at a high price with other tribes4 7#a_/aa4 ,sir ,r4 ,schomburgk has given me information on this head4 ,see also ',journal of ,r4 ,geographical ,soc4' volume #ac #ahdc page #fe47 ,the main argument in favour of the several breeds of the dog being the descendants of distinct wild stocks1 is their resemblance in various countries to distinct species still existing there4 ,it must1 however1 be admitted that the comparison between the wild and domesticated animal has been made but in few cases with sufficient exactness4 ,before entering on details1 it will be well to show that there is no a priori difficulty in the belief that several canine species have been domesticated4 ,members of the dog family inhabit nearly the whole world2 and several species agree pretty closely in habits and structure with our several domesticated dogs4 ,mr4 ,galton has shown 7#a_/ab4 ',domestication of ,animals' ,ethnological ,soc4 ,december #bb1 #ahfc47 how fond savages are of keeping and taming animals of all kinds4 ,social animals are the most easily subjugated by man1 and several species of ,canidae hunt in packs4 ,it deserves notice1 as bearing on other animals as well as on the dog1 that at an extremely ancient period1 when man first entered any country1 the animals living there would have felt no instinctive or inherited fear of him1 and would consequently have been tamed far more easily than at present4 ,for instance1 when the ,falkland ,islands were first visited by man1 the large wolf-like dog 7,canis antarcticus7 fearlessly came to meet ,byron's sailors1 who1 mistaking this ignorant curiosity for ferocity1 ran into the water to avoid them3 even recently a man1 by holding a piece of meat in one hand and a knife in the other1 could sometimes stick them at night4 ,on a island in the ,sea of ,aral1 when first discovered by ,butakoff1 the saigak antelopes1 which are generally very timid and watchful1 did not fly from us1 but on the contrary looked at us with a sort of curiosity4 ,so1 again1 on the shores of the ,mauritius1 the manatee was not at first in the least afraid of man1 and thus it has been in several quarters of the world with seals and the morse4 ,i have elsewhere shown 7#a_/ac4 ',journal of ,researches' etc4 #ahde page #cic4 ,with respect to ,canis antarcticus1 see page #aic4 ,for the case of the antelope1 see ',journal ,royal ,geographical ,soc4' volume #bc page #id47 how slowly the native birds of several islands have acquired and inherited a salutary dread of man3 at the ,galapagos ,archipelago ,i pushed with the muzzle of my gun hawks from a branch1 and held out a pitcher of water for other birds to alight on and drink4 ,quadrupeds and birds which have seldom been disturbed by man1 dread him no more than do our ,english birds1 the cows1 or horses grazing in the fields4 ,it is a more important consideration that several canine species evince 7as will be shown in a future chapter7 no strong repugnance or inability to breed under confinement2 and the incapacity to breed under confinement is one of the commonest bars to domestication4 ,lastly1 savages set the highest value1 as we shall see in the chapter on ,selection1 on dogs3 even half- tamed animals are highly useful to them3 the ,indians of ,north ,america cross their half-wild dogs with wolves1 and thus render them even wilder than before1 but bolder3 the savages of ,guiana catch and partially tame and use the whelps of two wild species of ,canis1 as do the savages of ,australia those of the wild ,dingo4 ,mr4 ,philip ,king informs me that he once trained a wild ,dingo puppy to drive cattle1 and found it very useful4 ,from these several considerations we see that there is no difficulty in believing that man might have domesticated various canine species in different countries4 ,it would indeed have been a strange fact if one species alone had been domesticated throughout the world4 ,we will now enter into details4 ,the accurate and sagacious ,richardson says1 ,the resemblance between the ,northern ,american wolves 7,canis lupus1 var4 occidentalis7 and the domestic dogs of the ,indians is so great that the size and strength of the wolf seems to be the only difference4 ,i have more than once mistaken a band of wolves for the dogs of a party of ,indians2 and the howl of the animals of both species is prolonged so exactly in the same key that even the practised ear of the ,indian fails at times to discriminate them4' ,he adds that the more northern ,esquimaux dogs are not only extremely like the grey wolves of the ,arctic circle in form and colour1 but also nearly equal them in size4 ,dr4 ,kane has often seen in his teams of sledge-dogs the oblique eye 7a character on which some naturalists lay great stress71 the drooping tail1 and scared look of the wolf4 ,in disposition the ,esquimaux dogs differ little from wolves1 and1 according to ,dr4 ,hayes1 they are capable of no attachment to man1 and are so savage that when hungry they will attack even their masters4 ,according to ,kane they readily become feral4 ,their affinity is so close with wolves that they frequently cross with them1 and the ,indians take the whelps of wolves to improve the breed of their dogs4 ,the half-bred wolves sometimes 7,lamare- ,picquot7 cannot be tamed1 though this case is rare2 but they do not become thoroughly well broken in till the second or third generation4 ,these facts show that there can be but little1 if any1 sterility between the ,esquimaux dog and the wolf1 for otherwise they would not be used to improve the breed4 ,as ,dr4 ,hayes says of these dogs1 reclaimed wolves they doubtless are4 7#a_/ad4 ,the authorities for the foregoing statements are as follow3--,richardson in ',fauna ,boreali-,americana' #ahbi pages #fd1 #ge2 ,dr4 ,kane ',arctic ,explorations' #ahef volume #a pages #cih1 #dee2 ,dr4 ,hayes ',arctic ,boat ,journey' #ahfj page #afg4 ,franklin's ',narrative' volume #a page #bfi1 gives the case of three whelps of a black wolf being carried away by the ,indians4 ,parry1 ,richardson1 and others1 give accounts of wolves and dogs naturally crossing in the eastern parts of ,north ,america4 ,seeman in his ',voyage of ,h4,m4,s4 ,herald' #ahec volume #b page #bf1 says the wolf is often caught by the ,esquimaux for the purpose of crossing with their dogs1 and thus adding to their size and strength4 ,m4 ,lamare-,picquot in ',bull4 de la ,soc4 d',acclimat4' tome #g #ahfj page #adh1 gives a good account of the half- bred ,esquimaux dogs47 ,north ,america is inhabited by a second kind of wolf1 the prairie-wolf 7,canis latrans71 which is now looked at by all naturalists as specifically distinct from the common wolf2 and is1 according to ,mr4 ,j4,k4 ,lord1 in some respects intermediate in habits between a wolf and a fox4 ,sir ,j4 ,richardson1 after describing the ,hare ,indian dog1 which differs in many respects from the ,esquimaux dog1 says1 ,it bears the same relation to the prairie-wolf that the ,esquimaux dog does to the great grey wolf4 ,he could1 in fact1 detect no marked difference between them2 and ,messrs4 ,nott and ,gliddon give additional details showing their close resemblance4 ,the dogs derived from the above two aboriginal sources cross together and with the wild wolves1 at least with the ,c4 occidentalis1 and with ,european dogs4 ,in ,florida1 according to ,bartram1 the black wolf-dog of the ,indians differs in nothing from the wolves of that country except in barking4 7#a_/ae4 ',fauna ,boreali-,americana' #ahbi pages #gc1 #gh1 #hj4 ,nott and ,gliddon1 ',types of ,mankind' page #chc4 ,the naturalist and traveller ,bartram is quoted by ,hamilton ,smith in ',naturalist ,lib4' volume #aj page #aef4 ,a ,mexican domestic dog seems also to resemble a wild dog of the same country2 but this may be the prairie-wolf4 ,another capable judge1 ,mr4 ,j4,k4 ,lord 7',the ,naturalist in ,vancouver ,island' #ahff volume #b page #bah71 says that the ,indian dog of the ,spokans1 near the ,rocky ,mountains1 is beyond all question nothing more than a tamed ,cayote or prairie-wolf1 or ,canis latrans47 ,turning to the southern parts of the new world1 ,columbus found two kinds of dogs in the ,west ,indies2 and ,fernandez 7#a_/af4 ,i quote this from ,mr4 ,r4 ,hill's excellent account of the ,alco or domestic dog of ,mexico1 in ,gosse's ',naturalist's ,sojourn in ,jamaica' #ahea page #cbi47 describes three in ,mexico3 some of these native dogs were dumb--that is1 did not bark4 ,in ,guiana it has been known since the time of ,buffon that the natives cross their dogs with an aboriginal species1 apparently the ,canis cancrivorus4 ,sir ,r4 ,schomburgk1 who has so carefully explored these regions1 writes to me1 ,i have been repeatedly told by the ,arawaak ,indians1 who reside near the coast1 that they cross their dogs with a wild species to improve the breed1 and individual dogs have been shown to me which certainly resembled the ,c4 cancrivorus much more than the common breed4 ,it is but seldom that the ,indians keep the ,c4 cancrivorus for domestic purposes1 nor is the ,ai1 another species of wild dog1 and which ,i consider to be identical with the ,dusicyon silvestris of ,h4 ,smith1 now much used by the ,arecunas for the purpose of hunting4 ,the dogs of the ,taruma ,indians are quite distinct1 and resemble ,buffon's ,st4 ,domingo greyhound4 ,it thus appears that the natives of ,guiana have partially domesticated two aboriginal species1 and still cross their dogs with them2 these two species belong to a quite different type from the ,north ,american and ,european wolves4 ,a careful observer1 ,rengger 7#a_/ag4 ',naturgeschichte der ,saugethiere von ,paraguay' #ahcj s4 #aea471 gives reasons for believing that a hairless dog was domesticated when ,america was first visited by ,europeans3 some of these dogs in ,paraguay are still dumb1 and ,tschudi 7#a_/ah4 ,quoted in ,humboldt ',aspects of ,nature' 7,english translation7 volume #a page #ajh47 states that they suffer from cold in the ,cordillera4 ,this naked dog is1 however quite distinct from that found preserved in the ancient ,peruvian burial-places1 and described by ,tschudi1 under the name of ,canis ingae1 as withstanding cold well and as barking4 ,it is not known whether these two distinct kinds of dog are the descendants of native species1 and it might be argued that when man first migrated into ,america he brought with him from the ,asiatic continent dogs which had not learned to bark2 but this view does not seem probable1 as the natives along the line of their march from the north reclaimed1 as we have seen1 at least two ,n4 ,american species of ,canidae4 ,turning to the ,old ,world1 some ,european dogs closely resemble the wolf2 thus the shepherd dog of the plains of ,hungary is white or reddish-brown1 has a sharp nose1 short1 erect ears1 shaggy coat1 and bushy tail1 and so much resembles a wolf that ,mr4 ,paget1 who gives this description1 says he has known a ,hungarian mistake a wolf for one of his own dogs4 ,jeitteles1 also1 remarks on the close similarity of the ,hungarian dog and wolf4 ,shepherd dogs in ,italy must anciently have closely resembled wolves1 for ,columella 7vii4 #ab7 advises that white dogs be kept1 adding1 pastor album probat1 ne pro lupo canem feriat4 ,several accounts have been given of dogs and wolves crossing naturally2 and ,pliny asserts that the ,gauls tied their female dogs in the woods that they might cross with wolves4 7#a_/ai4 ,paget ',travels in ,hungary and ,transylvania' volume #a page #eja4 ,jeitteles ',fauna ,hungariae ,superioris' #ahfb s4 #ac4 ,see ,pliny ',history of the ,world' 7,english translation7 #hth book ch4 #dj about the ,gauls crossing their dogs4 ,see also ,aristotle ',hist4 ,animal4' ,lib4 #h c4 #bh4 ,for good evidence about wolves and dogs naturally crossing near the ,pyrenees1 see ,m4 ,mauduyt ',du ,loup et de ses ,races' ,poitiers1 #ahea2 also ,pallas in ',acta ,acad4 ,st4 ,petersburgh' #aghj part #b page #id47 ,the ,european wolf differs slightly from that of ,north ,america1 and has been ranked by many naturalists as a distinct species4 ,the common wolf of ,india is also by some esteemed as a third species1 and here again we find a marked resemblance between the pariah dogs of certain districts of ,india and the ,indian wolf4 7#a_/bj4 ,i give this on excellent authority1 namely ,mr4 ,blyth 7under the signature of ,zoophilus7 in the ',indian ,sporting ,review' ,october #ahef page #acd4 ,mr4 ,blyth states that he was struck with the resemblance between a brush-tailed race of pariah-dogs1 north-west of ,cawnpore1 and the ,indian wolf4 ,he gives corroborative evidence with respect to the dogs of the valley of the ,nerbudda47 ,with respect to ,jackals1 ,isidore ,geoffroy ,saint-,hilaire 7#a_/ba4 ,for numerous and interesting details on the resemblance of dogs and jackals see ,isid4 ,geoffroy ,st4-,hilaire ',hist4 ,nat4 ,gen4' #ahfj tome #c page #aja4 ,see also ',hist4 ,nat4 des ,mammiferes' par ,prof4 ,gervais1 #ahee tome #b page #fj47 says that not one constant difference can be pointed out between their structure and that of the smaller races of dogs4 ,they agree closely in habits3 jackals1 when tamed and called by their master1 wag their tails1 lick his hands1 crouch1 and throw themselves on their backs2 they smell at the tails of other dogs1 and void their urine sideways2 they roll on carrion or on animals which they have killed2 and1 lastly1 when in high spirits1 they run round in circles or in a figure of eight1 with their tails between their legs4 7#a_/bb4 ,also ,guldenstadt ',nov4 ,comment4 ,acad4 ,petrop4' tome #bj pro anno #agge page #ddi4 ,also ,salvin in ',land and ,water' ,october #ahfi47 ,a number of excellent naturalists1 from the time of ,guldenstadt to that of ,ehrenberg1 ,hemprich1 and ,cretzschmar1 have expressed themselves in the strongest terms with respect to the resemblance of the half-domestic dogs of ,asia and ,egypt to jackals4 ,m4 ,nordmann1 for instance1 says1 ,les chiens d',awhasie ressemblent etonnamment a des chacals4 ,ehrenberg 7#a_/bc4 ,quoted by ,de ,blainville in his ',osteographie1 ,canidae' pages #gi1 #ih47 asserts that the domestic dogs of ,lower ,egypt1 and certain mummied dogs1 have for their wild type a species of wolf 7,c4 lupaster7 of the country2 whereas the domestic dogs of ,nubia and certain other mummied dogs have the closest relation to a wild species of the same country1 viz4 ,c4 sabbar1 which is only a form of the common jackal4 ,pallas asserts that jackals and dogs sometimes naturally cross in the ,east2 and a case is on record in ,algeria4 7#a_/bd4 ,see ,pallas in ',act4 ,acad4 ,st4 ,petersburgh' #aghj part #b page #ia4 ,for ,algeria1 see ,isid4 ,geoffroy ,st4-,hilaire ',hist4 ,nat4 ,gen4' tome #c page #agg4 ,in both countries it is the male jackal which pairs with female domestic dogs47 ,the greater number of naturalists divide the jackals of ,asia and ,africa into several species1 but some few rank them all as one4 ,i may add that the domestic dogs on the coast of ,guinea are fox-like animals1 and are dumb4 7#a_/be4 ,john ,barbut ',description of the ,coast of ,guinea in #agdf4'7 ,on the east coast of ,africa1 between latitude #d deg and #f deg south1 and about ten days' journey in the interior1 a semi-domestic dog1 as the ,rev4 ,s4 ,erhardt informs me1 is kept1 which the natives assert is derived from a similar wild animal4 ,lichtenstein 7#a_/bf4 ',travels in ,south ,africa' volume #b page #bgb47 says that the dogs of the ,bosjemans present a striking resemblance even in colour 7excepting the black stripe down the back7 with the ,c4 mesomelas of ,south ,africa4 ,mr4 ,e4 ,layard informs me that he has seen a ,caffre dog which closely resembled an ,esquimaux dog4 ,in ,australia the ,dingo is both domesticated and wild2 though this animal may have been introduced aboriginally by man1 yet it must be considered as almost an endemic form1 for its remains have been found in a similar state of preservation and associated with extinct mammals1 so that its introduction must have been ancient4 7#a_/bg4 ,selwyn1 ,geology of ,victoria2 ',journal of ,geolog4 ,soc4' volume #ad #aheh page #ecf and volume #af #ahfj page #adh2 and ,prof4 ,m',coy in ',annals and ,mag4 of ,nat4 ,hist4' 7#crd series7 volume #i #ahfb page #adg4 ,the ,dingo differs from the dogs of the central ,polynesian islands4 ,dieffenbach remarks 7',travels' volume #b page #de7 that the native ,new ,zealand dog also differs from the ,dingo47 ,from this resemblance of the half-domesticated dogs in several countries to the wild species still living there1--from the facility with which they can often be crossed together1--from even half-tamed animals being so much valued by savages1--and from the other circumstances previously remarked on which favour their domestication1 it is highly probable that the domestic dogs of the world are descended from two well-defined species of wolf 7viz4 ,c4 lupus and ,c4 latrans71 and from two or three other doubtful species 7namely1 the ,european1 ,indian1 and ,north ,african wolves72 from at least one or two ,south ,american canine species2 from several races or species of jackal2 and perhaps from one or more extinct species4 ,although it is possible or even probable that domesticated dogs1 introduced into any country and bred there for many generations1 might acquire some of the characters proper to the aboriginal ,canidae of the country1 we can hardly thus account for introduced dogs having given rise to two breeds in the same country1 resembling two of its aboriginal species1 as in the above- given cases of ,guiana and of ,north ,america4 7#a_/bh4 ,these latter remarks afford1 ,i think1 a sufficient answer to some criticisms by ,mr4 ,wallace1 on the multiple origin of dogs1 given in ,lyell's ',principles of ,geology' #ahgb volume #b page #bie47 ,it cannot be objected to the view of several canine species having been anciently domesticated1 that these animals are tamed with difficulty3 facts have been already given on this head1 but ,i may add that the young of the ,canis primaevus of ,india were tamed by ,mr4 ,hodgson 7#a_/bi4 ',proceedings ,zoological ,soc4' #ahcc page #aab4 ,see also on the taming of the common wolf1 ,l4 ,lloyd ',scandinavian ,adventures' #ahed volume #a page #dfj4 ,with respect to the jackal1 see ,prof4 ,gervais ',hist4 ,nat4 ,mamm4' tome #b page #fa4 ,with respect to the aguara of ,paraguay see ,rengger's work471 and became as sensible of caresses1 and manifested as much intelligence1 as any sporting dog of the same age4 ,there is not much difference1 as we have already shown and shall further see1 in habits between the domestic dogs of the ,north ,american ,indians and the wolves of that country1 or between the ,eastern pariah dogs and jackals1 or between the dogs which have run wild in various countries and the several natural species of the family4 ,the habit of barking1 however1 which is almost universal with domesticated dogs1 forms an exception1 as it does not characterise a single natural species of the family1 though ,i am assured that the ,canis latrans of ,north ,america utters a noise which closely approaches a bark4 ,but this habit is soon lost by dogs when they become feral and is soon reacquired when they are again domesticated4 ,the case of the wild dogs on the island of ,juan ,fernandez having become dumb has often been quoted1 and there is reason to believe 7#acj4 ,roulin1 in ',mem4 present4 par divers ,savans' tome #f page #cda47 that the dumbness ensued in the course of thirty-three years2 on the other hand1 dogs taken from this island by ,ulloa slowly reacquired the habit of barking4 ,the ,mackenzie-river dogs1 of the ,canis latrans type1 when brought to ,england1 never learned to bark properly2 but one born in the ,zoological ,gardens 7#a_/ca4 ,martin ',history of the ,dog' page #ad47 made his voice sound as loudly as any other dog of the same age and size4 ,according to ,professor ,nillson 7#a_/cb4 ,quoted by ,l4 ,lloyd in ',field ,sports of ,north of ,europe' volume #a page #chg471 a wolf-whelp reared by a bitch barks4 ,i4 ,geoffroy ,saint-,hilaire exhibited a jackal which barked with the same tone as any common dog4 7#a_/cc4 ,quatrefages ',soc4 d',acclimat4' ,may #aa1 #ahfc page #g47 ,an interesting account has been given by ,mr4 ,g4 ,clarke 7#a_/cd4 ',annals and ,mag of ,nat4 ,hist4' volume #ae #ahde page #adj47 of some dogs run wild on ,juan de ,nova1 in the ,indian ,ocean2 they had entirely lost the faculty of barking2 they had no inclination for the company of other dogs1 nor did they acquire their voice during a captivity of several months4 ,on the island they congregate in vast packs1 and catch sea-birds with as much address as foxes could display4 ,the feral dogs of ,la ,plata have not become dumb2 they are of large size1 hunt singly or in packs1 and burrow holes for their young4 7#a_/ce4 ,azara ',voyages dans l',amer4 ,merid4' tome #a page #cha2 his account is fully confirmed by ,rengger4 ,quatrefages gives an account of a bitch brought from ,jerusalem to ,france which burrowed a hole and littered in it4 ,see ',discours1 ,exposition des ,races ,canines' #ahfe page #c47 ,in these habits the feral dogs of ,la ,plata resemble wolves and jackals2 both of which hunt either singly or in packs1 and burrow holes4 7#a_/cf4 ,with respect to wolves burrowing holes see ,richardson ',fauna ,boreali-,americana' page #fd2 and ,bechstein ',naturgeschichte ,deutschlands' b4 #a s4 #fag47 ,these feral dogs have not become uniform in colour on ,juan ,fernandez1 ,juan de ,nova1 or ,la ,plata4 7#a_/cg4 ,see ,poeppig ',reise in ,chile' b4 #a s4 #bij2 ,mr4 ,g4 ,clarke1 as above2 and ,rengger1 s4 #aee47 ,in ,cuba the feral dogs are described by ,poeppig as nearly all mouse-coloured1 with short ears and light-blue eyes4 ,in ,st4 ,domingo1 ,col4 ,ham4 ,smith says 7#a_/ch4 ,dogs1 ',nat4 ,library' volume #aj page #aba2 an endemic ,south ,american dog seems also to have become feral in this island4 ,see ,gosse ',jamaica' page #cdj47 that the feral dogs are very large1 like greyhounds1 of a uniform pale blue-ash1 with small ears1 and large light-brown eyes4 ,even the wild ,dingo1 though so anciently naturalised in ,australia1 varies considerably in colour1 as ,i am informed by ,mr4 ,p4,p4 ,king3 a half-bred ,dingo reared in ,england 7#a_/ci4 ,low ',domesticated ,animals' page #fej47 showed signs of wishing to burrow4 ,from the several foregoing facts we see that reversion in the feral state gives no indication of the colour or size of the aboriginal parent-species4 ,one fact1 however1 with respect to the colouring of domestic dogs1 ,i at one time hoped might have thrown some light on their origin2 and it is worth giving1 as showing how colouring follows laws1 even in so anciently and thoroughly domesticated an animal as the dog4 ,black dogs with tan-coloured feet1 whatever breed they may belong to1 almost invariably have a tan- coloured spot on the upper and inner corners of each eye1 and their lips are generally thus coloured4 ,i have seen only two exceptions to this rule1 namely1 in a spaniel and terrier4 ,dogs of a light-brown colour often have a lighter1 yellowish-brown spot over the eyes2 sometimes the spot is white1 and in a mongrel terrier the spot was black4 ,mr4 ,waring kindly examined for me a stud of fifteen greyhounds in ,suffolk3 eleven of them were black1 or black and white1 or brindled1 and these had no eye-spots2 but three were red and one slaty-blue1 and these four had dark-coloured spots over their eyes4 ,although the spots thus sometimes differ in colour1 they strongly tend to be tan-coloured2 this is proved by my having seen four spaniels1 a setter1 two ,yorkshire shepherd dogs1 a large mongrel1 and some fox-hounds1 coloured black and white1 with not a trace of tan-colour1 excepting the spots over the eyes1 and sometimes a little on the feet4 ,these latter cases1 and many others1 show plainly that the colour of the feet and the eye-spots are in some way correlated4 ,i have noticed1 in various breeds1 every gradation1 from the whole face being tan-coloured1 to a complete ring round the eyes1 to a minute spot over the inner and upper corners4 ,the spots occur in various sub-breeds of terriers and spaniels2 in setters2 in hounds of various kinds1 including the turnspit-like ,german badger-hound2 in shepherd dogs2 in a mongrel1 of which neither parent had the spots2 in one pure bulldog1 though the spots were in this case almost white2 and in greyhounds1--but true black-and-tan greyhounds are excessively rare2 nevertheless ,i have been assured by ,mr4 ,warwick1 that one ran at the ,caledonian ,champion meeting of ,april #ahfj1 and was marked precisely like a black-and-tan terrier4 ,this dog1 or another exactly the same colour1 ran at the ,scottish ,national ,club on the #bast of ,march1 #ahfe2 and ,i hear from ,mr4 ,c4,m4 ,browne1 that there was no reason either on the sire or dam side for the appearance of this unusual colour4 ,mr4 ,swinhoe at my request looked at the dogs in ,china1 at ,amoy1 and he soon noticed a brown dog with yellow spots over the eyes4 ,colonel ,h4 ,smith 7#a_/dj4 ',the ,naturalist ,library' ,dogs1 volume #aj pages #d1 #ai47 figures the magnificent black mastiff of ,thibet with a tan-coloured stripe over the eyes1 feet1 and chaps2 and what is more singular1 he figures the ,alco1 or native domestic dog of ,mexico1 as black and white1 with narrow tan-coloured rings round the eyes2 at the ,exhibition of dogs in ,london1 ,may #ahfc1 a so-called forest dog from ,north-,west ,mexico was shown1 which had pale tan-coloured spots over the eyes4 ,the occurrence of these tan-coloured spots in dogs of such extremely different breeds1 living in various parts of the world1 makes the fact highly remarkable4 ,we shall hereafter see1 especially in the chapter on ,pigeons1 that coloured marks are strongly inherited1 and that they often aid us in discovering the primitive forms of our domestic races4 ,hence1 if any wild canine species had distinctly exhibited the tan-coloured spots over the eyes1 it might have been argued that this was the parent-form of nearly all our domestic races4 ,but after looking at many coloured plates1 and through the whole collection of skins in the ,british ,museum1 ,i can find no species thus marked4 ,it is no doubt possible that some extinct species was thus coloured4 ,on the other hand1 in looking at the various species1 there seems to be a tolerably plain correlation between tan-coloured legs and face2 and less frequently between black legs and a black face2 and this general rule of colouring explains to a certain extent the above-given cases of correlation between the eye-spots and the colour of the feet4 ,moreover1 some jackals and foxes have a trace of a white ring round their eyes1 as in ,c4 mesomelas1 ,c4 aureus1 and 7judging from ,colonel ,h4 ,smith's drawing7 in ,c4 alopex1 and ,c4 thaleb4 ,other species have a trace of a black line over the corners of the eyes1 as in ,c4 variegatus1 cinereo-variegatus1 and fulvus1 and the wild ,dingo4 ,hence ,i am inclined to conclude that a tendency for tan-coloured spots to appear over the eyes in the various breeds of dogs1 is analogous to the case observed by ,desmarest1 namely1 that when any white appears on a dog the tip of the tail is always white1 de maniere a rappeler la tache terminale de meme couleur1 qui caracterise la plupart des ,canides sauvages4 7#a_/da4 ,quoted by ,prof4 ,gervais ',hist4 ,nat4 ,mamm4' tome #b page #ff47 ,this rule1 however1 as ,i am assured by ,mr4 ,jesse1 does not invariably hold good4 ,it has been objected that our domestic dogs cannot be descended from wolves or jackals1 because their periods of gestation are different4 ,the supposed difference rests on statements made by ,buffon1 ,gilibert1 ,bechstein1 and others2 but these are now known to be erroneous2 and the period is found to agree in the wolf1 jackal1 and dog1 as closely as could be expected1 for it is often in some degree variable4 7#a_/db4 ,j4 ,hunter shows that the long period of seventy-three days given by ,buffon is easily explained by the bitch having received the dog many times during a period of sixteen days 7',phil4 ,transact4' #aghg page #cec74 ,hunter found that the gestation of a mongrel from wolf and dog 7',phil4 ,transact4' #aghi page #afj7 apparently was sixty-three days1 for she received the dog more than once4 ,the period of a mongrel dog and jackal was fifty-nine days4 ,fred4 ,cuvier found the period of gestation of the wolf to be 7',dict4 ,class4 d',hist4 ,nat4' tome #d page #h7 two months and a few days1 which agrees with the dog4 ,isid ,g4 ,st4-,hilaire1 who has discussed the whole subject1 and from whom ,i quote ,bellingeri1 states 7',hist4 ,nat4 ,gen4' tome #c page #aab7 that in the ,jardin des ,plantes the period of the jackal has been found to be from sixty to sixty-three days1 exactly as with the dog47 ,tessier1 who has closely attended to this subject1 allows a difference of four days in the gestation of the dog4 ,the ,rev4 ,w4,d4 ,fox has given me three carefully recorded cases of retrievers1 in which the bitch was put only once to the dog2 and not counting this day1 but counting that of parturition1 the periods were fifty-nine1 sixty-two1 and sixty-seven days4 ,the average period is sixty-three days2 but ,bellingeri states that this applies only to large dogs2 and that for small races it is from sixty to sixty-three days2 ,mr4 ,eyton of ,eyton1 who has had much experience with dogs1 also informs me that the time is apt to be longer with large than with small dogs4 ,f4 ,cuvier has objected that the jackal would not have been domesticated on account of its offensive smell2 but savages are not sensitive in this respect4 ,the degree of odour1 also1 differs in the different kinds of jackal 7#a_/dc4 ,see ,isid4 ,geoffroy ,st4-,hilaire ',hist4 ,nat4 ,gen4' tome #c page #aab1 on the odour of jackals4 ,col4 ,ham4 ,smith in ',nat4 ,lib4' volume #aj page #bhi472 and ,colonel ,h4 ,smith makes a sectional division of the group with one character dependent on not being offensive4 ,on the other hand1 dogs-- for instance1 rough and smooth terriers--differ much in this respect2 and ,m4 ,godron states that the hairless so-called ,turkish dog is more odoriferous than other dogs4 ,isidore ,geoffroy 7#a_/dd4 ,quoted by ,quatrefages in ',bull4 ,soc4 d',acclimat4' ,may #aa1 #ahfc47 gave to a dog the same odour as that from a jackal by feeding it on raw flesh4 ,the belief that our dogs are descended from wolves1 jackals1 ,south ,american ,canidae1 and other species1 suggests a far more important difficulty4 ,these animals in their undomesticated state1 judging from a widely-spread analogy1 would have been in some degree sterile if intercrossed2 and such sterility will be admitted as almost certain by all those who believe that the lessened fertility of crossed forms is an infallible criterion of specific distinctness4 ,anyhow these animals keep distinct in the countries which they inhabit in common4 ,on the other hand1 all domestic dogs1 which are here supposed to be descended from several distinct species1 are1 as far as is known1 mutually fertile together4 ,but1 as ,broca has well remarked 7#a_/de4 ',journal de la ,physiologie' tome #b page #che471 the fertility of successive generations of mongrel dogs has never been scrutinised with that care which is thought indispensable when species are crossed4 ,the few facts leading to the conclusion that the sexual feelings and reproductive powers differ in the several races of the dog when crossed are 7passing over mere size as rendering propagation difficult7 as follows3 the ,mexican ,alco 7#a_/df4 ,see ,mr4 ,r4 ,hill's excellent account of this breed in ,gosse's ',jamaica' page #cch2 ,rengger ',saugethiere von ,paraguay' s4 #aec4 ,with respect to ,spitz dogs1 see ,bechstein's ',naturgesch4 ,deutschlands' #ahja b4 #a s4 #fch4 ,with respect to ,dr4 ,hodgkin's statement made before ,brit4 ,assoc4 see ',the ,zoologist' volume #d for #ahde-df page #ajig47 apparently dislikes dogs of other kinds1 but this perhaps is not strictly a sexual feeling2 the hairless endemic dog of ,paraguay1 according to ,rengger1 mixes less with the ,european races than these do with each other2 the ,spitz dog in ,germany is said to receive the fox more readily than do other breeds2 and ,dr4 ,hodgkin states that a female ,dingo in ,england attracted the male wild foxes4 ,if these latter statements can be trusted1 they prove some degree of sexual difference in the breeds of the dog4 ,but the fact remains that our domestic dogs1 differing so widely as they do in external structure1 are far more fertile together than we have reason to believe their supposed wild parents would have been4 ,pallas assumes 7#a_/dg4 ',acta ,acad4 ,st4 ,petersburgh' #aghj part #b pages #hd1 #ajj47 that a long course of domestication eliminates that sterility which the parent-species would have exhibited if only lately captured2 no distinct facts are recorded in support of this hypothesis2 but the evidence seems to me so strong 7independently of the evidence derived from other domesticated animals7 in favour of our domestic dogs having descended from several wild stocks1 that ,i am inclined to admit the truth of this hypothesis4 ,there is another and closely allied difficulty consequent on the doctrine of the descent of our domestic dogs from several wild species1 namely1 that they do not seem to be perfectly fertile with their supposed parents4 ,but the experiment has not been quite fairly tried2 the ,hungarian dog1 for instance1 which in external appearance so closely resembles the ,european wolf1 ought to be crossed with this wolf3 and the pariah dogs of ,india with ,indian wolves and jackals2 and so in other cases4 ,that the sterility is very slight between certain dogs and wolves and other ,canidae is shown by savages taking the trouble to cross them4 ,buffon got four successive generations from the wolf and dog1 and the mongrels were perfectly fertile together4 7#a_/dh4 ,m4 ,broca has shown 7',journal de ,physiologie' tome #b page #cec7 that ,buffon's experiments have been often misrepresented4 ,broca has collected 7pages #cij-cie7 many facts on the fertility of crossed dogs1 wolves1 and jackals47 ,but more lately ,m4 ,flourens states positively as the result of his numerous experiments that hybrids from the wolf and dog1 crossed inter se1 become sterile at the third generation1 and those from the jackal and dog at the fourth generation4 7#a_/di4 ',de la ,longevite ,humaine' par ,m4 ,flourens #ahee page #adc4 ,mr4 ,blyth says 7',indian ,sporting ,review' volume #b page #acg7 that he has seen in ,india several hybrids from the pariah-dog and jackal2 and between one of these hybrids and a terrier4 ,the experiments of ,hunter on the jackal are well-known4 ,see also ,isid4 ,geoffroy ,st4-,hilaire1 ',hist4 ,nat4 ,gen4' tome #c page #bag1 who speaks of the hybrid offspring of the jackal as perfectly fertile for three generations47 ,but these animals were closely confined2 and many wild animals1 as we shall see in a future chapter1 are rendered by confinement in some degree or even utterly sterile4 ,the ,dingo1 which breeds freely in ,australia with our imported dogs1 would not breed though repeatedly crossed in the ,jardin des ,plantes4 7#a_/ej4 ,on authority of ,f4 ,cuvier quoted in ,bronn's ',geschichte der ,natur' b4 #b s4 #afd47 ,some hounds from ,central ,africa1 brought home by ,major ,denham1 never bred in the ,town of ,london 7#a_/ea4 ,w4,c4,l4 ,martin ',history of the ,dog' #ahde page #bjc4 ,mr4 ,philip ,p4 ,king1 after ample opportunities of observation1 informs me that the ,dingo and ,european dogs often cross in ,australia472 and a similar tendency to sterility might be transmitted to the hybrid offspring of a wild animal4 ,moreover1 it appears that in ,m4 ,flourens' experiments the hybrids were closely bred in and in for three or four generations2 and this circumstance would most certainly increase the tendency to sterility4 ,several years ago ,i saw confined in the ,zoological ,gardens of ,london a female hybrid from an ,english dog and jackal1 which even in this the first generation was so sterile that1 as ,i was assured by her keeper1 she did not fully exhibit her proper periods2 but this case was certainly exceptional1 as numerous instances have occurred of fertile hybrids from these two animals4 ,in almost all experiments on the crossing of animals there are so many causes of doubt1 that it is extremely difficult to come to any positive conclusion4 ,it would1 however1 appear1 that those who believe that our dogs are descended from several species will have not only to admit that their offspring after a long course of domestication generally lose all tendency to sterility when crossed together2 but that between certain breeds of dogs and some of their supposed aboriginal parents a certain degree of sterility has been retained or possibly even acquired4 ,notwithstanding the difficulties in regard to fertility given in the last two paragraphs1 when we reflect on the inherent improbability of man having domesticated throughout the world one single species alone of so widely distributed1 so easily tamed1 and so useful a group as the ,canidae2 when we reflect on the extreme antiquity of the different breeds2 and especially when we reflect on the close similarity1 both in external structure and habits1 between the domestic dogs of various countries and the wild species still inhabiting these same countries1 the balance of evidence is strongly in favour of the multiple origin of our dogs4 ,,differences ,,between ,,the ,,several ,,breeds ,,of ,,the ,,dog4 ,if the several breeds have descended from several wild stocks1 their difference can obviously in part be explained by that of their parent species4 ,for instance1 the form of the greyhound may be partly accounted for by descent from some such animal as the slim ,abyssinian ,canis simensis 7#a_/eb4 ,ruppel ',neue ,wirbelthiere von ,abyssinien' #ahce-dj ',mammif4' s4 #ci pl4 #ad4 ,there is a specimen of this fine animal in the ,british ,museum471 with its elongated muzzle2 that of the larger dogs from the larger wolves1 and the smaller and slighter dogs from the jackals3 and thus perhaps we may account for certain constitutional and climatal differences4 ,but it would be a great error to suppose that there has not been in addition 7#a_/ec4 ,even ,pallas admits this2 see ',act4 ,acad4 ,st4 ,petersburgh' #aghj page #ic47 a large amount of variation4 ,the intercrossing of the several aboriginal wild stocks1 and of the subsequently formed races1 has probably increased the total number of breeds1 and1 as we shall presently see1 has greatly modified some of them4 ,but we cannot explain by crossing the origin of such extreme forms as thoroughbred greyhounds1 bloodhounds1 bulldogs1 ,blenheim spaniels1 terriers1 pugs1 etc41 unless we believe that forms equally or more strongly characterised in these different respects once existed in nature4 ,but hardly any one has been bold enough to suppose that such unnatural forms ever did or could exist in a wild state4 ,when compared with all known members of the family of ,canidae they betray a distinct and abnormal origin4 ,no instance is on record of such dogs as bloodhounds1 spaniels1 true greyhounds having been kept by savages3 they are the product of long-continued civilisation4 ,the number of breeds and sub-breeds of the dog is great2 ,youatt for instance1 describes twelve kinds of greyhounds4 ,i will not attempt to enumerate or describe the varieties1 for we cannot discriminate how much of their difference is due to variation1 and how much to descent from different aboriginal stocks4 ,but it may be worth while briefly to mention some points4 ,commencing with the skull1 ,cuvier has admitted 7#a_/ed4 ,quoted by ,i4 ,geoffroy ',hist4 ,nat4 ,gen4' tome #c page #dec47 that in form the differences are plus fortes que celles d'aucunes especes sauvages d'un meme genre naturel4 ,the proportions of the different bones2 the curvature of the lower jaw1 the position of the condyles with respect to the plane of the teeth 7on which ,f4 ,cuvier founded his classification71 and in mastiffs the shape of its posterior branch2 the shape of the zygomatic arch1 and of the temporal fossae2 the position of the occiput--all vary considerably4 7#a_/ee4 ,f4 ,cuvier in ',annales du ,museum' tome #ah page #ccg2 ,godron ',de l',espece' tome #a page #cdb2 and ,col4 ,h4 ,smith in ',nat4 ,library' volume #i page #aja4 ,see also some observations on the degeneracy of the skull in certain breeds1 by ,prof4 ,bianconi ',la ,theorie ,darwinienne' #ahgd page #bgi47 ,the difference in size between the brains of dogs belonging to large and small breeds is something prodigious4 ,some dogs' brains are high and rounded1 while others are low1 long1 and narrow in front4 ,in the latter1 the olfactory lobes are visible for about half their extent1 when the brain is seen from above1 but they are wholly concealed by the hemispheres in other breeds4 7#a_/ef4 ,dr4 ,burt ,wilder ',american ,assoc4 ,advancement of ,science' #ahgc pages #bcf1 #bci47 ,the dog has properly six pairs of molar teeth in the upper jaw1 and seven in the lower2 but several naturalists have seen not rarely an additional pair in the upper jaw 7#a_/eg4 ,isid4 ,geoffroy ,saint-,hilaire ',hist4 des ,anomalies' #ahcb tome #a page #ffj1 ,gervais ',hist4 ,nat4 des ,mammiferes' tome #b #ahee page #ff4 ,de ,blainville 7',osteographie1 ,canidae' page #acg7 has also seen an extra molar on both sides472 and ,professor ,gervais says that there are dogs qui ont sept paires de dents superieures et huit inferieures4 ,de ,blainville 7#a_/eh4 ',osteographie1 ,canidae' page #acg47 has given full particulars on the frequency of these deviations in the number of the teeth1 and has shown that it is not always the same tooth which is supernumerary4 ,in short- muzzled races1 according to ,h4 ,muller 7#a_/ei4 ,wurzburger ',medecin4 ,zeitschrift' #ahfj b4 #a s4 #bfe471 the molar teeth stand obliquely1 whilst in long-muzzled races they are placed longitudinally1 with open spaces between them4 ,the naked1 so-called ,egyptian or ,turkish dog is extremely deficient in its teeth 7#a_/fj4 ,mr4 ,yarrell in ',proc4 ,zoological ,soc4' ,october #h1 #ahcc4 ,mr4 ,waterhouse showed me a skull of one of these dogs1 which had only a single molar on each side and some imperfect incisors471--sometimes having none except one molar on each side2 but this1 though characteristic of the breed1 must be considered as a monstrosity4 ,m4 ,girard 7#a_/fa4 ,quoted in ',the ,veterinary' ,london volume #h page #dae471 who seems to have attended closely to the subject1 says that the period of the appearance of the permanent teeth differs in different dogs1 being earlier in large dogs2 thus the mastiff assumes its adult teeth in four or five months1 whilst in the spaniel the period is sometimes more than seven or eight months4 ,on the other hand small dogs are mature1 and the females have arrived at the best age for breeding1 when one year old1 whereas large dogs are still in their puppyhood at this time1 and take fully twice as long to develop their proportions4 7#a_/fb4 ,this is quoted from ,stonehenge1 a great authority1 ',the ,dog' #ahfg page #ahg47 ,with respect to minor differences little need be said4 ,isidore ,geoffroy has shown 7#a_/fc4 ',hist4 ,nat4 ,general' tome #c page #ddh47 that in size some dogs are six times as long 7the tail being excluded7 as others2 and that the height relatively to the length of the body varies from between one to two1 and one to nearly four4 ,in the ,scotch deer-hound there is a striking and remarkable difference in the size of the male and female4 7#a_/fd4 ,w4 ,scrope ',art of ,deer-,stalking' page #ced47 ,every one knows how the ears vary in size in different breeds1 and with their great development their muscles become atrophied4 ,certain breeds of dogs are described as having a deep furrow between the nostrils and lips4 ,the caudal vertebrae1 according to ,f4 ,cuvier1 on whose authority the two last statements rest1 vary in number2 and the tail in ,english cattle and some shepherd dogs is almost absent4 ,the mammae vary from seven to ten in number2 ,daubenton1 having examined twenty- one dogs1 found eight with five mammae on each side2 eight with four on each side2 and the others with an unequal number on the two sides4 7#a_/fe4 ,quoted by ,col4 ,ham4 ,smith in ',nat4 ,lib4' volume #aj page #gi47 ,dogs have properly five toes in front and four behind1 but a fifth toe is often added2 and ,f4 ,cuvier states that1 when a fifth toe is present1 a fourth cuneiform bone is developed2 and1 in this case1 sometimes the great cuneiform bone is raised1 and gives on its inner side a large articular surface to the astragalus2 so that even the relative connection of the bones1 the most constant of all characters1 varies4 ,these modifications1 however1 in the feet of dogs are not important1 because they ought to be ranked1 as ,de ,blainville has shown 7#a_/ff4 ,de ,blainville ',osteographie1 ,canidae' page #acd4 ,f4 ,cuvier ',annales du ,museum' tome #ah page #cdb4 ,in regard to mastiffs1 see ,col4 ,h4 ,smith ',nat4 ,lib4' volume #aj page #bah4 ,for the ,thibet mastiff1 see ,mr4 ,hodgson in ',journal of ,as4 ,soc4 of ,bengal' volume #a #ahcb page #cdb47 as monstrosities4 ,nevertheless they are interesting from being correlated with the size of the body1 for they occur much more frequently with mastiffs and other large breeds than with small dogs4 ,closely allied varieties1 however1 sometimes differ in this respect2 thus ,mr4 ,hodgson states that the black-and-tan ,lassa variety of the ,thibet mastiff has the fifth digit1 whilst the ,mustang sub-variety is not thus characterised4 ,the extent to which the skin is developed between the toes varies much2 but we shall return to this point4 ,the degree to which the various breeds differ in the perfection of their senses1 dispositions1 and inherited habits is notorious to every one4 ,the breeds present some constitutional differences3 the pulse1 says ,youatt 7#a_/fg4 ',the ,dog' #ahde page #ahf4 ,with respect to diseases ,youatt asserts 7page #afg7 that the ,italian greyhound is strongly subject to polypi in the matrix or vagina4 ,the spaniel and pug 7page #ahb7 are most liable to bronchocele4 ,the liability to distemper 7page #bcb7 is extremely different in different breeds4 ,on the distemper1 see also ,col4 ,hutchinson on ',dog ,breaking' #ahej page #bgi47 varies materially according to the breed1 as well as to the size of the animal4 ,different breeds of dogs are subject in different degrees to various diseases4 ,they certainly become adapted to different climates under which they have long existed4 ,it is notorious that most of our best ,european breeds deteriorate in ,india4 7#a_/fh4 ,see ',youatt on the ,dog' page #ae2 ',the ,veterinary' ,london volume #aa page #bce47 ,the ,rev ,r4 ,everest 7#a_/fi4 ',journal of ,as4 ,soc4 of ,bengal' volume #c page #ai47 believes that no one has succeeded in keeping the ,newfoundland dog long alive in ,india2 so it is1 according to ,lichtenstein 7#a_/gj4 ',travels' volume #b page #ae471 even at the ,cape of ,good ,hope4 ,the ,thibet mastiff degenerates on the plains of ,india1 and can live only on the mountains4 7#a_/ga4 ,hodgson in ',journal of ,as4 ,soc4 of ,bengal' volume #a page #cdb47 ,lloyd 7#a_/gb4 ',field ,sports of the ,north of ,europe' volume #b page #afe47 asserts that our bloodhounds and bulldogs have been tried1 and cannot withstand the cold of the northern ,european forests4 ,seeing in how many characters the races of the dog differ from each other1 and remembering ,cuvier's admission that their skulls differ more than do those of the species of any natural genus1 and bearing in mind how closely the bones of wolves1 jackals1 foxes1 and other ,canidae agree1 it is remarkable that we meet with the statement1 repeated over and over again1 that the races of the dog differ in no important characters4 ,a highly competent judge1 ,prof4 ,gervais 7#a_/gc4 ',hist4 ,nat4 des ,mammif4' #ahee tome #b pages #ff1 #fg471 admits si l'on prenait sans controle les alterations dont chacun de ces organes est susceptible1 on pourrait croire qu'il y a entre les chiens domestiques des differences plus grandes que celles qui separent ailleurs les especes1 quelquefois meme les genres4 ,some of the differences above enumerated are in one respect of comparatively little value1 for they are not characteristic of distinct breeds3 no one pretends that such is the case with the additional molar teeth or with the number of mammae2 the additional digit is generally present with mastiffs1 and some of the more important differences in the skull and lower jaw are more or less characteristic of various breeds4 ,but we must not forget that the predominant power of selection has not been applied in any of these cases2 we have variability in important parts1 but the differences have not been fixed by selection4 ,man cares for the form and fleetness of his greyhounds1 for the size of his mastiffs1 and formerly for the strength of the jaw in his bulldogs1 etc42 but he cares nothing about the number of their molar teeth or mammae or digits2 nor do we know that differences in these organs are correlated with1 or owe their development to1 differences in other parts of the body about which man does care4 ,those who have attended to the subject of selection will admit that1 nature having given variability1 man1 if he so chose1 could fix five toes to the hinder feet of certain breeds of dogs1 as certainly as to the feet of his ,dorking fowls3 he could probably fix1 but with much more difficulty1 an additional pair of molar teeth in either jaw1 in the same way as he has given additional horns to certain breeds of sheep2 if he wished to produce a toothless breed of dogs1 having the so-called ,turkish dog with its imperfect teeth to work on1 he could probably do so1 for he has succeeded in making hornless breeds of cattle and sheep4 ,with respect to the precise causes and steps by which the several races of dogs have come to differ so greatly from each other1 we are1 as in most other cases1 profoundly ignorant4 ,we may attribute part of the difference in external form and constitution to inheritance from distinct wild stocks1 that is to changes effected under nature before domestication4 ,we must attribute something to the crossing of the several domestic and natural races4 ,i shall1 however1 soon recur to the crossing of races4 ,we have already seen how often savages cross their dogs with wild native species2 and ,pennant gives a curious account 7#a_/gd4 ',history of ,quadrupeds' #agic volume #a page #bch47 of the manner in which ,fochabers1 in ,scotland1 was stocked with a multitude of curs of a most wolfish aspect from a single hybrid-wolf brought into that district4 ,it would appear that climate to a certain extent directly modifies the forms of dogs4 ,we have lately seen that several of our ,english breeds cannot live in ,india1 and it is positively asserted that when bred there for a few generations they degenerate not only in their mental faculties1 but in form4 ,captain ,williamson 7#a_/ge4 ',oriental ,field ,sports' quoted by ,youatt ',the ,dog' page #ae471 who carefully attended to this subject1 states that hounds are the most rapid in their decline2 greyhounds and pointers1 also1 rapidly decline4 ,but spaniels1 after eight or nine generations1 and without a cross from ,europe1 are as good as their ancestors4 ,dr4 ,falconer informs me that bulldogs1 which have been known1 when first brought into the country1 to pin down even an elephant by its trunk1 not only fall off after two or three generations in pluck and ferocity1 but lose the under-hung character of their lower jaws2 their muzzles become finer and their bodies lighter4 ,english dogs imported into ,india are so valuable that probably due care has been taken to prevent their crossing with native dogs2 so that the deterioration cannot be thus accounted for4 ,the ,rev4 ,r4 ,everest informs me that he obtained a pair of setters1 born in ,india1 which perfectly resembled their ,scotch parents3 he raised several litters from them in ,delhi1 taking the most stringent precautions to prevent a cross1 but he never succeeded1 though this was only the second generation in ,india1 in obtaining a single young dog like its parents in size or make2 their nostrils were more contracted1 their noses more pointed1 their size inferior1 and their limbs more slender4 ,so again on the coast of ,guinea1 dogs1 according to ,bosman1 alter strangely2 their ears grow long and stiff like those of foxes1 to which colour they also incline1 so that in three or four years1 they degenerate into very ugly creatures2 and in three or four broods their barking turns into a howl4 7#a_/gf4 ,a4 ,murray gives this passage in his ',geographical ,distribution of ,mammals' #dto #ahff page #h47 ,this remarkable tendency to rapid deterioration in ,european dogs subjected to the climate of ,india and ,africa1 may be largely accounted for by reversion to a primordial condition which many animals exhibit1 as we shall hereafter see1 when their constitutions are in any way disturbed4 ,some of the peculiarities characteristic of the several breeds of the dog have probably arisen suddenly1 and1 though strictly inherited1 may be called monstrosities2 for instance1 the shape of the legs and body in the turnspit of ,europe and ,india2 the shape of the head and the under-hanging jaw in the bull-and pug-dog1 so alike in this one respect and so unlike in all others4 ,a peculiarity suddenly arising1 and therefore in one sense deserving to be called a monstrosity1 may1 however1 be increased and fixed by man's selection4 ,we can hardly doubt that long-continued training1 as with the greyhound in coursing hares1 as with water-dogs in swimming--and the want of exercise1 in the case of lapdogs--must have produced some direct effect on their structure and instincts4 ,but we shall immediately see that the most potent cause of change has probably been the selection1 both methodical and unconscious1 of slight individual differences1--the latter kind of selection resulting from the occasional preservation1 during hundreds of generations1 of those individual dogs which were the most useful to man for certain purposes and under certain conditions of life4 ,in a future chapter on ,selection ,i shall show that even barbarians attend closely to the qualities of their dogs4 ,this unconscious selection by man would be aided by a kind of natural selection2 for the dogs of savages have partly to gain their own subsistence3 for instance1 in ,australia1 as we hear from ,mr4 ,nind 7#a_/gg4 ,quoted by ,mr4 ,galton ',domestication of ,animals' page #ac471 the dogs are sometimes compelled by want to leave their masters and provide for themselves2 but in a few days they generally return4 ,and we may infer that dogs of different shapes1 sizes1 and habits1 would have the best chance of surviving under different circumstances1--on open sterile plains1 where they have to run down their own prey1--on rocky coasts1 where they have to feed on crabs and fish left in the tidal pools1 as in the case of ,new ,guinea and ,tierra del ,fuego4 ,in this latter country1 as ,i am informed by ,mr4 ,bridges1 the ,catechist to the ,mission1 the dogs turn over the stones on the shore to catch the crustaceans which lie beneath1 and they are clever enough to knock off the shell-fish at a first blow2 for if this be not done1 shell-fish are well-known to have an almost invincible power of adhesion4 ,it has already been remarked that dogs differ in the degree to which their feet are webbed4 ,in dogs of the ,newfoundland breed1 which are eminently aquatic in their habits1 the skin1 according to ,isidore ,geoffroy 7#a_/gh4 ',hist4 ,nat4 ,gen4' tome #c page #dej471 extends to the third phalanges whilst in ordinary dogs it extends only to the second4 ,in two ,newfoundland dogs which ,i examined1 when the toes were stretched apart and viewed on the under side1 the skin extended in a nearly straight line between the outer margins of the balls of the toes2 whereas1 in two terriers of distinct sub- breeds1 the skin viewed in the same manner was deeply scooped out4 ,in ,canada there is a dog which is peculiar to the country and common there1 and this has half-webbed feet and is fond of the water4 7#a_/gi4 ,mr4 ,greenhow on the ,canadian ,dog in ,loudon's ',mag4 of ,nat4 ,hist4' volume #f #ahcc page #eaa47 ,english otter-hounds are said to have webbed feet3 a friend examined for me the feet of two1 in comparison with the feet of some harriers and bloodhounds2 he found the skin variable in extent in all1 but more developed in the otter-hounds than in the others4 7#a_/hj4 ,see ,mr4 ,c4,o4 ,groom-,napier on the webbing of the hind feet of ,otterhounds in ',land and ,water' ,october #ac1 #ahff page #bgj47 ,as aquatic animals which belong to quite different orders have webbed feet1 there can be no doubt that this structure would be serviceable to dogs that frequent the water4 ,we may confidently infer that no man ever selected his water-dogs by the extent to which the skin was developed between their toes2 but what he does1 is to preserve and breed from those individuals which hunt best in the water1 or best retrieve wounded game1 and thus he unconsciously selects dogs with feet slightly better webbed4 ,the effects of use from the frequent stretching apart of the toes will likewise aid in the result4 ,man thus closely imitates ,natural ,selection4 ,we have an excellent illustration of this same process in ,north ,america1 where1 according to ,sir ,j4 ,richardson 7#a_/ha4 ',fauna ,boreali-,americana' #ahbi page #fb471 all the wolves1 foxes1 and aboriginal domestic dogs have their feet broader than in the corresponding species of the ,old ,world1 and well calculated for running on the snow4 ,now1 in these ,arctic regions1 the life or death of every animal will often depend on its success in hunting over the snow when soft2 and this will in part depend on the feet being broad2 yet they must not be so broad as to interfere with the activity of the animal when the ground is sticky1 or with its power of burrowing holes1 or with other necessary habits of life4 ,as changes in domestic breeds which take place so slowly are not to be noticed at any one period1 whether due to the selection of individual variations or of differences resulting from crosses1 are most important in understanding the origin of our domestic productions1 and likewise in throwing indirect light on the changes effected under nature1 ,i will give in detail such cases as ,i have been able to collect4 ,lawrence 7#a_/hb4 ',the ,horse in all his ,varieties1 etc4' #ahbi pages #bcj1 #bcd471 who paid particular attention to the history of the foxhound1 writing in #ahbi1 says that between eighty and ninety years before an entirely new foxhound was raised through the breeder's art1 the ears of the old southern hound being reduced1 the bone and bulk lightened1 the waist increased in length1 and the stature somewhat added to4 ,it is believed that this was effected by a cross with a greyhound4 ,with respect to this latter dog1 ,youatt 7#a_/hc4 ',the ,dog' #ahde pages #ca1 #ce2 with respect to ,king ,charles' spaniel page #de2 for the setter page #ij471 who is generally cautious in his statements1 says that the greyhound within the last fifty years1 that is before the commencement of the present century1 assumed a somewhat different character from that which he once possessed4 ,he is now distinguished by a beautiful symmetry of form1 of which he could not once boast1 and he has even superior speed to that which he formerly exhibited4 ,he is no longer used to struggle with deer1 but contends with his fellows over a shorter and speedier course4 ,an able writer 7#a_/hd4 ,in the ',encyclop4 of ,rural ,sports' page #eeg47 believes that our ,english greyhounds are the descendants1 ,,progressively ,,improved1 of the large rough greyhounds which existed in ,scotland so early as the third century4 ,a cross at some former period with the ,italian greyhound has been suspected2 but this seems hardly probable1 considering the feebleness of this latter breed4 ,lord ,orford1 as is well-known1 crossed his famous greyhounds1 which failed in courage1 with a bulldog--this breed being chosen from being erroneously supposed to be deficient in the power of scent2 after the sixth or seventh generation1 says ,youatt1 there was not a vestige left of the form of the bulldog1 but his courage and indomitable perseverance remained4 ,youatt infers1 from a comparison of an old picture of ,king ,charles's spaniels with the living dog1 that the breed of the present day is materially altered for the worse3 the muzzle has become shorter1 the forehead more prominent1 and the eyes larger2 the changes in this case have probably been due to simple selection4 ,the setter1 as this author remarks in another place1 is evidently the large spaniel improved to his present peculiar size and beauty1 and taught another way of marking his game4 ,if the form of the dog were not sufficiently satisfactory on this point1 we might have recourse to history3 he then refers to a document dated #afhe bearing on this subject1 and adds that the pure ,irish setter shows no signs of a cross with the pointer1 which some authors suspect has been the case with the ,english setter4 ,the bulldog is an ,english breed1 and as ,i hear from ,mr4 ,g4,r4 ,jesse 7#a_/he4 ,author of ',researches into the ,history of the ,british ,dog471 seems to have originated from the mastiff since the time of ,shakspeare2 but certainly existed in #afca1 as shown by ,prestwick ,eaton's letters4 ,there can be no doubt that the fancy bulldogs of the present day1 now that they are not used for bull-baiting1 have become greatly reduced in size1 without any express intention on the part of the breeder4 ,our pointers are certainly descended from a ,spanish breed1 as even their present names1 ,don1 ,ponto1 ,carlos1 etc41 show2 it is said that they were not known in ,england before the ,revolution in #afhh 7#a_/hf4 ,see ,col4 ,hamilton ,smith on the antiquity of the ,pointer1 in ',nat4 ,lib4' volume #aj page #aif472 but the breed since its introduction has been much modified1 for ,mr4 ,borrow1 who is a sportsman and knows ,spain intimately well1 informs me that he has not seen in that country any breed corresponding in figure with the ,english pointer2 but there are genuine pointers near ,xeres which have been imported by ,english gentlemen4 ,a nearly parallel case is offered by the ,newfoundland dog1 which was certainly brought into ,england from that country1 but which has since been so much modified that1 as several writers have observed1 it does not now closely resemble any existing native dog in ,newfoundland4 7#a_/hg4 ,the ,newfoundland dog is believed to have originated from a cross between the ,esquimaux dog and a large ,french hound4 ,see ,dr4 ,hodgkin ',british ,assoc4' #ahdd2 ,bechstein ',naturgesch4 ,deutschland' b4 #a s4 #egd2 ',nat4 ,lib4' volume #aj page #acb2 also ,mr4 ,jukes ',excursion in and about ,newfoundland4'7 ,these several cases of slow and gradual changes in our ,english dogs possess some interest2 for though the changes have generally1 but not invariably1 been caused by one or two crosses with a distinct breed1 yet we may feel sure1 from the well-known extreme variability of crossed breeds1 that rigorous and long-continued selection must have been practised1 in order to improve them in a definite manner4 ,as soon as any strain or family became slightly improved or better adapted to alter circumstances1 it would tend to supplant the older and less improved strains4 ,for instance1 as soon as the old foxhound was improved by a cross with the greyhound1 or by simple selection1 and assumed its present character--and the change was probably desired owing to the increased fleetness of our hunters--it rapidly spread throughout the country1 and is now everywhere nearly uniform4 ,but the process of improvement is still going on for every one tries to improve his strain by occasionally procuring dogs from the best kennels4 ,through this process of gradual substitution the old ,english hound has been lost2 and so it has been with the ,irish wolf-dog1 the old ,english bulldog1 and several other breeds1 such as the alaunt1 as ,i am informed by ,mr4 ,jesse4 ,but the extinction of former breeds is apparently aided by another cause2 for whenever a breed is kept in scanty numbers1 as at present with the bloodhound1 it is reared with some difficulty1 apparently from the evil effects of long-continued close interbreeding4 ,as several breeds of the dog have been slightly but sensibly modified within so short a period as the last one or two centuries1 by the selection of the best individuals1 modified in many cases by crosses with other breeds2 and as we shall hereafter see that the breeding of dogs was attended to in ancient times1 as it still is by savages1 we may conclude that we have in selection1 even if only occasionally practised1 a potent means of modification4 ,,domestic ,,cats4 ,cats have been domesticated in the ,east from an ancient period2 ,mr4 ,blyth informs me that they are mentioned in a ,sanskrit writing #bjjj years old1 and in ,egypt their antiquity is known to be even greater1 as shown by monumental drawings and their mummied bodies4 ,these mummies1 according to ,de ,blainville 7#a_/hh4 ,de ,blainville ',osteographie1 ,felis' page #fe on the character of ,f4 caligulata2 pages #he1 #hi1 #ij1 #age1 on the other mummied species4 ,he quotes ,ehrenberg on ,f4 maniculata being mummied471 who has particularly studied the subject1 belong to no less than three species1 namely1 ,f4 caligulata1 bubastes1 and chaus4 ,the two former species are said to be still found1 both wild and domesticated1 in parts of ,egypt4 ,f4 caligulata presents a difference in the first inferior milk molar tooth1 as compared with the domestic cats of ,europe1 which makes ,de ,blainville conclude that it is not one of the parent-forms of our cats4 ,several naturalists1 as ,pallas1 ,temminck1 ,blyth1 believe that domestic cats are the descendants of several species commingled3 it is certain that cats cross readily with various wild species1 and it would appear that the character of the domestic breeds has1 at least in some cases1 been thus affected4 ,sir ,w4 ,jardine has no doubt that1 in the north of ,scotland1 there has been occasional crossing with our native species 7,f4 sylvestris71 and that the result of these crosses has been kept in our houses4 ,i have seen1 he adds1 many cats very closely resembling the wild cat1 and one or two that could scarcely be distinguished from it4 ,mr4 ,blyth 7#a_/hi4 ,asiatic ,soc4 of ,calcutta2 ,curator's ,report1 ,august #ahef4 ,the passage from ,sir ,w4 ,jardine is quoted from this ,report4 ,mr4 ,blyth1 who has especially attended to the wild and domestic cats of ,india1 has given in this ,report a very interesting discussion on their origin47 remarks on this passage1 but such cats are never seen in the southern parts of ,england2 still1 as compared with any ,indian tame cat1 the affinity of the ordinary ,british cat to ,f4 sylvestris is manifest2 and due ,i suspect to frequent intermixture at a time when the tame cat was first introduced into ,britain and continued rare1 while the wild species was far more abundant than at present4 ,in ,hungary1 ,jeitteles 7#a_/ij4 ',fauna ,hungariae ,sup4' #ahfb s4 #ab47 was assured on trustworthy authority that a wild male cat crossed with a female domestic cat1 and that the hybrids long lived in a domesticated state4 ,in ,algiers the domestic cat has crossed with the wild cat 7,f4 lybica7 of that country4 7#a_/ia4 ,isid4 ,geoffroy ,saint-,hilaire ',hist4 ,nat4 ,gen4' tome #c page #agg47 ,in ,south ,africa as ,mr4 ,e4 ,layard informs me1 the domestic cat intermingles freely with the wild ,f4 caffra2 he has seen a pair of hybrids which were quite tame and particularly attached to the lady who brought them up2 and ,mr4 ,fry has found that these hybrids are fertile4 ,in ,india the domestic cat1 according to ,mr4 ,blyth1 has crossed with four ,indian species4 ,with respect to one of these species1 ,f4 chaus1 an excellent observer1 ,sir ,w4 ,elliot1 informs me that he once killed1 near ,madras1 a wild brood1 which were evidently hybrids from the domestic cat2 these young animals had a thick lynx-like tail and the broad brown bar on the inside of the forearm characteristic of ,f4 chaus4 ,sir ,w4 ,elliot adds that he has often observed this same mark on the forearms of domestic cats in ,india4 ,mr4 ,blyth states that domestic cats coloured nearly like ,f4 chaus1 but not resembling that species in shape1 abound in ,bengal2 he adds1 such a colouration is utterly unknown in ,european cats1 and the proper tabby markings 7pale streaks on a black ground1 peculiarly and symmetrically disposed71 so common in ,english cats1 are never seen in those of ,india4 ,dr4 ,d4 ,short has assured ,mr4 ,blyth 7#a_/ib4 ',proc4 ,zoolog4 ,soc4' #ahfc page #ahd47 that1 at ,hansi1 hybrids between the common cat and ,f4 ornata 7or torquata7 occur1 and that many of the domestic cats of that part of ,india were undistinguishable from the wild ,f4 ornata4 ,azara states1 but only on the authority of the inhabitants1 that in ,paraguay the cat has crossed with two native species4 ,from these several cases we see that in ,europe1 ,asia1 ,africa1 and ,america1 the common cat1 which lives a freer life than most other domesticated animals1 has crossed with various wild species2 and that in some instances the crossing has been sufficiently frequent to affect the character of the breed4 ,whether domestic cats have descended from several distinct species1 or have only been modified by occasional crosses1 their fertility1 as far as is known1 is unimpaired4 ,the large ,angora or ,persian cat is the most distinct in structure and habits of all the domestic breeds2 and is believed by ,pallas1 but on no distinct evidence1 to be descended from the ,f4 manul of middle ,asia2 and ,i am assured by ,mr4 ,blyth that the ,angora cat breeds freely with ,indian cats1 which1 as we have already seen1 have apparently been much crossed with ,f4 chaus4 ,in ,england half-bred ,angora cats are perfectly fertile with one another4 ,within the same country we do not meet with distinct races of the cat1 as we do of dogs and of most other domestic animals2 though the cats of the same country present a considerable amount of fluctuating variability4 ,the explanation obviously is that1 from their nocturnal and rambling habits1 indiscriminate crossing cannot without much trouble be prevented4 ,selection cannot be brought into play to produce distinct breeds1 or to keep those distinct which have been imported from foreign lands4 ,on the other hand1 in islands and in countries completely separated from each other1 we meet with breeds more or less distinct2 and these cases are worth giving1 showing that the scarcity of distinct races in the same country is not caused by a deficiency of variability in the animal4 ,the tailless cats of the ,isle of ,man are said to differ from common cats not only in the want of a tail1 but in the greater length of their hind legs1 in the size of their heads1 and in habits4 ,the ,creole cat of ,antigua1 as ,i am informed by ,mr4 ,nicholson1 is smaller1 and has a more elongated head1 than the ,british cat4 ,in ,ceylon1 as ,mr4 ,thwaites writes to me1 every one at first notices the different appearance of the native cat from the ,english animal2 it is of small size1 with closely lying hairs2 its head is small1 with a receding forehead2 but the ears are large and sharp2 altogether it has what is there called a low-caste appearance4 ,rengger 7#a_/ic4 ',saugethiere von ,paraguay' #ahcj s4 #bab47 says that the domestic cat1 which has been bred for #cjj years in ,paraguay1 presents a striking difference from the ,european cat2 it is smaller by a fourth1 has a more lanky body1 its hair is short1 shining1 scanty and lies close1 especially on the tail3 he adds that the change has been less at ,ascension1 the capital of ,paraguay1 owing to the continual crossing with newly imported cats2 and this fact well illustrates the importance of separation4 ,the conditions of life in ,paraguay appear not to be highly favourable to the cat1 for1 though they have run half-wild1 they do not become thoroughly feral1 like so many other ,european animals4 ,in another part of ,south ,america1 according to ,roulin 7#a_/id4 ',mem4 presentes par divers ,savans3 ,acad4 ,roy4 des ,sciences' tome #f page #cdf4 ,gomara first noticed this fact in #aeed471 the introduced cat has lost the habit of uttering its hideous nocturnal howl4 ,the ,rev4 ,w4,d4 ,fox purchased a cat in ,portsmouth1 which he was told came from the coast of ,guinea2 its skin was black and wrinkled1 fur bluish-grey and short1 its ears rather bare1 legs long1 and whole aspect peculiar4 ,this negro cat was fertile with common cats4 ,on the opposite coast of ,africa1 at ,mombas1 ,captain ,owen1 ,r4,n4 7#a_/ie4 ',narrative of ,voyages' volume #b page #ahj47 states that all the cats are covered with short stiff hair instead of fur3 he gives a curious account of a cat from ,algoa ,bay1 which had been kept for some time on board and could be identified with certainty2 this animal was left for only eight weeks at ,mombas1 but during that short period it underwent a complete metamorphosis1 having parted with its sandy-coloured fur4 ,a cat from the ,cape of ,good ,hope has been described by ,desmarest as remarkable from a red stripe extending along the whole length of its back4 ,throughout an immense area1 namely1 the ,malayan archipelago1 ,siam1 ,pegu1 and ,burmah1 all the cats have truncated tails about half the proper length 7#a_/if4 ,j4 ,crawfurd ',descript4 ,dict4 of the ,indian ,islands' page #bee4 ,the ,madagascar cat is said to have a twisted tail2 see ,desmarest in ',encyclop4 ,nat4 ,mamm4' #ahbj page #bcc1 for some of the other breeds471 often with a sort of knot at the end4 ,in the ,caroline archipelago the cats have very long legs1 and are of a reddish-yellow colour4 7#a_/ig4 ,admiral ,lutke's ,voyage volume #c page #cjh47 ,in ,china a breed has drooping ears4 ,at ,tobolsk1 according to ,gmelin1 there is a red-coloured breed4 ,in ,asia1 also1 we find the well-known ,angora or ,persian breed4 ,the domestic cat has run wild in several countries1 and everywhere assumes1 as far as can be judged by the short recorded descriptions1 a uniform character4 ,near ,maldonado1 in ,la ,plata1 ,i shot one which seemed perfectly wild2 it was carefully examined by ,mr4 ,waterhouse 7#a_/ih4 ',zoology of the ,voyage of the ,beagle1 ,mammalia' page #bj4 ,dieffenbach ',travels in ,new ,zealand' volume #b page #ahe4 ,ch4 ,st4 ,john ',wild ,sports of the ,highlands' #ahdf page #dj471 who found nothing remarkable in it1 excepting its great size4 ,in ,new ,zealand according to ,dieffenbach1 the feral cats assume a streaky grey colour like that of wild cats2 and this is the case with the half-wild cats of the ,scotch ,highlands4 ,we have seen that distant countries possess distinct domestic races of the cat4 ,the differences may be in part due to descent from several aboriginal species1 or at least to crosses with them4 ,in some cases1 as in ,paraguay1 ,mombas1 and ,antigua1 the differences seem due to the direct action of different conditions of life4 ,in other cases some slight effect may possibly be attributed to natural selection1 as cats in many cases have largely to support themselves and to escape diverse dangers4 ,but man1 owing to the difficulty of pairing cats1 has done nothing by methodical selection2 and probably very little by unintentional selection2 though in each litter he generally saves the prettiest1 and values most a good breed of mouse- or rat-catchers4 ,those cats which have a strong tendency to prowl after game1 generally get destroyed by traps4 ,as cats are so much petted1 a breed bearing the same relation to other cats1 that lapdogs bear to larger dogs1 would have been much valued2 and if selection could have been applied1 we should certainly have had many breeds in each long-civilised country1 for there is plenty of variability to work upon4 ,we see in this country considerable diversity in size1 some in the proportions of the body1 and extreme variability in colouring4 ,i have only lately attended to this subject1 but have already heard of some singular cases of variation2 one of a cat born in the ,west ,indies toothless1 and remaining so all its life4 ,mr4 ,tegetmeier has shown me the skull of a female cat with its canines so much developed that they protruded uncovered beyond the lips2 the tooth with the fang being 4#ie1 and the part projecting from the gum 4#f of an inch in length4 ,i have heard of several families of six-toed cats1 in one of which the peculiarity had been transmitted for at least three generations4 ,the tail varies greatly in length2 ,i have seen a cat which always carried its tail flat on its back when pleased4 ,the ears vary in shape1 and certain strains1 in ,england1 inherit a pencil-like tuft of hairs1 above a quarter of an inch in length1 on the tips of their ears2 and this same peculiarity1 according to ,mr4 ,blyth1 characterises some cats in ,india4 ,the great variability in the length of the tail and the lynx-like tufts of hairs on the ears are apparently analogous to differences in certain wild species of the genus4 ,a much more important difference1 according to ,daubenton 7#a_/ii4 ,quoted by ,isid4 ,geoffroy ',hist4 ,nat4 ,gen4' tome #c page #dbg471 is that the intestines of domestic cats are wider1 and a third longer1 than in wild cats of the same size2 and this apparently has been by their less strictly carnivorous diet4 ,,chapter #a4;,,ii4 ,,horses ,,and ,,asses4 ,,horse4 ,,differences ,,in ,,the ,,breeds4 ,,individual ,,variability ,,of4 ,,direct ,,effects ,,of ,,the ,,conditions ,,of ,,life4 ,,can ,,withstand ,,much ,,cold4 ,,breeds ,,much ,,modified ,,by ,,selection4 ,,colours ,,of ,,the ,,horse4 ,,dappling4 ,,dark ,,stripes ,,on ,,the ,,spine1 ,,legs1 ,,shoulders1 ,,and ,,forehead4 ,,dun-,,coloured ,,horses ,,most ,,frequently ,,striped4 ,,stripes ,,probably ,,due ,,to ,,reversion ,,to ,,the ,,primitive ,,state ,,of ,,the ,,horse4 ,,asses4 ,,breeds ,,of4 ,,colour ,,of4 ,,leg- ,,and ,,shoulder-,,stripes4 ,,shoulder-,,stripes ,,sometimes ,,absent1 ,,sometimes ,,forked4 ,the history of the ,horse is lost in antiquity4 ,remains of this animal in a domesticated condition have been found in the ,swiss lake-dwellings1 belonging to the ,neolithic period4 7#b_/a4 ,rutimeyer ',fauna der ,pfahlbauten' #ahfa s4 #abb47 ,at the present time the number of breeds is great1 as may be seen by consulting any treatise on the ,horse4 7#b_/b4 ,see ',youatt on the ,horse'3 ,j4 ,lawrence on the ,horse #ahbi2 ,w4,c4,l4 ,martin ',history of the ,horse' #ahde3 ,col4 ,h4 ,smith in ',nat4 ,library1 ,horses' #ahda volume #ab3 ,prof4 ,veith ',die naturgesch4 ,haussaugethiere' #ahef47 ,looking only to the native ponies of ,great ,britain1 those of the ,shetland ,isles1 ,wales1 the ,new ,forest1 and ,devonshire are distinguishable2 and so it is1 amongst other instances1 with each separate island in the great ,malay archipelago4 7#b_/c4 ,crawfurd ',descript4 ,dict4 of ,indian ,islands' #ahef page #aec4 ,there are many different breeds1 every island having at least one peculiar to it4 ,thus in ,sumatra there are at least two breeds2 in ,achin and ,batubara one2 in ,java several breeds2 one in ,bali1 ,lomboc1 ,sumbawa 7one of the best breeds71 ,tambora1 ,bima1 ,gunung-api1 ,celebes1 ,sumba1 and ,philippines4 ,other breeds are specified by ,zollinger in the ',journal of the ,indian ,archipelago' volume #e page #cdc etc47 ,some of the breeds present great differences in size1 shape of ears1 length of mane1 proportions of the body1 form of the withers and hind quarters1 and especially in the head4 ,compare the race- horse1 dray-horse1 and a ,shetland pony in size1 configuration1 and disposition2 and see how much greater the difference is than between the seven or eight other living species of the genus ,equus4 ,of individual variations not known to characterise particular breeds1 and not great or injurious enough to be called monstrosities1 ,i have not collected many cases4 ,mr4 ,g4 ,brown1 of the ,cirencester ,agricultural ,college1 who has particularly attended to the dentition of our domestic animals1 writes to me that he has several times noticed eight permanent incisors instead of six in the jaw4 ,male horses only should have canines1 but they are occasionally found in the mare1 though a small size4 7#b_/d4 ',the ,horse' etc4 by ,john ,lawrence #ahbi page #ad47 ,the number of ribs on each side is properly eighteen1 but ,youatt 7#b_/e4 ',the ,veterinary' ,london volume #e page #edc47 asserts that not unfrequently there are nineteen1 the additional one being always the posterior rib4 ,it is a remarkable fact that the ancient ,indian horse is said in the ,rig-,veda to have only seventeen ribs2 and ,m4 ,pietrement 7#b_/f4 ',memoire sur les chevaux a trente-quatre cotes' #ahga471 who has called attention to this subject1 gives various reasons for placing full trust in this statement1 more especially as during former times the ,hindoos carefully counted the bones of animals4 ,i have seen several notices of variations in the bones of the leg2 thus ,mr4 ,price 7#b_/g4 ',proc4 ,veterinary ,assoc4' in ',the ,veterinary' volume #ac page #db47 speaks of an additional bone in the hock1 and of certain abnormal appearances between the tibia and astragalus1 as quite common in ,irish horses1 and not due to disease4 ,horses have often been observed1 according to ,m4 ,gaudry 7#b_/h4 ',bulletin de la ,soc4 ,geolog4' tome #bb #ahff page #bb471 to possess a trapezium and a rudiment of a fifth metacarpal bone1 so that one sees appearing by monstrosity1 in the foot of the horse1 structures which normally exist in the foot of the ,hipparion1--an allied and extinct animal4 ,in various countries horn-like projections have been observed on the frontal bones of the horse3 in one case described by ,mr4 ,percival they arose about two inches above the orbital processes1 and were very like those in a calf from five to six months old1 being from half to three- quarters of an inch in length4 7#b_/i4 ,mr4 ,percival of the ,enniskillen ,dragoons in ',the ,veterinary' volume #a page #bbd3 see ,azara1 ',des ,quadrupedes du ,paraguay' tome #b page #cac4 ,the ,french translator of ,azara refers to other cases mentioned by ,huzard as having occurred in ,spain47 ,azara has described two cases in ,south ,america in which the projections were between three and four inches in length3 other instances have occurred in ,spain4 ,that there has been much inherited variation in the horse cannot be doubted1 when we reflect on the number of the breeds existing throughout the world or even within the same country1 and when we know that they have largely increased in number since the earliest known records4 7#b_/aj4 ,godron1 ',de l',espece' tome #a page #cgh47 ,even in so fleeting a character as colour1 ,hofacker 7#b_/aa4 ',ueber die ,eigenschaften' etc4 #ahbh s4 #aj47 found that1 out of #baf cases in which horses of the same colour were paired1 only eleven pairs produced foals of a quite different colour4 ,as ,professor ,low 7#b_/ab4 ',domesticated ,animals of the ,british ,islands' pages #ebg1 #ecb4 ,in all the veterinary treatises and papers which ,i have read1 the writers insist in the strongest terms on the inheritance by the horse of all good and bad tendencies and qualities4 ,perhaps the principle of inheritance is not really stronger in the horse than in any other animal2 but1 from its value1 the tendency has been more carefully observed47 has remarked1 the ,english race-horse offers the best possible evidence of inheritance4 ,the pedigree of a race-horse is of more value in judging of its probable success than its appearance3 ,king ,herod gained in prizes #bja1eje pounds sterling1 and begot #dig winners2 ,eclipse begot #ccd winners4 ,whether the whole amount of difference between the various breeds has arisen under domestication is doubtful4 ,from the fertility of the most distinct breeds 7#b_/ac4 ,andrew ,knight crossed breeds so different in size as a dray-horse and ,norwegian pony3 see ,a4 ,walker on ',intermarriage' #ahch page #bje47 when crossed1 naturalists have generally looked at all the breeds as having descended from a single species4 ,few will agree with ,colonel ,h4 ,smith1 who believes that they have descended from no less than five primitive and differently coloured stocks4 7#b_/ad4 ',nat4 ,library1 ,horses' volume #ab page #bjh47 ,but as several species and varieties of the horse existed 7#b_/ae4 ,gervais ',hist4 ,nat4 ,mamm4' tome #b page #adc4 ,owen ',british ,fossil ,mammals' page #chc47 during the later tertiary periods1 and as ,rutimeyer found differences in the size and form of the skull in the earliest known domesticated horses 7#b_/af4 ',kenntniss der fossilen ,pferde' #ahfc s4 #aca471 we ought not to feel sure that all our breeds are descended from a single species4 ,the savages of ,north and ,south ,america easily reclaim the feral horses1 so that there is no improbability in savages in various quarters of the world having domesticated more than one native species or natural race4 ,m4 ,sanson 7#b_/ag4 ',comptes rendus' #ahff page #dhe and ',journal de l',anat4 et de la ,phys4' ,mai #ahfh47 thinks that he has proved that two distinct species have been domesticated1 one in the ,east1 and one in ,north ,africa2 and that these differed in the number of their lumbar vertebra and in various other parts2 but ,m4 ,sanson seems to believe that osteological characters are subject to very little variation1 which is certainly a mistake4 ,at present no aboriginal or truly wild horse is positively known to exist2 for it is commonly believed that the wild horses of the ,east are escaped domestic animals4 7#b_/ah4 ,mr4 ,w4,c4,l4 ,martin1 ',the ,horse' #ahde page #cd1 in arguing against the belief that the wild ,eastern horses are merely feral1 has remarked on the improbability of man in ancient times having extirpated a species in a region where it can now exist in numbers47 ,if therefore our domestic breeds are descended from several species or natural races1 all have become extinct in the wild state4 ,with respect to the causes of the modifications which horses have undergone1 the conditions of life seem to produce a considerable direct effect4 ,mr4 ,d4 ,forbes1 who has had excellent opportunities of comparing the horses of ,spain with those of ,south ,america1 informs me that the horses of ,chile1 which have lived under nearly the same conditions as their progenitors in ,andalusia1 remain unaltered1 whilst the ,pampas horses and the ,puno horses are considerably modified4 ,there can be no doubt that horses become greatly reduced in size and altered in appearance by living on mountains and islands2 and this apparently is due to want of nutritious or varied food4 ,every one knows how small and rugged the ponies are on the ,northern islands and on the mountains of ,europe4 ,corsica and ,sardinia have their native ponies2 and there were 7#b_/ai4 ',transact4 ,maryland ,academy' volume #a part #a page #bh471 or still are1 on some islands on the coast of ,virginia1 ponies like those of the ,shetland ,islands1 which are believed to have originated through exposure to unfavourable conditions4 ,the ,puno ponies1 which inhabit the lofty regions of the ,cordillera1 are1 as ,i hear from ,mr4 ,d4 ,forbes1 strange little creatures1 very unlike their ,spanish progenitors4 ,further south1 in the ,falkland ,islands1 the offspring of the horses imported in #agfd have already so much deteriorated in size 7#b_/bj4 ,mr4 ,mackinnon ',the ,falkland ,islands' page #be4 ,the average height of the ,falkland horses is said to be #ad hands #b inches4 ,see also my ',journal of ,researches4'7 and strength that they are unfitted for catching wild cattle with the lasso2 so that fresh horses have to be brought for this purpose from ,la ,plata at a great expense4 ,the reduced size of the horses bred on both southern and northern islands1 and on several mountain-chains1 can hardly have been caused by the cold1 as a similar reduction has occurred on the ,virginian and ,mediterranean islands4 ,the horse can withstand intense cold1 for wild troops live on the plains of ,siberia under lat4 #ef deg1 7#b_/ba4 ,pallas ',act4 ,acad4 ,st4 ,petersburgh' #aggg part #b page #bfe4 ,with respect to the tarpans scraping away the snow see ,col4 ,hamilton ,smith in ',nat4 ,lib4' volume #ab page #afe47 and aboriginally the horses must have inhabited countries annually covered with snow1 for he long retains the instinct of scraping it away to get at the herbage beneath4 ,the wild tarpans in the ,east have this instinct2 and so it is1 as ,i am informed by ,admiral ,sulivan1 with the horses recently and formerly introduced into the ,falkland ,islands from ,la ,plata1 some of which have run wild2 this latter fact is remarkable1 as the progenitors of these horses could not have followed this instinct during many generations in ,la ,plata4 ,on the other hand1 the wild cattle of the ,falklands never scrape away the snow1 and perish when the ground is long covered4 ,in the northern parts of ,america the horses descended from those introduced by the ,spanish conquerors of ,mexico1 have the same habit1 as have the native bisons1 but not so the cattle introduced from ,europe4 7#b_/bb4 ,franklin ',narrative' volume #a page #hg note by ,sir ,j4 ,richardson47 ,the horse can flourish under intense heat as well as under intense cold1 for he is known to come to the highest perfection1 though not attaining a large size1 in ,arabia and northern ,africa4 ,much humidity is apparently more injurious to the horse than heat or cold4 ,in the ,falkland ,islands1 horses suffer much from the dampness2 and this circumstance may perhaps partly account for the singular fact that to the eastward of the ,bay of ,bengal 7#b_/bc4 ,mr4 ,j4,h4 ,moor ',notices of the ,indian ,archipelago' ,singapore #ahcg page #ahi4 ,a pony from ,java was sent 7',athenaeum' #ahdb page #gah7 to the ,queen only #bh inches in height4 ,for the ,loo ,choo ,islands1 see ,beechey ',voyage' #dth4 edition volume #a page #dii471 over an enormous and humid area1 in ,ava1 ,pegu1 ,siam1 the ,malayan archipelago1 the ,loo ,choo ,islands1 and a large part of ,china1 no full-sized horse is found4 ,when we advance as far eastward as ,japan1 the horse reacquires his full size4 7#b_/bd4 ,j4 ,crawfurd1 ',history of the ,horse' ',journal of ,royal ,united ,service ,institution' volume #d47 ,with most of our domesticated animals1 some breeds are kept on account of their curiosity or beauty2 but the horse is valued almost solely for its utility4 ,hence semi-monstrous breeds are not preserved2 and probably all the existing breeds have been slowly formed either by the direct action of the conditions of life1 or through the selection of individual differences4 ,no doubt semi-monstrous breeds might have been formed3 thus ,mr4 ,waterton records 7#b_/be4 ',essays on ,natural ,history' #bnd series page #afa47 the case of a mare which produced successively three foals without tails2 so that a tailless race might have been formed like the tailless races of dogs and cats4 ,a ,russian breed of horses is said to have curled hair1 and ,azara 7#b_/bf4 ',quadrupedes du ,paraguay' tome #b page #ccc4 ,dr4 ,canfield informs me that a breed with curly hair was formed by selection at ,los ,angeles in ,north ,america47 relates that in ,paraguay horses are occasionally born1 but are generally destroyed1 with hair like that on the head of a negro2 and this peculiarity is transmitted even to half-breeds3 it is a curious case of correlation that such horses have short manes and tails1 and their hoofs are of a peculiar shape like those of a mule4 ,it is scarcely possible to doubt that the long-continued selection of qualities serviceable to man has been the chief agent in the formation of the several breeds of the horse4 ,look at a dray-horse1 and see how well adapted he is to draw heavy weights1 and how unlike in appearance to any allied wild animal4 ,the ,english race-horse is known to be derived from the commingled blood of ,arabs1 ,turks1 and ,barbs2 but selection1 which was carried on during very early times in ,england 7#b_/bg4 ,see the evidence on this head in ',land and ,water' ,may #b1 #ahfh471 together with training1 have made him a very different animal from his parent-stocks4 ,as a writer in ,india1 who evidently knows the pure ,arab well1 asks1 who now1 looking at our present breed of race-horses1 could have conceived that they were the result of the union of the ,arab horse and ,african mare8 ,the improvement is so marked that in running for the ,goodwood ,cup the first descendants of ,arabian1 ,turkish1 and ,persian horses1 are allowed a discount of #ah pounds weight2 and when both parents are of these countries a discount of #cf pounds 7#b_/bh4 ,prof4 ,low ',domesticated ,animals' page #edf4 ,with respect to the writer in ,india see ',india ,sporting ,review' volume #b page #aha4 ,as ,lawrence has remarked 7',the ,horse' page #i71 perhaps no instance has ever occurred of a three-part bred horse 7i4e4 a horse1 one of whose grandparents was of impure blood7 saving his distance in running two miles with thoroughbred racers4 ,some few instances are on record of seven-eights racers having been successful47 ,it is notorious that the ,arabs have long been as careful about the pedigree of their horses as we are1 and this implies great and continued care in breeding4 ,seeing what has been done in ,england by careful breeding1 can we doubt that the ,arabs must likewise have produced during the course of centuries a marked effect on the qualities of their horses8 ,but we may go much farther back in time1 for in the ,bible we hear of studs carefully kept for breeding1 and of horses imported at high prices from various countries4 7#b_/bi4 ,prof4 ,gervais ',hist4 ,nat4 ,mamm4' tome #b page #add has collected many facts on this head4 ,for instance ,solomon 7#a ,kings x4 #bh7 bought horses in ,egypt at a high price47 ,we may therefore conclude that1 whether or not the various existing breeds of the horse have proceeded from one or more aboriginal stocks1 yet that a great amount of change has resulted from the direct action of the conditions of life1 and probably a still greater amount from the long-continued selection by man of slight individual differences4 ,with several domesticated quadrupeds and birds1 certain coloured marks are either strongly inherited or tend to reappear after having been lost for a long time4 ,as this subject will hereafter be seen to be of importance1 ,i will give a full account of the colouring of horses4 ,all ,english breeds1 however unlike in size and appearance1 and several of those in ,india and the ,malay archipelago1 present a similar range and diversity of colour4 ,the ,english race-horse1 however1 is said 7#b_/cj4 ',the ,field' ,july #ac1 #ahfa page #db47 never to be dun-coloured2 but as dun and cream-coloured horses are considered by the ,arabs as worthless1 and fit only for ,jews to ride 7#b_/ca4 ,e4 ,vernon ,harcourt ',sporting in ,algeria' page #bf471 these tints may have been removed by long-continued selection4 ,horses of every colour1 and of such widely different kinds as dray-horses1 cobs1 and ponies1 are all occasionally dappled 7#b_/cb4 ,i state this from my own observations made during several years on the colours of horses4 ,i have seen cream-coloured1 light-dun and mouse-dun horses dappled1 which ,i mention because it has been stated 7,martin ',history of the ,horse' page #acd7 that duns are never dappled4 ,martin 7page #bje7 refers to dappled asses4 ,in the ',farrier' 7,london #ahbh pages #dec1 #dee7 there are some good remarks on the dappling of horses2 and likewise in ,col4 ,hamilton ,smith on ',the ,horse4'71 in the same manner as is so conspicuous with grey horses4 ,this fact does not throw any clear light on the colouring of the aboriginal horse1 but is a case of analogous variation1 for even asses are sometimes dappled1 and ,i have seen1 in the ,british ,museum1 a hybrid from the ass and zebra dappled on its hinder quarters4 ,by the expression analogous variation 7and it is one that ,i shall often have occasion to use7 ,i mean a variation occurring in a species or variety which resembles a normal character in another and distinct species or variety4 ,analogous variations may arise1 as will be explained in a future chapter1 from two or more forms with a similar constitution having been exposed to similar conditions1--or from one of two forms having reacquired through reversion a character inherited by the other form from their common progenitor1--or from both forms having reverted to the same ancestral character4 ,we shall immediately see that horses occasionally exhibit a tendency to become striped over a large part of their bodies2 and as we know that in the varieties of the domestic cat and in several feline species stripes readily pass into spots and cloudy marks--even the cubs of the uniformly-coloured lion being spotted with dark marks on a lighter ground--we may suspect that the dappling of the horse1 which has been noticed by some authors with surprise1 is a modification or vestige of a tendency to become striped4 7,,figure #a4 ,,dun ,,devonshire ,,pony1 with shoulder1 spinal1 and leg stripes47 ,this tendency in the horse to become striped is in several respects an interesting fact4 ,horses of all colours1 of the most diverse breeds1 in various parts of the world1 often have a dark stripe extending along the spine1 from the mane to the tail2 but this is so common that ,i need enter into no particulars4 7#b_/cc4 ,some details are given in ',the ,farrier' #ahbh pages #deb1 #dee4 ,one of the smallest ponies ,i ever saw1 of the colour of a mouse1 had a conspicuous spinal stripe4 ,a small ,indian chestnut pony had the same stripe1 as had a remarkably heavy chestnut cart-horse4 ,race-horses often have the spinal stripe47 ,occasionally horses are transversely barred on the legs1 chiefly on the under side2 and more rarely they have a distinct stripe on the shoulder1 like that on the shoulder of the ass1 or a broad dark patch representing a stripe4 ,before entering on any details ,i must premise that the term dun-coloured is vague1 and includes three groups of colours1 viz41 that between cream-colour and reddish-brown1 which graduates into light-bay or light-chestnut--this1 ,i believe is often called fallow-dun2 secondly1 leaden or slate-colour or mouse-dun1 which graduates into an ash-colour2 and1 lastly1 dark-dun1 between brown and black4 ,in ,england ,i have examined a rather large1 lightly-built1 fallow-dun ,devonshire pony 7,figure #a71 with a conspicuous stripe along the back1 with light transverse stripes on the under sides of its front legs1 and with four parallel stripes on each shoulder4 ,of these four stripes the posterior one was very minute and faint2 the anterior one1 on the other hand1 was long and broad1 but interrupted in the middle1 and truncated at its lower extremity1 with the anterior angle produced into a long tapering point4 ,i mention this latter fact because the shoulder-stripe of the ass occasionally presents exactly the same appearance4 ,i have had an outline and description sent to me of a small1 purely-bred1 light fallow-dun ,welch pony1 with a spinal stripe1 a single transverse stripe on each leg1 and three shoulder-stripes2 the posterior stripe corresponding with that on the shoulder of the ass was the longest1 whilst the two anterior parallel stripes1 arising from the mane1 decreased in length1 in a reversed manner as compared with the shoulder-stripes on the above-described ,devonshire pony4 ,i have seen a bright fallow-dun cob1 with its front legs transversely barred on the under sides in the most conspicuous manner2 also a dark- leaden mouse-coloured pony with similar leg stripes1 but much less conspicuous2 also a bright fallow-dun colt1 fully three-parts thoroughbred1 with very plain transverse stripes on the legs2 also a chestnut-dun cart- horse with a conspicuous spinal stripe1 with distinct traces of shoulder- stripes1 but none on the legs2 ,i could add other cases4 ,my son made a sketch for me of a large1 heavy1 ,belgian cart-horse1 of a fallow-dun1 with a conspicuous spinal stripe1 traces of leg-stripes1 and with two parallel 7three inches apart7 stripes about seven or eight inches in length on both shoulders4 ,i have seen another rather light cart-horse1 of a dirty dark cream-colour1 with striped legs1 and on one shoulder a large ill-defined dark cloudy patch1 and on the opposite shoulder two parallel faint stripes4 ,all the cases yet mentioned are duns of various tints2 but ,mr4 ,w4,w4 ,edwards has seen a nearly thoroughbred chestnut horse which had the spinal stripe1 and distinct bars on the legs2 and ,i have seen two bay carriage-horses with black spinal stripes2 one of these horses had on each shoulder a light shoulder-stripe1 and the other had a broad back ill-defined stripe1 running obliquely half-way down each shoulder2 neither had leg-stripes4 ,the most interesting case which ,i have met with occurred in a colt of my own breeding4 ,a bay mare 7descended from a dark-brown ,flemish mare by a light grey ,turcoman horse7 was put to ,hercules1 a thoroughbred dark bay1 whose sire 7,kingston7 and dam were both bays4 ,the colt ultimately turned out brown2 but when only a fortnight old it was a dirty bay1 shaded with mouse-grey1 and in parts with a yellowish tint3 it had only a trace of the spinal stripe1 with a few obscure transverse bars on the legs2 but almost the whole body was marked with very narrow dark stripes1 in most parts so obscure as to be visible only in certain lights1 like the stripes which may be seen on black kittens4 ,these stripes were distinct on the hind-quarters1 where they diverged from the spine1 and pointed a little forwards2 many of them as they diverged became a little branched1 exactly in the same manner as in some zebrine species4 ,the stripes were plainest on the forehead between the ears1 where they formed a set of pointed arches1 one under the other1 decreasing in size downwards towards the muzzle2 exactly similar marks may be seen on the forehead of the quagga and ,burchell's zebra4 ,when this foal was two or three months old all the stripes entirely disappeared4 ,i have seen similar marks on the forehead of a fully grown1 fallow-dun1 cob-like horse1 having a conspicuous spinal stripe1 and with its front legs well barred4 ,in ,norway the colour of the native horse or pony is dun1 varying from almost cream-colour to dark-mouse dun2 and an animal is not considered purely bred unless it has the spinal and leg-stripes4 7#b_/cd4 ,i have received information1 through the kindness of the ,consul-,general1 ,mr4 ,j4,r4 ,crowe1 from ,prof4 ,boeck1 ,rasck1 and ,esmarck1 on the colours of the ,norwegian ponies4 ,see also ',the ,field' #ahfa page #dca47 ,my son estimated that about a third of the ponies which he saw there had striped legs2 he counted seven stripes on the fore-legs and two on the hind-legs of one pony2 only a few of them exhibited traces of shoulder stripes2 but ,i have heard of a cob imported from ,norway which had the shoulder as well as the other stripes well developed4 ,colonel ,h4 ,smith 7#b_/ce4 ,col4 ,hamilton ,smith ',nat4 ,lib4' volume #ab page #bge47 alludes to dun-horses with the spinal stripe in the ,sierras of ,spain2 and the horses originally derived from ,spain1 in some parts of ,south ,america1 are now duns4 ,sir ,w4 ,elliot informs me that he inspected a herd of #cjj ,south ,american horses imported into ,madras1 and many of these had transverse stripes on the legs and short shoulder-stripes2 the most strongly marked individual1 of which a coloured drawing was sent me1 was a mouse-dun1 with the shoulder-stripes slightly forked4 ,in the ,north-,western parts of ,india striped horses of more than one breed are apparently commoner than in any other part of the world2 and ,i have received information respecting them from several officers1 especially from ,colonel ,poole1 ,colonel ,curtis1 ,major ,campbell1 ,brigadier ,st4 ,john1 and others4 ,the ,kattywar horses are often fifteen or sixteen hands in height1 and are well but lightly built4 ,they are of all colours1 but the several kinds of duns prevail2 and these are so generally striped1 that a horse without stripes is not considered pure4 ,colonel ,poole believes that all the duns have the spinal stripe1 the leg-stripes are generally present1 and he thinks that about half the horses have the shoulder-stripe2 this stripe is sometimes double or treble on both shoulders4 ,colonel ,poole has often seen stripes on the cheeks and sides of the nose4 ,he has seen stripes on the grey and bay ,kattywars when first foaled1 but they soon faded away4 ,i have received other accounts of cream-coloured1 bay1 brown1 and grey ,kattywar horses being striped4 ,eastward of ,india1 the ,shan 7north of ,burmah7 ponies1 as ,i am informed by ,mr4 ,blyth1 have spinal1 leg1 and shoulder stripes4 ,sir ,w4 ,elliot informs me that he saw two bay ,pegu ponies with leg-stripes4 ,burmese and ,javanese ponies are frequently dun-coloured1 and have the three kinds of stripes1 in the same degree as in ,england4 7#b_/cf4 ,mr4 ,g4 ,clark in ',annal and ,mag4 of ,nat4 ,history' #bnd series volume #b #ahdh page #cfc4 ,mr4 ,wallace informs me that he saw in ,java a dun and clay-coloured horse with spinal and leg stripes47 ,mr4 ,swinhoe informs me that he examined two light- dun ponies of two ,chinese breeds1 viz41 those of ,shanghai and ,amoy2 both had the spinal stripe1 and the latter an indistinct shoulder-stripe4 ,we thus see that in all parts of the world breeds of the horse as different as possible1 when of a dun-colour 7including under this term a wide range of tint from cream to dusty black71 and rarely when almost white tinged with yellow1 grey1 bay1 and chestnut1 have the several above-specified stripes4 ,horses which are of a yellow colour with white mane and tail1 and which are sometimes called duns1 ,i have never seen with stripes4 7#b_/cg4 ,see also on this point ',the ,field' ,july #bg1 #ahfa page #ia47 ,from reasons which will be apparent in the chapter on ,reversion1 ,i have endeavoured1 but with poor success1 to discover whether duns1 which are so much oftener striped than other coloured horses1 are ever produced from the crossing of two horses1 neither of which are duns4 ,most persons to whom ,i have applied believe that one parent must be dun2 and it is generally asserted that1 when this is the case1 the dun-colour and the stripes are strongly inherited4 7#b_/ch4 ',the ,field' #ahfa pages #dca1 #dic1 #ede47 ,one case1 however1 has fallen under my own observation of a foal from a black mare by a bay horse1 which when fully grown was a dark fallow-dun and had a narrow but plain spinal stripe4 ,hofacker 7#b_/ci4 ',ueber die ,eigenschaften' etc4 #ahbh s4 #ac1 #ad47 gives two instances of mouse-duns 7,mausrapp7 being produced from two parents of different colours and neither duns4 ,the stripes of all kinds are generally plainer in the foal than in the adult horse1 being commonly lost at the first shedding of the hair4 7#b_/dj4 ,von ,nathusius ',vortrage uber ,viehzucht' #ahgb #ace47 ,colonel ,poole believes that the stripes in the ,kattywar breed are plainest when the colt is first foaled2 they then become less and less distinct till after the first coat is shed1 when they come out as strongly as before2 but certainly often fade away as the age of the horse increases4 ,two other accounts confirm this fading of the stripes in old horses in ,india4 ,one writer1 on the other hand1 states that colts are often born without stripes1 but that they appear as the colt grows older4 ,three authorities affirm that in ,norway the stripes are less plain in the foal than in the adult4 ,in the case described by me of the young foal which was narrowly striped over nearly all its body1 there was no doubt about the early and complete disappearance of the stripes4 ,mr4 ,w4,w4 ,edwards examined for me twenty-two foals of race-horses1 and twelve had the spinal stripe more or less plain2 this fact1 and some other accounts which ,i have received1 lead me to believe that the spinal stripe often disappears in the ,english race-horse when old4 ,with natural species1 the young often exhibit characters which disappear at maturity4 ,the stripes are variable in colour1 but are always darker than the rest of the body4 ,they do not by any means always coexist on the different parts of the body3 the legs may be striped without any shoulder-stripe1 or the converse case1 which is rarer1 may occur2 but ,i have never heard of either shoulder or leg-stripes without the spinal stripe4 ,the latter is by far the commonest of all the stripes1 as might have been expected1 as it characterises the other seven or eight species of the genus4 ,it is remarkable that so trifling a character as the shoulder-stripe being double or triple should occur in such different breeds as ,welch and ,devonshire ponies1 the ,shan pony1 heavy cart-horses1 light ,south ,american horses1 and the lanky ,kattywar breed4 ,colonel ,hamilton ,smith believes that one of his five supposed primitive stocks was dun-coloured and striped2 and that the stripes in all the other breeds result from ancient crosses with this one primitive dun2 but it is extremely improbable that different breeds living in such distant quarters of the world should all have been crossed with any one aboriginally distinct stock4 ,nor have we any reason to believe that the effects of a cross at a very remote period would be propagated for so many generations as is implied on this view4 ,with respect to the primitive colour of the horse having been dun1 ,colonel ,hamilton ,smith 7#b_/da4 ',nat4 ,library' volume #ab #ahda pages #aji1 #aef to #afc1 #bhj1 #bha4 ,cream-colour1 passing into ,isabella 7i4e4 the colour of the dirty linen of ,queen ,isabella71 seems to have been common in ancient times4 ,see also ,pallas's account of the wild horses of the ,east1 who speaks of dun and brown as the prevalent colours4 ,in the ,icelandic sagas1 which were committed to writing in the twelfth century1 dun-coloured horses with a black spinal stripe are mentioned2 see ,dasent's translation volume #a page #afi47 has collected a large body of evidence showing that this tint was common in the ,east as far back as the time of ,alexander1 and that the wild horses of ,western ,asia and ,eastern ,europe now are1 or recently were1 of various shades of dun4 ,it seems that not very long ago a wild breed of dun- coloured horses with a spinal stripe was preserved in the royal parks in ,prussia4 ,i hear from ,hungary that the inhabitants of that country look at the duns with a spinal stripe as the aboriginal stock1 and so it is in ,norway4 ,dun-coloured ponies are not rare in the mountainous parts of ,devonshire1 ,wales1 and ,scotland1 where the aboriginal breed would have the best chance of being preserved4 ,in ,south ,america in the time of ,azara1 when the horse had been feral for about #bej years1 #ij out of #ajj horses were bai-chatains1 and the remaining ten were zains1 that is brown2 not more than one in #bjjj being black4 ,in ,north ,america the feral horses show a strong tendency to become roans of various shades2 but in certain parts1 as ,i hear from ,dr4 ,canfield1 they are mostly duns and striped4 7#b_/db4 ,azara ',quadrupedes du ,paraguay' tome #b page #cjg4 ,in ,north ,america ,catlin 7volume #b page #eg7 describes the wild horses1 believed to have descended from the ,spanish horses of ,mexico1 as of all colours1 black1 grey1 roan1 and roan pied with sorrel4 ,f4 ,michaux ',travels in ,north ,america' ,english translation page #bce1 describes two wild horses from ,mexico as roan4 ,in the ,falkland ,islands1 where the horse has been feral only between #fj and #gj years1 ,i was told that roans and iron-greys were the prevalent colours4 ,these several facts show that horses do not soon revert to any uniform colour47 ,in the following chapters on the ,pigeon we shall see that a blue bird is occasionally produced by pure breeds of various colours and that when this occurs certain black marks invariably appear on the wings and tail2 so again1 when variously coloured breeds are crossed1 blue birds with the same black marks are frequently produced4 ,we shall further see that these facts are explained by1 and afford strong evidence in favour of1 the view that all the breeds are descended from the rock-pigeon1 or ,columba livia1 which is thus coloured and marked4 ,but the appearance of the stripes on the various breeds of the horse1 when of a dun colour1 does not afford nearly such good evidence of their descent from a single primitive stock as in the case of the pigeon3 because no horse certainly wild is known as a standard of comparison2 because the stripes when they appear are variable in character2 because there is far from sufficient evidence that the crossing of distinct breeds produces stripes1 and lastly1 because all the species of the genus ,equus have the spinal stripe1 and several species have shoulder and leg stripes4 ,nevertheless the similarity in the most distinct breeds in their general range of colour1 in their dappling1 and in the occasional appearance1 especially in duns1 of leg-stripes and of double or triple shoulder-stripes1 taken together1 indicate the probability of the descent of all the existing races from a single1 dun-coloured1 more or less striped1 primitive stock1 to which our horses occasionally revert4 ,,the ,,ass4 ,four species of ,asses1 besides three zebras1 have been described by naturalists4 ,there is now little doubt that our domesticated animal is descended from the ,equus taeniopus of ,abyssinia4 7#b_/dc4 ,dr4 ,sclater in ',proc4 ,zoolog4 ,soc4' #ahfb page #afd4 ,dr4 ,hartmann says 7',annalen der ,landw4' b4 #dd page #bbb7 that this animal in its wild state is not always striped across the legs47 ,the ass is sometimes advanced as an instance of an animal domesticated1 as we know by the ,old ,testament1 from an ancient period1 which has varied only in a very slight degree4 ,but this is by no means strictly true2 for in ,syria alone there are four breeds 7#b_/dd4 ,w4,c4 ,martin ',history of the ,horse' #ahde page #bjg472 first1 a light and graceful animal1 with an agreeable gait1 used by ladies2 secondly1 an ,arab breed reserved exclusively for the saddle2 thirdly1 a stouter animal used for ploughing and various purposes2 and lastly1 the large ,damascus breed1 with a peculiarly long body and ears4 ,in the ,south of ,france also there are several breeds1 and one of extraordinary size1 some individuals being as tall as full-sized horses4 ,although the ass in ,england is by no means uniform in appearance1 distinct breeds have not been formed4 ,this may probably be accounted for by the animal being kept chiefly by poor persons1 who do not rear large numbers1 nor carefully match and select the young4 ,for1 as we shall see in a future chapter1 the ass can with ease be greatly improved in size and strength by careful selection1 combined no doubt with good food2 and we may infer that all its other characters would be equally amenable to selection4 ,the small size of the ass in ,england and ,northern ,europe is apparently due far more to want of care in breeding than to cold2 for in ,western ,india1 where the ass is used as a beast of burden by some of the lower castes1 it is not much larger than a ,newfoundland dog1 being generally not more than from twenty to thirty inches high4 7#b_/de4 ,col4 ,sykes ,cat4 of ,mammalia ',proc4 ,zoolog4 ,soc4' ,july #ab1 #ahca4 ,williamson ',oriental ,field ,sports' volume #b quoted by ,martin page #bjf47 ,the ass varies greatly in colour2 and its legs1 especially the fore-legs1 both in ,england and other countries--for instance1 in ,china--are occasionally barred more plainly than those of dun-coloured horses4 ,thirteen or fourteen transverse stripes have been counted on both the fore and hind legs4 ,with the horse the occasional appearance of leg-stripes was accounted for by reversion to a supposed parent-form1 and in the case of the ass we may confidently believe in this explanation1 as ,e4 taeniopus is known to be barred1 though only in a slight degree1 and not quite invariably4 ,the stripes are believed to occur most frequently and to be plainest on the legs of the domestic ass during early youth 7#b_/df4 ,blyth in ',charlesworth's ,mag4 of ,nat4 ,hist4' vol #d #ahdj page #hc4 ,i have also been assured by a breeder that this is the case471 as likewise occurs with the horse4 ,the shoulder-stripe1 which is so eminently characteristic of the species1 is nevertheless variable in breadth1 length1 and manner of termination4 ,i have measured one four times as broad as another1 and some more than twice as long as others4 ,in one light-grey ass the shoulder- stripe was only six inches in length1 and as thin as a piece of string2 and in another animal of the same colour there was only a dusky shade representing a stripe4 ,i have heard of three white asses1 not albinoes1 with no trace of shoulder or spinal stripes 7#b_/dg4 ,one case is given by ,martin ',the ,horse' page #bje472 and ,i have seen nine other asses with no shoulder-stripe1 and some of them had no spinal stripe4 ,three of the nine were light-greys1 one a dark-grey1 another grey passing into reddish-roan1 and the others were brown1 two being tinted on parts of their bodies with a reddish or bay shade4 ,if therefore grey and reddish-brown asses had been steadily selected and bred from1 the shoulder stripe would probably have been lost almost as generally and completely as in the case of the horse4 ,the shoulder stripe on the ass is sometimes double1 and ,mr4 ,blyth has seen even three or four parallel stripes4 7#b_/dh4 ',journal ,as4 ,soc4 of ,bengal' volume #bh #ahfj page #bca4 ,martin on the ,horse page #bje47 ,i have observed in ten cases shoulder-stripes abruptly truncated at the lower end1 with the anterior angle produced into a tapering point1 precisely as in the above dun ,devonshire pony4 ,i have seen three cases of the terminal portion abruptly and angularly bent2 and have seen and heard of four cases of a distinct though slight forking of the stripe4 ,in ,syria1 ,dr4 ,hooker and his party observed for me no less than five similar instances of the shoulder- stripe plainly bifurcating over the fore leg4 ,in the common mule it likewise sometimes bifurcates4 ,when ,i first noticed the forking and angular bending of the shoulder-stripe1 ,i had seen enough of the stripes in the various equine species to feel convinced that even a character so unimportant as this had a distinct meaning1 and was thus led to attend to the subject4 ,i now find that in the ,e4 burchellii and quagga1 the stripe which corresponds with the shoulder-stripe of the ass1 as well as some of the stripes on the neck1 bifurcate1 and that some of those near the shoulder have their extremities bent angularly backwards4 ,the bifurcation and angular bending of the stripes on the shoulders apparently are connected with the nearly upright stripes on the sides of the body and neck changing their direction and becoming transverse on the legs4 ,finally1 we see that the presence of shoulder1 leg1 and spinal stripes in the horse1-- their occasional absence in the ass1--the occurrence of double and triple shoulder-stripes in both animals1 and the similar manner in which these stripes terminate downwards1--are all cases of analogous variation in the horse and ass4 ,these cases are probably not due to similar conditions acting on similar constitutions1 but to a partial reversion in colour to the common progenitor of the genus4 ,we shall hereafter return to this subject1 and discuss it more fully4 ,,chapter #a4;,,iii4 ,,pigs--,,cattle--,,sheep--,,goats4 ,,pigs ,,belong ,,to ,,two ,,distinct ,,types1 ,,sus ,,scrofa ,,and ,,indicus4 ,,torfschwein4 ,,japan ,,pigs4 ,,fertility ,,of ,,crossed ,,pigs4 ,,changes ,,in ,,the ,,skull ,,of ,,the ,,highly ,,cultivated ,,races4 ,,convergence ,,of ,,character4 ,,gestation4 ,,solid-,,hoofed ,,swine4 ,,curious ,,appendages ,,to ,,the ,,jaws4 ,,decrease ,,in ,,size ,,of ,,the ,,tusks4 ,,young ,,pigs ,,longitudinally ,,striped4 ,,feral ,,pigs4 ,,crossed ,,breeds4 ,,cattle4 ,,zebu ,a ,,distinct ,,species4 ,,european ,,cattle ,,probably ,,descended ,,from ,,three ,,wild ,,forms4 ,,all ,,the ,,races ,,now ,,fertile ,,together4 ,,british ,,park ,,cattle4 ,,on ,,the ,,colour ,,of ,,the ,,aboriginal ,,species4 ,,constitutional ,,differences4 ,,south ,,african ,,races4 ,,south ,,american ,,races4 ,,niata ,,cattle4 ,,origin ,,of ,,the ,,various ,,races ,,of ,,cattle4 ,,sheep4 ,,remarkable ,,races ,,of4 ,,variations ,,attached ,,to ,,the ,,male ,,sex4 ,,adaptations ,,to ,,various ,,conditions4 ,,gestation ,,of4 ,,changes ,,in ,,the ,,wool4 ,,semi-,,monstrous ,,breeds4 ,,goats4 ,,remarkable ,,variations ,,of4 ,the breeds of the pig have recently been more closely studied1 though much still remains to be done1 than those of almost any other domesticated animal4 ,this has been effected by ,hermann von ,nathusius in two admirable works1 especially in the later one on the ,skulls of the several races1 and by ,rutimeyer in his celebrated ,fauna of the ancient ,swiss lake-dwellings4 7#c_/a4 ,hermann von ,nathusius ',die ,racen des ,schweines' ,berlin #ahfj2 and ',vorstudien fur ,geschichte' etc4 ',schweineschadel' ,berlin #ahfd4 ,rutimeyer ',die ,fauna der ,pfahlbauten' ,basel #ahfa47 ,nathusius has shown that all the known breeds may be divided into two great groups3 one resembling in all important respects and no doubt descended from the common wild boar2 so that this may be called the ,sus scrofa group4 ,the other group differs in several important and constant osteological characters2 its wild parent- form is unknown2 the name given to it by ,nathusius1 according to the law of priority1 is ,sus indicus1 of ,pallas4 ,this name must now be followed1 though an unfortunate one1 as the wild aboriginal does not inhabit ,india1 and the best-known domesticated breeds have been imported from ,siam and ,china4 ,first for the ,sus scrofa breeds1 or those resembling the common wild boar4 ,these still exist1 according to ,nathusius 7',schweineschadel' s4 #ge71 in various parts of central and northern ,europe2 formerly every kingdom 7#c_/b4 ,nathusius ',die ,racen des ,schweines' ,berlin #ahfj4 ,an excellent appendix is given with references to published and trustworthy drawings of the breeds of each country71 and almost every province in ,britain1 possessed its own native breed2 but these are now everywhere rapidly disappearing1 being replaced by improved breeds crossed with the ,s4 indicus form4 ,the skull in the breeds of the ,s4 scrofa type resembles1 in all important respects1 that of the ,european wild boar2 but it has become 7',schweineschadel' s4 #fc-fh7 higher and broader relatively to its length2 and the hinder part is more upright4 ,the differences1 however1 are all variable in degree4 ,the breeds which thus resemble ,s4 scrofa in their essential skull characters differ conspicuously from each other in other respects1 as in the length of the ears and legs1 curvature of the ribs1 colour1 hairiness1 size and proportions of the body4 ,the wild ,sus scrofa has a wide range1 namely1 ,europe1 ,north ,africa1 as identified by osteological characters by ,rutimeyer1 and ,hindostan1 as similarly identified by ,nathusius4 ,but the wild boars inhabiting these several countries differ so much from each other in external characters1 that they have been ranked by some naturalists as specifically distinct4 ,even within ,hindostan these animals1 according to ,mr4 ,blyth1 form very distinct races in the different districts2 in the ,n4 ,western provinces1 as ,i am informed by the ,rev4 ,r4 ,everest1 the boar never exceeds #cf inches in height1 whilst in ,bengal one has been measured #dd inches in height4 ,in ,europe1 ,northern ,africa1 and ,hindostan1 domestic pigs have been known to cross with the wild native species 7#c_/c4 ,for ,europe see ,bechstein ',naturgesch4 ,deutschlands' #ahja b4 #a s4 #eje4 ,several accounts have been published on the fertility of the offspring from wild and tame swine4 ,see ,burdach ',physiology' and ,godron ',de l',espece' tome #a page #cgj4 ,for ,africa ',bull4 de la ,soc4 d',acclimat4' tome #d page #chi4 ,for ,india see ,nathusius ',schweineschadel' s4 #adh472 and in ,hindostan an accurate observer 7#c_/d4 ,sir ,w4 ,elliot ,catalogue of ,mammalia ',madras ,journal of ,lit4 and ,science' volume #aj page #bai471 ,sir ,walter ,elliot1 after describing the differences between wild ,indian and wild ,german boars1 remarks that the same differences are perceptible in the domesticated individuals of the two countries4 ,we may therefore conclude that the breeds of the ,sus scrofa type are descended from1 or have been modified by crossing with1 forms which may be ranked as geographical races1 but which1 according to some naturalists1 ought to be ranked as distinct species4 ,pigs of the ,sus indicus type are best known to ,englishmen under the form of the ,chinese breed4 ,the skull of ,s4 indicus1 as described by ,nathusius1 differs from that of ,s4 scrofa in several minor respects1 as in its greater breadth and in some details in the teeth2 but chiefly in the shortness of the lachrymal bones1 in the greater width of the fore part of the palate- bones1 and in the divergence of the premolar teeth4 ,it deserves especial notice that these latter characters are not gained1 even in the least degree1 by the domesticated forms of ,s4 scrofa4 ,after reading the remarks and descriptions given by ,nathusius1 it seems to me to be merely playing with words to doubt whether ,s4 indicus ought to be ranked as a species2 for the above-specified differences are more strongly marked than any that can be pointed out between1 for instance1 the fox and the wolf1 or the ass and the horse4 ,as already stated1 ,s4 indicus is not known in a wild state2 but its domesticated forms1 according to ,nathusius1 come near to ,s4 vittatus of ,java and some allied species4 ,a pig found wild in the ,aru islands 7',schweineschadel' s4 #afi7 is apparently identical with ,s4 indicus2 but it is doubtful whether this is a truly native animal4 ,the domesticated breeds of ,china1 ,cochin-,china1 and ,siam belong to this type4 ,the ,roman or ,neapolitan breed1 the ,andalusian1 the ,hungarian1 and the ,krause swine of ,nathusius1 inhabiting south-eastern ,europe and ,turkey1 and having fine curly hair1 and the small ,swiss ,bundtnerschwein of ,rutimeyer1 all agree in their more important skull-characters with ,s4 indicus1 and1 as is supposed1 have all been largely crossed with this form4 ,pigs of this type have existed during a long period on the shores of the ,mediterranean1 for a figure 7',schweineschadel' s4 #adb7 closely resembling the existing ,neapolitan pig was found in the buried city of ,herculaneum4 ,rutimeyer has made the remarkable discovery that there lived contemporaneously in ,switzerland1 during the ,neolithic period1 two domesticated forms1 the ,s4 scrofa1 and the ,s4 scrofa palustris or ,torfschwein4 ,rutimeyer perceived that the latter approached the ,eastern breeds1 and1 according to ,nathusius1 it certainly belongs to the ,s4 indicus group2 but ,rutimeyer has subsequently shown that it differs in some well- marked characters4 ,this author was formerly convinced that his ,torfschwein existed as a wild animal during the first part of the ,stone period1 and was domesticated during a later part of the same period4 7#c_/e4 ',pfahlbauten' s4 #afc et passim47 ,nathusius1 whilst he fully admits the curious fact first observed by ,rutimeyer1 that the bones of domesticated and wild animals can be distinguished by their different aspect1 yet1 from special difficulties in the case of the bones of the pig 7',schweineschadel' s4 #adg71 is not convinced of the truth of the above conclusion2 and ,rutimeyer himself seems now to feel some doubt4 ,other naturalists have also argued strongly on the same side as ,nathusius4 7#c_/f4 ,see ,j4,w4 ,schutz' interesting essay ',zur ,kenntniss des ,torfschweins' #ahfh4 ,this author believes that the ,torfschwein is descended from a distinct species1 the ,s4 sennariensis of ,central ,africa47 ,several breeds1 differing in the proportions of the body1 in the length of the ears1 in the nature of the hair1 in colour1 etc41 come under the ,s4 indicus type4 ,nor is this surprising1 considering how ancient the domestication of this form has been both in ,europe and in ,china4 ,in this latter country the date is believed by an eminent ,chinese scholar 7#c_/g4 ,stan4 ,julien quoted by de ,blainville ',osteographie' page #afc47 to go back at least #dijj years from the present time4 ,this same scholar alludes to the existence of many local varieties of the pig in ,china2 and at the present time the ,chinese take extraordinary pains in feeding and tending their pigs1 not even allowing them to walk from place to place4 7#c_/h4 ,richardson ',pigs1 their ,origin' etc4 page #bf47 ,hence these pigs1 as ,nathusius has remarked 7#c_/i4 ',die ,racen des ,schweines' s4 #dg1 #fd471 display in an eminent degree the characters of a highly-cultivated race1 and hence1 no doubt1 their high value in the improvement of our ,european breeds4 ,nathusius makes a remarkable statement 7',schweineschadel' s4 #ach71 that the infusion of the #a_/cbnd1 or even of the #a_/fdth1 part of the blood of ,s4 indicus into a breed of ,s4 scrofa1 is sufficient plainly to modify the skull of the latter species4 ,this singular fact may perhaps be accounted for by several of the chief distinctive characters of ,s4 indicus1 such as the shortness of the lachrymal bones1 etc41 being common to several species of the genus2 for in crosses characters which are common to many species apparently tend to be prepotent over those appertaining to only a few species4 7,,figure #b4 ,,head ,,of ,,japan ,,or ,,masked ,,pig4 7,copied from ,mr4 ,bartlett's paper in ',proc4 ,zoolog4 ,soc4' #ahfa page #bfc477 ,the ,japan pig 7,s4 pliciceps of ,gray71 which was formerly exhibited in the ,zoological ,gardens1 has an extraordinary appearance from its short head1 broad forehead and nose1 great fleshy ears1 and deeply furrowed skin4 ,figure #b is copied from that given by ,mr4 ,bartlett4 7#c_/aj4 ',proc4 ,zoolog4 ,soc4' #ahfa page #bfc47 ,not only is the face furrowed1 but thick folds of skin1 which are harder than the other parts1 almost like the plates on the ,indian rhinoceros1 hang about the shoulders and rump4 ,it is coloured black1 with white feet1 and breeds true4 ,that it has long been domesticated there can be little doubt2 and this might have been inferred even from the fact that its young are not longitudinally striped2 for this is a character common to all the species included within the genus ,sus and the allied genera whilst in their natural state4 7#c_/aa4 ,sclater in ',proc4 ,zoolog4 ,soc4' ,february #bf1 #ahfa47 ,dr4 ,gray 7#c_/ab4 ',proc4 ,zoolog4 ,soc4' #ahfb page #ac4 ,the skull has since been described much more fully by ,professor ,lucae in a very interesting essay1 ',der ,schadel des ,maskenschweines' #ahgj4 ,he confirms the conclusion of von ,nathusius on the relationship of this kind of pig47 has described the skull of this animal1 which he ranks not only as a distinct species1 but places it in a distinct section of the genus4 ,nathusius1 however1 after his careful study of the whole group1 states positively 7',schweineschadel' s4 #aec-aeh74 that the skull in all essential characters closely resembles that of the short-eared ,chinese breed of the ,s4 indicus type4 ,hence ,nathusius considers the ,japan pig as only a domesticated variety of ,s4 indicus3 if this really be the case1 it is a wonderful instance of the amount of modification which can be effected under domestication4 ,formerly there existed in the central islands of the ,pacific ,ocean a singular breed of pigs4 ,these are described by the ,rev4 ,d4 ,tyerman and ,g4 ,bennett 7#c_/ac4 ',journal of ,voyages and ,travels from #ahba to #ahbi' volume #a page #cjj47 as of small size1 hump-backed1 with a disproportionately long head1 with short ears turned backwards1 with a bushy tail not more than two inches in length1 placed as if it grew from the back4 ,within half a century after the introduction of ,european and ,chinese pigs into these islands1 the native breed1 according to the above authors1 became almost completely lost by being repeatedly crossed with them4 ,secluded islands1 as might have been expected1 seem favourable for the production or retention of peculiar breeds2 thus1 in the ,orkney ,islands1 the hogs have been described as very small1 with erect and sharp ears1 and with an appearance altogether different from the hogs brought from the south4 7#c_/ad4 ,rev4 ,g4 ,low ',fauna ,orcadensis' page #aj4 ,see also ,dr4 ,hibbert's account of the pig of the ,shetland ,islands47 ,seeing how different the ,chinese pigs1 belonging to the ,sus indicus type1 are in their osteological characters and in external appearance from the pigs of the ,s4 scrofa type1 so that they must be considered specifically distinct1 it is a fact well deserving attention1 that ,chinese and common pigs have been repeatedly crossed in various manners1 with unimpaired fertility4 ,one great breeder who had used pure ,chinese pigs assured me that the fertility of the half-breeds inter se and of their recrossed progeny was actually increased2 and this is the general belief of agriculturists4 ,again1 the ,japan pig or ,s4 pliciceps of ,gray is so distinct in appearance from all common pigs1 that it stretches one's belief to the utmost to admit that it is simply a domestic variety2 yet this breed has been found perfectly fertile with the ,berkshire breed2 and ,mr4 ,eyton informs me that he paired a half-bred brother and sister and found them quite fertile together4 7,,figure #c4 ,,head ,,of ,,wild ,,boar1 ,,and ,,of ,,golden ,,days1 a pig of the ,yorkshire ,large ,breed2 the latter from a photograph4 7,copied from ,sidney's edition of ',the ,pig' by ,youatt477 ,the modification of the skull in the most highly cultivated races is wonderful4 ,to appreciate the amount of change1 ,nathusius' work1 with its excellent figures1 should be studied4 ,the whole of the exterior in all its parts has been altered3 the hinder surface1 instead of sloping backwards1 is directed forwards1 entailing many changes in other parts2 the front of the head is deeply concave2 the orbits have a different shape2 the auditory meatus has a different direction and shape2 the incisors of the upper and lower jaws do not touch each other1 and they stand in both jaws beyond the plane of the molars2 the canines of the upper jaw stand in front of those of the lower jaw1 and this is a remarkable anomaly3 the articular surfaces of the occipital condyles are so greatly changed in shape1 that1 as ,nathusius remarks 7s4 #acc71 no naturalist1 seeing this important part of the skull by itself1 would suppose that it belonged to the genus ,sus4 ,these and various other modifications1 as ,nathusius observes1 can hardly be considered as monstrosities1 for they are not injurious1 and are strictly inherited4 ,the whole head is much shortened2 thus1 whilst in common breeds its length to that of the body is as #a to #f1 in the cultur-racen the proportion is as #a to #i1 and even recently as #a to #aa4 7#c_/ae4 ',die ,racen des ,schweines' s4 #gj47 ,figure #c 7#c_/af4 ,these woodcuts are copied from engravings given in ,mr4 ,s4 ,sidney's excellent edition of ',the ,pig' by ,youatt #ahfj4 ,see pages #a1 #af1 #ai47 of the head of a wild boar and of a sow from a photograph of the ,yorkshire ,large ,breed1 may aid in showing how greatly the head in a highly cultivated race has been modified and shortened4 ,nathusius has well discussed the causes of the remarkable changes in the skull and shape of the body which the highly cultivated races have undergone4 ,these modifications occur chiefly in the pure and crossed races of the ,s4 indicus type2 but their commencement may be clearly detected in the slightly improved breeds of the ,s4 scrofa type4 7#c_/ag4 ',schweineschadel' s4 #gd1 #ace47 ,nathusius states positively 7s4 #ii1 #ajc71 as the result of common experience and of his experiments1 that rich and abundant food1 given during youth1 tends by some direct action to make the head broader and shorter2 and that poor food works a contrary result4 ,he lays much stress on the fact that all wild and semi-domesticated pigs1 in ploughing up the ground with their muzzles1 have1 whilst young1 to exert the powerful muscles fixed to the hinder part of the head4 ,in highly cultivated races this habit is no longer followed1 and consequently the back of the skull becomes modified in shape1 entailing other changes in other parts4 ,there can hardly be a doubt that so great a change in habits would affect the skull2 but it seems rather doubtful how far this will account for the greatly reduced length of the skull and for its concave front4 ,it is well known 7,nathusius himself advancing many cases1 s4 #ajd7 that there is a strong tendency in many domestic animals--in bull- and pug-dogs1 in the niata cattle1 in sheep1 in ,polish fowls1 short- faced tumbler pigeons1 and in one variety of the carp--for the bones of the face to become greatly shortened4 ,in the case of the dog1 as ,h4 ,muller has shown1 this seems caused by an abnormal state of the primordial cartilage4 ,we may1 however1 readily admit that abundant and rich food supplied during many generations would give an inherited tendency to increased size of body1 and that1 from disuse1 the limbs would become finer and shorter4 7#c_/ah4 ,nathusius ',die ,racen des ,schweines' s4 #ga47 ,we shall in a future chapter see also that the skull and limbs are apparently in some manner correlated1 so that any change in the one tends to affect the other4 ,nathusius has remarked1 and the observation is an interesting one1 that the peculiar form of the skull and body in the most highly cultivated races is not characteristic of any one race1 but is common to all when improved up to the same standard4 ,thus the large-bodied1 long-eared1 ,english breeds with a convex back1 and the small-bodied1 short-eared1 ,chinese breeds with a concave back1 when bred to the same state of perfection1 nearly resemble each other in the form of the head and body4 ,this result1 it appears1 is partly due to similar causes of change acting on the several races1 and partly to man breeding the pig for one sole purpose1 namely1 for the greatest amount of flesh and fat2 so that selection has always tended towards one and the same end4 ,with most domestic animals the result of selection has been divergence of character1 here it has been convergence4 7#c_/ai4 ',die ,racen des ,schweines' s4 #dg4 ',schweineschadel' s4 #ajd4 ,compare also the figures of the old ,irish and the improved ,irish breeds in ,richardson on ',the ,pig' #ahdg47 ,the nature of the food supplied during many generations has apparently affected the length of the intestines2 for1 according to ,cuvier 7#c_/bj4 ,quoted by ,isid4 ,geoffroy ',hist4 ,nat4 ,gen4' tome #c page #dda471 their length to that of the body in the wild boar is as #i to #a1--;in the common domestic boar as #ac4e to #a1--;and in the ,siam breed as #af to #a4 ,in this latter breed the greater length may be due either to descent from a distinct species or to more ancient domestication4 ,the number of mammae vary1 as does the period of gestation4 ,the latest authority says 7#c_/ba4 ,s4 ,sidney ',the ,pig' page #fa47 that the period averages from #ag to #bj weeks1 but ,i think there must be some error in this statement3 in ,m4 ,tessier's observations on #be sows it varied from #aji to #abc days4 ,the ,rev4 ,w4,d4 ,fox has given me ten carefully recorded cases with well-bred pigs1 in which the period varied from #aja to #aaf days4 ,according to ,nathusius the period is shortest in the races which come early to maturity2 but the course of their development does not appear to be actually shortened1 for the young animal is born1 judging from the state of the skull1 less fully developed1 or in a more embryonic condition 7#c_/bb4 ',schweineschadel' s4 #b1 #bj47 than in the case of common swine4 ,in the highly cultivated and early matured races the teeth1 also1 are developed earlier4 ,the difference in the number of the vertebrae and ribs in different kinds of pigs1 as observed by ,mr4 ,eyton 7#c_/bc4 ',proc4 ,zoolog4 ,soc4' #ahcg page #bc4 ,i have not given the caudal vertebrae1 as ,mr4 ,eyton says some might possibly have been lost4 ,i have added together the dorsal and lumbar vertebrae1 owing to ,prof4 ,owen's remarks 7',journal ,linn4 ,soc4' volume #b page #bh7 on the difference between dorsal and lumbar vertebrae depending only on the development of the ribs4 ,nevertheless the difference in the number of the ribs in pigs deserves notice4 ,m4 ,sanson gives the number of lumbar vertebrae in various pigs2 ',comptes ,rendus' #ic page #hdc471 and as given in the following table1 has often been quoted4 ,the ,african sow probably belongs to the ,s4 scrofa type2 and ,mr4 ,eyton informs me that1 since the publication of this paper1 cross-bred animals from the ,african and ,english races were found by ,lord ,hill to be perfectly fertile4 ,,table #b3 ,,number ,,of ,,vertebrae ,,in ,,various ,,pigs3 ,,english ,,long-,,legged ,,male4 ,dorsal #ae4 ,lumbar #f4 ,dorsal plus ,lumbar #ba4 ,sacral #e4 ,total #bf4 ,,african ,,female4 ,dorsal #ac4 ,lumbar #f4 ,dorsal plus ,lumbar #ai4 ,sacral #e4 ,total #bd4 ,,chinese ,,male4 ,dorsal #ae4 ,lumbar #d4 ,dorsal plus ,lumbar #ai4 ,sacral #d4 ,total #bc4 ,,wild ,,boar ,,from ,,cuvier4 ,dorsal #ad4 ,lumbar #e4 ,dorsal plus ,lumbar #ai4 ,sacral #d4 ,total #bc4 ,,french ,,domestic ,,boar1 ,,from ,,cuvier4 ,dorsal #ad4 ,lumbar #e4 ,dorsal plus ,lumbar #ai4 ,sacral #d4 ,total #bc4 ,some semi-monstrous breeds deserve notice4 ,from the time of ,aristotle to the present time solid-hoofed swine have occasionally been observed in various parts of the world4 ,although this peculiarity is strongly inherited1 it is hardly probable that all the animals with solid hoofs have descended from the same parents2 it is more probable that the same peculiarity has reappeared at various times and places4 ,dr4 ,struthers has lately described and figured 7#c_/bd4 ',edinburgh ,new ,philosoph4 ,journal' ,april #ahfc4 ,see also ,de ,blainville ',osteographie' page #abh for various authorities on this subject47 the structure of the feet2 in both front and hind feet the distal phalanges of the two greater toes are represented by a single1 great1 hoof-bearing phalanx2 and in the front feet1 the middle phalanges are represented by a bone which is single towards the lower end1 but bears two separate articulations towards the upper end4 ,from other accounts it appears that an intermediate toe is likewise sometimes superadded4 7,,figure #d4 ,,old ,,irish ,,pig1 with jaw appendages4 7,copied from ,h4,d4 ,richardson on ,pigs477 ,another curious anomaly is offered by the appendages1 described by ,m4 ,eudes-,deslongchamps as often characterizing the ,normandy pigs4 ,these appendages are always attached to the same spot1 to the corners of the jaw2 they are cylindrical1 about three inches in length1 covered with bristles1 and with a pencil of bristles rising out of a sinus on one side3 they have a cartilaginous centre1 with two small longitudinal muscles they occur either symmetrically on both sides of the face or on one side alone4 ,richardson figures them on the gaunt old ,irish ,greyhound pig2 and ,nathusius states that they occasionally appear in all the long eared races1 but are not strictly inherited1 for they occur or fail in animals of the same litter4 7#c_/be4 ,eudes-,deslongchamps ',memoires de la ,soc4 ,linn4 de ,normandie' volume #g #ahdb page #da4 ,richardson ',pigs1 their ,origin1 etc4' #ahdg page #cj4 ,nathusius ',die ,racen des ,schweines' #ahfc s4 #ed47 ,as no wild pigs are known to have analogous appendages1 we have at present no reason to suppose that their appearance is due to reversion2 and if this be so1 we are forced to admit that a somewhat complex1 though apparently useless1 structure may be suddenly developed without the aid of selection4 ,it is a remarkable fact that the boars of all domesticated breeds have much shorter tusks than wild boars4 ,many facts show that with many animals the state of the hair is much affected by exposure to1 or protection from1 climate2 and as we see that the state of the hair and teeth are correlated in ,turkish dogs 7other analogous facts will be hereafter given71 may we not venture to surmise that the reduction of the tusks in the domestic boar is related to his coat of bristles being diminished from living under shelter8 ,on the other hand1 as we shall immediately see1 the tusks and bristles reappear with feral boars1 which are no longer protected from the weather4 ,it is not surprising that the tusks should be more affected than the other teeth2 as parts developed to serve as secondary sexual characters are always liable to much variation4 ,it is a well-known fact that the young of wild ,european and ,indian pigs 7#c_/bf4 ,d4 ,johnson ',sketches of ,indian ,field ,sports' page #bgb4 ,mr4 ,crawfurd informs me that the same fact holds good with the wild pigs of the ,malay peninsula471 for the first six months1 are longitudinally banded with light-coloured stripes4 ,this character generally disappears under domestication4 ,the ,turkish domestic pigs1 however1 have striped young1 as have those of ,westphalia1 whatever may be their hue 7#c_/bg4 ,for ,turkish pigs see ,desmarest ',mammalogie' #ahbj page #cia4 ,for those of ,westphalia see ,richardson ',pigs1 their ,origin1 etc4' #ahdg page #da472 whether these latter pigs belong to the same curly-haired race as the ,turkish swine1 ,i do not know4 ,the pigs which have run wild in ,jamaica and the semi-feral pigs of ,new ,granada1 both those which are black and those which are black with a white band across the stomach1 often extending over the back1 have resumed this aboriginal character and produce longitudinally-striped young4 ,this is likewise the case1 at least occasionally1 with the neglected pigs in the ,zambesi settlement on the coast of ,africa4 7#c_/bh4 ,with respect to the several foregoing and following statements on feral pigs see ,roulin in ',mem4 presentes par divers ,savans a l',acad4' etc4 ,paris tome #f #ahce page #cbf4 ,it should be observed that his account does not apply to truly feral pigs2 but to pigs long introduced into the country and living in a half- wild state4 ,for the truly feral pigs of ,jamaica see ,gosse ',sojourn in ,jamaica' #ahea page #chf2 and ,col ,hamilton ,smith in ',nat4 ,library' volume #i page #ic4 ,with respect to ,africa see ,livingstone ',expedition to the ,zambesi' #ahfe page #aec4 ,the most precise statement with respect to the tusks of the ,west ,indian feral boars is by ,p4 ,labat quoted by ,roulin2 but this author attributes the state of these pigs to descent from a domestic stock which he saw in ,spain4 ,admiral ,sulivan1 ,r4,n41 had ample opportunities of observing the wild pigs on ,eagle ,islet in the ,falklands2 and he informs me that they resembled wild boars with bristly ridged backs and large tusks4 ,the pigs which have run wild in the province of ,buenos ,ayres 7,rengger ',saugethiere' s4 #cca7 have not reverted to the wild type4 ,de ,blainville ',osteographie' page #acb refers to two skulls of domestic pigs sent from ,patagonia by ,al4 d',orbigny1 and he states that they have the occipital elevation of the wild ,european boar1 but that the head altogether is plus courte et plus ramassee4 ,he refers also to the skin of a feral pig from ,north ,america1 and says il ressemble tout a fait a un petit sanglier1 mais il est presque tout noir1 et peut-etre un peu plus ramasse dans ses formes4 ,the common belief that all domesticated animals1 when they run wild1 revert completely to the character of their parent-stock1 is chiefly founded1 as far as ,i can discover1 on feral pigs4 ,but even in this case the belief is not grounded on sufficient evidence2 for the two main types1 namely1 ,s4 scrofa and indicus1 have not been distinguished4 ,the young1 as we have just seen1 reacquire their longitudinal stripes1 and the boars invariably reassume their tusks4 ,they revert also in the general shape of their bodies1 and in the length of their legs and muzzles1 to the state of the wild animal1 as might have been expected from the amount of exercise which they are compelled to take in search of food4 ,in ,jamaica the feral pigs do not acquire the full size of the ,european wild boar1 never attaining a greater height than #bj inches at the shoulder4 ,in various countries they reassume their original bristly covering1 but in different degrees1 dependent on the climate2 thus1 according to ,roulin1 the semi-feral pigs in the hot valleys of ,new ,granada are very scantily clothed2 whereas1 on the ,paramos1 at the height of #gjjj to #hjjj feet1 they acquire a thick covering of wool lying under the bristles1 like that on the truly wild pigs of ,france4 ,these pigs on the ,paramos are small and stunted4 ,the wild boar of ,india is said to have the bristles at the end of its tail arranged like the plumes of an arrow1 whilst the ,european boar has a simple tuft2 and it is a curious fact that many1 but not all1 of the feral pigs in ,jamaica1 derived from a ,spanish stock1 have a plumed tail4 7#c_/bi4 ,gosse ',jamaica' page #chf with a quotation from ,williamson ',oriental ,field ,sports4' ,also ,col4 ,hamilton ,smith in ',naturalist ,library' volume #i page #id47 ,with respect to colour1 feral pigs generally revert to that of the wild boar2 but in certain parts of ,s4 ,america1 as we have seen1 some of the semi-feral pigs have a curious white band across their stomachs2 and in certain other hot places the pigs are red1 and this colour has likewise occasionally been observed in the feral pigs of ,jamaica4 ,from these several facts we see that with pigs when feral there is a strong tendency to revert to the wild type2 but that this tendency is largely governed by the nature of the climate1 amount of exercise1 and other causes of change to which they have been subjected4 ,the last point worth notice is that we have unusually good evidence of breeds of pigs now keeping perfectly true1 which have been formed by the crossing of several distinct breeds4 ,the ,improved ,essex pigs1 for instance1 breed very true2 but there is no doubt that they largely owe their present excellent qualities to crosses originally made by ,lord ,western with the ,neapolitan race1 and to subsequent crosses with the ,berkshire breed 7this also having been improved by ,neapolitan crosses71 and likewise1 probably1 with the ,sussex breed4 7#c_/cj4 ,s4 ,sidney's edition of ',youatt on the ,pig' #ahfj pages #g1 #bf1 #bg1 #bi1 #cj47 ,in breeds thus formed by complex crosses1 the most careful and unremitting selection during many generations has been found to be indispensable4 ,chiefly in consequence of so much crossing1 some well-known breeds have undergone rapid changes2 thus1 according to ,nathusius 7#c_/ca4 ',schweineschadel' s #adj471 the ,berkshire breed of #aghj is quite different from that of #ahaj2 and1 since this latter period1 at least two distinct forms have borne the same name4 ,,cattle4 ,domestic cattle are certainly the descendants of more than one wild form1 in the same manner as has been shown to be the case with our dogs and pigs4 ,naturalists have generally made two main divisions of cattle3 the humped kinds inhabiting tropical countries1 called in ,india ,zebus1 to which the specific name of ,bos indicus has been given2 and the common non-humped cattle1 generally included under the name of ,bos taurus4 ,the humped cattle were domesticated1 as may be seen on the ,egyptian monuments1 at least as early as the twelfth dynasty1 that is #bajj ,b4,c4 ,they differ from common cattle in various osteological characters1 even in a greater degree1 according to ,rutimeyer 7#c_/cb4 ',die ,fauna der ,pfahlbauten' #ahfa s4 #aji1 #adi1 #bbb4 ,see also ,geoffroy ,saint-,hilaire in ',mem4 du ,mus4 d',hist4 ,nat4' tome #aj page #agb2 and his son ,isidore in ',hist4 ,nat4 ,gen4' tome #c page #fi4 ,vasey in his ',delineations of the ,ox ,tribe' #ahea page #abg1 says the zebu has four1 and common ox five1 sacral vertebrae4 ,mr4 ,hodgson found the ribs either thirteen or fourteen in number2 see a note in ',indian ,field' #aheh page #fb47 than do the fossil and prehistoric ,european species1 namely1 ,bos primigenius and longifrons1 from each other4 ,they differ1 also1 as ,mr4 ,blyth 7#c_/cc4 ',the ,indian ,field' #aheh page #gd where ,mr4 ,blyth gives his authorities with respect to the feral humped cattle4 ,pickering also in his ',races of ,man' #ahej page #bgd notices the peculiar grunt-like character of the voice of the humped cattle471 who has particularly attended to this subject1 remarks1 in general configuration1 in the shape of their ears1 in the point where the dewlap commences1 in the typical curvature of their horns1 in their manner of carrying their heads when at rest1 in their ordinary variations of colour1 especially in the frequent presence of nilgau-like markings on their feet1 and in the one being born with teeth protruding through the jaws1 and the other not so4 ,they have different habits1 and their voice is entirely different4 ,the humped cattle in ,india seldom seek shade1 and never go into the water and there stand knee-deep1 like the cattle of ,europe4 ,they have run wild in parts of ,oude and ,rohilcund1 and can maintain themselves in a region infested by tigers4 ,they have given rise to many races differing greatly in size1 in the presence of one or two humps1 in length of horns1 and other respects4 ,mr4 ,blyth sums up emphatically that the humped and humpless cattle must be considered as distinct species4 ,when we consider the number of points in external structure and habits1 independently of important osteological differences1 in which they differ from each other2 and that many of these points are not likely to have been affected by domestication1 there can hardly be a doubt1 notwithstanding the adverse opinion of some naturalists1 that the humped and non-humped cattle must be ranked as specifically distinct4 ,the ,european breeds of humpless cattle are numerous4 ,professor ,low enumerates #ai ,british breeds1 only a few of which are identical with those on the ,continent4 ,even the small ,channel islands of ,guernsey1 ,jersey1 and ,alderney possess their own sub-breeds 7#c_/cd4 ,mr4 ,h4,e4 ,marquand in ',the ,times' ,june #bc1 #ahef472 and these again differ from the cattle of the other ,british islands1 such as ,anglesea1 and the western isles of ,scotland4 ,desmarest1 who paid attention to the subject1 describes #ae ,french races1 excluding sub-varieties and those imported from other countries4 ,in other parts of ,europe there are several distinct races1 such as the pale-coloured ,hungarian cattle1 with their light and free step1 and enormous horns sometimes measuring above five feet from tip to tip 7#c_/ce4 ,vasey ',delineations of the ,ox-,tribe' page #abd4 ,brace ',hungary' #ahea page #id4 ,the ,hungarian cattle descend according to ,rutimeyer ',zahmen ,europ4 ,rindes' #ahff s4 #ac from ,bos primigenius473 the ,podolian cattle also are remarkable from the height of their fore-quarters4 ,in the most recent work on ,cattle 7#c_/cf4 ,moll and ,gayot ',la ,connaissance ,gen4 du ,boeuf' ,paris #ahfj4 ,fig4 #hb is that of the ,podolian breed471 engravings are given of fifty-five ,european breeds2 it is1 however1 probable that several of these differ very little from each other1 or are merely synonyms4 ,it must not be supposed that numerous breeds of cattle exist only in long-civilised countries1 for we shall presently see that several kinds are kept by the savages of ,southern ,africa4 ,with respect to the parentage of the several ,european breeds1 we already know much from ,nilsson's ,memoir 7#c_/cg4 ,a translation appeared in three parts in the ',annals and ,mag4 of ,nat4 ,hist4' #bnd series volume #d #ahdi471 and more especially from ,rutimeyer's works and those of ,boyd ,dawkins4 ,two or three species or forms of ,bos1 closely allied to still living domestic races1 have been found in the more recent tertiary deposits or amongst prehistoric remains in ,europe4 ,following ,rutimeyer1 we have3- ,bos primigenius4 ,this magnificent1 well known species was domesticated in ,switzerland during the ,neolithic period2 even at this early period it varied a little1 having apparently been crossed with other races4 ,some of the larger races on the ,continent1 as the ,friesland1 etc41 and the ,pembroke race in ,england1 closely resemble in essential structure ,b4 primigenius1 and no doubt are its descendants4 ,this is likewise the opinion of ,nilsson4 ,bos primigenius existed as a wild animal in ,caesar's time1 and is now semi-wild1 though much degenerated in size1 in the park of ,chillingham2 for ,i am informed by ,professor ,rutimeyer1 to whom ,lord ,tankerville sent a skull1 that the ,chillingham cattle are less altered from the true primigenius type than any other known breed4 7#c_/ch4 ,see also ,rutimeyer ',beitrage pal4 ,gesch4 der ,wiederkauer' ,basel #ahfe s4 #ed47 ,bos trochoceros4 ,this form is not included in the three species above mentioned1 for it is now considered by ,rutimeyer to be the female of an early domesticated form of ,b4 primigenius1 and as the progenitor of his frontosus race4 ,i may add that specific names have been given to four other fossil oxen1 now believed to be identical with ,b4 primigenius4 7#c_/ci4 ,pictet ',palaeontologie' tome #a page #cfe #bnd edition4 ,with respect to ,b4 trochoceros see ,rutimeyer ',zahmen ,europ4 ,rindes' #ahff s4 #bf47 ,bos longifrons 7or brachyceros7 of ,owen4 ,this very distinct species was of small size1 and had a short body with fine legs4 ,according to ,boyd ,dawkins 7#c_/dj4 ,w4 ,boyd ,dawkins on the ,british ,fossil ,oxen ',journal of the ,geolog4 ,soc4' ,august #ahfg page #ahb4 ,also ',proc4 ,phil4 ,soc4 of ,manchester' ,november #ad1 #ahga and ',cave ,hunting' #ahge page #bg1 #ach47 it was introduced as a domesticated animal into ,britain at a very early period1 and supplied food to the ,roman legionaries4 7#c_/da4 ',british ,pleistocene ,mammalia' by ,w4,b4 ,dawkins and ,w4,a4 ,sandford #ahff page #ae47 ,some remains have been found in ,ireland in certain crannoges1 of which the dates are believed to be from #hdc-icc ,a4,d4 7#c_/db4 ,w4,r4 ,wilde ',an ,essay on the ,animal ,remains1 etc4 ,royal ,irish ,academy' #ahfj page #bi4 ,also ',proc4 of ,r4 ,irish ,academy' #aheh page #dh47 ,it was also the commonest form in a domesticated condition in ,switzerland during the earliest part of the ,neolithic period4 ,professor ,owen 7#c_/dc4 ',lecture3 ,royal ,institution of ,g4 ,britain' ,may #b1 #ahef page #d4 ',british ,fossil ,mammals' page #eac47 thinks it probable that the ,welsh and ,highland cattle are descended from this form2 as likewise is the case1 according to ,rutimeyer1 with some of the existing ,swiss breeds4 ,these latter are of different shades of colour from light- grey to blackish-brown1 with a lighter stripe along the spine1 but they have no pure white marks4 ,the cattle of ,north ,wales and the ,highlands1 on the other hand1 are generally black or dark-coloured4 ,bos frontosus of ,nilsson4 ,this species is allied to ,b4 longifrons1 and1 according to the high authority of ,mr4 ,boyd ,dawkins1 is identical with it1 but in the opinion of some judges is distinct4 ,both co-existed in ,scania during the same late geological period 7#c_/dd4 ,nilsson in ',annals and ,mag4 of ,nat4 ,hist4' #ahdi volume #d page #ced471 and both have been found in the ,irish crannoges4 7#c_/de4 ,see ,w4,r4 ,wilde ut supra2 and ,mr4 ,blyth in ',proc4 ,irish ,academy' ,march #e1 #ahfd47 ,nilsson believes that his ,b4 frontosus may be the parent of the mountain cattle of ,norway1 which have a high protuberance on the skull between the base of the horns4 ,as ,professor ,owen and others believe that the ,scotch ,highland cattle are descended from his ,b4 longifrons1 it is worth notice that a capable judge 7#c_/df4 ,laing ',tour in ,norway' page #aaj47 has remarked that he saw no cattle in ,norway like the ,highland breed1 but that they more nearly resembled the ,devonshire breed4 ,on the whole we may conclude1 more especially from the researches of ,boyd ,dawkins1 that ,european cattle are descended from two species2 and there is no improbability in this fact1 for the genus ,bos readily yields to domestication4 ,besides these two species and the zebu1 the yak1 the gayal1 and the arni 7#c_/dg4 ,isid4 ,geoffroy ,saint-,hilaire ',hist4 ,nat4 ,gen4' tome #c1 #if47 7not to mention the buffalo or genus ,bubalus7 have been domesticated2 making altogether six species of ,bos4 ,the zebu and the two ,european species are now extinct in a wild state4 ,although certain races of cattle were domesticated at a very ancient period in ,europe1 it does not follow that they were first domesticated here4 ,those who place much reliance on philology argue that they were imported from the ,east4 7#c_/dh4 ,idem tome #c pages #hb1 #ia47 ,it is probable that they originally inhabited a temperate or cold climate1 but not a land long covered with snow2 for our cattle1 as we have seen in the chapter on ,horses1 have not the instinct of scraping away the snow to get at the herbage beneath4 ,no one could behold the magnificent wild bulls on the bleak ,falkland ,islands in the southern hemisphere1 and doubt about the climate being admirably suited to them4 ,azara has remarked that in the temperate regions of ,la ,plata the cows conceive when two years old1 whilst in the much hotter country of ,paraguay they do not conceive till three years old2 from which fact1 as he adds1 one may conclude that cattle do not succeed so well in warm countries4 7#c_/di4 ',quadrupedes du ,paraguay' tome #b page #cfj47 ,bos primigenius and longifrons have been ranked by nearly all palaeontologists as distinct species2 and it would not be reasonable to take a different view simply because their domesticated descendants now intercross with the utmost freedom4 ,all the ,european breeds have so often been crossed both intentionally and unintentionally1 that1 if any sterility had ensued from such unions1 it would certainly have been detected4 ,as zebus inhabit a distant and much hotter region1 and as they differ in so many characters from our ,european cattle1 ,i have taken pains to ascertain whether the two forms are fertile when crossed4 ,the late ,lord ,powis imported some zebus and crossed them with common cattle in ,shropshire2 and ,i was assured by his steward that the cross-bred animals were perfectly fertile with both parent-stocks4 ,mr4 ,blyth informs me that in ,india hybrids1 with various proportions of either blood1 are quite fertile2 and this can hardly fail to be known1 for in some districts 7#c_/ej4 ,walther ',das ,rindvieh' #ahag s4 #cj47 the two species are allowed to breed freely together4 ,most of the cattle which were first introduced into ,tasmania were humped1 so that at one time thousands of crossed animals existed there2 and ,mr4 ,b4 ,o',neile ,wilson1 ,m4,a41 writes to me from ,tasmania that he has never heard of any sterility having been observed4 ,he himself formerly possessed a herd of such crossed cattle1 and all were perfectly fertile2 so much so1 that he cannot remember even a single cow failing to calve4 ,these several facts afford an important confirmation of the ,pallasian doctrine that the descendants of species which when first domesticated would if crossed have been in all probability in some degree sterile1 become perfectly fertile after a long course of domestication4 ,in a future chapter we shall see that this doctrine throws some light on the difficult subject of ,hybridism4 ,i have alluded to the cattle in ,chillingham ,park1 which1 according to ,rutimeyer1 have been very little changed from the ,bos primigenius type4 ,this park is so ancient that it is referred to in a record of the year #abbj4 ,the cattle in their instincts and habits are truly wild4 ,they are white1 with the inside of the ears reddish-brown1 eyes rimmed with black1 muzzles brown1 hoofs black1 and horns white tipped with black4 ,within a period of thirty-three years about a dozen calves were born with brown and blue spots upon the cheeks or necks2 but these1 together with any defective animals1 were always destroyed4 ,according to ,bewick1 about the year #aggj some calves appeared with black ears2 but these were also destroyed by the keeper1 and black ears have not since reappeared4 ,the wild white cattle in the ,duke of ,hamilton's park1 where ,i have heard of the birth of a black calf1 are said by ,lord ,tankerville to be inferior to those at ,chillingham4 ,the cattle kept until the year #aghj by the ,duke of ,queensberry1 but now extinct1 had their ears1 muzzle1 and orbits of the eyes black4 ,those which have existed from time immemorial at ,chartley1 closely resemble the cattle at ,chillingham1 but are larger1 with some small difference in the colour of the ears4 ,they frequently tend to become entirely black2 and a singular superstition prevails in the vicinity that1 when a black calf is born1 some calamity impends over the noble house of ,ferrers4 ,all the black calves are destroyed4 ,the cattle at ,burton ,constable in ,yorkshire1 now extinct1 had ears1 muzzle1 and the tip of the tail black4 ,those at ,gisburne1 also in ,yorkshire1 are said by ,bewick to have been sometimes without dark muzzles1 with the inside alone of the ears brown2 and they are elsewhere said to have been low in stature and hornless4 7#c_/ea4 ,i am much indebted to the present ,earl of ,tankerville for information about his wild cattle2 and for the skull which was sent to ,prof4 ,rutimeyer4 ,the fullest account of the ,chillingham cattle is given by ,mr4 ,hindmarsh1 together with a letter by the late ,lord ,tankerville1 in ',annals and ,mag4 of ,nat4 ,hist4' volume #b #ahci page #bgd4 ,see ,bewick ',quadrupeds' #bnd edition #agia page #ce note4 ,with respect to those of the ,duke of ,queensberry see ,pennant ',tour in ,scotland' page #aji4 ,for those of ,chartley1 see ,low ',domesticated ,animals of ,britain' #ahde page #bch4 ,for those of ,gisburne see ,bewick ',quadrupeds' and ',encyclop4 of ,rural ,sports' page #aja47 ,the several above-specified differences in the park-cattle1 slight though they be1 are worth recording1 as they show that animals living nearly in a state of nature1 and exposed to nearly uniform conditions1 if not allowed to roam freely and to cross with other herds1 do not keep as uniform as truly wild animals4 ,for the preservation of a uniform character1 even within the same park1 a certain degree of selection--that is1 the destruction of the dark-coloured calves--is apparently necessary4 ,boyd ,dawkins believes that the park-cattle are descended from anciently domesticated1 and not truly wild animals2 and from the occasional appearance of dark-coloured calves1 it is improbable that the aboriginal ,bos primigenius was white4 ,it is curious what a strong1 though not invariable1 tendency there is in wild or escaped cattle to become white with coloured ears1 under widely different conditions of life4 ,if the old writers ,boethius and ,leslie 7#c_/eb4 ,boethius was born in #adgj2 ',annals and ,mag4 of ,nat4 ,hist4' volume #b #ahci page #bha2 and volume #d #ahdi page #dbd47 can be trusted1 the wild cattle of ,scotland were white and furnished with a great mane2 but the colour of their ears is not mentioned4 ,in ,wales 7#c_/ec4 ',youatt on ,cattle' #ahcd page #dh3 ,see also page #bdb1 on shorthorn cattle4 ,bell in his ',british ,quadrupeds' page #dbc states that1 after long attending to the subject1 he has found that white cattle invariably have coloured ears471 during the tenth century1 some of the cattle are described as being white with red ears4 ,four hundred cattle thus coloured were sent to ,king ,john2 and an early record speaks of a hundred cattle with red ears having been demanded as a compensation for some offence1 but1 if the cattle were of a dark or black colour1 #aej were to be presented4 ,the black cattle of ,north ,wales apparently belong1 as we have seen1 to the small longifrons type3 and as the alternative was offered of either #aej dark cattle1 or #ajj white cattle with red ears1 we may presume that the latter were the larger beasts1 and probably belonged to the primigenius type4 ,youatt has remarked that at the present day1 whenever cattle of the shorthorn breed are white1 the extremities of their ears are more or less tinged with red4 ,the cattle which have run wild on the ,pampas1 in ,texas1 and in two parts of ,africa1 have become of a nearly uniform dark brownish-red4 7#c_/ed4 ,azara ',quadrupedes du ,paraguay' tome #b page #cfa4 ,azara quotes ,buffon for the feral cattle of ,africa4 ,for ,texas see ',times' ,february #ah1 #ahdf47 ,on the ,ladrone ,islands1 in the ,pacific ,ocean1 immense herds of cattle1 which were wild in the year #agda1 are described as milk-white1 except their ears1 which are generally black4 7#c_/ee4 ,anson's ,voyage4 ,see ,kerr and ,porter ',collection' volume #ab page #ajc47 ,the ,falkland ,islands1 situated far south1 with all the conditions of life as different as it is possible to conceive from those of the ,ladrones1 offer a more interesting case4 ,cattle have run wild there during eighty or ninety years2 and in the southern districts the animals are mostly white1 with their feet1 or whole heads1 or only their ears black2 but my informant1 ,admiral ,sulivan 7#c_/ef4 ,see also ,mr4 ,mackinnon's pamphlet on the ,falkland ,islands1 page #bd471 who long resided on these islands1 does not believe that they are ever purely white4 ,so that in these two archipelagos we see that the cattle tend to become white with coloured ears4 ,in other parts of the ,falkland ,islands other colours prevail3 near ,port ,pleasant brown is the common tint2 round ,mount ,usborn1 about half the animals in some of the herds were lead- or mouse-coloured1 which elsewhere is an unusual tint4 ,these latter cattle1 though generally inhabiting high land1 breed about a month earlier than the other cattle2 and this circumstance would aid in keeping them distinct and in perpetuating a peculiar colour4 ,it is worth recalling to mind that blue or lead-coloured marks have occasionally appeared on the white cattle of ,chillingham4 ,so plainly different were the colours of the wild herds in different parts of the ,falkland ,islands1 that in hunting them1 as ,admiral ,sulivan informs me1 white spots in one district1 and dark spots in another district1 were always looked out for on the distant hills4 ,in the intermediate districts1 intermediate colours prevailed4 ,whatever the cause may be1 this tendency in the wild cattle of the ,falkland ,islands1 which are all descended from a few brought from ,la ,plata1 to break up into herds of three different colours1 is an interesting fact4 ,returning to the several ,british breeds1 the conspicuous difference in general appearance between ,shorthorns1 ,longhorns 7now rarely seen71 ,herefords1 ,highland cattle1 ,alderneys1 etc41 must be familiar to every one4 ,a part of this difference may be attributed to descent from primordially distinct species2 but we may feel sure that there has been a considerable amount of variation4 ,even during the ,neolithic period1 the domestic cattle were to a certain extent variable4 ,within recent times most of the breeds have been modified by careful and methodical selection4 ,how strongly the characters thus acquired are inherited1 may be inferred from the prices realised by the improved breeds2 even at the first sale of ,colling's ,shorthorns1 eleven bulls reached an average of #bad pounds1 and lately ,shorthorn bulls have been sold for a thousand guineas1 and have been exported to all quarters of the world4 ,some constitutional differences may be here noticed4 ,the ,shorthorns arrive at maturity far earlier than the wilder breeds1 such as those of ,wales or the ,highlands4 ,this fact has been shown in an interesting manner by ,mr4 ,simonds 7#c_/eg4 ',the ,age of the ,ox1 ,sheep1 ,pig' etc4 by ,prof4 ,james ,simonds1 published by order of the ,royal ,agricult4 ,soc47 who has given a table of the average period of their dentition1 which proves that there is a difference of no less than six months in the appearance of the permanent incisors4 ,the period of gestation1 from observations made by ,tessier on #aaca cows1 varies to the extent of eighty-one days2 and what is more interesting1 ,m4 ,lefour affirms that the period of gestation is longer in the large ,german cattle than in the smaller breeds4 7#c_/eh4 ',ann4 ,agricult4 ,france' ,april #ahcg as quoted in ',the ,veterinary' volume #ab page #gbe4 ,i quote ,tessier's observations from ',youatt on ,cattle' page #ebg47 ,with respect to the period of conception1 it seems certain that ,alderney and ,zetland cows often become pregnant earlier than other breeds4 7#c_/ei4 ',the ,veterinary' volume #h page #fha and volume #aj page #bfh4 ,low ',domest4 ,animals1 etc4' page #big47 ,lastly1 as four fully developed mammae is a generic character in the genus ,bos 7#c_/fj4 ,mr4 ,ogleby in ',proc4 ,zoolog4 ,soc4' #ahcf page #ach1 and #ahdj page #d4 ,quatrefages quotes ,philippi ',revue des ,cours ,scientifiques' ,february #ab1 #afhh page #feg1 that the cattle of ,piacentino have thirteen dorsal vertebrae and ribs in the place of the ordinary number of twelve471 it is worth notice that with our domestic cows the two rudimentary mammae often become fairly well developed and yield milk4 ,as numerous breeds are generally found only in long-civilised countries1 it may be well to show that in some countries inhabited by barbarous races1 who are frequently at war with each other1 and therefore have little free communication1 several distinct breeds of cattle now exist or formerly existed4 ,at the ,cape of ,good ,hope ,leguat observed1 in the year #agbj1 three kinds4 7#c_/fa4 ,leguat's ,voyage quoted by ,vasey in his ',delineations of the ,ox-tribe' page #acb47 ,at the present day various travellers have noticed the differences in the breeds in ,southern ,africa4 ,sir ,andrew ,smith several years ago remarked to me that the cattle possessed by the different tribes of ,caffres1 though living near each other under the same latitude and in the same kind of country1 yet differed1 and he expressed much surprise at the fact4 ,mr4 ,andersson has described 7#c_/fb4 ',travels in ,south ,africa' pages #cag1 #ccf47 the ,damara1 ,bechuana1 and ,namaqua cattle2 and he informs me in a letter that the cattle north of ,lake ,ngami are likewise different1 as ,mr4 ,galton has heard is also the case with the cattle of ,benguela4 ,the ,namaqua cattle in size and shape nearly resemble ,european cattle1 and have short stout horns and large hoofs4 ,the ,damara cattle are very peculiar1 being big-boned1 with slender legs1 and small hard feet2 their tails are adorned with a tuft of long bushy hair nearly touching the ground1 and their horns are extraordinarily large4 ,the ,bechuana cattle have even larger horns1 and there is now a skull in ,london with the two horns #h ft4 #h #a_/d in4 long1 as measured in a straight line from tip to tip1 and no less than #ac ft4 #e in4 as measured along their curvature6 ,mr4 ,andersson in his letter to me says that1 though he will not venture to describe the differences between the breeds belonging to the many different sub-tribes1 yet such certainly exist1 as shown by the wonderful facility with which the natives discriminate them4 ,that many breeds of cattle have originated through variation1 independently of descent from distinct species1 we may infer from what we see in ,south ,america1 where the genus ,bos was not endemic1 and where the cattle which now exist in such vast numbers are the descendants of a few imported from ,spain and ,portugal4 ,in ,columbia1 ,roulin 7#c_/fc4 ',mem4 de #a';,institut present4 par divers ,savans' tome #f #ahce page #ccc4 ,for ,brazil see ',comptes ,rendus' ,june #ae1 #ahdf4 ,see ,azara ',quadrupedes du ,paraguay' tome #b pages #cei1 #cfa47 describes two peculiar breeds1 namely1 pelones1 with extremely thin and fine hair1 and calongos1 absolutely naked4 ,according to ,castelnau there are two races in ,brazil1 one like ,european cattle1 the other different1 with remarkable horns4 ,in ,paraguay1 ,azara describes a breed which certainly originated in ,s4 ,america1 called chivos1 because they have straight vertical horns1 conical1 and very large at the base4 ,he likewise describes a dwarf race in ,corrientes1 with short legs and a body larger than usual4 ,cattle without horns1 and others with reversed hair1 have also originated in ,paraguay4 ,another monstrous breed1 called niatas or natas1 of which ,i saw two small herds on the northern bank of the ,plata1 is so remarkable as to deserve a fuller description4 ,this breed bears the same relation to other breeds1 as bull or pug dogs do to other dogs1 or as improved pigs1 according to ,h4 von ,nathusius1 do to common pigs4 7#c_/fd4 ',schweineschadel' #ahfd s4 #ajd4 ,nathusius states that the form of skull characteristic in the niata cattle occasionally appears in ,european cattle2 but he is mistaken1 as we shall hereafter see1 in supposing that these cattle do not form a distinct race4 ,prof4 ,wyman1 of ,cambridge1 ,united ,states1 informs me that the common cod- fish presents a similar monstrosity1 called by the fishermen bull-dog cod4 ,prof4 ,wyman also concluded1 after making numerous inquiries in ,la ,plata1 that the niata cattle transmit their peculiarities or form a race47 ,rutimeyer believes that these cattle belong to the primigenius type4 7#c_/fe ',ueber ,art des zahmen ,europ4 ,rindes' #ahff s4 #bh47 ,the forehead is very short and broad1 with the nasal end of the skull1 together with the whole plane of the upper molar-teeth1 curved upwards4 ,the lower jaw projects beyond the upper1 and has a corresponding upward curvature4 ,it is an interesting fact that an almost similar confirmation characterizes1 as ,i am informed by ,dr4 ,falconer1 the extinct and gigantic ,sivatherium of ,india1 and is not known in any other ruminant4 ,the upper lip is much drawn back1 the nostrils are seated high up and are widely open1 the eyes project outwards1 and the horns are large4 ,in walking the head is carried low1 and the neck is short4 ,the hind legs appear to be longer1 compared with the front legs1 than is usual4 ,the exposed incisor teeth1 the short head and upturned nostrils1 give these cattle the most ludicrous1 self-confident air of defiance4 ,the skull which ,i presented to the ,college of ,surgeons has been thus described by ,professor ,owen 7#c_/ff4 ',descriptive ,cat4 of ,ost4 ,collect4 of ,college of ,surgeons' #ahec page #fbd4 ,vasey in his ',delineations of the ,ox-tribe' has given a figure of this skull2 and ,i sent a photograph of it to ,prof4 ,rutimeyer47 ,it is remarkable from the stunted development of the nasals1 premaxillaries1 and fore-part of the lower jaw1 which is unusually curved upwards to come into contact with the premaxillaries4 ,the nasal bones are about one-third the ordinary length1 but retain almost their normal breadth4 ,the triangular vacuity is left between them1 the frontal and lachrymal1 which latter bone articulates with the premaxillary1 and thus excludes the maxillary from any junction with the nasal4 ,so that even the connexion of some of the bones is changed4 ,other differences might be added3 thus the plane of the condyles is somewhat modified1 and the terminal edge of the premaxillaries forms an arch4 ,in fact1 on comparison with the skull of a common ox1 scarcely a single bone presents the same exact shape1 and the whole skull has a wonderfully different appearance4 ,the first brief published notice of this race was by ,azara1 between the years #aghc-if2 but ,don ,f4 ,muniz1 of ,luxan1 who has kindly collected information for me1 states that about #agfj these cattle were kept as curiosities near ,buenos ,ayres4 ,their origin is not positively known1 but they must have originated subsequently to the year #aeeb1 when cattle were first introduced4 ,senor ,muniz informs me that the breed is believed to have originated with the ,indians southward of the ,plata4 ,even to this day those reared near the ,plata show their less civilised nature in being fiercer than common cattle1 and in the cow1 if visited too often1 easily deserting her first calf4 ,the breed is very true1 and a niata bull and cow invariably produce niata calves4 ,the breed has already lasted at least a century4 ,a niata bull crossed with a common cow1 and the reverse cross1 yield offspring having an intermediate character1 but with the niata character strongly displayed4 ,according to ,senor ,muniz1 there is the clearest evidence1 contrary to the common belief of agriculturists in analogous cases1 that the niata cow when crossed with a common bull transmits her peculiarities more strongly than does the niata bull when crossed with a common cow4 ,when the pasture is tolerably long1 these cattle feed as well as common cattle with their tongue and palate2 but during the great droughts1 when so many animals perish on the ,pampas1 the niata breed lies under a great disadvantage1 and would1 if not attended to1 become extinct2 for the common cattle1 like horses1 are able to keep alive by browsing with their lips on the twigs of trees and on reeds3 this the niatas cannot so well do1 as their lips do not join1 and hence they are found to perish before the common cattle4 ,this strikes me as a good illustration of how little we are able to judge from the ordinary habits of an animal1 on what circumstances1 occurring only at long intervals of time1 its rarity or extinction may depend4 ,it shows us1 also1 how natural selection would have determined the rejection of the niata modification had it arisen in a state of nature4 ,having described the semi-monstrous niata breed1 ,i may allude to a white bull1 said to have been brought from ,africa1 which was exhibited in ,london in #ahbi1 and which has been well figured by ,mr4 ,harvey4 7#c_/fg4 ,loudon's ',magazine of ,nat4 ,hist4' volume #a #ahbi page #aac4 ,separate figures are given of the animal1 its hoofs1 eye1 and dewlap47 ,it had a hump1 and was furnished with a mane4 ,the dewlap was peculiar1 being divided between its fore-legs into parallel divisions4 ,its lateral hoofs were annually shed1 and grew to the length of five or six inches4 ,the eye was very peculiar1 being remarkably prominent1 and resembled a cup and ball1 thus enabling the animal to see on all sides with equal ease2 the pupil was small and oval1 or rather a parallelogram with the ends cut off1 and lying transversely across the ball4 ,a new and strange breed might probably have been formed by careful breeding and selection from this animal4 ,i have often speculated on the probable causes through which each separate district in ,great ,britain came to possess in former times its own peculiar breed of cattle2 and the question is1 perhaps1 even more perplexing in the case of ,southern ,africa4 ,we now know that the differences may be in part attributed to descent from distinct species2 but this cause is far from sufficient4 ,have the slight differences in climate and in the nature of the pasture1 in the different districts of ,britain1 directly induced corresponding differences in the cattle8 ,we have seen that the semi-wild cattle in the several ,british parks are not identical in colouring or size1 and that some degree of selection has been requisite to keep them true4 ,it is almost certain that abundant food given during many generations directly affects the size of a breed4 7#c_/fh4 ,low ',domesticated ,animals of the ,british ,isles' page #bfd47 ,that climate directly affects the thickness of the skin and the hair is likewise certain3 thus ,roulin asserts 7#fi ',mem4 de l',institut present4 ,par divers ,savans' tome #f #ahce page #ccb47 that the hides of the feral cattle on the hot ,llanos are always much less heavy than those of the cattle raised on the high platform of ,bogota2 and that these hides yield in weight and in thickness of hair to those of the cattle which have run wild on the lofty ,paramos4 ,the same difference has been observed in the hides of the cattle reared on the bleak ,falkland ,islands and on the temperate ,pampas4 ,low has remarked 7#c_/gj4 ,idem pages #cjd1 #cfh etc47 that the cattle which inhabit the more humid parts of ,britain have longer hair and thicker skins than other ,british cattle4 ,when we compare highly improved stall-fed cattle with the wilder breeds1 or compare mountain and lowland breeds1 we cannot doubt that an active life1 leading to the free use of the limbs and lungs1 affects the shape and proportions of the whole body4 ,it is probable that some breeds1 such as the semi- monstrous niata cattle1 and some peculiarities1 such as being hornless1 etc41 have appeared suddenly owing to what we may call in our ignorance spontaneous variation2 but even in this case a rude kind of selection is necessary1 and the animals thus characterised must be at least partially separated from others4 ,this degree of care1 however1 has sometimes been taken even in little-civilised districts1 where we should least have expected it1 as in the case of the niata1 chivo1 and hornless cattle in ,s4 ,america4 ,that methodical selection has done wonders within a recent period in modifying our cattle1 no one doubts4 ,during the process of methodical selection it has occasionally happened that deviations of structure1 more strongly pronounced than mere individual differences1 yet by no means deserving to be called monstrosities1 have been taken advantage of3 thus the famous ,longhorn ,bull1 ,shakespeare1 though of the pure ,canley stock1 scarcely inherited a single point of the long-horned breed1 his horns excepted 7#c_/ga4 ',youatt on ,cattle' page #aic4 ,a full account of this bull is taken from ,marshall472 yet in the hands of ,mr4 ,fowler1 this bull greatly improved his race4 ,we have also reason to believe that selection1 carried on so far unconsciously that there was at no one time any distinct intention to improve or change the breed1 has in the course of time modified most of our cattle2 for by this process1 aided by more abundant food1 all the lowland ,british breeds have increased greatly in size and in early maturity since the reign of ,henry ,,vii4 7#c_/gb4 ',youatt on ,cattle' page #aaf4 ,lord ,spencer has written on this same subject47 ,it should never be forgotten that many animals have to be annually slaughtered2 so that each owner must determine which shall be killed and which preserved for breeding4 ,in every district1 as ,youatt has remarked1 there is a prejudice in favour of the native breed2 so that animals possessing qualities1 whatever they may be1 which are most valued in each district1 will be oftenest preserved2 and this unmethodical selection assuredly will in the long run affect the character of the whole breed4 ,but it may be asked1 can this rude kind of selection have been practised by barbarians such as those of southern ,africa8 ,in a future chapter on ,selection we shall see that this has certainly occurred to some extent4 ,therefore1 looking to the origin of the many breeds of cattle which formerly inhabited the several districts of ,britain1 ,i conclude that1 although slight differences in the nature of the climate1 food1 etc41 as well as changed habits of life1 aided by correlation of growth1 and the occasional appearance from unknown causes of considerable deviations of structure1 have all probably played their parts2 yet that the occasional preservation in each district of those individual animals which were most valued by each owner has perhaps been even more effective in the production of the several ,british breeds4 ,as soon as two or more breeds were formed in any district1 or when new breeds descended from distinct species were introduced1 their crossing1 especially if aided by some selection1 will have multiplied the number and modified the characters of the older breeds4 ,,sheep4 ,i shall treat this subject briefly4 ,most authors look at our domestic sheep as descended from several distinct species4 ,mr4 ,blyth1 who has carefully attended to the subject1 believes that fourteen wild species now exist1 but that not one of them can be identified as the progenitor of any one of the interminable domestic races4 ,m4 ,gervais thinks that there are six species of ,ovis 7#c_/gc4 ,blyth on the genus ,ovis in ',annals and ,mag4 of ,nat4 ,history' volume #g #ahda page #bfa4 ,with respect to the parentage of the breeds see ,mr4 ,blyth's excellent articles in ',land and ,water' #ahfg pages #acd1 #aef4 ,gervais ',hist4 ,nat4 des ,mammiferes' #ahee tome #b page #aia47 but that our domestic sheep form a distinct genus1 now completely extinct4 ,a ,german naturalist 7#c_/gd4 ,dr4 ,l4 ,fitzinger ',ueber die ,racen des ,zahmen ,schafes' #ahfj s4 #hf47 believes that our sheep descend from ten aboriginally distinct species1 of which only one is still living in a wild state6 ,another ingenious observer 7#c_/ge4 ,j4 ,anderson ',recreations in ,agriculture and ,natural ,history' volume #b page #bfd471 though not a naturalist1 with a bold defiance of everything known on geographical distribution1 infers that the sheep of ,great ,britain alone are the descendants of eleven endemic ,british forms6 ,under such a hopeless state of doubt it would be useless for my purpose to give a detailed account of the several breeds2 but a few remarks may be added4 ,sheep have been domesticated from a very ancient period4 ,rutimeyer 7#c_/gf4 ',pfahlbauten' s4 #abg1 #aic47 found in the ,swiss lake-dwellings the remains of a small breed1 with thin tall legs1 and horns like those of a goat1 thus differing somewhat from any kind now known4 ,almost every country has its own peculiar breed2 and many countries have several breeds differing greatly from each other4 ,one of the most strongly marked races is an ,eastern one with a long tail1 including1 according to ,pallas1 twenty vertebrae1 and so loaded with fat that it is sometimes placed on a truck1 which is dragged about by the living animal4 ,these sheep1 though ranked by ,fitzinger as a distinct aboriginal form1 bear in their drooping ears the stamp of long domestication4 ,this is likewise the case with those sheep which have two great masses of fat on the rump1 with the tail in a rudimentary condition4 ,the ,angola variety of the long-tailed race has curious masses of fat on the back of the head and beneath the jaws4 7#c_/gg4 ',youatt on ,sheep' page #abj47 ,mr4 ,hodgson in an admirable paper 7#c_/gh4 ',journal of the ,asiatic ,soc4 of ,bengal' volume #af pages #ajjg1 #ajaf47 on the sheep of the ,himalaya infers from the distribution of the several races1 that this caudal augmentation in most of its phases is an instance of degeneracy in these pre-eminently ,alpine animals4 ,the horns present an endless diversity in character2 being not rarely absent1 especially in the female sex1 or1 on the other hand1 amounting to four or even eight in number4 ,the horns1 when numerous1 arise from a crest on the frontal bone1 which is elevated in a peculiar manner4 ,it is remarkable that multiplicity of horns is generally accompanied by great length and coarseness of the fleece4 7#c_/gi4 ',youatt on ,sheep' pages #adb-afi47 ,this correlation1 however1 is far from being general2 for instance1 ,i am informed by ,mr4 ,d4 ,forbes1 that the ,spanish sheep in ,chile resemble1 in fleece and in all other characters1 their parent merino-race1 except that instead of a pair they generally bear four horns4 ,the existence of a pair of mammae is a generic character in the genus ,ovis as well as in several allied forms2 nevertheless1 as ,mr4 ,hodgson has remarked1 this character is not absolutely constant even among the true and proper sheep3 for ,i have more than once met with ,cagias 7a sub-,himalayan domestic race7 possessed of four teats4 7#c_/hj4 ',journal ,asiat4 ,soc4 of ,bengal' volume #af #ahdg page #ajae47 ,this case is the more remarkable as1 when any part or organ is present in reduced number in comparison with the same part in allied groups1 it usually is subject to little variation4 ,the presence of interdigital pits has likewise been considered as a generic distinction in sheep2 but ,isidore ,geoffroy 7#c_/ha4 ',hist4 ,nat4 ,gen4' tome #c page #dce47 has shown that these pits or pouches are absent in some breeds4 ,in sheep there is a strong tendency for characters1 which have apparently been acquired under domestication1 to become attached either exclusively to the male sex1 or to be more highly developed in this than in the other sex4 ,thus in many breeds the horns are deficient in the ewe1 though this likewise occurs occasionally with the female of the wild musmon4 ,in the rams of the ,wallachian breed1 the horns spring almost perpendicularly from the frontal bone1 and then take a beautiful spiral form2 in the ewes they protrude nearly at right angles from the head1 and then become twisted in a singular manner4 7#c_/hb4 ',youatt on ,sheep' page #ach47 ,mr4 ,hodgson states that the extraordinarily arched nose or chaffron1 which is so highly developed in several foreign breeds1 is characteristic of the ram alone1 and apparently is the result of domestication4 7#c_/hc4 ',journal ,asiat4 ,soc4 of ,bengal' volume #af #ahdg pages #ajae1 #ajaf47 ,i hear from ,mr4 ,blyth that the accumulation of fat in the fat-tailed sheep of the plains of ,india is greater in the male than in the female2 and ,fitzinger 7#c_/hd4 ',racen des ,zahmen ,schafes' s4 #gg47 remarks that the mane in the ,african maned race is far more developed in the ram than in the ewe4 ,different races of sheep1 like cattle1 present constitutional differences4 ,thus the improved breeds arrive at maturity at an early age1 as has been well shown by ,mr4 ,simonds through their early average period of dentition4 ,the several races have become adapted to different kinds of pasture and climate3 for instance1 no one can rear ,leicester sheep on mountainous regions1 where ,cheviots flourish4 ,as ,youatt has remarked1 ,in all the different districts of ,great ,britain we find various breeds of sheep beautifully adapted to the locality which they occupy4 ,no one knows their origin2 they are indigenous to the soil1 climate1 pasturage1 and the locality on which they graze2 they seem to have been formed for it and by it4 7#c_/he4 ',rural ,economy of ,norfolk' volume #b page #acf47 ,marshall relates 7#c_/hf4 ',youatt on ,sheep' page #cab4 ,on same subject1 see excellent remarks in ',gardener's ,chronicle' #aheh page #hfh4 ,for experiments in crossing ,cheviot sheep with ,leicesters see ,youatt page #cbe47 that a flock of heavy ,lincolnshire and light ,norfolk sheep which had been bred together in a large sheep-walk1 part of which was low1 rich1 and moist1 and another part high and dry1 with benty grass1 when turned out1 regularly separated from each other2 the heavy sheep drawing off to the rich soil1 and the lighter sheep to their own soil2 so that whilst there was plenty of grass the two breeds kept themselves as distinct as rooks and pigeons4 ,numerous sheep from various parts of the world have been brought during a long course of years to the ,zoological ,gardens of ,london2 but as ,youatt1 who attended the animals as a veterinary surgeon1 remarks1 few or none die of the rot1 but they are phthisical2 not one of them from a torrid climate lasts out the second year1 and when they die their lungs are tuberculated4 7#c_/hg4 ',youatt on ,sheep' note page #dia47 ,there is very good evidence that ,english breeds of sheep will not succeed in ,france4 7#c_/hh4 ,m4 ,malingie-,nouel ',journal ,r4 ,agricult4 ,soc4' volume #ad #ahec page #bad translated and therefore approved by a great authority1 ,mr4 ,pusey47 ,even in certain parts of ,england it has been found impossible to keep certain breeds of sheep2 thus on a farm on the banks of the ,ouse1 the ,leicester sheep were so rapidly destroyed by pleuritis 7#c_/hi4 ',the ,veterinary' volume #aj page #bag47 that the owner could not keep them2 the coarser-skinned sheep never being affected4 ,the period of gestation was formerly thought to be of so unalterable a character1 that a supposed difference of this kind between the wolf and the dog was esteemed a sure sign of specific distinction2 but we have seen that the period is shorter in the improved breeds of the pig1 and in the larger breeds of the ox1 than in other breeds of these two animals4 ,and now we know1 on the excellent authority of ,hermann von ,nathusius 7#c_/ij4 ,a translation of his paper is given in ',bull4 ,soc4 ,imp4 d',acclimat4' tome #i #ahfb page #gbc471 that ,merino and ,southdown sheep1 when both have long been kept under exactly the same conditions1 differ in their average period of gestation1 as is seen in the following ,table ,merinos #aej4c days4 ,southdowns #add4b ,half-bred ,merinos and ,southdowns #adf4c #c_/d blood of ,southdown #ade4e #g_/h blood of ,southdown #add4b ,in this graduated difference in cross-bred animals having different proportions of ,southdown blood1 we see how strictly the two periods of gestation have been transmitted4 ,nathusius remarks that1 as ,southdowns grow with remarkable rapidity after birth1 it is not surprising that their foetal development should have been shortened4 ,it is of course possible that the difference in these two breeds may be due to their descent from distinct parent-species2 but as the early maturity of the ,southdowns has long been carefully attended to by breeders1 the difference is more probably the result of such attention4 ,lastly1 the fecundity of the several breeds differs much2 some generally producing twins or even triplets at a birth1 of which fact the curious ,shangai sheep 7with their truncated and rudimentary ears1 and great ,roman noses71 lately exhibited in the ,zoological ,gardens1 offer a remarkable instance4 ,sheep are perhaps more readily affected by the direct action of the conditions of life to which they have been exposed than almost any other domestic animal4 ,according to ,pallas1 and more recently according to ,erman1 the fat-tailed ,kirghisian sheep1 when bred for a few generations in ,russia1 degenerate1 and the mass of fat dwindles away1 the scanty and bitter herbage of the steppes seems so essential to their development4 ,pallas makes an analogous statement with respect to one of the ,crimean breeds4 ,burnes states that the ,karakool breed1 which produces a fine1 curled1 black1 and valuable fleece1 when removed from its own canton near ,bokhara to ,persia or to other quarters1 loses its peculiar fleece4 7#c_/ia4 ,erman ',travels in ,siberia' ,english translation volume #a page #bbh4 ,for ,pallas on the fat-tailed sheep ,i quote from ,anderson's account of the ',sheep of ,russia' #agid page #cd4 ,with respect to the ,crimean sheep see ,pallas ',travels' ,english translation volume #b page #ded4 ,for the ,karakool sheep see ,burnes ',travels in ,bokhara' volume #c page #aea47 ,in all such cases1 however1 it may be that a change of any kind in the conditions of life causes variability and consequent loss of character1 and not that certain conditions are necessary for the development of certain characters4 ,great heat1 however1 seems to act directly on the fleece3 several accounts have been published of the change which sheep imported from ,europe undergo in the ,west ,indies4 ,dr4 ,nicholson of ,antigua informs me that1 after the third generation1 the wool disappears from the whole body1 except over the loins2 and the animal then appears like a goat with a dirty door-mat on its back4 ,a similar change is said to take place on the west coast of ,africa4 7#c_/ib4 ,see ,report of the ,directors of the ,sierra ,leone ,company as quoted in ,white ',gradation of ,man' page #ie4 ,with respect to the change which sheep undergo in the ,west ,indies see also ,dr4 ,davy in ',edin4 ,new4 ,phil4 ,journal' ,january #aheb4 ,for the statement made by ,roulin see ',mem4 de l',institut present4 par divers ,savans4' tome #f #ahce page #cdg47 ,on the other hand1 many wool-bearing sheep live on the hot plains of ,india4 ,roulin asserts that in the lower and heated valleys of the ,cordillera1 if the lambs are sheared as soon as the wool has grown to a certain thickness1 all goes on afterwards as usual2 but if not sheared1 the wool detaches itself in flakes1 and short shining hair like that on a goat is produced ever afterwards4 ,this curious result seems merely to be an exaggerated tendency natural to the ,merino breed1 for as a great authority1 namely1 ,lord ,somerville1 remarks1 the wool of our ,merino sheep after shear-time is hard and coarse to such a degree as to render it almost impossible to suppose that the same animal could bear wool so opposite in quality1 compared to that which has been clipped from it3 as the cold weather advances1 the fleeces recover their soft quality4 ,as in sheep of all breeds the fleece naturally consists of longer and coarser hair covering shorter and softer wool1 the change which it often undergoes in hot climates is probably merely a case of unequal development2 for even with those sheep which like goats are covered with hair1 a small quantity of underlying wool may always be found4 7#c_/ic4 ',youatt on ,sheep' page #fi where ,lord ,somerville is quoted4 ,see page #aag on the presence of wool under the hair4 ,with respect to the fleeces of ,australian sheep page #ahe4 ,on selection counteracting any tendency to change see pages #gj1 #aag1 #abj1 #afh47 ,in the wild mountain-sheep 7#jvis montana7 of ,north ,america there is an analogous annual change of coat2 the wool begins to drop out in early spring1 leaving in its place a coat of hair resembling that of the elk1 a change of pelage quite different in character from the ordinary thickening of the coat or hair1 common to all furred animals in winter1--for instance1 in the horse1 the cow1 etc41 which shed their winter coat in the spring4 7#c_/id4 ,audubon and ,bachman ',the ,quadrupeds of ,north ,america' #ahdf volume #e page #cfe47 ,a slight difference in climate or pasture sometimes slightly affects the fleece1 as has been observed even in different districts in ,england1 and is well shown by the great softness of the wool brought from ,southern ,australia4 ,but it should be observed1 as ,youatt repeatedly insists1 that the tendency to change may generally be counteracted by careful selection4 ,m4 ,lasterye1 after discussing this subject1 sums up as follows3 ,the preservation of the ,merino race in its utmost purity at the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 in the marshes of ,holland1 and under the rigorous climate of ,sweden1 furnishes an additional support of this my unalterable principle1 that fine-woolled sheep may be kept wherever industrious men and intelligent breeders exist4 ,that methodical selection has effected great changes in several breeds of sheep no one who knows anything on the subject1 entertains a doubt4 ,the case of the ,southdowns1 as improved by ,ellman1 offers perhaps the most striking instance4 ,unconscious or occasional selection has likewise slowly produced a great effect1 as we shall see in the chapters on ,selection4 ,that crossing has largely modified some breeds1 no one who will study what has been written on this subject--for instance1 ,mr4 ,spooner's paper--will dispute2 but to produce uniformity in a crossed breed1 careful selection and rigorous weeding1 as this author expresses it1 are indispensable4 7#c_/ie4 ',journal of ,r4 ,agricult4 ,soc4 of ,england' volume #bj part #b1 ,w4,c4 ,spooner on cross-,breeding47 ,in some few instances new breeds have suddenly originated2 thus1 in #agia1 a ram-lamb was born in ,massachusetts1 having short crooked legs and a long back1 like a turnspit-dog4 ,from this one lamb the otter or ancon semi- monstrous breed was raised2 as these sheep could not leap over the fences1 it was thought that they would be valuable2 but they have been supplanted by merinos1 and thus exterminated4 ,the sheep are remarkable from transmitting their character so truly that ,colonel ,humphreys 7#c_/if4 ',philosoph4 ,transactions' ,london #ahac page #hh47 never heard of but one questionable case of an ancon ram and ewe not producing ancon offspring4 ,when they are crossed with other breeds the offspring1 with rare exceptions1 instead of being intermediate in character1 perfectly resemble either parent2 even one of twins has resembled one parent and the second the other4 ,lastly1 the ancons have been observed to keep together1 separating themselves from the rest of the flock when put into enclosures with other sheep4 ,a more interesting case has been recorded in the ,report of the ,juries for the ,great ,exhibition 7#ahea71 namely1 the production of a merino ram-lamb on the ,mauchamp farm1 in #ahbh1 which was remarkable for its long1 smooth1 straight1 and silky wool4 ,by the year #ahcc ,m4 ,graux had raised rams enough to serve his whole flock1 and after a few more years he was able to sell stock of his new breed4 ,so peculiar and valuable is the wool1 that it sells at #be per cent above the best merino wool3 even the fleeces of half-bred animals are valuable1 and are known in ,france as the ,mauchamp-merino4 ,it is interesting1 as showing how generally any marked deviation of structure is accompanied by other deviations1 that the first ram and his immediate offspring were of small size1 with large heads1 long necks1 narrow chests1 and long flanks2 but these blemishes were removed by judicious crosses and selection4 ,the long smooth wool was also correlated with smooth horns2 and as horns and hair are homologous structures1 we can understand the meaning of this correlation4 ,if the ,mauchamp and ancon breeds had originated a century or two ago1 we should have had no record of their birth2 and many a naturalist would no doubt have insisted1 especially in the case of the ,mauchamp race1 that they had each descended from1 or been crossed with1 some unknown aboriginal form4 ,,goats4 ,from the recent researches of ,m4 ,brandt1 most naturalists now believe that all our goats are descended from the ,capra aegagrus of the mountains of ,asia1 possibly mingled with the allied ,indian species ,c4 falconeri of ,india4 7#c_/ig4 ,isidore ,geoffroy ,st4 ,hilaire ',hist4 ,nat4 ,generale' tome #c page #hg4 ,mr4 ,blyth ',land and ,water' #ahfg page #cg has arrived at a similar conclusion1 but he thinks that certain ,eastern races may perhaps be in part descended from the ,asiatic markhor47 ,in ,switzerland1 during the neolithic period1 the domestic goat was commoner than the sheep2 and this very ancient race differed in no respect from that now common in ,switzerland4 7#c_/ih4 ,rutimeyer ',pfahlbauten' s4 #abg47 ,at the present time1 the many races found in several parts of the world differ greatly from each other2 nevertheless1 as far as they have been tried 7#c_/ii4 ,godron ',de l',espece' tome #a page #djb47 they are all quite fertile when crossed4 ,so numerous are the breeds1 that ,mr4 ,g4 ,clark 7#c_/ajj4 ',annals and ,mag4 of ,nat ,history' #bnd series volume #b #ahdh page #cfc47 has described eight distinct kinds imported into the one island of ,mauritius4 ,the ears of one kind were enormously developed1 being1 as measured by ,mr4 ,clark1 no less than #ai inches in length and #d #c_/d inches in breadth4 ,as with cattle1 the mammae of those breeds which are regularly milked become greatly developed2 and1 as ,mr4 ,clark remarks1 it is not rare to see their teats touching the ground4 ,the following cases are worth notice as presenting unusual points of variation4 ,according to ,godron 7#c_/aja4 ',de l',espece' tome #a page #djf4 ,mr4 ,clark also refers to differences in the shape of the mammae4 ,godron states that in the ,nubian race the scrotum is divided into two lobes2 and ,mr4 ,clark gives a ludicrous proof of this fact1 for he saw in the ,mauritius a male goat of the ,muscat breed purchased at a high price for a female in full milk4 ,these differences in the scrotum are probably not due to descent from distinct species3 for ,mr4 ,clark states that this part varies much in form471 the mammae differ greatly in shape in different breeds1 being elongated in the common goat1 hemispherical in the ,angora race1 and bilobed and divergent in the goats of ,syria and ,nubia4 ,according to this same author1 the males of certain breeds have lost their usual offensive odour4 ,in one of the ,indian breeds the males and females have horns of widely-different shapes 7#c_/ajb4 ,mr4 ,clark ',annals and ,mag4 of ,nat4 ,hist4' #bnd series volume #b #ahdh page #cfa472 and in some breeds the females are destitute of horns4 7#c_/ajc4 ,desmarest ',encyclop4 ,method4 ,mammalogie' page #dhj47 ,m4 ,ramu of ,nancy informs me that many of the goats there bear on the upper part of the throat a pair of hairy appendages1 #gj mm4 in length and about #aj mm4 in diameter1 which in external appearance resemble those above described on the jaws of pigs4 ,the presence of inter-digital pits or glands on all four feet has been thought to characterise the genus ,ovis1 and their absence to be characteristic of the genus ,capra2 but ,mr4 ,hodgson has found that they exist in the front feet of the majority of ,himalayan goats4 7#c_/ajd4 ',journal of ,asiatic ,soc4 of ,bengal' volume #af #ahdg pages #ajbj1 #ajbe47 ,mr4 ,hodgson measured the intestines in two goats of the ,dugu race1 and he found that the proportional length of the great and small intestines differed considerably4 ,in one of these goats the caecum was thirteen inches1 and in the other no less than thirty-six inches in length6 ,,chapter #a4;,,iv4 ,,domestic ,,rabbits4 ,,domestic ,,rabbits ,,descended ,,from ,,the ,,common ,,wild ,,rabbit4 ,,ancient ,,domestication4 ,,ancient ,,selection4 ,,large ,,lop-,,eared ,,rabbits4 ,,various ,,breeds4 ,,fluctuating ,,characters4 ,,origin ,,of ,,the ,,himalayan ,,breed4 ,,curious ,,case ,,of ,,inheritance4 ,,feral ,,rabbits ,,in ,,jamaica ,,and ,,the ,,falkland ,,islands4 ,,porto ,,santo ,,feral ,,rabbits4 ,,osteological ,,characters4 ,,skull4 ,,skull ,,of ,,half-,,lop ,,rabbits4 ,,variations ,,in ,,the ,,skull ,,analogous ,,to ,,differences ,,in ,,different ,,species ,,of ,,hares4 ,,vertebrae4 ,,sternum4 ,,scapula4 ,,effects ,,of ,,use ,,and ,,disuse ,,on ,,the ,,proportions ,,of ,,the ,,limbs ,,and ,,body4 ,,capacity ,,of ,,the ,,skull ,,and ,,reduced ,,size ,,of ,,the ,,brain4 ,,summary ,,on ,,the ,,modifications ,,of ,,domesticated ,,rabbits4 ,all naturalists1 with1 as far as ,i know1 a single exception1 believe that the several domestic breeds of the rabbit are descended from the common wild species2 ,i shall therefore describe them more carefully than in the previous cases4 ,professor ,gervais 7#d_/a4 ,m4,p4 ,gervais ',hist4 ,nat4 des ,mammiferes' #ahed4 tome #a page #bhh47 states that the true wild rabbit is smaller than the domestic2 its proportions are not absolutely the same2 its tail is smaller2 its ears are shorter and more thickly clothed with hair2 and these characters1 without speaking of colour1 are so many indications opposed to the opinion which unites these animals under the same specific denomination4 ,few naturalists will agree with this author that such slight differences are sufficient to separate as distinct species the wild and domestic rabbit4 ,how extraordinary it would be1 if close confinement1 perfect tameness1 unnatural food1 and careful breeding1 all prolonged during many generations1 had not produced at least some effect6 ,the tame rabbit has been domesticated from an ancient period4 ,confucius ranges rabbits among animals worthy to be sacrificed to the gods1 and1 as he prescribes their multiplication1 they were probably at this early period domesticated in ,china4 ,they are mentioned by several of the classical writers4 ,in #afca ,gervaise ,markham writes1 ,you shall not1 as in other cattell1 looke to their shape1 but to their richnesse1 onely elect your buckes1 the largest and goodliest conies you can get2 and for the richnesse of the skin1 that is accounted the richest which hath the equallest mixture of blacke and white haire together1 yet the blacke rather shadowing the white2 the furre should be thicke1 deepe1 smooth1 and shining2444they are of body much fatter and larger1 and1 when another skin is worth two or three pence1 they are worth two shillings4 ,from this full description we see that silver-grey rabbits existed in ,england at this period2 and what is far more important1 we see that the breeding or selection of rabbits was then carefully attended to4 ,aldrovandi1 in #afcg1 describes1 on the authority of several old writers 7as ,scaliger1 in #aeeg71 rabbits of various colours1 some like a hare1 and he adds that ,p4 ,valerianus 7who died a very old man in #aeeh7 saw at ,verona rabbits four times bigger than ours4 7#d_/b4 ,u4 ,aldrovandi ',de ,quadrupedibus digitatis' #afcg page #chc4 ,for ,confucius and ,g4 ,markham see a writer who has studied the subject in ',cottage ,gardener' ,january #bb1 #ahfa page #bej47 ,from the fact of the rabbit having been domesticated at an ancient period1 we must look to the northern hemisphere of the ,old ,world1 and to the warmer temperate regions alone1 for the aboriginal parent-form2 for the rabbit cannot live without protection in countries as cold as ,sweden1 and1 though it has run wild in the tropical island of ,jamaica1 it has never greatly multiplied there4 ,it now exists1 and has long existed1 in the warmer temperate parts of ,europe1 for fossil remains have been found in several countries4 7#d_/c4 ,owen ',british ,fossil ,mammals' page #bab47 ,the domestic rabbit readily becomes feral in these same countries1 and when variously coloured kinds are turned out they generally revert to the ordinary grey colour4 7#d_/d4 ,bechstein ',naturgesch4 ,deutschlands' #ahja b4 #a page #aacc4 ,i have received similar accounts with respect to ,england and ,scotland47 ,wild rabbits1 if taken young1 can be domesticated1 though the process is generally very troublesome4 7#d_/e4 ',pigeons and ,rabbits' by ,e4,s4 ,delamer #ahed page #acc4 ,sir ,j4 ,sebright ',observations on ,instinct' #ahcf page #aj7 speaks most strongly on the difficulty4 ,but this difficulty is not invariable1 as ,i have received two accounts of perfect success in taming and breeding from the wild rabbit4 ,see also ,dr4 ,p4 ,broca in ',journal de la ,physiologie' tome #b page #cfh47 ,the various domestic races are often crossed1 and are believed to be quite fertile together1 and a perfect gradation can be shown to exist from the largest domestic kinds1 having enormously developed ears1 to the common wild kind4 ,the parent-form must have been a burrowing animal1 a habit not common1 as far as ,i can discover1 to any other species in the large genus ,lepus4 ,only one wild species is known with certainty to exist in ,europe2 but the rabbit 7if it be a true rabbit7 from ,mount ,sinai1 and likewise that from ,algeria1 present slight differences2 and these forms have been considered by some authors as specifically distinct4 7#d_/f4 ,gervais ',hist4 ,nat4 des ,mammiferes' tome #a page #bib47 ,but such slight differences would aid us little in explaining the more considerable differences characteristic of the several domestic races4 ,if the latter are the descendants of two or more closely allied species1 these1 with the exception of the common rabbit1 have been exterminated in a wild state2 and this is very improbable1 seeing with what pertinacity this animal holds its ground4 ,from these several reasons we may infer with safety that all the domestic breeds are the descendants of the common wild species4 ,but from what we hear of the marvellous success in ,france in rearing hybrids between the hare and rabbit 7#d_/g4 ,see ,dr4 ,p4 ,broca's interesting memoir on this subject in ,brown-,sequard ',journ4 de4 ,phys4' volume #b page #cfg471 it is possible1 though not probable1 from the great difficulty in making the first cross1 that some of the larger races1 which are coloured like the hare1 may have been modified by crosses with this animal4 ,nevertheless1 the chief differences in the skeletons of the several domestic breeds cannot1 as we shall presently see1 have been derived from a cross with the hare4 ,there are many breeds which transmit their characters more or less truly4 ,every one has seen the enormous lop-eared rabbits exhibited at our shows2 various allied sub-breeds are reared on the ,continent1 such as the so- called ,andalusian1 which is said to have a large head with a round forehead1 and to attain a greater size than any other kind2 another large ,paris breed is named the ,rouennais1 and has a square head2 the so-called ,patagonian rabbit has remarkably short ears and a large round head4 ,although ,i have not seen all these breeds1 ,i feel some doubt about there being any marked difference in the shape of their skulls4 7#d_/h4 ,the skulls of these breeds are briefly described in the ',journal of ,horticulture' ,may #g1 #ahfa page #ajh47 ,english lop-eared rabbits often weigh #h pounds or #aj pounds1 and one has been exhibited weighing #ah pounds2 whereas a full-sized wild rabbit weighs only about #c #a_/d pounds4 ,the head or skull in all the large lop-eared rabbits examined by me is much longer relatively to its breadth than in the wild rabbit4 ,many of them have loose transverse folds of skin or dewlaps beneath the throat1 which can be pulled out so as to reach nearly to the ends of the jaws4 ,their ears are prodigiously developed1 and hang down on each side of their faces4 ,a rabbit was exhibited in #ahfg with its two ears1 measured from the tip of one to the tip of the other1 #bb inches in length1 and each ear #e #c_/h inches in breadth4 ,in #ahfi one was exhibited with ears1 measured in the same manner1 #bc #a_/h in length and #e #a_/b in breadth2 thus exceeding any rabbit ever exhibited at a prize show4 ,in a common wild rabbit ,i found that the length of two ears1 from tip to tip1 was #g #e_/h inches1 and the breadth only #a #g_/h inch4 ,the weight of body in the larger rabbits1 and the development of their ears1 are the qualities which win prizes1 and have been carefully selected4 ,the hare-coloured1 or1 as it is sometimes called1 the ,belgian rabbit1 differs in nothing except colour from the other large breeds2 but ,mr4 ,j4 ,young1 of ,southampton1 a great breeder of this kind1 informs me that the females1 in all the specimens examined by him1 had only six mammae2 and this certainly was the case with two females which came into my possession4 ,mr4 ,b4,p4 ,brent1 however1 assures me that the number is variable with other domestic rabbits4 ,the common wild rabbit always has ten mammae4 ,the ,angora rabbit is remarkable from the length and fineness of its fur1 which even on the soles of the feet is of considerable length4 ,this breed is the only one which differs in its mental qualities1 for it is said to be much more sociable than other rabbits1 and the male shows no wish to destroy its young4 7#d_/i4 ',journal of ,horticulture' #ahfa page #chj47 ,two live rabbits were brought to me from ,moscow1 of about the size of the wild species1 but with long soft fur1 different from that of the ,angora4 ,these ,moscow rabbits had pink eyes and were snow-white1 excepting the ears1 two spots near the nose1 the upper and under surface of the tail1 and the hinder tarsi1 which were blackish-brown4 ,in short1 they were coloured nearly like the so-called ,himalayan rabbits1 presently to be described1 and differed from them only in the character of their fur4 ,there are two other breeds which come true to colour1 but differ in no other respect1 namely silver-greys and chinchillas4 ,lastly1 the ,nicard or ,dutch rabbit may be mentioned1 which varies in colour1 and is remarkable from its small size1 some specimens weighing only #a #a_/d pounds2 rabbits of this breed make excellent nurses for other and more delicate kinds4 7#d_/aj4 ',journal of ,horticulture' ,may #bh1 #ahfa page #afi47 7,,figure #e4 ,,half-,,lop ,,rabbit4 7,copied from ,e4,s4 ,delamer's work47 ,certain characters are remarkably fluctuating1 or are very feebly transmitted by domestic rabbits3 thus1 one breeder tells me that with the smaller kinds he has hardly ever raised a whole litter of the same colour3 with the large lop-eared breeds it is impossible1 says a great judge 7#d_/aa4 ',journal of ,horticulture' #ahfa page #cbg4 ,with respect to the ears see ,delamer on ',pigeons and ,rabbits' #ahed page #ada2 also ',poultry ,chronicle' volume #b page #dii and ditto for #ahed page #ehf471 to breed true to colour1 but by judicious crossing a great deal may be done towards it4 ,the fancier should know how his does are bred1 that is1 the colour of their parents4 ,nevertheless1 certain colours1 as we shall presently see1 are transmitted truly4 ,the dewlap is not strictly inherited4 ,lop-eared rabbits1 with their ears hanging down flat on each side of the face1 do not transmit this character at all truly4 ,mr4 ,delamer remarks that1 with fancy rabbits1 when both the parents are perfectly formed1 have model ears1 and are handsomely marked1 their progeny do not invariably turn out the same4 ,when one parent1 or even both1 are oar-laps1 that is1 have their ears sticking out at right angles1 or when one parent or both are half-lops1 that is1 have only one ear dependent1 there is nearly as good a chance of the progeny having both ears full-lop1 as if both parents had been thus characterised4 ,but ,i am informed1 if both parents have upright ears1 there is hardly a chance of a full-lop4 ,in some half-lops the ear that hangs down is broader and longer than the upright ear 7#d_/ab4 ,delamer ',pigeons and ,rabbits' page #acf4 ,see also ',journal of ,horticulture' #ahfa page #cge472 so that we have the unusual case of a want of symmetry on the two sides4 ,this difference in the position and size of the two ears probably indicates that the lopping results from the great length and weight of the ear1 favoured no doubt by the weakness of the muscles consequent on disuse4 ,anderson 7#d_/ac4 ',an ,account of the different ,kinds of ,sheep in the ,russian ,dominions' #agid page #ci47 mentions a breed having only a single ear2 and ,professor ,gervais another breed destitute of ears4 ,we come now to the ,himalayan breed1 which is sometimes called ,chinese1 ,polish1 or ,russian4 ,these pretty rabbits are white1 or occasionally yellow1 excepting their ears1 nose1 feet1 and the upper side of the tail1 which are all brownish-black2 but as they have red eyes1 they may be considered as albinoes4 ,i have received several accounts of their breeding perfectly true4 ,from their symmetrical marks1 they were at first ranked as specifically distinct1 and were provisionally named ,l4 nigripes4 7#d_/ad4 ',proc4 ,zoolog4 ,soc4' ,june #bc1 #aheg page #aei47 ,some good observers thought that they could detect a difference in their habits1 and stoutly maintained that they formed a new species4 ,the origin of this breed is so curious1 both in itself and as throwing some light on the complex laws of inheritance that it is worth giving in detail4 ,but it is first necessary briefly to describe two other breeds3 silver-greys or silver-sprigs generally have black heads and legs1 and their fine grey fur is interspersed with numerous black and white long hairs4 ,they breed perfectly true1 and have long been kept in warrens4 ,when they escape and cross with common rabbits1 the product1 as ,i hear from ,mr4 ,wyrley ,birch1 of ,wretham ,hall1 is not a mixture of the two colours1 but about half take after the one parent1 and the other half after the other parent4 ,secondly1 chinchillas or tame silver-greys 7,i will use the former name7 have short1 paler1 mouse or slate-coloured fur1 interspersed with long1 blackish1 slate-coloured1 and white hairs4 7#d_/ae4 ',journal of ,horticulture' ,april #i1 #ahfa page #ce47 ,these rabbits breed perfectly true4 ,a writer stated in #aheg 7#d_/af4 ',cottage ,gardener' #aheg page #ada47 that he had produced ,himalayan rabbits in the following manner4 ,he had a breed of chinchillas which had been crossed with the common black rabbit1 and their offspring were either blacks or chinchillas4 ,these latter were again crossed with other chinchillas 7which had also been crossed with silver-greys71 and from this complicated cross ,himalayan rabbits were raised4 ,from these and other similar statements1 ,mr4 ,bartlett 7#d_/ag4 ,mr4 ,bartlett in ',proc4 ,zoolog ,soc4' #ahfa page #dj47 was led to make a careful trial in the ,zoological ,gardens1 and he found that by simply crossing silver-greys with chinchillas he could always produce some few ,himalayans2 and the latter1 notwithstanding their sudden origin1 if kept separate1 bred perfectly true4 ,but ,i have recently been assured the pure silver-greys of any sub-breed occasionally produce ,himalayans4 ,the ,himalayans1 when first born1 are quite white1 and are then true albinoes2 but in the course of a few months they gradually assume their dark ears1 nose1 feet1 and tail4 ,occasionally1 however1 as ,i am informed by ,mr4 ,w4,a4 ,wooler and the ,rev4 ,w4,d4 ,fox1 the young are born of a very pale grey colour1 and specimens of such fur were sent me by the former gentleman4 ,the grey tint1 however1 disappears as the animal comes to maturity4 ,so that with these ,himalayans there is a tendency1 strictly confined to early youth1 to revert to the colour of the adult silver-grey parent-stock4 ,silver-greys and chinchillas1 on the other hand1 present a remarkable contrast with the ,himalayans in their colour whilst quite young1 for they are born perfectly black1 but soon assume their characteristic grey or silver tints4 ,the same thing occurs with grey horses1 which1 as long as they are foals1 are generally of a nearly black colour1 but soon become grey1 and get whiter and whiter as they grow older4 ,hence the usual rule is that ,himalayans are born white and afterwards become in certain parts of their bodies dark-coloured2 whilst silver-greys are born black and afterwards become sprinkled with white4 ,exceptions1 however1 and of a directly opposite nature1 occasionally occur in both cases4 ,for young silver-greys are sometimes born in warrens1 as ,i hear from ,mr4 ,w4 ,birch1 of a cream-colour1 but these young animals ultimately become black4 ,the ,himalayans1 on the other hand1 sometimes produce1 as is stated by an experienced amateur 7#d_/ah4 ',phenomenon in ,himalayan ,rabbits' in ',journal of ,horticulture' ,january #bg1 #ahfe page #ajb471 a single black young one in a litter2 and this1 before two months elapse1 becomes perfectly white4 ,to sum up the whole curious case3 wild silver-greys may be considered as black rabbits which become grey at an early period of life4 ,when they are crossed with common rabbits1 the offspring are said not to have blended colours1 but to take after either parent2 and in this respect they resemble black and albino varieties of most quadrupeds1 which often transmit their colours in this same manner4 ,when they are crossed with chinchillas1 that is1 with a paler sub-variety1 the young are at first pure albinoes1 but soon become dark-coloured in certain parts of their bodies1 and are then called ,himalayans4 ,the young ,himalayans1 however1 are sometimes at first either pale grey or completely black1 in either case changing after a time to white4 ,in a future chapter ,i shall advance a large body of facts showing that1 when two varieties are crossed both of which differ in colour from their parent-stock1 there is a strong tendency in the young to revert to the aboriginal colour2 and what is very remarkable1 this reversion occasionally supervenes1 not before birth1 but during the growth of the animal4 ,hence1 if it could be shown that silver-greys and chinchillas were the offspring of a cross between a black and albino variety with the colours intimately blended--a supposition in itself not improbable1 and supported by the circumstance of silver-greys in warrens sometimes producing creamy-white young1 which ultimately become black--then all the above given paradoxical facts on the changes of colour in silver-greys and in their descendants the ,himalayans would come under the law of reversion1 supervening at different periods of growth and in different degrees1 either to the original black or to the original albino parent-variety4 ,it is1 also1 remarkable that ,himalayans1 though produced so suddenly2 breed true4 ,but as1 whilst young1 they are albinoes1 the case falls under a very general rule2 albinism being well known to be strongly inherited1 for instance with white mice and many other quadrupeds1 and even white flowers4 ,but why1 it may be asked1 do the ears1 tail1 nose1 and feet1 and no other part of the body1 revert to a black colour8 ,this apparently depends on a law1 which generally holds good1 namely1 that characters common to many species of a genus--and this1 in fact1 implies long inheritance from the ancient progenitor of the genus--are found to resist variation1 or to reappear if lost1 more persistently than the characters which are confined to the separate species4 ,now1 in the genus ,lepus1 a large majority of the species have their ears and the upper surface of the tail tinted black2 but the persistence of these marks is best seen in those species which in winter become white3 thus1 in ,scotland the ,l4 variabilis 7#d_/ai4 ,g4,r4 ,waterhouse ',natural ,history of ,mammalia3 ,rodents' #ahdf pages #eb1 #fj1 #aje47 in its winter dress has a shade of colour on its nose1 and the tips of its ears are black3 in the ,l4 tibetanus the ears are black1 the upper surface of the tail greyish-black1 and the soles of the feet brown3 in ,l4 glacialis the winter fur is pure white1 except the soles of the feet and the points of the ears4 ,even in the variously-coloured fancy rabbits we may often observe a tendency in these same parts to be more darkly tinted than the rest of the body4 ,thus the several coloured marks on the ,himalayan rabbits1 as they grow old1 are rendered intelligible4 ,i may add a nearly analogous case3 fancy rabbits very often have a white star on their foreheads2 and the common ,english hare1 whilst young1 generally has1 as ,i have myself observed1 a similar white star on its forehead4 ,when variously coloured rabbits are set free in ,europe1 and are thus placed under their natural conditions1 they generally revert to the aboriginal grey colour2 this may be in part due to the tendency in all crossed animals1 as lately observed1 to revert to their primordial state4 ,but this tendency does not always prevail2 thus silver-grey rabbits are kept in warrens1 and remain true though living almost in a state of nature2 but a warren must not be stocked with both silver-greys and common rabbits2 otherwise in a few years there will be none but common greys surviving4 7#d_/bj4 ,delamer on ',pigeons and ,rabbits' page #aad47 ,when rabbits run wild in foreign countries under new conditions of life1 they by no means always revert to their aboriginal colour4 ,in ,jamaica the feral rabbits are described as having been slate-coloured1 deeply tinted with sprinklings of white on the neck1 on the shoulders1 and on the back2 softening off to blue-white under the breast and belly4 7#d_/ba4 ,gosse ',sojourn in ,jamaica' #ahea page #dda as described by an excellent observer1 ,mr4 ,r4 ,hill4 ,this is the only known case in which rabbits have become feral in a hot country4 ,they can be kept1 however1 at ,loanda 7see ,livingstone ',travels' page #djg74 ,in parts of ,india1 as ,i am informed by ,mr4 ,blyth1 they breed well47 ,but in this tropical island the conditions were not favourable to their increase1 and they never spread widely1 and are now extinct1 as ,i hear from ,mr4 ,r4 ,hill1 owing to a great fire which occurred in the woods4 ,rabbits during many years have run wild in the ,falkland ,islands2 they are abundant in certain parts1 but do not spread extensively4 ,most of them are of the common grey colour2 a few1 as ,i am informed by ,admiral ,sulivan1 are hare- coloured1 and many are black1 often with nearly symmetrical white marks on their faces4 ,hence1 ,m4 ,lesson described the black variety as a distinct species1 under the name of ,lepus magellanicus1 but this1 as ,i have elsewhere shown1 is an error4 7#d_/bb4 ,darwin ',journal of ,researches' page #aic2 and ',zoology of the ,voyage of the ,beagle3 ,mammalia' page #ib47 ,within recent times the sealers have stocked some of the small outlying islets in the ,falkland group with rabbits2 and on ,pebble ,islet1 as ,i hear from ,admiral ,sulivan1 a large proportion are hare-coloured1 whereas on ,rabbit ,islet a large proportion are of a bluish colour1 which is not elsewhere seen4 ,how the rabbits were coloured which were turned out of these islets is not known4 ,the rabbits which have become feral on the island of ,porto ,santo1 near ,madeira1 deserve a fuller account4 ,in #adah or #adai1 ,j4 ,gonzales ,zarco 7#d_/bc4 ,kerr ',collection of ,voyages' volume #b page #agg3 page #bje for ,cada ,mosto4 ,according to a work published in ,lisbon in #agag entitled ',historia ,insulana' written by a ,jesuit1 the rabbits were turned out in #adbj4 ,some authors believe that the island was discovered in #adac47 happened to have a female rabbit on board which had produced young during the voyage1 and he turned them all out on the island4 ,these animals soon increased so rapidly1 that they became a nuisance1 and actually caused the abandonment of the settlement4 ,thirty-seven years subsequently1 ,cada ,mosto describes them as innumerable2 nor is this surprising1 as the island was not inhabited by any beast of prey or by any terrestrial mammal4 ,we do not know the character of the mother-rabbit2 but it was probably the common domesticated kind4 ,the ,spanish peninsula1 whence ,zarco sailed1 is known to have abounded with the common wild species at the most remote historical period2 and as these rabbits were taken on board for food1 it is improbable that they should have been of any peculiar breed4 ,that the breed was well domesticated is shown by the doe having littered during the voyage4 ,mr4 ,wollaston1 at my request1 brought home two of these feral rabbits in spirits of wine2 and1 subsequently1 ,mr4 ,w4 ,haywood sent to me three more specimens in brine1 and two alive4 ,these seven specimens1 though caught at different periods1 closely resembled each other4 ,they were full grown1 as shown by the state of their bones4 ,although the conditions of life in ,porto ,santo are evidently highly favourable to rabbits1 as proved by their extraordinarily rapid increase1 yet they differ conspicuously in their small size from the wild ,english rabbit4 ,four ,english rabbits1 measured from the incisors to the anus1 varied between #ag and #ag #c_/d inches in length2 whilst two of the ,porto ,santo rabbits were only #ad #a_/b and #ae inches in length4 ,but the decrease in size is best shown by weight2 four wild ,english rabbits averaged #c pounds #e ounces1 whilst one of the ,porto ,santo rabbits1 which had lived for four years in the ,zoological ,gardens1 but had become thin1 weighed only #a pound #i ounces4 ,a fairer test is afforded by the comparison of the well-cleaned limb-bones of a ,porto ,santo rabbit killed on the island with the same bones of a wild ,english rabbit of average size1 and they differed in the proportion of rather less than five to nine4 ,so that the ,porto ,santo rabbits have decreased nearly three inches in length1 and almost half in weight of body4 7#d_/bd4 ,something of the same kind has occurred on the island of ,lipari1 where1 according to ,spallanzani 7',voyage dans les deux ,siciles' quoted by ,godron ',de l',espece' page #cfd71 a countryman turned out some rabbits which multiplied prodigiously1 but1 says ,spallanzani1 les lapins de l'ile de ,lipari sont plus petits que ceux qu'on eleve en domesticite47 ,the head has not decreased in length proportionally with the body2 and the capacity of the brain case is1 as we shall hereafter see1 singularly variable4 ,i prepared four skulls1 and these resembled each other more closely than do generally the skulls of wild ,english rabbits2 but the only difference in structure which they presented was that the supra-orbital processes of the frontal bones were narrower4 ,in colour the ,porto ,santo rabbit differs considerably from the common rabbit2 the upper surface is redder1 and is rarely interspersed with any black or black-tipped hairs4 ,the throat and certain parts of the under surface1 instead of being pure white1 are generally pale grey or leaden colour4 ,but the most remarkable difference is in the ears and tail2 ,i have examined many fresh ,english rabbits1 and the large collection of skins in the ,british ,museum from various countries1 and all have the upper surface of the tail and the tips of the ears clothed with blackish-grey fur2 and this is given in most works as one of the specific characters of the rabbit4 ,now in the seven ,porto ,santo rabbits the upper surface of the tail was reddish-brown1 and the tips of the ears had no trace of the black edging4 ,but here we meet with a singular circumstance3 in ,june1 #ahfa ,i examined two of these rabbits recently sent to the ,zoological ,gardens1 and their tails and ears were coloured as just described2 but when one of their dead bodies was sent to me in ,february1 #ahfe1 the ears were plainly edged1 and the upper surface of the tail was covered with blackish-grey fur1 and the whole body was much less red2 so that under the ,english climate this individual rabbit had recovered the proper colour of its fur in rather less than four years6 ,the two little ,porto ,santo rabbits1 whilst alive in the ,zoological ,gardens1 had a remarkably different appearance from the common kind4 ,they were extraordinarily wild and active1 so that many persons exclaimed on seeing them that they were more like large rats than rabbits4 ,they were nocturnal to an unusual degree in their habits1 and their wildness was never in the least subdued2 so that the superintendent1 ,mr4 ,bartlett1 assured me that he had never had a wilder animal under his charge4 ,this is a singular fact1 considering that they are descended from a domesticated breed4 ,i was so much surprised at it1 that ,i requested ,mr4 ,haywood to make inquiries on the spot1 whether they were much hunted by the inhabitants1 or persecuted by hawks1 or cats1 or other animals2 but this is not the case1 and no cause can be assigned for their wildness4 ,they live both on the central1 higher rocky land and near the sea-cliffs1 and1 from being exceedingly shy and timid1 seldom appear in the lower and cultivated districts4 ,they are said to produce from four to six young at a birth1 and their breeding season is in ,july and ,august4 ,lastly1 and this is a highly remarkable fact1 ,mr4 ,bartlett could never succeed in getting these two rabbits1 which were both males1 to associate or breed with the females of several breeds which were repeatedly placed with them4 ,if the history of these ,porto ,santo rabbits had not been known1 most naturalists1 on observing their much reduced size1 their colour1 reddish above and grey beneath1 their tails and ears not tipped with black1 would have ranked them as a distinct species4 ,they would have been strongly confirmed in this view by seeing them alive in the ,zoological ,gardens1 and hearing that they refused to couple with other rabbits4 ,yet this rabbit1 which there can be little doubt would thus have been ranked as a distinct species1 as certainly originated since the year #adbj4 ,finally1 from the three cases of the rabbits which have run wild in ,porto ,santo1 ,jamaica1 and the ,falkland ,islands1 we see that these animals do not1 under new conditions of life1 revert to or retain their aboriginal character1 as is so generally asserted to be the case by most authors4 ,,osteological ,,characters4 ,when we remember1 on the one hand1 how frequently it is stated that important parts of the structure never vary2 and1 on the other hand1 on what small differences in the skeleton fossil species have often been founded1 the variability of the skull and of some other bones in the domesticated rabbit well deserves attention4 ,it must not be supposed that the more important differences immediately to be described strictly characterise any one breed2 all that can be said is1 that they are generally present in certain breeds4 ,we should bear in mind that selection has not been applied to fix any character in the skeleton1 and that the animals have not had to support themselves under uniform habits of life4 ,we cannot account for most of the differences in the skeleton2 but we shall see that the increased size of the body1 due to careful nurture and continued selection1 has affected the head in a particular manner4 ,even the elongation and lopping of the ears have influenced in a small degree the form of the whole skull4 ,the want of exercise has apparently modified the proportional length of the limbs in comparison with that of the body4 ,as a standard of comparison1 ,i prepared skeletons of two wild rabbits from ,kent1 one from the ,shetland ,islands1 and one from ,antrim in ,ireland4 ,as all the bones in these four specimens from such distant localities closely resembled each other1 presenting scarcely any appreciable difference1 it may be concluded that the bones of the wild rabbit are generally uniform in character4 ,,skull4 ,i have carefully examined skulls of ten large lop-eared rabbits1 and of five common domestic rabbits1 which latter differ from the lop-eared only in not having such large bodies or ears1 yet both larger than in the wild rabbit4 ,first for the ten lop-eared rabbits3 in all these the skull is remarkably elongated in comparison with its breadth4 ,in a wild rabbit the length was #c4ae inches1 in a large fancy rabbit #d4c2 whilst the breadth of the cranium enclosing the brain was in both almost exactly the same4 ,even by taking as the standard of comparison the widest part of the zygomatic arch1 the skulls of the lop-eared are proportionally to their breadth three-quarters of an inch too long4 ,the depth of the head has increased almost in the same proportion with the length2 it is the breadth alone which has not increased4 ,the parietal and occipital bones enclosing the brain are less arched1 both in a longitudinal and transverse line1 than in the wild rabbit1 so that the shape of the cranium is somewhat different4 ,the surface is rougher1 less cleanly sculptured1 and the lines of sutures are more prominent4 ,although the skulls of the large lop-eared rabbits in comparison with those of the wild rabbit are much elongated relatively to their breadth1 yet1 relatively to the size of body1 they are far from elongated4 ,the lop-eared rabbits which ,i examined were1 though not fat1 more than twice as heavy as the wild specimens2 but the skull was very far from being twice as long4 ,even if we take the fairer standard of the length of body1 from the nose to the anus1 the skull is not on an average as long as it ought to be by a third of an inch4 ,in the small feral ,porto ,santo rabbit1 on the other hand1 the head relatively to the length of body is about a quarter of an inch too long4 ,this elongation of the skull relatively to its breadth1 ,i find a universal character1 not only with the large lop-eared rabbits1 but in all the artificial breeds2 as is well seen in the skull of the ,angora4 ,i was at first much surprised at the fact1 and could not imagine why domestication could produce this uniform result2 but the explanation seems to lie in the circumstance that during a number of generations the artificial races have been closely confined1 and have had little occasion to exert either their senses1 or intellect1 or voluntary muscles2 consequently the brain1 as we shall presently more fully see1 has not increased relatively with the size of body4 ,as the brain has not increased1 the bony case enclosing it has not increased1 and this has evidently affected through correlation the breadth of the entire skull from end to end4 7,,figure #f4 ,,skull ,,of ,,wild ,,rabbit1 of natural size4 ,,figure #g4 ,,skull ,,of ,,large ,,lop-,,eared ,,rabbit1 of natural size4 ,,figure #h4 ,,part ,,of ,,zygomatic ,,arch1 showing the projecting end of the malar bone of the auditory meatus3 of natural size4 ,upper figure1 ,wild ,rabbit4 ,lower figure1 ,lop-eared1 hare-coloured ,rabbit4 ,,figure #i4 ,,posterior ,,end ,,of ,,skull1 of natural size1 showing the inter- parietal bone4 ,a4 ,wild ,rabbit4 ,b4 ,feral ,rabbit from island of ,p4 ,santo1 near ,madeira4 ,c4 ,large ,lop-eared ,rabbit47 ,in all the skulls of the large lop-eared rabbits1 the supra-orbital plates or processes of the frontal bones are much broader than in the wild rabbit1 and they generally project more upwards4 ,in the zygomatic arch the posterior or projecting point of the malar-bone is broader and blunter2 and in the specimen1 figure #h1 it is so in a remarkable degree4 ,this point approaches nearer to the auditory meatus than in the wild rabbit1 as may be best seen in figure #h2 but this circumstance mainly depends on the changed direction of the meatus4 ,the inter-parietal bone 7see figure #i7 differs much in shape in the several skulls2 generally it is more oval1 that is more extended in the line of the longitudinal axis of the skull1 than in the wild rabbit4 ,the posterior margin of the square raised platform 7#d_/be4 ,waterhouse ',nat4 ,hist4 ,mammalia' volume #b page #cf47 of the occiput1 instead of being truncated1 or projecting slightly as in the wild rabbit1 is in most lop-eared rabbits pointed1 as in figure #i1 ,c4 ,the paramastoids relatively to the size of the skull are generally much thicker than in the wild rabbit4 7,,figure #aj4 ,,occipital ,,foramen1 of natural size1 in--,a4 ,wild ,rabbit2 ,b4 ,large ,lop-eared ,rabbit47 ,the occipital foramen 7figure #aj7 presents some remarkable differences3 in the wild rabbit1 the lower edge between the condyles is considerably and almost angularly hollowed out1 and the upper edge is deeply and squarely notched2 hence the longitudinal axis exceeds the transverse axis4 ,in the skulls of the lop-eared rabbits the transverse axis exceeds the longitudinal2 for in none of these skulls was the lower edge between the condyles so deeply hollowed out2 in five of them there was no upper square notch1 in three there was a trace of the notch1 and in two alone it was well developed4 ,these differences in the shape of the foramen are remarkable1 considering that it gives passage to so important a structure as the spinal marrow1 though apparently the outline of the latter is not affected by the shape of the passage4 7,,figure #aa4 ,,skull1 of natural size1 of ,half-lop ,rabbit1 showing the different direction of the auditory meatus on the two sides1 and the consequent general distortion of the skull4 ,the left ear of the animal 7or right side of figure7 lopped forwards47 ,in all the skulls of the large lop-eared rabbits1 the bony auditory meatus is conspicuously larger than in the wild rabbit4 ,in a skull #d4c inches in length1 and which barely exceeded in breadth the skull of a wild rabbit 7which was #c4ae inches in length71 the longer diameter of the meatus was exactly twice as great4 ,the orifice is more compressed1 and its margin on the side nearest the skull stands up higher than the outer side4 ,the whole meatus is directed more forwards4 ,as in breeding lop-eared rabbits the length of the ears1 and their consequent lopping and lying flat on the face1 are the chief points of excellence1 there can hardly be a doubt that the great change in the size1 form1 and direction of the bony meatus1 relatively to this same part in the wild rabbit1 is due to the continued selection of individuals having larger and larger ears4 ,the influence of the external ear on the bony meatus is well shown in the skulls 7,i have examined three7 of half-lops 7see figure #e71 in which one ear stands upright1 and the other and longer ear hangs down2 for in these skulls there was a plain difference in the form and direction of the bony meatus on the two sides4 ,but it is a much more interesting fact1 that the changed direction and increased size of the bony meatus have slightly affected on the same side the structure of the whole skull4 ,i here give a drawing 7figure #aa7 of the skull of a half-lop2 and it may be observed that the suture between the parietal and frontal bones does not run strictly at right angles to the longitudinal axis of the skull2 the left frontal bone projects beyond the right one2 both the posterior and anterior margins of the left zygomatic arch on the side of the lopping ear stand a little in advance of the corresponding bones on the opposite side4 ,even the lower jaw is affected1 and the condyles are not quite symmetrical1 that on the left standing a little in advance of that on the right4 ,this seems to me a remarkable case of correlation of growth4 ,who would have surmised that by keeping an animal during many generations under confinement1 and so leading to the disuse of the muscles of the ears1 and by continually selecting individuals with the longest and largest ears1 he would thus indirectly have affected almost every suture in the skull and the form of the lower jaw6 ,in the large lop-eared rabbits the only difference in the lower jaw1 in comparison with that of the wild rabbit1 is that the posterior margin of the ascending ramus is broader and more inflected4 ,the teeth in neither jaw present any difference1 except that the small incisors1 beneath the large ones1 are proportionately a little longer4 ,the molar teeth have increased in size proportionately with the increased width of the skull1 measured across the zygomatic arch1 and not proportionally with its increased length4 ,the inner line of the sockets of the molar teeth in the upper jaw of the wild rabbit forms a perfectly straight line2 but in some of the largest skulls of the lop-eared this line was plainly bowed inwards4 ,in one specimen there was an additional molar tooth on each side of the upper jaw1 between the molars and premolars2 but these two teeth did not correspond in size2 and as no rodent has seven molars1 this is merely a monstrosity1 though a curious one4 ,the five other skulls of common domestic rabbits1 some of which approach in size the above-described largest skulls1 whilst the others exceed but little those of the wild rabbit1 are only worth notice as presenting a perfect gradation in all the above-specified differences between the skulls of the largest lop-eared and wild rabbits4 ,in all1 however1 the supra- orbital plates are rather larger1 and in all the auditory meatus is larger1 in conformity with the increased size of the external ears1 than in the wild rabbit4 ,the lower notch in the occipital foramen in some was not so deep as in the wild rabbit1 but in all five skulls the upper notch was well developed4 ,the skull of the ,angora rabbit1 like the latter five skulls1 is intermediate in general proportions1 and in most other characters1 between those of the largest lop-eared and wild rabbits4 ,it presents only one singular character3 though considerably longer than the skull of the wild rabbit1 the breadth measured within the posterior supra-orbital fissures is nearly a third less than in the wild4 ,the skulls of the silver-grey1 and chinchilla and ,himalayan rabbits are more elongated than in the wild1 with broader supra-orbital plates1 but differ little in any other respect1 excepting that the upper and lower notches of the occipital foramen are not so deep or so well developed4 ,the skull of the ,moscow rabbit scarcely differs at all from that of the wild rabbit4 ,in the ,porto ,santo feral rabbits the supra-orbital plates are generally narrower and more pointed than in our wild rabbits4 ,as some of the largest lop-eared rabbits of which ,i prepared skeletons were coloured almost like hares1 and as these latter animals and rabbits have1 as it is affirmed1 been recently crossed in ,france1 it might be thought that some of the above-described characters had been derived from a cross at a remote period with the hare4 ,consequently ,i examined skulls of the hare1 but no light could thus be thrown on the peculiarities of the skulls of the larger rabbits4 ,it is1 however1 an interesting fact1 as illustrating the law that varieties of one species often assume the characters of other species of the same genus1 that ,i found1 on comparing the skulls of ten species of hares in the ,british ,museum1 that they differed from each other chiefly in the very same points in which domestic rabbits vary1--namely1 in general proportions1 in the form and size of the supra-orbital plates1 in the form of the free end of the malar bone1 and in the line of suture separating the occipital and frontal bones4 ,moreover two eminently variable characters in the domestic rabbit1 namely1 the outline of the occipital foramen and the shape of the raised platform of the occiput1 were likewise variable in two instances in the same species of hare4 ,,vertebrae4 ,the number is uniform in all the skeletons which ,i have examined1 with two exceptions1 namely1 in one of the small feral ,porto ,santo rabbits and in one of the largest lop-eared kinds2 both of these had as usual seven cervical1 twelve dorsal with ribs1 but1 instead of seven lumbar1 both had eight lumbar vertebrae4 ,this is remarkable1 as ,gervais gives seven as the number for the whole genus ,lepus4 ,the caudal vertebrae apparently differ by two or three1 but ,i did not attend to them1 and they are difficult to count with certainty4 7,,figure #ab4 ,,atlas ,,vertebrae1 of natural size2 inferior surface viewed obliquely4 ,upper figure1 ,wild ,rabbit4 ,lower figure1 ,hare-coloured1 large1 ,lop-eared ,rabbit1 a1 supra-median1 atlantoid process2 b1 infra-median process47 ,in the first cervical vertebra1 or atlas1 the anterior margin of the neural arch varies a little in wild specimens1 being either nearly smooth1 or furnished with a small supra-median atlantoid process2 ,i have figured a specimen with the largest process 7a7 which ,i have seen2 but it will be observed how inferior this is in size and different in shape to that in a large lop-eared rabbit4 ,in the latter1 the infra-median process 7b7 is also proportionally much thicker and longer4 ,the alae are a little squarer in outline4 7,,figure #ac4 ,,third ,,cervical ,,vertebrae1 of natural size1 of3 ,a4 ,wild ,rabbit2 ,b4 ,hare-coloured1 large1 ,lop-eared ,rabbit1 a1 a1 inferior surface2 b1 b1 anterior articular surfaces47 ,,third ,,cervical ,,vertebra4 ,in the wild rabbit 7figure #ac1 ,a a7 this vertebra1 viewed on the inferior surface1 has a transverse process1 which is directed obliquely backwards1 and consists of a single pointed bar2 in the fourth vertebra this process is slightly forked in the middle4 ,in the large lop-eared rabbits this process 7,b a7 is forked in the third vertebra1 as in the fourth of the wild rabbit4 ,but the third cervical vertebrae of the wild and lop-eared 7,a b1 ,b b7 rabbits differ more conspicuously when their anterior articular surfaces are compared2 for the extremities of the antero-dorsal processes in the wild rabbit are simply rounded1 whilst in the lop-eared they are trifid1 with a deep central pit4 ,the canal for the spinal marrow in the lop-eared 7,b b7 is more elongated in a transverse direction than in the wild rabbit2 and the passages for the arteries are of a slightly different shape4 ,these several differences in this vertebra seem to me well deserving attention4 ,,first ,,dorsal ,,vertebra4 ,its neural spine varies in length in the wild rabbit2 being sometimes very short1 but generally more than half as long as that of the second dorsal2 but ,i have seen it in two large lop-eared rabbits three-fourths of the length of that of the second dorsal vertebra4 7,,figure #ad4 ,,dorsal ,,vertebrae1 from sixth to tenth inclusive1 of natural size1 viewed laterally4 ,a4 ,wild ,rabbit4 ,b4 ,large1 ,hare-coloured1 so called ,spanish ,rabbit47 ,,ninth ,,and ,,tenth ,,dorsal ,,vertebrae4 ,in the wild rabbit the neural spine of the ninth vertebra is just perceptibly thicker than that of the eighth2 and the neural spine of the tenth is plainly thicker and shorter than those of all the anterior vertebrae4 ,in the large lop-eared rabbits the neural spines of the tenth1 ninth1 and eighth vertebrae1 and even in a slight degree that of the seventh1 are very much thicker1 and of somewhat different shape1 in comparison with those of the wild rabbit4 ,so that this part of the vertebral column differs considerably in appearance from the same part in the wild rabbit1 and closely resembles in an interesting manner these same vertebrae in some species of hares4 ,in the ,angora1 ,chinchilla1 and ,himalayan rabbits1 the neural spines of the eighth and ninth vertebrae are in a slight degree thicker than in the wild4 ,on the other hand1 in one of the feral ,porto ,santo rabbits1 which in most of its characters deviates from the common wild rabbit1 in a direction exactly opposite to that assumed by the large lop-eared rabbits1 the neural spines of the ninth and tenth vertebrae were not at all larger than those of the several anterior vertebra4 ,in this same ,porto ,santo specimen there was no trace in the ninth vertebra of the anterior lateral processes 7see figure #ad71 which are plainly developed in all ,british wild rabbits1 and still more plainly developed in the large lop-eared rabbits4 ,in a half-wild rabbit from ,sandon ,park 7#d_/bf4 ,these rabbits have run wild for a considerable time in ,sandon ,park1 and in other places in ,staffordshire and ,shropshire4 ,they originated1 as ,i have been informed by the gamekeeper1 from variously-coloured domestic rabbits which had been turned out4 ,they vary in colour2 but many are symmetrically coloured1 being white with a streak along the spine1 and with the ears and certain marks about the head of a blackish-grey tint4 ,they have rather longer bodies than common rabbits71 a haemal spine was moderately well developed on the under side of the twelfth dorsal vertebra1 and ,i have seen this in no other specimen4 ,,lumbar ,,vertebrae4 ,i have stated that in two cases there were eight instead of seven lumbar vertebrae4 ,the third lumbar vertebrae in one skeleton of a wild ,british rabbit1 and in one of the ,porto ,santo feral rabbits1 had a haemal spine2 whilst in four skeletons of large lop-eared rabbits1 and in the ,himalayan rabbit1 this same vertebra had a well developed haemal spine4 ,,pelvis4 ,in four wild specimens this bone was almost absolutely identical in shape2 but in several domesticated breeds shades of differences could be distinguished4 ,in the large lop-eared rabbits1 the whole upper part of the ilium is straighter1 or less splayed outwards1 than in the wild rabbit2 and the tuberosity on the inner lip of the anterior and upper part of the ilium is proportionally more prominent4 7,,figure #ae4 ,,terminal ,,bone ,,of ,,sternum1 of natural size1 ,a4 ,wild ,rabbit4 ,b4 ,hare-coloured1 ,lop-eared ,rabbit4 ,c4 ,hare-coloured ,spanish ,rabbit4 7,n4,b4 ,the left-hand angle of the upper articular extremity of ,b was broken1 and has been accidentally thus represented477 ,,sternum4 ,the posterior end of the posterior sternal bone in the wild rabbit 7figure #ae1 ,a7 is thin and slightly enlarged2 in some of the large lop-eared rabbits 7,b7 it is much more enlarged towards the extremity2 whilst in other specimens 7,c7 it keeps nearly of the same breadth from end to end1 but is much thicker at the extremity4 7,,figure #af4 ,,acromion ,,of ,,scapula1 of natural size4 ,a4 ,wild ,rabbit4 ,b1 ,c1 ,d1 ,large1 ,lop-eared ,rabbits47 ,,scapula4 ,the acromion sends out a rectangular bar1 ending in an oblique knob1 which latter in the wild rabbit 7figure #af1 ,a7 varies a little in shape and size1 as does the apex of the acromion in sharpness1 and the part just below the rectangular bar in breadth4 ,but the variations in these respects in the wild rabbit are very slight3 whilst in the large lop-eared rabbits they are considerable4 ,thus in some specimens 7,b7 the oblique terminal knob is developed into a short bar1 forming an obtuse angle with the rectangular bar4 ,in another specimen 7,c7 these two unequal bars form nearly a straight line4 ,the apex of the acromion varies much in breadth and sharpness1 as may be seen by comparing figures ,b1 ,c1 and ,d4 ,,limbs4 ,in these ,i could detect no variation2 but the bones of the feet were too troublesome to compare with much care4 ,i have now described all the differences in the skeletons which ,i have observed4 ,it is impossible not to be struck with the high degree of variability or plasticity of many of the bones4 ,we see how erroneous the often-repeated statement is1 that only the crests of the bones which give attachment to muscles vary in shape1 and that only parts of slight importance become modified under domestication4 ,no one will say1 for instance1 that the occipital foramen1 or the atlas1 or the third cervical vertebra is a part of slight importance4 ,if the several vertebrae of the wild and lop-eared rabbits1 of which figures have been given1 had been found fossil1 palaeontologists would have declared without hesitation that they had belonged to distinct species4 ,,the ,,effects ,,of ,,the ,,use ,,and ,,disuse ,,of ,,parts4 ,in the large lop-eared rabbits the relative proportional length of the bones of the same leg1 and of the front and hind legs compared with each other1 have remained nearly the same as in the wild rabbit2 but in weight1 the bones of the hind legs apparently have not increased in due proportion with the front legs4 ,the weight of the whole body in the large rabbits examined by me was from twice to twice and a half as great as that of the wild rabbit2 and the weight of the bones of the front and hind limbs taken together 7excluding the feet1 on account of the difficulty of cleaning so many small bones7 has increased in the large lop-eared rabbits in nearly the same proportion2 consequently in due proportion to the weight of body which they have to support4 ,if we take the length of the body as the standard of comparison1 the limbs of the large rabbits have not increased in length in due proportion by one inch and a half4 ,again1 if we take as the standard of comparison the length of the skull1 which1 as we have before seen1 has not increased in length in due proportion to the length of body1 the limbs will be found to be1 proportionally with those of the wild rabbit1 from half to three-quarters of an inch too short4 ,hence1 whatever standard of comparison be taken1 the limb-bones of the large lop-eared rabbits have not increased in length1 though they have in weight1 in full proportion to the other parts of the frame2 and this1 ,i presume1 may be accounted for by the inactive life which during many generations they have spent4 ,nor has the scapula increased in length in due proportion to the increased length of the body4 ,the capacity of the osseous case of the brain is a more interesting point1 to which ,i was led to attend by finding1 as previously stated1 that with all domesticated rabbits the length of the skull relatively to its breadth has greatly increased in comparison with that of the wild rabbits4 ,if we had possessed a large number of domesticated rabbits of nearly the same size with the wild rabbits1 it would have been a simple task to have measured and compared the capacities of their skulls4 ,but this is not the case3 almost all the domestic breeds have larger bodies than wild rabbits1 and the lop-eared kinds are more than double their weight4 ,as a small animal has to exert its senses1 intellect1 and instincts equally with a large animal1 we ought not by any means to expect an animal twice or thrice as large as another to have a brain of double or treble the size4 7#d_/bg4 ,see ,prof4 ,owen's remarks on this subject in his paper on the ',zoological ,significance of the ,brain1 etc41 of ,man1 etc4' read before ,brit4 ,association #ahfb3 with respect to ,birds see ',proc4 ,zoolog4 ,soc4' ,january #aa1 #ahdh page #h47 ,now1 after weighing the bodies of four wild rabbits1 and of four large but not fattened lop-eared rabbits1 ,i find that on an average the wild are to the lop-eared in weight as #a to #b4ag2 in average length of body as #a to #a4da2 whilst in capacity of skull they are as #a to #a4ae4 ,hence we see that the capacity of the skull1 and consequently the size of the brain1 has increased but little1 relatively to the increased size of the body2 and this fact explains the narrowness of the skull relatively to its length in all domestic rabbits4 ,,table #c3 ,,measurements ,,of ,,wild ,,and ,,semi-,,wild ,,rabbits4 ,i4 ,length of ,skull 7inches74 ,,ii4 ,length of ,body from ,incisors to ,anus 7inches74 ,,iii4 ,weight of whole ,body 7pounds and ounces74 ,,iv4 ,capacity of ,skull measured by ,small ,shot 7grains74 ,v4 ,capacity calculated according to ,length of ,skull relatively to that of ,no4 #a 7,wild ,rabbit1 ,kent7 7grains74 ,,vi4 ,difference between actual and calculated capacities of ,skulls 7grains74 ,,vii4 ,showing how much per cent the ,brain1 by calculation according to the length of the ,skull is too light 7-7 or too heavy 771 relatively to the ,brain of the ,wild ,rabbit ,no4 #a4 ,,name ,,of ,,breed3 ,i4 ,,ii4 ,,iii4 ,,iv4 ,v4 ,,vi4 ,,vii4 ,,wild ,,and ,,semi-,,wild ,,rabbits3 #a4 ,wild ,rabbit1 ,kent3 #c4ae #ag4d #c1e #igb 44 44 #b #b4 ,wild ,rabbit1 ,shetland ,islands3 #c4ae 44 44 #igi 44 44 #b #c4 ,wild ,rabbit1 ,ireland3 #c4ae 44 44 #iib 44 44 #b #d4 ,domestic rabbit1 run wild1 ,sandon3 #c4ae #ah4e 44 #igg 44 44 #b #e4 ,wild1 common variety1 small specimen1 ,kent3 #b4if #ag4j #b1ad #hge #iac #ch - #d #f4 ,wild1 fawn-coloured variety1 ,scotland3 #c4a 44 44 #iah #iej #cb - #c #g4 ,silver-grey1 small specimen1 ,thetford warren3 #b4ie #ae4e #b1aa #ich #iaj #bh #c #h4 ,feral rabbit1 ,porto ,santo3 #b4hc 44 44 #hic #hgc #bj #b #i4 ,feral rabbit1 ,porto ,santo3 #b4he 44 44 #gef #hgi #abc - #af #aj4;,feral rabbit1 ,porto ,santo3 #b4ie 44 44 #hce #iaj #ge - #i ,average of three ,porto ,santo rabbits3 #b4hh 44 44 #hbh #hhh #fj - #g ,,domestic ,,rabbits3 #aa4;,himalayan3 #c4e #bj4e 44 #ifc #ajhj #aag - #ab #ab4,moscow3 #c4be #ag4j #c1h #hjc #ajjb #aii - #bd #ac4;,angora3 #c4e #ai4e #c1a #fig #ajhj #chc - #ed #ad4;,chinchilla3 #c4fe #bb4j 44 #iie #aabf #aca - #ac #ae4,large lop-eared3 #d4a #bd4e #g1j #ajfe #abfe #bjj - #ah #af4,large lop-eared3 #d4a #be4j #g1ac #aaec #abfe #aab - #i #ag4,large lop-eared3 #d4jg 44 44 #ajcg #abee #bah - #ba #ah4,large lop-eared3 #d4a #be4j #g1d #abjh #abfe #eg - #d #ai4,large lop-eared3 #d4c 44 44 #abcb #acbf #id - #g #bj4,large lop-eared3 #d4be 44 44 #aabd #acaa #ahg - #af #ba4,large hare-coloured3 #c4hf #bd4j #f1ad #aaca #aaia #fj - #e #bb4;,average of above seven large lop-eared rabbits3 #d4aa #bd4fb #g1d #aacf #abfh #acb - #aa #bc4;,hare 7,l4 timidus7 ,english specimen3 #c4fa #g1j #acae #bd4;,hare 7,l4 timidus7 ,german specimen3 #c4hb #g1j #adee ,in the upper half of ,table #c ,i have given the measurements of the skull of ten wild rabbits2 and in the lower half1 of eleven thoroughly domesticated kinds4 ,as these rabbits differ so greatly in size1 it is necessary to have some standard by which to compare the capacities of their skulls4 ,i have selected the length of skull as the best standard1 for in the larger rabbits it has not1 as already stated1 increased in length so much as the body2 but as the skull1 like every other part1 varies in length1 neither it nor any other part affords a perfect standard4 ,in the first column of figures the extreme length of the skull is given in inches and decimals4 ,i am aware that these measurements pretend to greater accuracy than is possible2 but ,i have found it the least trouble to record the exact length which the compass gave4 ,the second and third columns give the length and weight of body1 whenever these observations were made4 ,the fourth column gives the capacity of the skull by the weight of small shot with which the skulls were filled2 but it is not pretended that these weights are accurate within a few grains4 ,in the fifth column the capacity is given which the skull ought to have had by calculation1 according to the length of skull1 in comparison with that of the wild rabbit ,no4 #a2 in the sixth column the difference between the actual and calculated capacities1 and in the seventh the percentage of increase or decrease1 are given4 ,for instance1 as the wild rabbit ,no4 #e has a shorter and lighter body than the wild rabbit ,no4 #a1 we might have expected that its skull would have had less capacity2 the actual capacity1 as expressed by the weight of shot1 is #hge grains1 which is #ig grains less than that of the first rabbit4 ,but comparing these two rabbits by the length of their skulls1 we see that in ,no4 #a the skull is #c4ae inches in length1 and in ,no4 #e #b4if inches in length2 according to this ratio1 the brain of ,no4 #e ought to have had a capacity of #iac grains of shot1 which is above the actual capacity1 but only by #ch grains4 ,or1 to put the case in another way 7as in column ,,vii71 the brain of this small rabbit1 ,no4 #e1 for every #ajj grains of weight is only #d grains too light1--that is1 it ought1 according to the standard rabbit ,no4 #a1 to have been #d per cent heavier4 ,i have taken the rabbit ,no4 #a as the standard of comparison because1 of the skulls having a full average length1 this has the least capacity2 so that it is the least favourable to the result which ,i wish to show1 namely1 that the brain in all long-domesticated rabbits has decreased in size1 either actually1 or relatively to the length of the head and body1 in comparison with the brain of the wild rabbit4 ,had ,i taken the ,irish rabbit1 ,no4 #c1 as the standard1 the following results would have been somewhat more striking4 ,turning to ,table #c3 the first four wild rabbits have skulls of the same length1 and these differ but little in capacity4 ,the ,sandon rabbit 7,no4 #d7 is interesting1 as1 though now wild1 it is known to be descended from a domesticated breed1 as is still shown by its peculiar colouring and longer body2 nevertheless the skull has recovered its normal length and full capacity4 ,the next three rabbits are wild1 but of small size1 and they all have skulls with slightly lessened capacities4 ,the three ,porto ,santo feral rabbits 7,nos4 #h to #aj7 offer a perplexing case2 their bodies are greatly reduced in size1 as in a lesser degree are their skulls in length and in actual capacity1 in comparison with the skulls of wild ,english rabbits4 ,but when we compare the capacities of the skull in the three ,porto ,santo rabbits1 we observe a surprising difference1 which does not stand in any relation to the slight difference in the length of their skulls1 nor1 as ,i believe1 to any difference in the size of their bodies2 but ,i neglected weighing separately their bodies4 ,i can hardly suppose that the medullary matter of the brain in these three rabbits1 living under similar conditions1 can differ as much as is indicated by the proportional difference of capacity in their skulls2 nor do ,i know whether it is possible that one brain may contain considerably more fluid than another4 ,hence ,i can throw no light on this case4 ,looking to the lower half of ,table #c1 which gives the measurements of domesticated rabbits1 we see that in all the capacity of the skull is less1 but in very various degrees1 than might have been anticipated according to the length of their skulls1 relatively to that of the wild rabbit ,no4 #a4 ,in line #bb the average measurements of seven large lop-eared rabbits are given4 ,now the question arises1 has the average capacity of the skull in these seven large rabbits increased as much as might have been expected from the greatly increased size of body4 ,we may endeavour to answer this question in two ways3 in the upper half of the ,table we have measurements of the skulls of six small wild rabbits 7,nos4 #e to #aj71 and we find that on an average the skulls are 4#ah of an inch shorter1 and in capacity #ia grains less1 than the average length and capacity of the three first wild rabbits on the list4 ,the seven large lop-eared rabbits1 on an average1 have skulls #d4aa inches in length1 and #aacf grains in capacity2 so that these skulls have increased in length more than five times as much as the skulls of the six small wild rabbits have decreased in length2 hence we might have expected that the skulls of the large lop-eared rabbits would have increased in capacity five times as much as the skulls of the six small rabbits have decreased in capacity2 and this would have given an average increased capacity of #dee grains1 whilst the real average increase is only #aee grains4 ,again1 the large lop-eared rabbits have bodies of nearly the same weight and size as the common hare1 but their heads are longer2 consequently1 if the lop-eared rabbits had been wild1 it might have been expected that their skulls would have had nearly the same capacity as that of the skull of the hare4 ,but this is far from being the case2 for the average capacity of the two hare-skulls 7,nos4 #bc1 #bd7 is so much larger than the average capacity of the seven lop-eared skulls1 that the latter would have to be increased #ba per cent to come up to the standard of the hare4 7#d_/bc4 ,this standard is apparently considerably too low1 for ,dr4 ,crisp 7',proc4 ,zoolog4 ,soc4' #ahfa page #hf7 gives #baj grains as the actual weight of the brain of a hare which weighed #g pounds1 and #abe grains as the weight of the brain of a rabbit which weighed #c pounds #e ounces1 that is1 the same weight as the rabbit ,no4 #a in my list4 ,now the contents of the skull of rabbit ,no4 #a in shot is in my table #igb grains2 and according to ,dr4 ,crisp's ratio of #abe to #baj1 the skull of the hare ought to have contained #afcb grains of shot1 instead of only 7in the largest hare in my table7 #adee grains47 ,i have previously remarked that1 if we had possessed many domestic rabbits of the same average size with the wild rabbit1 it would have been easy to compare the capacity of their skulls4 ,now the ,himalayan1 ,moscow1 and ,angora rabbits 7,nos4 #aa1 #ab1 #ac of ,table #c7 are only a little larger in body and have skulls only a little longer1 than the wild animal1 and we see that the actual capacity of their skulls is less than in the wild animal1 and considerably less by calculation 7column #g71 according to the difference in the length of their skulls4 ,the narrowness of the brain-case in these three rabbits could be plainly seen and proved by external measurement4 ,the ,chinchilla rabbit 7,no4 #ad7 is a considerably larger animal than the wild rabbit1 yet the capacity of its skull only slightly exceeds that of the wild rabbit4 ,the ,angora rabbit1 ,no4 #ac1 offers the most remarkable case2 this animal in its pure white colour and length of silky fur bears the stamp of long domesticity4 ,it has a considerably longer head and body than the wild rabbit1 but the actual capacity of its skull is less than that of even the little wild ,porto ,santo rabbits4 ,by the standard of the length of skull the capacity 7see column #g7 is only half of what it ought to have been6 ,i kept this individual animal alive1 and it was not unhealthy nor idiotic4 ,this case of the ,angora rabbit so much surprised me1 that ,i repeated all the measurements and found them correct4 ,i have also compared the capacity of the skull of the ,angora with that of the wild rabbit by other standards1 namely1 by the length and weight of the body1 and by the weight of the limb-bones2 but by all these standards the brain appears to be much too small1 though in a less degree when the standard of the limb- bones was used2 and this latter circumstance may probably be accounted for by the limbs of this anciently domesticated breed having become much reduced in weight1 from its long-continued inactive life4 ,hence ,i infer that in the ,angora breed1 which is said to differ from other breeds in being quieter and more social1 the capacity of the skull has really undergone a remarkable amount of reduction4 ,from the several facts above given1--namely1 firstly1 that the actual capacity of the skull in the ,himalayan1 ,moscow1 and ,angora breeds1 is less than in the wild rabbit1 though they are in all their dimensions rather larger animals2 secondly1 that the capacity of the skull of the large lop- eared rabbits has not been increased in nearly the same ratio as the capacity of the skull of the smaller wild rabbits has been decreased2 and thirdly1 that the capacity of the skull in these same large lop-eared rabbits is very inferior to that of the hare1 an animal of nearly the same size1--,i conclude1 notwithstanding the remarkable differences in capacity in the skulls of the small ,porto ,santo rabbits1 and likewise in the large lop-eared kinds1 that in all long-domesticated rabbits the brain has either by no means increased in due proportion with the increased length of the head and increased size of the body1 or that it has actually decreased in size1 relatively to what would have occurred had these animals lived in a state of nature4 ,when we remember that rabbits1 from having been domesticated and closely confined during many generations1 cannot have exerted their intellect1 instincts1 senses1 and voluntary movements1 either in escaping from various dangers or in searching for food1 we may conclude that their brains will have been feebly exercised1 and consequently have suffered in development4 ,we thus see that the most important and complicated organ in the whole organisation is subject to the law of decrease in size from disuse4 ,finally1 let us sum up the more important modifications which domestic rabbits have undergone1 together with their causes as far as we can obscurely see them4 ,by the supply of abundant and nutritious food1 together with little exercise1 and by the continued selection of the heaviest individuals1 the weight of the larger breeds has been more than doubled4 ,the bones of the limbs taken together have increased in weight1 in due proportion with the increased weight of body1 but the hind legs have increased less than the front legs2 but in length they have not increased in due proportion1 and this may have been caused by the want of proper exercise4 ,with the increased size of the body the third cervical has assumed characters proper to the fourth cervical vertebra2 and the eighth and ninth dorsal vertebrae have similarly assumed characters proper to the tenth and posterior vertebrae4 ,the skull in the larger breeds has increased in length1 but not in due proportion with the increased length of body2 the brain has not duly increased in dimensions1 or has even actually decreased1 and consequently the bony case for the brain has remained narrow1 and by correlation has affected the bones of the face and the entire length of the skull4 ,the skull has thus acquired its characteristic narrowness4 ,from unknown causes the supra-orbital process of the frontal bones and the free end of the malar bones have increased in breadth2 and in the larger breeds the occipital foramen is generally much less deeply notched than in wild rabbits4 ,certain parts of the scapula and the terminal sternal bones have become highly variable in shape4 ,the ears have been increased enormously in length and breadth through continued selection2 their weight1 conjoined probably with the disuse of their muscles1 has caused them to lop downwards2 and this has affected the position and form of the bony auditory meatus2 and this again1 by correlation1 the position in a slight degree of almost every bone in the upper part of the skull1 and even the position of the condyles of the lower jaw4 ,,chapter #a4,v4 ,,domestic ,,pigeons4 ,,enumeration ,,and ,,description ,,of ,,the ,,several ,,breeds4 ,,individual ,,variability4 ,,variations ,,of ,a ,,remarkable ,,nature4 ,,osteological ,,characters3 ,,skull1 ,,lower ,,jaw1 ,,number ,,of ,,vertebrae4 ,,correlation ,,of ,,growth3 ,,tongue ,,with ,,beak2 ,,eyelids ,,and ,,nostrils ,,with ,,wattled ,,skin4 ,,number ,,of ,,wing-,,feathers1 ,,and ,,length ,,of ,,wing4 ,,colour ,,and ,,down4 ,,webbed ,,and ,,feathered ,,feet4 ,,on ,,the ,,effects ,,of ,,disuse4 ,,length ,,of ,,feet ,,in ,,correlation ,,with ,,length ,,of ,,beak4 ,,length ,,of ,,sternum1 ,,scapula1 ,,and ,,furculum4 ,,length ,,of ,,wings4 ,,summary ,,on ,,the ,,points ,,of ,,difference ,,in ,,the ,,several ,,breeds4 ,i have been led to study domestic pigeons with particular care1 because the evidence that all the domestic races are descended from one known source is far clearer than with any other anciently domesticated animal4 ,secondly1 because many treatises in several languages1 some of them old1 have been written on the pigeon1 so that we are enabled to trace the history of several breeds4 ,and lastly1 because1 from causes which we can partly understand1 the amount of variation has been extraordinarily great4 ,the details will often be tediously minute2 but no one who really wants to understand the progress of change in domestic animals1 and especially no one who has kept pigeons and has marked the great difference between the breeds and the trueness with which most of them propagate their kind1 will doubt that this minuteness is worth while4 ,notwithstanding the clear evidence that all the breeds are the descendants of a single species1 ,i could not persuade myself until some years had passed that the whole amount of difference between them1 had arisen since man first domesticated the wild rock-pigeon4 ,i have kept alive all the most distinct breeds1 which ,i could procure in ,england or from the ,continent2 and have prepared skeletons of all4 ,i have received skins from ,persia1 and a large number from ,india and other quarters of the world4 7#e_/a4 ,the ,hon4 ,c4 ,murray has sent me some very valuable specimens from ,persia2 and ,h4,m4 ,consul1 ,mr4 ,keith ,abbott1 has given me information on the pigeons of the same country4 ,i am deeply indebted to ,sir ,walter ,elliot for an immense collection of skins from ,madras1 with much information regarding them4 ,mr4 ,blyth has freely communicated to me his stores of knowledge on this and all other related subjects4 ,the ,rajah ,sir ,james ,brooke sent me specimens from ,borneo1 as has ,h4,m4 ,consul1 ,mr4 ,swinhoe1 from ,amoy in ,china1 and ,dr4 ,daniell from the west coast of ,africa47 ,since my admission into two of the ,london pigeon-clubs1 ,i have received the kindest assistance from many of the most eminent amateurs4 7#e_/b4 ,mr4 ,b4,p4 ,brent1 well known for his various contributions to poultry literature1 has aided me in every way during several years3 so has ,mr4 ,tegetmeier1 with unwearied kindness4 ,this latter gentleman1 who is well known for his works on poultry1 and who has largely bred pigeons1 has looked over this and the following chapters4 ,mr4 ,bult formerly showed me his unrivalled collection of ,pouters1 and gave me specimens4 ,i had access to ,mr4 ,wicking's collection1 which contained a greater assortment of kinds than could anywhere else be seen2 and he has always aided me with specimens and information given in the freest manner4 ,mr4 ,haynes and ,mr4 ,corker have given me specimens of their magnificent ,carriers4 ,to ,mr4 ,harrison ,weir ,i am likewise indebted4 ,nor must ,i by any means pass over the assistance received from ,mr4 ,j4,m4 ,eaton1 ,mr4 ,baker1 ,mr4 ,evans1 and ,mr4 ,j4 ,baily1 jun41 of ,mount-street--to the latter gentleman ,i have been indebted for some valuable specimens4 ,to all these gentlemen ,i beg permission to return my sincere and cordial thanks47 ,the races of the ,pigeon which can be distinguished1 and which breed true1 are very numerous4 ,,mm4 ,boitard and ,corbie 7#e_/c4 ',les ,pigeons de ,voliere et de ,colombier' ,paris #ahbd4 ,during forty-five years the sole occupation of ,m4 ,corbie was the care of the pigeons belonging to the ,duchess of ,berry4 ,bonizzi has described a large number of coloured varieties in ,italy3 ',le variazioni dei colombi ,domestici' ,padova #ahgc47 describe in detail #abb kinds2 and ,i could add several ,european kinds not known to them4 ,in ,india1 judging from the skins sent me1 there are many breeds unknown here2 and ,sir ,w4 ,elliot informs me that a collection imported by an ,indian merchant into ,madras from ,cairo and ,constantinople included several kinds unknown in ,india4 ,i have no doubt that there exist considerably above #aej kinds which breed true and have been separately named4 ,but of these the far greater number differ from each other only in unimportant characters4 ,such differences will be here entirely passed over1 and ,i shall confine myself to the more important points of structure4 ,that many important differences exist we shall presently see4 ,i have looked through the magnificent collection of the ,columbidae in the ,british ,museum1 and1 with the exception of a few forms 7such as the ,didunculus1 ,calaenas1 ,goura1 etc471 ,i do not hesitate to affirm that some domestic races of the rock-pigeon differ fully as much from each other in external characters as do the most distinct natural genera4 ,we may look in vain through the #bhh known species 7#e_/d4 ',coup d',oeil sur l',ordre des ,pigeons' par ,prince ,c4,l4 ,bonaparte1 ,paris #ahee4 ,this author makes #bhh species1 ranked under #he genera47 for a beak so small and conical as that of the short-faced tumbler2 for one so broad and short as that of the barb2 for one so long1 straight1 and narrow1 with its enormous wattles1 as that of the ,english carrier2 for an expanded upraised tail like that of the fantail2 or for an oesophagus like that of the pouter4 ,i do not for a moment pretend that the domestic races differ from each other in their whole organisation as much as the more distinct natural genera4 ,i refer only to external characters1 on which1 however1 it must be confessed that most genera of birds have been founded4 ,when1 in a future chapter1 we discuss the principle of selection as followed by man1 we shall clearly see why the differences between the domestic races are almost always confined to external1 or at least to externally visible1 characters4 ,owing to the amount and gradations of difference between the several breeds1 ,i have found it indispensable in the following classification to rank them under ,groups1 ,races1 and ,sub-races2 to which varieties and sub- varieties1 all strictly inheriting their proper characters1 must often be added4 ,even with the individuals of the same sub-variety1 when long kept by different fanciers1 different strains can sometimes be recognised4 ,there can be no doubt that1 if well-characterised forms of the several races had been found wild1 all would have been ranked as distinct species1 and several of them would certainly have been placed by ornithologists in distinct genera4 ,a good classification of the various domestic breeds is extremely difficult1 owing to the manner in which many of the forms graduate into each other2 but it is curious how exactly the same difficulties are encountered1 and the same rules have to be followed1 as in the classification of any natural but difficult group of organic beings4 ,an artificial classification might be followed which would present fewer difficulties than a natural classification2 but then it would interrupt many plain affinities4 ,extreme forms can readily be defined2 but intermediate and troublesome forms often destroy our definitions4 ,forms which may be called aberrant must sometimes be included within groups to which they do not accurately belong4 ,characters of all kinds must be used2 but as with birds in a state of nature1 those afforded by the beak are the best and most readily appreciated4 ,it is not possible to weigh the importance of all the characters which have to be used so as to make the groups and sub-groups of equal value4 ,lastly1 a group may contain only one race1 and another and less distinctly defined group may contain several races and sub-races1 and in this case it is difficult1 as in the classification of natural species1 to avoid placing too high a value on the number of forms which a group may contain4 ,in my measurements ,i have never trusted to the eye2 and when speaking of a part being large or small1 ,i always refer to the wild rock-pigeon 7,columba livia7 as the standard of comparison4 ,the measurements are given in decimals of an inch4 7#e_/e4 ,as ,i so often refer to the size of the ,c4 livia1 or rock-pigeon1 it may be convenient to give the mean between the measurements of two wild birds1 kindly sent me by ,dr4 ,edmondstone from the ,shetland ,islands4 ,,length ,,in ,,inches3 ,from feathered base of beak to end of tail3 #ad4be ,from feathered base of beak to oil-gland3 #i4e ,from tip of beak to end of tail3 #ae4jb ,of tail-feathers3 #d4fb ,from tip to tip of wing3 #bf4ge ,of folded wing3 #i4be ,beak4--,length from tip of beak to feathered base3 4#gg ,beak4--,thickness1 measured vertically at distal end of nostrils3 4#bc ,beak4--,breadth1 measured at same place3 4#af ,feet4--,from end of middle toe 7without claw7 to distal end of tibia3 #b4gg ,feet4--,from end of middle toe to end of hind toe 7without claws73 #b4jb ,,weight3 #ad #a_/d ounces47 7,,figure #ag4 ,,the ,,rock ,,pigeon1 or ,columba livia4 ,the parent-form of all domesticated ,pigeons4 7#e_/f4 ,this drawing was made from a dead bird4 ,the six following figures were drawn with great care by ,mr4 ,luke ,wells from living birds selected by ,mr4 ,tegetmeier4 ,it may be confidently asserted that the characters of the six breeds which have been figured are not in the least exaggerated477 ,,diagram #a4 ,,domestic ,,pigeons4 ,columba livia or ,,rock-,,pigeon-- --,,group ,i4--7,,sub-,,group 7,,race7 #a47--;,german ,p4 --,lille ,p4-- --,dutch ,p4 --,,english ,,pouter4 --,,group ,,ii4--7,,sub-,,groups 7,,races7 #b1 #c1 #d47--,kali-,par--,bussora-- --,murassa4 --,dragon--,,english ,,carrier4 --,bagadotten--,scanderoon--,pigeon ,cygne--,,runt4 --,,tronfo4 --,,barb4 --,,group ,,iii4--7,,sub-,,groups 7,,races7 #e1 #f1 #g1 #h1 #i47-- --,java ,fantail--,,fantail --,turbit--,,african ,,owl4 --,persian ,tumbler--,lotan ,tumbler--,common ,tumbler--,,short-,,faced ,,tumbler4 --,,indian ,,frill-,,back4 --,,jacobin4 --,,group ,,iv4--7,,sub-,,groups 7,,races7 #aj1 #aa47-- --,,trumpeter4 --,,laugher4 --,,english ,,frill-,,back4 --,,nun4 --,,spot4 --,,swallow4 --,,dovecote ,,pigeon4 ,i will now give a brief description of all the principal breeds4 ,diagram #a4 may aid the reader in learning their names and seeing their affinities4 ,the rock-pigeon1 or ,columba livia 7including under this name two or three closely-allied sub-species or geographical races1 hereafter to be described71 may be confidently viewed1 as we shall see in the next chapter1 as the common parent-form4 ,the names in italics on the right-hand side of the page show us the most distinct breeds1 or those which have undergone the greatest amount of modification4 ,the lengths of the dotted lines rudely represent the degree of distinctness of each breed from the parent-stock1 and the names placed under each other in the columns show the more or less closely connecting links4 ,the distances of the dotted lines from each other approximately represent the amount of difference between the several breeds4 7,,figure #ah4 ,,english ,,pouter47 ,,group ,i4 ,this group includes a single race1 that of the ,pouters4 ,if the most strongly marked sub-race be taken1 namely1 the ,improved ,english ,pouter1 this is perhaps the most distinct of all domesticated pigeons4 ,,race ,i4 ,,pouter ,,pigeons4 7,,kropftauben1 ,,german4 ,,grosses-,,gorges1 ,,or ,,boulans1 ,,french47 ,oesophagus of great size1 barely separated from the crop1 often inflated4 ,body and legs elongated4 ,beak of moderate dimensions4 ,,sub-,,race #a_/;,i4 ,the improved ,english ,pouter1 when its crop is fully inflated1 presents a truly astonishing appearance4 ,the habit of slightly inflating the crop is common to all domestic pigeons1 but is carried to an extreme in the ,pouter4 ,the crop does not differ1 except in size1 from that of other pigeons2 but is less plainly separated by an oblique constriction from the oesophagus4 ,the diameter of the upper part of the oesophagus is immense1 even close up to the head4 ,the beak in one bird which ,i possessed was almost completely buried when the oesophagus was fully expanded4 ,the males1 especially when excited1 pout more than the females1 and they glory in exercising this power4 ,if a bird will not1 to use the technical expression1 play1 the fancier1 as ,i have witnessed1 by taking the beak into his mouth1 blows him up like a balloon2 and the bird1 then puffed up with wind and pride1 struts about1 retaining his magnificent size as long as he can4 ,pouters often take flight with their crops inflated4 ,after one of my birds had swallowed a good meal of peas and water1 as he flew up in order to disgorge them and feed his nearly fledged young1 ,i heard the peas rattling in his inflated crop as if in a bladder4 ,when flying1 they often strike the backs of their wings together1 and thus make a clapping noise4 ,pouters stand remarkably upright1 and their bodies are thin and elongated4 ,in connexion with this form of body1 the ribs are generally broader and the vertebrae more numerous than in other breeds4 ,from their manner of standing their legs appear longer than they really are1 though1 in proportion with those of ,c4 livia1 the legs and feet are actually longer4 ,the wings appear much elongated1 but by measurement1 in relation to the length of body1 this is not the case4 ,the beak likewise appears longer1 but it is in fact a little shorter 7about 4,o#c of an inch71 proportionally with the size of the body1 and relatively to the beak of the rock-pigeon4 ,the ,pouter1 though not bulky1 is a large bird2 ,i measured one which was #cd #a_/b inches from tip to tip of wing1 and #ai inches from tip of beak to end of tail4 ,in a wild rock- pigeon from the ,shetland ,islands the same measurements gave only #bh #a_/d and #ad #c_/d4 ,there are many sub-varieties of the ,pouter of different colours1 but these ,i pass over4 ,,sub-,,race #a_/;,,ii4 ,,dutch ,,pouter4 ,this seems to be the parent-form of our improved ,english ,pouters4 ,i kept a pair1 but ,i suspect that they were not pure birds4 ,they are smaller than ,english pouters1 and less well developed in all their characters4 ,neumeister 7#e_/g4 ',das ,ganze der ,taubenzucht' ,weimar #ahcg pl4 #aa and #ab47 says that the wings are crossed over the tail1 and do not reach to its extremity4 ,,sub-,,race #a_/;,,iii4 ,,the ,,lille ,,pouter4 ,i know this breed only from description4 7#e_/h4 ,boitard and ,corbie ',les ,pigeons' etc4 page #agg pl4 #f47 ,it approaches in general form the ,dutch ,pouter1 but the inflated oesophagus assumes a spherical form1 as if the pigeon had swallowed a large orange1 which had stuck close under the beak4 ,this inflated ball is represented as rising to a level with the crown of the head4 ,the middle toe alone is feathered4 ,a variety of this sub-race1 called the claquant1 is described by ,,mm4 ,boitard and ,corbie2 it pouts but little1 and is characterised by the habit of violently hitting its wings together over its back1--a habit which the ,english ,pouter has in a slight degree4 ,,sub-,,race #a_/;,,iv4 ,,common ,,german ,,pouter4 ,i know this bird only from the figures and description given by the accurate ,neumeister1 one of the few writers on pigeons who1 as ,i have found1 may always be trusted4 ,this sub-race seems considerably different4 ,the upper part of the oesophagus is much less distended4 ,the bird stands less upright4 ,the feet are not feathered1 and the legs and beak are shorter4 ,in these respects there is an approach in form to the common rock- pigeon4 ,the tail-feathers are very long1 yet the tips of the closed wings extend beyond the end of the tail2 and the length of the wings1 from tip to tip1 and of the body1 is greater than in the ,english ,pouter4 7,,figure #ai4 ,,english ,,carrier47 ,,group ,,ii4 ,this group includes three ,races1 namely1 ,carriers1 ,runts1 and ,barbs1 which are manifestly allied to each other4 ,indeed1 certain carriers and runts pass into each other by such insensible gradations that an arbitrary line has to be drawn between them4 ,carriers also graduate through foreign breeds into the rock-pigeon4 ,yet1 if well-characterised ,carriers and ,barbs 7see figures #ai and #bj7 had existed as wild species1 no ornithologist would have placed them in the same genus with each other or with the rock-pigeon4 ,this group may1 as a general rule1 be recognised by the beak being long1 with the skin over the nostrils swollen and often carunculated or wattled1 and with that round the eyes bare and likewise carunculated4 ,the mouth is very wide1 and the feet are large4 ,nevertheless the ,barb1 which must be classed in this same group1 has a very short beak1 and some runts have very little bare skin round their eyes4 ,,race ,,ii4 ,,carriers4 7,,turkische ,,tauben2 ,,pigeons ,,turcs1 ,,dragons47 ,beak elongated1 narrow1 pointed2 eyes surrounded by much naked1 generally carunculated1 skin2 neck and body elongated4 ,,sub-,,race #b_/;,i4 ,,the ,,english ,,carrier4 ,this is a fine bird1 of large size1 close feathered1 generally dark- coloured1 with an elongated neck4 ,the beak is attenuated and of wonderful length3 in one specimen it was #a4d inch in length from the feathered base to the tip2 therefore nearly twice as long as that of the rock-pigeon1 which measured only 4#gg4 ,whenever ,i compare proportionally any part in the carrier and rock-pigeon1 ,i take the length of the body from the base of the beak to the end of the tail as the standard of comparison2 and according to this standard1 the beak in one ,carrier was nearly half an inch longer than in the rock-pigeon4 ,the upper mandible is often slightly arched4 ,the tongue is very long4 ,the development of the carunculated skin or wattle round the eyes1 over the nostrils1 and on the lower mandible1 is prodigious4 ,the eyelids1 measured longitudinally1 were in some specimens exactly twice as long as in the rock-pigeon4 ,the external orifice or furrow of the nostrils was also twice as long4 ,the open mouth in its widest part was in one case 4#ge of an inch in width1 whereas in the rock-pigeon it is only about 4#d of an inch4 ,this great width of mouth is shown in the skeleton by the reflexed edges of the ramus of the lower jaw4 ,the head is flat on the summit and narrow between the orbits4 ,the feet are large and coarse2 the length1 as measured from end of hind toe to end of middle toe 7without the claws71 was in two specimens #b4f inches2 and this1 proportionally with the rock-pigeon1 is an excess of nearly a quarter of an inch4 ,one very fine ,carrier measured #ca #a_/b inches from tip to tip of wing4 ,birds of this sub-race are too valuable to be flown as carriers4 ,,sub-,,race #b_/;,,ii4 ,,dragons2 ,,persian ,,carriers4 ,the ,english ,dragon differs from the improved ,english ,carrier in being smaller in all its dimensions1 and in having less wattle round the eyes and over the nostrils1 and none on the lower mandible4 ,sir ,w4 ,elliot sent me from ,madras a ,bagdad ,carrier 7sometimes called khandesi71 the name of which shows its ,persian origin3 it would be considered here a very poor ,dragon2 the body was of the size of the rock-pigeon1 with the beak a little longer1 namely1 #a inch from the tip to the feathered base4 ,the skin round the eyes was only slightly wattled1 whilst that over the nostrils was fairly wattled4 ,the ,hon4 ,c4 ,murray1 also1 sent me two ,carriers direct from ,persia2 these had nearly the same character as the ,madras bird1 being about as large as the rock-pigeon1 but the beak in one specimen was as much as #a4ae in length2 the skin over the nostrils was only moderately1 and that round the eyes scarcely at all wattled4 ,,sub-,,race #b_/;,,iii4 ,,bagadotten-,,tauben ,,of ,,neumeister 7,,pavdotten- ,,or ,,hocker- ,,tauben74 ,i owe to the kindness of ,mr4 ,baily1 jun41 a dead specimen of this singular breed imported from ,germany4 ,it is certainly allied to the ,runts2 nevertheless1 from its close affinity with ,carriers1 it will be convenient here to describe it4 ,the beak is long1 and is hooked or bowed downwards in a highly remarkable manner1 as will be seen in figure #bd4;,d4 when ,i treat of the skeleton4 ,the eyes are surrounded by a wide space of bright red skin1 which1 as well as that over the nostrils1 is moderately wattled4 ,the breast-bone is remarkably protuberant1 being abruptly bowed outwards4 ,the feet and tarsi are of great length1 larger than in first-rate ,english ,carriers4 ,the whole bird is of large size1 but in proportion to the size of the body the feathers of the wing and tail are short2 a wild rock-pigeon1 of considerably less size1 had tail-feathers #d4f inches in length1 whereas in the large ,bagadotten these feathers were scarcely over #d4a inches in length4 ,riedel 7#e_/i4 ',die ,taubenzucht' ,ulm #ahbd s4 #db47 remarks that it is a very silent bird4 ,,sub-,,race #b_/;,,iv4 ,,bussorah ,,carrier4 ,two specimens were sent me by ,sir ,w4 ,elliot from ,madras1 one in spirits and the other skinned4 ,the name shows its ,persian origin4 ,it is much valued in ,india1 and is considered as a distinct breed from the ,bagdad ,carrier1 which forms my second sub-race4 ,at first ,i suspected that these two sub- races might have been recently formed by crosses with other breeds1 though the estimation in which they are held renders this improbable2 but in a ,persian treatise 7#e_/aj4 ,this treatise was written by ,sayzid ,mohammed ,musari1 who died in #aggj3 ,i owe to the great kindness of ,sir ,w4 ,elliot a translation of this curious treatise471 believed to have been written about #ajj years ago1 the ,bagdad and ,bussorah breeds are described as distinct4 ,the ,bussorah ,carrier is of about the same size as the wild rock-pigeon4 ,the shape of the beak1 with some little carunculated skin over the nostrils1-- the much elongated eyelids1--the broad mouth measured internally1--the narrow head1--the feet proportionally a little longer than in the rock- pigeon1--and the general appearance1 all show that this bird is an undoubted ,carrier2 yet in one specimen the beak was of exactly the same length as in the rock-pigeon4 ,in the other specimen the beak 7as well as the opening of the nostrils7 was only a very little longer1 viz41 by 4#jh of an inch4 ,although there was a considerable space of bare and slightly carunculated skin round the eyes1 that over the nostrils was only in a slight degree rugose4 ,sir ,w4 ,elliot informs me that in the living bird the eye seems remarkably large and prominent1 and the same fact is noticed in the ,persian treatise2 but the bony orbit is barely larger than that in the rock-pigeon4 ,amongst the several breeds sent to me from ,madras by ,sir ,w4 ,elliot there is a pair of the ,kali ,par1 black birds with the beak slightly elongated1 with the skin over the nostrils rather full1 and with a little naked skin round the eyes4 ,this breed seems more closely allied to the ,carrier than to any other breed1 being nearly intermediate between the ,bussorah ,carrier and the rock-pigeon4 ,the names applied in different parts of ,europe and in ,india to the several kinds of ,carriers all point to ,persia or the surrounding countries as the source of this ,race4 ,and it deserves especial notice that1 even if we neglect the ,kali ,par as of doubtful origin1 we get a series broken by very small steps1 from the rock-pigeon1 through the ,bussorah1 which sometimes has a beak not at all longer than that of the rock-pigeon and with the naked skin round the eyes and over the nostrils very slightly swollen and carunculated1 through the ,bagdad sub-race and ,dragons1 to our improved ,english ,carriers1 which present so marvellous a difference from the rock- pigeon or ,columba livia4 ,,race ,,iii4 ,,runts4 7,,scanderoons3 ,,die ,,florentiner ,,tauben ,,and ,,hinkeltauben ,,of ,,neumeister2 ,,pigeon ,,bagadais1 ,,pigeon ,,romain47 ,beak long1 massive2 body of great size4 ,inextricable confusion reigns in the classification1 affinities1 and naming of ,runts4 ,several characters which are generally pretty constant in other pigeons1 such as the length of the wings1 tail1 legs1 and neck1 and the amount of naked skin round the eyes1 are excessively variable in ,runts4 ,when the naked skin over the nostrils and round the eyes is considerably developed and wattled1 and when the size of body is not very great1 ,runts graduate in so insensible a manner into ,carriers1 that the distinction is quite arbitrary4 ,this fact is likewise shown by the names given to them in different parts of ,europe4 ,nevertheless1 taking the most distinct forms1 at least five sub-races 7some of them including well-marked varieties7 can be distinguished1 which differ in such important points of structure1 that they would be considered as good species in a state of nature4 ,,sub-,,race #c_/;,i4 ,,scanderoon ,,of ,,english ,,writers 7,,die ,,florentiner ,,and ,,hinkeltauben ,,of ,,neumeister74 ,birds of this sub-race1 of which ,i kept one alive and have since seen two others1 differ from the ,bagadotten of ,neumeister only in not having the beak nearly so much curved downwards1 and in the naked skin round the eyes and over the nostrils being hardly at all wattled4 ,nevertheless ,i have felt myself compelled to place the ,bagadotten in ,race ,,ii41 or that of the ,carriers1 and the present bird in ,race ,,iii41 or that of the ,runts4 ,the ,scanderoon has a very short1 narrow1 and elevated tail2 wings extremely short1 so that the first primary feathers were not longer than those of a small tumbler pigeon6 ,neck long1 much bowed2 breast-bone prominent4 ,beak long1 being #a4ae inch from tip to feathered base2 vertically thick2 slightly curved downwards4 ,the skin over the nostrils swollen1 not wattled2 naked skin round the eyes1 broad1 slightly carunculated4 ,legs long2 feet very large4 ,skin of neck bright red1 often showing a naked medial line1 with a naked red patch at the distal end of the radius of the wing4 ,my bird1 as measured from the base of the beak to the root of the tail1 was fully #b inches longer than the rock-pigeon2 yet the tail itself was only #d inches in length1 whereas in the rock-pigeon1 which is a much smaller bird1 the tail is #d #e_/h inches in length4 ,the ,hinkel- or ,florentiner ,taube of ,neumeister 7,table #ac figure #a7 agrees with the above description in all the specified characters 7for the beak is not mentioned71 except that ,neumeister expressly says that the neck is short1 whereas in my ,scanderoon it was remarkably long and bowed2 so that the ,hinkel forms a well-marked variety4 ,,sub-,,race #c_/;,,ii4 ,,pigeon ,,cygne ,,and ,,pigeon ,,bagadais ,,of ,,boitard ,,and ,,corbie 7,,scanderoon ,,of ,,french ,,writers74 ,i kept two of these birds alive1 imported from ,france4 ,they differed from the first sub-race or true ,scanderoon in the much greater length of the wing and tail1 in the beak not being so long1 and in the skin about the head being more carunculated4 ,the skin of the neck is red2 but the naked patches on the wings are absent4 ,one of my birds measured #ch #a_/b inches from tip to tip of wing4 ,by taking the length of the body as the standard of comparison1 the two wings were no less than #e inches longer than those of the rock-pigeon6 ,the tail was #f #a_/d inches in length1 and therefore #b #a_/d inches longer than that of the ,scanderoon1--a bird of nearly the same size4 ,the beak is longer1 thicker1 and broader than in the rock-pigeon1 proportionally with the size of body4 ,the eyelids1 nostrils1 and internal gape of mouth are all proportionally very large1 as in ,carriers4 ,the foot1 from the end of the middle to end of hind toe1 was actually #b4he inches in length1 which is an excess of 4#cb of an inch over the foot of the rock- pigeon1 proportionally to the relative size of the two birds4 ,,sub-,,race #c_/;,,iii4 ,,spanish ,,and ,,roman ,,runts4 ,i am not sure that ,i am right in placing these ,runts in a distinct sub- race2 yet1 if we take well-characterised birds1 there can be no doubt of the propriety of the separation4 ,they are heavy1 massive birds1 with shorter necks1 legs1 and beaks than in the foregoing races4 ,the skin over the nostrils is swollen1 but not carunculated2 the naked skin round the eyes is not very wide1 and only slightly carunculated2 and ,i have seen a fine so-called ,spanish ,runt with hardly any naked skin round the eyes4 ,of the two varieties to be seen in ,england1 one1 which is the rarer1 has very long wings and tail1 and agrees pretty closely with the last sub-race2 the other1 with shorter wings and tail1 is apparently the ,pigeon romain ordinaire of ,boitard and ,corbie4 ,these ,runts are apt to tremble like ,fantails4 ,they are bad flyers4 ,a few years ago ,mr4 ,gulliver 7#e_/aa4 ',poultry ,chronicle' volume #b page #egc47 exhibited a ,runt which weighed #a pound #ad ounces2 and1 as ,i am informed by ,mr4 ,tegetmeier1 two ,runts from the south of ,france were lately exhibited at the ,crystal ,palace1 each of which weighed #b pounds #b #a_/b ounces4 ,a very fine rock-pigeon from the ,shetland ,islands weighed only #ad #a_/b ounces4 ,,sub-,,race #c_/;,,iv4 ,,tronfo ,,of ,,aldrovandi 7,,leghorn ,,runt874 ,in ,aldrovandi's work published in #afjj there is a coarse woodcut of a great ,italian pigeon1 with an elevated tail1 short legs1 massive body1 and with the beak short and thick4 ,i had imagined that this latter character so abnormal in the group1 was merely a false representation from bad drawing2 but ,moore1 in his work published in #agce1 says that he possessed a ,leghorn ,runt of which the beak was very short for so large a bird4 ,in other respects ,moore's bird resembled the first sub-race or ,scanderoon1 for it had a long bowed neck1 long legs1 short beak1 and elevated tail1 and not much wattle about the head4 ,so that ,aldrovandi's and ,moore's birds must have formed distinct varieties1 both of which seem to be now extinct in ,europe4 ,sir ,w4 ,elliot1 however1 informs me that he has seen in ,madras a short-beaked ,runt imported from ,cairo4 ,,sub-,,race #c_/,v4 ,,murassa 7,,adorned ,,pigeon7 ,,of ,,madras4 ,skins of these handsome chequered birds were sent me from ,madras by ,sir ,w4 ,elliot4 ,they are rather larger than the largest rock-pigeon1 with longer and more massive beaks4 ,the skin over the nostrils is rather full and very slightly carunculated1 and they have some naked skin round the eyes2 feet large4 ,this breed is intermediate between the rock-pigeon and a very poor variety of ,runt or ,carrier4 ,from these several descriptions we see that with ,runts1 as with ,carriers1 we have a fine gradation from the rock-pigeon 7with the ,tronfo diverging as a distinct branch7 to our largest and most massive ,runts4 ,but the chain of affinities1 and many points of resemblance1 between ,runts and carriers1 make me believe that these two races have not descended by independent lines from the rock-pigeon1 but from some common parent1 as represented in the ,table1 which had already acquired a moderately long beak with slightly swollen skin over the nostrils1 and with some slightly carunculated naked skin round the eyes4 7,,figure #bj4 ,,english ,,barb47 ,,race ,,iv4 ,,barbs4 7,,indische ,,tauben2 ,,pigeons ,,polonais47 ,beak short1 broad1 deep2 naked skin round the eyes1 broad and carunculated2 skin over nostrils slightly swollen4 ,misled by the extraordinary shortness and form of the beak1 ,i did not at first perceive the near affinity of this ,race to that of ,carriers until the fact was pointed out to me by ,mr4 ,brent4 ,subsequently1 after examining the ,bussorah ,carrier1 ,i saw that no very great amount of modification would be requisite to convert it into a ,barb4 ,this view of the affinity of ,barbs to ,carriers is supported by the analogical difference between the short and long-beaked ,runts2 and still more strongly by the fact1 that1 young ,barbs and ,dragons1 within #bd hours after being hatched1 resemble each other much more closely than do young pigeons of other and equally distinct breeds4 ,at this early age1 the length of beak1 the swollen skin over the rather open nostrils1 the gape of the mouth1 and the size of the feet1 are the same in both2 although these parts afterwards become widely different4 ,we thus see that embryology 7as the comparison of very young animals may perhaps be called7 comes into play in the classification of domestic varieties1 as with species in a state of nature4 ,fanciers1 with some truth1 compare the head and beak of the ,barb to that of a bullfinch4 ,the ,barb1 if found in a state of nature would certainly have been placed in a new genus formed for its reception4 ,the body is a little larger than that of the rock-pigeon1 but the beak is more than 4#b of an inch shorter2 although shorter1 it is both vertically and horizontally thicker4 ,from the outward flexure of the rami of the lower jaw1 the mouth internally is very broad1 in the proportion of 4#f to 4#d to that of the rock-pigeon4 ,the whole head is broad4 ,the skin over the nostril is swollen1 but not carunculated1 except slightly in first-rate birds when old2 whilst the naked skin round the eye is broad and much carunculated4 ,it is sometimes so much developed1 that a bird belonging to ,mr4 ,harrison ,weir could hardly see to pick up food from the ground4 ,the eyelids in one specimen were nearly twice as long as those of the rock-pigeon4 ,the feet are coarse and strong1 but proportionally rather shorter than in the rock- pigeon4 ,the plumage is generally dark and uniform4 ,barbs1 in short1 may be called short-beaked ,carriers1 bearing the same relation to ,carriers that the ,tronfo of ,aldrovandi does to the common ,runt4 ,,group ,,iii4 ,this group is artificial1 and includes a heterogeneous collection of distinct forms4 ,it may be defined by the beak1 in well-characterised specimens of the several races1 being shorter than in the rock-pigeon1 and by the skin round the eyes not being much developed4 7,,figure #ba4 ,,english ,,fantail47 ,,race ,v4-,,fantails4 ,,sub-,,race #e_/;,i4 ,,european ,,fantails 7,,pfauentauben2 ,,trembleurs74 ,tail expanded1 directed upwards1 formed of many feathers2 oil-gland aborted2 body and beak rather short4 ,the normal number of tail-feathers in the genus ,columba is #ab2 but ,fantails have from only #ab 7as has been asserted7 up to1 according to ,,mm4 ,boitard and ,corbie1 #db4 ,i have counted in one of my own birds #cc1 and at ,calcutta ,mr4 ,blyth 7#e_/ab4 ',annals and ,mag4 of ,nat4 ,history' volume #ai #ahdg page #aje47 has counted in an ,,imperfect tail #cd feathers4 ,in ,madras1 as ,i am informed by ,sir ,w4 ,elliot1 #cb is the standard number2 but in ,england number is much less valued than the position and expansion of the tail4 ,the feathers are arranged in an irregular double row2 their permanent fanlike expansion and their upward direction are more remarkable characters than their increased number4 ,the tail is capable of the same movements as in other pigeons1 and can be depressed so as to sweep the ground4 ,it arises from a more expanded basis than in other pigeons2 and in three skeletons there were one or two extra coccygeal vertebrae4 ,i have examined many specimens of various colours from different countries1 and there was no trace of the oil-gland2 this is a curious case of abortion4 7#e_/ac4 ,this gland occurs in most birds2 but ,nitzsch 7in his ',pterylographie' #ahdj page #ee7 states that it is absent in two species of ,columba1 in several species of ,psittacus1 in some species of ,otis1 and in most or all birds of the ,ostrich family4 ,it can hardly be an accidental coincidence that the two species of ,columba1 which are destitute of an oil-gland1 have an unusual number of tail-feathers1 namely #af1 and in this respect resemble ,fantails47 ,the neck is thin and bowed backwards4 ,the breast is broad and protuberant4 ,the feet are small4 ,the carriage of the bird is very different from that of other pigeons2 in good birds the head touches the tail-feathers1 which consequently often become crumpled4 ,they habitually tremble much3 and their necks have an extraordinary1 apparently convulsive1 backward and forward movement4 ,good birds walk in a singular manner1 as if their small feet were stiff4 ,owing to their large tails1 they fly badly on a windy day4 ,the dark- coloured varieties are generally larger than white ,fantails4 ,although between the best and common ,fantails1 now existing in ,england1 there is a vast difference in the position and size of the tail1 in the carriage of the head and neck1 in the convulsive movements of the neck1 in the manner of walking1 and in the breadth of the breast1 the differences so graduate away1 that it is impossible to make more than one sub-race4 ,moore1 however1 an excellent old authority 7#e_/ad4 ,see the two excellent editions published by ,mr4 ,j4,m4 ,eaton in #aheb and #aheh entitled ',a ,treatise on ,fancy ,pigeons4'7 says1 that in #agce there were two sorts of broad-tailed shakers 7i4e4 ,fantails71 one having a neck much longer and more slender than the other2 and ,i am informed by ,mr4 ,b4,p4 ,brent1 that there is an existing ,german ,fantail with a thicker and shorter beak4 ,,sub-,,race #e_/;,,ii4 ,,java ,,fantail4 ,mr4 ,swinhoe sent me from ,amoy1 in ,china1 the skin of a ,fantail belonging to a breed known to have been imported from ,java4 ,it was coloured in a peculiar manner1 unlike any ,european ,fantail2 and1 for a ,fantail1 had a remarkably short beak4 ,although a good bird of the kind1 it had only #ad tail-feathers2 but ,mr4 ,swinhoe has counted in other birds of this breed from #ah to #bd tail-feathers4 ,from a rough sketch sent to me1 it is evident that the tail is not so much expanded or so much upraised as in even second-rate ,european ,fantails4 ,the bird shakes its neck like our ,fantails4 ,it had a well-developed oil-gland4 ,fantails were known in ,india1 as ,we shall hereafter see1 before the year #afjj2 and we may suspect that in the ,java ,fantail we see the breed in its earlier and less improved condition4 7,,figure #bb4 ,,african ,,owl47 ,,race ,,vi4 ,,turbit ,,and ,,owl4 7,,moventauben2 ,,pigeons ,a ,,cravate47 ,feathers divergent along the front of the neck and breast2 beak very short1 vertically rather thick2 oesophagus somewhat enlarged4 ,turbits and ,owls differ from each other slightly in the shape of the head2 the former have a crest1 and the beak is differently curved2 but they may be here conveniently grouped together4 ,these pretty birds1 some of which are very small1 can be recognised at once by the feathers irregularly diverging1 like a frill1 along the front of the neck1 in the same manner1 but in a less degree1 as along the back of the neck in the ,jacobin4 ,they have the remarkable habit of continually and momentarily inflating the upper part of the oesophagus1 which causes a movement in the frill4 ,when the oesophagus of a dead bird is inflated1 it is seen to be larger than in other breeds1 and not so distinctly separated from the crop4 ,the ,pouter inflates both its true crop and oesophagus2 the ,turbit inflates in a much less degree the oesophagus alone4 ,the beak of the ,turbit is very short1 being 4#bh of an inch shorter than that of the rock-pigeon1 proportionally with the size of their bodies2 and in some owls brought by ,mr4 ,e4 ,vernon ,harcourt from ,tunis1 it was even shorter4 ,the beak is vertically thicker1 and perhaps a little broader1 in proportion to that of the rock-pigeon4 ,,race ,,vii4 ,,tumblers4 7,,tummler1 ,,or ,,burzeltauben2 ,,culbutants47 ,during flight1 tumble backwards2 body generally small2 beak generally short1 sometimes excessively short and conical4 ,this race may be divided into four sub-races1 namely1 ,persian1 ,lotan1 ,common1 and short-faced ,tumblers4 ,these sub-races include many varieties which breed true4 ,i have examined eight skeletons of various kinds of ,tumblers3 excepting in one imperfect and doubtful specimen1 the ribs are only seven in number1 whereas the rock-pigeon has eight ribs4 ,,sub-,,race #g_/;,i4 ,,persian ,,tumblers4 ,i received a pair direct from ,persia1 from the ,hon4 ,c4 ,murray4 ,they are rather smaller birds than the wild rock-pigeon1 about the size of the common dovecote pigeon1 white and mottled1 slightly feathered on the feet1 with the beak just perceptibly shorter than in the rock-pigeon4 ,h4,m4 ,consul1 ,mr4 ,keith ,abbott1 informs me that the difference in the length of beak is so slight1 that only practised ,persian fanciers can distinguish these ,tumblers from the common pigeon of the country4 ,he informs me that they fly in flocks high up in the air and tumble well4 ,some of them occasionally appear to become giddy and tumble to the ground1 in which respect they resemble some of our ,tumblers4 ,,sub-,,race #g_/;,,ii4 ,,lotan1 ,,or ,,lowtun3 ,,indian ,,ground ,,tumblers4 ,these birds present one of the most remarkable inherited habits or instincts ever recorded4 ,the specimens sent to me from ,madras by ,sir ,w4 ,elliot are white1 slightly feathered on the feet1 with the feathers on the head reversed2 and they are rather smaller than the rock or dovecote pigeon4 ,the beak is proportionally only slightly shorter and rather thinner than in the rock-pigeon4 ,these birds when gently shaken and placed on the ground immediately begin tumbling head over heels1 and they continue thus to tumble until taken up and soothed1--the ceremony being generally to blow in their faces1 as in recovering a person from a state of hypnotism or mesmerism4 ,it is asserted that they will continue to roll over till they die1 if not taken up4 ,there is abundant evidence with respect to these remarkable peculiarities2 but what makes the case the more worthy of attention is1 that the habit has been inherited since before the year #afjj1 for the breed is distinctly described in the ',ayeen ,akbery4' 7#e_/ae4 ,english translation by ,f4 ,gladwin #dth edition volume #a4 ,the habit of the ,lotan is also described in the ,persian treatise before alluded to1 published about #ajj years ago3 at this date the ,lotans were generally white and crested as at present4 ,mr4 ,blyth describes these birds in ',annals and ,mag4 of ,nat4 ,hist4' volume #ad #ahdg page #ajd2 he says that they may be seen at any of the ,calcutta bird-dealers47 ,mr4 ,evans kept a pair in ,london1 imported by ,captain ,vigne2 and he assures me that he has seen them tumble in the air1 as well as in the manner above described on the ground4 ,sir ,w4 ,elliot1 however1 writes to me from ,madras1 that he is informed that they tumble exclusively on the ground1 or at a very small height above it4 ,he also mentions birds of another sub-variety1 called the ,kalmi ,lotan1 which begin to roll over if only touched on the neck with a rod or wand4 ,,sub-,,race #g_/;,,iii4 ,,common ,,english ,,tumblers4 ,these birds have exactly the same habits as the ,persian ,tumbler1 but tumble better4 ,the ,english bird is rather smaller than the ,persian1 and the beak is plainly shorter4 ,compared with the rock-pigeon1 and proportionally with the size of body1 the beak is from 4#ae to nearly 4#b of an inch shorter1 but it is not thinner4 ,there are several varieties of the common ,tumbler1 namely1 ,baldheads1 ,beards1 and ,dutch ,rollers4 ,i have kept the latter alive2 they have differently shaped heads1 longer necks1 and are feather-footed4 ,they tumble to an extraordinary degree2 as ,mr4 ,brent remarks 7#e_/af4 ',journal of ,horticulture' ,october #bb1 #ahfa page #gf471 ,every few seconds over they go2 one1 two1 or three summersaults at a time4 ,here and there a bird gives a very quick and rapid spin1 revolving like a wheel1 though they sometimes lose their balance1 and make a rather ungraceful fall1 in which they occasionally hurt themselves by striking some object4 ,from ,madras ,i have received several specimens of the common ,tumbler of ,india1 differing slightly from each other in the length of their beaks4 ,mr4 ,brent sent me a dead specimen of a ,house-tumbler 7#e_/ag4 ,see the account of the ,house- tumblers kept at ,glasgow1 in the ',cottage ,gardener' #aheh page #bhe4 ,also ,mr4 ,brent's paper ',journal of ,horticulture' #ahfa page #gf471 which is a ,scotch variety1 not differing in general appearance and form of beak from the common ,tumbler4 ,mr4 ,brent states that these birds generally begin to tumble almost as soon as they can well fly2 at three months old they tumble well1 but still fly strong2 at five or six months they tumble excessively2 and in the second year they mostly give up flying1 on account of their tumbling so much and so close to the ground4 ,some fly round with the flock1 throwing a clean summersault every few yards1 till they are obliged to settle from giddiness and exhaustion4 ,these are called ,air ,tumblers1 and they commonly throw from twenty to thirty summersaults in a minute1 each clear and clean4 ,i have one red cock that ,i have on two or three occasions timed by my watch1 and counted forty summersaults in the minute4 ,others tumble differently4 ,at first they throw a single summersault1 then it is double1 till it becomes a continuous roll1 which puts an end to flying1 for if they fly a few yards over they go1 and roll till they reach the ground4 ,thus ,i had one kill herself1 and another broke his leg4 ,many of them turn over only a few inches from the ground1 and will tumble two or three times in flying across their loft4 ,these are called ,house-tumblers1 from tumbling in the house4 ,the act of tumbling seems to be one over which they have no control1 an involuntary movement which they seem to try to prevent4 ,i have seen a bird sometimes in his struggles fly a yard or two straight upwards1 the impulse forcing him backwards while he struggles to go forwards4 ,if suddenly startled1 or in a strange place1 they seem less able to fly than if quiet in their accustomed loft4 ,these ,house-tumblers differ from the ,lotan or ,ground ,tumbler of ,india1 in not requiring to be shaken in order to begin tumbling4 ,the breed has probably been formed merely by selecting the best common ,tumblers1 though it is possible that they may have been crossed at some former period with ,lotans4 7,,figure #bc4 ,,short-,,faced ,,english ,,tumbler47 ,,sub-,,race #g_/a,v4 ,,short-,,faced ,,tumblers ,these are marvellous birds1 and are the glory and pride of many fanciers4 ,in their extremely short1 sharp1 and conical beaks1 with the skin over the nostrils but little developed1 they almost depart from the type of the ,columbidae4 ,their heads are nearly globular and upright in front1 so that some fanciers say 7#e_/ah4 ,j4,m4 ,eaton ',treatise on ,pigeons' #aheb page #i47 the head should resemble a cherry with a barleycorn stuck in it4 ,these are the smallest kind of pigeons4 ,mr4 ,esquilant possessed a blue ,baldhead1 two years old1 which when alive weighed1 before feeding-time1 only #f ounces #e drs42 two others1 each weighed #g ounces4 ,we have seen that a wild rock- pigeon weighed #ad ounces #b drs41 and a ,runt #cd ounces #d drs4 ,short-faced ,tumblers have a remarkably erect carriage1 with prominent breasts1 drooping wings1 and very small feet4 ,the length of the beak from the tip to the feathered base was in one good bird only 4#d of an inch2 in a wild rock- pigeon it was exactly double this length4 ,as these ,tumblers have shorter bodies than the wild rock-pigeon1 they ought of course to have shorter beaks2 but proportionally with the size of the body1 the beak is 4#bh of an inch too short4 ,so1 again1 the feet of this bird were actually 4#de shorter1 and proportionally 4#ba of an inch shorter1 than the feet of the rock- pigeon4 ,the middle toe has only twelve or thirteen1 instead of fourteen or fifteen scutellae4 ,the primary wing-feathers are not rarely nine instead of ten in number4 ,the improved short-faced ,tumblers have almost lost the power of tumbling2 but there are several authentic accounts of their occasionally tumbling4 ,there are several sub-varieties1 such as ,bald-heads1 ,beards1 ,mottles1 and ,almonds2 the latter are remarkable from not acquiring their perfectly-coloured plumage until they have moulted three or four times4 ,there is good reason to believe that most of these sub-varieties1 some of which breed truly1 have arisen since the publication of ,moore's treatise in #agce4 7#e_/ai4 ,j4,m4 ,eaton ',treatise' edition #aheh page #gf47 ,finally1 in regard to the whole group of ,tumblers1 it is impossible to conceive a more perfect gradation than ,i have now lying before me1 from the rock-pigeon1 through ,persian1 ,lotan1 and common ,tumblers1 up to the marvellous short-faced birds2 which latter1 no ornithologist1 judging from mere external structure1 would place in the same genus with the rock- pigeon4 ,the differences between the successive steps in this series are not greater than those which may be observed between common dovecote-pigeons 7,c4 livia7 brought from different countries4 ,,race ,,viii4 ,,indian ,,frill-,,back4 ,beak very short2 feathers reversed4 ,a specimen of this bird1 in spirits1 was sent to me from ,madras by ,sir ,w4 ,elliot4 ,it is wholly different from the ,frill-back often exhibited in ,england4 ,it is a smallish bird1 about the size of the common ,tumbler1 but has a beak in all its proportions like our short-faced ,tumblers4 ,the beak1 measured from the tip to the feathered base1 was only 4#df of an inch in length4 ,the feathers over the whole body are reversed or curl backwards4 ,had this bird occurred in ,europe1 ,i should have thought it only a monstrous variety of our improved ,tumbler3 but as short-faced ,tumblers are not known in ,india1 ,i think it must rank as a distinct breed4 ,probably this is the breed seen by ,hasselquist in #ageg at ,cairo1 and said to have been imported from ,india4 ,,race ,,ix4 ,,jacobin4 7,,zopf- ,,or ,,perrfickentaube2 ,,nonnain47 ,feathers of the neck forming a hood2 wings and tail long2 beak moderately short4 ,this pigeon can at once be recognised by its hood1 almost enclosing the head and meeting in front of the neck4 ,the hood seems to be merely an exaggeration of the crest of reversed feathers on the back of the head1 which is common to many sub-varieties1 and which in the ,latztaube 7#e_/bj4 ,neumeister ',taubenzucht' tab4 #d4 figure #a47 is in a nearly intermediate state between a hood and a crest4 ,the feathers of the hood are elongated4 ,both the wings and tail are likewise much elongated2 thus the folded wing of the ,jacobin1 though a somewhat smaller bird1 is fully #a #a_/d inch longer than in the rock-pigeon4 ,taking the length of the body without the tail as the standard of comparison1 the folded wing1 proportionally with the wings of the rock-pigeon1 is #b #a_/d inches too long1 and the two wings1 from tip to tip1 #e #a_/d inches too long4 ,in disposition this bird is singularly quiet1 seldom flying or moving about1 as ,bechstein and ,riedel have likewise remarked in ,germany4 7#e_/ba4 ,riedel ',die ,taubenzucht' #ahbd s4 #bf4 ,bechstein ',naturgeschichte ,deutschlands' b4 #d s4 #cf #agie7 ,the latter author also notices the length of the wings and tail4 ,the beak is nearly 4#b of an inch shorter in proportion to the size of the body than in the rock-pigeon2 but the internal gape of the mouth is considerably wider4 ,,group ,,iv4 ,the birds of this group may be characterised by their resemblance in all important points of structure1 especially in the beak1 to the rock-pigeon4 ,the ,trumpeter forms the only well-marked race4 ,of the numerous other sub- races and varieties ,i shall specify only a few of the most distinct1 which ,i have myself seen and kept alive4 ,,race ,x4 ,,trumpeter4 7,,trommeltaube2 ,,pigeon ,,tambour1 ,,glouglou47 ,a tuft of feathers at the base of the beak curling forward2 feet much feathered2 voice very peculiar2 size exceeding that of the rock-pigeon4 ,this is a well-marked breed1 with a peculiar voice1 wholly unlike that of any other pigeon4 ,the coo is rapidly repeated1 and is continued for several minutes2 hence their name of ,trumpeters4 ,they are also characterised by a tuft of elongated feathers1 which curls forward over the base of the beak1 and which is possessed by no other breed4 ,their feet are so heavily feathered1 that they almost appear like little wings4 ,they are larger birds than the rock-pigeon1 but their beak is of very nearly the same proportional size4 ,their feet are rather small4 ,this breed was perfectly characterised in ,moore's time1 in #agce4 ,mr4 ,brent says that two varieties exist1 which differ in size4 ,,race ,,xi4 ,,scarcely ,,differing ,,in ,,structure ,,from ,,the ,,wild ,,columba ,,livia4 ,,sub-,,race #aa_/;,i4 ,,laughers4 ,size less than the ,rock-pigeon2 voice very peculiar4 ,as this bird agrees in nearly all its proportions with the rock-pigeon1 though of smaller size1 ,i should not have thought it worthy of mention1 had it not been for its peculiar voice--a character supposed seldom to vary with birds4 ,although the voice of the ,laugher is very different from that of the ,trumpeter1 yet one of my ,trumpeters used to utter a single note like that of the ,laugher4 ,i have kept two varieties of ,laughers1 which differed only in one variety being turn-crowned2 the smooth-headed kind1 for which ,i am indebted to the kindness of ,mr4 ,brent1 besides its peculiar note1 used to coo in a singular and pleasing manner1 which1 independently1 struck both ,mr4 ,brent and myself as resembling that of the turtle-dove4 ,both varieties come from ,arabia4 ,this breed was known by ,moore in #agce4 ,a pigeon which seems to say ,yak-roo is mentioned in #afjj in the ',ayeen ,akbery' and is probably the same breed4 ,sir ,w4 ,elliot has also sent me from ,madras a pigeon called ,yahui1 said to have come from ,mecca1 which does not differ in appearance from the ,laugher2 it has a deep melancholy voice1 like ,yahu1 often repeated4 ,yahu1 yahu1 means ,oh ,god1 oh ,god2 and ,sayzid ,mohammed ,musari1 in the treatise written about #ajj years ago1 says that these birds are not flown1 because they repeat the name of the most high ,god4 ,mr4 ,keith ,abbott1 however1 informs me that the common pigeon is called ,yahoo in ,persia4 ,,sub-,,race #aa_/;,,ii4 ,,common ,,frill-,,back 7,,die ,,strupptaube74 ,beak rather longer than in the rock-pigeon2 feathers reversed 4 ,this is a considerably larger bird than the rock-pigeon1 and with the beak1 proportionally with the size of body1 a little 7viz4 by 4#jd of an inch7 longer4 ,the feathers1 especially on the wing-coverts1 have their points curled upwards or back-wards4 ,,sub-,,race #aa_/;,,iii4 ,,nuns 7,,pigeons ,,coquilles74 ,these elegant birds are smaller than the rock-pigeon4 ,the beak is actually #a4g1 and proportionally with the size of the body 4#a of an inch shorter than in the rock-pigeons1 although of the same thickness4 ,in young birds the scutellae on the tarsi and toes are generally of a leaden-black colour2 and this is a remarkable character 7though observed in a lesser degree in some other breeds71 as the colour of the legs in the adult state is subject to very little variation in any breed4 ,i have on two or three occasions counted thirteen or fourteen feathers in the tail2 this likewise occurs in the barely distinct breed called ,helmets4 ,nuns are symmetrically coloured1 with the head1 primary wing-feathers1 tail1 and tail-coverts of the same colour1 namely1 black or red1 and with the rest of the body white4 ,this breed has retained the same character since ,aldrovandi wrote in #afjj4 ,i have received from ,madras almost similarly coloured birds4 ,,sub-,,race #aa_/;,,iv4 ,,spots 7,,die ,,blasstauben2 ,,pigeons ,,heurtes74 ,these birds are a very little larger than the rock-pigeon1 with the beak a trace smaller in all its dimensions1 and with the feet decidedly smaller4 ,they are symmetrically coloured1 with a spot on the forehead1 with the tail and tail-coverts of the same colour1 the rest of the body being white4 ,this breed existed in #afgf 7#e_/bb4 ,willughby ',ornithology' edited by ,ray472 and in #agce ,moore remarks that they breed truly1 as is the case at the present day4 ,,sub-,,race #aa_/,v4 ,,swallows4 ,these birds1 as measured from tip to tip of wing1 or from the end of the beak to the end of the tail1 exceed in size the rock-pigeon2 but their bodies are much less bulky2 their feet and legs are likewise smaller4 ,the beak is of about the same length1 but rather slighter4 ,altogether their general appearance is considerably different from that of the rock-pigeon4 ,their heads and wings are of the same colour1 the rest of the body being white4 ,their flight is said to be peculiar4 ,this seems to be a modern breed1 which1 however1 originated before the year #agie in ,germany1 for it is described by ,bechstein4 ,besides the several breeds now described1 three or four other very distinct kinds existed lately1 or perhaps still exist1 in ,germany and ,france4 ,firstly1 the ,karmeliten1 or carme pigeon1 which ,i have not seen2 it is described as of small size1 with very short legs1 and with an extremely short beak4 ,secondly1 the ,finnikin1 which is now extinct in ,england4 ,it had1 according to ,moore's 7#e_/bc4 ,j4,m4 ,eaton's edition 7#aheh7 of ,moore page #ih47 treatise1 published in #agce1 a tuft of feathers on the hinder part of the head1 which ran down its back not unlike a horse's mane4 ,when it is salacious it rises over the hen and turns round three or four times1 flapping its wings1 then reverses and turns as many times the other way4 ,the ,turner1 on the other hand1 when it plays to the female1 turns only one way4 ,whether these extraordinary statements may be trusted ,i know not2 but the inheritance of any habit may be believed1 after what we have seen with respect to the ,ground-tumbler of ,india4 ,,mm4 ,boitard and ,corbie describe a pigeon 7#e_/bd4 ,pigeon pattu plongeur4 ',les ,pigeons' etc4 page #afe47 which has the singular habit of sailing for a considerable time through the air1 without flapping its wings1 like a bird of prey4 ,the confusion is inextricable1 from the time of ,aldrovandi in #afjj to the present day1 in the accounts published of the ,draijers1 ,smiters1 ,finnikins1 ,turners1 ,claquers1 etc41 which are all remarkable from their manner of flight4 ,mr4 ,brent informs me that he has seen one of these breeds in ,germany with its wing-feathers injured from having been so often struck together but he did not see it flying4 ,an old stuffed specimen of a ,finnikin in the ,british ,museum presents no well-marked character4 ,thirdly1 a singular pigeon with a forked tail is mentioned in some treatises2 and as ,bechstein 7#e_/be4 ',naturgeschichte ,deutschlands' b4 #d s4 #dg47 briefly describes and figures this bird1 with a tail having completely the structure of that of the house-swallow1 it must once have existed1 for ,bechstein was far too good a naturalist to have confounded any distinct species with the domestic pigeon4 ,lastly1 an extraordinary pigeon imported from ,belgium has lately been exhibited at the ,philoperisteron ,society in ,london 7#e_/bf4 ,mr4 ,w4,b4 ,tegetmeier ',journal of ,horticulture' ,january #bj1 #ahfc page #eh471 which conjoins the colour of an archangel with the head of an owl or barb1 its most striking peculiarity being the extraordinary length of the tail and wing-feathers1 the latter crossing beyond the tail1 and giving to the bird the appearance of a gigantic swift 7,cypselus71 or long-winged hawk4 ,mr4 ,tegetmeier informs me that this bird weighed only #aj ounces1 but in length was #ae #a_/b inches from tip to beak to end of tail1 and #cb #a_/b inches from tip to tip of wing2 now the wild rock-pigeon weighs #ad #a_/b ounces1 and measures from tip to beak to end of tail #ae inches1 and from tip to tip of wing only #bf #c_/d inches4 ,i have now described all the domestic pigeons known to me1 and have added a few others on reliable authority4 ,i have classed them under four ,groups1 in order to mark their affinities and degrees of difference2 but the third group is artificial4 ,the kinds examined by me form eleven races1 which include several sub-races2 and even these latter present differences that would certainly have been thought of specific value if observed in a state of nature4 ,the sub-races likewise include many strictly inherited varieties2 so that altogether there must exist1 as previously remarked1 above #aej kinds which can be distinguished1 though generally by characters of extremely slight importance4 ,many of the genera of the ,columbidae1 admitted by ornithologists1 do not differ in any great degree from each other2 taking this into consideration1 there can be no doubt that several of the most strongly characterised domestic forms1 if found wild1 would have been placed in at least five new genera4 ,thus a new genus would have been formed for the reception of the improved ,english ,pouter3 a second genus for ,carriers and ,runts2 and this would have been a wide or comprehensive genus1 for it would have admitted common ,spanish ,runts without any wattle1 short-beaked ,runts like the ,tronfo1 and the improved ,english ,carrier3 a third genus would have been formed for the ,barb3 a fourth for the ,fantail3 and lastly1 a fifth for the short beaked1 not- wattled pigeons1 such as ,turbits and short-faced ,tumblers4 ,the remaining domestic forms might have been included1 in the same genus with the wild rock-pigeon4 ,,individual ,,variability2 ,,variations ,,of ,a ,,remarkable ,,nature4 ,the differences which we have as yet considered are characteristic of distinct breeds2 but there are other differences1 either confined to individual birds1 or often observed in certain breeds but not characteristic of them4 ,these individual differences are of importance1 as they might in most cases be secured and accumulated by man's power of selection and thus an existing breed might be greatly modified or a new one formed4 ,fanciers notice and select only those slight differences which are externally visible2 but the whole organisation is so tied together by correlation of growth1 that a change in one part is frequently accompanied by other changes4 ,for our purpose1 modifications of all kinds are equally important1 and if affecting a part which does not commonly vary1 are of more importance than a modification in some conspicuous part4 ,at the present day any visible deviation of character in a well-established breed is rejected as a blemish2 but it by no means follows that at an early period1 before well-marked breeds had been formed1 such deviations would have been rejected2 on the contrary1 they would have been eagerly preserved as presenting a novelty1 and would then have been slowly augmented1 as we shall hereafter more clearly see1 by the process of unconscious selection4 ,i have made numerous measurements of the various parts of the body in the several breeds1 and have hardly ever found them quite the same in birds of the same breed1--the differences being greater than we commonly meet with in wild species within the same district4 ,to begin with the primary feathers of the wing and tail2 but ,i must first mention1 as some readers may not be aware of the fact1 that the number of the primary wing and tail- feathers in wild birds is generally constant1 and characterises1 not only whole genera1 but even whole families4 ,when the tail-feathers are unusually numerous1 as for instance in the swan1 they are apt to be variable in number2 but this does not apply to the several species and genera of the ,columbidae1 which never 7as far as ,i can hear7 have less than twelve or more than sixteen tail-feathers2 and these numbers characterise1 with rare exception1 whole sub-families4 7#e_/bg4 ',coup-d'oeil sur ,l',ordre des ,pigeons' par ,c4,l4 ,bonaparte ',comptes ,rendus' #ahed-ee4 ,mr4 ,blyth in ',annals of ,nat4 ,hist4' volume #ai #ahdg page #da1 mentions1 as a very singular fact1 that of the two species of ,ectopistes1 which are nearly allied to each other1 one should have fourteen tail-feathers1 while the other1 the passenger pigeon of ,north ,america1 should possess but the usual number--twelve47 ,the wild rock-pigeon has twelve tail-feathers4 ,with ,fantails1 as we have seen1 the number varies from fourteen to forty-two4 ,in two young birds in the same nest ,i counted twenty-two and twenty-seven feathers4 ,pouters are very liable to have additional tail-feathers1 and ,i have seen on several occasions fourteen or fifteen in my own birds4 ,mr4 ,bult had a specimen1 examined by ,mr4 ,yarrell1 with seventeen tail-feathers4 ,i had a ,nun with thirteen1 and another with fourteen tail-feathers2 and in a ,helmet1 a breed barely distinguishable from the ,nun1 ,i have counted fifteen1 and have heard of other such instances4 ,on the other hand1 ,mr4 ,brent possessed a ,dragon1 which during its whole life never had more than ten tail-feathers2 and one of my ,dragons1 descended from ,mr4 ,brent's1 had only eleven4 ,i have seen a ,bald-head ,tumbler with only ten2 and ,mr4 ,brent had an ,air-,tumbler with the same number1 but another with fourteen tail-feathers4 ,two of these latter ,tumblers1 bred by ,mr4 ,brent1 were remarkable1--one from having the two central tail-feathers a little divergent1 and the other from having the two outer feathers longer by three-eighths of an inch than the others2 so that in both cases the tail exhibited a tendency1 but in different ways1 to become forked4 ,and this shows us how a swallow-tailed breed1 like that described by ,bechstein1 might have been formed by careful selection4 ,with respect to the primary wing-feathers1 the number in the ,columbidae1 as far as ,i can find out1 is always nine or ten4 ,in the rock-pigeon it is ten2 but ,i have seen no less than eight short-faced ,tumblers with only nine primaries1 and the occurrence of this number has been noticed by fanciers1 owing to ten primaries of a white colour being one of the points in ,short- faced ,bald-head-,tumblers4 ,mr4 ,brent1 however1 had an ,air-,tumbler 7not short-faced7 which had in both wings eleven primaries4 ,mr4 ,corker1 the eminent breeder of prize ,carriers1 assures me that some of his birds had eleven primaries in both wings4 ,i have seen eleven in one wing in two ,pouters4 ,i have been assured by three fanciers that they have seen twelve in ,scanderoons2 but as ,neumeister asserts that in the allied ,florence ,runt the middle flight-feather is often double1 the number twelve may have been caused by two of the ten primaries having each two shafts to a single feather4 ,the secondary wing-feathers are difficult to count1 but the number seems to vary from twelve to fifteen4 ,the length of the wing and tail relatively to the body1 and of the wings to the tail1 certainly varies2 ,i have especially noticed this in ,jacobins4 ,in ,mr4 ,bult's magnificent collection of ,pouters1 the wings and tail varied greatly in length2 and were sometimes so much elongated that the birds could hardly play upright4 ,in the relative length of the few first primaries ,i have observed only a slight degree of variability4 ,mr4 ,brent informs me that he has observed the shape of the first feather to vary very slightly4 ,but the variation in these latter points is extremely slight compared with the differences which may be observed in the natural species of the ,columbidae4 ,in the beak ,i have seen very considerable differences in birds of the same breed1 as in carefully bred ,jacobins and ,trumpeters4 ,in ,carriers there is often a conspicuous difference in the degree of attenuation and curvature of the beak4 ,so it is indeed in many breeds3 thus ,i had two strains of black ,barbs1 which evidently differed in the curvature of the upper mandible4 ,in width of mouth ,i have found a great difference in two ,swallows4 ,in ,fantails of first-rate merit ,i have seen some birds with much longer and thinner necks than in others4 ,other analogous facts could be given4 ,we have seen that the oil-gland is aborted in all ,fantails 7with the exception of the sub-race from ,java71 and1 ,i may add1 so hereditary is this tendency to abortion1 that some1 although not all1 of the mongrels which ,i reared from the ,fantail and ,pouter had no oil-gland2 in one ,swallow out of many which ,i have examined1 and in two ,nuns1 there was no oil-gland4 ,the number of the scutellae on the toes often varies in the same breed1 and sometimes even differs on the two feet of the same individual2 the ,shetland rock-pigeon has fifteen on the middle1 and six on the hinder toe2 whereas ,i have seen a ,runt with sixteen on the middle and eight on the hind toe2 and a short-faced ,tumbler with only twelve and five on these same toes4 ,the rock-pigeon has no sensible amount of skin between its toes2 but ,i possessed a ,spot and a ,nun with the skin extending for a space of a quarter of an inch from the fork1 between the two ,,inner toes4 ,on the other hand1 as will hereafter be more fully shown1 pigeons with feathered feet very generally have the bases of their ,,outer toes connected by skin4 ,i had a red ,tumbler1 which had a coo unlike that of its fellows1 approaching in tone to that of the ,laugher3 this bird had the habit1 to a degree which ,i never saw equalled in any other pigeon1 of often walking with its wings raised and arched in an elegant-manner4 ,i need say nothing on the great variability1 in almost every breed1 in size of body1 in colour1 in the feathering of the feet1 and in the feathers on the back of the head being reversed4 ,but ,i may mention a remarkable ,tumbler 7#e_/bh4 ,described and figured in the ',poultry ,chronicle' volume #c #ahee page #hb47 exhibited at the ,crystal ,palace1 which had an irregular crest of feathers on its head1 somewhat like the tuft on the head of the ,polish fowl4 ,mr4 ,bult reared a hen ,jacobin with the feathers on the thigh so long as to reach the ground1 and a cock having1 but in a lesser degree1 the same peculiarity3 from these two birds he bred others similarly characterised1 which were exhibited at the ,philoperisteron ,soc4 ,i bred a mongrel pigeon which had fibrous feathers1 and the wing and tail-feathers so short and imperfect that the bird could not fly even a foot in height4 ,there are many singular and inherited peculiarities in the plumage of pigeons3 thus ,almond-,tumblers do not acquire their perfect mottled feathers until they have moulted three or four times3 the ,kite ,tumbler is at first brindled black and red with a barred appearance1 but when it throws its nest feathers it becomes almost black1 generally with a bluish tail1 and a reddish colour on the inner webs of the primary wing-feathers4 7#e_/bi4 ',the ,pigeon ,book' by ,mr4 ,b4,p4 ,brent #ahei page #da47 ,neumeister describes a breed of a black colour with white bars on the wing and a white crescent-shaped mark on the breast2 these marks are generally rusty-red before the first moult1 but after the third or fourth moult they undergo a change2 the wing- feathers and the crown of the head likewise then become white or grey4 7#e_/cj4 ',die staarhalsige ,taube4 ,das ,ganze1 etc4' s4 #ba tab4 #a4 figure #d47 ,it is an important fact1 and ,i believe there is hardly an exception to the rule1 that the especial characters for which each breed is valued are eminently variable3 thus1 in the ,fantail1 the number and direction of the tail-feathers1 the carriage of the body1 and the degree of trembling are all highly variable points2 in ,pouters1 the degree to which they pout1 and the shape of their inflated crops2 in the ,carrier1 the length1 narrowness1 and curvature of the beak1 and the amount of wattle2 in ,short-faced ,tumblers1 the shortness of the beak1 the prominence of the forehead1 and general carriage 7#e_/ca4 ',a ,treatise on the ,almond-,tumbler' by ,j4,m4 ,eaton #aheb page #h et passim471 and in the ,almond-,tumbler the colour of the plumage2 in common ,tumblers1 the manner of tumbling2 in the ,barb1 the breadth and shortness of the beak and the amount of eye-wattle2 in ,runts1 the size of body2 in ,turbits the frill2 and lastly in ,trumpeters1 the cooing1 as well as the size of the tuft of feathers over the nostrils4 ,these1 which are the distinctive and selected characters of the several breeds1 are all eminently variable4 ,there is another interesting fact with respect to the characters of the several breeds1 namely1 that they are often most strongly displayed in the male bird4 ,in ,carriers1 when the males and females are exhibited in separate pens1 the wattle is plainly seen to be much more developed in the males1 though ,i have seen a hen ,carrier belonging to ,mr4 ,haynes heavily wattled4 ,mr4 ,tegetmeier informs me that1 in twenty ,barbs in ,mr4 ,p4,h4 ,jones's possession1 the males had generally the largest eye-wattles2 ,mr4 ,esquilant also believes in this rule1 but ,mr4 ,h4 ,weir1 a first-rate judge1 entertains some doubt on the subject4 ,male ,pouters distend their crops to a much greater size than do the females2 ,i have1 however1 seen a hen in the possession of ,mr4 ,evans which pouted excellently2 but this is an unusual circumstance4 ,mr4 ,harrison ,weir1 a successful breeder of prize ,fantails1 informs me that his male birds often have a greater number of tail-feathers than the females4 ,mr4 ,eaton asserts 7#e_/cb4 ',a ,treatise1 etc4' page #aj47 that if a cock and hen ,tumbler were of equal merit1 the hen would be worth double the money2 and as pigeons always pair1 so that an equal number of both sexes is necessary for reproduction1 this seems to show that high merit is rarer in the female than in the male4 ,in the development of the frill in ,turbits1 of the hood in ,jacobins1 of the tuft in ,trumpeters1 of tumbling in ,tumblers1 there is no difference between the males and females4 ,i may here add a rather different case1 namely1 the existence in ,france 7#e_/cc4 ,boitard and ,corbie ',les ,pigeons' etc4 #ahbd page #agc47 of a wine- coloured variety of the ,pouter1 in which the male is generally chequered with black1 whilst the female is never so chequered4 ,dr4 ,chapuis also remarks 7#e_/cd4 ',le ,pigeon ,voyageur ,belge' #ahfe page #hg4 ,i have given in my ',descent of ,man' #fth edition page #dff some curious cases1 on the authority of ,mr4 ,tegetmeier1 of silver-coloured 7i4e4 very pale blue7 birds being generally females1 and of the ease with which a race thus characterised could be produced4 ,bonizzi 7see ',variazioni dei ,columbi domestici' ,padova #ahgc7 states that certain coloured spots are often different in the two sexes1 and the certain tints are commoner in females than in male pigeons47 that in certain light-coloured pigeons the males have their feathers striated with black1 and these striae increase in size at each moult1 so that the male ultimately becomes spotted with black4 ,with ,carriers1 the wattle1 both on the beak and round the eyes1 and with ,barbs that round the eyes1 goes on increasing with age4 ,this augmentation of character with advancing age1 and more especially the difference between the males and females in the above-mentioned several respects1 are remarkable facts1 for there is no sensible difference at any age between the two sexes in the aboriginal rock-pigeon2 and not often any strongly marked difference throughout the family of the ,columbidae4 7#e_/ce4 ,prof4 ,a4 ,newton ',proc4 ,zoolog4 ,soc4' #ahfe page #gaf remarks that he knows no species which present any remarkable sexual distinction2 but ,mr4 ,wallace informs me1 that in the sub-family of the ,treronidae the sexes often differ considerably in colour4 ,see also on sexual differences in the ,columbidae1 ,gould ',handbook to the ,birds of ,australia' volume #b pages #aji-adi47 ,,osteological ,,characters4 ,in the skeletons of the various breeds there is much variability2 and though certain differences occur frequently1 and others rarely1 in certain breeds1 yet none can be said to be absolutely characteristic of any breed4 ,considering that strongly-marked domestic races have been formed chiefly by man's selection1 we ought not to expect to find great and constant differences in the skeleton2 for fanciers neither see1 nor do they care for1 modifications of structure in the internal framework4 ,nor ought we to expect changes in the skeletons from changed habits of life2 as every facility is given to the most distinct breeds to follow the same habits1 and the much modified races are never allowed to wander abroad and procure their own food in various ways4 ,moreover1 ,i find1 on comparing the skeletons of ,columba livia1 oenas1 palumbus1 and turtur1 which are ranked by all systematists in two or three distinct though allied genera1 that the differences are extremely slight1 certainly less than between the skeletons of some of the most distinct domestic breeds4 ,how far the skeleton of the wild rock-pigeon is constant ,i have had no means of judging1 as ,i have examined only two4 7,,figure #bd4 ,,skulls ,,of ,,pigeons viewed laterally1 of natural size4 ,a4 ,wild ,rock-pigeon1 ,columba livia4 ,b4 ,short-faced ,tumbler4 ,c4 ,english ,carrier4 ,d4 ,bagadotten ,carrier47 ,,skull4 ,the individual bones1 especially those at the base1 do not differ in shape4 ,but the whole skull1 in its proportions1 outline1 and relative direction of the bones1 differs greatly in some of the breeds1 as may be seen by comparing the figures of 7,a7 the wild rock-pigeon1 7,b7 the ,short-faced ,tumbler1 7,c7 the ,english ,carrier1 and 7,d7 the ,bagadotten ,carrier 7of ,neumeister71 all drawn of the natural size and viewed laterally4 ,in the ,carrier1 besides the elongation of the bones of the face1 the space between the orbits is proportionally a little narrower than in the rock-pigeon4 ,in the ,bagadotten the upper mandible is remarkably arched1 and the premaxillary bones are proportionally broader4 ,in the ,short-faced ,tumbler the skull is more globular3 all the bones of the face are much shortened1 and the front of the skull and descending nasal bones are almost perpendicular3 the maxillo-jugal arch and premaxillary bones form an almost straight line2 the space between the prominent edges of the eye-orbits is depressed4 ,in the ,barb the premaxillary bones are much shortened1 and their anterior portion is thicker than in the rock-pigeon1 as is the lower part of the nasal bone4 ,in two ,nuns the ascending branches of the premaxillaries1 near their tips1 were somewhat attenuated1 and in these birds1 as well as in some others1 for instance in the ,spot1 the occipital crest over the foramen was considerably more prominent than in the rock- pigeon4 7,,figure #be4 ,,lower ,,jaws1 seen from above1 of natural size4 ,a4 ,rock-pigeon4 ,b4 ,runt4 ,c4 ,barb4 ,,figure #bf4 ,,skull ,,of ,,runt1 seen from above1 of natural size1 showing the reflexed margin of the distal portion of the lower jaw4 ,,figure #bg4 ,,lateral ,,view ,,of ,,jaws1 of natural size4 ,a4 ,rock-pigeon4 ,b4 ,shortfaced ,tumbler4 ,c4 ,bagadotten ,carrier47 ,in the lower jaw1 the articular surface is proportionably smaller in many breeds than in the rock-pigeon2 and the vertical diameter1 more especially of the outer part of the articular surface1 is considerably shorter4 ,may not this be accounted for by the lessened use of the jaws1 owing to nutritious food having been given during a long period to all highly improved pigeons8 ,in ,runts1 ,carriers1 and ,barbs 7and in a lesser degree in several breeds71 the whole side of the jaw near the articular end is bent inwards in a highly remarkable manner2 and the superior margin of the ramus1 beyond the middle1 is reflexed in an equally remarkable manner1 as may be seen in figure #be1 in comparison with the jaw of the rock-pigeon4 ,this reflection of the upper margin of the lower jaw is plainly connected with the singularly wide gape of the mouth1 as has been described in ,runts1 ,carriers1 and ,barbs4 ,the reflection is well shown in figure #bf of the head of a ,runt seen from above2 here a wide open space may be observed on each side1 between the edges of the lower jaw and of the premaxillary bones4 ,in the rock-pigeon1 and in several domestic breeds1 the edges of the lower jaw on each side come close up to the premaxillary bones1 so that no open space is left4 ,the degree of downward curvature of the distal half of the lower jaw also differs to an extraordinary degree in some breeds1 as may be seen in the drawings 7figure #bg ,a7 of the rock-pigeon1 7,b7 of the ,short-faced ,tumbler1 and 7,c7 of the ,bagadotten ,carrier of ,neumeister4 ,in some ,runts the symphysis of the lower jaw is remarkably solid4 ,no one would readily have believed that jaws differing in the several above-specified points so greatly could have belonged to the same species4 ,,vertebrae4 ,all the breeds have twelve cervical vertebrae4 7#e_/cf4 ,i am not sure that ,i have designated the different kinds of vertebra correctly3 but ,i observe that different anatomists follow in this respect different rules1 and1 as ,i use the same terms in the comparison of all the skeletons1 this1 ,i hope1 will not signify47 ,but in a ,bussorah ,carrier from ,india the twelfth vertebra carried a small rib1 a quarter of an inch in length1 with a perfect double articulation4 ,the ,,dorsal ,,vertebrae are always eight4 ,in the rock-pigeon all eight bear ribs2 the eighth rib being very thin1 and the seventh having no process4 ,in ,pouters all the ribs are extremely broad1 eight bear ribs2 the eighth rib being very thin and the seventh having no process4 ,in ,pouters all the ribs are extremely broad1 and1 in three out of four skeletons examined by me1 the eighth rib was twice or even thrice as broad as in the rock-pigeon2 and the seventh pair had distinct processes4 ,in many breeds there are only seven ribs1 as in seven out of eight skeletons of various ,tumblers1 and in several skeletons of ,fantails1 ,turbits and ,nuns4 ,in all these breeds the seventh pair was very small1 and was destitute of processes1 in which respect it differed from the same rib in the rock- pigeon4 ,in one ,tumbler1 and in the ,bussorah ,carrier1 even the sixth pair had no process4 ,the hypapophysis of the second dorsal vertebra varies much in development2 being sometimes 7as in several1 but not all ,tumblers7 nearly as prominent as that of the third dorsal vertebra2 and the two hypapophyses together tend to form an ossified arch4 ,the development of the arch1 formed by the hypapophyses of the third and fourth dorsal vertebrae1 also varies considerably1 as does the size of the hypapophysis of the fifth vertebra4 ,the rock-pigeon has twelve sacral vertebrae2 but these vary in number1 relative size1 and distinctness1 in the different breeds4 ,in ,pouters1 with their elongated bodies1 there are thirteen or even fourteen1 and1 as we shall immediately see1 an additional number of caudal vertebrae4 ,in ,runts and ,carriers there is generally the proper number1 namely twelve2 but in one ,runt1 and in the ,bussorah ,carrier1 there were only eleven4 ,in ,tumblers there are either eleven1 or twelve1 or thirteen sacral vertebrae4 ,the ,,caudal ,,vertebrae are seven in number in the rock-pigeon4 ,in ,fantails1 which have their tails so largely developed1 there are eight or nine1 and apparently in one case ten1 and they are a little longer than in the rock- pigeon1 and their shape varies considerably4 ,pouters1 also1 have eight or nine caudal vertebrae4 ,i have seen eight in a ,nun and ,jacobin4 ,tumblers1 though such small birds1 always have the normal number seven2 as have ,carriers1 with one exception1 in which there were only six4 ,the following table will serve as a summary1 and will show the most remarkable deviations in the number of the vertebra and ribs which ,i have observed3-- ,,table #d4 ,,number ,,of ,,vertebrae ,,and ,,ribs ,,in3 #a4 ,,the ,,rock ,,pigeon4 ,cervical ,vertebrae3 #ab4 ,dorsal ,vertebrae3 #h4 ,dorsal ,ribs3 #h4 ,the #fth pair with processes1 the #gth pair without a process4 ,sacral ,vertebrae3 #ab4 ,caudal ,vertebrae3 #g4 ,total3 #ci4 #b4 ,,pouter1 ,,from ,,mr4 ,,bult4 ,cervical ,vertebrae3 #ab4 ,dorsal ,vertebrae3 #h4 ,dorsal ,ribs3 #h4 ,the #fth and #gth pair with processes4 ,sacral ,vertebrae3 #ad4 ,caudal ,vertebrae3 #h or #i4 ,total3 #db or #dc4 #c4 ,,tumbler1 ,,dutch ,,roller4 ,cervical ,vertebrae3 #ab4 ,dorsal ,vertebrae3 #h4 ,dorsal ,ribs3 #g4 ,the #fth and #gth pair without processes4 ,sacral ,vertebrae3 #aa4 ,caudal ,vertebrae3 #g4 ,total3 #ch4 #d4 ,,bussorah ,,carrier4 ,cervical ,vertebrae3 #ab4 ,the twelfth bore a small rib4 ,dorsal ,vertebrae3 #h4 ,dorsal ,ribs3 #g4 ,the #fth and #gth pair without processes4 ,sacral ,vertebrae3 #aa4 ,caudal ,vertebrae3 #g4 ,total3 #ch4 ,the ,,pelvis differs very little in any breed4 ,the anterior margin of the ilium1 however1 is sometimes a little more equally rounded on both sides than in the rock-pigeon4 ,the ischium is also frequently rather more elongated4 ,the obturator-notch is sometimes1 as in many ,tumblers1 less developed than in the rock-pigeon4 ,the ridges on the ilium are very prominent in most ,runts4 7,,figure #bh4 ,,scapulae1 of natural size4 ,a4 ,rock-pigeon4 ,b4 ,short-faced ,tumbler47 ,in the bones of the extremities ,i could detect no difference1 except in their proportional lengths2 for instance1 the metatarsus in a ,pouter was #a4fe inch1 and in a ,short-faced ,tumbler only 4#ie in length2 and this is a greater difference than would naturally follow from their differently-sized bodies2 but long legs in the ,pouter1 and small feet in the ,tumbler1 are selected points4 ,in some ,pouters the ,,scapula is rather straighter1 and in some ,tumblers it is straighter1 with the apex less elongated1 than in the rock-pigeon3 in figure #bh1 the scapula of the rock-pigeon 7,a71 and of a short-faced ,tumbler 7,b71 are given4 ,the processes at the summit of the ,,coracoid1 which receive the extremities of the furculum1 form a more perfect cavity in some ,tumblers than in the rock-pigeon3 in ,pouters these processes are larger and differently shaped1 and the exterior angle of the extremity of the coracoid1 which is articulated to the sternum1 is squarer4 7,,figure #bi4 ,,furcula1 of natural size4 ,a4 ,short-faced ,tumbler4 ,b and ,c ,fantail4 ,d4 ,pouter47 ,the two arms of the ,,furculum in ,pouters diverge less1 proportionally to their length1 than in the rock-pigeon2 and the symphysis is more solid and pointed4 ,in ,fantails the degree of divergence of the two arms varies in a remarkable manner4 ,in figure #bi1 ,b and ,c represent the furcula of two ,fantails2 and it will be seen that the divergence in ,b is rather less even than in the furculum of the short-faced1 small-sized ,tumbler 7,a71 whereas the divergence in ,c equals that in a rock-pigeon1 or in the ,pouter 7,d71 though the latter is a much larger bird4 ,the extremities of the furculum1 where articulated to the coracoids1 vary considerably in outline4 ,in the ,,sternum the differences in form are slight1 except in the size and outline of the perforations1 which1 both in the larger and lesser sized breeds1 are sometimes small4 ,these perforations1 also1 are sometimes either nearly circular1 or elongated as is often the case with ,carriers4 ,the posterior perforations occasionally are not complete1 being left open posteriorly4 ,the marginal apophyses forming the anterior perforations vary greatly in development4 ,the degree of convexity of the posterior part of the sternum differs much1 being sometimes almost perfectly flat4 ,the manubrium is rather more prominent in some individuals than in others1 and the pore immediately under it varies greatly in size4 ,,correlation ,,of ,,growth4 ,by this term ,i mean that the whole organisation is so connected1 that when one part varies1 other parts vary2 but which of two correlated variations ought to be looked at as the cause and which as the effect1 or whether both result from some common cause1 we can seldom or never tell4 ,the point of interest for us is that1 when fanciers1 by the continued selection of slight variations1 have largely modified one part1 they often unintentionally produce other modifications4 ,for instance1 the beak is readily acted on by selection1 and1 with its increased or diminished length1 the tongue increases or diminishes1 but not in due proportion2 for1 in a ,barb and ,short-faced ,tumbler1 both of which have very short beaks1 the tongue1 taking the rock-pigeon as the standard of comparison1 was proportionally not shortened enough1 whilst in two ,carriers and in a ,runt the tongue1 proportionally with the beak1 was not lengthened enough1 thus1 in a first-rate ,english ,carrier1 in which the beak from the tip to the feathered base was exactly thrice as long as in a first-rate ,short-faced ,tumbler1 the tongue was only a little more than twice as long4 ,but the tongue varies in length independently of the beak3 thus in a ,carrier with a beak #a4b inch in length1 the tongue was 4#fg in length3 whilst in a ,runt which equalled the ,carrier in length of body and in stretch of wings from tip to tip1 the beak was 4#ib whilst the tongue was 4#gc of an inch in length1 so that the tongue was actually longer than in the carrier with its long beak4 ,the tongue of the ,runt was also very broad at the root4 ,of two ,runts1 one had its beak longer by 4#bc of an inch1 whilst its tongue was shorter by 4#ad than in the other4 ,with the increased or diminished length of the beak the length of the slit forming the external orifice of the nostrils varies1 but not in due proportion1 for1 taking the rock-pigeon as the standard1 the orifice in a ,short-faced ,tumbler was not shortened in due proportion with its very short beak4 ,on the other hand 7and this could not have been anticipated71 the orifice in three ,english ,carriers1 in the ,bagadotten ,carrier1 and in a ,runt 7pigeon cygne71 was longer by above the tenth of an inch than would follow from the length of the beak proportionally with that of the rock-pigeon4 ,in one ,carrier the orifice of the nostrils was thrice as long as in the rock- pigeon1 though in body and length of beak this bird was not nearly double the size of the rock-pigeon4 ,this greatly increased length of the orifice of the nostrils seems to stand partly in correlation with the enlargement of the wattled skin on the upper mandible and over the nostrils2 and this is a character which is selected by fanciers4 ,so again1 the broad1 naked1 and wattled skin round the eyes of ,carriers and ,barbs is a selected character2 and in obvious correlation with this1 the eyelids1 measured longitudinally1 are proportionally more than double the length of those of the rock-pigeon4 ,the great difference 7see figure #bg7 in the curvature of the lower jaw in the rock-pigeon1 the ,tumbler1 and ,bagadotten ,carrier1 stands in obvious relation to the curvature of the upper jaw1 and more especially to the angle formed by the maxillo-jugal arch with the premaxillary bones4 ,but in ,carriers1 ,runts1 and ,barbs the singular reflexion of the upper margin of the middle part of the lower jaw 7see figure #be7 is not strictly correlated with the width or divergence 7as may be clearly seen in figure #bf7 of the premaxillary bones1 but with the breadth of the horny and soft parts of the upper mandible1 which are always overlapped by the edges of the lower mandible4 ,in ,pouters1 the elongation of the body is a selected character1 and the ribs1 as we have seen1 have generally become very broad1 with the seventh pair furnished with processes2 the sacral and caudal vertebrae have been augmented in number2 the sternum has likewise increased in length 7but not in the depth of the crest7 by 4#d of an inch more than would follow from the greater bulk of the body in comparison with that of the rock-pigeon4 ,in ,fantails1 the length and number of the caudal vertebrae have increased4 ,hence1 during the gradual progress of variation and selection1 the internal bony framework and the external shape of the body have been1 to a certain extent1 modified in a correlated manner4 ,although the wings and tail often vary in length independently of each other1 it is scarcely possible to doubt that they generally tend to become elongated or shortened in correlation4 ,this is well seen in ,jacobins1 and still more plainly in ,runts1 some varieties of which have their wings and tail of great length1 whilst others have both very short4 ,with ,jacobins1 the remarkable length of the tail and wing-feathers is not a character which is intentionally selected by fanciers2 but fanciers have been trying for centuries1 at least since the year #afjj1 to increase the length of the reversed feathers on the neck1 so that the hood may more completely enclose the head2 and it may be suspected that the increased length of the wing and tail-feathers stand in correlation with the increased length of the neck- feathers4 ,short-faced ,tumblers have short wings in nearly due proportion with the reduced size of their bodies2 but it is remarkable1 seeing that the number of the primary wing-feathers is a constant character in most birds1 that these ,tumblers generally have only nine instead of ten primaries4 ,i have myself observed this in eight birds2 and the ,original ,columbarian ,society 7#e_/cg4 ,j4,m4 ,eaton ',treatise' edition #aheh page #gh47 reduced the standard for ,bald-head ,tumblers from ten to nine white flight- feathers1 thinking it unfair that a bird which had only nine feathers should be disqualified for a prize because it had not ten ,,white flight- feathers4 ,on the other hand1 in ,carriers and ,runts1 which have large bodies and long wings1 eleven primary feathers have occasionally been observed4 ,mr4 ,tegetmeier has informed me of a curious and inexplicable case of correlation1 namely1 that young pigeons of all breeds which when mature become white1 yellow1 silver 7i4e41 extremely pale blue71 or dun-coloured1 are born almost naked2 whereas pigeons of other colours are born well- clothed with down4 ,mr4 ,esquilant1 however1 has observed that young dun ,carriers are not so bare as young dun ,barbs and ,tumblers4 ,mr4 ,tegetmeier has seen two young birds in the same nest1 produced from differently coloured parents1 which differed greatly in the degree to which they were at first clothed with down4 ,i have observed another case of correlation which at first sight appears quite inexplicable1 but on which1 as we shall see in a future chapter1 some light can be thrown by the law of homologous parts varying in the same manner4 ,the case is1 that1 when the feet are much feathered1 the roots of the feathers are connected by a web of skin1 and apparently in correlation with this the two outer toes become connected for a considerable space by skin4 ,i have observed this in very many specimens of ,pouters1 ,trumpeters1 ,swallows1 ,roller-tumblers 7likewise observed in this breed by ,mr4 ,brent71 and in a lesser degree in other feather-footed pigeons4 ,the feet of the smaller and larger breeds are of course much smaller or larger than those of the rock-pigeon2 but the scutellae or scales covering the toes and tarsi have not only decreased or increased in size1 but likewise in number4 ,to give a single instance1 ,i have counted eight scutellae on the hind toe of a ,runt1 and only five on that of a ,short-faced ,tumbler4 ,with birds in a state of nature the number of the scutellae on the feet is usually a constant character4 ,the length of the feet and the length of the beak apparently stand in correlation2 but as disuse apparently has affected the size of the feet1 this case may come under the following discussion4 ,,on ,,the ,,effects ,,of ,,disuse4 ,in the following discussion on the relative proportions of the feet1 sternum1 furculum1 scapulae1 and wings1 ,i may premise1 in order to give some confidence to the reader1 that all my measurements were made in the same manner1 and that they were made without the least intention of applying them to the following purpose4 ,,table #e4;,i4 ,,pigeons ,,with ,,their ,,beaks ,,generally ,,shorter ,,than ,,that ,,of ,,the ,,rock-,,pigeon1 ,,proportionally ,,to ,,the ,,size ,,of ,,their ,,bodies4 ,column #a4 ,name of ,breed4 ,column #b4 ,actual length of ,feet 7inches74 ,column #c4 ,difference between actual and calculated length of feet1 in proportion to length of feet and size of body in the ,rock-pigeon4 ,column #c;a4 ,too short by 7inches74 ,column #c;b4 ,too long by 7inches74 #a4 #b4 #c;a4 #c;b4 ,wild rock-pigeon 7mean measurement74 #b4jb ,short-faced ,tumbler1 bald-head4 #a4eg #j4aa 44 ,short-faced ,tumbler1 almond4 #a4fj #j4af 44 ,tumbler1 red magpie4 #a4ge #j4ai 44 ,tumbler1 red common 7by standard to end of tail74 #a4he #j4jg 44 ,tumbler1 common bald-head4 #a4he #j4ah 44 ,tumbler1 roller4 #a4hj #j4jf 44 ,turbit4 #a4ge #j4ag 44 ,turbit4 #a4hj #j4ja 44 ,turbit4 #a4hd #j4ae 44 ,jacobin4 #a4ij #j4jb 44 ,trumpeter1 white4 #b4jb #j4jf 44 ,trumpeter1 mottled4 #a4ie #j4ah 44 ,fantail 7by standard to end of tail74 #a4he #j4ae 44 ,fantail 7by standard to end of tail74 #a4ie #j4ae 44 ,fantail crested var4 ,ditto4 #a4ie #j4j #j4j ,indian ,frill-back ,ditto4 #a4h,o #j4ai 44 ,english ,frill-back4 #b4aj #j4jc 44 ,nun4 #a4hb #j4jb 44 ,laugher4 #a4fe #j4af 44 ,barb4 #b4jj #j4jc 44 ,barb4 #b4jj 44 #j4jc ,spot4 #a4ij #j4jb 44 ,spot4 #a4ij #j4jg 44 ,swallow1 red4 #a4he #j4ah 44 ,swallow1 blue4 #b4jj 44 #j4jc ,pouter4 #b4db 44 #j4aa ,pouter1 ,german4 #b4cj 44 #j4ji ,bussorah ,carrier4 #b4ag 44 #j4ji ,number of specimens4 #bh #bb #e ,i measured most of the birds which came into my possession1 from the feathered ,,base of the beak 7the length of beak itself being so variable7 to the end of the tail1 and to the oil-gland1 but unfortunately 7except in a few cases7 not to the root of the tail2 ,i measured each bird from the extreme tip to tip of wing2 and the length of the terminal folded part of the wing1 from the extremity of the primaries to the joint of the radius4 ,i measured the feet without the claws1 from the end of the middle toe to the end of the hind toe2 and the tarsus and middle toe together4 ,i have taken in every case the mean measurement of two wild rock-pigeons from the ,shetland ,islands1 as the standard of comparison4 ,the following table shows the actual length of the feet in each bird2 and the difference between the length which the feet ought to have had according to the size of body of each1 in comparison with the size of body and length of feet of the rock- pigeon1 calculated 7with a few specified exceptions7 by the standard of the length of the body from the base of the beak to the oil-gland4 ,i have preferred this standard1 owing to the variability of the length of tail4 ,but ,i have made similar calculations1 taking as the standard the length from tip to tip of wing1 and likewise in most cases from the base of the beak to the end of the tail2 and the result has always been closely similar4 ,to give an example3 the first bird in the table1 being a ,short- faced ,tumbler1 is much smaller than the rock-pigeon1 and would naturally have shorter feet2 but it is found on calculation to have feet too short by 4#aa of an inch1 in comparison with the feet of the rock-pigeon1 relatively to the size of the body in these two birds1 as measured from the base of beak to the oil-gland4 ,so again1 when this same ,tumbler and the rock-pigeon were compared by the length of their wings1 or by the extreme length of their bodies1 the feet of the ,tumbler were likewise found to be too short in very nearly the same proportion4 ,i am well aware that the measurements pretend to greater accuracy than is possible1 but it was less trouble to write down the actual measurements given by the compasses in each case than an approximation4 ,,table #e4;,,ii4 ,,pigeons ,,with ,,their ,,beaks ,,longer ,,than ,,that ,,of ,,the ,,rock-,,pigeon1 ,,proportionally ,,to ,,the ,,size ,,of ,,their ,,bodies4 ,column #a4 ,name of ,breed4 ,column #b4 ,actual length of ,feet 7inches74 ,column #c4 ,difference between actual and calculated length of feet1 in proportion to length of feet and size of body in the ,rock-pigeon4 ,column #c;a4 ,too short by 7inches74 ,column #c;b4 ,too long by 7inches74 #a4 #b4 #c;a4 #c;b4 ,wild rock-pigeon 7mean measurement74 #b4jb ,carrier4 #b4fj 44 #j4ca ,carrier4 #b4fj 44 #j4be ,carrier4 #b4dj 44 #j4ba ,carrier1 ,dragon4 #b4be 44 #j4jf ,bagadotten ,carrier4 #b4hj 44 #j4ef ,scanderoon1 white4 #b4hj 44 #j4cg ,scanderoon1 ,pigeon cygne4 #b4he 44 #j4bi ,runt4 #b4ge 44 #j4bg ,number of specimens4 #h 44 #h ,in these two tables 7,tables #e4;,i4and #e4;,,ii47 we see in the first column the actual length of the feet in thirty-six birds belonging to various breeds1 and in the two other columns we see by how much the feet are too short or too long1 according to the size of bird1 in comparison with the rock- pigeon4 ,in the first table twenty-two specimens have their feet too short1 on an average by a little above the tenth of an inch 7viz4 4#ajg72 and five specimens have their feet on an average a very little too long1 namely1 by 4#jg of an inch4 ,but some of these latter cases can be explained2 for instance1 with ,pouters the legs and feet are selected for length1 and thus any natural tendency to a diminution in the length of the feet will have been counteracted4 ,in the ,swallow and ,barb1 when the calculation was made on any standard of comparison besides the one used 7viz4 length of body from base of beak to oil-gland71 the feet were found to be too small4 ,in the second table we have eight birds1 with their beaks much longer than in the rock-pigeon1 both actually and proportionally with the size of body1 and their feet are in an equally marked manner longer1 namely1 in proportion1 on an average by 4#bi of an inch4 ,i should here state that in ,table #e4;,i4 there are a few partial exceptions to the beak being proportionally shorter than in the rock-pigeon3 thus the beak of the ,english ,frill-back is just perceptibly longer1 and that of the ,bussorah ,carrier of the same length or slightly longer1 than in the rock-pigeon4 ,the beaks of ,spots1 ,swallows1 and ,laughers are only a very little shorter1 or of the same proportional length1 but slenderer4 ,nevertheless1 these two tables1 taken conjointly1 indicate pretty plainly some kind of correlation between the length of the beak and the size of the feet4 ,breeders of cattle and horses believe that there is an analogous connection between the length of the limbs and head2 they assert that a race-horse with the head of a dray-horse1 or a grey-hound with the head of a bulldog1 would be a monstrous production4 ,as fancy pigeons are generally kept in small aviaries1 and are abundantly supplied with food1 they must walk about much less than the wild rock-pigeon2 and it may be admitted as highly probable that the reduction in the size of the feet in the twenty-two birds in the first table has been caused by disuse 7#e_/ch4 ,in an analogous1 but converse1 manner1 certain natural groups of the ,columbidae1 from being more terrestrial in their habits than other allied groups1 have larger feet4 ,see ,prince ,bonaparte ',coup d'oeil sur l',ordre des ,pigeons4'71 and that this reduction has acted by correlation on the beaks of the great majority of the birds in ,table #e4;,i4 ,when1 on the other hand1 the beak has been much elongated by the continued selection of successive slight increments of length1 the feet by correlation have likewise become much elongated in comparison with those of the wild rock-pigeon1 notwithstanding their lessened use4 ,as ,i had taken measures from the end of the middle toe to the heel of the tarsus in the rock-pigeon and in the above thirty-six birds1 ,i have made calculations analogous with those above given1 and the result is the same-- namely1 that in the short-beaked breeds1 with equally few exceptions as in the former case1 the middle toe conjointly with the tarsus has decreased in length2 whereas in the long-beaked breeds it has increased in length1 though not quite so uniformly as in the former case1 for the leg1 in some varieties of the ,runt varies much in length4 ,,length ,,of ,,sternum4 ,as fancy pigeons are generally confined in aviaries of moderate size1 and as even when not confined they do not search for their own food1 they must during many generations have used their wings incomparably less than the wild rock-pigeon4 ,hence it seemed to me probable that all the parts of the skeleton subservient to flight would be found to be reduced in size4 ,with respect to the sternum1 ,i have carefully measured its extreme length in twelve birds of different breeds1 and in two wild rock-pigeons from the ,shetland ,islands4 ,for the proportional comparison ,i have tried three standards of measurement1 with all twelve birds namely1 the length from the base of the beak to the oil-gland1 to the end of the tail1 and from the extreme tip to tip of wings4 ,the result has been in each case nearly the same1 the sternum being invariably found to be shorter than in the wild rock-pigeon4 ,i will give only a single table1 as calculated by the standard from the base of the beak to the oil-gland2 for the result in this case is nearly the mean between the results obtained by the two other standards4 ,,table #e4;,,iii4 ,,length ,,of ,,sternum4 ,column #a4 ,name of ,breed4 ,column #b4 ,actual ,length in ,inches4 ,column #c4 ,too short by 7inches74 #a4 #b4 #c4 ,wild ,rock-pigeon4 #b4ee ,pied ,scanderoon4 #b4hj #j4fj ,bagadotten ,carrier4 #b4hj #j4ag ,dragon4 #b4de #j4da ,carrier4 #b4ge #j4ce ,short-faced ,tumbler4 #b4je #j4bh ,barb4 #b4ce #j4cd ,nun4 #b4bg #j4ae ,german ,pouter4 #b4cf #j4ed ,jacobin4 #b4cc #j4bb ,english ,frill-back4 #b4dj #j4dc ,swallow4 #b4de #j4ag ,this table 7,table #e4;,,iii47 shows that in these twelve breeds the sternum is of an average one-third of an inch 7exactly 4#ccb7 shorter than in the rock- pigeon1 proportionally with the size of their bodies2 so that the sternum has been reduced by between one-seventh and one-eighth of its entire length2 and this is a considerable reduction4 ,i have also measured in twenty-one birds1 including the above dozen1 the prominence of the crest of the sternum relatively to its length1 independently of the size of the body4 ,in two of the twenty-one birds the crest was prominent in the same relative degree as in the rock-pigeon2 in seven it was more prominent2 but in five out of these seven1 namely1 in a ,fantail1 two ,scanderoons1 and two ,english ,carriers1 this greater prominence may to a certain extent be explained1 as a prominent breast is admired and selected by fanciers2 in the remaining twelve birds the prominence was less4 ,hence it follows that the crest exhibits a slight1 though uncertain1 tendency to be reduced in prominence in a greater degree than does the length of the sternum relatively to the size of body1 in comparison with the rock-pigeon4 ,i have measured the length of the scapula in nine different large and small-sized breeds1 and in all the scapula is proportionally shorter 7taking the same standard as before7 than in the wild rock-pigeon4 ,the reduction in length on an average is very nearly one-fifth of an inch1 or about one-ninth of the length of the scapula in the rock-pigeon4 ,the arms of the furcula in all the specimens which ,i compared1 diverged less1 proportionally with the size of body1 than in the rock-pigeon2 and the whole furculum was proportionally shorter4 ,thus in a ,runt1 which measured from tip to tip of wings #ch #a_/b inches1 the furculum was only a very little longer 7with the arms hardly more divergent7 than in a rock- pigeon which measured from tip to tip #bf #a_/b inches4 ,in a ,barb1 which in all its measurements was a little larger than the same rock-pigeon1 the furculum was a quarter of an inch shorter4 ,in a ,pouter1 the furculum had not been lengthened proportionally with the increased length of the body4 ,in a ,short-faced ,tumbler1 which measured from tip to tip of wings #bd inches1 therefore only #b #a_/b inches less than the rock-pigeon1 the furculum was barely two-thirds of the length of that of the rock-pigeon4 ,we thus clearly see that the sternum1 scapula1 and furculum are all reduced in proportional length2 but when we turn to the wings we find what at first appears a wholly different and unexpected result4 ,i may here remark that ,i have not picked out specimens1 but have used every measurement made by me4 ,taking the length from the base of beak to the end of the tail as the standard of comparison1 ,i find that1 out of thirty-five birds of various breeds1 twenty-five have wings of greater1 and ten have them of less proportional length1 than in the rock-pigeon4 ,but from the frequently correlated length of the tail and wing-feathers1 it is better to take as the standard of comparison the length from the base of the beak to the oil- gland2 and by this standard1 out of twenty-six of the same birds which had been thus measured1 twenty-one had wings too long1 and only five had them too short4 ,in the twenty-one birds the wings exceeded in length those of the rock-pigeon1 on an average1 by #a #a_/c inch2 whilst in the five birds they were less in length by only 4#h of an inch4 ,as ,i was much surprised that the wings of closely confined birds should thus so frequently have been increased in length1 it occurred to me that it might be solely due to the greater length of the wing-feathers2 for this certainly is the case with the ,jacobin1 which has wings of unusual length4 ,as in almost every case ,i had measured the folded wings1 ,i subtracted the length of this terminal part from that of the expanded wings1 and thus ,i obtained1 with a moderate degree of accuracy1 the length of the wings from the ends of the two radii1 answering from wrist to wrist in our arms4 ,the wings1 thus measured in the same twenty-five birds1 now gave a widely different result2 for they were proportionally with those of the rock-pigeon too short in seventeen birds1 and in only eight too long4 ,of these eight birds1 five were long-beaked 7#e_/ci4 ,it perhaps deserves notice that besides these five birds two of the eight were ,barbs1 which1 as ,i have shown1 must be classed in the same group with the long-beaked ,carriers and ,runts4 ,barbs may properly be called short-beaked ,carriers4 ,it would1 therefore1 appear as if1 during the reduction of their beaks1 their wings had retained a little of that excess of length which is characteristic of their nearest relations and progenitors471 and this fact perhaps indicates that there is some correlation of the length of the beak with the length of the bones of the wings1 in the same manner as with that of the feet and tarsi4 ,the shortening of the humerus and radius in the seventeen birds may probably be attributed to disuse1 as in the case of the scapula and furculum to which the wing-bones are attached2--the lengthening of the wing-feathers1 and consequently the expansion of the wings from tip to tip1 being1 on the other hand1 as completely independent of use and disuse as is the growth of the hair or wool on our long-haired dogs or long-woolled sheep4 ,to sum up3 we may confidently admit that the length of the sternum1 and frequently the prominence of its crest1 the length of the scapula and furculum1 have all been reduced in size in comparison with the same parts in the rock-pigeon4 ,and ,i presume that this may be attributed to disuse or lessened exercise4 ,the wings1 as measured from the ends of the radii1 have likewise been generally reduced in length2 but1 owing to the increased growth of the wing-feathers1 the wings1 from tip to tip1 are commonly longer than in the rock-pigeon4 ,the feet1 as well as the tarsi conjointly with the middle toe1 have likewise in most cases become reduced2 and this it is probable has been caused by their lessened use2 but the existence of some sort of correlation between the feet and beak is shown more plainly than the effects of disuse4 ,we have also some faint indication of a similar correlation between the main bones of the wing and the beak4 ,,summary ,,on ,,the ,,points ,,of ,,difference ,,between ,,the ,,several ,,domestic ,,races1 ,,and ,,between ,,the ,,individual ,,birds4 ,the beak1 together with the bones of the face1 differ remarkably in length1 breadth1 shape1 and curvature4 ,the skull differs in shape1 and greatly in the angle formed by the union of the pre-maxillary1 nasal1 and maxillo- jugal bones4 ,the curvature of the lower jaw and the reflection of its upper margin1 as well as the gape of the mouth1 differ in a highly remarkable manner4 ,the tongue varies much in length1 both independently and in correlation with the length of the beak4 ,the development of the naked1 wattled skin over the nostrils and round the eyes varies in an extreme degree4 ,the eyelids and the external orifices of the nostrils vary in length1 and are to a certain extent correlated with the degree of development of the wattle4 ,the size and form of the oesophagus and crop1 and their capacity for inflation1 differ immensely4 ,the length of the neck varies4 ,with the varying shape of the body1 the breadth and number of the ribs1 the presence of processes1 the number of the sacral vertebrae1 and the length of the sternum1 all vary4 ,the number and size of the coccygeal vertebrae vary1 apparently in correlation with the increased size of the tail4 ,the size and shape of the perforations in the sternum1 and the size and divergence of the arms of the furculum1 differ4 ,the oil-gland varies in development1 and is sometimes quite aborted4 ,the direction and length of certain feathers have been much modified1 as in the hood of the ,jacobin and the frill of the ,turbit4 ,the wing and tail-feathers generally vary in length together1 but sometimes independently of each other and of the size of the body4 ,the number and position of the tail-feather vary to an unparalleled degree4 ,the primary and secondary wing-feathers occasionally vary in number1 apparently in correlation with the length of the wing4 ,the length of the leg and the size of the feet1 and1 in connection with the latter1 the number of the scutellae1 all vary4 ,a web of skin sometimes connects the bases of the two inner toes1 and almost invariably the two outer toes when the feet are feathered4 ,the size of the body differs greatly3 a ,runt has been known to weigh more than five times as much as a ,short-faced ,tumbler4 ,the eggs differ in size and shape4 ,according to ,parmentier 7#e_/dj4 ,temminck ',hist4 ,nat4 ,gen4 des ,pigeons et des ,gallinaces' tome #a #ahac page #agj471 some races use much straw in building their nests1 and others use little2 but ,i cannot hear of any recent corroboration of this statement4 ,the length of time required for hatching the eggs is uniform in all the breeds4 ,the period at which the characteristic plumage of some breeds is acquired1 and at which certain changes of colour supervene1 differs4 ,the degree to which the young birds are clothed with down when first hatched is different1 and is correlated in a singular manner with the colour of the plumage4 ,the manner of flight1 and certain inherited movements1 such as clapping the wings1 tumbling either in the air or on the ground1 and the manner of courting the female1 present the most singular differences4 ,in disposition the several races differ4 ,some races are very silent2 others coo in a highly peculiar manner4 ,although many different races have kept true in character during several centuries1 as we shall hereafter more fully see1 yet there is far more individual variability in the most constant breeds than in birds in a state of nature4 ,there is hardly any exception to the rule that those characters vary most which are now most valued and attended to by fanciers1 and which consequently are now being improved by continued selection4 ,this is indirectly admitted by fanciers when they complain that it is much more difficult to breed high fancy pigeons up to the proper standard of excellence than the so-called toy pigeons1 which differ from each other merely in colour2 for particular colours when once acquired are not liable to continued improvement or augmentation4 ,some characters become attached1 from quite unknown causes1 more strongly to the male than to the female sex2 so that we have in certain races1 a tendency towards the appearance of secondary sexual characters 7#e_/da4 ,this term was used by ,john ,hunter for such differences in structure between the males and females1 as are not directly connected with the act of reproduction1 as the tail of the peacock1 the horns of deer1 etc47 of which the aboriginal rock-pigeon displays not a trace4 ,,chapter #a4,,vi4 ,,pigeons--continued4 ,,on ,,the ,,aboriginal ,,parent-,,stock ,,of ,,the ,,several ,,domestic ,,races4 ,,habits ,,of ,,life4 ,,wild ,,races ,,of ,,the ,,rock-,,pigeon4 ,,dovecote-,,pigeons4 ,,proofs ,,of ,,the ,,descent ,,of ,,the ,,several ,,races ,,from ,,columba ,,livia4 ,,fertility ,,of ,,the ,,races ,,when ,,crossed4 ,,reversion ,,to ,,the ,,plumage ,,of ,,the ,,wild ,,rock-,,pigeon4 ,,circumstances ,,favourable ,,to ,,the ,,formation ,,of ,,the ,,races4 ,,antiquity ,,and ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,principal ,,races4 ,,manner ,,of ,,their ,,formation4 ,,selection4 ,,unconscious ,,selection4 ,,care ,,taken ,,by ,,fanciers ,,in ,,selecting ,,their ,,birds4 ,,slightly ,,different ,,strains ,,gradually ,,change ,,into ,,well-,,marked ,,breeds4 ,,extinction ,,of ,,intermediate ,,forms4 ,,certain ,,breeds ,,remain ,,permanent1 ,,whilst ,,others ,,change4 ,,summary4 ,the differences described in the last chapter between the eleven chief domestic races and between individual birds of the same race1 would be of little significance1 if they had not all descended from a single wild stock4 ,the question of their origin is therefore of fundamental importance1 and must be discussed at considerable length4 ,no one will think this superfluous who considers the great amount of difference between the races1 who knows how ancient many of them are1 and how truly they breed at the present day4 ,fanciers almost unanimously believe that the different races are descended from several wild stocks1 whereas most naturalists believe that all are descended from the ,columba livia or rock-pigeon4 ,temminck 7#f_/a4 ,temminck ',hist4 ,nat4 ,gen4 des ,pigeons' etc4 tome #a page #aia47 has well observed1 and ,mr4 ,gould has made the same remark to me1 that the aboriginal parent must have been a species which roosted and built its nest on rocks2 and ,i may add that it must have been a social bird4 ,for all the domestic races are highly social1 and none are known to build or habitually to roost on trees4 ,the awkward manner in which some pigeons1 kept by me in a summer-house near an old walnut-tree1 occasionally alighted on the barer branches1 was evident4 7#f_/b4 ,i have heard through ,sir ,c4 ,lyell from ,miss ,buckley1 that some half-bred ,carriers kept during many years near ,london regularly settled by day on some adjoining trees1 and1 after being disturbed in their loft by their young being taken1 roosted on them at night47 ,nevertheless1 ,mr4 ,r4 ,scot ,skirving informs me that he often saw crowds of pigeons in ,upper ,egypt settling on low trees1 but not on palms1 in preference to alighting on the mud hovels of the natives4 ,in ,india ,mr4 ,blyth 7#f_/c4 ',annals and ,mag4 of ,nat4 ,hist4' #bnd series volume #bj #aheg page #eji2 and in a late volume of the ',journal of the ,asiatic ,society4'7 has been assured that the wild ,c4 livia1 var4 intermedia1 sometimes roosts in trees4 ,i may here give a curious instance of compulsion leading to changed habits3 the banks of the ,nile above lat4 #bh deg #cj' are perpendicular for a long distance1 so that when the river is full the pigeons cannot alight on the shore to drink1 and ,mr4 ,skirving repeatedly saw whole flocks settle on the water1 and drink whilst they floated down the stream4 ,these flocks seen from a distance resembled flocks of gulls on the surface of the sea4 ,if any domestic race had descended from a species which was not social1 or which built its nest and roosted in trees 7#f_/d4 ,in works written on the pigeon by fanciers ,i have sometimes observed the mistaken belief expressed that the species which naturalists called ground-pigeons 7in contradistinction to arboreal pigeons7 do not perch and build on trees4 ,in these same works by fanciers wild species resembling the chief domestic races are often said to exist in various parts of the world2 but such species are quite unknown to naturalists47 the sharp eyes of fanciers would assuredly have detected some vestige of so different an aboriginal habit4 ,for we have reason to believe that aboriginal habits are long retained under domestication4 ,thus with the common ass we see signs of its original desert life in its strong dislike to cross the smallest stream of water1 and in its pleasure in rolling in the dust4 ,the same strong dislike to cross a stream is common to the camel1 which has been domesticated from a very ancient period4 ,young pigs1 though so tame1 sometimes squat when frightened1 and thus try to conceal themselves even on an open and bare place4 ,young turkeys1 and occasionally even young fowls1 when the hen gives the danger-cry1 run away and try to hide themselves1 like young partridges or pheasants1 in order that their mother may take flight1 of which she has lost the power4 ,the musk-duck 7,cairina moschata7 in its native country often perches and roosts on trees 7#f_/e4 ,sir ,r4 ,schomburgk in ',journal ,r4 ,geograph4 ,soc4' volume #ac #ahdd page #cb471 and our domesticated musk-ducks1 though such sluggish birds1 are fond of perching on the tops of barns1 walls1 etc41 and1 if allowed to spend the night in the hen-house1 the female will generally go to roost by the side of the hens1 but the drake is too heavy to mount thither with ease4 7#f_/f4 ,rev4 ,e4,s4 ,dixon ',ornamental ,poultry' #ahdh pages #fc1 #ff47 ,we know that the dog1 however well and regularly fed1 often buries1 like the fox1 any superfluous food2 and we see him turning round and round on a carpet1 as if to trample down grass to form a bed2 we see him on bare pavements scratching backwards as if to throw earth over his excrement1 although1 as ,i believe1 this is never effected even where there is earth4 ,in the delight with which lambs and kids crowd together and frisk on the smallest hillock1 we see a vestige of their former alpine habits4 ,we have therefore good reason to believe that all the domestic races of the pigeon are descended either from some one or from several species which both roosted and built their nests on rocks1 and were social in disposition4 ,as only five or six wild species have these habits1 and make any near approach in structure to the domesticated pigeon1 ,i will enumerate them4 ,firstly1 the ,columba leuconota resembles certain domestic varieties in its plumage1 with the one marked and never-failing difference of a white band which crosses the tail at some distance from the extremity4 ,this species1 moreover1 inhabits the ,himalaya1 close to the limit of perpetual snow2 and therefore1 as ,mr4 ,blyth has remarked1 is not likely to have been the parent of our domestic breeds1 which thrive in the hottest countries4 ,secondly1 the ,c4 rupestris1 of ,central ,asia1 which is intermediate 7#f_/g4 ',proc4 ,zoolog4 ,soc4' #ahei page #djj47 between the ,c4 leuconota and livia2 but has nearly the same coloured tail as the former species4 ,thirdly1 the ,columba littoralis builds and roosts1 according to ,temminck1 on rocks in the ,malayan archipelago2 it is white1 excepting parts of the wing and the tip of the tail1 which are black2 its legs are livid-coloured1 and this is a character not observed in any adult domestic pigeon2 but ,i need not have mentioned this species or the closely-allied ,c4 luctuosa1 as they in fact belong to the genus ,carpophaga4 ,fourthly1 ,columba guinea1 which ranges from ,guinea 7#f_/h4 ,temminck ',hist4 ,nat4 ,gen4 des ,pigeons' tome #a2 also ',les ,pigeons' par ,mme4 ,knip and ,temminck4 ,bonaparte1 however1 in his ',coup- d'oeil' believes that two closely allied species are confounded together under this name4 ,the ,c4 leucocephala of the ,west ,indies is stated by ,temminck to be a rock-pigeon2 but ,i am informed by ,mr4 ,gosse that this is an error47 to the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 and roosts either on trees or rocks1 according to the nature of the country4 ,this species belongs to the genus ,strictoenas of ,reichenbach1 but is closely allied to ,columba2 it is to some extent coloured like certain domestic races1 and has been said to be domesticated in ,abyssinia2 but ,mr4 ,mansfield ,parkyns1 who collected the birds of that country and knows the species1 informs me that this is a mistake4 ,moreover1 the ,c4 guinea is characterised by the feathers of the neck having peculiar notched tips1--a character not observed in any domestic race4 ,fifthly1 the ,columba oenas of ,europe1 which roosts on trees1 and builds its nest in holes1 either in trees or the ground2 this species1 as far as external characters go1 might be the parent of several domestic races2 but1 though it crosses readily with the true rock-pigeon1 the offspring1 as we shall presently see1 are sterile hybrids1 and of such sterility there is not a trace when the domestic races are intercrossed4 ,it should also be observed that if we were to admit1 against all probability1 that any of the foregoing five or six species were the parents of some of our domestic pigeons1 not the least light would be thrown on the chief differences between the eleven most strongly-marked races4 ,we now come to the best known rock-pigeon1 the ,columba livia1 which is often designated in ,europe pre-eminently as the ,rock-pigeon1 and which naturalists believe to be the parent of all the domesticated breeds4 ,this bird agrees in every essential character with the breeds which have been only slightly modified4 ,it differs from all other species in being of a slaty-blue colour1 with two black bars on the wings1 and with the croup 7or loins7 white4 ,occasionally birds are seen in ,faroe and the ,hebrides with the black bars replaced by two or three black spots2 this form has been named by ,brehm 7#f_/i4 ',handbuch der ,naturgesch4 ,vogel ,deutschlands4'7 ,c4 amaliae1 but this species has not been admitted as distinct by other ornithologists4 ,graba 7#f_/aj4 ',tagebuch1 ,reise nach ,faro' #ahcj s4 #fb47 even found a difference in the bars on the right and left wings of the same bird in ,faroe4 ,another and rather more distinct form is either truly wild or has become feral on the cliffs of ,england and was doubtfully named by ,mr4 ,blyth 7#f_/aa4 ',annals and ,mag4 of ,nat4 ,hist4' volume #ai #ahdg page #ajb4 ,this excellent paper on pigeons is well worth consulting47 as ,c4 affinis1 but is now no longer considered by him as a distinct species4 ,c4 affinis is rather smaller than the rock-pigeon of the ,scottish islands1 and has a very different appearance owing to the wing-coverts being chequered with black1 with similar marks often extending over the back4 ,the chequering consists of a large black spot on the two sides1 but chiefly on the outer side1 of each feather4 ,the wing-bars in the true rock-pigeon and in the chequered variety are1 in fact1 due to similar though larger spots symmetrically crossing the secondary wing-feather and the larger coverts4 ,hence the chequering arises merely from an extension of these marks to other parts of the plumage4 ,chequered birds are not confined to the coasts of ,england2 for they were found by ,graba at ,faroe2 and ,w4 ,thompson 7#f_/ab4 ',natural ,history of ,ireland' ,birds volume #b #ahej page #aa4 ,for ,graba see previous reference47 says that at ,islay fully half the wild rock-pigeons were chequered4 ,colonel ,king1 of ,hythe1 stocked his dovecote with young wild birds which he himself procured from nests at the ,orkney ,islands2 and several specimens1 kindly sent to me by him1 were all plainly chequered4 ,as we thus see that chequered birds occur mingled with the true rock-pigeon at three distinct sites1 namely1 ,faroe1 the ,orkney ,islands1 and ,islay1 no importance can be attached to this natural variation in the plumage4 ,prince ,c4,l4 ,bonaparte 7#f_/ac4 ',coup-d'oeil sur l',ordre des ,pigeons' ',comptes ,rendus' #ahed-ee471 a great divider of species1 enumerates1 with a mark of interrogation1 as distinct from ,c4 livia1 the ,c4 turricola of ,italy1 the ,c4 rupestris of ,daouria1 and the ,c4 schimperi of ,abyssinia2 but these birds differ from ,c4 livia in characters of the most trifling value4 ,in the ,british ,museum there is a chequered pigeon1 probably the ,c4 schimperi of ,bonaparte1 from ,abyssinia4 ,to these may be added the ,c4 gymnocyclus of ,g4,r4 ,gray from ,w4 ,africa1 which is slightly more distinct1 and has rather more naked skin round the eyes than the rock-pigeon2 but from information given me by ,dr4 ,daniell1 it is doubtful whether this is a wild bird1 for dovecote-pigeons 7which ,i have examined7 are kept on the coast of ,guinea4 ,the wild rock-pigeon of ,india 7,c4 intermedia of ,strickland7 has been more generally accepted as a distinct species4 ,it differs chiefly in the croup being blue instead of snow-white2 but as ,mr4 ,blyth informs me1 the tint varies1 being sometimes albescent4 ,when this form is domesticated chequered birds appear1 just as occurs in ,europe with the truly wild ,c4 livia4 ,moreover we shall immediately have proof that the blue and white croup is a highly variable character2 and ,bechstein 7#f_/ad4 ',naturgeschichte ,deutschlands' b4 #d #agie s4 #ad47 asserts that with dovecote-pigeons in ,germany this is the most variable of all the characters of the plumage4 ,hence it may be concluded that ,c4 intermedia cannot be ranked as specifically distinct from ,c4 livia4 ,in ,madeira there is a rock-pigeon which a few ornithologists have suspected to be distinct from ,c4 livia4 ,i have examined numerous specimens collected by ,mr4 ,e4,v4 ,harcourt and ,mr4 ,mason4 ,they are rather smaller than the rock- pigeon from the ,shetland ,islands1 and their beaks are plainly thinner1 but the thickness of the beak varied in the several specimens4 ,in plumage there is remarkable diversity2 some specimens are identical in every feather 7,i speak after actual comparison7 with the rock-pigeon of the ,shetland ,islands2 others are chequered1 like ,c4 affinis from the cliffs of ,england1 but generally to a greater degree1 being almost black over the whole back2 others are identical with the so-called ,c4 intermedia of ,india in the degree of blueness of the croup2 whilst others have this part very pale or very dark blue1 and are likewise chequered4 ,so much variability raises a strong suspicion that these birds are domestic pigeons which have become feral4 ,from these facts it can hardly be doubted that ,c4 livia1 affinis1 intermedia1 and the forms marked with an interrogation by ,bonaparte ought all to be included under a single species4 ,but it is quite immaterial whether or not they are thus ranked1 and whether some one of these forms or all are the progenitors of the various domestic kinds1 as far as any light can thus be thrown on the differences between the more strongly-marked races4 ,that common dovecote-pigeons1 which are kept in various parts of the world1 are descended from one or from several of the above-mentioned wild varieties of ,c4 livia1 no one who compares them will doubt4 ,but before making a few remarks on dovecote-pigeons1 it should be stated that the wild rock-pigeon has been found easy to tame in several countries4 ,we have seen that ,colonel ,king at ,hythe stocked his dovecote more than twenty years ago with young wild birds taken at the ,orkney ,islands1 and since then they have greatly multiplied4 ,the accurate ,macgillivray 7#f_/ae4 ',history of ,british ,birds' volume #a pages #bge-bhd4 ,mr4 ,andrew ,duncan tamed a rock-pigeon in the ,shetland ,islands4 ,mr4 ,james ,barclay1 and ,mr4 ,smith of ,uyea ,sound1 both say that the wild rock-pigeon can be easily tamed2 and the former gentleman asserts that the tamed birds breed four times a year4 ,dr4 ,lawrence ,edmondstone informs me that a wild rock-pigeon came and settled in his dovecote in ,balta ,sound in the ,shetland ,islands1 and bred with his pigeons2 he has also given me other instances of the wild rock-pigeon having been taken young and breeding in captivity47 asserts that he completely tamed a wild rock-pigeon in the ,hebrides2 and several accounts are on records of these pigeons having bred in dovecotes in the ,shetland ,islands4 ,in ,india1 as ,captain ,hutton informs me1 the wild rock-pigeon is easily tamed1 and breeds readily with the domestic kind2 and ,mr4 ,blyth 7#f_/af4 ',annals and ,mag4 of ,nat4 ,history' volume #ai #ahdg page #ajc and volume for #aheg page #eab47 asserts that wild birds come frequently to the dovecotes and mingle freely with their inhabitants4 ,in the ancient ',ayeen ,akbery' it is written that1 if a few wild pigeons be taken1 they are speedily joined by a thousand others of their kind4 ,dovecote-pigeons are those which are kept in dovecotes in a semi- domesticated state2 for no special care is taken of them1 and they procure their own food1 except during the severest weather4 ,in ,england1 and1 judging from ,,mm4 ,boitard and ,corbie's work1 in ,france1 the common dovecote- pigeon exactly resembles the chequered variety of ,c4 livia2 but ,i have seen dovecotes brought from ,yorkshire without any trace of chequering1 like the wild rock-pigeon of the ,shetland ,islands4 ,the chequered dovecotes from the ,orkney ,islands1 after having been domesticated by ,colonel ,king for more than twenty years1 differed slightly from each other in the darkness of their plumage and in the thickness of their beaks2 the thinnest beak being rather thicker than the thickest one in the ,madeira birds4 ,in ,germany1 according to ,bechstein1 the common dovecote-pigeon is not chequered4 ,in ,india they often become chequered1 and sometimes pied with white2 the croup also1 as ,i am informed by ,mr4 ,blyth1 becomes nearly white4 ,i have received from ,sir4 ,j4 ,brooke some dovecote-pigeons1 which originally came from the ,s4 ,natunas ,islands in the ,malay ,archipelago1 and which had been crossed with the ,singapore dovecotes3 they were small and the darkest variety was extremely like the dark chequered variety with a blue croup from ,madeira2 but the beak was not so thin1 though decidedly thinner than in the rock- pigeon from the ,shetland ,islands4 ,a dovecote-pigeon sent to me by ,mr4 ,swinhoe from ,foochow1 in ,china1 was likewise rather small1 but differed in no other respect4 ,i have also received through the kindness of ,dr4 ,daniell1 four living dovecote-pigeons from ,sierra ,leone 7#f_/ag4 ,domestic pigeons of the common kind are mentioned as being pretty numerous in ,john ,barbut's ',description of the ,coast of ,guinea' page #bae published in #agdf2 they are said1 in accordance with the name which they bear1 to have been imported47 these were fully as large as the ,shetland rock-pigeon1 with even bulkier bodies4 ,in plumage some of them were identical with the ,shetland rock pigeon1 but with the metallic tints apparently rather more brilliant2 others had a blue croup1 and resembled the chequered variety of ,c4 intermedia of ,india2 and some were so much chequered as to be nearly black4 ,in these four birds the beak differed slightly in length1 but in all it was decidedly shorter1 more massive1 and stronger than in the wild rock-pigeon from the ,shetland ,islands1 or in the ,english dovecote4 ,when the beaks of these ,african pigeons were compared with the thinnest beaks of the wild ,madeira specimens1 the contrast was great2 the former being fully one-third thicker in a vertical direction than the latter2 so that any one at first would have felt inclined to rank these birds as specifically distinct2 yet so perfectly graduated a series could be formed between the above-mentioned varieties1 that it was obviously impossible to separate them4 ,to sum up3 the wild ,columba livia1 including under this name ,c4 affinis1 intermedia1 and the other still more closely-affined geographical races1 has a vast range from the southern coast of ,norway and the ,faroe ,islands to the shores of the ,mediterranean1 to ,madeira and the ,canary ,islands1 to ,abyssinia1 ,india1 and ,japan4 ,it varies greatly in plumage1 being in many places chequered with black1 and having either a white or blue croup or loins2 it varies also slightly in the size of the beak and body4 ,dovecote- pigeons1 which no one disputes are descended from one or more of the above wild forms1 present a similar but greater range of variation in plumage1 in the size of body1 and in the length and thickness of the beak4 ,there seems to be some relation between the croup being blue or white1 and the temperature of the country inhabited by both wild and dovecote pigeons2 for nearly all the dovecote-pigeons in the northern parts of ,europe have a white croup1 like that of the wild ,european rock-pigeon2 and nearly all the dovecote-pigeons of ,india have a blue croup like that of the wild ,c4 intermedia of ,india4 ,as in various countries the wild rock-pigeon has been found easy to tame1 it seems extremely probable that the dovecote-pigeons throughout the world are the descendants of at least two and perhaps more wild stocks2 but these1 as we have just seen1 cannot be ranked as specifically distinct4 ,with respect to the variation of ,c4 livia1 we may without fear of contradiction go one step further4 ,those pigeon-fanciers who believe that all the chief races1 such as ,carriers1 ,pouters1 ,fantails1 etc41 are descended from distinct aboriginal stocks1 yet admit that the so-called toy-pigeons1 which differ from the rock-pigeon in little except colour1 are descended from this bird4 ,by toy-pigeons are meant such birds as ,spots1 ,nuns1 ,helmets1 ,swallows1 ,priests1 ,monks1 ,porcelains1 ,swabians1 ,archangels1 ,breasts1 ,shields1 and others in ,europe1 and many others in ,india4 ,it would indeed be as puerile to suppose that all these birds are descended from so many distinct wild stocks as to suppose this to be the case with the many varieties of the gooseberry1 heartsease1 or dahlia4 ,yet these kinds all breed true1 and many of them include sub-varieties which likewise transmit their character truly4 ,they differ greatly from each other and from the rock-pigeon in plumage1 slightly in size and proportions of body1 in size of feet1 and in the length and thickness of their beaks4 ,they differ from each other in these respects more than do dovecote-pigeons4 ,although we may safely admit that dovecote-pigeons1 which vary slightly1 and that toy- pigeons1 which vary in a greater degree in accordance with their more highly-domesticated condition1 are descended from ,c4 livia1 including under this name the above-enumerated wild geographical races2 yet the question becomes far more difficult when we consider the eleven principal races1 most of which have been profoundly modified4 ,it can1 however1 be shown1 by indirect evidence of a perfectly conclusive nature1 that these principal races are not descended from so many wild stocks2 and if this be once admitted1 few will dispute that they are the descendants of ,c4 livia1 which agrees with them so closely in habits and in most characters1 which varies in a state of nature1 and which has certainly undergone a considerable amount of variation1 as in the toy-pigeons4 ,we shall moreover presently see how eminently favourable circumstances have been for a great amount of modification in the more carefully tended breeds4 ,the reasons for concluding that the several principal races are not descended from so many aboriginal and unknown stocks may be grouped under the following six heads3-- ,,firstly4 ,if the eleven chief races have not arisen from the variation of some one species1 together with its geographical races1 they must be descended from several extremely distinct aboriginal species2 for no amount of crossing between only six or seven wild forms could produce races so distinct as ,pouters1 ,carriers1 ,runts1 ,fantails1 ,turbits1 ,short-faced ,tumblers1 ,jacobins1 and ,trumpeters4 ,how could crossing produce1 for instance1 a ,pouter or a ,fantail1 unless the two supposed aboriginal parents possessed the remarkable characters of these breeds8 ,i am aware that some naturalists1 following ,pallas1 believe that crossing gives a strong tendency to variation1 independently of the characters inherited from either parent4 ,they believe that it would be easier to raise a ,pouter or ,fantail pigeon from crossing two distinct species1 neither of which possessed the characters of these races1 than from any single species4 ,i can find few facts in support of this doctrine1 and believe in it only to a limited degree2 but in a future chapter ,i shall have to recur to this subject4 ,for our present purpose the point is not material4 ,the question which concerns us is1 whether or not many new and important characters have arisen since man first domesticated the pigeon4 ,on the ordinary view1 variability is due to changed conditions of life2 on the ,pallasian doctrine1 variability1 or the appearance of new characters1 is due to some mysterious effect from the crossing of two species1 neither of which possesses the characters in question4 ,in some few instances it is possible that well-marked races may have been formed by crossing2 for instance1 a ,barb might perhaps be formed by a cross between a long-beaked ,carrier1 having large eye-wattles1 and some short-beaked pigeon4 ,that many races have been in some degree modified by crossing1 and that certain varieties which are distinguished only by peculiar tints have arisen from crosses between differently-coloured varieties1 is almost certain4 ,on the doctrine1 therefore1 that the chief races owe their differences to their descent from distinct species1 we must admit that at least eight or nine1 or more probably a dozen species1 all having the same habit of breeding and roosting on rocks and living in society1 either now exist somewhere1 or formerly existed1 but have become extinct as wild birds4 ,considering how carefully wild pigeons have been collected throughout the world1 and what conspicuous birds they are1 especially when frequenting rocks1 it is extremely improbable that eight or nine species1 which were long ago domesticated and therefore must have inhabited some anciently known country1 should still exist in the wild state and be unknown to ornithologists4 ,the hypothesis that such species formerly existed1 but have become extinct1 is in some slight degree more probable4 ,but the extinction of so many species within the historical period is a bold hypothesis1 seeing how little influence man has had in exterminating the common rock-pigeon1 which agrees in all its habits of life with the domestic races4 ,the ,c4 livia now exists and flourishes on the small northern islands of ,faroe1 on many islands off the coast of ,scotland1 on ,sardinia1 and the shores of the ,mediterranean1 and in the centre of ,india4 ,fanciers have sometimes imagined that the several supposed parent-species were originally confined to small islands1 and thus might readily have been exterminated2 but the facts just given do not favour the probability of their extinction1 even on small islands4 ,nor is it probable1 from what is known of the distribution of birds1 that the islands near ,europe should have been inhabited by peculiar species of pigeons2 and if we assume that distant oceanic islands were the homes of the supposed parent-species1 we must remember that ancient voyages were tediously slow1 and that ships were then ill-provided with fresh food1 so that it would not have been easy to bring home living birds4 ,i have said ancient voyages1 for nearly all the races of the pigeon were known before the year #afjj1 so that the supposed wild species must have been captured and domesticated before that date4 ,,secondly4 ,the doctrine that the chief domestic races are descended from several aboriginal species1 implies that several species were formerly so thoroughly domesticated as to breed readily when confined4 ,although it is easy to tame most wild birds1 experience shows us that it is difficult to get them to breed freely under confinement2 although it must be owned that this is less difficult with pigeons than with most other birds4 ,during the last two or three hundred years1 many birds have been kept in aviaries1 but hardly one has been added to our list of thoroughly reclaimed species3 yet on the above doctrine we must admit that in ancient times nearly a dozen kinds of pigeons1 now unknown in the wild state1 were thoroughly domesticated4 ,,thirdly4 ,most of our domesticated animals have run wild in various parts of the world2 but birds1 owing apparently to their partial loss of the power of flight1 less often than quadrupeds4 ,nevertheless ,i have met with accounts showing that the common fowl has become feral in ,south ,america and perhaps in ,west ,africa1 and on several islands3 the turkey was at one time almost feral on the banks of the ,parana2 and the ,guinea-fowl has become perfectly wild at ,ascension and in ,jamaica4 ,in this latter island the peacock1 also1 has become a maroon bird4 ,the common duck wanders from its home and becomes almost wild in ,norfolk4 ,hybrids between the common and musk-duck which have become wild have been shot in ,north ,america1 ,belgium1 and near the ,caspian ,sea4 ,the goose is said to have run wild in ,la ,plata4 ,the common dovecote-pigeon has become wild at ,juan ,fernandez1 ,norfolk ,island1 ,ascension1 probably at ,madeira1 on the shores of ,scotland1 and1 as is asserted1 on the banks of the ,hudson in ,north ,america4 7#f_/ah4 ,with respect to feral pigeons--for ,juan ,fernandez see ,bertero in ',annal4 des ,sc4 ,nat4' tome #ba page #cea4 ,for ,norfolk ,islands see ,rev4 ,e4,s4 ,dixon in the ',dovecote' #ahea page #ad on the authority of ,mr4 ,gould4 ,for ,ascension ,i rely on ,,ms4 information given me by ,mr4 ,layard4 ,for the banks of the ,hudson1 see ,blyth in ',annals of ,nat4 ,hist4' volume #bj #aheg page #eaa4 ,for ,scotland see ,macgillivray ',british ,birds' volume #a page #bge2 also ,thompson ',nat4 ,hist4 of ,ireland1 ,birds' volume #b page #aa4 ,for ducks see ,rev4 ,e4,s4 ,dixon ',ornamental ,poultry' #ahdg page #abb4 ,for the feral hybrids of the common and musk-ducks see ,audubon ',american ,ornithology' and ,selys-,longchamp ',hybrides dans la ,famille des ,anatides4' ,for the goose ,isidore ,geoffroy ,st4-,hilaire ',hist4 ,nat4 ,gen4' tome #c page #dih4 ,for guinea-fowls see ,gosse ',naturalist's ,sojourn in ,jamaica' page #abd2 and his ',birds of ,jamaica' for fuller particulars4 ,i saw the wild guinea-fowl in ,ascension4 ,for the peacock see ',a ,week at ,port ,royal' by a competent authority1 ,mr4 ,r4 ,hill1 page #db4 ,for the turkey ,i rely on oral information2 ,i ascertained that they were not ,curassows4 ,with respect to fowls ,i will give the references in the next chapter47 ,but how different is the case1 when we turn to the eleven chief domestic races of the pigeon1 which are supposed by some authors to be descended from so many distinct species6 no one has ever pretended that any one of these races has been found wild in any quarter of the world2 yet they have been transported to all countries1 and some of them must have been carried back to their native homes4 ,on the view that all the races are the product of variation1 we can understand why they have not become feral1 for the great amount of modification which they have undergone shows how long and how thoroughly they have been domesticated2 and this would unfit them for a wild life4 ,,fourthly4 ,if it be assumed that the characteristic differences between the various domestic races are due to descent from several aboriginal species1 we must conclude that man chose for domestication in ancient times1 either intentionally or by chance1 a most abnormal set of pigeons2 for that species resembling such birds as ,pouters1 ,fantails1 ,carriers1 ,barbs1 ,short- faced ,tumblers1 ,turbits1 etc41 would be in the highest degree abnormal1 as compared with all the existing members of the great pigeon family1 cannot be doubted4 ,thus we should have to believe that man not only formerly succeeded in thoroughly domesticating several highly abnormal species1 but that these same species have since all become extinct1 or are at least now unknown4 ,this double accident is so extremely improbable that the assumed existence of so many abnormal species would require to be supported by the strongest evidence4 ,on the other hand1 if all the races are descended from ,c4 livia1 we can understand1 as will hereafter be more fully explained1 how any slight deviation in structure which first appeared would continually be augmented by the preservation of the most strongly marked individuals2 and as the power of selection would be applied according to man's fancy1 and not for the bird's own good1 the accumulated amount of deviation would certainly be of an abnormal nature in comparison with the structure of pigeons living in a state of nature4 ,i have already alluded to the remarkable fact that the characteristic differences between the chief domestic races are eminently variable2 we see this plainly in the great difference in the number of the tail-feathers in the ,fantail1 in the development of the crop in ,pouters1 in the length of the beak in ,tumblers1 in the state of the wattle in ,carriers1 etc4 ,if these characters are the result of successive variations added together by selection1 we can understand why they should be so variable3 for these are the very parts which have varied since the domestication of the pigeon1 and therefore would be likely still to vary2 these variations moreover have been recently1 and are still being accumulated by man's selection2 therefore they have not as yet become firmly fixed4 ,,fifthly4 ,all the domestic races pair readily together1 and1 what is equally important1 their mongrel offspring are perfectly fertile4 ,to ascertain this fact ,i made many experiments1 which are given in the note below2 and recently ,mr4 ,tegetmeier has made similar experiments with the same result4 7#f_/ai4 ,i have drawn out a long table of the various crosses made by fanciers between the several domestic breeds but ,i do not think it worth while publishing4 ,i have myself made for this special purpose many crosses1 and all were perfectly fertile4 ,i have united in one bird five of the most distinct races1 and with patience ,i might undoubtedly have thus united all4 ,the case of five distinct breeds being blended together with unimpaired fertility is important1 because ,gartner has shown that it is a very general1 though not1 as he thought1 universal rule1 that complex crosses between several species are excessively sterile4 ,i have met with only two or three cases of reported sterility in the offspring of certain races when crossed4 ,pistor 7',das ,ganze der ,feldtaubenzucht' #ahca s4 #ae7 asserts that the mongrels from ,barbs and ,fantails are sterile3 ,i have proved this to be erroneous1 not only by crossing those hybrids with several other hybrids of the same parentage1 but by the more severe test of pairing brother and sister hybrids inter se1 and they were ,,perfectly fertile4 ,temminck has stated 7',hist4 ,nat4 ,gen4 des ,pigeons' tome #a page #aig7 that the ,turbit or ,owl will not cross readily with other breeds3 but my ,turbits crossed1 when left free with ,almond ,tumblers and with ,trumpeters2 the same thing has occurred 7,rev4 ,e4,s4 ,dixon ',the ,dovecote' page #ajg7 between ,turbits and ,dovecotes and ,nuns4 ,i have crossed ,turbits with ,barbs1 as has ,m4 ,boitard 7page #cd71 who says the hybrids were very fertile4 ,hybrids from a ,turbit and ,fantail have been known to breed inter se 7,riedel ',taubenzucht' s4 #be and ,bechstein ',naturgesch4 ,deutsch4' b4 #d s4 #dd4 ,turbits 7,riedel s4 #bf7 have been crossed with ,pouters and with ,jacobins1 and with a hybrid ,jacobin-trumpeter 7,riedel s4 #bg74 ,the latter author has1 however1 made some vague statements 7s4 #bb7 on the sterility of ,turbits when crossed with certain other crossed breeds4 ,but ,i have little doubt that the ,rev4 ,e4,s4 ,dixon's explanation of such statements is correct1 viz4 that individual birds both with ,turbits and other breeds are occasionally sterile47 ,the accurate ,neumeister asserts that when dovecotes are crossed with pigeons of any other breed1 the mongrels are extremely fertile and hardy4 7#f_/bj4 ',das ,ganze der ,taubenzucht' s4 #ah47 ,,mm4 ,boitard and ,corbie 7#f_/ba4 ',les ,pigeons' etc4 page #ce47 affirm1 after their great experience1 that the more distinct the breeds are which are crossed1 the more productive are their mongrel offspring4 ,i admit that the doctrine first broached by ,pallas is highly probable1 if not actually proved1 namely1 that closely allied species1 which in a state of nature or when first captured would have been in some degree sterile if crossed1 lose this sterility after a long course of domestication2 yet when we consider the great difference between such races as ,pouters1 ,carriers1 ,runts1 ,fantails1 ,turbits1 ,tumblers etc41 the fact of their perfect1 or even increased1 fertility when intercrossed in the most complicated manner becomes a strong argument in favour of their having all descended from a single species4 ,this argument is rendered much stronger when we hear 7,i append in a note 7#f_/bb4 ,domestic pigeons pair readily with the allied ,c4 oenas 7,bechstein ',naturgesch4 ,deutschlands' b4 #d s4 #c72 and ,mr4 ,brent has made the same cross several times in ,england1 but the young were very apt to die at about ten days old2 one hybrid which he reared 7from ,c4 oenas and a male ,antwerp ,carrier7 paired with a ,dragon1 but never laid eggs4 ,bechstein further states 7s4 #bf7 that the domestic pigeon will cross with ,c4 palumbus1 ,turtur risoria and ,t4 vulgaris1 but nothing is said of the fertility of the hybrids1 and this would have been mentioned had the fact been ascertained4 ,in the ,zoological ,gardens 7,,ms4 report to me from ,mr4 ,james ,hunt7 a male hybrid from ,turtur vulgaris and a domestic pigeon paired with several different species of pigeons and doves1 but none of the eggs were good4 ,hybrids from ,c4 oenas and gymnophthalmos were sterile4 ,in ,loudon's ',mag4 of ,nat4 ,hist4' volume #g #ahcd page #aed it is said that a male hybrid 7from ,turtur vulgaris male1 and the cream-coloured ,t4 risoria female7 paired during two years with a female ,t4 risoria1 and the latter laid many eggs1 but all were sterile4 ,,mm4 ,boitard and ,corbie 7',les ,pigeons' page #bce7 state that the hybrids from these two turtle-doves are invariably sterile both inter se and with either pure parent4 ,the experiment was tried by ,m4 ,corbie avec une espece d'obstination2 and likewise by ,m4 ,mauduyt1 and by ,m4 ,vieillot4 ,temminck also found the hybrids from these two species quite barren4 ,therefore1 when ,bechstein 7',naturgesch4 ,deutschlands ,vogel' b4 #d s4 #aja7 asserts that the hybrids from these two turtle-doves propagate inter se equally well with pure species1 and when a writer in the ',field' newspaper 7in a letter dated ,november #ajth1 #aheh7 makes a similar assertion1 it would appear that there must be some mistake2 though what the mistake is ,i know not1 as ,bechstein at least must have known the white variety of ,t4 risoria3 it would be an unparalleled fact if the same two species sometimes produced ,,extremely fertile1 and sometimes ,,extremely barren1 offspring4 ,in the ,,ms4 report from the ,zoological ,gardens it is said that hybrids from ,turtur vulgaris and suratensis1 and from ,t4 vulgaris and ,ectopistes migratorius1 were sterile4 ,two of the latter male hybrids paired with their pure parents1 viz4 ,turtur vulgaris and the ,ectopistes1 and likewise with ,t4 risoria and with ,columba oenas1 and many eggs were produced1 but all were barren4 ,at ,paris1 hybrids have been raised 7,isid4 ,geoffrey ,saint-,hilaire ',hist4 ,nat4 ,generale' tome #c page #ahj7 from ,turtur auritus with ,t4 cambayensis and with ,t4 suratensis2 but nothing is said of their fertility4 ,at the ,zoological ,gardens of ,london the ,goura coronata and victoriae produced a hybrid which paired with the pure ,g4 coronata1 and laid several eggs1 but these proved barren4 ,in #ahfj ,columba gymnophthalmos and maculosa produced hybrids in these same gardens47 all the cases which ,i have collected7 that hardly a single well-ascertained instance is known of hybrids between two true species of pigeons being fertile1 inter se1 or even when crossed with one of their pure parents4 ,,sixthly4 ,excluding certain important characteristic differences1 the chief races agree most closely both with each other and with ,c4 livia in all other respects4 ,as previously observed1 all are eminently sociable2 all dislike to perch or roost1 and refuse to build in trees2 all lay two eggs1 and this is not a universal rule with the ,columbidae2 all1 as far as ,i can hear1 require the same time for hatching their eggs2 all can endure the same great range of climate2 all prefer the same food1 and are passionately fond of salt2 all exhibit 7with the asserted exception of the ,finnikin and ,turner which do not differ much in any other character7 the same peculiar gestures when courting the females2 and all 7with the exception of ,trumpeters and ,laughers1 which likewise do not differ much in any other character7 coo in the same peculiar manner1 unlike the voice of any other wild pigeon4 ,all the coloured breeds display the same peculiar metallic tints on the breast1 a character far from general with pigeons4 ,each race presents nearly the same range of variation in colour2 and in most of the races we have the same singular correlation between the development of down in the young and the future colour of plumage4 ,all have the proportional length of their toes1 and of their primary wing-feathers1 nearly the same1- -characters which are apt to differ in the several members of the ,columbidae4 ,in those races which present some remarkable deviation of structure1 such as in the tail of ,fantails1 crop of ,pouters1 beak of ,carriers and ,tumblers1 etc41 the other parts remain nearly unaltered4 ,now every naturalist will admit that it would be scarcely possible to pick out a dozen natural species in any family which should agree closely in habits and in general structure1 and yet should differ greatly in a few characters alone4 ,this fact is explicable through the doctrine of natural selection2 for each successive modification of structure in each natural species is preserved1 solely because it is of service2 and such modifications when largely accumulated imply a great change in the habits of life1 and this will almost certainly lead to other changes of structure throughout the whole organisation4 ,on the other hand1 if the several races of the pigeon have been produced by man through selection and variation1 we can readily understand how it is that they should still all resemble each other in habits and in those many characters which man has not cared to modify1 whilst they differ to so prodigious a degree in those parts which have struck his eye or pleased his fancy4 ,besides the points above enumerated1 in which all the domestic races resemble ,c4 livia and each other1 there is one which deserves special notice4 ,the wild rock-pigeon is of a slaty-blue colour2 the wings are crossed by two bars2 the croup varies in colour1 being generally white in the pigeon of ,europe1 and blue in that of ,india2 the tail has a black bar close to the end1 and the outer webs of the outer tail-feathers are edged with white1 except near the tips4 ,these combined characters are not found in any wild pigeon besides ,c4 livia4 ,i have looked carefully through the great collections of pigeons in the ,british ,museum1 and ,i find that a dark bar at the end of the tail is common2 that the white edging to the outer tail-feathers is not rare2 but that the white croup is extremely rare1 and the two black bars on the wings occur in no other pigeon1 excepting the alpine ,c4 leuconota and ,c4 rupestris of ,asia4 ,now if we turn to the domestic races1 it is highly remarkable1 as an eminent fancier1 ,mr4 ,wicking1 observed to me1 that1 whenever a blue bird appears in any race1 the wings almost invariably show the double black bars4 7#f_/bc4 ,there is one exception to the rule1 namely1 in a sub-variety of the ,swallow of ,german origin1 which is figured by ,neumeister1 and was shown to me by ,mr4 ,wicking4 ,this bird is blue1 but has not the black wing-bars2 for our object1 however1 in tracing the descent of the chief races1 this exception signifies the less as the ,swallow approaches closely in structure to ,c4 livia4 ,in many sub-varieties the black bars are replaced by bars of various colours4 ,the figures given by ,neumeister are sufficient to show that1 if the wings alone are blue1 the black wing-bars appear47 ,the primary wing- feathers may be white or black1 and the whole body may be of any colour1 but if the wing-coverts are blue1 the two black bars are sure to appear4 ,i have myself seen1 or acquired trustworthy evidence1 as given below 7#f_/bd4 ,i have observed blue birds with all the above-mentioned marks in the following races1 which seemed to be perfectly pure1 and were shown at various exhibitions4 ,pouters1 with the double black wing-bars1 with white croup1 dark bar to end of tail1 and white edging to outer tail-feathers4 ,turbits1 with all these same characters4 ,fantails with the same2 but the croup in some was bluish or pure blue4 ,mr4 ,wicking bred blue ,fantails from two black birds4 ,carriers 7including the ,bagadotten of ,neumeister7 with all the marks3 two birds which ,i examined had white1 and two had blue croups2 the white edging to the outer tail-feathers was not present in all4 ,mr4 ,corker1 a great breeder1 assures me that1 if black carriers are matched for many successive generations1 the offspring become first ash-coloured1 and then blue with black wing-bars4 ,runts of the elongated breed had the same marks1 but the croup was pale blue2 the outer tail-feathers had white edges4 ,neumeister figures the great ,florence ,runt of a blue colour with black bars4 ,jacobins are very rarely blue1 but ,i have received authentic accounts of at least two instances of the blue variety with black bars having appeared in ,england2 blue ,jacobins were bred by ,mr4 ,brent from two black birds4 ,i have seen common ,tumblers1 both ,indian and ,english1 and ,short-faced ,tumblers1 of a blue colour1 with black wing-bars1 with the black bar at the end of the tail1 and with the outer tail-feathers edged with white2 the croup in all was blue1 or extremely pale blue1 never absolutely white4 ,blue ,barbs and ,trumpeters seem to be excessively rare2 but ,neumeister1 who may be implicitly trusted1 figures blue varieties of both1 with black wing-bars4 ,mr4 ,brent informs me that he has seen a blue ,barb2 and ,mr4 ,h4 ,weir1 as ,i am informed by ,mr4 ,tegetmeier1 once bred a silver 7which means very pale blue7 ,barb from two yellow birds471 of blue birds with black bars on the wing1 with the croup either white or very pale or dark blue1 with the tail having a terminal black bar1 and with the outer feathers externally edged with white or very pale coloured1 in the following races1 which1 as ,i carefully observed in each case1 appeared to be perfectly true3 namely1 in ,pouters1 ,fantails1 ,tumblers1 ,jacobins1 ,turbits1 ,barbs1 ,carriers1 ,runts of three distinct varieties1 ,trumpeters1 ,swallows1 and in many other toy-pigeons1 which as being closely allied to ,c4 livia1 are not worth enumerating4 ,thus we see that1 in purely-bred races of every kind known in ,europe1 blue birds occasionally appear having all the marks which characterise ,c4 livia1 and which concur in no other wild species4 ,mr4 ,blyth1 also1 has made the same observation with respect to the various domestic races known in ,india4 ,certain variations in the plumage are equally common in the wild ,c4 livia1 in dovecote-pigeons1 and in all the most highly modified races4 ,thus1 in all1 the croup varies from white to blue1 being most frequently white in ,europe1 and very generally blue in ,india4 7#f_/be4 ,mr4 ,blyth informs me that all the domestic races in ,india have the croup blue2 but this is not invariable1 for ,i possess a very pale blue ,simmali pigeon with the croup perfectly white1 sent to me by ,sir ,w4 ,elliot from ,madras4 ,a slaty-blue and chequered ,nakshi pigeon has some white feathers on the croup alone4 ,in some other ,indian pigeons there were a few white feathers confined to the croup1 and ,i have noticed the same fact in a carrier from ,persia4 ,the ,java ,fantail 7imported into ,amoy1 and thence sent me7 has a perfectly white croup47 ,we have seen that the wild ,c4 livia in ,europe1 and dovecotes in all parts of the world1 often have the upper wing-coverts chequered with black2 and all the most distinct races1 when blue1 are occasionally chequered in precisely the same manner4 ,thus ,i have seen ,pouters1 ,fantails1 ,carriers1 ,turbits1 ,tumblers 7,indian and ,english71 ,swallows1 ,bald-pates1 and other toy-pigeons blue and chequered2 and ,mr4 ,esquilant has seen a chequered ,runt4 ,i bred from two pure blue ,tumblers a chequered bird4 ,the facts hitherto given refer to the occasional appearance in pure races of blue birds with black wing-bars1 and likewise of blue and chequered birds2 but it will now be seen that when two birds belonging to distinct races are crossed1 neither of which have1 nor probably have had during many generations1 a trace of blue in their plumage1 or a trace of wing-bars and the other characteristic marks1 they very frequently produce mongrel offspring of a blue colour1 sometimes chequered1 with black wing-bars1 etc42 or if not of a blue colour1 yet with the several characteristic marks more or less plainly developed4 ,i was led to investigate this subject from ,,mm4 ,boitard and ,corbie 7#f_/bf4 ',les ,pigeons' etc4 page #cg47 having asserted that from crosses between certain breeds it is rare to get anything but bisets or dovecote pigeons1 which1 as we know1 are blue birds with the usual characteristic marks4 ,we shall hereafter see that this subject possesses1 independently of our present object1 considerable interest1 so that ,i will give the results of my own trials in full4 ,i selected for experiment races which1 when pure1 very seldom produce birds of a blue colour1 or have bars on their wings and tail4 ,the ,nun is white1 with the head1 tail1 and primary wing-feathers black2 it is a breed which was established as long ago as the year #afjj4 ,i crossed a male ,nun with a female red common ,tumbler1 which latter variety generally breeds true4 ,thus neither parent had a trace of blue in the plumage1 or of bars on the wing and tail4 ,i should premise that common ,tumblers are rarely blue in ,england4 ,from the above cross ,i reared several young3 one was red over the whole back1 but with the tail as blue as that of the rock-pigeon2 the terminal bar1 however1 was absent1 but the outer feathers were edged with white3 a second and third nearly resembled the first1 but the tail in both presented a trace of the bar at the end3 a fourth was brownish1 and the wings showed a trace of the double bar3 a fifth was pale blue over the whole breast1 back1 croup1 and tail1 but the neck and primary wing-feathers were reddish2 the wings presented two distinct bars of a red colour2 the tail was not barred1 but the outer feathers were edged with white4 ,i crossed this last curiously coloured bird with a black mongrel of complicated descent1 namely1 from a black ,barb1 a ,spot1 and ,almond-tumbler1 so that the two young birds produced from this cross included the blood of five varieties1 none of which had a trace of blue or of wing and tail-bars3 one of the two young birds was brownish-black1 with black wing-bars2 the other was reddish-dun1 with reddish wing-bars1 paler than the rest of the body1 with the croup pale blue1 the tail bluish with a trace of the terminal bar4 ,mr4 ,eaton 7#f_/bg4 ',treatise on ,pigeons' #aheh page #ade47 matched two ,short- faced ,tumblers1 namely1 a splash cock and kite hen 7neither of which are blue or barred71 and from the first nest he got a perfect blue bird1 and from the second a silver or pale blue bird1 both of which1 in accordance with all analogy1 no doubt presented the usual characteristic marks4 ,i crossed two male black ,barbs with two female red ,spots4 ,these latter have the whole body and wings white1 with a spot on the forehead1 the tail and tail-coverts red2 the race existed at least as long ago as #afgf1 and now breeds perfectly true1 as was known to be the case in the year #agce4 7#f_/bh4 ,j4 ,moore ',columbarium' #agce2 in ,j4,m4 ,eaton's edition #aheb page #ga47 ,barbs are uniformly-coloured birds1 with rarely even a trace of bars on the wing or tail2 they are known to breed very true4 ,the mongrels thus raised were black or nearly black1 or dark or pale brown1 sometimes slightly piebald with white3 of these birds no less than six presented double wing-bars2 in two the bars were conspicuous and quite black2 in seven some white feathers appeared on the croup2 and in two or three there was a trace of the terminal bar to the tail1 but in none were the outer tail-feathers edged with white4 ,i crossed black ,barbs 7of two excellent strains7 with purely-bred1 snow- white ,fantails4 ,the mongrels were generally quite black1 with a few of the primary wing and tail feathers white3 others were dark reddish-brown1 and others snow-white3 none had a trace of wing-bars or of the white croup4 ,i then paired together two of these mongrels1 namely1 a brown and black bird1 and their offspring displayed wing-bars1 faint1 but of a darker brown than the rest of body4 ,in a second brood from the same parents a brown bird was produced1 with several white feathers confined to the croup4 ,i crossed a male dun ,dragon belonging to a family which had been dun- coloured without wing-bars during several generations1 with a uniform red ,barb 7bred from two black ,barbs72 and the offspring presented decided but faint traces of wing-bars4 ,i crossed a uniform red male ,runt with a ,white trumpeter2 and the offspring had a slaty-blue tail with a bar at the end1 and with the outer feathers edged with white4 ,i also crossed a female black and white chequered ,trumpeter 7of a different strain from the last7 with a male ,almond-tumbler1 neither of which exhibited a trace of blue1 or of the white croup1 or of the bar at end of tail3 nor is it probable that the progenitors of these two birds had for many generations exhibited any of these characters1 for ,i have never even heard of a blue ,trumpeter in this country1 and my ,almond-tumbler was purely bred2 yet the tail of this mongrel was bluish1 with a broad black bar at the end1 and the croup was perfectly white4 ,it may be observed in several of these cases1 that the tail first shows a tendency to become by reversion blue2 and this fact of the persistency of colour in the tail and tail-coverts 7#f_/bi4 ,i could give numerous examples2 two will suffice4 ,a mongrel1 whose four grandparents were a white ,turbit1 white ,trumpeter1 white ,fantail1 and blue ,pouter1 was white all over1 except a very few feathers about the head and on the wings1 but the whole tail and tail-coverts were dark bluish-grey4 ,another mongrel whose four grandparents were a red ,runt1 white ,trumpeter1 white ,fantail1 and the same blue ,pouter1 was pure white all over1 except the tail and upper aill-coverts1 which were pale fawn1 and except the faintest trace of double wing-bars of the same pale fawn tint47 will surprise no one who has attended to the crossing of pigeons4 ,the last case which ,i will give is the most curious4 ,i paired a mongrel female ,barb-fantail with a mongrel male ,barb-spot2 neither of which mongrels had the least blue about them4 ,let it be remembered that blue ,barbs are excessively rare2 that ,spots1 as has been already stated1 were perfectly characterised in the year #afgf1 and breed perfectly true2 this likewise is the case with white ,fantails1 so much so that ,i have never heard of white ,fantails throwing any other colour4 ,nevertheless the offspring from the above two mongrels was of exactly the same blue tint as that of the wild rock-pigeon from the ,shetland ,islands over the whole back and wings2 the double black wing-bars were equally conspicuous2 the tail was exactly alike in all its characters1 and the croup was pure white2 the head1 however1 was tinted with a shade of red1 evidently derived from the ,spot1 and was of a paler blue than in the rock-pigeon1 as was the stomach4 ,so that two black ,barbs1 a red ,spot1 and a white ,fantail1 as the four purely-bred grandparents1 produced a bird exhibiting the general blue colour1 together with every characteristic mark1 the wild ,columba livia4 ,with respect to crossed breeds frequently producing blue birds chequered with black1 and resembling in all respects both the dovecote-pigeon and the chequered wild variety of the rock-pigeon1 the statement before referred to by ,,mm4 ,boitard and ,corbie would almost suffice2 but ,i will give three instances of the appearance of such birds from crosses in which one alone of the parents or great-grandparents was blue1 but not chequered4 ,i crossed a male blue ,turbit with a snow-white ,trumpeter1 and the following year with a dark1 leaden-brown1 ,short-faced ,tumbler2 the offspring from the first cross were as perfectly chequered as any dovecote-pigeon2 and from the second1 so much so as to be nearly as black as the most darkly chequered rock-pigeon from ,madeira4 ,another bird1 whose great-grandparents were a white ,trumpeter1 a white ,fantail1 a white ,red-spot1 a red ,runt1 and a blue ,pouter1 was slaty-blue and chequered exactly like a dovecote-pigeon4 ,i may here add a remark made to me by ,mr4 ,wicking1 who has had more experience than any other person in ,england in breeding pigeons of various colours3 namely1 that when a blue1 or a blue and chequered bird1 having black wing- bars1 once appears in any race and is allowed to breed1 these characters are so strongly transmitted that it is extremely difficult to eradicate them4 ,what1 then1 are we to conclude from this tendency in all the chief domestic races1 both when purely bred and more especially when intercrossed1 to produce offspring of a blue colour1 with the same characteristic marks1 varying in the same manner1 as in ,columbia livia8 ,if we admit that these races are all descended from ,c4 livia1 no breeder will doubt that the occasional appearance of blue birds thus characterised is accounted for on the well-known principle of throwing back or reversion4 ,why crossing should give so strong a tendency to reversion1 we do not with certainty know2 but abundant evidence of this fact will be given in the following chapters4 ,it is probable that ,i might have bred even for a century pure black ,barbs1 ,spots1 ,nuns1 white ,fantails1 ,trumpeters1 etc41 without obtaining a single blue or barred bird2 yet by crossing these breeds ,i reared in the first and second generation1 during the course of only three or four years1 a considerable number of young birds1 more or less plainly coloured blue1 and with most of the characteristic marks4 ,when black and white1 or black and red birds1 are crossed1 it would appear that a slight tendency exists in both parents to produce blue offspring1 and that this1 when combined1 overpowers the separate tendency in either parent to produce black1 or white1 or red offspring4 ,if we reject the belief that all the races of the pigeon are the modified descendants of ,c4 livia1 and suppose that they are descended from several aboriginal stocks1 then we must choose between the three following assumptions3 firstly1 that at least eight or nine species formerly existed which were aboriginally coloured in various ways1 but have since varied in exactly the same manner so as to assume the colouring of ,c4 livia2 but this assumption throws not the least light on the appearance of such colours and marks when the races are crossed4 ,or secondly1 we may assume that the aboriginal species were all coloured blue1 and had the wing-bars and other characteristic marks of ,c4 livia1--a supposition which is highly improbable1 as besides this one species no existing member of the ,columbidae presents these combined characters2 and it would not be possible to find any other instance of several species identical in plumage1 yet as different in important points of structure as are ,pouters1 ,fantails1 ,carriers1 ,tumblers1 etc4 ,or lastly1 we may assume that all the races1 whether descended from ,c4 livia or from several aboriginal species1 although they have been bred with so much care and are so highly valued by fanciers1 have all been crossed within a dozen or score of generations with ,c4 livia1 and have thus acquired their tendency to produce blue birds with the several characteristic marks4 ,i have said that it must be assumed that each race has been crossed with ,c4 livia within a dozen1 or1 at the utmost1 within a score of generations2 for there is no reason to believe that crossed offspring ever revert to one of their ancestors when removed by a greater number of generations4 ,in a breed which has been crossed only once1 the tendency to reversion will naturally become less and less in the succeeding generations1 as in each there will be less and less of the blood of the foreign breed2 but when there has been no cross with a distinct breed1 and there is a tendency in both parents to revert to some long-lost character1 this tendency1 for all that we can see to the contrary1 may be transmitted undiminished for an indefinite number of generations4 ,these two distinct cases of reversion are often confounded together by those who have written on inheritance4 ,considering1 on the one hand1 the improbability of the three assumptions which have just been discussed1 and1 on the other hand1 how simply the facts are explained on the principle of reversion1 we may conclude that the occasional appearance in all the races1 both when purely bred and more especially when crossed1 of blue birds1 sometimes chequered1 with double wing-bars1 with white or blue croups1 with a bar at the end of the tail1 and with the outer tail-feathers edged with white1 affords an argument of the greatest weight in favour of the view that all are descended from ,columba livia1 including under this name the three or four wild varieties or sub-species before enumerated4 ,to sum up the six foregoing arguments1 which are opposed to the belief that the chief domestic races are the descendants of at least eight or nine or perhaps a dozen species2 for the crossing of any less number would not yield the characteristic differences between the several races4 ,,firstly1 the improbability that so many species should still exist somewhere1 but be unknown to ornithologists1 or that they should have become within the historical period extinct1 although man has had so little influence in exterminating the wild ,c4 livia4 ,,secondly1 the improbability of man in former times having thoroughly domesticated and rendered fertile under confinement so many species4 ,,thirdly1 these supposed species having nowhere become feral4 ,,fourthly1 the extraordinary fact that man should1 intentionally or by chance1 have chosen for domestication several species1 extremely abnormal in character2 and furthermore1 the points of structure which render these supposed species so abnormal being now highly variable4 ,,fifthly1 the fact of all the races1 though differing in many important points of structure1 producing perfectly fertile mongrels2 whilst all the hybrids which have been produced between even closely allied species in the pigeon-family are sterile4 ,,sixthly1 the remarkable statements just given on the tendency in all the races1 both when purely bred and when crossed1 to revert in numerous minute details of colouring to the character of the wild rock-pigeon1 and to vary in a similar manner4 ,to these arguments may be added the extreme improbability that a number of species formerly existed1 which differed greatly from each other in some few points1 but which resembled each other as closely as do the domestic races in other points of structure1 in voice1 and in all their habits of life4 ,when these several facts and arguments are fairly taken into consideration1 it would require an overwhelming amount of evidence to make us admit that the chief domestic races are descended from several aboriginal stocks2 and of such evidence there is absolutely none4 ,the belief that the chief domestic races are descended from several wild stocks no doubt has arisen from the apparent improbability of such great modifications of structure having been effected since man first domesticated the rock-pigeon4 ,nor am ,i surprised at any degree of hesitation in admitting their common parentage3 formerly1 when ,i went into my aviaries and watched such birds as ,pouters1 ,carriers1 ,barbs1 ,fantails1 and ,short-faced ,tumblers1 etc41 ,i could not persuade myself that all had descended from the same wild stock1 and that man had consequently in one sense created these remarkable modifications4 ,therefore ,i have argued the question of their origin at great1 and1 as some will think1 superfluous length4 ,finally1 in favour of the belief that all the races are descended from a single stock1 we have in ,columba livia a still existing and widely distributed species1 which can be and has been domesticated in various countries4 ,this species agrees in most points of structure and in all its habits of life1 as well as occasionally in every detail of plumage1 with the several domestic races4 ,it breeds freely with them1 and produces fertile offspring4 ,it varies in a state of nature 7#f_/cj4 ,it deserves notice1 as bearing on the general subject of variation1 that not only ,c4 livia presents several wild forms1 regarded by some naturalists as species and by others as sub-species or as mere varieties1 but that the species of several allied genera are in the same predicament4 ,this is the case1 as ,mr4 ,blyth has remarked to me1 with ,treron1 ,palumbus1 and ,turtur471 and still more so when semi-domesticated1 as shown by comparing the ,sierra ,leone pigeons with those of ,india1 or with those which apparently have run wild in ,madeira4 ,it has undergone a still greater amount of variation in the case of the numerous toy-pigeons1 which no one supposes to be descended from distinct species2 yet some of these toy-pigeons have transmitted their character truly for centuries4 ,why1 then1 should we hesitate to believe in that greater amount of variation which is necessary for the production of the eleven chief races8 ,it should be borne in mind that in two of the most strongly-marked races1 namely1 ,carriers and ,short-faced ,tumblers1 the extreme forms can be connected with the parent-species by graduated differences not greater than those which may be observed between the dovecote-pigeons inhabiting different countries1 or between the various kinds of toy-pigeons1--gradations which must certainly be attributed to variation4 ,that circumstances have been eminently favourable for the modification of the pigeon through variation and selection will now be shown4 ,the earliest record1 as has been pointed out to me by ,professor ,lepsius1 of pigeons in a domesticated condition1 occurs in the fifth ,egyptian dynasty1 about #cjjj ,b4,c4 7#f_/ca4 ',denkmaler' abth4 #b bl4 #gj472 but ,mr4 ,birch1 of the ,british ,museum1 informs me that the pigeon appears in a bill of fare in the previous dynasty4 ,domestic pigeons are mentioned in ,genesis1 ,leviticus1 and ,isaiah4 7#f_/cb4 ',the ',dovecote' by the ,rev4 ,e4,s4 ,dixon #ahea pages #aa-ac4 ,adolphe ,pictet 7in his ',les ,origines ,indo-,europeennes' #ahei page #cii7 states that there are in the ancient ,sanscrit language between #be and #cj names for the pigeon1 and other #ae or #af ,persian names2 none of these are common to the ,european languages4 ,this fact indicates the antiquity of the domestication of the pigeon in the ,east47 ,in the time of the ,romans1 as we hear from ,pliny 7#f_/cc4 ,english translation #afja book #aj ch4 #cg471 immense prices were given for pigeons2 nay1 they are come to this pass1 that they can reckon up their pedigree and race4 ,in ,india1 about the year #afjj1 pigeons were much valued by ,akber ,khan3 #bj1jjj birds were carried about with the court1 and the merchants brought valuable collections4 ,the monarch of ,iran and ,turan sent him some very rare breeds4 ,his ,majesty1 says the courtly historian1 by crossing the breeds1 which method was never practised before1 has improved them astonishingly4 7#f_/cd4 ',ayeen ,akbery' translated by ,f4 ,gladwin #dto edition volume #a page #bgj47 ,akber ,khan possessed seventeen distinct kinds1 eight of which were valuable for beauty alone4 ,at about this same period of #afjj the ,dutch1 according to ,aldrovandi1 were as eager about pigeons as the ,romans had formerly been4 ,the breeds which were kept during the fifteenth century in ,europe and in ,india apparently differed from each other4 ,tavernier1 in his ,travels in #afgg1 speaks1 as does ,chardin in #agce1 of the vast number of pigeon-houses in ,persia2 and the former remarks that1 as ,christians were not permitted to keep pigeons1 some of the vulgar actually turned ,mahometans for this sole purpose4 ,the ,emperor of ,morocco had his favourite keeper of pigeons1 as is mentioned in ,moore's treatise1 published #agcg4 ,in ,england1 from the time of ,willughby in #afgh to the present day1 as well as in ,germany and in ,france1 numerous treatises have been published on the pigeon4 ,in ,india1 about a hundred years ago1 a ,persian treatise was written2 and the writer thought it no light affair1 for he begins with a solemn invocation1 in the name of ,god1 the gracious and merciful4 ,many large towns1 in ,europe and the ,united ,states1 now have their societies of devoted pigeon-fanciers3 at present there are three such societies in ,london4 ,in ,india1 as ,i hear from ,mr4 ,blyth1 the inhabitants of ,delhi and of some other great cities are eager fanciers4 ,mr4 ,layard informs me that most of the known breeds are kept in ,ceylon4 ,in ,china1 according to ,mr4 ,swinhoe of ,amoy1 and ,dr4 ,lockhart of ,shangai1 ,carriers1 ,fantails1 ,tumblers1 and other varieties are reared with care1 especially by the bonzes or priests4 ,the ,chinese fasten a kind of whistle to the tail-feathers of their pigeons1 and as the flock wheels through the air they produce a sweet sound4 ,in ,egypt the late ,abbas ,pacha was a great fancier of ,fantails4 ,many pigeons are kept at ,cairo and ,constantinople1 and these have lately been imported by native merchants1 as ,i hear from ,sir ,w4 ,elliot1 into ,southern ,india1 and sold at high prices4 ,the foregoing statements show in how many countries1 and during how long a period1 many men have been passionately devoted to the breeding of pigeons4 ,hear how an enthusiastic fancier at the present day writes3 ,if it were possible for noblemen and gentlemen to know the amazing amount of solace and pleasure derived from ,almond ,tumblers1 when they begin to understand their properties1 ,i should think that scarce any nobleman or gentleman would be without their aviaries of ,almond ,tumblers4 7#f_/ce4 ,j4,m4 ,eaton ',treatise on the ,almond ,tumbler' #ahea2 ,preface page #f47 ,the pleasure thus taken is of paramount importance1 as it leads amateurs carefully to note and preserve each slight deviation of structure which strikes their fancy4 ,pigeons are often closely confined during their whole lives2 they do not partake of their naturally varied diet2 they have often been transported from one climate to another2 and all these changes in their conditions of life would be likely to cause variability4 ,pigeons have been domesticated for nearly #ejjj years1 and have been kept in many places1 so that the numbers reared under domestication must have been enormous3 and this is another circumstance of high importance1 for it obviously favours the chance of rare modifications of structure occasionally appearing4 ,slight variations of all kinds would almost certainly be observed1 and1 if valued1 would1 owing to the following circumstances1 be preserved and propagated with unusual facility4 ,pigeons1 differently from any other domesticated animal1 can easily be mated for life1 and1 though kept with other pigeons1 rarely prove unfaithful to each other4 ,even when the male does break his marriage-vow1 he does not permanently desert his mate4 ,i have bred in the same aviaries many pigeons of different kinds1 and never reared a single bird of an impure strain4 ,hence a fancier can with the greatest ease select and match his birds4 ,he will also see the good results of his care2 for pigeons breed with extraordinary rapidity4 ,he may freely reject inferior birds1 as they serve at an early age as excellent food4 ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,principal ,,races ,,of ,,the ,,pigeon4 7#f_/cf4 ,as in the following discussion ,i often speak of the present time1 ,i should state that this chapter was completed in the year #aheh47 ,before discussing the means and steps by which the chief races have been formed1 it will be advisable to give some historical details1 for more is known of the history of the pigeon1 little though this is1 than of any other domesticated animal4 ,some of the cases are interesting as proving how long domestic varieties may be propagated with exactly the same or nearly the same characters2 and other cases are still more interesting as showing how slowly but steadily races have been greatly modified during successive generations4 ,in the last chapter ,i stated that ,trumpeters and ,laughers1 both so remarkable for their voices1 seem to have been perfectly characterised in #agce2 and ,laughers were apparently known in ,india before the year #afjj4 ,spots in #afgf1 and ,nuns in the time of ,aldrovandi1 before #afjj1 were coloured exactly as they now are4 ,common ,tumblers and ,ground ,tumblers displayed in ,india1 before the year #afjj1 the same extraordinary peculiarities of flight as at the present day1 for they are well described in the ',ayeen ,akbery4' ,these breeds may all have existed for a much longer period2 we know only that they were perfectly characterised at the dates above given4 ,the ,,average length of life of the domestic pigeon is probably about five or six years2 if so1 some of these races have retained their character perfectly for at least forty or fifty generations4 ,,pouters4 ,these birds1 as far as a very short description serves for comparison1 appear to have been well characterised in ,aldrovandi's time 7#f_/cg4 ',ornithologie' #afjj volume #b page #cfj471 before the year #afjj4 ,length of body and length of leg are at the present time the two chief points of excellence4 ,in #agce ,moore said 7see ,mr4 ,j4,m4 ,eaton's edition7--and ,moore was a first-rate fancier--that he once saw a bird with a body #bj inches in length1 though #ag or #ah inches is reckoned a very good length2 and he has seen the legs very nearly #g inches in length1 yet a leg #f #a_/b or #f #c_/d long must be allowed to be a very good one4 ,mr4 ,bult1 the most successful breeder of ,pouters in the world1 informs me that at present 7#aheh7 the standard length of the body is not less than #ah inches2 but he has measured one bird #ai inches in length1 and has heard of #bj and #bb inches1 but doubts the truth of these latter statements4 ,the standard length of the leg is now #g inches1 but ,mr4 ,bult has recently measured two of his own birds with legs #g #a_/b long4 ,so that in the #abc years which have elapsed since #agce there has been hardly any increase in the standard length of the body2 #ag or #ah inches was formerly reckoned a very good length1 and now #ah inches is the minimum standard2 but the length of leg seems to have increased1 as ,moore never saw one quite #g inches long2 now the standard is #g1 and two of ,mr4 ,bult's birds measured #g #a_/b inches in length4 ,the extremely slight improvement in ,pouters1 except in the length of the leg1 during the last #abc years1 may be partly accounted for by the neglect which they suffered1 as ,i am informed by ,mr4 ,bult1 until within the last #bj or #cj years4 ,about #agfe 7#f_/ch4 ',a ,treatise on ,domestic ,pigeons' dedicated to ,mr4 ,mayor #agfe ,preface page #ad47 there was a change of fashion1 stouter and more feathered legs being preferred to thin and nearly naked legs4 ,,fantails4 ,the first notice of the existence of this breed is in ,india1 before the year #afjj1 as given in the ',ayeen ,akbery' 7#f_/ci4 ,mr4 ,blyth has given a translation of part of the ',ayeen ,akbery' in ',annals and ,mag4 of ,nat4 ,hist4' volume #ai #ahdg page #ajd472 at this date1 judging from ,aldrovandi1 the breed was unknown in ,europe4 ,in #afgg ,willughby speaks of a ,fantail with #bf tail-feathers2 in #agce ,moore saw one with #cf feathers2 and in #ahbd ,,mm4 ,boitard and ,corbie assert that in ,france birds can easily be found with #db tail-feathers4 ,in ,england1 the number of the tail-feathers is not at present so much regarded as their upward direction and expansion4 ,the general carriage of the bird is likewise now much valued4 ,the old descriptions do not suffice to show whether in these latter respects there has been much improvement3 but if ,fantails with their heads and tails touching had formerly existed1 as at the present time1 the fact would almost certainly have been noticed4 ,the ,fantails which are now found in ,india probably show the state of the race1 as far as carriage is concerned1 at the date of their introduction into ,europe2 and some1 said to have been brought from ,calcutta1 which ,i kept alive1 were in a marked manner inferior to our exhibition birds4 ,the ,java ,fantail shows the same difference in carriage2 and although ,mr4 ,swinhoe has counted #ah and #bd tail-feathers in his birds1 a first-rate specimen sent to me had only #ad tail-feathers4 ,,jacobins4 ,this breed existed before #afjj1 but the hood1 judging from the figure given by ,aldrovandi1 did not enclose the head nearly so perfectly as at present3 nor was the head then white2 nor were the wings and tail so long1 but this last character might have been overlooked by the rude artist4 ,in ,moore's time1 in #agce1 the ,jacobin was considered the smallest kind of pigeon1 and the bill is said to be very short4 ,hence either the ,jacobin1 or the other kinds with which it was then compared1 must since that time have been considerably modified2 for ,moore's description 7and it must be remembered that he was a first-rate judge7 is clearly not applicable1 as far as size of body and length of beak are concerned1 to our present ,jacobins4 ,in #agie1 judging from ,bechstein1 the breed had assumed its present character4 ,,turbits4 ,it has generally been supposed by the older writers on pigeons1 that the ,turbit is the ,cortbeck of ,aldrovandi2 but if this be the case1 it is an extraordinary fact that the characteristic frill should not have been noticed4 ,the beak1 moreover1 of the ,cortbeck is described as closely resembling that of the ,jacobin1 which shows a change in the one or the other race4 ,the ,turbit1 with its characteristic frill1 and bearing its present name1 is described by ,willughby in #afgg2 and the bill is said to be like that of the bullfinch1--a good comparison1 but now more strictly applicable to the beak of the ,barb4 ,the sub-breed called the ,owl was well known in ,moore's time1 in #agce4 ,,tumblers4 ,common ,tumblers1 as well as ,ground ,tumblers1 perfect as far as tumbling is concerned1 existed in ,india before the year #afjj2 and at this period diversified modes of flight1 such as flying at night1 the ascent to a great height1 and manner of descent1 seem to have been much attended to in ,india1 as at the present time4 ,belon 7#f_/dj4 ',l',histoire de la ,nature des ,oiseaux' page #cad47 in #aeee saw in ,paphlagonia what he describes as a very new thing1 viz4 pigeons which flew so high in the air that they were lost to view1 but returned to their pigeon-house without separating4 ,this manner of flight is characteristic of our present ,tumblers1 but it is clear that ,belon would have mentioned the act of tumbling if the pigeons described by him had tumbled4 ,tumblers were not known in ,europe in #afjj1 as they are not mentioned by ,aldrovandi1 who discusses the flight of pigeons4 ,they are briefly alluded to by ,willughby1 in #afhg1 as small pigeons which show like footballs in the air4 ,the short-faced race did not exist at this period1 as ,willughby could not have overlooked birds so remarkable for their small size and short beaks4 ,we can even trace some of the steps by which this race has been produced4 ,moore in #agce enumerates correctly the chief points of excellence1 but does not give any description of the several sub-breeds2 and from this fact ,mr4 ,eaton infers 7#f_/da4 ',treatise on ,pigeons' #aheb page #fd47 that the ,short-faced ,tumbler had not then come to full perfection4 ,moore even speaks of the ,jacobin as being the smallest pigeon4 ,thirty years afterwards1 in #agfe1 in the ,treatise dedicated to ,mayor1 short-faced ,almond ,tumblers are fully described1 but the author1 an excellent fancier1 expressly states in his ,preface 7page #ad7 that1 from great care and expense in breeding them1 they have arrived to so great perfection and are so different from what they were #bj or #cj years past1 that an old fancier would have condemned them for no other reason than because they are not like what used to be thought good when he was in the fancy before4 ,hence it would appear that there was a rather sudden change in the character of the short-faced ,tumbler at about this period2 and there is reason to suspect that a dwarfed and half-monstrous bird1 the parent-form of the several short-faced sub-breeds1 then appeared4 ,i suspect this because short-faced ,tumblers are born with their beaks 7ascertained by careful measurement7 as short1 proportionally with the size of their bodies1 as in the adult bird2 and in this respect they differ greatly from all other breeds1 which slowly acquire during growth their various characteristic qualities4 ,since the year #agfe there has been some change in one of the chief characters of the short-faced ,tumbler1 namely1 in the length of the beak4 ,fanciers measure the head and beak from the tip of the beak to the front corner of the eyeball4 ,about the year #agfe a head and beak was considered good 7#f_/db4 ,j4,m4 ,eaton ',treatise on the ,breeding and ,managing of the ,almond ,tumbler' #ahea4 ,compare page #e of ,preface1 page #i and page #cb71 which1 measured in the usual manner1 was #g_/h of an inch in length2 now it ought not to exceed #e_/h of an inch2 it is however possible1 as ,mr4 ,eaton candidly confesses1 for a bird to be considered as pleasant or neat even at #f_/h of an inch1 but exceeding that length it must be looked upon as unworthy of attention4 ,mr4 ,eaton states that he has never seen in the course of his life more than two or three birds with the head and beak not exceeding half an inch in length2 still ,i believe in the course of a few years that the head and beak will be shortened1 and that half-inch birds will not be considered so great a curiosity as at the present time4 ,that ,mr4 ,eaton's opinion deserves attention cannot be doubted1 considering his success in winning prizes at our exhibitions4 ,finally in regard to the ,tumbler it may be concluded from the facts above given that it was originally introduced into ,europe1 probably first into ,england1 from the ,east2 and that it then resembled our common ,english ,tumbler1 or more probably the ,persian or ,indian ,tumbler1 with a beak only just perceptibly shorter than that of the common dovecote-pigeon4 ,with respect to the short- faced ,tumbler1 which is not known to exist in the ,east1 there can hardly be a doubt that the whole wonderful change in the size of the head1 beak1 body and feet1 and in general carriage1 has been produced during the last two centuries by continued selection1 aided probably by the birth of a semi- monstrous bird somewhere about the year #agej4 ,,runts4 ,of their history little can be said4 ,in the time of ,pliny the pigeons of ,campania were the largest known2 and from this fact alone some authors assert that they were ,runts4 ,in ,aldrovandi's time1 in #afjj1 two sub-breeds existed2 but one of them1 the short-beaked1 is now extinct in ,europe4 ,,barbs4 ,notwithstanding statements to the contrary1 it seems to me impossible to recognise the ,barb in ,aldrovandi's description and figures2 four breeds1 however1 existed in the year #afjj which evidently were allied both to ,barbs and ,carriers4 ,to show how difficult it is to recognise some of the breeds described by ,aldrovandi ,i will give the different opinions in regard to the above four kinds1 named by him ,c4 indica1 cretensis1 gutturosa1 and persica4 ,willughby thought that the ,columba indica was a ,turbit1 but the eminent fancier ,mr4 ,brent believes that it was an inferior ,barb3 ,c4 cretensis1 with a short beak and a swelling on the upper mandible1 cannot be recognised3 ,c4 7falsely called7 gutturosa1 which from its rostrum1 breve1 crassum1 et tuberosum seems to me to come nearest to the ,barb1 ,mr4 ,brent believes to be a ,carrier2 and lastly1 the ,c4 persica et turcica1 ,mr4 ,brent thinks1 and ,i quite concur with him1 was a short-beaked ,carrier with very little wattle4 ,in #afhg the ,barb was known in ,england1 and ,willughby describes the beak as like that of the ,turbit2 but it is not credible that his ,barbs should have had a beak like that of our present birds1 for so accurate an observer could not have overlooked its great breadth4 ,,english ,,carrier4 ,we may look in vain in ,aldrovandi's work for any bird resembling our prize ,carriers2 the ,c4 persica et turcica of this author comes the nearest1 but is said to have had a short thick beak2 therefore it must have approached in character a ,barb1 and have differed greatly from our ,carriers4 ,in ,willughby's time1 in #afgg1 we can clearly recognise the ,carrier1 yet he adds1 the bill is not short1 but of a moderate length2 a description which no one would apply to our present ,carriers1 so conspicuous for the extraordinary length of their beaks4 ,the old names given in ,europe to the ,carrier1 and the several names now in use in ,india1 indicate that ,carriers originally came from ,persia2 and ,willughby's description would perfectly apply to the ,bussorah ,carrier as it now exists in ,madras4 ,in later times we can partially trace the progress of change in our ,english ,carriers3 ,moore1 in #agce1 says an inch and a half is reckoned a long beak1 though there are very good ,carriers that are found not to exceed an inch and a quarter4 ,these birds must have resembled or perhaps been a little superior to the ,carriers1 previously described1 now found in ,persia4 ,in ,england at the present day there are1 as ,mr4 ,eaton 7#f_/dc4 ',treatise on ,pigeons' #aheb page #da47 states1 beaks that would measure 7from edge of eye to tip of beak7 one inch and three-quarters1 and some few even two inches in length4 ,from these historical details we see that nearly all the chief domestic races existed before the year #afjj4 ,some remarkable only for colour appear to have been identical with our present breeds1 some were nearly the same1 some considerably different1 and some have since become extinct4 ,several breeds1 such as ,finnikins and ,turners1 the swallow-tailed pigeon of ,bechstein and the ,carmelite1 seem to have originated and to have disappeared within this same period4 ,any one now visiting a well-stocked ,english aviary would certainly pick out as the most distinct kinds1 the massive ,runt1 the ,carrier with its wonderfully elongated beak and great wattles1 the ,barb with its short broad beak and eye-wattles1 the short- faced ,tumbler with its small conical beak1 the ,pouter with its great crop1 long legs and body1 the ,fantail with its upraised1 widely-expanded1 well- feathered tail1 the ,turbit with its frill and short blunt beak1 and the ,jacobin with his hood4 ,now1 if this same person could have viewed the pigeons kept before #afjj by ,akber ,khan in ,india and by ,aldrovandi in ,europe1 he would have seen the ,jacobin with a less perfect hood2 the ,turbit apparently without its frill2 the ,pouter with shorter legs1 and in every way less remarkable--that is1 if ,aldrovandi's ,pouter resembled the old ,german kind2 the ,fantail would have been far less singular in appearance1 and would have had much fewer feathers in its tail2 he would have seen excellent flying ,tumblers1 but he would in vain have looked for the marvellous short-faced breeds2 he would have seen birds allied to ,barbs1 but it is extremely doubtful whether he would have met with our actual ,barbs2 and lastly1 he would have found ,carriers with beaks and wattle incomparably less developed than in our ,english ,carriers4 ,he might have classed most of the breeds in the same groups as at present2 but the differences between the groups were then far less strongly pronounced than at present4 ,in short1 the several breeds had at this early period not diverged in so great a degree as now from their aboriginal common parent1 the wild rock-pigeon4 ,,manner ,,of ,,formation ,,of ,,the ,,chief ,,races4 ,we will now consider more closely the probable steps by which the chief races have been formed4 ,as long as pigeons are kept semi-domesticated in dovecotes in their native country1 without any care in selecting and matching them1 they are liable to little more variation than the wild ,c4 livia1 namely1 in the wings becoming chequered with black1 in the croup being blue or white1 and in the size of the body4 ,when1 however1 dovecote- pigeons are transported into diversified countries1 such as ,sierra ,leone1 the ,malay archipelago1 and ,madeira1 they are exposed to new conditions of life2 and apparently in consequence vary in a somewhat greater degree4 ,when closely confined1 either for the pleasure of watching them1 or to prevent their straying1 they must be exposed1 even in their native climate1 to considerably different conditions2 for they cannot obtain their natural diversity of food2 and1 what is probably more important1 they are abundantly fed1 whilst debarred from taking much exercise4 ,under these circumstances we might expect to find1 from the analogy of all other domesticated animals1 a greater amount of individual variability than with the wild pigeon2 and this is the case4 ,the want of exercise apparently tends to reduce the size of the feet and organs of flight2 and then1 from the law of correlation of growth1 the beak apparently becomes affected4 ,from what we now see occasionally taking place in our aviaries1 we may conclude that sudden variations or sports1 such as the appearance of a crest of feathers on the head1 of feathered feet1 of a new shade of colour1 of an additional feather in the tail or wing1 would occur at rare intervals during the many centuries which have elapsed since the pigeon was first domesticated4 ,at the present day such sports are generally rejected as blemishes2 and there is so much mystery in the breeding of pigeons that1 if a valuable sport did occur1 its history would often be concealed4 ,before the last hundred and fifty years1 there is hardly a chance of the history of any such sport having been recorded4 ,but it by no means follows from this that such sports in former times1 when the pigeon had undergone much less variation1 would have been rejected4 ,we are profoundly ignorant of the cause of each sudden and apparently spontaneous variation1 as well as of the infinitely numerous shades of difference between the birds of the same family4 ,but in a future chapter we shall see that all such variations appear to be the indirect result of changes of some kind in the conditions of life4 ,hence1 after a long course of domestication1 we might expect to see in the pigeon much individual variability1 and occasional sudden variations1 as well as slight modifications from the lessened use of certain parts1 together with the effects of correlation of growth4 ,but without selection all this would produce only a trifling or no result2 for without such aid differences of all kinds would1 from the two following causes1 soon disappear4 ,in a healthy and vigorous lot of pigeons many more young birds are killed for food or die than are reared to maturity2 so that an individual having any peculiar character1 if not selected1 would run a good chance of being destroyed2 and if not destroyed1 the peculiarity in question would generally be obliterated by free intercrossing4 ,it might1 however1 occasionally happen that the same variation repeatedly occurred1 owing to the action of peculiar and uniform conditions of life1 and in this case it would prevail independently of selection4 ,but when selection is brought into play all is changed2 for this is the foundation-stone in the formation of new races2 and with the pigeon1 circumstances1 as we have already seen1 are eminently favourable for selection4 ,when a bird presenting some conspicuous variation has been preserved1 and its offspring have been selected1 carefully matched1 and again propagated1 and so onwards during successive generations1 the principle is so obvious that nothing more need be said about it4 ,this may be called ,,methodical ,,selection1 for the breeder has a distinct object in view1 namely1 to preserve some character which has actually appeared2 or to create some improvement already pictured in his mind4 ,another form of selection has hardly been noticed by those authors who have discussed this subject1 but is even more important4 ,this form may be called ,,unconscious ,,selection1 for the breeder selects his birds unconsciously1 unintentionally1 and without method1 yet he surely though slowly produces a great result4 ,i refer to the effects which follow from each fancier at first procuring and afterwards rearing as good birds as he can1 according to his skill1 and according to the standard of excellence at each successive period4 ,he does not wish permanently to modify the breed2 he does not look to the distant future1 or speculate on the final result of the slow accumulation during many generations of successive slight changes2 he is content if he possesses a good stock1 and more than content if he can beat his rivals4 ,the fancier in the time of ,aldrovandi1 when in the year #afjj he admired his own ,jacobins1 ,pouters1 or ,carriers1 never reflected what their descendants in the year #ahfj would become3 he would have been astonished could he have seen our ,jacobins1 our improved ,english ,carriers1 and our ,pouters2 he would probably have denied that they were the descendants of his own once-admired stock1 and he would perhaps not have valued them1 for no other reason1 as was written in #agfe1 than because they were not like what used to be thought good when he was in the fancy4 ,no one will attribute the lengthened beak of the ,carrier1 the shortened beak of the ,short-faced ,tumbler1 the lengthened leg of the ,pouter1 the more perfectly enclosed hood of the ,jacobin1 etc4--changes effected since the time of ,aldrovandi1 or even since a much later period1--to the direct and immediate action of the conditions of life4 ,for these several races have been modified in various and even in directly opposite ways1 though kept under the same climate and treated in all respects in as nearly uniform a manner as possible4 ,each slight change in the length or shortness of the beak1 in the length of leg1 etc41 has no doubt been indirectly and remotely caused by some change in the conditions to which the bird has been subjected1 but we must attribute the final result1 as is manifest in those cases of which we have any historical record1 to the continued selection and accumulation of many slight successive variations4 ,the action of unconscious selection1 as far as pigeons are concerned1 depends on a universal principle in human nature1 namely1 on our rivalry1 and desire to outdo our neighbours4 ,we see this in every fleeting fashion1 even in our dress1 and it leads the fancier to endeavour to exaggerate every peculiarity in his breeds4 ,a great authority on pigeons 7#f_/dd4 ,eaton ',treatise on ,pigeons' #aheh page #hf471 says1 ,fanciers do not and will not admire a medium standard1 that is1 half and half1 which is neither here nor there1 but admire extremes4 ,after remarking that the fancier of ,short- faced ,beard ,tumblers wishes for a very short beak1 and that the fancier of ,long-faced ,beard ,tumblers wishes for a very long beak1 he says1 with respect to one of intermediate length1 ,don't deceive yourself4 ,do you suppose for a moment the short or the long-faced fancier would accept such a bird as a gift8 ,certainly not2 the short-faced fancier could see no beauty in it2 the long-faced fancier would swear there was no use in it1 etc4 ,in these comical passages1 written seriously1 we see the principle which has ever guided fanciers1 and has led to such great modifications in all the domestic races which are valued solely for their beauty or curiosity4 ,fashions in pigeon-breeding endure for long periods2 we cannot change the structure of a bird as quickly as we can the fashion of our dress4 ,in the time of ,aldrovandi1 no doubt the more the pouter inflated his crop1 the more he was valued4 ,nevertheless1 fashions do to a certain extent change2 first one point of structure and then another is attended to2 or different breeds are admired at different times and in different countries4 ,as the author just quoted remarks1 the fancy ebbs and flows2 a thorough fancier now-a-days never stoops to breed toy-birds2 yet these very toys are now most carefully bred in ,germany4 ,breeds which at the present time are highly valued in ,india are considered worthless in ,england4 ,no doubt1 when breeds are neglected1 they degenerate2 still we may believe that1 as long as they are kept under the same conditions of life1 characters once gained will be partially retained for a long time1 and may form the starting-point for a future course of selection4 ,let it not be objected to this view of the action of unconscious selection that fanciers would not observe or care for extremely slight differences4 ,those alone who have associated with fanciers can be thoroughly aware of their accurate powers of discrimination acquired by long practice1 and of the care and labour which they bestow on their birds4 ,i have known a fancier deliberately study his birds day after day to settle which to match together and which to reject4 ,observe how difficult the subject appears to one of the most eminent and experienced fanciers4 ,mr4 ,eaton1 the winner of many prizes1 says1 ,i would here particularly guard you against keeping too great a variety of pigeons1 otherwise you will know a little about all the kinds1 but nothing about one as it ought to be known4 ,it is possible there may be a few fanciers that have a good general knowledge of the several fancy pigeons1 but there are many who labour under the delusion of supposing they know what they do not4 ,speaking exclusively of one sub- variety of one race1 namely1 the short-faced almond tumbler1 and after saying that some fanciers sacrifice every property to obtain a good head and beak1 and that other fanciers sacrifice everything for plumage1 he remarks3 ,some young fanciers who are over covetous go in for all the five properties at once1 and they have their reward by getting nothing4 ,in ,india1 as ,i hear from ,mr4 ,blyth1 pigeons are likewise selected and matched with the greatest care4 ,we must not judge of the slight divergences from existing varieties which would have been valued in ancient days1 by those which are now valued after the formation of so many races1 each with its own standard of perfection1 kept uniform by our numerous ,exhibitions4 ,the ambition of the most energetic fancier may be fully satisfied by the difficulty of excelling other fanciers in the breeds already established1 without trying to form a new one4 ,a difficulty with respect to the power of selection will perhaps already have occurred to the reader1 namely1 what could have led fanciers first to attempt to make such singular breeds as ,pouters1 ,fantails1 ,carriers1 etc48 ,but it is this very difficulty which the principle of unconscious selection removes4 ,undoubtedly no fancier ever did intentionally make such an attempt4 ,all that we need suppose is that a variation occurred sufficiently marked to catch the discriminating eye of some ancient fancier1 and then unconscious selection carried on for many generations1 that is1 the wish of succeeding fanciers to excel their rivals1 would do the rest4 ,in the case of the ,fantail we may suppose that the first progenitor of the breed had a tail only slightly erected1 as may now be seen in certain ,runts 7#f_/de4 ,see ,neumeister's figure of the ,florence ,runt1 tab4 #ac in ',das ,ganze der ,taubenzucht4'7 with some increase in the number of the tail-feathers1 as now occasionally occurs with ,nuns4 ,in the case of the ,pouter we may suppose that some bird inflated its crop a little more than other pigeons1 as is now the case in a slight degree with the oesophagus of the ,turbit4 ,we do not know the origin of the common ,tumbler1 but we may suppose that a bird was born with some affection of the brain1 leading it to make somersaults in the air 7#f_/df4 ,mr4 ,w4,j4 ,moore gives a full account of the ,ground ,tumblers of ,india 7',indian ,medical ,gazette' ,january and ,february #ahgc71 and says the pricking the base of the brain1 and giving hydrocyanic acid1 together with strychnine1 to an ordinary pigeon1 brings on convulsive movements exactly like those of a ,tumbler4 ,one pigeon1 the brain of which had been pricked1 completely recovered1 and ever afterwards occasionally made somersaults47 and before the year #afjj pigeons remarkable for their diversified manner of flight were much valued in ,india1 and by the order of the ,emperor ,akber ,khan were sedulously trained and carefully matched4 ,in the foregoing cases we have supposed that a sudden variation1 conspicuous enough to catch a fancier's eye1 first appeared2 but even this degree of abruptness in the process of variation is not necessary for the formation of a new breed4 ,when the same kind of pigeon has been kept pure1 and has been bred during a long period by two or more fanciers1 slight differences in the strain can often be recognised4 ,thus ,i have seen first- rate ,jacobins in one man's possession which certainly differed slightly in several characters from those kept by another4 ,i possessed some excellent ,barbs descended from a pair which had won a prize1 and another lot descended from a stock formerly kept by that famous fancier ,sir ,john ,sebright1 and these plainly differed in the form of the beak2 but the differences were so slight that they could hardly be given by words4 ,again1 the common ,english and ,dutch ,tumbler differ in a somewhat greater degree1 both in length of beak and shape of head4 ,what first caused these slight differences cannot be explained any more than why one man has a long nose and another a short one4 ,in the strains long kept distinct by different fanciers1 such differences are so common that they cannot be accounted for by the accident of the birds first chosen for breeding having been originally as different as they now are4 ,the explanation no doubt lies in selection of a slightly different nature having been applied in each case2 for no two fanciers have exactly the same taste1 and consequently no two1 in choosing and carefully matching their birds1 prefer or select exactly the same4 ,as each man naturally admires his own birds1 he goes on continually exaggerating by selection whatever slight peculiarities they may possess4 ,this will more especially happen with fanciers living in different countries1 who do not compare their stocks or aim at a common standard of perfection4 ,thus1 when a mere strain has once been formed1 unconscious selection steadily tends to augment the amount of difference1 and thus converts the strain into a sub-breed and this ultimately into a well-marked breed or race4 ,the principle of correlation of growth should never be lost sight of4 ,most pigeons have small feet1 apparently caused by their lessened use1 and from correlation1 as it would appear1 their beaks have likewise become reduced in length4 ,the beak is a conspicuous organ1 and1 as soon as it had thus become perceptibly shortened1 fanciers would almost certainly strive to reduce it still more by the continued selection of birds with the shortest beaks2 whilst at the same time other fanciers1 as we know has actually been the case1 would in other sub-breeds1 strive to increase its length4 ,with the increased length of the beak1 the tongue becomes greatly lengthened1 as do the eyelids with the increased development of the eye-wattles2 with the reduced or increased size of the feet1 the number of the scutellae vary2 with the length of the wing1 the number of the primary wing-feathers differ2 and with the increased length of the body in the pouter the number of the sacral vertebrae is augmented4 ,these important and correlated differences of structure do not invariably characterise any breed2 but if they had been attended to and selected with as much care as the more conspicuous external differences1 there can hardly be a doubt that they would have been rendered constant4 ,fanciers could assuredly have made a race of ,tumblers with nine instead of ten primary wing-feathers1 seeing how often the number nine appears without any wish on their part1 and indeed in the case of the white-winged varieties in opposition to their wish4 ,in a similar manner1 if the vertebrae had been visible and had been attended to by fanciers1 assuredly an additional number might easily have been fixed in the ,pouter4 ,if these latter characters had once been rendered constant1 we should never have suspected that they had at first been highly variable1 or that they had arisen from correlation1 in the one case with the shortness of the wings1 and in the other case with the length of the body4 ,in order to understand how the chief domestic races have become distinctly separated from each other1 it is important to bear in mind1 that fanciers constantly try to breed from the best birds1 and consequently that those which are inferior in the requisite qualities are in each generation neglected2 so that after a time the less improved parent-stocks and many subsequently formed intermediate grades become extinct4 ,this has occurred in the case of the ,pouter1 ,turbit1 and ,trumpeter1 for these highly improved breeds are now left without any links closely connecting them either with each other or with the aboriginal rock-pigeon4 ,in other countries1 indeed1 where the same care has not been applied1 or where the same fashion has not prevailed1 the earlier forms may long remain unaltered1 or altered only in a slight degree1 and we are thus sometimes enabled to recover the connecting links4 ,this is the case in ,persia and ,india with the ,tumbler and ,carrier1 which there differ but slightly from the rock-pigeon in the proportions of their beaks4 ,so again in ,java1 the ,fantail sometimes has only fourteen caudal feathers1 and the tail is much less elevated and expanded than in our improved birds2 so that the ,java bird forms a link between a first-rate ,fantail and the rock-pigeon4 ,occasionally a breed may be retained for some particular quality in a nearly unaltered condition in the same country1 together with highly modified off-shoots or sub-breeds1 which are valued for some distinct property4 ,we see this exemplified in ,england1 where the common ,tumbler1 which is valued only for its flight1 does not differ much from its parent- form1 the ,eastern ,tumbler2 whereas the ,short-faced ,tumbler has been prodigiously modified1 from being valued1 not for its flight1 but for other qualities4 ,but the common-flying ,tumbler of ,europe has already begun to branch out into slightly different sub-breeds1 such as the common ,english ,tumbler1 the ,dutch ,roller1 the ,glasgow ,house-tumbler1 and the ,long-faced ,beard ,tumbler1 etc42 and in the course of centuries1 unless fashions greatly change1 these sub-breeds will diverge through the slow and insensible process of unconscious selection1 and become modified1 in a greater and greater degree4 ,after a time the perfectly graduated links which now connect all these sub-breeds together1 will be lost1 for there would be no object and much difficulty in retaining such a host of intermediate sub-varieties4 ,the principle of divergence1 together with the extinction of the many previously existing intermediate forms1 is so important for understanding the origin of domestic races1 as well as of species in a state of nature1 that ,i will enlarge a little more on this subject4 ,our third main group includes ,carriers1 ,barbs1 and ,runts1 which are plainly related to one another1 yet wonderfully distinct in several important characters4 ,according to the view given in the last chapter1 these three races have probably descended from an unknown race having an intermediate character1 and this race from the rock-pigeon4 ,their characteristic differences are believed to be due to different breeders having at an early period admired different points of structure2 and then1 on the acknowledged principle of admiring extremes1 having gone on breeding1 without any thought of the future1 as good birds as they could1--,carrier-fanciers preferring long beaks with much wattle1--,barb-fanciers preferring short thick beaks with much eye-wattle1--and ,runt-fanciers not caring about the beak or wattle1 but only for the size and weight of the body4 ,this process would have led to the neglect and final extinction of the earlier1 inferior1 and intermediate birds2 and thus it has come to pass1 that in ,europe these three races are now so extraordinarily distinct from each other4 ,but in the ,east1 whence they were originally brought1 the fashion has been different1 and we there see breeds which connect the highly modified ,english ,carrier with the rock-pigeon1 and others which to a certain extent connect ,carriers and ,runts4 ,looking back to the time of ,aldrovandi1 we find that there existed in ,europe1 before the year #afjj1 four breeds which were closely allied to ,carriers and ,barbs1 but which competent authorities cannot now identify with our present ,barbs and ,carriers2 nor can ,aldrovandi's ,runts be identified with our present ,runts4 ,these four breeds certainly did not differ from each other nearly so much as do our existing ,english ,carriers1 ,barbs1 and ,runts4 ,all this is exactly what might have been anticipated4 ,if we could collect all the pigeons which have ever lived1 from before the time of the ,romans to the present day1 we should be able to group them in several lines1 diverging from the parent rock-pigeon4 ,each line would consist of almost insensible steps1 occasionally broken by some slightly greater variation or sport1 and each would culminate in one of our present highly modified forms4 ,of the many former connecting links1 some would be found to have become absolutely extinct without having left any issue1 whilst others1 though extinct1 would be recognised as the progenitors of the existing races4 ,i have heard it remarked as a strange circumstance that we occasionally hear of the local or complete extinction of domestic races1 whilst we hear nothing of their origin4 ,how1 it has been asked1 can these losses be compensated1 and more than compensated1 for we know that with almost all domesticated animals the races have largely increased in number since the time of the ,romans8 ,but on the view here given1 we can understand this apparent contradiction4 ,the extinction of a race within historical times is an event likely to be noticed2 but its gradual and scarcely sensible modification through unconscious selection1 and its subsequent divergence1 either in the same or more commonly in distant countries1 into two or more strains1 and their gradual conversion into sub-breeds1 and these into well- marked breeds are events which would rarely be noticed4 ,the death of a tree1 that has attained gigantic dimensions1 is recorded2 the slow growth of smaller trees and their increase in number excite no attention4 ,in accordance with the belief in the great power of selection1 and of the little direct power of changed conditions of life1 except in causing general variability or plasticity of organisation1 it is not surprising that dovecote-pigeons have remained unaltered from time immemorial2 and that some toy-pigeons1 which differ in little else besides colour from the dovecote-pigeon1 have retained the same character for several centuries4 ,for when one of these toy-pigeons had once become beautifully and symmetrically coloured1--when1 for instance1 a ,spot had been produced with the crown of its head1 its tail1 and tail-coverts of a uniform colour1 the rest of the body being snow-white1--no alteration or improvement would be desired4 ,on the other hand1 it is not surprising that during this same interval of time our highly-bred pigeons have undergone an astonishing amount of change2 for in regard to them there is no defined limit to the wish of the fancier1 and there is no known limit to the variability of their characters4 ,what is there to stop the fancier desiring to give to his ,carrier a longer and longer beak1 or to his ,tumbler a shorter and shorter beak8 nor has the extreme limit of variability in the beak1 if there be any such limit1 as yet been reached4 ,notwithstanding the great improvement effected within recent times in the ,short-faced ,almond ,tumbler1 ,mr4 ,eaton remarks1 the field is still as open for fresh competitors as it was one hundred years ago2 but this is perhaps an exaggerated assertion1 for the young of all highly-improved fancy birds are extremely liable to disease and death4 ,i have heard it objected that the formation of the several domestic races of the pigeon throws no light on the origin of the wild species of the ,columbidae1 because their differences are not of the same nature4 ,the domestic races1 for instance do not differ1 or differ hardly at all1 in the relative lengths and shape of the primary wing-feathers1 in the relative length of the hind toe1 or in habits of life1 as in roosting and building in trees4 ,but the above objection shows how completely the principle of selection has been misunderstood4 ,it is not likely that characters selected by the caprice of man should resemble differences preserved under natural conditions either from being of direct service to each species1 or from standing in correlation with other modified and serviceable structures4 ,until man selects birds differing in the relative length of the wing- feathers or toes1 etc41 no sensible change in these parts should be expected4 ,nor could man do anything unless these parts happened to vary under domestication3 ,i do not positively assert that this is the case1 although ,i have seen traces of such variability in the wing-feathers1 and certainly in the tail-feathers4 ,it would be a strange fact if the relative length of the hind toe should never vary1 seeing how variable the foot is both in size and in the number of the scutellae4 ,with respect to the domestic races not roosting or building in trees1 it is obvious that fanciers would never attend to or select such changes in habits2 but we have seen that the pigeons in ,egypt1 which do not for some reason like settling on the low mud hovels of the natives1 are led1 apparently by compulsion1 to perch in crowds on the trees4 ,we may even affirm that1 if our domestic races had become greatly modified in any of the above specified respects1 and it could be shown that fanciers had never attended to such points1 or that they did not stand in correlation with other selected characters1 the fact1 on the principles advocated in this chapter1 would have offered a serious difficulty4 ,let us briefly sum up the last two chapters on the pigeon4 ,we may conclude with confidence that all the domestic races1 notwithstanding their great amount of difference1 are descended from the ,columba livia1 including under this name certain wild races4 ,but the differences between the latter throw no light whatever on the characters which distinguish the domestic races4 ,in each breed or sub-breed the individual birds are more variable than birds in a state of nature2 and occasionally they vary in a sudden and strongly-marked manner4 ,this plasticity of organisation apparently results from changed conditions of life4 ,disuse has reduced certain parts of the body4 ,correlation of growth so ties the organisation together1 that when one part varies other parts vary at the same time4 ,when several breeds have once been formed1 their intercrossing aids the progress of modification1 and has even produced new sub-breeds4 ,but as1 in the construction of a building1 mere stones or bricks are of little avail without the builder's art1 so1 in the production of new races1 selection has been the presiding power4 ,fanciers can act by selection on excessively slight individual differences1 as well as on those greater differences which are called sports4 ,selection is followed methodically when the fancier tries to improve and modify a breed according to a prefixed standard of excellence2 or he acts unmethodically and unconsciously1 by merely trying to rear as good birds as he can1 without any wish or intention to alter the breed4 ,the progress of selection almost inevitably leads to the neglect and ultimate extinction of the earlier and less improved forms1 as well as of many intermediate links in each long line of descent4 ,thus it has come to pass that most of our present races are so marvellously distinct from each other1 and from the aboriginal rock-pigeon4 ,,chapter #a4,,vii4 ,,fowls4 ,,brief ,,descriptions ,,of ,,the ,,chief ,,breeds4 ,,arguments ,,in ,,favour ,,of ,,their ,,descent ,,from ,,several ,,species4 ,,arguments ,,in ,,favour ,,of ,,all ,,the ,,breeds ,,having ,,descended ,,from ,,gallus ,,bankiva4 ,,reversion ,,to ,,the ,,parent-,,stock ,,in ,,colour4 ,,analogous ,,variations4 ,,ancient ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,fowl4 ,,external ,,differences ,,between ,,the ,,several ,,breeds4 ,,eggs4 ,,chickens4 ,,secondary ,,sexual ,,characters4 ,,wing-,,and ,,tail-,,feathers1 ,,voice1 ,,disposition1 ,,etc4 ,,osteological ,,differences ,,in ,,the ,,skull1 ,,vertebrae1 ,,etc4 ,,effects ,,of ,,use ,,and ,,disuse ,,on ,,certain ,,parts4 ,,correlation ,,of ,,growth4 ,as some naturalists may not be familiar with the chief breeds of the fowl1 it will be advisable to give a condensed description of them4 7#g_/a4 ,i have drawn up this brief synopsis from various sources1 but chiefly from information given me by ,mr4 ,tegetmeier4 ,this gentleman has kindly looked through this chapter2 and from his well-known knowledge1 the statements here given may be fully trusted4 ,mr4 ,tegetmeier has likewise assisted me in every possible way in obtaining for me information and specimens4 ,i must not let this opportunity pass without expressing my cordial thanks to ,mr4 ,b4,p4 ,brent1 a well-known writer on poultry1 for continuous assistance and the gift of many specimens47 ,from what ,i have read and seen of specimens brought from several quarters of the world1 ,i believe that most of the chief kinds have been imported into ,england1 but many sub-breeds are probably still unknown here4 ,the following discussion on the origin of the various breeds and on their characteristic differences does not pretend to completeness1 but may be of some interest to the naturalist4 ,the classification of the breeds cannot1 as far as ,i can see1 be made natural4 ,they differ from each other in different degrees1 and do not afford characters in subordination to each other1 by which they can be ranked in group under group4 ,they seem all to have diverged by independent and different roads from a single type4 ,each chief breed includes differently coloured sub-varieties1 most of which can be truly propagated1 but it would be superfluous to describe them4 ,i have classed the various crested fowls as sub-breeds under the ,polish fowl2 but ,i have great doubts whether this is a natural arrangement1 showing true affinity or blood relationship4 ,it is scarcely possible to avoid laying stress on the commonness of a breed2 and if certain foreign sub-breeds had been largely kept in this country they would perhaps have been raised to the rank of main-breeds4 ,several breeds are abnormal in character2 that is1 they differ in certain points from all wild ,gallinaceous birds4 ,at first ,i made a division of the breeds into normal and abnormal1 but the result was wholly unsatisfactory4 #a4 ,,game ,,breed4 ,this may be considered as the typical breed1 as it deviates only slightly from the wild ,gallus bankiva1 or1 as perhaps more correctly named1 ferrugineus4 ,beak strong2 comb single and upright4 ,spurs long and sharp4 ,feathers closely appressed to the body4 ,tail with the normal number of #ad feathers4 ,eggs often pale buff4 ,disposition indomitably courageous1 exhibited even in the hens and chickens4 ,an unusual number of differently coloured varieties exist1 such as black and brown-breasted reds1 duckwings1 blacks1 whites1 piles1 etc41 with their legs of various colours4 #b4 ,,malay ,,breed4 ,body of great size1 with head1 neck1 and legs elongated2 carriage erect2 tail small1 sloping downwards1 generally formed of #af feathers2 comb and wattle small2 ear-lobe and face red2 skin yellowish2 feathers closely appressed to the body2 neck-hackles short1 narrow1 and hard4 ,eggs often pale buff4 ,chickens feather late4 ,disposition savage4 ,of ,eastern origin4 #c4 ,,cochin1 ,,or ,,shangai ,,breed4 ,size great2 wing feathers short1 arched1 much hidden in the soft downy plumage2 barely capable of flight2 tail short1 generally formed of #af feathers1 developed at a late period in the young males2 legs thick1 feathered2 spurs short1 thick2 nail of middle toe flat and broad2 an additional toe not rarely developed2 skin yellowish4 ,comb and wattle well developed4 ,skull with deep medial furrow2 occipital foramen1 sub- triangular1 vertically elongated4 ,voice peculiar4 ,eggs rough1 buff- coloured4 ,disposition extremely quiet4 ,of ,chinese origin4 #d4 ,,dorking ,,breed4 ,size great2 body square1 compact2 feet with an additional toe2 comb well developed1 but varies much in form2 wattles well developed2 colour of plumage various4 ,skull remarkably broad between the orbits4 ,of ,english origin4 ,the white ,dorking may be considered as a distinct sub-breed1 being a less massive bird4 7,,figure #cj4 ,,spanish ,,fowl47 #e4 ,,spanish ,,breed 7figure #cj74 ,tall1 with stately carriage2 tarsi long2 comb single1 deeply serrated1 of immense size2 wattles largely developed2 the large ear-lobes and sides of face white4 ,plumage black glossed with green4 ,do not incubate4 ,tender in constitution1 the comb being often injured by frost4 ,eggs white1 smooth1 of large size4 ,chickens feather late but the young cocks show their masculine characters1 and crow at an early age4 ,of ,mediterranean origin4 ,the ,,andalusians may be ranked as a sub-breed3 they are of a slaty-blue colour1 and their chickens are well feathered4 ,a smaller1 short-legged ,dutch sub-breed has been described by some authors as distinct4 7,,figure #ca4 ,,hamburgh ,,fowl47 #f4 ,,hamburgh ,,breed 7figure #ca74 ,size moderate2 comb flat1 produced backwards1 covered with numerous small points2 wattle of moderate dimensions2 ear lobe white2 legs blueish1 thin4 ,do not incubate4 ,skull1 with the tips of the ascending branches of the premaxillary and with the nasal bones standing a little separate from each other2 anterior margin of the frontal bones less depressed than usual4 ,there are two sub-breeds2 the ,,spangled ,hamburgh1 of ,english origin1 with the tips of the feathers marked with a dark spot2 and the ,,pencilled ,hamburgh1 of ,dutch origin1 with dark transverse lines across each feather1 and with the body rather smaller4 ,both these sub-breeds include gold and silver varieties1 as well as some other sub-varieties4 ,black ,hamburghs have been produced by a cross with the ,spanish breed4 7,,figure #cb4 ,,polish ,,fowl47 #g4 ,,crested ,,or ,,polish ,,breed 7figure #cb74 ,head with a large1 rounded crest of feathers1 supported on a hemispherical protuberance of the frontal bones1 which includes the anterior part of the brain4 ,the ascending branches of premaxillary bones and the inner nasal processes are much shortened4 ,the orifice of the nostrils raised and crescentic4 ,beak short4 ,comb absent1 or small and of crescentic shape2 wattles either present or replaced by a beard-like tuft of feathers4 ,legs leaden-blue4 ,sexual differences appear late in life4 ,do not incubate4 ,there are several beautiful varieties which differ in colour and slightly in other respects4 ,the following sub-breeds agree in having a crest1 more or less developed1 with the comb1 when present1 of crescentic shape4 ,the skull presents nearly the same remarkable peculiarities of structure as in the true ,polish fowl4 ,,sub-,,breed 7a7 ,,sultans4 ,a ,turkish breed1 resembling white ,polish fowls with a large crest and beard with short and well-feathered legs4 ,the tail is furnished with additional sickle feathers4 ,do not incubate4 7#g4b4 ,the best account of ,sultans is by ,miss ,watts in ',the ,poultry ,yard' #ahef page #gi4 ,i owe to ,mr4 ,brent's kindness the examination of some specimens of this breed47 ,,sub-,,breed 7b7 ,,ptarmigans4 ,an inferior breed closely allied to the last1 white1 rather small1 legs much feathered1 with the crest pointed2 comb small1 cupped2 wattles small4 ,,sub-,,breed 7c7 ,,ghoondooks4 ,another ,turkish breed having an extraordinary appearance2 black and tailless2 crest and beard large2 legs feathered4 ,the inner processes of the two nasal bones come into contact with each other1 owing to the complete abortion of the ascending branches of the premaxillaries4 ,i have seen an allied white1 tailless breed from ,turkey4 ,,sub-,,breed 7,d7 ,,creve-,,coeur4 ,a ,french breed of large size1 barely capable of flight1 with short black legs1 head crested1 comb produced into two points or horns1 sometimes a little branched like the horns of a stag2 both beard and wattles present4 ,eggs large4 ,disposition quiet4 7#g_/c4 ,a good description1 with figures1 is given of this sub-breed in the ',journal of ,horticulture' ,june #aj1 #ahfb page #bjf47 ,,sub-,,breed 7e7 ,,horned ,,fowl4 ,with a small crest2 comb produced into two great points1 supported on two bony protuberances4 ,,sub-,,breed 7f7 ,,houdan4 ,a ,french breed2 of moderate size1 short-legged with five toes1 well developed2 plumage invariably mottled with black1 white1 and straw-yellow2 head furnished with a crest1 on a triple comb placed transversely2 both wattles and beard present4 7#g_/d4 ,a description1 with figures1 is given of this breed in ',journal of ,horticulture' ,june #c1 #ahfb page #ahf4 ,some writers describe the comb as two-horned47 ,,sub-,,breed 7g7 ,,guelderlands4 ,no comb1 head said to be surmounted by a longitudinal crest of soft velvety feathers2 nostrils said to be crescentic2 wattles well developed2 legs feathered2 colour black4 ,from ,north ,america4 ,the ,breda fowl seems to be closely allied to the ,guelderland4 #h4 ,,bantam ,,breed4 ,originally from ,japan 7#g_/e4 ,mr4 ,crawfurd ',descript4 ,dict4 of the ,indian ,islands' page #aac4 ,bantams are mentioned in an ancient native ,japanese ,encyclopaedia1 as ,i am informed by ,mr4 ,birch of the ,british ,museum47 characterised by small size alone2 carriage bold and erect4 ,there are several sub-breeds1 such as the ,cochin1 ,game1 and ,sebright ,bantams1 some of which have been recently formed by various crosses4 ,the ,black ,bantam has a differently shaped skull1 with the occipital foramen like that of the ,cochin fowl4 #i4 ,,rumpless ,,fowls4 ,these are so variable in character 7#g_/f4 ',ornamental and ,domestic ,poultry' #ahdh47 that they hardly deserve to be called a breed4 ,any one who will examine the caudal vertebrae will see how monstrous the breed is4 #aj4 ,,creepers ,,or ,,jumpers4 ,these are characterised by an almost monstrous shortness of legs1 so that they move by jumping rather than by walking2 they are said not to scratch up the ground4 ,i have examined a ,burmese variety1 which had a skull of rather unusual shape4 #aa4 ,,frizzled ,,or ,,caffre ,,fowls4 ,not uncommon in ,india1 with the feathers curling backwards1 and with the primary feathers of the wing and tail imperfect2 periosteum of bones black4 #ab4 ,,silk ,,fowls4 ,feathers silky1 with the primary wing and tail-feathers imperfect2 skin and periosteum of bones black2 comb and wattles dark leaden-blue2 ear-lappets tinged with blue2 legs thin1 often furnished with an additional toe4 ,size rather small4 #ac4 ,,sooty ,,fowls4 ,an ,indian breed1 having the peculiar appearance of a white bird smeared with soot1 with black skin and periosteum4 ,the hens alone are thus characterised4 ,from this synopsis we see that the several breeds differ considerably1 and they would have been nearly as interesting for us as pigeons1 if there had been equally good evidence that all had descended from one parent-species4 ,most fanciers believe that they are descended from several primitive stocks4 ,the ,rev4 ,e4,s4 ,dixon 7#g_/g4 ',ornamental and ,domestic ,poultry' #ahdh47 argues strongly on this side of the question2 and one fancier even denounces the opposite conclusion by asking1 ,do we not perceive pervading this spirit1 the spirit of the ,,deist8 ,most naturalists1 with the exception of a few1 such as ,temminck1 believe that all the breeds have proceeded from a single species2 but authority on such a point goes for little4 ,fanciers look to all parts of the world as the possible sources of their unknown stocks2 thus ignoring the laws of geographical distribution4 ,they know well that the several kinds breed truly even in colour4 ,they assert1 but1 as we shall see1 on very weak grounds1 that most of the breeds are extremely ancient4 ,they are strongly impressed with the great difference between the chief kinds1 and they ask with force1 can differences in climate1 food1 or treatment have produced birds so different as the black stately ,spanish1 the diminutive elegant ,bantam1 the heavy ,cochin with its many peculiarities1 and the ,polish fowl with its great top-knot and protuberant skull8 ,but fanciers1 whilst admitting and even overrating the effects of crossing the various breeds1 do not sufficiently regard the probability of the occasional birth1 during the course of centuries1 of birds with abnormal and hereditary peculiarities2 they overlook the effects of correlation of growth--of the long-continued use and disuse of parts1 and of some direct result from changed food and climate1 though on this latter head ,i have found no sufficient evidence2 and lastly1 they all1 as far as ,i know1 entirely overlook the all-important subject of unconscious or unmethodical selection1 though they are well aware that their birds differ individually and that by selecting the best birds for a few generations they can improve their stocks4 ,an amateur writes 7#g_/h4 ,ferguson ',illustrated ,series of ,rare and ,prize ,poultry' #ahcd page #f ,preface47 as follows3 ,the fact that poultry have until lately received but little attention at the hands of the fancier1 and been entirely confined to the domains of the producer for the market1 would alone suggest the improbability of that constant and unremitting attention having been observed in breeding1 which is requisite to the consummating in the offspring of any two birds transmittable forms not exhibited by the parents4 ,this at first sight appears true4 ,but in a future chapter on ,selection1 abundant facts will be given showing not only that careful breeding1 but that actual selection was practised during ancient periods1 and by barely civilised races of man4 ,in the case of the fowl ,i can adduce no direct facts showing that selection was anciently practised2 but the ,romans at the commencement of the ,christian era kept six or seven breeds1 and ,columella particularly recommends as the best1 those sorts that have five toes and white ears4 7#g_/i4 ,rev4 ,e4,s4 ,dixon in his ',ornamental ,poultry' page #bjc gives an account of ,columella's work47 ,in the fifteenth century several breeds were known and described in ,europe2 and in ,china1 at nearly the same period1 seven kinds were named4 ,a more striking case is that at present1 in one of the ,philippine ,islands1 the semi-barbarous inhabitants have distinct native names for no less than nine sub-breeds of the ,game fowl4 7#g_/aj4 ,mr4 ,crawfurd ',on the ,relation of the ,domesticated ,animals to ,civilization' separately printed page #f2 first read before the ,brit4 ,assoc4 at ,oxford #ahfj47 ,azara 7#g_/aa4 ',quadrupedes du ,paraguay' tome #b page #cbd471 who wrote towards the close of the last century1 states that in the interior parts of ,south ,america1 where ,i should not have expected that the least care would have been taken of poultry1 a black-skinned and black- boned breed is kept1 from being considered fertile and its flesh good for sick persons4 ,now every one who has kept poultry knows how impossible it is to keep several breeds distinct unless the utmost care be taken in separating the sexes4 ,will it then be pretended that those persons who1 in ancient times and in semi-civilised countries took pains to keep the breeds distinct1 and who therefore valued them1 would not occasionally have destroyed inferior birds and occasionally have preserved their best birds8 ,this is all that is required4 ,it is not pretended that any one in ancient times intended to form a new breed1 or to modify an old breed according to some ideal standard of excellence4 ,he who cared for poultry would merely wish to obtain1 and afterwards to rear1 the best birds which he could2 but this occasional preservation of the best birds would in the course of time modify the breed1 as surely1 though by no means as rapidly1 as does methodical selection at the present day1 ,if one person out of a hundred or out of a thousand attended to the breeding of his birds1 this would be sufficient2 for the birds thus tended would soon become superior to others1 and would form a new strain2 and this strain would1 as explained in the last chapter1 slowly have its characteristic differences augmented1 and at last be converted into a new sub-breed or breed4 ,but breeds would often be for a time neglected and would deteriorate2 they would1 however1 partially retain their character1 and afterwards might again come into fashion and be raised to a standard of perfection higher than their former standard2 as has actually occurred quite recently with ,polish fowls4 ,if1 however1 a breed were utterly neglected1 it would become extinct1 as has recently happened with one of the ,polish sub-breeds4 ,whenever in the course of past centuries a bird appeared with some slight abnormal structure1 such as with a lark-like crest on its head1 it would probably often have been preserved from that love of novelty which leads some persons in ,england to keep rumpless fowls1 and others in ,india to keep frizzled fowls4 ,and after a time any such abnormal appearance would be carefully preserved1 from being esteemed a sign of the purity and excellence of the breed2 for on this principle the ,romans eighteen centuries ago valued the fifth toe and the white ear-lobe in their fowls4 ,thus from the occasional appearance of abnormal characters1 though at first only slight in degree2 from the effects of the use and the disuse of parts2 possibly from the direct effects of changed climate and food2 from correlation of growth2 from occasional reversions to old and long-lost characters2 from the crossing of breeds1 when more than one had been formed2 but1 above all1 from unconscious selection carried on during many generations1 there is no insuperable difficulty1 to the best of my judgment1 in believing that all the breeds have descended from some one parent-source4 ,can any single species be named from which we may reasonably suppose that all are descended8 ,the ,gallus bankiva apparently fulfils every requirement4 ,i have already given as fair an account as ,i could of the arguments in favour of the multiple origin of the several breeds2 and now ,i will give those in favour of their common descent from ,g4 bankiva4 ,but it will be convenient first briefly to describe all the known species of ,gallus4 ,the ,g4 sonneratii does not range into the northern parts of ,india2 according to ,colonel ,sykes 7#g_/ab4 ',proc4 ,zoolog4 ,soc4' #ahcb page #aea471 it presents at different heights of the ,ghauts1 two strongly marked varieties1 perhaps deserving to be called species4 ,it was at one time thought to be the primitive stock of all our domestic breeds1 and this shows that it closely approaches the common fowl in general structure2 but its hackles partially consist of highly peculiar1 horny laminae1 transversely banded with three colours2 and ,i have met no authentic account of any such character having been observed in any domestic breed4 7#g_/ac4 ,these feathers have been described by ,dr4 ,w4 ,marshall ',der ,zoolog4 ,garten' ,april #ahgd page #abd4 ,i examined the feathers of some hybrids raised in the ,zoological ,gardens between the male ,g4 sonneratii and a red game-hen1 and they exhibited the true character of those of ,g4 sonneratii1 except that the horny laminae were much smaller47 ,this species also differs greatly from the common fowl1 in the comb being finely serrated1 and in the loins being destitute of true hackles4 ,its voice is utterly different4 ,it crosses readily in ,india with domestic hens2 and ,mr4 ,blyth 7#g_/ad4 ,see also an excellent letter on the ,poultry of ,india by ,mr4 ,blyth in ',gardener's ,chronicle' #ahea page #fai47 raised nearly #ajj hybrid chickens2 but they were tender and mostly died whilst young4 ,those which were reared were absolutely sterile when crossed inter se or with either parent4 ,at the ,zoological ,gardens1 however1 some 'hybrids of the same parentage were not quite so sterile3 ,mr4 ,dixon1 as he informed me1 made1 with ,mr4 ,yarrell's aid1 particular inquiries on this subject1 and was assured that out of #ej eggs only five or six chickens were reared4 ,some1 however1 of these half- bred birds were crossed with one of their parents1 namely1 a ,bantam1 and produced a few extremely feeble chickens4 ,mr4 ,dixon also procured some of these same birds and crossed them in several ways1 but all were more or less infertile4 ,nearly similar experiments have recently been tried on a great scale in the ,zoological ,gardens with almost the same result4 7#g_/ae4 ,mr4 ,s4,j4 ,salter in ',natural ,history ,review' ,april #ahfc page #bgf47 ,out of #ejj eggs1 raised from various first crosses and hybrids1 between ,g4 sonneratii1 bankiva1 and varius1 only #ab chickens were reared1 and of these only three were the product of hybrids inter se4 ,from these facts1 and from the above-mentioned strongly-marked differences in structure between the domestic fowl and ,g4 sonneratii1 we may reject this latter species as the parent of any domestic breed4 ,ceylon possesses a fowl peculiar to the island1 viz4 ,g4 stanleyii2 this species approaches so closely 7except in the colouring of the comb7 to the domestic fowl1 that ,messrs4 ,layard and ,kellaert 7#g_/af4 ,see also ,mr4 ,layard's paper in ',annals and ,mag4 of ,nat4 ,history' #bnd series volume #ad page #fb47 would have considered it1 as they inform me1 as one of the parent-stocks1 had it not been for its singularly different voice4 ,this bird1 like the last1 crosses readily with tame hens1 and even visits solitary farms and ravishes them4 ,two hybrids1 a male and female1 thus produced1 were found by ,mr4 ,mitford to be quite sterile3 both inherited the peculiar voice of ,g4 stanleyii4 ,this species1 then1 may in all probability be rejected as one of the primitive stocks of the domestic fowl4 ,java and the islands eastward as far as ,flores are inhabited by ,g4 varius 7or furcatus71 which differs in so many characters--green plumage1 unserrated comb1 and single median wattle--that no one supposes it to have been the parent of any one of our breeds2 yet1 as ,i am informed by ,mr4 ,crawfurd 7#g_/ag4 ,see also ,mr4 ,crawfurd ',descriptive ,dict4 of the ,indian ,islands' #ahef page #aac471 hybrids are commonly raised between the male ,g4 varius and the common hen1 and are kept for their great beauty1 but are invariably sterile3 this1 however1 was not the case with some bred in the ,zoological ,gardens4 ,these hybrids were at one time thought to be specifically distinct1 and were named ,g4 aeneus4 ,mr4 ,blyth and others believe that the ,g4 temminckii 7#g_/ah4 ,described by ,mr4 ,g4,r4 ,gray ',proc4 ,zoolog4 ,soc' #ahdi page #fb47 7of which the history is not known7 is a similar hybrid4 ,sir ,j4 ,brooke sent me some skins of domestic fowls from ,borneo1 and across the tail of one of these1 as ,mr4 ,tegetmeier observed1 there were transverse blue bands like those which he had seen on the tail- feathers of hybrids from ,g4 varius1 reared in the ,zoological ,gardens4 ,this fact apparently indicates that some of the fowls of ,borneo have been slightly affected by crosses with ,g4 varius1 but the case may possibly be one of analogous variation4 ,i may just allude to the ,g4 giganteus1 so often referred to in works on poultry as a wild species2 but ,marsden 7#g_/ai4 ,the passage from ,marsden is given by ,mr4 ,dixon in his ',poultry ,book' page #agf4 ,no ornithologist now ranks this bird as a distinct species47 the first describer1 speaks of it as a tame breed2 and the specimen in the ,british ,museum evidently has the aspect of a domestic variety4 ,the last species to be mentioned1 namely1 ,gallus bankiva1 has a much wider geographical range than the three previous species2 it inhabits ,northern ,india as far west as ,sinde1 and ascends the ,himalaya to a height of #djjj ft42 it inhabits ,burmah1 the ,malay peninsula1 the ,indo-,chinese countries1 the ,philippine ,islands1 and the ,malayan archipelago as far eastward as ,timor4 ,this species varies considerably in the wild state4 ,mr4 ,blyth informs me that the specimens1 both male and female1 brought from near the ,himalaya1 are rather paler coloured than those from other parts of ,india2 whilst those from the ,malay peninsula and ,java are brighter coloured than the ,indian birds4 ,i have seen specimens from these countries1 and the difference of tint in the hackles was conspicuous4 ,the ,malayan hens were a shade redder on the breast and neck than the ,indian hens4 ,the ,malayan males generally had a red ear-lappet1 instead of a white one as in ,india2 but ,mr4 ,blyth has seen one ,indian specimen without the white ear-lappet4 ,the legs are leaden blue in the ,indian1 whereas they show some tendency to be yellowish in the ,malayan and ,javan specimens4 ,in the former ,mr4 ,blyth finds the tarsus remarkably variable in length4 ,according to ,temminck 7#g_/bj4 ',coup-d'oeil general sur l',inde ,archipelagique' tome #c #ahdi page #agg2 see also ,mr4 ,blyth in ',indian ,sporting ,review' volume #b page #e #ahef47 the ,timor specimens differ as a local race from that of ,java4 ,these several wild varieties have not as yet been ranked as distinct species2 if they should1 as is not unlikely1 be hereafter thus ranked1 the circumstance would be quite immaterial as far as the parentage and differences of our domestic breeds are concerned4 ,the wild ,g4 bankiva agrees most closely with the black-breasted red ,game-breed1 in colouring and in all other respects1 except in being smaller1 and in the tail being carried more horizontally4 ,but the manner in which the tail is carried is highly variable in many of our breeds1 for1 as ,mr4 ,brent informs me1 the tail slopes much in the ,malays1 is erect in the ,games and some other breeds1 and is more than erect in ,dorkings1 ,bantams1 etc4 ,there is one other difference namely1 that in ,g4 bankiva1 according to ,mr4 ,blyth1 the neck-hackles when first moulted are replaced during two or three months not by other hackles1 as with our domestic poultry1 but by short blackish feathers4 7#g_/ba4 ,mr4 ,blyth ',annals and ,mag4 of ,nat4 ,hist4' #bnd series volume #a #ahdh page #dee47 ,mr4 ,brent1 however1 has remarked that these black feathers remain in the wild bird after the development of the lower hackles1 and appear in the domestic bird at the same time with them3 so that the only difference is that the lower hackles are replaced more slowly in the wild than in the tame bird2 but as confinement is known sometimes to affect the masculine plumage1 this slight difference cannot be considered of any importance4 ,it is a significant fact that the voice of both the male and female ,g4 bankiva closely resembles1 as ,mr4 ,blyth and others have noted1 the voice of both sexes of the common domestic fowl2 but the last note of the crow of the wild bird is rather less prolonged4 ,captain ,hutton1 well known for his researches into the natural history of ,india1 informs me that he has seen several crossed fowls from the wild species and the ,chinese bantam2 these crossed fowls ,,bred ,,freely with bantams1 but unfortunately were not crossed inter se4 ,captain ,hutton reared chickens from the eggs of the ,gallus bankiva2 and these1 though at first very wild1 afterwards became so tame that they would crowd round his feet4 ,he did not succeed in rearing them to maturity2 but as he remarks1 no wild gallinaceous bird thrives well at first on hard grain4 ,mr4 ,blyth also found much difficulty in keeping ,g4 bankiva in confinement4 ,in the ,philippine ,islands1 however1 the natives must succeed better1 as they keep wild cocks to fight with their domestic game-birds4 7#g_/bb4 ,crawfurd ',desc4 ,dict4 of ,indian ,islands' #ahef page #aab47 ,sir ,walter ,elliot informs me that the hen of a native domestic breed of ,pegu is undistinguishable from the hen of the wild ,g4 bankiva2 and the natives constantly catch wild cocks by taking tame cocks to fight with them in the woods4 7#g_/bc4 ,in ,burmah1 as ,i hear from ,mr4 ,blyth1 the wild and tame poultry constantly cross together1 and irregular transitional forms may be seen47 ,mr4 ,crawfurd remarks that from etymology it might be argued that the fowl was first domesticated by the ,malays and ,javanese4 7#g_/bd4 ,ibid page #aac47 ,it is also a curious fact1 of which ,i have been assured by ,mr4 ,blyth1 that wild specimens of the ,gallus bankiva1 brought from the countries east of the ,bay of ,bengal1 are far more easily tamed than those of ,india2 nor is this an unparalleled fact1 for1 as ,humboldt long ago remarked1 the same species sometimes evinces a more tameable disposition in one country than in another4 ,if we suppose that the ,g4 bankiva was first tamed in ,malaya and afterwards imported into ,india1 we can understand an observation made to me by ,mr4 ,blyth1 that the domestic fowls of ,india do not resemble the wild ,g4 bankiva of ,india more closely than do those of ,europe4 ,from the extremely close resemblance in colour1 general structure1 and especially in voice1 between ,gallus bankiva and the ,game fowl2 from their fertility1 as far as this has been ascertained1 when crossed2 from the possibility of the wild species being tamed1 and from its varying in the wild state1 we may confidently look at it as the parent of the most typical of all the domestic breeds1 namely1 the ,game fowl4 ,it is a significant fact1 that almost all the naturalists in ,india1 namely ,sir ,w4 ,elliot1 ,mr4 ,s4,n4 ,ward1 ,mr4 ,layard1 ,mr4 ,j4,c4 ,jerdon1 and ,mr4 ,blyth 7#g_/be4 ,mr4 ,jerdon in the ',madras ,journ4 of ,lit4 and ,science' volume #bb page #b speaking of ,g4 bankiva says unquestionably the origin of most of the varieties of our common fowls4 ,for ,mr4 ,blyth see his excellent article in ',gardener's ,chronicle' #ahea page #fai2 and in ',annals and ,mag4 of ,nat4 ,hist4' volume #bj #ahdg page #chh471 who are familiar with ,g4 bankiva1 believe that it is the parent of most or all our domestic breeds4 ,but even if it be admitted that ,g4 bankiva is the parent of the ,game breed1 yet it may be urged that other wild species have been the parents of the other domestic breeds2 and that these species still exist1 though unknown1 in some country1 or have become extinct4 ,the extinction1 however1 of several species of fowls1 is an improbable hypothesis1 seeing that the four known species have not become extinct in the most ancient and thickly peopled regions of the ,east4 ,there is1 in fact1 not one other kind of domesticated bird1 of which the wild parent-form is unknown1 that is become extinct4 ,for the discovery of new1 or the rediscovery of old species of ,gallus1 we must not look1 as fanciers often look1 to the whole world4 ,the larger gallinaceous birds1 as ,mr4 ,blyth has remarked 7#g_/bf4 ',gardener's ,chronicle' #ahea page #fai471 generally have a restricted range3 we see this well illustrated in ,india1 where the genus ,gallus inhabits the base of the ,himalaya1 and is succeeded higher up by ,gallophasis1 and still higher up by ,phasianus4 ,australia1 with its islands1 is out of the question as the home for unknown species of the genus4 ,it is1 also1 as improbable that ,gallus should inhabit ,south ,america 7#g_/bg4 ,i have consulted an eminent authority1 ,mr4 ,sclater1 on this subject1 and he thinks that ,i have not expressed myself too strongly4 ,i am aware that one ancient author1 ,acosta1 speaks of fowls as having inhabited ,s4 ,america at the period of its discovery2 and more recently1 about #agie1 ,olivier de ,serres speaks of wild fowls in the forests of ,guiana2 these were probably feral birds4 ,dr4 ,daniell tells me1 he believes that fowls have become wild on the west coast of ,equatorial ,africa2 they may1 however1 not be true fowls1 but gallinaceous birds belonging to the genus ,phasidus4 ,the old voyager ,barbut says that poultry are not natural to ,guinea4 ,capt4 ,w4 ,allen 7',narrative of ,niger ,expedition' #ahdh volume #b page #db7 describes wild fowls on ,ilha dos ,rollas1 an island near ,st4 ,thomas's on the west coast of ,africa2 the natives informed him that they had escaped from a vessel wrecked there many years ago2 they were extremely wild and had a cry quite different to that of the domestic fowl1 and their appearance was somewhat changed4 ,hence it is not a little doubtful1 notwithstanding the statement of the natives1 whether these birds really were fowls4 ,that the fowl has become feral on several islands is certain4 ,mr4 ,fry1 a very capable judge1 informed ,mr4 ,layard1 in a letter1 that the fowls which have run wild on ,ascension had nearly all got back to their primitive colours1 red1 and black cocks1 and smoky-grey hens4 ,but unfortunately we do not know the colour of the poultry which were turned out4 ,fowls have become feral on the ,nicobar ,islands 7,blyth in the ',indian ,field' #aheh page #fb71 and in the ,ladrones 7,anson's ,voyage74 ,those found in the ,pellew ,islands ,crawfurd7 are believed to be feral2 and lastly1 it is asserted that they have become feral in ,new ,zealand1 but whether this is correct ,i know not47 as that a humming-bird should be found in the ,old ,world4 ,from the character of the other gallinaceous birds of ,africa1 it is not probable that ,gallus is an ,african genus4 ,we need not look to the western parts of ,asia1 for ,messrs4 ,blyth and ,crawfurd1 who have attended to this subject1 doubt whether ,gallus ever existed in a wild state even as far west as ,persia4 ,although the earliest ,greek writers speak of the fowl as a ,persian bird1 this probably merely indicates its line of importation4 ,for the discovery of unknown species we must look to ,india1 to the ,indo-,chinese countries1 and to the northern parts of the ,malay ,archipelago4 ,the southern portion of ,china is the most likely country2 but as ,mr4 ,blyth informs me1 skins have been exported from ,china during a long period1 and living birds are largely kept there in aviaries1 so that any native species of ,gallus would probably have become known4 ,mr4 ,birch1 of the ,british ,museum1 has translated for me passages from a ,chinese ,encyclopaedia published in #afji1 but compiled from more ancient documents1 in which it is said that fowls are creatures of the ,west1 and were introduced into the ,east 7i4e4 ,china7 in a dynasty #adjj ,b4,c4 ,whatever may be thought of so ancient a date1 we see that the ,indo-,chinese and ,indian regions were formerly considered by the ,chinese as the source of the domestic fowl4 ,from these several considerations we must look to the present metropolis of the genus1 namely1 to the south-eastern parts of ,asia1 for the discovery of species which were formerly domesticated1 but are now unknown in the wild state2 and the most experienced ornithologists do not consider it probable that such species will be discovered4 ,in considering whether the domestic breeds are descended from one species1 namely1 ,g4 bankiva1 or from several1 we must not quite overlook1 though we must not exaggerate1 the importance of the test of fertility4 ,most of our domestic breeds have been so often crossed1 and their mongrels so largely kept1 that it is almost certain1 if any degree of infertility had existed between them1 it would have been detected4 ,on the other hand1 the four known species of ,gallus when crossed with each other1 or when crossed1 with the exception of ,g4 bankiva1 with the domestic fowl1 produce infertile hybrids4 ,finally1 we have not such good evidence with fowls as with pigeons1 of all the breeds having descended from a single primitive stock4 ,in both cases the argument of fertility must go for something2 in both we have the improbability of man having succeeded in ancient times in thoroughly domesticating several supposed species1--most of these supposed species being extremely abnormal as compared with their natural allies1--all being now either unknown or extinct1 though the parent-form of no other domesticated bird has been lost4 ,but in searching for the supposed parent- stocks of the various breeds of the pigeon1 we were enabled to confine our search to species having peculiar habits of life2 whilst with fowls there is nothing in their habits in any marked manner distinct from those of other gallinaceous birds4 ,in the case of pigeons1 ,i have shown that purely- bred birds of every race and the crossed offspring of distinct races frequently resemble1 or revert to1 the wild rock-pigeon in general colour and in each characteristic mark4 ,with fowls we have facts of a similar nature1 but less strongly pronounced1 which we will now discuss4 ,,reversion ,,and ,,analogous ,,variation4 ,purely-bred ,game1 ,malay1 ,cochin1 ,dorking1 ,bantam1 and1 as ,i hear from ,mr4 ,tegetmeier1 ,silk fowls1 may frequently or occasionally be met with1 which are almost identical in plumage with the wild ,g4 bankiva4 ,this is a fact well deserving attention1 when we reflect that these breeds rank amongst the most distinct4 ,fowls thus coloured are called by amateurs black- breasted reds4 ,hamburghs properly have a very different plumage2 nevertheless1 as ,mr4 ,tegetmeier informs me1 the great difficulty in breeding cocks of the golden-spangled variety is their tendency to have black breasts and red backs4 ,the males of white ,bantams and white ,cochins1 as they come to maturity1 often assume a yellowish or saffron tinge2 and the longer neck hackles of black ,bantam cocks 7#g_/bh4 ,mr4 ,hewitt in ',the ,poultry ,book' by ,w4,b4 ,tegetmeier #ahff page #bdh471 when two or three years old1 not uncommonly become ruddy2 these latter ,bantams occasionally even moult brassy-winged1 or actually red-shouldered4 ,so that in these several cases we see a plain tendency to reversion to the hues of ,g4 bankiva1 even during the lifetime of the individual bird4 ,with ,spanish1 ,polish1 pencilled ,hamburgh1 silver-spangled ,hamburgh fowls1 and with some other less common breeds1 ,i have never heard of a black-breasted red bird having appeared4 ,from my experience with pigeons1 ,i made the following crosses4 ,i first killed all my own poultry1 no others living near my house1 and then procured1 by ,mr4 ,tegetmeier's assistance1 a first-rate black ,spanish cock1 and hens of the following pure breeds1--white ,game1 white ,cochin1 silver- spangled ,polish1 silver-spangled ,hamburgh1 silver-pencilled ,hamburgh1 and white ,silk4 ,in none of these breeds is there a trace of red1 nor when kept pure have ,i ever heard of the appearance of a red feather2 though such an occurrence would perhaps not be very improbable with white ,games and white ,cochins4 ,of the many chickens reared from the above six crosses the majority were black1 both in the down and in the first plumage2 some were white1 and a very few were mottled black and white4 ,in one lot of eleven mixed eggs from the white ,game and white ,cochin by the black ,spanish cock1 seven of the chickens were white1 and only four black4 ,i mention this fact to show that whiteness of plumage is strongly inherited1 and that the belief in the prepotent power in the male to transmit his colour is not always correct4 ,the chickens were hatched in the spring1 and in the latter part of ,august several of the young cocks began to exhibit a change1 which with some of them increased during the following years4 ,thus a young male bird from the silver-spangled ,polish hen was in its first plumage coal- black1 and combined in its comb1 crest1 wattle1 and beard1 the characters of both parents2 but when two years old the secondary wing-feathers became largely and symmetrically marked with white1 and1 wherever in ,g4 bankiva the hackles are red1 they were in this bird greenish-black along the shaft1 narrowly bordered with brownish-black1 and this again broadly bordered with very pale yellowish-brown2 so that in general appearance the plumage had become pale-coloured instead of black4 ,in this case1 with advancing age there was a great change1 but no reversion to the red colour of ,g4 bankiva4 ,a cock with a regular rose comb derived either from the spangled or pencilled silver ,hamburgh was likewise at first quite black2 but in less than a year the neck-hackles1 as in the last case1 became whitish1 whilst those on the loins assumed a decided reddish-yellow tint2 and here we see the first symptom of reversion2 this likewise occurred with some other young cocks1 which need not here be described4 ,it has also been recorded 7#g_/bi4 ',journal of ,horticulture' ,january #ad1 #ahfb page #cbe47 by a breeder1 that he crossed two silver-pencilled ,hamburgh hens with a ,spanish cock1 and reared a number of chickens1 all of which were black1 the cocks having ,,golden and the hens brownish hackles2 so that in this instance likewise there was a clear tendency to reversion4 ,two young cocks from my white ,game hen were at first snow white2 of these1 one subsequently assumed male orange-coloured hackles1 chiefly on the loins1 and the other an abundance of fine orange-red hackles on the neck1 loins1 and upper wing-coverts4 ,here again we have a more decided1 though partial1 reversion to the colours of ,g4 bankiva4 ,this second cock was in fact coloured like an inferior pile ,came cock2--now this sub-breed can be produced1 as ,i am informed by ,mr4 ,tegetmeier1 by crossing a black-breasted red ,game cock with a white ,game hen1 and the pile sub-breed thus produced can afterwards be truly propagated4 ,so that we have the curious fact of the glossy-black ,spanish cock and the black-breasted red ,game cock when crossed with white ,game hens producing offspring of nearly the same colours4 ,i reared several birds from the white ,silk hen by the ,spanish cock3 all were coal-black1 and all plainly showed their parentage in having blackish combs and bones2 none inherited the so-called silky feathers1 and the non- inheritance of this character has been observed by others4 ,the hens never varied in their plumage4 ,as the young cocks grew old1 one of them assumed yellowish-white hackles1 and thus resembled in a considerable degree the cross from the ,hamburgh hen2 the other became a gorgeous bird1 so much so that an acquaintance had it preserved and stuffed simply from its beauty4 ,when stalking about it closely resembled the wild ,gallus bankiva1 but with the red feathers rather darker4 ,on close comparison one considerable difference presented itself1 namely1 that the primary and secondary wing- feathers were edged with greenish-black1 instead of being edged1 as in ,g4 bankiva1 with fulvous and red tints4 ,the space1 also1 across the back1 which bears dark-green feathers1 was broader1 and the comb was blackish4 ,in all other respects1 even in trifling details of plumage1 there was the closest accordance4 ,altogether it was a marvellous sight to compare this bird first with ,g4 bankiva1 and then with its father1 the glossy green- black ,spanish cock1 and with its diminutive mother1 the white ,silk hen4 ,this case of reversion is the more extraordinary as the ,spanish breed has long been known to breed true1 and no instance is on record of its throwing a single red feather4 ,the ,silk hen likewise breeds true1 and is believed to be ancient1 for ,aldrovandi1 before #afjj1 alludes probably to this breed1 and described it as covered with wool4 ,it is so peculiar in many characters that some writers have considered it as specifically distinct2 yet1 as we now see1 when crossed with the ,spanish fowl1 it yields offspring closely resembling the wild ,g4 bankiva4 ,mr4 ,tegetmeier has been so kind as to repeat1 at my request1 the cross between a ,spanish cock and ,silk hen1 and he obtained similar results2 for he thus raised1 besides a black hen1 seven cocks1 all of which were dark- bodied with more or less orange-red hackles4 ,in the ensuing year he paired the black hen with one of her brothers1 and raised three young cocks1 all coloured like their father1 and a black hen mottled with white4 ,the hens from the six above-described crosses showed hardly any tendency to revert to the mottled-brown plumage of the female ,g4 bankiva3 one hen1 however1 from the white ,cochin1 which was at first coal-black1 became slightly brown or sooty4 ,several hens1 which were for a long time snow- white1 acquired as they grew old a few black feathers4 ,a hen from the white ,game1 which was for a long time entirely black glossed with green1 when two years old had some of the primary wing feathers greyish-white1 and a multitude of feathers over her body narrowly and symmetrically tipped or laced with white4 ,i had expected that some of the chickens whilst covered with down would have assumed the longitudinal stripes so general with gallinaceous birds2 but this did not occur in a single instance4 ,two or three alone were reddish-brown about their heads4 ,i was unfortunate in losing nearly all the white chickens from the first crosses2 so that black prevailed with the grandchildren2 but they were much diversified in colour1 some being sooty1 others mottled1 and one blackish chicken had its feathers oddly tipped and barred with brown4 ,i will here add a few miscellaneous facts connected with reversion1 and with the law of analogous variation4 ,this law implies1 as stated in a previous chapter1 that the varieties of one species frequently mock distinct but allied species2 and this fact is explained1 according to the views which ,i maintain1 on the principle of allied species having descended from one primitive form4 ,the white ,silk fowl with black skin and bones degenerates1 as has been observed by ,mr4 ,hewitt and ,mr4 ,r4 ,orton1 in our climate2 that is1 it reverts to the ordinary colour of the common fowl in its skin and bones1 due care having been taken to prevent any cross4 ,in ,germany 7#g_/cj4 ',die ,huhner- und ,pfauenzucht' ,ulm #ahbg s4 #ag4 ,for ,mr4 ,hewitt's statement with respect to the white ,silk fowl see the ',poultry ,book' by ,w4,b4 ,tegetmeier #ahff page #bbb4 ,i am indebted to ,mr4 ,orton for a letter on the same subject47 a distinct breed with black bones1 and with black1 not silky plumage1 has likewise been observed to degenerate4 ,mr4 ,tegetmeier informs me that1 when distinct breeds are crossed1 fowls are frequently produced with their feathers marked or pencilled by narrow transverse lines of a darker colour4 ,this may be in part explained by direct reversion to the parent-form1 the ,bankiva hen2 for this bird has all its upper plumage finely mottled with dark and rufous brown1 with the mottling partially and obscurely arranged in transverse lines4 ,but the tendency to pencilling is probably much strengthened by the law of analogous variation1 for the hens of some other species of ,gallus are more plainly pencilled1 and the hens of many gallinaceous birds belonging to other genera1 as the partridge1 have pencilled feathers4 ,mr4 ,tegetmeier has also remarked to me that1 although with domestic pigeons we have so great a diversity of colouring1 we never see either pencilled or spangled feathers2 and this fact is intelligible on the law of analogous variation1 as neither the wild rock pigeon nor any closely allied species has such feathers4 ,the frequent appearance of pencilling in crossed birds probably accounts for the existence of cuckoo sub-breeds in the ,game1 ,polish1 ,dorking1 ,cochin1 ,andalusian1 and ,bantam breeds4 ,the plumage of these birds is slaty-blue or grey1 with each feather transversely barred with darker lines1 so as to resemble in some degree the plumage of the cuckoo4 ,it is a singular fact1 considering that the male of no species of ,gallus is in the least barred1 that the cuckoo-like plumage has often been transferred to the male1 more especially in the cuckoo ,dorking2 and the fact is all the more singular1 as in gold- and silver-pencilled ,hamburghs1 in which pencilling is characteristic of the breed1 the male is hardly at all pencilled1 this kind of plumage being confined to the female4 ,another case of analogous variation is the occurrence of spangled sub- breeds of ,hamburgh1 ,polish1 ,malay1 and ,bantam fowls4 ,spangled feathers have a dark mark1 properly crescent-shaped1 on their tips2 whilst pencilled feathers have several transverse bars4 ,the spangling cannot be due to reversion to ,g4 bankiva2 nor does it often follow1 as ,i hear from ,mr4 ,tegetmeier1 from crossing distinct breeds2 but it is a case of analogous variation1 for many gallinaceous birds have spangled feathers1--for instance1 the common pheasant4 ,hence spangled breeds are often called pheasant-fowls4 ,another case of analogous variation in several domestic breeds is inexplicable2 it is1 that the chickens1 whilst covered with down1 of the black ,spanish1 black ,game1 black ,polish1 and black ,bantam1 all have white throats and breasts1 and often have some white on their wings4 7#g_/ca4 ,dixon ',ornamental and ,domestic ,poultry' pages #bec1 #cbd1 #cce4 ,for game fowls see ,ferguson on ',prize ,poultry' page #bfj47 ,the editor of the ',poultry ,chronicle' 7#g_/cb4 ',poultry ,chronicle' volume #b #ga47 remarks that all the breeds which properly have red ear-lappets occasionally produce birds with white ear-,tappets4 ,this remark more especially applies to the ,game breed1 which of all comes nearest to the ,g4 bankiva2 and we have seen that with this species living in a state of nature1 the ear-lappets vary in colour1 being red in the ,malayan countries1 and generally1 but not invariably1 white in ,india4 ,in concluding this part of my subject1 ,i may repeat that there exists one widely-ranging1 varying1 and common species of ,gallus1 namely1 ,g4 bankiva1 which can be tamed1 produces fertile offspring when crossed with common fowls1 and closely resembles in its whole structure1 plumage1 and voice the ,game breed2 hence it may be safely ranked as the parent of this1 the most typical domesticated breed4 ,we have seen that there is much difficulty in believing that other1 now unknown1 species have been the parents of the other domestic breeds4 ,we know that all the breeds are most closely allied1 as shown by their similarity in most points of structure and in habits1 and by the analogous manner in which they vary4 ,we have also seen that several of the most distinct breeds occasionally or habitually closely resemble in plumage ,g4 bankiva1 and that the crossed offspring of other breeds1 which are not thus coloured1 show a stronger or weaker tendency to revert to this same plumage4 ,some of the breeds1 which appear the most distinct and the least likely to have proceeded from ,g4 bankiva1 such as ,polish fowls1 with their protuberant and little ossified skulls1 and ,cochins1 with their imperfect tail and small wings1 bear in these characters the plain marks of their artificial origin4 ,we know well that of late years methodical selection has greatly improved and fixed many characters2 and we have every reason to believe that unconscious selection1 carried on for many generations1 will have steadily augmented each new peculiarity1 and thus have given rise to new breeds4 ,as soon as two or three breeds were once formed1 crossing would come into play in changing their character and in increasing their number4 ,brahma ,pootras1 according to an account lately published in ,america1 offer a good instance of a breed1 lately formed by a cross1 which can be truly propagated4 ,the well-known ,sebright ,bantams offer another and similar instance4 ,hence it may be concluded that not only the ,game-breed but that all our breeds are probably the descendants of the ,malayan or ,indian variety of ,g4 bankiva4 ,if so1 this species has varied greatly since it was first domesticated2 but there has been ample time1 as we shall now show4 ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,fowl4 ,rutimeyer found no remains of the fowl in the ancient ,swiss lake-dwellings2 but1 according to ,jeitteles 7#g_/cc4 ',die vorgeschichtlichen ,alterthumer' ,,ii4 ,theil #ahgb page #e4 ,dr4 ,pickering in his ',races of ,man' #ahej page #cgd says that the head and neck of a fowl is carried in a ,tribute-procession to ,thoutmousis ,,iii4 7#adde ,b4,c472 but ,mr4 ,birch of the ,british ,museum doubts whether the figure can be identified as the head of a fowl4 ,some caution is necessary with reference to the absence of figures of the fowl on the ancient ,egyptian monuments1 on account of the strong and widely prevalent prejudice against this bird4 ,i am informed by the ,rev4 ,s4 ,erhardt that on the east coast of ,africa1 from #d to #f deg south of the equator1 most of the pagan tribes at the present day hold the fowl in aversion4 ,the natives of the ,pellew ,islands would not eat the fowl nor will the ,indians in some parts of ,s4 ,america4 ,for the ancient history of the fowl see also ,volz ',beitrage zur ,culturgeschichte' #aheb s4 #gg2 and ,isid4 ,geoffroy ,st4-,hilaire ',hist4 ,nat4 ,gen4' tome #c page #fa4 ,mr4 ,crawfurd has given an admirable history of the fowl in his paper ',on the ,relation of ,domesticated ,animals to ,civilisation' read before the ,brit4 ,assoc4 at ,oxford in #ahfj and since printed separately4 ,i quote from him on the ,greek poet ,theognis1 and on the ,harpy ,tomb described by ,sir ,c4 ,fellowes4 ,i quote from a letter of ,mr4 ,blyth's with respect to the ,institutes of ,manu471 such have certainly since been found associated with extinct animals and prehistoric remains4 ,it is1 therefore a strange fact that the fowl is not mentioned in the ,old ,testament1 nor figured on the ancient ,egyptian monuments4 ,it is not referred to by ,homer or ,hesiod 7about #ijj ,b4,c472 but is mentioned by ,theognis and ,aristophanes between #djj and #ejj ,b4,c4 ,it is figured on some of the ,babylonian cylinders1 between the sixth and seventh centuries ,b4,c41 of which ,mr4 ,layard sent me an impression2 and on the ,harpy ,tomb in ,lycia1 about #fjj ,b4,c43 so that the fowl apparently reached ,europe in a domesticated condition somewhere about the sixth century ,b4,c4 ,it had travelled still farther westward by the time of the ,christian era1 for it was found in ,britain by ,julius ,caesar4 ,in ,india it must have been domesticated when the ,institutes of ,manu were written1 that is1 according to ,sir ,w4 ,jones1 #abjj ,b4,c41 but1 according to the later authority of ,mr4 ,h4 ,wilson1 only #hjj ,b4,c41 for the domestic fowl is forbidden1 whilst the wild is permitted to be eaten4 ,if1 as before remarked1 we may trust the old ,chinese ,encyclopaedia1 the fowl must have been domesticated several centuries earlier1 as it is said to have been introduced from the ,west into ,china #adjj ,b4,c4 ,sufficient materials do not exist for tracing the history of the separate breeds4 ,about the commencement of the ,christian era1 ,columella mentions a five-toed fighting breed1 and some provincial breeds2 but we know nothing about them4 ,he also alludes to dwarf fowls2 but these cannot have been the same with our ,bantams1 which1 as ,mr4 ,crawfurd has shown1 were imported from ,japan into ,bantam in ,java4 ,a dwarf fowl1 probably the true ,bantam1 is referred to in an old ,japanese ,encyclopaedia1 as ,i am informed by ,mr4 ,birch4 ,in the ,chinese ,encyclopaedia published in #aeif1 but compiled from various sources1 some of high antiquity1 seven breeds are mentioned1 including what we should now call ,jumpers or ,creepers1 and likewise fowls with black feathers1 bones1 and flesh4 ,in #afjj ,aldrovandi describes seven or eight breeds of fowls1 and this is the most ancient record from which the age of our ,european breeds can be inferred4 ,the ,gallus turcicus certainly seems to be a pencilled ,hamburgh2 but ,mr4 ,brent1 a most capable judge1 thinks that ,aldrovandi evidently figured what he happened to see1 and not the best of the breed4 ,mr4 ,brent1 indeed1 considers all ,aldrovandi's fowls as of impure breed2 but it is a far more probable view that all our breeds have been much improved and modified since his time2 for1 as he went to the expense of so many figures1 he probably would have secured characteristic specimens4 ,the ,silk fowl1 however1 probably then existed in its present state1 as did almost certainly the fowl with frizzled or reversed feathers4 ,mr4 ,dixon 7#g_/cd4 ',ornamental and ,domestic ,poultry' #ahdg page #ahe2 for passages translated from ,columella see page #cab4 ,for ,golden ,hamburghs see ,albin ',natural ,history of ,birds' #c volumes with plates #agca-ch47 considers ,aldrovandi's ,paduan fowl as a variety of the ,polish1 whereas ,mr4 ,brent believes it to have been more nearly allied to the ,malay4 ,the anatomical peculiarities of the skull of the ,polish breed were noticed by ,p4 ,borelli in #afef4 ,i may add that in #agcg one ,polish sub- breed1 viz41 the ,golden-spangled1 was known2 but judging from ,albin's description1 the comb was then larger1 the crest of feathers much smaller1 the breast more coarsely spotted1 and the stomach and thighs much blacker3 a ,golden-spangled ,polish fowl in this condition would now be of no value4 ,,differences ,,in ,,external ,,and ,,internal ,,structure ,,between ,,the ,,breeds3 ,,individual ,,variability4 ,fowls have been exposed to diversified conditions of life1 and as we have just seen there has been ample time for much variability and for the slow action of unconscious selection4 ,as there are good grounds for believing that all the breeds are descended from ,gallus bankiva1 it will be worth while to describe in some detail the chief points of difference4 ,beginning with the eggs and chickens1 ,i will pass on to their secondary sexual characters1 and then to their differences in external structure and in the skeleton4 ,i enter on the following details chiefly to show how variable almost every character has become under domestication4 ,,eggs4 ,mr4 ,dixon remarks 7#g_/ce4 ',ornamental and ,domestic ,poultry' page #aeb47 that to every hen belongs an individual peculiarity in the form1 colour1 and size of her egg1 which never changes during her life-time1 so long as she remains in health1 and which is as well known to those who are in the habit of taking her produce1 as the hand-writing of their nearest acquaintance4 ,i believe that this is generally true1 and that1 if no great number of hens be kept1 the eggs of each can almost always be recognised4 ,the eggs of differently sized breeds naturally differ much in size2 but apparently1 not always in strict relation to the size of the hen3 thus the ,malay is a larger bird than the ,spanish1 but ,,generally she produces not such large eggs2 white ,bantams are said to lay smaller eggs than other ,bantams 7#g_/cf4 ,ferguson on ',rare ,prize ,poultry' page #big4 ,this writer1 ,i am informed1 cannot generally be trusted4 ,he gives1 however1 figures and much information on eggs4 ,see pages #cd and #bce on the eggs of the ,game fowl472 white ,cochins1 on the other hand1 as ,i hear from ,mr4 ,tegetmeier1 certainly lay larger eggs than buff ,cochins4 ,the eggs1 however1 of the different breeds vary considerably in character2 for instance1 ,mr4 ,ballance states 7#g_/cg4 ,see ',poultry ,book' by ,mr4 ,tegetmeier #ahff pages #ha and #gh47 that his ,malay pullets of last year laid eggs equal in size to those of any duck1 and other ,malay hens1 two or three years old1 laid eggs very little larger than a good sized ,bantam's egg4 ,some were as white as a ,spanish hen's egg1 and others varied from a light cream-colour to a deep rich buff1 or even to a brown4 ,the shape also varies1 the two ends being much more equally rounded in ,cochins than in ,games or ,polish4 ,spanish fowls lay smoother eggs than ,cochins1 of which the eggs are generally granulated4 ,the shell in this latter breed1 and more especially in ,malays is apt to be thicker than in ,games or ,spanish2 but the ,minorcas1 a sub-breed of ,spanish1 are said to lay harder eggs than true ,spanish4 7#g_/ch4 ',the ,cottage ,gardener' ,october #ahee page #ac4 ,on the thinness of the eggs of ,game-fowls see ,mowbray on ',poultry' #gth edition page #ac47 ,the colour differs considerably1--the ,cochins laying buff-coloured eggs2 the ,malays a paler variable buff2 and ,games a still paler buff4 ,it would appear that darker-coloured eggs characterise the breeds which have lately come from the ,east1 or are still closely allied to those now living there4 ,the colour of the yolk1 according to ,ferguson1 as well as of the shell1 differs slightly in the sub-breeds of the ,game4 ,i am also informed by ,mr4 ,brent that dark partridge-coloured ,cochin hens lay darker coloured eggs than the other ,cochin sub-breeds4 ,the flavour and richness of the egg certainly differ in different breeds4 ,the productiveness of the several breeds is very different4 ,spanish1 ,polish1 and ,hamburgh hens have lost the incubating instinct4 ,,chickens4 ,as the young of almost all gallinaceous birds1 even of the black curassow and black grouse1 whilst covered with down1 are longitudinally striped on the back1--of which character1 when adult1 neither sex retains a trace1--it might have been expected that the chickens of all our domestic fowls would have been similarly striped4 7#g_/ci4 ,my information1 which is very far from perfect1 on chickens in the down1 is derived chiefly from ,mr4 ,dixon's ',ornamental and ,domestic ,poultry4' ,mr4 ,b4,p4 ,brent has also communicated to me many facts by letter1 as has ,mr4 ,tegetmeier4 ,i will in each case mark my authority by the name within brackets4 ,for the chickens of white ,silk fowls see ,tegetmeier ',poultry ,book' #ahff page #bba47 ,this could1 however1 hardly have been expected1 when the adult plumage in both sexes has undergone so great a change as to be wholly white or black4 ,in white fowls of various breeds the chickens are uniformly yellowish white1 passing in the black- boned ,silk fowl into bright canary-yellow4 ,this is also generally the case with the chickens of white ,cochins1 but ,i hear from ,mr4 ,zurhost that they are sometimes of a buff or oak colour1 and that all those of this latter colour1 which were watched1 turned out males4 ,the chickens of buff ,cochins are of a golden-yellow1 easily distinguishable from the paler tint of the white ,cochins1 and are often longitudinally streaked with dark shades3 the chickens of silver-cinnamon ,cochins are almost always of a buff colour4 ,the chickens of the white ,game and white ,dorking breeds1 when held in particular lights1 sometimes exhibit 7on the authority of ,mr4 ,brent7 faint traces of longitudinal stripes4 ,fowls which are entirely black1 namely1 ,spanish1 black ,game1 black ,polish1 and black ,bantams1 display a new character1 for their chickens have their breasts and throats more or less white1 with sometimes a little white elsewhere4 ,spanish chickens also1 occasionally 7,brent71 have1 where the down was white1 their first true feathers tipped for a time with white4 ,the primordially striped character is retained by the chickens of most of the ,game sub-breeds 7,brent1 ,dixon72 by ,dorkings2 by the partridge and grouse-coloured sub-breeds of ,cochins 7,brent71 but not1 as we have seen1 by the sub-breeds2 by the pheasant-,malay 7,dixon71 but apparently not 7at which ,i am much surprised7 by other ,malays4 ,the following breeds and sub-breeds are barely1 or not at all1 longitudinally striped3 viz41 gold and silver pencilled ,hamburghs1 which can hardly be distinguished from each other 7,brent7 in the down1 both having a few dark spots on the head and rump1 with occasionally a longitudinal stripe 7,dixon7 on the back of the neck4 ,i have seen only one chicken of the silver-spangled ,hamburgh1 and this was obscurely striped along the back4 ,gold-spangled ,polish chickens 7,tegetmeier7 are of a warm russet brown2 and silver-spangled ,polish chickens are grey1 sometimes 7,dixon7 with dashes of ochre on the head1 wings1 and breast4 ,cuckoo and blue-dun fowls 7,dixon7 are grey in the down4 ,the chickens of ,sebright ,bantams 7,dixon7 are uniformly dark brown1 whilst those of the brown- breasted red ,game ,bantam are black1 with some white on the throat and breast4 ,from these facts we see that young chickens of the different breeds1 and even of the same main breed1 differ much in their downy plumage2 and1 although longitudinal stripes characterise the young of all wild gallinaceous birds1 they disappear in several domestic breeds4 ,perhaps it may be accepted as a general rule that the more the adult plumage differs from that of the adult ,g4 bankiva1 the more completely the chickens have lost their stripes4 ,with respect to the period of life at which the characters proper to each breed first appear1 it is obvious that such structures as additional toes must be formed long before birth4 ,in ,polish fowls1 the extraordinary protuberance of the anterior part of the skull is well developed before the chickens come out of the egg 7#g_/dj4 ,as ,i hear from ,mr4 ,tegetmeier2 see also ',proc4 ,zoolog4 ,soc4' #ahef page #cff4 ,on the late development of the crest see ',poultry ,chronicle' volume #b page #acb47 but the crest1 which is supported on the protuberance1 is at first feebly developed1 nor does it attain its full size until the second year4 ,the ,spanish cock is pre-eminent for his magnificent comb1 and this is developed at an unusually early age2 so that the young males can be distinguished from the females when only a few weeks old1 and therefore earlier than in other breeds2 they likewise crow very early1 namely1 when about six weeks old4 ,in the ,dutch sub-breed of the ,spanish fowl the white ear-lappets are developed earlier than in the common ,spanish breed4 7#g_/da4 ,on these points see ',poultry ,chronicle' volume #c page #aff2 and ,tegetmeier ',poultry ,book' #ahff pages #aje and #aba47 ,cochins are characterised by a small tail1 and in the young cocks the tail is developed at an unusually late period4 7#g_/db4 ,dixon ',ornamental and ,domestic ,poultry' page #bgc47 ,game fowls are notorious for their pugnacity2 and the young cocks crow1 clap their little wings1 and fight obstinately with each other1 even whilst under their mother's care4 7#g_/dc4 ,ferguson on ',rare and ,prize ,poultry' page #bfa47 ,i have often had1 says one author 7#g_/dd4 ,mowbray on ',poultry' #gth edition #ahcd page #ac471 whole broods1 scarcely feathered1 stone-blind from fighting2 the rival couples moping in corners1 and renewing their battles on obtaining the first ray of light4 ,the weapons and pugnacity of all male gallinaceous birds evidently serve the purpose of gaining possession of the females2 so that the tendency in our ,game chickens to fight at an extremely early age is not only useless1 but injurious1 as they suffer much from their wounds4 ,the training for battle during an early age may be natural to the wild ,gallus bankiva2 but as man during many generations has gone on selecting the most obstinately pugnacious cocks1 it is more probable that their pugnacity has been unnaturally increased1 and unnaturally transferred to the young male chickens4 ,in the same manner1 it is probable that the extraordinary development of the comb in the ,spanish cock has been unintentionally transferred to the young cocks2 for fanciers would not care whether their young birds had large combs1 but would select for breeding the adults which had the finest combs1 whether or not developed at an early period4 ,the last point which need here be noticed is that1 though the chickens of ,spanish and ,malay fowls are well covered with down1 the true feathers are acquired at an unusually late age2 so that for a time the young birds are partially naked1 and are liable to suffer from cold4 ,,secondary ,,sexual ,,characters4 ,the two sexes in the parent-form1 the ,gallus bankiva1 differ much in colour4 ,in our domestic breeds the difference is never greater1 but is often less1 and varies much in degree even in the sub-breeds of the same main breed4 ,thus in certain ,game fowls the difference is as great as in the parent-form1 whilst in the black and white sub-breeds there is no difference in plumage4 ,mr4 ,brent informs me that he has seen two strains of black-breasted red ,games1 of which the cocks could not be distinguished1 whilst the hens in one were partridge-brown and in the other fawn-brown4 ,a similar case has been observed in the strains of the brown-breasted red ,game4 ,the hen of the duck-winged ,game is extremely beautiful1 and differs much from the hens of all the other ,game sub-breeds2 but generally1 as with the blue and grey ,game and with some sub-varieties of the pile- game1 a moderately close relation may be observed between the males and females in the variation of their plumage4 7#g_/de4 ,see the full description of the varieties of the ,game-breed in ,tegetmeier ',poultry ,book' #ahff page #aca4 ,for ,cuckoo ,dorkings page #ig47 ,a similar relation is also evident when we compare the several varieties of ,cochins4 ,in the two sexes of gold and silver-spangled and of buff ,polish fowls1 there is much general similarity in the colouring and marks of the whole plumage1 excepting of course in the hackles1 crest1 and beard4 ,in spangled ,hamburghs1 there is likewise a considerable degree of similarity between the two sexes4 ,in pencilled ,hamburghs1 on the other hand1 there is much dissimilarity2 the pencilling which is characteristic of the hens being almost absent in the males of both the golden and silver varieties4 ,but1 as we have already seen1 it cannot be given as a general rule that male fowls never have pencilled feathers1 for ,cuckoo ,dorkings are remarkable from having nearly similar markings in both sexes4 ,it is a singular fact that the males in certain sub-breeds have lost some of their secondary masculine characters1 and from their close resemblance in plumage to the females1 are often called hennies4 ,there is much diversity of opinion whether these males are in any degree sterile2 that they sometimes are partially sterile seems clear 7#g_/df4 ,mr4 ,hewitt in ,tegetmeier ',poultry ,book' #ahff pages #bdf and #aef4 ,for hen-tailed game-cocks see page #aca471 but this may have been caused by too close interbreeding4 ,that they are not quite sterile1 and that the whole case is widely different from that of old females assuming masculine characters1 is evident from several of these hen-like sub-breeds having been long propagated4 ,the males and females of gold and silver-laced ,sebright ,bantams can be barely distinguished from each other1 except by their combs1 wattles1 and spurs1 for they are coloured alike1 and the males have not hackles1 nor the flowing sickle-like tail-feathers4 ,a hen-tailed sub-breed of ,hamburghs was recently much esteemed4 ,there is also a breed of ,game- fowls1 in which the males and females resemble each other so closely that the cocks have often mistaken their hen-feathered opponents in the cock-pit for real hens1 and by the mistake have lost their lives4 7#g_/dg4 ',the ,field' ,april #bj1 #ahfa4 ,the writer says he has seen half-a-dozen cocks thus sacrificed47 ,the cocks1 though dressed in the feathers of the hen1 are high-spirited birds1 and their courage has been often proved3 an engraving even has been published of one celebrated hen-tailed victor4 ,mr4 ,tegetmeier 7#g_/dh4 ',proceedings of ,zoolog4 ,soc4' ,march #ahfa page #ajb4 ,the engraving of the hen-tailed cock just alluded to was exhibited before the ,society47 has recorded the remarkable case of a brown-breasted red ,game cock which1 after assuming its perfect masculine plumage1 became hen-feathered in the autumn of the following year2 but he did not lose voice1 spurs1 strength1 nor productiveness4 ,this bird has now retained the same character during five seasons1 and has begot both hen-feathered and male-feathered offspring4 ,mr4 ,grantley ,f4 ,berkeley relates the still more singular case of a celebrated strain of polecat ,game fowls1 which produced in nearly every brood a single hen-cock4 ,the great peculiarity in one of these birds was that he1 as the seasons succeeded each other1 was not always a hen-cock1 and not always of the colour called the polecat1 which is black4 ,from the polecat and hen-cock feather in one season he moulted to a full male-plumaged black-breasted red1 and in the following year he returned to the former feather4 7#g_/di4 ',the ,field' ,april #bj1 #ahfa47 ,i have remarked in my ',origin of ,species' that secondary sexual characters are apt to differ much in the species of the same genus1 and to be unusually variable in the individuals of the same species4 ,so it is with the breeds of the fowl1 as we have already seen1 as far as the colour of plumage is concerned1 and so it is with the other secondary sexual characters4 ,firstly1 the comb differs much in the various breeds 7#g_/ej4 ,i am much indebted to ,mr4 ,brent for an account1 with sketches1 of all the variations of the comb known to him1 and likewise with respect to the tail as presently to be given71 and its form is eminently characteristic of each kind1 with the exception of the ,dorkings1 in which the form has not been as yet determined on by fanciers1 and fixed by selection4 ,a single1 deeply- serrated comb is the typical and most common form4 ,it differs much in size1 being immensely developed in ,spanish fowls2 and in a local breed called ,red-caps1 it is sometimes upwards of three inches in breadth at the front1 and more than four inches in length1 measured to the end of the peak behind4 7#g_/ea4 ,the ',poultry ,book' by ,tegetmeier #ahff page #bcd47 ,in some breeds the comb is double1 and when the two ends are cemented together it forms a cup-comb2 in the rose-comb it is depressed1 covered with small projections1 and produced backwards2 in the horned and creve-coeur fowl it is produced into two horns2 it is triple in the pea-combed ,brahmas1 short and truncated in the ,malays1 and absent in the ,guelderlands4 ,in the tasselled ,game a few long feathers rise from the back of the comb3 in many breeds a crest of feathers replaces the comb4 ,the crest1 when little developed1 arises from a fleshy mass1 but1 when much developed1 from a hemispherical protuberance of the skull4 ,in the best ,polish fowls it is so largely developed1 that ,i have seen birds which could hardly pick up their food2 and a ,german writer asserts 7#g_/eb4 ',die ,huhner- und ,pfauenzucht' #ahbg s4 #aa47 that they are in consequence liable to be struck by hawks4 ,monstrous structures of this kind would thus be suppressed in a state of nature4 ,the wattles1 also1 vary much in size1 being small in ,malays and some other breeds2 in certain ,polish sub-breeds they are replaced by a great tuft of feathers called a beard4 ,the hackles do not differ much in the various breeds1 but are short and stiff in ,malays1 and absent in ,hennies4 ,as in some orders male birds display extraordinarily-shaped feathers1 such as naked shafts with discs at the end1 etc41 the following case may be worth giving4 ,in the wild ,gallus bankiva and in our domestic fowls1 the barbs which arise from each side of the extremities of the hackles are naked or not clothed with barbules1 so that they resemble bristles2 but ,mr4 ,brent sent me some scapular hackles from a young ,birchen ,duckwing ,game cock1 in which the naked barbs became densely re-clothed with barbules towards their tips2 so that these tips1 which were dark coloured with a metallic lustre1 were separated from the lower parts by a symmetrically-shaped transparent zone formed of the naked portions of the barbs4 ,hence the coloured tips appeared like little separate metallic discs4 ,the sickle-feathers in the tail1 of which there are three pair1 and which are eminently characteristic of the male sex1 differ much in the various breeds4 ,they are scimitar-shaped in some ,hamburghs1 instead of being long and flowing as in the typical breeds4 ,they are extremely short in ,cochins1 and are not at all developed in ,hennies4 ,they are carried1 together with the whole tail1 erect in ,dorkings and ,gaines2 but droop much in ,malays and in some ,cochins4 ,sultans are characterised by an additional number of lateral sickle-feathers4 ,the spurs vary much1 being placed higher or lower on the shank2 being extremely long and sharp in ,games1 and blunt and short in ,cochins4 ,these latter birds seem aware that their spurs are not efficient weapons2 for though they occasionally use them1 they more frequently fight1 as ,i am informed by ,mr4 ,tegetmeier1 by seizing and shaking each other with their beaks4 ,in some ,indian ,game cocks1 received by ,mr4 ,brent from ,germany1 there are1 as he informs me1 three1 four1 or even five spurs on each leg4 ,some ,dorkings also have two spurs on each leg 7#g_/ec4 ',poultry ,chronicle' volume #a page #eie4 ,mr4 ,brent has informed me of the same fact4 ,with respect to the position of the spurs in ,dorkings see ',cottage ,gardener' ,september #ah1 #ahfj page #chj472 and in birds of this breed the spur is often placed almost on the outside of the leg4 ,double spurs are mentioned in an ancient ,chinese ,encyclopaedia4 ,their occurrence may be considered as a case of analogous variation1 for some wild gallinaceous birds1 for instance1 the ,polyplectron1 have double spurs4 ,judging from the differences which generally distinguish the sexes in the ,gallinaceae1 certain characters in our domestic fowls appear to have been transferred from the one sex to the other4 ,in all the species 7except in ,turnix71 when there is any conspicuous difference in plumage between the male and female1 the male is always the most beautiful2 but in golden- spangled ,hamburghs the hen is equally beautiful with the cock1 and incomparably more beautiful than the hen in any natural species of ,gallus2 so that here a masculine character has been transferred to the female4 ,on the other hand1 in ,cuckoo ,dorkings and in other cuckoo breeds the pencilling1 which in ,gallus is a female attribute1 has been transferred to the male3 nor1 on the principle of analogous variation1 is this transference surprising1 as the males in many gallinaceous genera are barred or pencilled4 ,with most of these birds head ornaments of all kinds are more fully developed in the male than in the female2 but in ,polish fowls the crest or top-knot1 which in the male replaces the comb1 is equally developed in both sexes4 ,in the males of certain other sub-breeds1 which from the hen having a small crest1 are called lark-crested1 a single upright comb sometimes almost entirely takes the place of the crest4 7#g_/ed4 ,dixon ',ornamental and ,domestic ,poultry' page #cbj47 ,from this latter case1 and more especially from some facts presently to be given with respect to the protuberance of the skull in ,polish fowls1 the crest in this breed must be viewed as a feminine character which has been transferred to the male4 ,in the ,spanish breed the male1 as we know1 has an immense comb1 and this has been partially transferred to the female1 for her comb is unusually large1 though not upright4 ,in ,game fowls the bold and savage disposition of the male has likewise been largely transferred to the female 7#g_/ee4 ,mr4 ,tegetmeier informs me that ,game hens have been found so combative1 that it is now generally the practice to exhibit each hen in a separate pen472 and she sometimes even possesses the eminently masculine character of spurs4 ,many cases are on record of fertile hens being furnished with spurs2 and in ,germany1 according to ,bechstein 7#g_/ef4 ',naturgeschichte ,deutschlands' b4 #c #agic s4 #cci1 #djg471 the spurs in the ,silk hen are sometimes very long4 ,he mentions also another breed similarly characterised1 in which the hens are excellent layers1 but are apt to disturb and break their eggs owing to their spurs4 ,mr4 ,layard 7#g_/eg4 ,on the ,ornithology of ,ceylon in ',annals and ,mag4 of ,nat4 ,history4' #bnd series volume #ad #ahed page #fc47 has given an account of a breed of fowls in ,ceylon with black skin1 bones1 and wattle1 but with ordinary feathers1 and which cannot be more aptly described than by comparing them to a white fowl drawn down a sooty chimney2 it is1 however1 adds ,mr4 ,layard1 a remarkable fact that a male bird of the pure sooty variety is almost as rare as a tortoise-shell tom-cat4 ,mr4 ,blyth found the same rule to hold good with this breed near ,calcutta4 ,the males and females1 on the other hand1 of the black-boned ,european breed1 with silky feathers1 do not differ from each other2 so that in the one breed1 black skin and bones and the same kind of plumage are common to both sexes1 whilst in the other breed1 these characters are confined to the female sex4 ,at the present day all the breeds of ,polish fowls have the great bony protuberance on their skulls1 which includes part of the brain and supports the crest1 equally developed in both sexes4 ,but formerly in ,germany the skull of the hen alone was protuberant3 ,blumenbach 7#g_/eh4 ',handbuch der vergleich4 ,anatomie' #ahje page #he note4 ,mr4 ,tegetmeier1 who gives in ',proc4 ,zoolog4 ,soc4' ,november #be1 #ahef a very interesting account of the skulls of ,polish fowls1 not knowing of ,bechstein's account1 has disputed the accuracy of ,blumenbach's statement4 ,for ,bechstein see ',naturgeschichte ,deutschlands' b4 #c #agic s4 #cii note4 ,i may add that at the first exhibition of ,poultry at the ,zoological ,gardens in ,may #ahde ,i saw some fowls1 called ,friezland fowls1 of which the hens were crested1 and the cocks furnished with a comb471 who particularly attended to abnormal peculiarities in domestic animals1 states1 in #ahje1 that this was the case2 and ,bechstein had previously1 in #agic observed the same fact4 ,this latter author has carefully described the effects on the skull of a crest not only in the case of fowls1 but of ducks1 geese1 and canaries4 ,he states that with fowls1 when the crest is not much developed1 it is supported on a fatty mass2 but when much developed1 it is always supported on a bony protuberance of variable size4 ,he well describes the peculiarities of this protuberance2 he attended also to the effects of the modified shape of the brain on the intellect of these birds1 and disputes ,pallas' statement that they are stupid4 ,he then expressly remarks that he never observed this protuberance in male fowls4 ,hence there can be no doubt that this extraordinary character in the skulls of ,polish fowls was formerly in ,germany confined to the female sex1 but has now been transferred to the males1 and has thus become common to both sexes4 ,,external ,,differences1 ,,not ,,connected ,,with ,,the ,,sexes1 ,,between ,,the ,,breeds ,,and ,,between ,,individual ,,birds4 ,the size of the body differs greatly4 ,mr4 ,tegetmeier has known a ,brahma to weigh #ag pounds2 a fine ,malay cock #aj pounds2 whilst a first-rate ,sebright ,bantam weighs hardly more than #a pound4 ,during the last #bj years the size of some of our breeds has been largely increased by methodical selection1 whilst that of other breeds has been much diminished4 ,we have already seen how greatly colour varies even within the same breed2 we know that the wild ,g4 bankiva varies slightly in colour2 we know that colour is variable in all our domestic animals2 nevertheless some eminent fanciers have so little faith in variability1 that they have actually argued that the chief ,game sub-breeds1 which differ from each other in nothing but colour1 are descended from distinct wild species6 ,crossing often causes strange modification of colour4 ,mr4 ,tegetmeier informs me that when buff and white ,cochins are crossed1 some of the chickens are almost invariably black4 ,according to ,mr4 ,brent1 black and white ,cochins occasionally produce chickens of a slaty-blue tint2 and this same tint results1 as ,mr4 ,tegetmeier tells me1 from crossing white ,cochins with black ,spanish fowls1 or white ,dorkings with black ,minorcas4 7#g_/ei4 ',cottage ,gardener' ,january #c1 #ahfj page #bah47 ,a good observer 7#g_/fj4 ,mr4 ,williams in a paper read before the ,dublin ,nat4 ,hist4 ,soc4 quoted in ',cottage ,gardener' #ahef page #afa47 states that a first-rate silver-spangled ,hamburgh hen gradually lost the most characteristic qualities of the breed1 for the black lacing to her feathers disappeared1 and her legs changed from leaden-blue to white3 but what makes the case remarkable is1 that this tendency ran in the blood for her sister changed in a similar but less strongly marked manner2 and chickens produced from this latter hen were at first almost pure white1 but on moulting acquired black colours and some spangled feathers with almost obliterated markings2 so that a new variety arose in this singular manner4 ,the skin in the different breeds differs much in colour1 being white in common kinds1 yellow in ,malays and ,cochins1 and black in ,silk fowls2 thus mocking1 as ,m4 ,godron 7#g_/fa4 ',de l',espece' #ahei page #ddb4 ,for the occurrence of black-boned fowls in ,south ,america1 see ,roulin in ',mem4 de l',acad4 des ,sciences' tome #f page #cea2 and ,azara1 ',quadrupedes du ,paraguay' tome #b page #cbd4 ,a frizzled fowl sent to me from ,madras had black bones47 remarks the three principal types of skin in mankind4 ,the same author adds that1 as different kinds of fowls living in distant and isolated parts of the world have black skin and bones1 this colour must have appeared at various times and places4 ,the shape and carriage of the body1 and the shape of the head differ much4 ,the beak varies slightly in length and curvature1 but incomparably less than with pigeons4 ,in most crested fowls the nostrils offer a remarkable peculiarity in being raised with a crescentic outline4 ,the primary wing- feathers are short in ,cochins2 in a male1 which must have been more than twice as heavy as ,g4 bankiva1 these feathers were in both birds of the same length4 ,i have counted1 with ,mr4 ,tegetmeier's aid1 the primary wing- feathers in thirteen cocks and hens of various breeds2 in four of them1 namely in two ,hamburghs1 a ,cochin1 and ,game bantam1 there were #aj1 instead of the normal number #i2 but in counting these feathers ,i have followed the practice of fanciers1 and have ,,not included the first minute primary feather1 barely three-quarters of an inch in length4 ,these feathers differ considerably in relative length1 the fourth1 or the fifth1 or the sixth1 being the longest2 with the third either equal to1 or considerably shorter than the fifth4 ,in wild gallinaceous species the relative length and number of the main wing and tail-feathers are extremely constant4 ,the tail differs much in erectness and size1 being small in ,malays and very small in ,cochins4 ,in thirteen fowls of various breeds which ,i have examined1 five had the normal number of #ad feathers1 including in this number the two middle sickle-feathers2 six others 7viz41 a ,caffre cock1 ,gold-spangled ,polish cock1 ,cochin hen1 ,sultan hen1 ,game hen and ,malay hen had #af2 and two 7an old ,cochin cock and ,malay hen7 had #ag feathers4 ,the rumpless fowl has no tail and in one which ,i possessed there was no oil- gland2 but this bird though the os coccygis was extremely imperfect1 had a vestige of a tail with two rather long feathers in the position of the outer caudals4 ,this bird came from a family where1 as ,i was told1 the breed had kept true for twenty years2 but rumpless fowls often produce chickens with tails4 7#g_/fb4 ,mr4 ,hewitt in ,tegetmeier ',poultry ,book' #ahff page #bca47 ,an eminent physiologist 7#g_/fc4 ,dr4 ,broca in ,brown-,sequard ',journal de ,phys4' tome #b page #cfa47 has recently spoken of this breed as a distinct species2 had he examined the deformed state of the os coccyx he would never have come to this conclusion2 he was probably misled by the statement1 which may be found in some works1 that tailless fowls are wild in ,ceylon2 but this statement1 as ,i have been assured by ,mr4 ,layard and ,dr4 ,kellaert who have so closely studied the birds of ,ceylon1 is utterly false4 ,the tarsi vary considerably in length1 being relatively to the femur considerably longer in the ,spanish and ,frizzled1 and shorter in the ,silk and ,bantam breeds1 than in the wild ,g4 bankiva2 but in the latter1 as we have seen1 the tarsi vary in length4 ,the tarsi are often feathered4 ,the feet in many breeds are furnished with additional toes4 ,golden-spangled ,polish fowls are said 7#g_/fd4 ,dixon ',ornamental ,poultry' page #cbe47 to have the skin between their toes much developed3 ,mr4 ,tegetmeier observed this in one bird1 but it was not so in one which ,i examined4 ,prof4 ,hoffmann has sent me a sketch of the feet of a fowl of the common breed at ,giessen1 with a web extending between the three toes1 for about a third of their length4 ,in ,cochins the middle toe is said 7#g_/fe4 ',poultry ,chronicle' volume #a page #dhe4 ,tegetmeier ',poultry ,book' #ahff page #da4 ,on ,cochins grazing ibid page #df47 to be nearly double the length of the lateral toes1 and therefore much longer than in ,g4 bankiva or in other fowls2 but this was not the case in two which ,i examined4 ,the nail of the middle toe in this same breed is surprisingly broad and flat1 but in a variable degree in two birds which ,i examined2 of this structure in the nail there is only a trace in ,g4 bankiva4 ,the voice differs slightly1 as ,i am informed by ,mr4 ,dixon1 in almost every breed4 ,the ,malays 7#g_/ff4 ,ferguson on ',prize ,poultry' page #hg47 have a loud1 deep1 somewhat prolonged crow1 but with considerable individual difference4 ,colonel ,sykes remarks that the domestic ,kulm cock in ,india has not the shrill clear pipe of the ,english bird1 and his scale of notes appears more limited4 ,dr4 ,hooker was struck with the prolonged howling screech of the cocks in ,sikhim4 7#g_/fg4 ,col4 ,sykes in ',proc4 ,zoolog4 ,soc4' #ahcb page #aea4 ,dr4 ,hooker's ',himalayan ,journals' volume #a page #cad47 ,the crow of the ,cochin is notoriously and ludicrously different from that of the common cock4 ,the disposition of the different breeds is widely different1 varying from the savage and defiant temper of the ,game-cock to the extremely peaceable temper of the ,cochins4 ,the latter1 it has been asserted1 graze to a much greater extent than any other varieties4 ,the ,spanish fowls suffer more from frost than other breeds4 ,before we pass on to the skeleton1 the degree of distinctness of the several breeds from ,g4 bankiva ought to be noticed4 ,some writers speak of the ,spanish as one of the most distinct breeds1 and so it is in general aspect2 but its characteristic differences are not important4 ,the ,malay appears to me more distinct1 from its tall stature1 small drooping tail with more than fourteen tail-feathers1 and from its small comb and wattles2 nevertheless1 one ,malay sub-breed is coloured almost exactly like ,g4 bankiva4 ,some authors consider the ,polish fowl as very distinct2 but this is a semi-monstrous breed1 as shown by the protuberant and irregularly perforated skull4 ,the ,cochin1 from its deeply furrowed frontal bones1 peculiarly shaped occipital foramen1 short wing-feathers1 short tail containing more than fourteen feathers1 broad nail to the middle toe1 fluffy plumage1 rough and dark-coloured eggs1 and especially from its peculiar voice1 is probably the most distinct of all the breeds4 ,if any one of our breeds has descended from some unknown species1 distinct from ,g4 bankiva1 it is probably the ,cochin2 but the balance of evidence does not favour this view4 ,all the characteristic differences of the ,cochin breed are more or less variable1 and may be detected in a greater or lesser degree in other breeds4 ,one sub-breed is coloured closely like ,g4 bankiva4 ,the feathered legs1 often furnished with an additional toe1 the wings incapable of flight1 the extremely quiet disposition1 indicate a long course of domestication2 and these fowls come from ,china1 where we know that plants and animals have been tended from a remote period with extraordinary care1 and where consequently we might expect to find profoundly modified domestic races4 ,,osteological ,,differences4 ,i have examined twenty-seven skeletons and fifty-three skulls of various breeds1 including three of ,g4 bankiva3 nearly half of these skulls ,i owe to the kindness of ,mr4 ,tegetmeier1 and three of the skeletons to ,mr4 ,eyton4 ,,skull4 7,,figure #cc4 ,,occipital ,,foramen1 of natural size4 ,a4 ,wild ,gallus bankiva4 ,b4 ,cochin ,cock4 ,,figure #cd4 ,,skulls of natural size1 viewed from above1 a little obliquely4 ,a4 ,wild ,gallus bankiva4 ,b4 ,white-crested ,polish ,cock4 ,,figure #ce4 ,,longitudinal ,,sections ,,of ,,skull1 of natural size1 viewed laterally2 ,a4 ,polish ,cock4 ,b4 ,cochin ,cock1 selected for comparison with the above from being of nearly the same size4 ,,figure #cf4 ,,skull ,,of ,,horned ,,fowl1 of natural size1 viewed from above1 a little obliquely4 7,in the possession of ,tegetmeier477 ,the ,,skull differs greatly in size in different breeds1 being nearly twice as long in the largest ,cochins1 but not nearly twice as broad1 as in ,bantams4 ,the bones at the base1 from the occipital foramen to the anterior end 7including the quadrates and pterygoids71 are absolutely identical in ,,shape in all the skulls4 ,so is the lower jaw4 ,in the forehead slight differences are often perceptible between the males and females1 evidently caused by the presence of the comb4 ,in every case ,i take the skull of ,g4 bankiva as the standard of comparison4 ,in four ,games1 in one ,malay hen1 in an ,african cock1 in a ,frizzled cock from ,madras1 in two black-boned ,silk hens1 no differences worth notice occur4 ,in three ,,spanish cocks1 the form of the forehead between the orbits differs considerably2 in one it is considerably depressed1 whilst in the two others it is rather prominent1 with a deep medial furrow2 the skull of the hen is smooth4 ,in three skulls of ,,sebright ,,bantams the crown is more globular1 and slopes more abruptly to the occiput1 than in ,g4 bankiva4 ,in a ,bantam or ,jumper from ,burmah these same characters are more strongly pronounced1 and the supra-occiput is more pointed4 ,in a black ,bantam the skull is not so globular1 and the occipital foramen is very large1 and has nearly the same sub-triangular outline presently to be described in ,cochins2 and in this skull the two ascending branches of the premaxillary are overlapped in a singular manner by the processes of the nasal bone1 but1 as ,i have seen only one specimen1 some of these differences may be individual4 ,of ,cochins and ,brahmas 7the latter a crossed race approaching closely to ,cochins7 ,i have examined seven skulls2 at the point where the ascending branches of the premaxillary rest on the frontal bone the surface is much depressed1 and from this depression a deep medial furrow extends backwards to a variable distance2 the edges of this fissure are rather prominent1 as is the top of the skull behind and over the orbits4 ,these characters are less developed in the hens4 ,the pterygoids1 and the processes of the lower jaw1 are broader1 relatively to the size of the head1 than in ,g4 bankiva2 and this is likewise the case with ,dorkings when of large size4 ,the fork of the hyoid bone in ,cochins is twice as wide as in ,g4 bankiva1 whereas the length of the other hyoid bones is only as three to two4 ,but the most remarkable character is the shape of the occipital foramen3 in ,g4 bankiva 7,a7 the breadth in a horizontal line exceeds the height in a vertical line1 and the outline is nearly circular2 whereas in ,cochins 7,b7 the outline is sub-triangular1 and the vertical line exceeds the horizontal line in length4 ,this same form likewise occurs in the black ,bantam above referred to1 and an approach to it may be seen in some ,dorkings1 and in a slight degree in certain other breeds4 ,of ,dorkings ,i have examined three skulls1 one belonging to the white-sub- breed2 the one character deserving notice is the breadth of the frontal bones1 which are moderately furrowed in the middle2 thus in a skull which was less than once and a half the length of that of ,g4 bankiva1 the breadth between the orbits was exactly double4 ,of ,hamburghs ,i have examined four skulls 7male and female7 of the pencilled sub-breed1 and one 7male7 of the spangled sub-breed2 the nasal bones stand remarkably wide apart1 but in a variable degree2 consequently narrow membrane-covered spaces are left between the tips of the two ascending branches of the pre-maxillary bones1 which are rather short1 and between these branches and the nasal bones4 ,the surface of the frontal bone1 on which the branches of the premaxillary rest1 is very little depressed4 ,these peculiarities no doubt stand in close relation with the broad1 flattened rose-comb characteristic of the ,hamburgh breed4 ,i have examined fourteen skulls of ,,polish ,,and ,,other ,,crested ,,breeds4 ,their differences are extraordinary4 ,first for nine skulls of different sub- breeds of ,english ,polish fowls4 ,the hemispherical protuberance of the frontal bones 7#g_/fh4 ,see ,mr4 ,tegetmeier's account with woodcuts of the skull of ,polish fowls in ',proc4 ,zoolog4 ,soc4' ,november #be1 #ahef4 ,for other references see ,isid4 ,geoffroy ,saint-,hilaire ',hist4 ,gen4 des ,anomalies' tome #a page #bhg4 ,m4 ,c4 ,dareste suspects 7',recherches sur les ,conditions de la ,vie' etc4 ,lille #ahfc page #cf7 that the protuberance is not formed by the frontal bones1 but by the ossification of the dura mater47 may be seen in figure #cd1 in which 7,b7 the skull of a white-crested ,polish fowl is shown obliquely from above1 with the skull 7,a7 of 7,g4 bankiva in the same position4 ,in figure #ce longitudinal sections are given of the skull of a ,polish fowl1 and1 for comparison1 of a ,cochin of the same size4 ,the protuberance in all ,polish fowls occupies the same position but differs much in size4 ,in one of my nine specimens it was extremely slight4 ,the degree to which the protuberance is ossified varies greatly1 larger or smaller portions of bone being replaced by membrane4 ,in one specimen there was only a single open pore2 generally1 there are many variously shaped open spaces1 the bone forming an irregular reticulation4 ,a medial1 longitudinal1 arched ribbon of bone is generally retained1 but in one specimen there was no bone whatever over the whole protuberance1 and the skull1 when cleaned and viewed from above1 presented the appearance of an open basin4 ,the change in the whole internal form of the skull is surprisingly great4 ,the brain is modified in a corresponding manner1 as is shown in the two longitudinal sections1 which deserve attentive consideration4 ,the upper and anterior cavity of the three into which the skull may be divided1 is the one which is so greatly modified2 it is evidently much larger than in the ,cochin skull of the same size1 and extends much further beyond the interorbital septum1 but laterally is less deep4 ,this cavity1 as ,i hear from ,mr4 ,tegetmeier1 is entirely filled with brain4 ,in the skull of the ,cochin and of all ordinary fowls a strong internal ridge of bone separates the anterior from the central cavity2 but this ridge is quite absent in the ,polish skull here figured4 ,the shape of the central cavity is circular in the ,polish1 and lengthened in the ,cochin skull4 ,the shape of the posterior cavity1 together with the position1 size1 and number of the pores for the nerves1 differ much in these two skulls4 ,a pit deeply penetrating the occipital bone of the ,cochin is entirely absent in this ,polish skull1 whilst in another specimen it was well developed4 ,in this second specimen the whole internal surface of the posterior cavity likewise differs to a certain extent in shape4 ,i made sections of two other skulls1--namely1 of a ,polish fowl with the protuberance singularly little developed1 and of a ,sultan in which it was a little more developed2 and when these two skulls were placed between the two above figured 7figure #ce71 a perfect gradation in the configuration of each part of the internal surface could be traced4 ,in the ,polish skull1 with a small protuberance1 the ridge between the anterior and middle cavities was present1 but low2 and in the ,sultan this ridge was replaced by a narrow furrow standing on a broad raised eminence4 ,it may naturally be asked whether these remarkable modifications in the form of the brain affect the intellect of ,polish fowls2 some writers have stated that they are extremely stupid1 but ,bechstein and ,mr4 ,tegetmeier have shown that this is by no means generally the case4 ,nevertheless ,bechstein 7#g_/fi4 ',naturgeschichte ,deutschlands' b4 #c #agic s4 #djj47 states that he had a ,polish hen which was crazy1 and anxiously wandered about all day long4 ,a hen in my possession was solitary in her habits1 and was often so absorbed in reverie that she could be touched2 she was also deficient in the most singular manner in the faculty of finding her way1 so that1 if she strayed a hundred yards from her feeding-place1 she was completely lost1 and would then obstinately try to proceed in a wrong direction4 ,i have received other and similar accounts of ,polish fowls appearing stupid or half-idiotic4 7#g_/gj4 ,the ',field' ,may #aa1 #ahfa4 ,i have received communications to a similar effect from ,messrs4 ,brent and ,tegetmeier47 ,to return to the skull of ,polish fowls4 ,the posterior part1 viewed externally1 differs little from that of ,g4 bankiva4 ,in most fowls the posterior-lateral process of the frontal bone and the process of the squamosal bone run together and are ossified near their extremities3 this union of the two bones1 however1 is not constant in any breed2 and in eleven out of fourteen skulls of crested breeds1 these processes were quite distinct4 ,these processes1 when not united1 instead of being inclined anteriorly1 as in all common breeds1 descend at right angles to the lower jaw2 and in this case the longer axis of the bony cavity of the ear is likewise more perpendicular1 than in other breeds4 ,when the squamosal process is free instead of expanding at the tip1 it is reduced to an extremely fine and pointed style1 of variable length4 ,the pterygoid and quadrate bones present no differences4 ,the palatine bones are a little more curved upwards at their posterior ends4 ,the frontal bones1 anteriorly to the protuberance1 are1 as in ,dorkings1 very broad1 but in a variable degree4 ,the nasal bones either stand far apart1 as in ,hamburghs1 or almost touch each other1 and in one instance were ossified together4 ,each nasal bone properly sends out in front two long processes of equal lengths1 forming a fork2 but in all the ,polish skulls1 except one1 the inner process was considerably1 but in a variable degree1 shortened and somewhat upturned4 ,in all the skulls1 except one1 the two ascending branches of the premaxillary1 instead of running up between the processes of the nasal bones and resting on the ethmoid bone1 are much shortened and terminate in a blunt1 somewhat upturned point4 ,in those skulls in which the nasal bones approach quite close to each other or are ossified together1 it would be impossible for the ascending branches of the premaxillary to reach the ethmoid and frontal bones2 hence we see that even the relative connection of the bones has been changed4 ,apparently in consequence of the branches of the premaxillary and of the inner processes of the nasal bones being somewhat upturned1 the external orifices of the nostrils are upraised and assume a crescentic outline4 ,i must still say a few words on some of the foreign ,crested breeds4 ,the skull of a crested1 rumpless1 white ,turkish fowl was very slightly protuberant1 and but little perforated2 the ascending branches of the premaxillary were well developed4 ,in another ,turkish breed1 called ,ghoondooks1 the skull was considerably protuberant and perforated2 the ascending branches of the premaxillary were so much aborted that they projected only #a_/aeth of an inch2 and the inner processes of the nasal bone were so completely aborted1 that the surface where they should have projected was quite smooth4 ,here then we see these two bones modified to an extreme degree4 ,of ,sultans 7another ,turkish breed7 ,i examined two skulls2 in that of the female the protuberance was much larger than in the male4 ,in both skulls the ascending branches of the premaxillary were very short1 and in both the nasal portion of the inner processes of the nasal bones were ossified together4 ,these ,sultan skulls differed from those of ,english ,polish fowls in the frontal bones1 anteriorly to the protuberance1 not being broad4 ,the last skull which ,i need describe is a unique one1 lent to me by ,mr4 ,tegetmeier3 it resembles a ,polish skull in most of its characters1 but has not the great frontal protuberance2 it has1 however1 two rounded knobs of a different nature1 which stand more in front1 above the lachrymal bones4 ,these curious knobs1 into which the brain does not enter1 are separated from each other by a deep medial furrow2 and this is perforated by a few minute pores4 ,the nasal bones stand rather wide apart1 with their inner processes1 and the ascending branches of the premaxillary1 upturned and shortened4 ,the two knobs no doubt supported the two great horn-like projections of the comb4 ,from the foregoing facts we see in how astonishing a manner some of the bones of the skull vary in ,crested fowls4 ,the protuberance may certainly be called in one sense a monstrosity1 as being wholly unlike anything observed in nature3 but as in ordinary cases it is not injurious to the bird1 and as it is strictly inherited1 it can hardly in another sense be called a monstrosity4 ,a series may be formed commencing with the black-boned ,silk fowl1 which has a very small crest with the skull beneath penetrated only by a few minute orifices1 but with no other change in its structure2 and from this first stage we may proceed to fowls with a moderately large crest1 which rests1 according to ,bechstein1 on a fleshy mass1 but without any protuberance in the skull4 ,i may add that ,i have seen a similar fleshy or fibrous mass beneath the tuft of feathers on the head of the ,tufted duck2 and in this case there was no actual protuberance in the skull1 but it had become a little more globular4 ,lastly1 when we come to fowls with a largely developed crest1 the skull becomes largely protuberant and is perforated by a multitude of irregular open spaces4 ,the close relation between the crest and the size of the bony protuberance is shown in another way2 for ,mr4 ,tegetmeier informs me that if chickens lately hatched be selected with a large bony protuberance1 when adult they will have a large crest4 ,there can be no doubt that in former times the breeder of ,polish fowls attended solely to the crest1 and not to the skull2 nevertheless1 by increasing the crest1 in which he has been wonderfully successful1 he has unintentionally made the skull protuberant to an astonishing degree2 and through correlation of growth1 he has at the same time affected the form and relative connexion of the premaxillary and nasal bones1 the shape of the orifice of the nose1 the breadth of the frontal bones1 the shape of the post-lateral processes of the frontal and squamosal bones1 the direction of the axis of the bony cavity of the ear1 and lastly the internal configuration of the whole skull together with the shape of the brain4 ,,vertebrae4 7,,figure #cg4 ,,sixth ,,cervical ,,vertebra1 natural size1 viewed laterally4 ,a4 ,wild ,gallus bankiva4 ,b4 ,cochin cock47 ,in ,g4 bankiva there are fourteen cervical1 seven dorsal with ribs1 apparently fifteen lumbar and sacral1 and six caudal vertebrae 7#g_/ga4 ,it appears that ,i have not correctly designated the several groups of vertebrae1 for a great authority1 ,mr4 ,w4,k4 ,parker 7',transact4 ,zoolog4 ,soc4' volume #e page #aih7 specifies #af cervical1 #d dorsal1 #ae lumbar1 and #f caudal vertebrae in this genus4 ,but ,i have used the same terms in all the following descriptions472 but the lumbar and sacral are so much anchylosed that ,i am not sure of their number1 and this makes the comparison of the total number of vertebrae in the several breeds difficult4 ,i have spoken of six caudal vertebrae1 because the basal one is almost completely anchylosed with the pelvis2 but if we consider the number as seven1 the caudal vertebrae agree in all the skeletons4 ,the cervical vertebrae are1 as just stated1 in appearance fourteen2 but out of twenty-three skeletons in a fit state for examination1 in five of them1 namely1 in two ,games1 in two pencilled ,hamburghs1 and in a ,polish1 the fourteenth vertebra bore ribs1 which1 though small1 were perfectly developed with a double articulation4 ,the presence of these little ribs cannot be considered as a fact of much importance1 for all the cervical vertebrae bear representatives of ribs2 but their development in the fourteenth vertebra reduces the size of the passages in the transverse processes1 and makes this vertebra exactly like the first dorsal vertebra4 ,the addition of these little ribs does not affect the fourteenth cervical alone1 for properly the ribs of the first true dorsal vertebra are destitute of processes2 but in some of the skeletons in which the fourteenth cervical bore little ribs the first pair of true ribs had well-developed processes4 ,when we know that the sparrow has only nine1 and the swan twenty-three cervical vertebrae 7#g_/gb4 ,macgillivray ',british ,birds' volume #a page #be471 we need feel no surprise at the number of the cervical vertebrae in the fowl being1 as it appears1 variable4 ,there are seven dorsal vertebrae bearing ribs2 the first dorsal is never anchylosed with the succeeding four1 which are generally anchylosed together4 ,in one ,sultan fowl1 however1 the two first dorsal vertebrae were free4 ,in two skeletons1 the fifth dorsal was free2 generally the sixth is free 7as in ,g4 bankiva71 but sometimes only at its posterior end1 where in contact with the seventh4 ,the seventh dorsal vertebra1 in every case excepting in one ,spanish cock1 was anchylosed with the lumbar vertebrae4 ,so that the degree to which these middle dorsal vertebrae are anchylosed is variable4 ,seven is the normal number of true ribs1 but in two skeletons of the ,sultan fowl 7in which the fourteenth cervical vertebra was not furnished with little ribs7 there were eight pairs2 the eighth pair seemed to be developed on a vertebra corresponding with the first lumbar in ,g4 bankiva2 the sternal portion of both the seventh and eighth ribs did not reach the sternum4 ,in four skeletons in which ribs were developed on the fourteenth cervical vertebra1 there were1 when these cervical ribs are included1 eight pairs2 but in one ,game cock1 in which the fourteenth cervical was furnished with ribs1 there were only six pairs of true dorsal ribs2 the sixth pair in this case did not have processes1 and thus resembled the seventh pair in other skeletons2 in this ,game cock1 as far as could be judged from the appearance of the lumbar vertebrae1 a whole dorsal vertebra with its ribs was missing4 ,we thus see that the ribs 7whether or not the little pair attached to the fourteenth cervical vertebra be counted7 vary from six to eight pair4 ,the sixth pair is frequently not furnished with processes4 ,the sternal portion of the seventh pair is extremely broad in ,cochins1 and is completely ossified4 ,as previously stated1 it is scarcely possible to count the lumbo-sacral vertebrae2 but they certainly do not correspond in shape or number in the several skeletons4 ,the caudal vertebrae are closely similar in all the skeletons1 the only difference being whether or not the basal one is anchylosed to the pelvis2 they hardly vary even in length1 not being shorter in ,cochins1 with their short tail-feathers1 than in other breeds2 in a ,spanish cock1 however1 the caudal vertebrae were a little elongated4 ,in three rumpless fowls the caudal vertebrae were few in number1 and anchylosed together into a misformed mass4 ,in the individual vertebrae the differences in structure are very slight4 ,in the atlas the cavity for the occipital condyle is either ossified into a ring1 or is1 as in ,bankiva1 open on its upper margin4 ,the upper arc of the spinal canal is a little more arched in ,cochins1 in conformity with the shape of the occipital foramen1 than in ,g4 bankiva4 ,in several skeletons a difference1 but not of much importance1 may be observed1 which commences at the fourth cervical vertebra1 and is greatest at about the sixth1 seventh1 or eighth vertebra2 this consists in the haemal descending processes being united to the body of the vertebra by a sort of buttress4 ,this structure may be observed in ,cochins1 ,polish1 some ,hamburghs1 and probably other breeds2 but is absent1 or barely developed1 in ,game1 ,dorking1 ,spanish1 ,bantam1 and several other breeds examined by me4 ,on the dorsal surface of the sixth cervical vertebra in ,cochins three prominent points are more strongly developed than in the corresponding vertebra of the ,game fowl or ,g4 bankiva4 ,,pelvis4 ,this differs in some few points in the several skeletons4 ,the anterior margin of the ilium seems at first to vary much in outline1 but this is chiefly due to the degree to which the margin in the middle part is ossified to the crest of the vertebrae2 the outline1 however1 does differ in being more truncated in ,bantams1 and more rounded in certain breeds1 as in ,cochins4 ,the outline of the ischiadic foramen differs considerably1 being nearly circular in ,bantams1 instead of egg-shaped as in the ,bankiva1 and more regularly oval in some skeletons1 as in the ,spanish4 ,the obturator notch is also much less elongated in some skeletons than in others4 ,the end of the pubic bone presents the greatest difference2 being hardly enlarged in the ,bankiva2 considerably and gradually enlarged in ,cochins1 and in a lesser degree in some other breeds2 and abruptly enlarged in ,bantams4 ,in one ,bantam this bone extended very little beyond the extremity of the ischium4 ,the whole pelvis in this latter bird differed widely in its proportions1 being far broader proportionally to its length than in ,bankiva4 7,,figure #ch4 ,,extremity ,,of ,,the ,,furcula1 of natural size1 viewed laterally4 ,a4 ,wild ,gallus bankiva4 ,b4 ,spangled ,polish ,fowl4 ,c4 ,spanish ,fowl4 ,d4 ,dorking ,fowl47 ,,sternum4 ,this bone is generally so much deformed that it is scarcely possible to compare its shape strictly in the several breeds4 ,the form of the triangular extremity of the lateral processes differs considerably1 being either almost equilateral or much elongated4 ,the front margin of the crest is more or less perpendicular and varies greatly1 as does the curvature of the posterior end1 and the flatness of the lower surface4 ,the outline of the manubrial process also varies1 being wedge-shaped in the ,bankiva1 and rounded in the ,spanish breed4 ,the ,,furculum differs in being more or less arched1 and greatly1 as may be seen in the accompanying outlines1 in the shape of the terminal plate2 but the shape of this part differed a little in two skeletons of the wild ,bankiva4 ,the ,,coracoid presents no difference worth notice4 ,the ,,scapula varies in shape1 being of nearly uniform breadth in ,bankiva1 much broader in the middle in the ,polish fowl1 and abruptly narrowed towards the apex in the two ,sultan fowls4 ,i carefully compared each separate bone of the leg and wing1 relatively to the same bones in the wild ,bankiva1 in the following breeds1 which ,i thought were the most likely to differ2 namely1 in ,cochin1 ,dorking1 ,spanish1 ,polish1 ,burmese ,bantam1 ,frizzled ,indian1 and black-boned ,silk fowls2 and it was truly surprising to see how absolutely every process1 articulation1 and pore agreed1 though the bones differed greatly in size4 ,the agreement is far more absolute than in other parts of the skeleton4 ,in stating this1 ,i do not refer to the relative thickness and length of the several bones2 for the tarsi varied considerably in both these respects4 ,but the other limb-bones varied little even in relative length4 ,finally1 ,i have not examined a sufficient number of skeletons to say whether any of the foregoing differences1 except in the skull1 are characteristic of the several breeds4 ,apparently some differences are more common in certain breeds than in others1--as an additional rib to the fourteenth cervical vertebra in ,hamburghs and ,games1 and the breadth of the end of the pubic bone in ,cochins4 ,both skeletons of the ,sultan fowl had eight dorsal vertebrae1 and the end of the scapula in both was somewhat attenuated4 ,in the skull1 the deep medial furrow in the frontal bones and the vertically elongated occipital foramen seem to be characteristic of ,cochins2 as is the great breadth of the frontal bones in ,dorkings2 the separation and open spaces between the tips of the ascending branches of the premaxillaries and nasal bones1 as well as the front part of the skull being but little depressed1 characterise ,hamburghs2 the globular shape of the posterior part of the skull seems to be characteristic of laced ,bantams2 and lastly1 the protuberance of the skull with the ascending branches of the premaxillaries partially aborted1 together with the other differences before specified1 are eminently characteristic of ,polish and other ,crested fowls4 ,but the most striking result of my examination of the skeleton is the great variability of all the bones except those of the extremities4 ,to a certain extent we can understand why the skeleton fluctuates so much in structure2 fowls have been exposed to unnatural conditions of life1 and their whole organisation has thus been rendered variable2 but the breeder is quite indifferent to1 and never intentionally selects1 any modification in the skeleton4 ,external characters1 if not attended to by man1 such as the number of the tail and wing feathers and their relative lengths1 which in wild birds are generally constant1--fluctuate in our domestic fowls in the same manner as the several parts of the skeleton4 ,an additional toe is a point in ,dorkings1 and has become a fixed character1 but is variable in ,cochins and ,silk fowls4 ,the colour of the plumage and the form of the comb are in most breeds1 or even sub-breeds1 eminently fixed characters2 but in ,dorkings these points have not been attended to1 and are variable4 ,when any modification in the skeleton is related to some external character which man values1 it has been1 unintentionally on his part1 acted on by selection1 and has become more or less fixed4 ,we see this in the wonderful protuberance of the skull1 which supports the crest of feathers in ,polish fowls1 and which by correlation has affected other parts of the skull4 ,we see the same result in the two protuberances which support the horns in the horned fowl1 and in the flattened shape of the front of the skull in ,hamburghs consequent on their flattened and broad rose-combs4 ,we know not in the least whether additional ribs1 or the changed outline of the occipital foramen1 or the changed form of the scapula1 or of the extremity of the furculum1 are in any way correlated with other structures1 or have arisen from the changed conditions and habits of life to which our fowls have been subjected2 but there is no reason to doubt that these various modifications in the skeleton could be rendered1 either by direct selection1 or by the selection of correlated structures1 as constant and as characteristic of each breed1 as are the size and shape of the body1 the colour of the plumage1 and the form of the comb4 ,,effects ,,of ,,the ,,disuse ,,of ,,parts4 ,judging from the habits of our ,european gallinaceous birds1 ,gallus bankiva in its native haunts would use its legs and wings more than do our domestic fowls1 which rarely fly except to their roosts4 ,the ,silk and the ,frizzled fowls1 from having imperfect wing-feathers1 cannot fly at all2 and there is reason to believe that both these breeds are ancient1 so that their progenitors during many generations cannot have flown4 ,the ,cochins1 also1 from their short wings and heavy bodies1 can hardly fly up to a low perch4 ,therefore in these breeds1 especially in the two first1 a considerable diminution in the wing-bones might have been expected1 but this is not the case4 ,in every specimen1 after disarticulating and cleaning the bones1 ,i carefully compared the relative length of the two main bones of the wing to each other1 and of the two main bones of the leg to each other1 with those of ,g4 bankiva2 and it was surprising to see 7except in the case of the tarsi7 how exactly the same relative length had been retained4 ,this fact is curious1 from showing how truly the proportions of an organ may be inherited1 although not fully exercised during many generations4 ,i then compared in several breeds the length of the femur and tibia with the humerus and ulna1 and likewise these same bones with those of ,g4 bankiva2 the result was that the wing-bones in all the breeds 7except the ,burmese ,jumper1 which has unnaturally short legs1 are slightly shortened relatively to the leg-bones2 but the decrease is so slight that it may be due to the standard specimen of ,g4 bankiva having accidentally had wings of slightly greater length than usual2 so that the measurements are not worth giving4 ,but it deserves notice that the ,silk and ,frizzled fowls1 which are quite incapable of flight1 had their wings ,,less reduced relatively to their legs than in almost any other breed6 ,we have seen with domesticated pigeons that the bones of the wings are somewhat reduced in length1 whilst the primary feathers are rather increased in length1 and it is just possible1 though not probable1 that in the ,silk and ,frizzled fowls any tendency to decrease in the length of the wing-bones from disuse may have been checked through the law of compensation1 by the decreased growth of the wing-feathers1 and consequent increased supply of nutriment4 ,the wing-bones1 however1 in both these breeds1 are found to be slightly reduced in length when judged by the standard of the length of the sternum or head1 relatively to these same parts in ,g4 bankiva4 ,the actual weight of the main bones of the leg and wing in twelve breeds is given in the two first columns in ,table #g4;,i4 ,the calculated weight of the wing-bones relatively to the leg-bones1 in comparison with the leg and wing-bones of ,g4 bankiva1 are given in the third column1--the weight of the wing-bones in ,g4 bankiva being called a hundred4 7#g_/gc4 ,it may be well to explain how the calculation has been made for the third column4 ,in ,g4 bankiva the leg-bones are to the wing-bones as #hf 3 #ed1 or as 7neglecting decimals7 #ajj 3 #fb2-;in ,cochins as #caa 3 #afb1 or as #ajj 3 #eb2--;in ,dorkings as #eeg 3 #bdh1 or as #ajj 3 #dd2 and so on for the other breeds4 ,we thus get the series of #fb1 #eb1 #dd for the relative weights of the wing-bones in ,g4 bankiva1 ,cochins1 ,dorkings1 etc4 ,and now taking #ajj1 instead of #fb1 for the weight of the wing-bones in ,g4 bankiva1 we get1 by another rule of three1 #hc as the weight of the wing-bones in ,cochins2 #gj in the ,dorkings2 and so on for the remainder of the third column in the table47 ,,table #g4;,i4 7,weights in grains47 ,,column #a4 ,actual ,weight of ,femur and ,tibia4 ,,column #b4 ,actual ,weight of ,humerus and ,ulna4 ,,column #c4 ,weight of ,wing-bones relatively to the ,leg-bones in comparison with these same bones in ,gallus bankiva4 #a4 #b4 #c4 ,gallus bankiva -- wild male #hf #ed #ajj #a4 ,cochin -- male #caa #afb #hc #b4 ,dorking -- male #eeg #bdh #gj #c4 ,spanish 7,minorca7 -- male #chf #ahc #ge #d4 ,gold-,spangled ,polish -- male #cjf #ade #ge #e4 ,game1 black-breasted -- male #bic #adc #gg #f4 ,malay -- female #bca #aaf #hj #g4 ,sultan -- male #ahi #id #gi #h4 ,indian ,frizzled -- male #bjf #hh #fg #i4 ,burmese ,jumper -- female #ec #cf #ajh #aj4 ,hamburgh 7pencilled7 -- male #aeg #ajd #ajf #aa4 ,hamburgh 7pencilled7 -- female #aad #gg #ajh #ab4 ,silk 7black-boned7 -- female #hh #eg #ajc ,in the eight first birds1 belonging to distinct breeds1 in this table1 we see a decided reduction in the weight of the bones of the wing4 ,in the ,indian ,frizzled fowl1 which cannot fly1 the reduction is carried to the greatest extent1 namely1 to thirty-three per cent of their proper proportional weight4 ,in the next four birds1 including the ,silk hen1 which is incapable of flight1 we see that the wings1 relatively to the legs1 are slightly increased in weight2 but it should be observed that1 if in these birds the legs had become from any cause reduced in weight1 this would give the false appearance of the wings having increased in relative weight4 ,now a reduction of this nature has certainly occurred with the ,burmese ,jumper1 in which the legs are abnormally short1 and in the two ,hamburghs and ,silk fowl1 the legs1 though not short1 are formed of remarkably thin and light bones4 ,i make these statements1 not judging by mere eyesight1 but after having calculated the weights of the leg-bones relatively to those of ,g4 bankiva1 according to the only two standards of comparison which ,i could use1 namely1 the relative lengths of the head and sternum2 for ,i do not know the weight of the body in ,g4 bankiva1 which would have been a better standard4 ,according to these standards1 the leg-bones in these four fowls are in a marked manner far lighter than in any other breed4 ,it may therefore be concluded that in all cases in which the legs have not been through some unknown cause much reduced in weight1 the wing-bones have become reduced in weight relatively to the leg-bones1 in comparison with those of ,g4 bankiva4 ,and this reduction of weight may1 ,i apprehend1 safely be attributed to disuse4 ,to make ,table #g4;,i4 quite satisfactory1 it ought to have been shown that in the eight first birds the leg-bones have not actually increased in weight out of due proportion with the rest of the body2 this ,i cannot show1 from not knowing1 as already remarked1 the weight of the wild ,bankiva4 7#g_/gd4 ,mr4 ,blyth 7in ',annals and ,mag4 of ,nat4 ,hist4' #bnd series volume #a #ahdh page #def7 gives #c #a_/d pounds as the weight of a full-grown male ,g4 bankiva2 but from what ,i have seen of the skins and skeletons of various breeds1 ,i cannot believe that my two specimens of ,g4 bankiva could have weighed so much47 ,i am indeed inclined to suspect that the leg-bones in the ,dorking1 ,no4 #b in the table1 are proportionally too heavy2 but this bird was a very large one1 weighing #g pounds #b ounces1 though very thin4 ,its leg-bones were more than ten times as heavy as those of the ,burmese ,jumper6 ,i tried to ascertain the length both of the leg-bones and wing-bones relatively to other parts of the body and skeleton3 but the whole organisation in these birds1 which have been so long domesticated1 has become so variable1 that no certain conclusions could be reached4 ,for instance1 the legs of the above ,dorking cock were nearly three-quarters of an inch too short relatively to the length of the sternum1 and more than three-quarters of an inch too long relatively to the length of the skull1 in comparison with these same parts in ,g4 bankiva4 ,,table #g4;,,ii4 ,,column #a4 ,length of ,sternum 7in inches and decimals47 ,,column #b4 ,depth of ,crest of ,sternum 7in inches and decimals474 ,,column #c4 ,depth of ,crest relatively to the length of the ,sternum1 in comparison with ,gallus bankiva4 #a4 #b4 #c4 ,gallus bankiva -- male4 #d4bj #a4dj #ajj #a4 ,cochin -- male4 #e4hc #a4ee #gh #b4 ,dorking -- male4 #f4ie #a4ig #hd #c4 ,spanish -- male4 #f4aj #a4hc #ij #d4 ,polish -- male4 #e4jg #a4ej #hg #e4 ,game -- male4 #e4ee #a4ee #ha #f4 ,malay -- female4 #e4aj #a4ej #hg #g4 ,sultan -- male4 #d4dg #a4cf #ij #h4 ,frizzled hen -- male4 #d4be #a4bj #hd #i4 ,burmese ,jumper -- female4 #c4jf #j4he #ha #aj4 ,hamburgh -- male4 #e4jh #a4dj #ha #aa4 ,hamburgh -- female4 #d4ee #a4bf #ha #ab4 ,silk fowl -- female4 #d4di #a4ja #ff ,in ,table #g4;,,ii4 in the two first columns we see in inches and decimals the length of the sternum1 and the extreme depth of its crest to which the pectoral muscles are attached4 ,in the third column we have the calculated depth of the crest1 relatively to the length of the sternum1 in comparison with these same parts in ,g4 bankiva4 7#g_/ge4 ,the third column is calculated on the same principle as explained in footnote #g_/gc above47 ,by looking to the third column we see that in every case the depth of the crest relatively to the length of the sternum1 in comparison with ,g4 bankiva1 is diminished1 generally between #aj and #bj per cent4 ,but the degree of reduction varies much1 partly in consequence of the frequently deformed state of the sternum4 ,in the ,silk fowl1 which cannot fly1 the crest is #cd per cent less deep than what it ought to have been4 ,this reduction of the crest in all the breeds probably accounts for the great variability1 before referred to1 in the curvature of the furculum1 and in the shape of its sternal extremity4 ,medical men believe that the abnormal form of the spine so commonly observed in women of the higher ranks results from the attached muscles not being fully exercised4 ,so it is with our domestic fowls1 for they use their pectoral muscles but little1 and1 out of twenty-five sternums examined by me1 three alone were perfectly symmetrical1 ten were moderately crooked1 and twelve were deformed to an extreme degree4 ,mr4 ,romanes1 however1 believes that the malformation is due to fowls whilst young resting their sternums on the sticks on which they roost4 ,finally1 we may conclude with respect to the various breeds of the fowl1 that the main bones of the wing have probably been shortened in a very slight degree2 that they have certainly become lighter relatively to the leg-bones in all the breeds in which these latter bones are not unnaturally short or delicate2 and that the crest of the sternum1 to which the pectoral muscles are attached1 has invariably become less prominent1 the whole sternum being also extremely liable to deformity4 ,these results we may attribute to the lessened use of the wings4 ,,correlation ,,of ,,growth4 ,i will here sum up the few facts which ,i have collected on this obscure1 but important1 subject4 ,in ,cochin and ,game fowls there is perhaps some relation between the colour of the plumage and the darkness of the egg- shell4 ,in ,sultans the additional sickle-feathers in the tail are apparently related to the general redundancy of the plumage1 as shown by the feathered legs1 large crest1 and beard4 ,in two tailless fowls which ,i examined the oil-gland was aborted4 ,a large crest of feathers1 as ,mr4 ,tegetmeier has remarked1 seems always accompanied by a great diminution or almost entire absence of the comb4 ,a large beard is similarly accompanied by diminished or absent wattles4 ,these latter cases apparently come under the law of compensation or balancement of growth4 ,a large beard beneath the lower jaw and a large top-knot on the skull often go together4 ,the comb when of any peculiar shape1 as with ,horned1 ,spanish1 and ,hamburgh fowls1 affects in a corresponding manner the underlying skull2 and we have seen how wonderfully this is the case with ,crested fowls when the crest is largely developed4 ,with the protuberance of the frontal bones the shape of the internal surface of the skull and of the brain is greatly modified4 ,the presence of a crest influences in some unknown way the development of the ascending branches of the premaxillary bone1 and of the inner processes of the nasal bones2 and likewise the shape of the external orifice of the nostrils4 ,there is a plain and curious correlation between a crest of feathers and the imperfectly ossified condition of the skull4 ,not only does this hold good with nearly all crested fowls1 but likewise with tufted ducks1 and as ,dr4 ,gunther informs me with tufted geese in ,germany4 ,lastly1 the feathers composing the crest in male ,polish fowls resemble hackles1 and differ greatly in shape from those in the crest of the female4 ,the neck1 wing-coverts1 and loins in the male bird are properly covered with hackles1 and it would appear that feathers of this shape have spread by correlation to the head of the male4 ,this little fact is interesting2 because1 though both sexes of some wild gallinaceous birds have their heads similarly ornamented1 yet there is often a difference in the size and shape of feathers forming their crests4 ,furthermore1 there is in some cases1 as in the male ,gold and in the male ,amherst pheasants 7,p4 pictus and amherstiae71 a close relation in colour1 as well as in structure1 between the plumes on the head and on the loins4 ,it would therefore appear that the same law has regulated the state of the feathers on the head and body1 both with species living under natural conditions1 and with birds which have varied under domestication4 ,,chapter #a4,,viii4 ,,duck--,,goose--,,peacock--,,turkey--,, guinea-,,fowl--,,canary-,,bird--,,gold-, ,fish--,,hive- ,,bees--,,silk-,,moths4 ,,ducks1 ,,several ,,breeds ,,of4 ,,progress ,,of ,,domestication4 ,,origin ,,of ,,from ,,the ,,common ,,wild-,,duck4 ,,differences ,,in ,,the ,,different ,,breeds4 ,,osteological ,,differences4 ,,effects ,,of ,,use ,,and ,,disuse ,,on ,,the ,,limb-,,bones4 ,,goose1 ,,anciently ,,domesticated4 ,,little ,,variation ,,of4 ,,sebastopol ,,breed4 ,,peacock1 ,,origin ,,of ,,black-,,shouldered ,,breed4 ,,turkey1 ,,breeds ,,of4 ,,crossed ,,with ,,the ,,united ,,states ,,species4 ,,effects ,,of ,,climate ,,on4 ,,guinea-,,fowl1 ,,canary-,,bird1 ,,gold-,,fish1 ,,hive-,,bees4 ,,silk-,,moths1 ,,species ,,and ,,breeds ,,of4 ,,anciently ,,domesticated4 ,,care ,,in ,,their ,,selection4 ,,differences ,,in ,,the ,,different ,,races4 ,,in ,,the ,,egg1 ,,caterpillar1 ,,and ,,cocoon ,,states4 ,,inheritance ,,of ,,characters4 ,,imperfect ,,wings4 ,,lost ,,instincts4 ,,correlated ,,characters4 ,i will1 as in previous cases1 first briefly describe the chief domestic breeds of the duck3-- ,,breed #a4 ,,common ,,domestic ,,duck4 ,varies much in colour and in proportions1 and differs in instincts and disposition from the wild duck4 ,there are several sub-breeds3-- #a4 ,the ,aylesbury1 of great size1 white1 with pale-yellow beak and legs2 abdominal dermal sack largely developed4 #b4 ,the ,rouen1 of great size1 coloured like the wild duck1 with green or mottled beak2 dermal sack largely developed4 #c4 ,tufted ,duck1 with a large top-knot of fine downy feathers1 supported on a fleshy mass1 with the skull perforated beneath4 ,the top-knot in a duck which ,i imported from ,holland was two and a half inches in diameter4 #d4 ,labrador 7or ,canadian1 or ,buenos ,ayres1 or ,east ,indian72 plumage entirely black2 beak broader1 relatively to its length1 than in the wild duck2 eggs slightly tinted with black4 ,this sub-breed perhaps ought to be ranked as a breed2 it includes two sub-varieties1 one as large as the common domestic duck1 which ,i have kept alive1 and the other smaller and often capable of flight4 7#h_/a4 ',poultry ,chronicle' #ahed volume #b page #ia and volume #a page #ccj47 ,i presume it is this latter sub-variety which has been described in ,france 7#h_/b4 ,dr4 ,turral ',bull4 ,soc4 d',acclimat4' tome #g #ahfj page #eda47 as flying well1 being rather wild1 and when cooked having the flavour of the wild duck2 nevertheless this sub-variety is polygamous1 like other domesticated ducks and unlike the wild duck4 ,these black ,labrador ducks breed true2 but a case is given by ,dr4 ,turral of the ,french sub-variety producing young with some white feathers on the head and neck1 and with an ochre-coloured patch on the breast4 ,,breed #b4 ,,hook-,,billed ,,duck4 ,this bird presents an extraordinary appearance from the downward curvature of the beak4 ,the head is often tufted4 ,the common colour is white1 but some are coloured like wild ducks4 ,it is an ancient breed1 having been noticed in #afgf4 7#h_/c4 ,willughby's ',ornithology' by ,ray page #cha4 ,this breed is also figured by ,albin in #agcd in his ',nat4 ,hist4 of ,birds' volume #b page #hf47 ,it shows its prolonged domestication by almost incessantly laying eggs1 like the fowls which are called everlasting layers4 7#h_/d4 ,f4 ,cuvier in ',annales du ,museum' tome #i page #abh says that moulting and incubation alone stops these ducks laying4 ,mr4 ,b4,p4 ,brent makes a similar remark in the ',poultry ,chronicle' #ahee volume #c page #eab47 ,,breed #c4 ,,call ,,duck4 ,remarkable from its small size1 and from the extraordinary loquacity of the female4 ,beak short4 ,these birds are either white1 or coloured like the wild duck4 ,,breed #d4 ,,penguin ,,duck4 ,this is the most remarkable of all the breeds1 and seems to have originated in the ,malayan archipelago4 ,it walks with its body extremely erect1 and with its thin neck stretched straight upwards4 ,beak rather short4 ,tail upturned1 including only #ah feathers4 ,femur and metatarsus elongated4 ,almost all naturalists admit that the several breeds are descended from the common wild duck 7,anas boschas72 most fanciers1 on the other hand1 take as usual a very different view4 7#h_/e4 ,rev4 ,e4,s4 ,dixon ',ornamental and ,domestic ,poultry' #ahdh page #aag4 ,mr4 ,b4,p4 ,brent in ',poultry ,chronicle' volume #c #ahee page #eab47 ,unless we deny that domestication1 prolonged during centuries1 can affect even such unimportant characters as colour1 size1 and in a slight degree proportional dimensions and mental disposition1 there is no reason whatever to doubt that the domestic duck is descended from the common wild species1 for the one differs from the other in no important character4 ,we have some historical evidence with respect to the period and progress of the domestication of the duck4 ,it was unknown 7#h_/f4 ,crawfurd on the ',relation of ,domesticated ,animals to ,civilisation' read before the ,brit4 ,assoc4 at ,oxford #ahfj47 to the ancient ,egyptians1 to the ,jews of the ,old ,testament1 and to the ,greeks of the ,homeric period4 ,about eighteen centuries ago ,columella 7#h_/g4 ,dureau de ,la ,malle in ',annales des ,sciences ,nat4' tome #ag page #afd2 and tome #ba page #ee4 ,rev4 ,e4,s4 ,dixon ',ornamental ,poultry' page #aah4 ,tame ducks were not known in ,aristotle's time1 as remarked by ,volz in his ',beitrage zur ,kulturgeschichte' #aheb s4 #gh47 and ,varro speak of the necessity of keeping ducks in netted enclosures like other wild fowl1 so that at this period there was danger of their flying away4 ,moreover1 the plan recommended by ,columella to those who wish to increase their stock of ducks1 namely1 to collect the eggs of the wild bird and to place them under a hen1 shows1 as ,mr4 ,dixon remarks1 that the duck had not at this time become a naturalised and prolific inmate of the ,roman poultry-yard4 ,the origin of the domestic duck from the wild species is recognised in nearly every language of ,europe1 as ,aldrovandi long ago remarked1 by the same name being applied to both4 ,the wild duck has a wide range from the ,himalayas to ,north ,america4 ,it crosses readily with the domestic bird1 and the crossed offspring are perfectly fertile4 ,both in ,north ,america and ,europe the wild duck has been found easy to tame and breed4 ,in ,sweden this experiment was carefully tried by ,tiburtius2 he succeeded in rearing wild ducks for three generations1 but1 though they were treated like common ducks1 they did not vary even in a single feather4 ,the young birds suffered from being allowed to swim about in cold water 7#h_/h4 ,i quote this account from ',die ,enten- und ,schwanenzucht' ,ulm #ahbh s4 #adc4 ,see ,audubon ',ornithological ,biography' volume #c page #afh on the taming of ducks on the ,mississippi4 ,for the same fact in ,england see ,mr4 ,waterton in ,loudon's ',mag4 of ,nat4 ,hist4' volume #h #ahce page #edb2 and ,mr4 ,st4 ,john ',wild ,sports and ,nat4 ,hist4 of the ,highlands' #ahdf page #abi471 as is known to be the case1 though the fact is a strange one1 with the young of the common domestic duck4 ,an accurate and well-known observer in ,england 7#h_/i4 ,mr4 ,e4 ,hewitt in ',journal of ,horticulture' #ahfb page #ggc2 and #ahfc page #ci47 has described in detail his often repeated and successful experiments in domesticating the wild duck4 ,young birds are easily reared from eggs hatched under a bantam2 but to succeed it is indispensable not to place the eggs of both the wild and tame duck under the same hen1 for in this case the young wild ducks die off1 leaving their more hardy brethren in undisturbed possession of their foster-mother's care4 ,the difference of habit at the onset in the newly-hatched ducklings almost entails such a result to a certainty4 ,the wild ducklings were from the first quite tame towards those who took care of them as long as they wore the same clothes1 and likewise to the dogs and cats of the house4 ,they would even snap with their beaks at the dogs1 and drive them away from any spot which they coveted4 ,but they were much alarmed at strange men and dogs4 ,differently from what occurred in ,sweden1 ,mr4 ,hewitt found that his young birds always changed and deteriorated in character in the course of two or three generations2 notwithstanding that great care was taken to prevent their crossing with tame ducks4 ,after the third generation his birds lost the elegant carriage of the wild species1 and began to acquire the gait of the common duck4 ,they increased in size in each generation1 and their legs became less fine4 ,the white collar round the neck of the mallard became broader and less regular1 and some of the longer primary wing-feathers became more or less white4 ,when this occurred1 ,mr4 ,hewitt destroyed nearly the whole of his stock and procured fresh eggs from wild nests2 so that he never bred the same family for more than five or six generations4 ,his birds continued to pair together1 and never became polygamous like the common domestic duck4 ,i have given these details1 because no other case1 as far as ,i know1 has been so carefully recorded by a competent observer of the progress of change in wild birds reared for several generations in a domestic condition4 ,from these considerations there can hardly be a doubt that the wild duck is the parent of the common domestic kind2 nor need we look to other species for the parentage of the more distinct breeds1 namely1 ,penguin1 ,call1 ,hook- billed1 ,tufted1 and ,labrador ducks4 ,i will not repeat the arguments used in the previous chapters on the improbability of man having in ancient times domesticated several species since become unknown or extinct1 though ducks are not readily exterminated in the wild state2--on some of the supposed parent-species having had abnormal characters in comparison with all the other species of the genus1 as with ,hook-billed and ,penguin ducks2--on all the breeds1 as far as is known being fertile together 7#h_/aj4 ,i have met with several statements on the fertility of the several breeds when crossed4 ,mr4 ,yarrell assured me that ,call and common ducks are perfectly fertile together4 ,i crossed ,hook-billed and common ducks1 and a ,penguin and ,labrador1 and the crossed ,ducks were quite fertile1 though they were not bred inter se1 so that the experiment was not fully tried4 ,some half-bred ,penguins and ,labradors were again crossed with ,penguins1 and subsequently bred by me inter se1 and they were extremely fertile472--on all the breeds having the same general disposition1 instinct1 etc4 ,but one fact bearing on this question may be noticed3 in the great duck family1 one species alone1 namely1 the male of ,a4 boschas1 has its four middle tail-feathers curled upwardly2 now in every one of the above-named domestic breeds these curled feathers exist1 and on the supposition that they are descended from distinct species1 we must assume that man formerly hit upon species all of which had this now unique character4 ,moreover1 sub-varieties of each breed are coloured almost exactly like the wild duck1 as ,i have seen with the largest and smallest breeds1 namely ,rouens and ,call ducks1 and1 as ,mr4 ,brent states 7#h_/aa4 ',poultry ,chronicle' #ahee volume #c page #eab471 is the case with ,hook-billed ducks4 ,this gentleman1 as he informs me1 crossed a white ,aylesbury drake and a black ,labrador duck1 and some of the ducklings as they grew up assumed the plumage of the wild duck4 ,with respect to ,penguins1 ,i have not seen many specimens1 and none were coloured precisely like the wild duck2 but ,sir ,james ,brooke sent me three skins from ,lombok and ,bali1 in the ,malayan archipelago2 the two females were paler and more rufous than the wild duck1 and the drake differed in having the whole under and upper surface 7excepting the neck1 tail-coverts1 tail1 and wings7 silver-grey1 finely pencilled with dark lines1 closely like certain parts of the plumage of the wild mallard4 ,but ,i found this drake to be identical in every feather with a variety of the common breed procured from a farm-yard in ,kent1 and ,i have occasionally elsewhere seen similar specimens4 ,the occurrence of a duck bred under so peculiar a climate as that of the ,malayan archipelago1 where the wild species does not exist1 with exactly the same plumage as may occasionally be seen in our farm-yards1 is a fact worth notice4 ,nevertheless the climate of the ,malayan archipelago apparently tends to cause the duck to vary much1 for ,zollinger 7#h_/ab4 ',journal of the ,indian ,archipelago' volume #e page #ccd471 speaking of the ,penguin breed1 says that in ,lombok there is an unusual and very wonderful variety of ducks4 ,one ,penguin drake which ,i kept alive differed from those of which the skins were sent me from ,lombok1 in having its breast and back partially coloured with chestnut-brown1 thus more closely resembling the ,mallard4 ,from these several facts1 more especially from the drakes of all the breeds having curled tail-feathers1 and from certain sub-varieties in each breed occasionally resembling in general plumage the wild duck1 we may conclude with confidence that all the breeds are descended from ,a4 boschas4 ,i will now notice some of the peculiarities characteristic of the several breeds4 ,the eggs vary in colour2 some common ducks laying pale-greenish and others quite white eggs4 ,the eggs which are first laid during each season by the black ,labrador duck1 are tinted black1 as if rubbed with ink4 ,a good observer assured me that one year his ducks of this breed laid almost perfectly white eggs4 ,another curious case shows what singular variations sometimes occur and are inherited2 ,mr4 ,hansell 7#h_/ac4 ',the ,zoologist' volumes #g1 #h #ahdi-ahej page #bcec47 relates that he had a common duck which always laid eggs with the yolk of a dark-brown colour like melted glue2 and the young ducks1 hatched from these eggs1 laid the same kind of eggs1 so that the breed had to be destroyed4 7,,figure #ci4 ,,skulls1 viewed laterally1 reduced to two-thirds of the natural size4 ,a4 ,wild ,duck4 ,b4 ,hook-billed ,duck47 ,the ,hook-billed duck is highly remarkable 7see figure #ci1 of skull72 and its peculiar beak has been inherited at least since the year #afgf4 ,this structure is evidently analogous with that described in the ,bagadotten carrier pigeon4 ,mr4 ,brent 7#h_/ad4 ',poultry ,chronicle' #ahee volume #c page #eab47 says that1 when ,hook-billed ducks are crossed with common ducks1 many young ones are produced with the upper mandible shorter than the lower1 which not unfrequently causes the death of the bird4 ,with ducks a tuft of feathers on the head is by no means a rare occurrence2 namely1 in the ,true-tufted breed1 the ,hook-billed1 the common farm-yard kind1 and in a duck having no other peculiarity which was sent to me from the ,malayan archipelago4 ,the tuft is only so far interesting as it affects the skull1 which is thus rendered slightly more globular1 and is perforated by numerous apertures4 ,call ducks are remarkable from their extraordinary loquacity3 the drake only hisses like common drakes2 nevertheless1 when paired with the common duck1 he transmits to his female offspring a strong quacking tendency4 ,this loquacity seems at first a surprising character to have been acquired under domestication4 ,but the voice varies in the different breeds2 ,mr4 ,brent 7#h_/ae4 ',poultry ,chronicle' volume #c #ahee page #cab4 ,with respect to ,rouens see ditto volume #a #ahed page #afg47 says that ,hook-billed ducks are very loquacious1 and that ,rouens utter a dull1 loud1 and monotonous cry1 easily distinguishable by an experienced ear4 ,as the loquacity of the ,call duck is highly serviceable1 these birds being used in decoys1 this quality may have been increased by selection4 ,for instance1 ,colonel ,hawker says1 if young wild ducks cannot be got for a decoy1 by way of make-shift1 ,,select tame birds which are the most clamorous1 even if their colour should not be like that of wild ones4 7#h_/af4 ,col4 ,hawker ',instructions to young ,sportsmen' quoted by ,mr4 ,dixon in his ',ornamental ,poultry' page #abe47 ,it has been erroneously asserted that ,call ducks hatch their eggs in less time than common ducks4 7#h_/ag4 ',cottage ,gardener' ,april #i1 #ahfa47 ,the ,penguin duck is the most remarkable of all the breeds2 the thin neck and body are carried erect2 the wings are small2 the tail is upturned2 and the thigh-bones and metatarsi are considerably lengthened in proportion with the same bones in the wild duck4 ,in five specimens examined by me there were only eighteen tail-feathers instead of twenty as in the wild duck2 but ,i have also found only eighteen and nineteen tail-feathers in two ,labrador ducks4 ,on the middle toe1 in three specimens1 there were twenty- seven or twenty-eight scutellae1 whereas in two wild ducks there were thirty-one and thirty-two4 ,the ,penguin when crossed transmits with much power its peculiar form of body and gait to its offspring2 this was manifest with some hybrids raised in the ,zoological ,gardens between one of these birds and the ,egyptian goose 7,anser aegyptiacus7 7#h_/ah4 ,these hybrids have been described by ,m4 ,selys-,longchamps in the ',bulletins 7tome #ab ,no #aj7 ,acad4 ,roy4 de ,bruxelles4'71 and likewise with some mongrels which ,i raised between the ,penguin and ,labrador duck4 ,i am not much surprised that some writers should maintain that this breed must be descended from an unknown and distinct species2 but from the reasons already assigned1 it seems to me far more probable that it is the descendant1 much modified by domestication under an unnatural climate1 of ,anas boschas4 ,,osteological ,,characters4 ,the skulls of the several breeds differ from each other and from the skull of the wild duck in very little except in the proportional length and curvature of the premaxillaries4 ,these latter bones in the ,call duck are short1 and a line drawn from their extremities to the summit of the skull is nearly straight1 instead of being concave as in the common duck2 so that the skull resembles that of a small goose4 ,in the ,hook-billed duck 7figure #ci71 these same bones as well as the lower jaw curve downwards in a most remarkable manner1 as represented4 ,in the ,labrador duck the premaxillaries are rather broader than in the wild duck2 and in two skulls of this breed the vertical ridges on each side of the supra-occipital bone are very prominent4 ,in the ,penguin the premaxillaries are relatively shorter than in the wild duck2 and the inferior points of the paramastoids more prominent4 ,in a ,dutch tufted duck1 the skull under the enormous tuft was slightly more globular and was perforated by two large apertures2 in this skull the lachrymal bones were produced much further backwards1 so as to have a different shape and nearly to touch the post4 lat4 processes of the frontal bones1 thus almost completing the bony orbit of the eye4 ,as the quadrate and pterygoid bones are of such complex shape and stand in relation with so many other bones1 ,i carefully compared them in all the principal breeds2 but excepting in size they presented no difference4 7,,figure #dj4-;,,cervical ,,vertebra1 of natural size4 ,a4 ,eighth cervical vertebra of ,wild ,duck viewed on haemal surface4 ,b4 ,eighth cervical vertebra of ,call ,duck1 viewed as above4 ,c4 ,twelfth cervical vertebra of ,wild ,duck viewed laterally4 ,d4 ,twelfth cervical vertebra of ,aylesbury ,duck1 viewed laterally47 ,,vertebrae ,,and ,,ribs4 ,in one skeleton of the ,labrador duck there were the usual fifteen cervical vertebrae and the usual nine dorsal vertebrae bearing ribs2 in the other skeleton there were fifteen cervical and ten dorsal vertebrae with ribs2 nor1 as far as could be judged1 was this owing merely to a rib having been developed on the first lumbar vertebra2 for in both skeletons the lumbar vertebrae agreed perfectly in number1 shape1 and size with those of the wild duck4 ,in two skeletons of the ,call duck there were fifteen cervical and nine dorsal vertebrae2 in a third skeleton small ribs were attached to the so-called fifteenth cervical vertebra1 making ten pairs of ribs2 but these ten ribs do not correspond1 or arise from the same vertebra1 with the ten in the above-mentioned ,labrador duck4 ,in the ,call duck1 which had small ribs attached to the fifteenth cervical vertebra1 the haemal spines of the thirteenth and fourteenth 7cervical7 and of the seventeenth 7dorsal7 vertebrae corresponded with the spines on the fourteenth1 fifteenth1 and eighteenth vertebrae of the wild duck3 so that each of these vertebrae had acquired a structure proper to one posterior to it in position4 ,in the eighth cervical vertebra of this same ,call duck 7figure #dj1 ,b71 the two branches of the haemal spine stand much closer together than in the wild duck 7,a71 and the descending haemal processes are much shortened4 ,in the ,penguin duck the neck from its thinness and erectness falsely appears 7as ascertained by measurement7 to be much elongated1 but the cervical and dorsal vertebrae present no difference2 the posterior dorsal vertebrae1 however1 are more completely anchylosed to the pelvis than in the wild duck4 ,the ,aylesbury duck has fifteen cervical and ten dorsal vertebrae furnished with ribs1 but the same number of lumbar1 sacral1 and caudal vertebrae1 as far as could be traced1 as in the wild duck4 ,the cervical vertebrae in this same duck 7figure #dj1 ,d7 were much broader and thicker relatively to their length than in the wild 7,c72 so much so1 that ,i have thought it worth while to give a sketch of the twelfth cervical vertebra in these two birds4 ,from the foregoing statements we see that the fifteenth cervical vertebra occasionally becomes modified into a dorsal vertebra1 and when this occurs all the adjoining vertebrae are modified4 ,we also see that an additional dorsal vertebra bearing a rib is occasionally developed1 the number of the cervical and lumbar vertebrae apparently remaining the same as usual4 ,i examined the bony enlargement of the trachea in the males of the ,penguin1 ,call1 ,hook-billed1 ,labrador1 and ,aylesbury breeds2 and in all it was identical in shape4 ,the ,,pelvis is remarkably uniform2 but in the skeleton of the ,hook-billed duck the anterior part is much bowed inwards2 in the ,aylesbury and some other breeds the ischiadic foramen is less elongated4 ,in the sternum1 furculum1 coracoids1 and scapulae1 the differences are so slight and so variable as not to be worth notice1 except that in two skeletons of the ,penguin duck the terminal portion of the scapula was much attenuated4 ,in the bones of the leg and wing no modification in shape could be observed4 ,but in the ,penguin and ,hook-billed ducks1 the terminal phalanges of the wing are a little shortened4 ,in the former1 the femur1 and metatarsus 7but not the tibia7 are considerably lengthened1 relatively to the same bones in the wild duck1 and to the wing-bones in both birds4 ,this elongation of the leg-bones could be seen whilst the bird was alive1 and is no doubt connected with its peculiar upright manner of walking4 ,in a large ,aylesbury duck1 on the other hand1 the tibia was the only bone of the leg which relatively to the other bones was slightly lengthened4 ,,on ,,the ,,effects ,,of ,,the ,,increased ,,and ,,decreased ,,use ,,of ,,the ,,limbs4 ,in all the breeds the bones of the wing 7measured separately after having been cleaned7 relatively to those of the leg have become slightly shortened1 in comparison with the same bones in the wild duck1 as may be seen in ,table #h4;,i4 ,,table #h4;,i4a4 ,,column #a4 ,length of ,femur1 ,tibia1 and ,metatarsus together 7inches74 ,,column #b4 ,length of ,humerus1 ,radius1 and ,metacarpus together 7inches74 ,,column #c4 ,or as 7ratio74 ,name of ,breed4 #a4 #b4 #c4 ,wild mallard4 #g4ad #i4bh #ajj3abi ,aylesbury4 #h4fd #aj4dc #ajj3abj ,tufted 7,dutch74 #h4be #i4hc #ajj3aai ,penguin4 #g4ab #h4gh #ajj3abc ,call4 #f4bj #g4gg #ajj3abe ,,table #h4;,i4b4 ,,column #a4 ,length of ,femur1 ,tibia1 and ,metatarsus together 7inches74 ,,column #b4 ,length of all the bones of the wing 7inches74 ,,column #c4 ,or as 7ratio74 ,name of ,breed4 #a4 #b4 #c4 ,wild duck 7another specimen74 #f4he #aj4jg #ajj3adg ,common domestic duck4 #h4ae #aa4bf #ajj3ach ,in table #h4;,i we see1 by comparison with the wild duck1 that the reduction in the length of the bones of the wing1 relatively to those of the legs1 though slight1 is universal4 ,the reduction is least in the ,call duck1 which has the power and the habit of frequently flying4 ,in weight there is a greater relative difference between the bones of the leg and wing1 as may be seen in ,table #h4;,,ii3 ,,table #h4;,,ii4a4 ,,column #a4 ,weight of ,femur1 ,tibia1 and ,metatarsus 7grains74 ,,column #b4 ,weight of ,humerus1 ,radius1 and ,metacarpus 7grains74 ,,column #c4 ,or as 7ratio74 ,name of ,breed4 #a4 #b4 #c4 ,wild mallard4 #ed #ig #ajj3agi ,aylesbury4 #afd #bjd #ajj3abd ,hooked-bill4 #ajg #afj #ajj3adi ,tufted 7,dutch74 #aaa #adh #ajj3acc ,penguin4 #ge #ij4e #ajj3abj ,labrador4 #ada #afe #ajj3aag ,call4 #eg #ic #ajj3afc ,,table #h4;,,ii4b4 ,,column #a4 ,weight of all the ,bones of the ,leg and ,foot 7grains74 ,,column #b4 ,weight of all the ,bones of the ,wing 7grains74 ,,column #c4 ,or as 7ratio74 ,name of ,breed4 #a4 #b4 #c4 ,wild 7another specimen74 #ff #aae #ajj3agc ,common domestic duck4 #abg #aeh #ajj3abd ,in these domesticated birds1 the considerably lessened weight of the bones of the wing 7i4e4 on an average1 twenty-five per cent of their proper proportional weight71 as well as their slightly lessened length1 relatively to the leg-bones1 might follow1 not from any actual decrease in the wing- bones1 but from the increased weight and length of the bones of the legs4 ,,table #h4;,,iii4a4 ,,column #a4 ,weight of entire ,skeleton 7grains74 7,n4,b4 ,one ,metatarsus and ,foot was removed from each skeleton1 as it had been accidentally lost in two cases47 ,,column #b4 ,weight of ,femur1 ,tibia1 and ,metatarsus 7grains74 ,,column #c4 ,or as 7ratio74 ,name of ,breed4 #a4 #b4 #c4 ,wild mallard4 #hci #ed #ajjj3fd ,aylesbury4 #aibe #afd #ajjj3he ,tufted 7,dutch74 #adjd #aaa #ajjj3gi ,penguin4 #hga #ge #ajjj3hf ,call 7from ,mr4 ,fox74 #gag #eg #ajjj3gi ,,table #h4;,,iii4b4 ,,column #a4 ,weight of entire ,skeleton 7grains74 7,n4,b4 ,one ,metatarsus and ,foot was removed from each skeleton1 as it had been accidentally lost in two cases47 ,,column #b4 ,weight of ,humerus1 ,radius and ,metacarpus 7grains74 ,,column #c4 ,or as 7ratio74 ,name of ,breed4 #a4 #b4 #c4 ,wild mallard4 #hci #ig #ajjj3aae ,aylesbury4 #aibe #bjd #ajjj3aje ,tufted 7,dutch74 #adjd #adh #ajjj3aje ,penguin4 #hga #ij #ajjj3ajc ,call 7from ,mr4 ,baker74 #iad #ajj #ajjj3aji ,call 7from ,mr4 ,fox74 #gag #ib #ajjj3abi ,table #h4;,,iii4a shows that the leg-bones relatively to the weight of the entire skeleton have really increased in weight2 but ,table #h4;,,iii4b shows that according to the same standard the wing-bones have also really decreased in weight2 so that the relative disproportion shown in the foregoing tables between the wing and leg-bones1 in comparison with those of the wild duck1 is partly due to the increase in weight and length of the leg-bones1 and partly to the decrease in weight and length of the wing- bones4 ,with respect to ,tables #h4;,,iii4a and b1 ,i may first state that ,i tested them by taking another skeleton of a wild duck and of a common domestic duck1 and by comparing the weight of ,,all the bones of the leg with ,,all those of the wings1 and the result was the same4 ,in the first of these tables we see that the leg-bones in each case have increased in actual weight4 ,it might have been expected that1 with the increased or decreased weight of the entire skeleton1 the leg-bones would have become proportionally heavier or lighter2 but their greater weight in all the breeds relatively to the other bones can be accounted for only by these domestic birds having used their legs in walking and standing much more than the wild1 for they never fly1 and the more artificial breeds rarely swim4 ,in the second table we see1 with the exception of one case1 a plain reduction in the weight of the bones of the wing1 and this no doubt has resulted from their lessened use4 ,the one exceptional case1 namely1 in one of the ,call ducks1 is in truth no exception1 for this bird was constantly in the habit of flying about2 and ,i have seen it day after day rise from my grounds1 and fly for a long time in circles of more than a mile in diameter4 ,in this ,call duck there is not only no decrease1 but an actual increase in the weight of the wing-bones relatively to those of the wild-duck2 and this probably is consequent on the remarkable lightness and thinness of all the bones of the skeleton4 ,lastly1 ,i weighed the furculum1 coracoids1 and scapula of a wild duck and of a common domestic duck1 and ,i found that their weight1 relatively to that of the whole skeleton1 was as one hundred in the former to eighty-nine in the latter2 this shows that these bones in the domestic duck have been reduced eleven per cent of their due proportional weight4 ,the prominence of the crest of the sternum1 relatively to its length1 is also much reduced in all the domestic breeds4 ,these changes have evidently been caused by the lessened use of the wings4 ,it is well known that several birds1 belonging to different ,orders1 and inhabiting oceanic islands1 have their wings greatly reduced in size and are incapable of flight4 ,i suggested in my ',origin of ,species' that1 as these birds are not persecuted by any enemies1 the reduction of their wings had probably been caused by gradual disuse4 ,hence1 during the earlier stages of the process of reduction1 such birds would probably have resembled our domesticated ducks in the state of their organs of flight4 ,this is the case with the water-hen 7,gallinula nesiotis7 of ,tristan d',acunha1 which can flutter a little1 but obviously uses its legs1 and not its wings1 as a mode of escape4 ,now ,mr4 ,sclater 7#h_/ai4 ',proc4 ,zoolog4 ,soc4' #ahfa page #bfa47 finds in this bird that the wings1 sternum1 and coracoids are all reduced in length1 and the crest of the sternum in depth1 in comparison with the same bones in the ,european water-hen 7,g4 chloropus74 ,on the other hand1 the thigh-bones and pelvis are increased in length1 the former by four lines1 relatively to the same bones in the common water-hen4 ,hence in the skeleton of this natural species nearly the same changes have occurred1 only carried a little further1 as with our domestic ducks1 and in this latter case ,i presume no one will dispute that they have resulted from the lessened use of the wings and the increased use of the legs4 ,,the ,,goose4 ,this bird deserves some notice1 as hardly any other anciently domesticated bird or quadruped has varied so little4 ,that geese were anciently domesticated we know from certain verses in ,homer2 and from these birds having been kept 7#chh ,b4,c47 in the ,capitol at ,rome as sacred to ,juno1 which sacredness implies great antiquity4 7#h_/bj4 ',ceylon' by ,sir ,j4,e4 ,tennent #ahei volume #a page #dhe2 also ,j4 ,crawfurd on the ',relation of ,domest4 ,animals to ,civilisation' read before ,brit4 ,assoc4 #ahfj4 ,see also ',ornamental ,poultry' by ,rev4 ,e4,s4 ,dixon #ahdh page #acb4 ,the goose figured on the ,egyptian monuments seems to have been the ,red goose of ,egypt47 ,that the goose has varied in some degree1 we may infer from naturalists not being unanimous with respect to its wild parent-form2 though the difficulty is chiefly due to the existence of three or four closely allied wild ,european species4 7#h_/ba4 ,macgillivray's ',british ,birds' volume #d page #eic47 ,a large majority of capable judges are convinced that our geese are descended from the wild ,grey-leg goose 7,anser ferus72 the young of which can easily be tamed4 7#h_/bb4 ,mr4 ,a4 ,strickland1 ',annals and ,mag4 of ,nat4 ,hist4' #crd series volume #c #ahei page #abb1 reared some young wild geese1 and found them in habits and in all characters identical with the domestic goose47 ,this species1 when crossed with the domestic goose1 produced in the ,zoological ,gardens1 as ,i was assured in #ahdi1 perfectly fertile offspring4 7#h_/bc4 ,see also ,hunter ',essays' edited by ,owen volume #b page #cbb47 ,yarrell 7#h_/bd4 ,yarrell's ',british ,birds' volume #c page #adb47 has observed that the lower part of the trachea of the domestic goose is sometimes flattened1 and that a ring of white feathers sometimes surrounds the base of the beak4 ,these characters seem at first sight good indications of a cross at some former period with the white-fronted goose 7,a4 albifrons72 but the white ring is variable in this latter species1 and we must not overlook the law of analogous variation2 that is1 of one species assuming some of the characters of allied species4 ,as the goose has proved so little flexible in its organisation under long- continued domestication1 the amount of variation which it has undergone may be worth giving4 ,it has increased in size and in productiveness 7#h_/be4 ,l4 ,lloyd ',scandinavian ,adventures' #ahed volume #b page #dac1 says that the wild goose lays from five to eight eggs1 which is a much fewer number than that laid by our domestic goose472 and varies from white to a dusky colour4 ,several observers 7#h_/bf4 ,the ,rev4 ,l4 ,jenyns 7,blomefield7 seems first to have made this observation in his ',british ,animals4' ,see also ,yarrell1 and ,dixon in his ',ornamental ,poultry' 7page #aci71 and ',gardener's ,chronicle' #aheg page #de47 have stated that the gander is more frequently white than the goose1 and that when old it almost invariably becomes white2 but this is not the case with the parent-form1 the ,a4 ferus4 ,here1 again1 the law of analogous variation may have come into play1 as the almost snow-white male of the ,rock goose 7,bernicla antarctica7 standing on the sea-shore by his dusky partner is a sight well known to those who have traversed the sounds of ,tierra del ,fuego and the ,falkland ,islands4 ,some geese have top-knots2 and the skull beneath1 as before stated1 is perforated4 ,a sub-breed has lately been formed with the feathers reversed at the back of the head and neck4 7#h_/bg4 ,mr4 ,bartlet exhibited the head and neck of a bird thus characterised before the ,zoological ,soc4 ,february #ahfj47 ,the beak varies a little in size1 and is of a yellower tint than in the wild species2 but its colour and that of the legs are both slightly variable4 7#h_/bh4 ,w4 ,thompson ',natural ,hist4 of ,ireland' #ahea volume #c page #ca4 ,the ,rev4 ,e4,s4 ,dixon gave me some information on the varying colour of the beak and legs47 ,this latter fact deserves attention1 because the colour of the legs and beak is highly serviceable in discriminating the several closely allied wild forms4 7#h_/bi4 ,mr4 ,a4 ,strickland in ',annals and ,mag4 of ,nat4 ,hist4' #crd series volume #c #ahei page #abb47 ,at our ,shows two breeds are exhibited2 viz41 the ,embden and ,toulouse2 but they differ in nothing except colour4 7#h_/cj4 ',poultry ,chronicle' volume #a #ahed page #dih2 volume #c page #baj47 ,recently a smaller and singular variety has been imported from ,sebastopol 7#h_/ca4 ',the ,cottage ,gardener' ,september #d1 #ahfj page #cdh471 with the scapular feathers 7as ,i hear from ,mr4 ,tegetmeier1 who sent me specimens7 greatly elongated1 curled1 and even spirally twisted4 ,the margins of these feathers are rendered plumose by the divergence of the barbs and barbules1 so that they resemble in some degree those on the back of the black ,australian swan4 ,these feathers are likewise remarkable from the central shaft1 which is excessively thin and transparent1 being split into fine filaments1 which1 after running for a space free1 sometimes coalesce again4 ,it is a curious fact that these filaments are regularly clothed on each side with fine down or barbules1 precisely like those on the proper barbs of the feather4 ,this structure of the feathers is transmitted to half-bred birds4 ,in ,gallus sonneratii the barbs and barbules blend together1 and form thin horny plates of the same nature with the shaft3 in this variety of the goose1 the shaft divides into filaments which acquire barbules1 and thus resemble true barbs4 ,although the domestic goose certainly differs somewhat from any known wild species1 yet the amount of variation which it has undergone1 as compared with that of most domesticated animals1 is singularly small4 ,this fact can be partially accounted for by selection not having come largely into play4 ,birds of all kinds which present many distinct races are valued as pets or ornaments2 no one makes a pet of the goose2 the name1 indeed1 in more languages than one1 is a term of reproach4 ,the goose is valued for its size and flavour1 for the whiteness of its feathers which adds to their value1 and for its prolificness and tameness4 ,in all these points the goose differs from the wild parent-form2 and these are the points which have been selected4 ,even in ancient times the ,roman gourmands valued the liver of the ,,white goose2 and ,pierre ,belon 7#h_/cb4 ',l',hist4 de la ,nature des ,oiseaux' par ,p4 ,belon #aeee page #aef4 ,with respect to the livers of white geese being preferred by the ,romans see ,isid4 ,geoffroy ,st4-,hilaire ',hist4 ,nat4 ,gen4' tome #c page #eh47 in #aeee speaks of two varieties1 one of which was larger1 more fecund1 and of a better colour than the other2 and he expressly states that good managers attended to the colour of their goslings1 so that they might know which to preserve and select for breeding4 ,,the ,,peacock4 ,this is another bird which has hardly varied under domestication1 except in sometimes being white or piebald4 ,mr4 ,waterhouse carefully compared1 as he informs me1 skins of the wild ,indian and domestic bird1 and they were identical in every respect1 except that the plumage of the latter was perhaps rather thicker4 ,whether our birds are descended from those introduced into ,europe in the time of ,alexander1 or have been subsequently imported1 is doubtful4 ,they do not breed very freely with us1 and are seldom kept in large numbers1--circumstances which would greatly interfere with the gradual selection and formation of new breeds4 ,there is one strange fact with respect to the peacock1 namely1 the occasional appearance in ,england of the japanned or black-shouldered kind4 ,this form has lately been named on the high authority of ,mr4 ,sclater as a distinct species1 viz4 ,pavo nigripennis1 which he believes will hereafter be found wild in some country1 but not in ,india1 where it is certainly unknown4 ,the males of these japanned birds differ conspicuously from the common peacock in the colour of their secondary wing-feathers1 scapulars1 wing-coverts1 and thighs1 and are ,i think more beautiful2 they are rather smaller than the common sort1 and are always beaten by them in their battles1 as ,i hear from the ,hon4 ,a4,s4,g4 ,canning4 ,the females are much paler coloured than those of the common kind4 ,both sexes1 as ,mr4 ,canning informs me1 are white when they leave the egg1 and they differ from the young of the white variety only in having a peculiar pinkish tinge on their wings4 ,these japanned birds1 though appearing suddenly in flocks of the common kind1 propagate their kind quite truly4 ,although they do not resemble the hybrids which have been raised between ,p4 cristatus and muticus1 nevertheless they are in some respects intermediate in character between these two species2 and this fact favours1 as ,mr4 ,sclater believes1 the view that they form a distinct and natural species4 7#h_/cc4 ,mr4 ,sclater on the black-shouldered peacock of ,latham ',proc4 ,zoolog4 ,soc4' ,april #bd1 #ahfj4 ,mr4 ,swinhoe at one time believed1 ',ibis' ,july #ahfh1 that this kind of peafowl was found wild in ,cochin ,china1 but he has since informed me that he feels very doubtful on this head47 ,on the other hand1 ,sir ,h4 ,heron states 7#h_/cd4 ',proc4 ,zoolog4 ,soc4' ,april #ad1 #ahce47 that this breed suddenly appeared within his memory in ,lord ,brownlow's large stock of pied1 white1 and common peacocks4 ,the same thing occurred in ,sir ,j4 ,trevelyan's flock composed entirely of the common kind1 and in ,mr4 ,thornton's stock of common and pied peacocks4 ,it is remarkable that in these two latter instances the black-shouldered kind1 though a smaller and weaker bird1 increased1 to the extinction of the previously existing breed4 ,i have also received through ,mr4 ,sclater a statement from ,mr4 ,hudson ,gurney that he reared many years ago a pair of black-shouldered peacocks from the common kind2 and another ornithologist1 ,prof4 ,a4 ,newton1 states that1 five or six years ago1 a female bird1 in all respects similar to the female of the black-shouldered kind1 was produced from a stock of common peacocks in his possession1 which during more than twenty years had not been crossed with birds of any other strain4 ,mr4 ,jenner ,weir informs me that a peacock at ,blackheath whilst young was white1 but as it became older gradually assumed the characters of the black-shouldered variety2 both its parents were common peacocks4 ,lastly1 ,mr4 ,canning has given a case of a female of this same variety appearing in ,ireland in a flock of the ordinary kind4 7#h_/ce4 ',the ,field' ,may #f1 #ahga4 ,i am much indebted to ,mr4 ,canning for information with respect to his birds47 ,here1 then1 we have seven well authenticated cases in ,great ,britain of japanned birds1 having suddenly appeared within recent times in flocks of the common peafowl4 ,this variety must also have formerly appeared in ,europe1 for ,mr4 ,canning has seen an old picture1 and another is referred to in the ',field1' with this variety represented4 ,these facts seem to me to indicate that the japanned peacock is a strongly marked variety or sport1 which tends at all times and in many places to reappear4 ,this view is supported by the young being at first white like the young of the white breed1 which is undoubtedly a variation4 ,if1 on the other hand1 we believe the japanned peacock to be a distinct species1 we must suppose that in all the above cases the common breed had at some former period been crossed by it1 but had lost every trace of the cross2 yet that the offspring of these birds suddenly and completely reacquired through reversion the characters of ,p4 nigripennis4 ,i have heard of no other such case in the animal or vegetable kingdom4 ,to perceive the full improbability of such an occurrence1 we may suppose that a breed of dogs had been crossed at some former period with a wolf1 but had lost every trace of the wolf-like character1 yet that the breed gave birth in seven instances in the same country1 within no great length of time1 to a wolf perfect in every character2 and we must further suppose that in two of the cases1 the newly produced wolves afterwards spontaneously increased to such an extent as to lead to the extinction of the parent breed of dogs4 ,so remarkable a bird as the ,p4 nigripennis1 when first imported1 would have realised a large price2 it is therefore improbable that it should have been silently introduced and its history subsequently lost4 ,on the whole the evidence seems to me1 as it did to ,sir ,r4 ,heron1 to be decisive in favour of the japanned or black-shouldered breed being a variation1 induced by some unknown cause4 ,on this view1 the case is the most remarkable one ever recorded of the abrupt appearance of a new form1 which so closely resembles a true species that it has deceived one of the most experienced of living ornithologists4 ,,the ,,turkey4 ,it seems fairly well established by ,mr4 ,gould 7#h_/cf4 ',proc4 ,zoolog4 ,soc4' ,april #h1 #ahef page #fa4 ,prof4 ,baird believes 7as quoted in ,tegetmeier ',poultry ,book' #ahff page #bfi7 that our turkeys are descended from a ,west ,indian species now extinct4 ,but besides the improbability of a bird having long ago become extinct in these large and luxuriant islands1 it appears 7as we shall presently see7 that the turkey degenerates in ,india1 and this fact indicates that it was not aboriginally an inhabitant of the lowlands of the tropics471 that the turkey1 in accordance with the history of its first introduction1 is descended from a wild ,mexican form1 which had been domesticated by the natives before the discovery of ,america1 and which is now generally ranked as a local race1 and not as a distinct species4 ,however this may be1 the case deserves notice because in the ,united ,states wild male turkeys sometimes court the domestic hens1 which are descended from the ,mexican form1 and are generally received by them with great pleasure4 7#h_/cg4 ,audubon ',ornithological ,biography' volume #a #ahca pages #d- #ac2 and ',naturalist's ,library' volume #ad ',birds' page #ach47 ,several accounts have likewise been published of young birds1 reared in the ,united ,states from the eggs of the wild species1 crossing and commingling with the common breed4 ,in ,england1 also1 this same species has been kept in several parks2 from two of which the ,rev4 ,w4,d4 ,fox procured birds1 and they crossed freely with the common domestic kind1 and during many years afterwards1 as he informs me1 the turkeys in his neighbourhood clearly showed traces of their crossed parentage4 ,we here have an instance of a domestic race being modified by a cross with a distinct wild race or species4 ,f4 ,michaux 7#h_/ch4 ,f4 ,michaux ',travels in ,n4 ,america' #ahjb ,english translation page #bag47 suspected in #ahjb that the common domestic turkey was not descended from the ,united ,states species alone1 but likewise from a southern form1 and he went so far as to believe that ,english and ,french turkeys differed from having different proportions of the blood of the two parent-forms4 ,english turkeys are smaller than either wild form4 ,they have not varied in any great degree2 but there are some breeds which can be distinguished as ,norfolks1 ,suffolks1 ,whites1 and ,copper-coloured 7or ,cambridge71 all of which1 if precluded from crossing with other breeds propagate their kind truly4 ,of these kinds1 the most distinct is the small1 hardy1 dull-black ,norfolk turkey1 of which the chickens are black1 occasionally with white patches about the head4 ,the other breeds scarcely differ except in colour1 and their chickens are generally mottled all over with brownish-grey4 7#h_/ci4 ',ornamental ,poetry' by the ,rev4 ,e4,s4 ,dixon #ahdh page #cd47 ,the inferior tail-coverts vary in number1 and according to a ,german superstition the hen lays as many eggs as the cock has feathers of this kind4 7#h_/dj4 ,bechstein ',naturgesch4 ,deutschlands' b4 #c #agic s4 #cji47 ,albin in #agch1 and ,temminck within a much later period1 describe a beautiful breed1 dusky-yellowish1 brown above and white beneath1 with a large top- knot of soft plumose feather4 ,the spurs of the male were rudimentary4 ,this breed has been for a long time extinct in ,europe2 but a living specimen has lately been imported from the east coast of ,africa1 which still retains the top-knot and the same general colouring and rudimentary spurs4 7#h_/da4 ,mr4 ,bartlett in ',land and ,water' ,october #ca1 #ahfh page #bcc2 and ,mr4 ,tegetmeier in the ',field' ,july #ag1 #ahfi page #df47 ,mr4 ,wilmot has described 7#h_/db4 ',gardener's ,chronicle' #aheb page #fii47 a white turkey-cock having a crest formed of feathers about four inches long1 with bare quills1 and a tuft of soft white down growing at the end4 ,many of the young birds inherited this kind of crest1 but afterwards it fell off or was pecked out by the other birds4 ,this is an interesting case1 as with care a new breed might probably have been formed2 and a top-knot of this nature would have been to a certain extent analogous to that borne by the males in several allied genera1 such as ,euplocomus1 ,lophophorus1 and ,pavo4 ,wild turkeys1 believed in every instance to have been imported from the ,united ,states1 have been kept in the parks of ,lords ,powis1 ,leicester1 ,hill1 and ,derby4 ,the ,rev4 ,w4,d4 ,fox procured birds from the two first-named parks1 and he informs me that they certainly differed a little from each other in the shape of their bodies and in the barred plumage on their wings4 ,these birds likewise differed from ,lord ,hill's stock4 ,some of the latter kept at ,oulton by ,sir ,p4 ,egerton1 though precluded from crossing with common turkeys1 occasionally produced much paler-coloured birds1 and one that was almost white1 but not an albino4 ,these half-wild turkeys1 in thus differing slightly from each other1 present an analogous case with the wild cattle kept in the several ,british parks4 ,we must suppose that such differences have resulted from the prevention of free intercrossing between birds ranging over a wide area1 and from the changed conditions to which they have been exposed in ,england4 ,in ,india the climate has apparently wrought a still greater change in the turkey1 for it is described by ,mr4 ,blyth 7#h_/dc4 ,e4 ,blyth ',annals and ,mag4 of ,nat4 ,hist4' #ahdg volume #bj page #cia47 as being much degenerated in size1 utterly incapable of rising on the wing1 of a black colour1 and with the long pendulous appendages over the beak enormously developed4 ,,the ,,guinea ,,fowl4 ,the domesticated ,guinea fowl is now believed by some naturalists to be descended from the ,numida ptilorhynca1 which inhabits very hot1 and1 in parts1 extremely arid districts in ,eastern ,africa2 consequently it has been exposed in this country to extremely different conditions of life4 ,nevertheless it has hardly varied at all1 except in the plumage being either paler or darker-coloured4 ,it is a singular fact that this bird varies more in colour in the ,west ,indies and on the ,spanish ,main1 under a hot though humid climate1 than in ,europe4 7#h_/dd4 ,roulin makes this remark in ',mem4 de divers ,savans1 #a';,acad4 des ,sciences' tome #f #ahce page #cdi4 ,mr4 ,hill of ,spanish ,town in a letter to me describes five varieties of the ,guinea fowl in ,jamaica4 ,i have seen singular pale-coloured varieties imported from ,barbadoes and ,demerara47 ,the ,guinea fowl has become thoroughly feral in ,jamaica and in ,st4 ,domingo 7#h_/de4 ,for ,st4 ,domingo see ,m4 ,a4 ,salle1 in ',proc4 ,zoolog4 ,soc4' #aheg page #bcf4 ,mr4 ,hill remarks to me1 in his letter1 on the colour of the legs of the feral birds in ,jamaica471 and has diminished in size2 the legs are black1 whereas the legs of the aboriginal ,african bird are said to be grey4 ,this small change is worth notice on account of the often-repeated statement that all feral animals invariably revert in every character to their original type4 ,,the ,,canary ,,bird4 ,as this bird has been recently domesticated1 namely1 within the last #cej years1 its variability deserves notice4 ,it has been crossed with nine or ten other species of ,fringillidae1 and some of the hybrids are almost completely fertile2 but we have no evidence that any distinct breed has originated from such crosses4 ,notwithstanding the modern domestication of the canary1 many varieties have been produced2 even before the year #agah a list of twenty-seven varieties was published in ,france 7#h_/df4 ,mr4 ,b4,p4 ,brent ',the ,canary1 ,british ,finches' etc4 pages #ba1 #cj471 and in #aggi a long schedule of the desired qualities was printed by the ,london ,canary ,society1 so that methodical selection has been practised during a considerable period4 ,the greater number of the varieties differ only in colour and in the markings of their plumage4 ,some breeds however1 differ in shape1 such as the hooped or bowed canaries1 and the ,belgian canaries with their much elongated bodies4 ,mr4 ,brent 7#h_/dg4 ',cottage ,gardener' ,december #aa1 #ahee page #ahd3 an account is here given of all the varieties4 ,for many measurements of the wild birds1 see ,mr4 ,e4 ,vernon ,harcourt ibid ,december #be1 #ahee page #bbc47 measured one of the latter and found it eight inches in length1 whilst the wild canary is only five and a quarter inches long4 ,there are top-knotted canaries1 and it is a singular fact that1 if two top- knotted birds are matched1 the young1 instead of having very fine top- knots1 are generally bald1 or even have a wound on their heads4 7#h_/dh4 ,bechstein ',naturgesch4 der ,stubenvogel' #ahdj s4 #bdc2 see s4 #beb on the inherited song of ,canary-birds4 ,with respect to their baldness see also ,w4 ,kidd ',treatise on ,song-,birds4'7 ,it would appear as if the top-knot were due to some morbid condition1 which is increased to an injurious degree when two birds in this state are paired4 ,there is a feather-footed breed1 and another with a kind of frill running down the breast4 ,one other character deserves notice from being confined to one period of life1 and from being strictly inherited at the same period2 namely1 the wing and tail feathers in prize canaries being black1 but this colour is retained only until the first moult2 once moulted1 the peculiarity ceases4 7#h_/di4 ,w4 ,kidd ',treatise on ,song-,birds' page #ah47 ,canaries differ much in disposition and character1 and in some small degree in song4 ,they produce eggs three or four times during the year4 ,,gold-,,fish4 ,besides mammals and birds1 only a few animals belonging to the other great classes have been domesticated2 but to show that it is an almost universal law that animals1 when removed from their natural conditions of life1 vary1 and that races can be formed when selection is applied1 it is necessary to say a few words on gold-fish1 bees1 and silk-moths4 ,gold-fish 7,cyprinus auratus7 were introduced into ,europe only two or three centuries ago2 but they have been kept in confinement from an ancient period in ,china4 ,mr4 ,blyth 7#h_/ej4 ,the ',indian ,field' #aheh page #bee47 suspects1 from the analogous variation of other fishes1 that golden- coloured fish do not occur in a state of nature4 ,these fishes frequently live under the most unnatural conditions1 and their variability in colour1 size1 and in some important points of structure is very great4 ,m4 ,sauvigny has described and given coloured drawings of no less than eighty-nine varieties4 7#h_/ea4 ,yarrell ',british ,fishes' volume #a page #cai47 ,many of the varieties1 however1 such as triple tail-fins1 etc41 ought to be called monstrosities2 but it is difficult to draw any distinct line between a variation and a monstrosity4 ,as gold-fish are kept for ornament or curiosity1 and as the ,chinese are just the people to have secluded a chance variety of any kind1 and to have matched and paired from it 7#h_/eb4 ,mr4 ,blyth in the ',indian ,field' #aheh page #bee471 it might have been predicted that selection would have been largely practised in the formation of new breeds2 and this is the case4 ,in an old ,chinese work it is said that fish with vermilion scales were first raised in confinement during the ,sung dynasty 7which commenced ,a4,d4 #ifj71 and now they are cultivated in families everywhere for the sake of ornament4 ,in another and more ancient work1 it is said that there is not a household where the gold-fish is not cultivated1 in ,,rivalry as to its colour1 and as a source of profit1 etc4 7#h_/ec4 ,w4,f4 ,mayers ',chinese ,notes and ,queries' ,august #ahfh page #abc47 ,although many breeds exist1 it is a singular fact that the variations are often not inherited4 ,sir ,r4 ,heron 7#h_/ed4 ',proc4 ,zoolog4 ,soc4' ,may #be1 #ahdb47 kept many of these fishes1 and placed all the deformed ones1 namely1 those destitute of dorsal fins and those furnished with a double anal fin1 or triple tail1 in a pond by themselves2 but they did not produce a greater proportion of deformed offspring than the perfect fishes4 ,passing over an almost infinite diversity of colour1 we meet with the most extraordinary modifications of structure4 ,thus1 out of about two dozen specimens bought in ,london1 ,mr4 ,yarrell observed some with the dorsal fin extending along more than half the length of the back3 others with this fin reduced to only five or six rays3 and one with no dorsal fin4 ,the anal fins are sometimes double1 and the tail is often triple4 ,this latter deviation of structure seems generally to occur at the expense of the whole or part of some other fin 7#h_/ee4 ,yarrell ',british ,fishes' volume #a page #cai472 but ,bory de ,saint-,vincent 7#h_/ef4 ',dict4 ,class4 d',hist4 ,nat4' tome #e page #bgf47 saw at ,madrid gold-fish furnished with a dorsal fin and a triple tail4 ,one variety is characterised by a hump on its back near the head2 and the ,rev4 ,l4 ,jenyns 7,blomefield7 7#h_/eg4 ',observations in ,nat4 ,hist4' #ahdf page #baa4 ,dr4 ,gray has described in ',annals and ,mag4 of ,nat4 ,hist4' #ahfj page #aea a nearly similar variety but destitute of a dorsal fin47 has described a most singular variety1 imported from ,china1 almost globular in form like a ,diodon1 with the fleshy part of the tail as if entirely cut away8 the caudal fin being set on a little behind the dorsal and immediately above the anal4 ,in this fish the anal and caudal fins were double2 the anal fin being attached to the body in a vertical line3 the eyes also were enormously large and protuberant4 ,,hive-,,bees4 ,bees have been domesticated from an ancient period2 if indeed their state can be considered one of domestication1 for they search for their own food1 with the exception of a little generally given to them during the winter4 ,their habitation is a hive instead of a hole in a tree4 ,bees1 however1 have been transported into almost every quarter of the world1 so that climate ought to have produced whatever direct effect it is capable of producing4 ,it is frequently asserted that the bees in different parts of ,great ,britain differ in size1 colour1 and temper2 and ,godron 7#h_/eh4 ',de l',espece' #ahei page #dei4 ,with respect to the bees of ,burgundy see ,m4 ,gerard1 art4 ',espece' in ',dict4 ,univers4 d',hist4 ,nat4'7 says that they are generally larger in the south than in other parts of ,france2 it has also been asserted that the little brown bees of ,high ,burgundy1 when transported to ,la ,bresse become large and yellow in the second generation4 ,but these statements require confirmation4 ,as far as size is concerned1 it is known that bees produced in very old combs are smaller1 owing to the cells having become smaller from the successive old cocoons4 ,the best authorities 7#h_/ei4 ,see a discussion on this subject1 in answer to a question of mine1 in ',journal of ,horticulture' #ahfb pages #bbe-bdb2 also ,mr4 ,bevan ,fox in ditto #ahfb page #bhd7 concur that1 with the exception of the ,ligurian race or species1 presently to be mentioned1 distinct breeds do not exist in ,britain or on the ,continent4 ,there is1 however1 even in the same stock1 some variability in colour4 ,thus1 ,mr4 ,woodbury states 7#h_/fj4 ,this excellent observer may be implicitly trusted2 see ',journal of ,horticulture' ,july #ad1 #ahfc page #ci47 that he has several times seen queen bees of the common kind annulated with yellow-like ,ligurian queens1 and the latter dark-coloured like common bees4 ,he has also observed variations in the colour of the drones1 without any corresponding difference in the queens or workers of the same hive4 ,the great apiarian1 ,dzierzon1 in answer to my queries on this subject1 says 7#h_/fa4 ',journal of ,horticulture' ,september #i1 #ahfb page #dfc2 see also ,herr ,kleine on same subject ,november #aa page #fdc1 who sums up1 that1 though there is some variability in colour1 no constant or perceptible differences can be detected in the bees of ,germany471 that in ,germany bees of some stocks are decidedly dark1 whilst others are remarkable for their yellow colour4 ,bees also seem to differ in habits in different districts1 for ,dzierzon adds1 ,if many stocks with their offspring are more inclined to swarm1 whilst others are richer in honey1 so that some bee-keepers even distinguish between swarming and honey-gathering bees1 this is a habit which has become second nature1 caused by the customary mode of keeping the bees and the pasturage of the district4 ,for example1 what a difference in this respect one may perceive to exist between the bees of the ,luneburg heath and those of this country6444,removing an old queen and substituting a young one of the current year is here an infallible mode of keeping the strongest stock from swarming and preventing drone-breeding2 whilst the same means if adopted in ,hanover would certainly be of no avail4 ,i procured a hive full of dead bees from ,jamaica1 where they have long been naturalised1 and1 on carefully comparing them under the microscope with my own bees1 ,i could detect not a trace of difference4 ,this remarkable uniformity in the hive-bee1 wherever kept1 may probably be accounted for by the great difficulty1 or rather impossibility1 of bringing selection into play by pairing particular queens and drones1 for these insects unite only during flight4 ,nor is there any record1 with a single partial exception1 of any person having separated and bred from a hive in which the workers presented some appreciable difference4 ,in order to form a new breed1 seclusion from other bees would1 as we now know1 be indispensable2 for since the introduction of the ,ligurian bee into ,germany and ,england1 it has been found that the drones wander at least two miles from their own hives1 and often cross with the queens of the common bee4 7#h_/fb4 ,mr4 ,woodbury has published several such accounts in ',journal of ,horticulture' #ahfa and #ahfb47 ,the ,ligurian bee1 although perfectly fertile when crossed with the common kind1 is ranked by most naturalists as a distinct species1 whilst by others it is ranked as a variety3 but this form need not here be noticed1 as there is no reason to believe that it is the product of domestication4 ,the ,egyptian and some other bees are likewise ranked by ,dr4 ,gerstacker 7#h_/fc4 ',annals and ,mag4 of ,nat4 ,hist4' #crd series volume #aa page #cci47 but not by other highly competent judges1 as geographical races2 he grounds his conclusion in chief part on the fact that in certain districts1 as in the ,crimea and ,rhodes1 they vary so much in colour1 that the several geographical races can be closely connected by intermediate forms4 ,i have alluded to a single instance of the separation and preservation of a particular stock of bees4 ,mr4 ,lowe 7#h_/fd4 ',the ,cottage ,gardener' ,may #ahfj page #aaj2 and ditto in ',journal of ,hort4' #ahfb page #bdb47 procured some bees from a cottager a few miles from ,edinburgh1 and perceived that they differed from the common bee in the hairs on the head and thorax being lighter coloured and more profuse in quantity4 ,from the date of the introduction of the ,ligurian bee into ,great ,britain we may feel sure that these bees had not been crossed with this form4 ,mr4 ,lowe propagated this variety1 but unfortunately did not separate the stock from his other bees1 and after three generations the new character was almost completely lost4 ,nevertheless1 as he adds1 a great number of the bees still retain traces1 though faint1 of the original colony4 ,this case shows us what could probably be effected by careful and long-continued selection applied exclusively to the workers1 for1 as we have seen1 queens and drones cannot be selected and paired4 ,,silk-,,moths4 ,these insects are in several respects interesting to us1 more especially because they have varied largely at an early period of life1 and the variations have been inherited at corresponding periods4 ,as the value of the silk-moth depends entirely on the cocoon1 every change in its structure and qualities has been carefully attended to1 and races differing much in the cocoon1 but hardly at all in the adult state1 have been produced4 ,with the races of most other domestic animals1 the young resemble each other closely1 whilst the adults differ much4 ,it would be useless1 even if it were possible1 to describe all the many kinds of silkworms4 ,several distinct species exist in ,india and ,china which produce useful silk1 and some of these are capable of freely crossing with the common silk-moth1 as has been recently ascertained in ,france4 ,captain ,hutton 7#h_/fe4 ',transact4 ,entomolog4 ,soc4' #crd series volume #c pages #adc-agc and pages #bie-cca47 states that throughout the world at least six species have been domesticated2 and he believes that the silk-moths reared in ,europe belong to two or three species4 ,this1 however1 is not the opinion of several capable judges who have particularly attended to the cultivation of this insect in ,france2 and hardly accords with some facts presently to be given4 ,the common silk-moth 7,bombyx mori7 was brought to ,constantinople in the sixth century1 whence it was carried into ,italy1 and in #adid into ,france4 7#h_/ff4 ,godron ',de l',espece' #ahei tome #a page #dfj4 ,the antiquity of the silkworm in ,china is given on the authority of ,stanislas ,julien47 ,everything has been favourable for the variation of this insect4 ,it is believed to have been domesticated in ,china as long ago as #bgjj ,b4,c4 ,it has been kept under unnatural and diversified conditions of life1 and has been transported into many countries4 ,there is reason to believe that the nature of the food given to the caterpillar influences to a certain extent the character of the breed4 7#h_/fg4 ,see the remarks of ,prof4 ,westwood1 ,gen4 ,hearsey and others at the meeting of the ,entomolog4 ,soc4 of ,london ,july #ahfa47 ,disuse has apparently aided in checking the development of the wings4 ,but the most important element in the production of the many now existing1 much modified races1 no doubt has been the close attention which has long been applied in many countries to every promising variation4 ,the care taken in ,europe in the selection of the best cocoons and moths for breeding is notorious 7#h_/fh4 ,see for instance ,m4 ,a4 de ,quatrefages ',etudes sur les ,maladies actuelles du ,ver a ,soie' #ahei page #aja471 and the production of eggs is followed as a distinct trade in parts of ,france4 ,i have made inquiries through ,dr4 ,falconer1 and am assured that in ,india the natives are equally careful in the process of selection4 ,in ,china the production of eggs is confined to certain favourable districts1 and the raisers are precluded by law from producing silk1 so that their whole attention may be necessarily given up to this one object4 7#h_/fi4 ,my authorities for the statements will be given in the chapter on ,selection47 ,the following details on the differences between the several breeds are taken1 when not stated to the contrary1 from ,m4 ,robinet's excellent work 7#h_/gj4 ',manuel de l',educateur de ,vers a ,soie' #ahdh471 which bears every sign of care and large experience4 ,the ,,eggs in the different races vary in colour1 in shape 7being round1 elliptic or oval71 and in size4 ,the eggs laid in ,june in the south of ,france1 and in ,july in the central provinces1 do not hatch until the following spring2 and it is in vain1 says ,m4 ,robinet1 to expose them to a temperature gradually raised1 in order that the caterpillar may be quickly developed4 ,yet occasionally1 without any known cause1 batches of eggs are produced1 which immediately begin to undergo the proper changes1 and are hatched in from twenty to thirty days4 ,from these and some other analogous facts it may be concluded that the ,trevoltini silkworms of ,italy1 of which the caterpillars are hatched in from fifteen to twenty days1 do not necessarily form1 as has been maintained1 a distinct species4 ,although the breeds which live in temperate countries produce eggs which cannot be immediately hatched by artificial heat1 yet when they are removed to and reared in a hot country they gradually acquire the character of quick development1 as in the ,trevoltini races4 7#h_/ga4 ,robinet ibid pages #ab1 #cah4 ,i may add that the eggs of ,n4 ,american silkworms taken to the ,sandwich ,islands produced moths at very irregular periods2 and the moths thus raised yielded eggs which were even worse in this respect4 ,some were hatched in ten days1 and others not until after the lapse of many months4 ,no doubt a regular early character would ultimately have been acquired4 ,see review in ',athenaeum' #ahdd page #cbi of ,j4 ,jarves ',scenes in the ,sandwich ,islands4'7 ,,caterpillars4 ,these vary greatly in size and colour4 ,the skin is generally white1 sometimes mottled with black or grey1 and occasionally quite black4 ,the colour1 however1 as ,m4 ,robinet asserts1 is not constant1 even in perfectly pure breeds2 except in the race tigree1 so called from being marked with transverse black stripes4 ,as the general colour of the caterpillar is not correlated with that of the silk 7#h_/gb4 ',the ,art of rearing ,silkworms' translated from ,count ,dandolo #ahbe page #bc471 this character is disregarded by cultivators1 and has not been fixed by selection4 ,captain ,hutton1 in the paper before referred to1 has argued with much force that the dark tiger- like marks1 which so frequently appear during the later moults in the caterpillars of various breeds1 are due to reversion2 for the caterpillars of several allied wild species of ,bombyx are marked and coloured in this manner4 ,he separated some caterpillars with the tiger-like marks1 and in the succeeding spring 7pages #adi1 #bih7 nearly all the caterpillars reared from them were dark-brindled1 and the tints became still darker in the third generation4 ,the moths reared from these caterpillars 7#h_/gc4 ',transact4 ,ent4 ,soc4' ut supra pages #aec1 #cjh47 also became darker1 and resembled in colouring the wild ,b4 huttoni4 ,on this view of the tiger-like marks being due to reversion1 the persistency with which they are transmitted is intelligible4 ,several years ago ,mrs4 ,whitby took great pains in breeding silkworms on a large scale1 and she informed me that some of her caterpillars had dark eyebrows4 ,this is probably the first step in reversion towards the tiger- like marks1 and ,i was curious to know whether so trifling a character would be inherited4 ,at my request she separated in #ahdh twenty of these caterpillars1 and having kept the moths separate1 bred from them4 ,of the many caterpillars thus reared1 every one without exception had eyebrows1 some darker and more decidedly marked than the others1 but ,,all had eyebrows more or less plainly visible4 ,black caterpillars occasionally appear amongst those of the common kind1 but in so variable a manner1 that1 according to ,m4 ,robinet1 the same race will one year exclusively produce white caterpillars1 and the next year many black ones2 nevertheless1 ,i have been informed by ,m4 ,a4 ,bossi of ,geneva1 that1 if these black caterpillars are separately bred from1 they reproduce the same colour2 but the cocoons and moths reared from them do not present any difference4 ,the caterpillar in ,europe ordinarily moults four times before passing into the cocoon stage2 but there are races a trois mues1 and the ,trevoltini race likewise moults only thrice4 ,it might have been thought that so important a physiological difference would not have arisen under domestication2 but ,m4 ,robinet 7#h_/gd4 ,robinet ibid page #cag47 states that1 on the one hand1 ordinary caterpillars occasionally spin their cocoons after only three moults1 and1 on the other hand1 presque toutes les races a trois mues1 que nous avons experimentees1 ont fait quatre mues a la seconde ou a la troisieme annee1 ce qui semble prouver qu'il a suffi de les placer dans des conditions favorables pour leur rendre une faculte qu'elles avaient perdue sous des influences moins favorables4 ,,cocoons4 ,the caterpillar in changing into the cocoon loses about #ej per cent of its weight2 but the amount of loss differs in different breeds1 and this is of importance to the cultivator4 ,the cocoon in the different races presents characteristic differences2 being large or small2--nearly spherical with no constriction1 as in the ,race de ,loriol1 or cylindrical1 with either a deep or slight constriction in the middle2 with the two ends1 or with one end alone1 more or less pointed4 ,the silk varies in fineness and quality1 and in being nearly white1 but of two tints1 or yellow4 ,generally the colour of the silk is not strictly inherited3 but in the chapter on ,selection ,i shall give a curious account how1 in the course of sixty-five generations1 the number of yellow cocoons in one breed has been reduced in ,france from one hundred to thirty-five in the thousand4 ,according to ,robinet1 the white race1 called ,sina1 by careful selection during the last seventy-five years1 est arrivee a un tel etat de purete1 qu'on ne voit pas un seul cocon jaune dans des millions de cocons blancs4 7#h_/ge4 ,robinet ibid pages #cjf-cag47 ,cocoons are sometimes formed1 as is well known1 entirely destitute of silk1 which yet produce moths2 unfortunately ,mrs4 ,whitby was prevented by an accident from ascertaining whether this character would prove hereditary4 ,,adult ,,stage4 ,i can find no account of any constant difference in the moths of the most distinct races4 ,mrs4 ,whitby assured me that there was none in the several kinds bred by her2 and ,i have received a similar statement from the eminent naturalist1 ,m4 de ,quatrefages4 ,captain ,hutton also says 7#h_/gf4 ',transact4 ,ent4 ,soc4' ut supra page #cag47 that the moths of all kinds vary much in colour1 but in nearly the same inconstant manner4 ,considering how much the cocoons in the several races differ1 this fact is of interest1 and may probably be accounted for on the same principle as the fluctuating variability of colour in the caterpillar1 namely1 that there has been no motive for selecting and perpetuating any particular variation4 ,the males of the wild ,bombycidae fly swiftly in the day-time and evening1 but the females are usually very sluggish and inactive4 7#h_/gg4 ,stephen's ,illustrations1 ',haustellata' volume #b page #ce4 ,see also ,capt4 ,hutton ',transact4 ,ent4 ,soc4' ibid page #aeb47 ,in several moths of this family the females have abortive wings1 but no instance is known of the males being incapable of flight1 for in this case the species could hardly have been perpetuated4 ,in the silk-moth both sexes have imperfect1 crumpled wings1 and are incapable of flight2 but still there is a trace of the characteristic difference in the two sexes2 for though1 on comparing a number of males and females1 ,i could detect no difference in the development of their wings1 yet ,i was assured by ,mrs4 ,whitby that the males of the moths bred by her used their wings more than the females1 and could flutter downwards1 though never upwards4 ,she also states that1 when the females first emerge from the cocoon1 their wings are less expanded than those of the male4 ,the degree of imperfection1 however1 in the wings varies much in different races and under different circumstances4 ,m4 ,quatrefages 7#h_/gh4 ',etudes sur les ,maladies du ,ver a ,soie' #ahei pages #cjd1 #bji47 says that he has seen a number of moths with their wings reduced to a third1 fourth1 or tenth part of their normal dimensions1 and even to mere short straight stumps3 il me semble qu'il y a la un veritable arret de developpement partiel4 ,on the other hand1 he describes the female moths of the ,andre ,jean breed as having leurs ailes larges et etalees4 ,un seul presente quelques courbures irregulieres et des plis anormaux4 ,as moths and butterflies of all kinds reared from wild caterpillars under confinement often have crippled wings1 the same cause1 whatever it may be1 has probably acted on silk-moths1 but the disuse of their wings during so many generations has1 it may be suspected1 likewise come into play4 ,the moths of many breeds fail to glue their eggs to the surface on which they are laid 7#h_/gi4 ,quatrefages ',etudes' etc4 page #bad47 but this proceeds1 according to ,capt4 ,hutton 7#h_/hj4 ',transact4 ,ent4 ,soc4' ut supra page #aea471 merely from the glands of the ovipositor being weakened4 ,as with other long-domesticated animals1 the instincts of the silk-moth have suffered4 ,the caterpillars1 when placed on a mulberry-tree1 often commit the strange mistake of devouring the base of the leaf on which they are feeding1 and consequently fall down2 but they are capable1 according to ,m4 ,robinet 7#h_/ha4 ',manuel de l',educateur' etc4 page #bf47 of again crawling up the trunk4 ,even this capacity sometimes fails1 for ,m4 ,martins 7#h_/hb4 ,godron ',de l',espece' page #dfb47 placed some caterpillars on a tree1 and those which fell were not able to remount and perished of hunger2 they were even incapable of passing from leaf to leaf4 ,some of the modifications which the silk-moth has undergone stand in correlation with one another4 ,thus1 the eggs of the moths which produce white cocoons and of those which produce yellow cocoons differ slightly in tint4 ,the abdominal feet1 also1 of the caterpillars which yield white cocoons are always white1 whilst those which give yellow cocoons are invariably yellow4 7#h_/hc4 ,quatrefages ',etudes' etc4 pages #ab1 #bji1 #bad47 ,we have seen that the caterpillars with dark tiger-like stripes produce moths which are more darkly shaded than other moths4 ,it seems well established 7#h_/hd4 ,robinet ',manuel' etc4 page #cjc47 that in ,france the caterpillars of the races which produce white silk1 and certain black caterpillars1 have resisted1 better than other races1 the disease which has recently devastated the silk-districts4 ,lastly1 the races differ constitutionally1 for some do not succeed so well under a temperate climate as others2 and a damp soil does not equally injure all the races4 7#h_/he4 ,robinet ibid page #ae47 ,from these various facts we learn that silk-moths1 like the higher animals1 vary greatly under long-continued domestication4 ,we learn also the more important fact that variations may occur at various periods of life1 and be inherited at a corresponding period4 ,and finally we see that insects are amenable to the great principle of ,selection4 ,,chapter #a4;,,ix4 ,,cultivated ,,plants3 ,,cereal ,,and ,,culinary ,,plants4 ,,preliminary ,,remarks ,,on ,,the ,,number ,,and ,,parentage ,,of ,,cultivated ,,plants4 ,,first ,,steps ,,in ,,cultivation4 ,,geographical ,,distribution ,,of ,,cultivated ,,plants4 ,,cerealia4 ,,doubts ,,on ,,the ,,number ,,of ,,species4 ,,wheat3 ,,varieties ,,of4 ,,individual ,,variability4 ,,changed ,,habits4 ,,selection4 ,,ancient ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,varieties4 ,,maize3 ,,great ,,variation ,,of4 ,,direct ,,action ,,of ,,climate ,,on4 ,,culinary ,,plants4 ,,cabbages3 ,,varieties ,,of1 ,,in ,,foliage ,,and ,,stems1 ,,but ,,not ,,in ,,other ,,parts4 ,,parentage ,,of4 ,,other ,,species ,,of ,,brassica4 ,,peas3 ,,amount ,,of ,,difference ,,in ,,the ,,several ,,kinds1 ,,chiefly ,,in ,,the ,,pods ,,and ,,seed4 ,,some ,,varieties ,,constant1 ,,some ,,highly ,,variable4 ,,do ,,not ,,intercross4 ,,beans4 ,,potatoes3 ,,numerous ,,varieties ,,of4 ,,differing ,,little ,,except ,,in ,,the ,,tubers4 ,,characters ,,inherited4 ,i shall not enter into so much detail on the variability of cultivated plants1 as in the case of domesticated animals4 ,the subject is involved in much difficulty4 ,botanists have generally neglected cultivated varieties1 as beneath their notice4 ,in several cases the wild prototype is unknown or doubtfully known2 and in other cases it is hardly possible to distinguish between escaped seedlings and truly wild plants1 so that there is no safe standard of comparison by which to judge of any supposed amount of change4 ,not a few botanists believe that several of our anciently cultivated plants have become so profoundly modified that it is not possible now to recognise their aboriginal parent-forms4 ,equally perplexing are the doubts whether some of them are descended from one species1 or from several inextricably commingled by crossing and variation4 ,variations often pass into1 and cannot be distinguished from1 monstrosities2 and monstrosities are of little significance for our purpose4 ,many varieties are propagated solely by grafts1 buds1 layers1 bulbs1 etc41 and frequently it is not known how far their peculiarities can be transmitted by seminal generation4 ,nevertheless1 some facts of value can be gleaned3 and other facts will hereafter be incidentally given4 ,one chief object in the two following chapters is to show how many characters in our cultivated plants have become variable4 ,before entering on details a few general remarks on the origin of cultivated plants may be introduced4 ,m4 ,alph4 ,de ,candolle 7#i_/a4 ',geographie botanique raisonnee' #ahee pages #haj to #iia47 in an admirable discussion on this subject1 in which he displays a wonderful amount of knowledge1 gives a list of #aeg of the most useful cultivated plants4 ,of these he believes that #he are almost certainly known in their wild state2 but on this head other competent judges 7#i_/b4 ,review by ,mr4 ,bentham in ',hort4 ,journal' volume #i #ahee page #acc entitled ',historical ,notes on cultivated ,plants' by ,dr4 ,a4 ,targioni-,tozzetti4 ,see also ',edinburgh ,review' #ahff page #eaj47 entertain great doubts4 ,of #dj of them1 the origin is admitted by ,m4 ,de ,candolle to be doubtful1 either from a certain amount of dissimilarity which they present when compared with their nearest allies in a wild state1 or from the probability of the latter not being truly wild plants1 but seedlings escaped from culture4 ,of the entire #aeg1 #cb alone are ranked by ,m4 ,de ,candolle as quite unknown in their aboriginal condition4 ,but it should be observed that he does not include in his list several plants which present ill-defined characters1 namely1 the various forms of pumpkins1 millet1 sorghum1 kidney-bean1 dolichos1 capsicum1 and indigo4 ,nor does he include flowers2 and several of the more anciently cultivated flowers1 such as certain roses1 the common ,imperial lily1 the tuberose1 and even the lilac1 are said 7#i_/c4 ',hist4 ,notes' as above by ,targioni-,tozzetti47 not to be known in the wild state4 ,from the relative numbers above given1 and from other arguments of much weight1 ,m4 ,de ,candolle concludes that plants have rarely been so much modified by culture that they cannot be identified with their wild prototypes4 ,but on this view1 considering that savages probably would not have chosen rare plants for cultivation1 that useful plants are generally conspicuous1 and that they could not have been the inhabitants of deserts or of remote and recently discovered islands1 it appears strange to me that so many of our cultivated plants should be still unknown or only doubtfully known in the wild state4 ,if1 on the other hand1 many of these plants have been profoundly modified by culture1 the difficulty disappears4 ,the difficulty would also be removed if they have been exterminated during the progress of civilisation2 but ,m4 ,de ,candolle has shown that this probably has seldom occurred4 ,as soon as a plant was cultivated in any country1 the half-civilised inhabitants would no longer have need to search the whole surface of the land for it1 and thus lead to its extirpation2 and even if this did occur during a famine1 dormant seeds would be left in the ground4 ,in tropical countries the wild luxuriance of nature1 as was long ago remarked by ,humboldt1 overpowers the feeble efforts of man4 ,in anciently civilised temperate countries1 where the whole face of the land has been greatly changed1 it can hardly be doubted that some plants have become extinct2 nevertheless ,de ,candolle has shown that all the plants historically known to have been first cultivated in ,europe still exist here in the wild state4 ,,mm4 ,loiseleur-,deslongchamps 7#i_/d4 ',considerations sur les ,cereales' #ahdb page #cg4 ',geographie ,bot4' #ahee page #icj4 ,plus on suppose l'agriculture ancienne et remontant a une epoque d'ignorance1 plus il est probable que les cultivateurs avaient choisi des especes offrant a l'origine meme un avantage incontestable47 and ,de ,candolle have remarked that our cultivated plants1 more especially the cereals1 must originally have existed in nearly their present state2 for otherwise they would not have been noticed and valued as objects of food4 ,but these authors apparently have not considered the many accounts given by travellers of the wretched food collected by savages4 ,i have read an account of the savages of ,australia cooking1 during a dearth1 many vegetables in various ways1 in the hopes of rendering them innocuous and more nutritious4 ,dr4 ,hooker found the half-starved inhabitants of a village in ,sikhim suffering greatly from having eaten arum-roots 7#i_/e4 ,dr4 ,hooker has given me this information4 ,see also his ',himalayan ,journals' #ahed volume #b page #di471 which they had pounded and left for several days to ferment1 so as partially to destroy their poisonous nature2 and he adds that they cooked and ate many other deleterious plants4 ,sir ,andrew ,smith informs me that in ,south ,africa a large number of fruits and succulent leaves1 and especially roots1 are used in times of scarcity4 ,the natives1 indeed1 know the properties of a long catalogue of plants1 some having been found during famines to be eatable1 others injurious to health1 or even destructive to life4 ,he met a party of ,baquanas who1 having been expelled by the conquering ,zulus1 had lived for years on any roots or leaves which afforded some little nutriment and distended their stomachs1 so as to relieve the pangs of hunger4 ,they looked like walking skeletons1 and suffered fearfully from constipation4 ,sir ,andrew ,smith also informs me that on such occasions the natives observe as a guide for themselves1 what the wild animals1 especially baboons and monkeys1 eat4 ,from innumerable experiments made through dire necessity by the savages of every land1 with the results handed down by tradition1 the nutritious1 stimulating1 and medicinal properties of the most unpromising plants were probably first discovered4 ,it appears1 for instance1 at first an inexplicable fact that untutored man1 in three distant quarters of the world1 should have discovered1 amongst a host of native plants1 that the leaves of the tea-plant and mattee1 and the berries of the coffee1 all included a stimulating and nutritious essence1 now known to be chemically the same4 ,we can also see that savages suffering from severe constipation would naturally observe whether any of the roots which they devoured acted as aperients4 ,we probably owe our knowledge of the uses of almost all plants to man having originally existed in a barbarous state1 and having been often compelled by severe want to try as food almost everything which he could chew and swallow4 ,from what we know of the habits of savages in many quarters of the world1 there is no reason to suppose that our cereal plants originally existed in their present state so valuable to man4 ,let us look to one continent alone1 namely1 ,africa3 ,barth 7#i_/f4 ',travels in ,central ,africa' ,english translation volume #a pages #ebi and #cij2 volume #b pages #bi1 #bfe1 #bgj4 ,livingstone ',travels' page #eea47 states that the slaves over a large part of the central region regularly collect the seeds of a wild grass1 the ,pennisetum distichum2 in another district he saw women collecting the seeds of a ,poa by swinging a sort of basket through the rich meadow-land4 ,near ,tete1 ,livingstone observed the natives collecting the seeds of a wild grass1 and farther south1 as ,andersson informs me1 the natives largely use the seed of a grass of about the size of canary-seed1 which they boil in water4 ,they eat also the roots of certain reeds1 and every one has read of the ,bushmen prowling about and digging up with a fire-hardened stake various roots4 ,similar facts with respect to the collection of seeds of wild grasses in other parts of the world could be given4 7#i_/g4 ,for instance in both ,north and ,south ,america4 ,mr4 ,edgeworth ',journal ,proc4 ,linn4 ,soc4' vol #f ,bot4 #ahfb page #aha states that in the deserts of the ,punjab poor women sweep up1 by a whisk into straw baskets1 the seeds of four genera of grasses1 namely1 of ,agrostis1 ,panicum1 ,cenchrus1 and ,pennisetum1 as well as the seeds of four other genera belonging to distinct families47 ,accustomed as we are to our excellent vegetables and luscious fruits1 we can hardly persuade ourselves that the stringy roots of the wild carrot and parsnip1 or the little shoots of the wild asparagus1 or crabs1 sloes1 etc41 should ever have been valued2 yet1 from what we know of the habits of ,australian and ,south ,african savages1 we need feel no doubt on this head4 ,the inhabitants of ,switzerland during the ,stone-period largely collected wild crabs1 sloes1 bullaces1 hips of roses1 elderberries1 beechmast1 and other wild berries and fruit4 7#i_/h4 ,prof4 ,o4 ,heer ',die ,pflanzen der ,pfahlbauten' #ahff aus dem ,neujahr4 ,naturforsch4 ,geselschaft' #ahff2 and ,dr4 ,h4 ,christ in ,rutimeyer's ',die ,fauna der ,pfahlbauten' #ahfa s4 #bbf47 ,jemmy ,button1 a ,fuegian on board the ',beagle1' remarked to me that the poor and acid black-currants of ,tierra del ,fuego were too sweet for his taste4 ,the savage inhabitants of each land1 having found out by many and hard trials what plants were useful1 or could be rendered useful by various cooking processes1 would after a time take the first step in cultivation by planting them near their usual abodes4 ,livingstone 7#i_/i4 ',travels' page #ece4 ,du ,chaillu ',adventures in ,equatorial ,africa' #ahfa page #dde47 states that the savage ,batokas sometimes left wild fruit-trees standing in their gardens1 and occasionally even planted them1 a practice seen nowhere else amongst the natives4 ,but ,du ,chaillu saw a palm and some other wild fruit- trees which had been planted2 and these trees were considered private property4 ,the next step in cultivation1 and this would require but little forethought1 would be to sow the seeds of useful plants2 and as the soil near the hovels of the natives 7#i_/aj4 ,in ,tierra del ,fuego the spot where wigwams had formerly stood could be distinguished at a great distance by the bright green tint of the native vegetation47 would often be in some degree manured1 improved varieties would sooner or later arise4 ,or a wild and unusually good variety of a native plant might attract the attention of some wise old savage2 and he would transplant it1 or sow its seed4 ,that superior varieties of wild fruit-trees occasionally are found is certain1 as in the case of the ,american species of hawthorns1 plums1 cherries1 grapes1 and hickories1 specified by ,professor ,asa ,gray4 7#i_/aa4 ',american ,acad4 of ,arts and ,sciences' ,april #ajth1 #ahfj page #dac4 ,downing ',the ,fruits of ,america' #ahde page #bfa47 ,downing also refers to certain wild varieties of the hickory1 as being of much larger size and finer flavour than the common species4 ,i have referred to ,american fruit-trees1 because we are not in this case troubled with doubts whether or not the varieties are seedlings which have escaped from cultivation4 ,transplanting any superior variety1 or sowing its seeds1 hardly implies more forethought than might be expected at an early and rude period of civilisation4 ,even the ,australian barbarians have a law that no plant bearing seeds is to be dug up after it has flowered2 and ,sir ,g4 ,grey 7#i_/ab4 ',journals of ,expeditions in ,australia' #ahda volume #b page #bib47 never saw this law1 evidently framed for the preservation of the plant1 violated4 ,we see the same spirit in the superstitious belief of the ,fuegians1 that killing water-fowl whilst very young will be followed by much rain1 snow1 blow much4 7#i_/ac4 ,darwin ',journal of ,researches' #ahde page #bae47 ,i may add1 as showing forethought in the lowest barbarians1 that the ,fuegians when they find a stranded whale bury large portions in the sand1 and during the often-recurrent famines travel from great distances for the remnants of the half-putrid mass4 ,it has often been remarked 7#i_/ad4 ,de ,candolle has tabulated the facts in the most interesting manner in his ',geographie ,bot4' page #ihf47 that we do not owe a single useful plant to ,australia or the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 countries abounding to an unparalleled degree with endemic species1--or to ,new ,zealand1 or to ,america south of the ,plata2 and1 according to some authors1 not to ,america northward of ,mexico4 ,i do not believe that any edible or valuable plant1 except the canary-grass1 has been derived from an oceanic or uninhabited island4 ,if nearly all our useful plants1 natives of ,europe2 ,asia1 and ,south ,america1 had originally existed in their present condition1 the complete absence of similarly useful plants in the great countries just named would be indeed a surprising fact4 ,but if these plants have been so greatly modified and improved by culture as no longer closely to resemble any natural species1 we can understand why the above-named countries have given us no useful plants1 for they were either inhabited by men who did not cultivate the ground at all1 as in ,australia and the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 or who cultivated it very imperfectly1 as in some parts of ,america4 ,these countries do yield plants which are useful to savage man2 and ,dr4 ,hooker 7#i_/ae4 ',flora of ,australia' ,introduction page #aaj47 enumerates no less than #ajg such species in ,australia alone2 but these plants have not been improved1 and consequently cannot compete with those which have been cultivated and improved during thousands of years in the civilised world4 ,the case of ,new ,zealand1 to which fine island we as yet owe no widely cultivated plant1 may seem opposed to this view2 for1 when first discovered1 the natives cultivated several plants2 but all inquirers believe1 in accordance with the traditions of the natives1 that the early ,polynesian colonists brought with them seeds and roots1 as well as the dog1 which had been wisely preserved during their long voyage4 ,the ,polynesians are so frequently lost on the ocean that this degree of prudence would occur to any wandering party3 hence the early colonists of ,new ,zealand1 like the later ,european colonists1 would not have had any strong inducement to cultivate the aboriginal plants4 ,according to ,de ,candolle we owe thirty- three useful plants to ,mexico1 ,peru1 and ,chile2 nor is this surprising when we remember the civilised state of the inhabitants1 as shown by the fact of their having practised artificial irrigation and made tunnels through hard rocks without the use of iron or gunpowder1 and who1 as we shall see in a future chapter1 fully recognised1 as far as animals were concerned1 and therefore probably in the case of plants1 the important principle of selection4 ,we owe some plants to ,brazil2 and the early voyagers1 namely1 ,vespucius and ,cabral1 describe the country as thickly peopled and cultivated4 ,in ,north ,america 7#i_/af4 ,for ,canada see ,j4 ,cartier's ,voyage in #aecd2 for ,florida see ,narvaez and ,ferdinand de ,soto's ,voyages4 ,as ,i have consulted these and other old ,voyages in more than one general collection of ,voyages1 ,i do not give precise references to the pages4 ,see also for several references ,asa ,gray in the ',american ,journal of ,science' volume #bd ,november #aheg page #dda4 ,for the traditions of the natives of ,new ,zealand see ,crawfurd ',grammar and ,dict4 of the ,malay ,language' #aheb page #bfj47 the natives cultivated maize1 pumpkins1 gourds1 beans1 and peas1 all different from ours1 and tobacco2 and we are hardly justified in assuming that none of our present plants are descended from these ,north ,american forms4 ,had ,north ,america been civilised for as long a period1 and as thickly peopled1 as ,asia or ,europe1 it is probable that the native vines1 walnuts1 mulberries1 crabs1 and plums1 would have given rise1 after a long course of cultivation1 to a multitude of varieties1 some extremely different from their parent-stocks2 and escaped seedlings would have caused in the ,new1 as in the ,old ,world1 much perplexity with respect to their specific distinctness and parentage4' 7#i_/ag4 ,see for example ,mr4 ,hewett ,c4 ,watson's remarks on our wild plums and cherries and crabs3 ',cybele ,britannica' volume #a pages #ccj1 #ccd1 etc4 ,van ,mons 7in his ',arbres ,fruitiers' #ahce tome #a page #ddd7 declares that he has found the types of all our cultivated varieties in wild seedlings1 but then he looks on these seedlings as so many aboriginal stocks47 ,,cerealia4 ,i will now enter on details4 ,the cereals cultivated in ,europe consist of four genera--wheat1 rye1 barley1 and oats4 ,of wheat the best modern authorities 7#i_/ah4 ,see ,a4 ,de ,candolle ',geograph4 ,bot4' #ahee page #ibh et seq4 ,godron ',de l',espece' #ahei tome #b page #gj2 and ,metzger ',die ,getreidearten' etc4 #ahda47 make four or five1 or even seven distinct species2 of rye1 one2 of barley1 three2 and of oats1 two1 three1 or four species4 ,so that altogether our cereals are ranked by different authors under from ten to fifteen distinct species4 ,these have given rise to a multitude of varieties4 ,it is a remarkable fact that botanists are not universally agreed on the aboriginal parent-form of any one cereal plant4 ,for instance1 a high authority writes in #ahee 7#i_/ai4 ,mr4 ,bentham in his review entitled ',hist4 ,notes on cultivated ,plants' by ,dr4 ,a4 ,targioni- ,tozzetti in ',journal of ,hort4 ,soc4' volume #i #ahee page #acc4 ,he informs me that he still retains the same opinion471 ,we ourselves have no hesitation in stating our conviction1 as the result of all the most reliable evidence1 that none of these ,cerealia exist1 or have existed1 truly wild in their present state1 but that all are cultivated varieties of species now growing in great abundance in ,s4 ,europe or ,w4 ,asia4 ,on the other hand1 ,alph4 ,de ,candolle 7#i_/bj4 ',geograph4 ,bot4' page #ibh4 ,the whole subject is discussed with admirable fulness and knowledge47 has adduced abundant evidence that common wheat 7,triticum vulgare7 has been found wild in various parts of ,asia1 where it is not likely to have escaped from cultivation3 and there is some force in ,m4 ,godron's remark1 that1 supposing these plants to be escaped seedlings 7#i_/ba4 ,godron ',de l',espece' tome #b page #gb4 ,a few years ago the excellent1 though misinterpreted1 observations of ,m4 ,fabre led many persons to believe that wheat was a modified descendant of ,aegilops2 but ,m4 ,godron 7tome #a page #afe7 has shown by careful experiments that the first step in the series1 viz4 ,aegilops triticoides1 is a hybrid between wheat and ,ae4 ovata4 ,the frequency with which these hybrids spontaneously arise1 and the gradual manner in which the ,ae4 triticoides becomes converted into true wheat1 alone leave any doubt with respect to ,m4 ,godron's conclusions471 as they have propagated themselves in a wild state for several generations1 their continued resemblance to cultivated wheat renders it probable that the latter has retained its aboriginal character4 ,but the strong tendency to inheritance1 which most of the varieties of wheat evince1 as we shall presently see1 is here greatly undervalued4 ,much weight must also be attributed to a remark by ,professor ,hildebrand 7#i_/bb4 ',die ,verbreitungsmittel der ,pflanzen' #ahgc page #abi47 that when the seeds or fruit of cultivated plants possess qualities disadvantageous to them as a means of distribution1 we may feel almost sure that they no longer retain their aboriginal condition4 ,on the other hand1 ,m4 ,de ,candolle insists strongly on the frequent occurrence in the ,austrian dominions of rye and of one kind of oats in an apparently wild condition4 ,with the exception of these two cases1 which however are rather doubtful1 and with the exception of two forms of wheat and one of barley1 which he believes to have been found truly wild1 ,m4 ,de ,candolle does not seem fully satisfied with the other reported discoveries of the parent-forms of our other cereals4 ,with respect to oats1 according to ,mr4 ,buckmann 7#i_/bc4 ,report to ,british ,association for #aheg page #bjg471 the wild ,english ,avena fatua can be converted by a few years of careful cultivation and selection into forms almost identical with two very distinct cultivated races4 ,the whole subject of the origin and specific distinctness of the various cereal plants is a most difficult one2 but we shall perhaps be able to judge a little better after considering the amount of variation which wheat has undergone4 ,metzger describes seven species of wheat1 ,godron refers to five1 and ,de ,candolle to only four4 ,it is not improbable that1 besides the kinds known in ,europe1 other strongly characterised forms exist in the more distant parts of the world2 for ,loiseleur-,deslongchamps 7#i_/bd4 ,considerations sur les ,cereales' #ahdb-dc page #bi47 speaks of three new species or varieties1 sent to ,europe in #ahbb from ,chinese ,mongolia1 which he considers as being there indigenous4 ,moorcroft 7#i_/be4 ',travels in the ,himalayan ,provinces' etc4 #ahda volume #a page #bbd47 also speaks of ,hasora wheat in ,ladakh as very peculiar4 ,if those botanists are right who believe that at least seven species of wheat originally existed1 then the amount of variation in any important character which wheat has undergone under cultivation has been slight2 but if only four or a lesser number of species originally existed1 then it is evident that varieties have arisen so strongly marked1 that they have been considered by capable judges as specifically distinct4 ,but the impossibility of deciding which forms ought to be ranked as species and which as varieties1 makes it useless to specify in detail the differences between the various kinds of wheat4 ,speaking generally1 the organs of vegetation differ little 7#i_/bf4 ,col4 ,j4 ,le ,couteur on the ',varieties of ,wheat' pages #bc1 #gi472 but some kinds grow close and upright1 whilst others spread and trail along the ground4 ,the straw differs in being more or less hollow1 and in quality4 ,the ears 7#i_/bg4 ,loiseleur-,deslongchamps ',consid4 sur les ,cereales' page #aa47 differ in colour and in shape1 being quadrangular1 compressed1 or nearly cylindrical2 and the florets differ in their approximation to each other1 in their pubescence1 and in being more or less elongated4 ,the presence or absence of barbs is a conspicuous difference1 and in certain ,gramineae serves even as a generic character 7#i_/bh4 ,see an excellent review in ,hooker ',journ4 of ,botany' volume #h page #hb note472 although1 as remarked by ,godron 7#i_/bi4 ',de l',espece' tome #b page #gc47 the presence of barbs is variable in certain wild grasses1 and especially in those such as ,bromus secalinus and ,lolium temulentum1 which habitually grow mingled with our cereal crops1 and which have thus unintentionally been exposed to culture4 ,the grains differ in size1 weight1 and colour2 in being more or less downy at one end1 in being smooth or wrinkled1 in being either nearly globular1 oval1 or elongated2 and finally in internal texture1 being tender or hard1 or even almost horny1 and in the proportion of gluten which they contain4 ,nearly all the races or species of wheat vary1 as ,godron 7#i_/cj4 ,ibid tome #b page #ge47 has remarked1 in an exactly parallel manner1--in the seed being downy or glabrous1 and in colour1--and in the florets being barbed or not barbed1 etc4 ,those who believe that all the kinds are descended from a single wild species may account for this parallel variation by the inheritance of a similar constitution1 and a consequent tendency to vary in the same manner2 and those who believe in the general theory of descent with modification may extend this view to the several species of wheat1 if such ever existed in a state of nature4 ,although few of the varieties of wheat present any conspicuous difference1 their number is great4 ,dalbret cultivated during thirty years from #aej to #afj kinds1 and excepting in the quality of the grain they all kept true2 ,colonel ,le ,couteur possessed upwards of #aej1 and ,philippar #cbb varieties4 7#i_/ca4 ,for ,dalbret and ,philippar see ,loiseleur-,deslongchamps ',consid4 sur les ,cereales' pages #de1 #gj4 ,le ,couteur on ,wheat pages #f1 #ad-ag47 ,as wheat is an annual1 we thus see how strictly many trifling differences in character are inherited through many generations4 ,colonel ,le ,couteur insists strongly on this same fact4 ,in his persevering and successful attempts to raise new varieties1 he found that there was only one secure mode to ensure the growth of pure sorts1 namely1 to grow them from single grains or from single ears1 and to follow up the plan by afterwards sowing only the produce of the most productive so as to form a stock4 ,but ,major ,hallett 7#i_/cb4 ,see his ,essay on ',pedigree in ,wheat' #ahfb2 also paper read before the ,british ,association #ahfi and other publications47 has gone much farther1 and by the continued selection of plants from the grains of the same ear1 during successive generations1 has made his ',pedigree in ,wheat' 7and other cereals7 now famous in many quarters of the world4 ,the great amount of variability in the plants of the same variety is another interesting point1 which would never have been detected except by an eye long practised to the work2 thus ,colonel ,le ,couteur relates 7#i_/cc4 ',varieties of ,wheat' ,introduction page #f4 ,marshall in his ',rural ,economy of ,yorkshire' volume #b page #i remarks that in every field of corn there is as much variety as in a herd of cattle47 that in a field of his own wheat1 which he considered at least as pure as that of any of his neighbours1 ,professor ,la ,gasca found twenty-three sorts2 and ,professor ,henslow has observed similar facts4 ,besides such individual variations1 forms sufficiently well marked to be valued and to become widely cultivated sometimes suddenly appear3 thus ,mr4 ,shirreff has had the good fortune to raise in his lifetime seven new varieties1 which are now extensively grown in many parts of ,britain4 7#i_/cd4 ',gardener's ,chronicle' and ',agricult4 ,gazette' #ahfb page #ifc47 ,as in the case of many other plants1 some varieties1 both old and new1 are far more constant in character than others4 ,colonel ,le ,couteur was forced to reject some of his new sub-varieties1 which he suspected had been produced from a cross1 as incorrigibly sportive4 ,on the other hand ,major ,hallett 7#i_/ce4 ',gardener's ,chronicle' ,november #ahfh page #aaii47 has shown how wonderfully constant some varieties are1 although not ancient ones1 and although cultivated in various countries4 ,with respect to the tendency to vary1 ,metzger 7#i_/cf4 ',getreidearten' #ahda s4 #ff1 #ia1 #ib1 #aaf1 #aag47 gives from his own experience some interesting facts3 he describes three ,spanish sub-varieties1 more especially one known to be constant in ,spain1 which in ,germany assumed their proper character only during hot summers2 another variety kept true only in good land1 but after having been cultivated for twenty-five years became more constant4 ,he mentions two other sub-varieties which were at first inconstant1 but subsequently became1 apparently without any selection1 accustomed to their new homes1 and retained their proper character4 ,these facts show what small changes in the conditions of life cause variability1 and they further show that a variety may become habituated to new conditions4 ,one is at first inclined to conclude with ,loiseleur-,deslongchamps1 that wheat cultivated in the same country is exposed to remarkably uniform conditions2 but manures differ1 seed is taken from one soil to another1 and1 what is far more important1 the plants are exposed as little as possible to struggle with other plants1 and are thus enabled to exist under diversified conditions4 ,in a state of nature each plant is confined to that particular station and kind of nutriment which it can seize from the other plants by which it is surrounded4 ,wheat quickly assumes new habits of life4 ,the summer and winter kinds were classed by ,linnaeus as distinct species2 but ,m4 ,monnier 7#i_/cg4 ,quoted by ,godron ',de l',espece' volume #b page #gd4 ,so it is1 according to ,metzger ',getreidearten' s4 #ah1 with summer and winter barley47 has proved that the difference between them is only temporary4 ,he sowed winter-wheat in spring1 and out of one hundred plants four alone produced ripe seeds2 these were sown and resown1 and in three years plants were reared which ripened all their seed4 ,conversely1 nearly all the plants raised from summer-wheat1 which was sown in autumn1 perished from frost2 but a few were saved and produced seed1 and in three years this summer-variety was converted into a winter-variety4 ,hence it is not surprising that wheat soon becomes to a certain extent acclimatised1 and that seed brought from distant countries and sown in ,europe vegetates at first1 or even for a considerable period 7#i_/ch4 ,loiseleur-,deslongchamps ',cereales' part #b page #bbd4 ,le ,couteur page #gj4 ,many other accounts could be added47 differently from our ,european varieties4 ,in ,canada the first settlers1 according to ,kalm 7#i_/ci4 ',travels in ,north ,america' #agec-agfa ,english translation volume #c page #afe471 found their winters too severe for winter-wheat brought from ,france1 and their summers often too short for summer-wheat2 and they thought that their country was useless for corn crops until they procured summer-wheat from the northern parts of ,europe1 which succeeded well4 ,it is notorious that the proportion of gluten differs much under different climates4 ,the weight of the grain is also quickly affected by climate3 ,loiseleur-,deslongchamps 7#i_/dj4 ',cereales' part #b pages #agi-ahc47 sowed near ,paris #ed varieties1 obtained from the ,south of ,france and from the ,black ,sea1 and #eb of these yielded seed from #aj to #dj per cent heavier than the parent-seed4 ,he then sent these heavier grains back to the ,south of ,france1 but there they immediately yielded lighter seed4 ,all those who have closely attended to the subject insist on the close adaptation of numerous varieties of wheat to various soils and climates even within the same country2 thus ,colonel ,le ,couteur 7#i_/da4 ',on the ,varieties of ,wheat' ,introduction page #g4 ,see ,marshall ',rural ,econ4 of ,yorkshire' volume #b page #i4 ,with respect to similar cases of adaptation in the varieties of oats see some interesting papers in the ',gardener's ,chronicle and ,agricult4 ,gazette' #ahej pages #bjd1 #bai47 says1 ,it is the suitableness of each sort to each soil that will enable the farmer to pay his rent by sowing one variety1 where he would be unable to do so by attempting to grow another of a seemingly better sort4 ,this may be in part due to each kind becoming habituated to its conditions of life1 as ,metzger has shown certainly occurs1 but it is probably in main part due to innate differences between the several varieties4 ,much has been written on the deterioration of wheat2 that the quality of the flour1 size of grain1 time of flowering1 and hardness1 may be modified by climate and soil1 seems nearly certain2 but that the whole body of any one sub-variety ever becomes changed into another and distinct sub-variety1 there is no reason to believe4 ,what apparently does take place1 according to ,le ,couteur 7#i_/db4 ',on the ,varieties of ,wheat' page #ei4 ,mr4 ,shirreff and a higher authority cannot be given 7',gardener's ,chronicle and ,agricult4 ,gazette' #ahfb page #ifc71 says ,i have never seen grain which has either been improved or degenerated by cultivation1 so as to convey the change to the succeeding crop471 is1 that some one sub-variety out of the many which may always be detected in the same field is more prolific than the others1 and gradually supplants the variety which was first sown4 ,with respect to the natural crossing of distinct varieties the evidence is conflicting1 but preponderates against its frequent occurrence4 ,many authors maintain that impregnation takes place in the closed flower1 but ,i am sure from my own observation that this is not the case1 at least with those varieties to which ,i have attended4 ,but as ,i shall have to discuss this subject in another work1 it may be here passed over4 ,in conclusion1 all authors admit that numerous varieties of wheat have arisen2 but their differences are unimportant1 unless1 indeed1 some of the so-called species are ranked as varieties4 ,those who believe that from four to seven wild species of ,triticum originally existed in nearly the same condition as at present1 rest their belief chiefly on the great antiquity of the several forms4 7#i_/dc4 ,alph4 ,de ,candolle ',geograph4 ,bot4' page #icj4 7 ,it is an important fact1 which we have recently learnt from the admirable researches of ,heer 7#i_/dd4 ',pflanzen der ,pfahlbauten' #ahff471 that the inhabitants of ,switzerland1 even so early as the ,neolithic period1 cultivated no less than ten cereal plants1 namely1 five kinds of wheat1 of which at least four are commonly looked at as distinct species1 three kinds of barley1 a panicum1 and a setaria4 ,if it could be shown that at the earliest dawn of agriculture five kinds of wheat and three of barley had been cultivated1 we should of course be compelled to look at these forms as distinct species4 ,but1 as ,heer has remarked1 agriculture even at the ,neolithic period1 had already made considerable progress2 for1 besides the cereals1 peas1 poppies1 flax1 and apparently apples1 were cultivated4 ,it may also be inferred1 from one variety of wheat being the so called ,egyptian1 and from what is known of the native country of the panicum and setaria1 as well as from the nature of the weeds which then grew mingled with the crops1 that the lake-inhabitants either still kept up commercial intercourse with some southern people or had originally proceeded as colonists from the ,south4 ,loiseleur-,deslongchamps 7#i_/de4 ',les ,cereales' page #id47 has argued that1 if our cereal plants have been greatly modified by cultivation1 the weeds which habitually grow mingled with them would have been equally modified4 ,but this argument shows how completely the principle of selection has been overlooked4 ,that such weeds have not varied1 or at least do not vary now in any extreme degree1 is the opinion of ,mr4 ,h4,c4 ,watson and ,professor ,asa ,gray1 as they inform me2 but who will pretend to say that they do not vary as much as the individual plants of the same sub-variety of wheat8 ,we have already seen that pure varieties of wheat1 cultivated in the same field1 offer many slight variations1 which can be selected and separately propagated2 and that occasionally more strongly pronounced variations appear1 which1 as ,mr4 ,shirreff has proved1 are well worthy of extensive cultivation4 ,not until equal attention be paid to the variability and selection of weeds1 can the argument from their constancy under unintentional culture be of any value4 ,in accordance with the principles of selection we can understand how it is that in the several cultivated varieties of wheat the organs of vegetation differ so little2 for if a plant with peculiar leaves appeared1 it would be neglected unless the grains of corn were at the same time superior in quality or size4 the selection of seed-corn was strongly recommended 7#i_/df4 ,quoted by ,le ,couteur page #af47 in ancient times by ,columella and ,celsus2 and as ,virgil says1-- ,i've seen the largest seeds1 tho' view'd with care1 ,degenerate1 unless th' industrious hand ,did yearly cull the largest4 ,but whether in ancient times selection was methodically pursued we may well doubt1 when we hear how laborious the work has been found by ,le ,coutour and ,hallett4 ,although the principle of selection is so important1 yet the little which man has effected1 by incessant efforts 7#i_/dg4 ,a4 ,de ,candolle ',geograph4 ,bot4' page #icb47 during thousands of years1 in rendering the plants more productive or the grains more nutritious than they were in the time of the old ,egyptians1 would seem to speak strongly against its efficacy4 ,but we must not forget that at each successive period the state of agriculture and the quantity of manure supplied to the land will have determined the maximum degree of productiveness2 for it would be impossible to cultivate a highly productive variety1 unless the land contained a sufficient supply of the necessary chemical elements4 ,we now know that man was sufficiently civilised to cultivate the ground at an immensely remote period2 so that wheat might have been improved long ago up to that standard of excellence which was possible under the then existing state of agriculture4 ,one small class of facts supports this view of the slow and gradual improvement of our cereals4 ,in the most ancient lake-habitations of ,switzerland1 when men employed only flint-tools1 the most extensively cultivated wheat was a peculiar kind1 with remarkably small ears and grains4 7#i_/dh4 ,o4 ,heer ',die ,pflanzen der ,pfahlbauten' #ahff4 ,the following passage is quoted from ,dr4 ,christ in ',die ,fauna der ,pfahlbauten1 von ,dr4 ,rutimeyer' #ahfa s4 #bbe47 ,whilst the grains of the modern forms are in section from seven to eight millimetres in length1 the larger grains from the lake-habitations are six1 seldom seven1 and the smaller ones only four4 ,the ear is thus much narrower1 and the spikelets stand out more horizontally1 than in our present forms4 ,so again with barley1 the most ancient and most extensively cultivated kind had small ears1 and the grains were smaller1 shorter1 and nearer to each other1 than in that now grown2 without the husk they were #b #a_/b lines long1 and scarcely #a #a_/b broad1 whilst those now grown have a length of three lines1 and almost the same in breadth4 7#i_/di4 ,heer as quoted by ,carl ,vogt ',lectures on ,man' ,english translation page #cee47 ,these small-grained varieties of wheat and barley are believed by ,heer to be the parent-forms of certain existing allied varieties1 which have supplanted their early progenitors4 ,heer gives an interesting account of the first appearance and final disappearance of the several plants which were cultivated in greater or less abundance in ,switzerland during former successive periods1 and which generally differed more or less from our existing varieties4 ,the peculiar small-eared and small-grained wheat1 already alluded to1 was the commonest kind during the ,stone period2 it lasted down to the ,helvetico-,roman age1 and then became extinct4 ,a second kind was rare at first1 but afterwards became more frequent4 ,a third1 the ,egyptian wheat 7,t4 turgidum71 does not agree exactly with any existing variety1 and was rare during the ,stone period4 ,a fourth kind 7,t4 dicoccum7 differs from all known varieties of this form4 ,a fifth kind 7,t4 monococcum7 is known to have existed during the ,stone period only by the presence of a single ear4 ,a sixth kind1 the common ,t4 spelta1 was not introduced into ,switzerland until the ,bronze age4 ,of barley1 besides the short-eared and small-grained kind1 two others were cultivated1 one of which was very scarce1 and resembled our present common ,h4 distichum4 ,during the ,bronze age rye and oats were introduced2 the oat- grains being somewhat smaller than those produced by our existing varieties4 ,the poppy was largely cultivated during the ,stone period1 probably for its oil2 but the variety which then existed is not now known4 ,a peculiar pea with small seeds lasted from the ,stone to the ,bronze age1 and then became extinct2 whilst a peculiar bean1 likewise having small seeds1 came in at the ,bronze period and lasted to the time of the ,romans4 ,these details sound like the descriptions given by palaeontologists of the first appearance1 the increasing rarity1 and final extinction or modification of fossil species1 embedded in the successive stages of a geological formation4 ,finally1 every one must judge for himself whether it is more probable that the several forms of wheat1 barley1 rye1 and oats are descended from between ten and fifteen species1 most of which are now either unknown or extinct1 or whether they are descended from between four and eight species1 which may have either closely resembled our present cultivated forms1 or have been so widely different as to escape identification4 ,in this latter case we must conclude that man cultivated the cereals at an enormously remote period1 and that he formerly practised some degree of selection1 which in itself is not improbable4 ,we may1 perhaps1 further believe that1 when wheat was first cultivated the ears and grains increased quickly in size1 in the same manner as the roots of the wild carrot and parsnip are known to increase quickly in bulk under cultivation4 ,,maize ,,or ,,indian ,,corn3 ,zea mays4 ,botanists are nearly unanimous that all the cultivated kinds belong to the same species4 ,it is undoubtedly 7#i_/ej4 ,see ,alph4 ,de ,candolle's long discussion in his ',geograph4 ,bot4' page #idb4 ,with respect to ,new ,england see ,silliman's ',american ,journal' volume #dd page #ii47 of ,american origin1 and was grown by the aborigines throughout the continent from ,new ,england to ,chili4 ,its cultivation must have been extremely ancient1 for ,tschudi 7#i_/ea4 ',travels in ,peru' ,english translation page #agg47 describes two kinds1 now extinct or not known in ,peru1 which were taken from tombs apparently prior to the dynasty of the ,incas4 ',but there is even stronger evidence of antiquity1 for ,i found on the coast of ,peru 7#i_/eb4 ',geolog4 ,observ4 on ,s4 ,america' #ahdf page #di47 heads of maize1 together with eighteen species of recent sea-shell1 embedded in a beach which had been upraised at least #he feet above the level of the sea4 ,in accordance with this ancient cultivation1 numerous ,american varieties have arisen4 ,the aboriginal form has not as yet been discovered in the wild state4 ,a peculiar kind 7#i_/ec4 ,this maize is figured in ,bonafous' magnificent work1 ',hist4 ,nat4 du ,mais' #ahcf ,p#a4 v4 bis1 and in the ',journal of ,hort4 ,soc4' volume #a #ahdf page #aae where an account is given of the result of sowing the seed4 ,a young ,guarany ,indian1 on seeing this kind of maize1 told ,auguste ,st4 ,hilaire 7see ,de ,candolle ',geograph4 ,bot4' page #iea7 that it grew wild in the humid forests of his native land4 ,mr4 ,teschemacher in ',proc4 ,boston ,soc4 ,hist4' ,october #ai1 #ahdb gives an account of sowing the seed471 in which the grains1 instead of being naked1 are concealed by husks as much as eleven lines in length1 has been stated1 but on insufficient evidence1 to grow wild in ,brazil4 ,it is almost certain that the aboriginal form would have had its grains thus protected 7#i_/ed4 ,moquin-,tandon ',elements de ,teratologie' #ahda page #abf472 but the seeds of the ,brazilian variety produce1 as ,i hear from ,professor ,asa ,gray1 and as is stated in two published accounts1 either common or husked maize2 and it is not credible that a wild species1 when first cultivated1 should vary so quickly and in so great a degree4 ,maize has varied in an extraordinary and conspicuous manner4 ,metzger 7#i_/ee4 ',die ,getreidearten' #ahda s4 #bjh4 ,i have modified a few of ,metzger's statements in accordance with those made by ,bonafous in his great work ',hist4 ,nat4 du ,mais' #ahcf471 who paid particular attention to the cultivation of this plant1 makes twelve races 7unter-art7 with numerous sub-varieties3 of the latter some are tolerably constant1 others quite inconstant4 ,the different races vary in height from #ae-ah feet to only #af- #ah inches1 as in a dwarf variety described by ,bonafous4 ,the whole ear is variable in shape1 being long and narrow1 or short and thick1 or branched4 ,the ear in one variety is more than four times as long as in a dwarf kind4 ,the seeds are arranged in the ear in from six to even twenty rows1 or are placed irregularly4 ,the seeds are coloured--white1 pale-yellow1 orange1 red1 violet1 or elegantly streaked with black 7#i_/ef4 ,godron ',de l',espece' tome #b page #hj2 ,al4 ,de ,candolle ibid page #iea472 and in the same ear there are sometimes seeds of two colours4 ,in a small collection ,i found that a single grain of one variety nearly equalled in weight seven grains of another variety4 ,the shape of the seed varies greatly1 being very flat1 or nearly globular1 or oval2 broader than long1 or longer than broad2 without any point1 or produced into a sharp tooth1 and this tooth is sometimes recurved4 ,one variety 7the rugosa of ,bonafous1 and which is extensively cultivated in the ,united ,states as sweet corn7 has its seeds curiously wrinkled1 giving to the whole ear a singular appearance4 ,another variety 7the cymosa of ,bon47 carries its ears so crowded together that it is called mais a bouquet4 ,the seeds of some varieties contain much glucose instead of starch4 ,male flowers sometimes appear amongst the female flowers1 and ,mr4 ,j4 ,scott has lately observed the rarer case of female flowers on a true male panicle1 and likewise hermaphrodite flowers4 7#i_/eg4 ',transact4 ,bot4 ,soc4 of ,edinburgh' volume #h page #fj47 ,azara describes 7#i_/eh4 ',voyages dans l',amerique ,meridionale' tome #a page #adg47 a variety in ,paraguay the grains of which are very tender1 and he states that several varieties are fitted for being cooked in various ways4 ,the varieties also differ greatly in precocity1 and have different powers of resisting dryness and the action of violent wind4 7#i_/ei4 ,bonafous ',hist4 ,nat4 du ,mais' page #ca47 ,some of the foregoing differences would certainly be considered of specific value with plants in a state of nature4 ,le ,comte ,re states that the grains of all the varieties which he cultivated ultimately assumed a yellow colour4 ,but ,bonafous 7#i_/fj4 ,ibid page #ca47 found that most of those which he sowed for ten consecutive years kept true to their proper tints2 and he adds that in the valleys of the ,pyrenees and on the plains of ,piedmont a white maize has been cultivated for more than a century1 and has undergone no change4 ,the tall kinds grown in southern latitudes1 and therefore exposed to great heat1 require from six to seven months to ripen their seed2 whereas the dwarf kinds1 grown in northern and colder climates1 require only from three to four months4 7#i_/fa4 ,metzger ',getreidearten' s4 #bjf47 ,peter ,kalm 7#i_/fb4 ',description of ,maize' by ,p4 ,kalm #ageb in ',swedish ,acts' volume #d4 ,i have consulted an old ,english ,,ms4 translation471 who particularly attended to this plant1 says1 that in the ,united ,states1 in proceeding from south to north1 the plants steadily diminish in bulk4 ,seeds brought from lat4 #cg deg in ,virginia1 and sown in lat4 #dc-dd deg in ,new ,england1 produce plants which will not ripen their seed1 or ripen them with the utmost difficulty4 ,so it is with seed carried from ,new ,england to lat4 #de-dg deg in ,canada4 ,by taking great care at first1 the southern kinds after some years' culture ripen their seed perfectly in their northern homes1 so that this is an analogous case with that of the conversion of summer into winter wheat1 and conversely4 ,when tall and dwarf maize are planted together1 the dwarf kinds are in full flower before the others have produced a single flower2 and in ,pennsylvania they ripen their seeds six weeks earlier than the tall maize4 ,metzger also mentions a ,european maize which ripens its seed four weeks earlier than another ,european kind4 ,with these facts1 so plainly showing inherited acclimatisation1 we may readily believe ,kalm1 who states that in ,north ,america maize and some other plants have gradually been cultivated further and further northward4 ,all writers agree that to keep the varieties of maize pure they must be planted separately so that they shall not cross4 ,the effects of the climate of ,europe on the ,american varieties is highly remarkable4 ,metzger obtained seed from various parts of ,america1 and cultivated several kinds in ,germany4 ,i will give an abstract of the changes observed 7#i_/fc4 ',getreidearten' s4 #bjh47 in one case1 namely1 with a tall kind 7,breit-korniger mais1 ,zea altissima7 brought from the warmer parts of ,america4 ,during the first year the plants were twelve feet high1 and a few seeds were perfected2 the lower seeds in the ear kept true to their proper form1 but the upper seeds became slightly changed4 ,in the second generation the plants were from nine to ten feet in height1 and ripened their seed better2 the depression on the outer side of the seed had almost disappeared1 and the original beautiful white colour had become duskier4 ,some of the seeds had even become yellow1 and in their now rounded form they approached common ,european maize4 ,in the third generation nearly all resemblance to the original and very distinct ,american parent-form was lost4 ,in the sixth generation this maize perfectly resembled a ,european variety1 described as the second sub-variety of the fifth race4 ,when ,metzger published his book1 this variety was still cultivated near ,heidelberg1 and could be distinguished from the common kind only by a somewhat more vigorous growth4 ,analogous results were obtained by the cultivation of another ,american race1 the white-tooth corn1 in which the tooth nearly disappeared even in the second generation4 ,a third race1 the chicken-corn1 did not undergo so great a change1 but the seeds became less polished and pellucid4 ,in the above cases the seeds were carried from a warm to a colder climate4 ,but ,fritz ,muller informs me that a dwarf variety with small rounded seeds 7papa-gaien-mais71 introduced from ,germany into ,s4 ,brazil1 produces plants as tall1 with seeds as flat1 as those of the kind commonly cultivated there4 ,these facts afford the most remarkable instance known to me of the direct and prompt action of climate on a plant4 ,it might have been expected that the tallness of the stem1 the period of vegetation1 and the ripening of the seed1 would have been thus affected2 but it is a much more surprising fact that the seeds should have undergone so rapid and great a change4 ,as1 however1 flowers1 with their product the seed1 are formed by the metamorphosis of the stem and leaves1 any modification in these latter organs would be apt to extend1 through correlation1 to the organs of fructification4 ,,cabbage 7,brassica oleracea74 ,every one knows how greatly the various kinds of cabbage differ in appearance4 ,in the ,island of ,jersey1 from the effects of particular culture and of climate a stalk has grown to the height of sixteen feet1 and had its spring shoots at the top occupied by a magpie's nest3 the woody stems are not unfrequently from ten to twelve feet in height1 and are there used as rafters 7#i_/fd4 ',cabbage ,timber' ',gardener's ,chronicle' #ahef page #gdd1 quoted from ,hooker ',journal of ,botany4' ,a walking-stick made from a cabbage-stalk is exhibited in the ,museum at ,kew47 and as walking-sticks4 ,we are thus reminded that in certain countries plants belonging to the generally herbaceous order of the ,cruciferae are developed into trees4 ,every one can appreciate the difference between green or red cabbages with great single heads2 ,brussel-sprouts with numerous little heads2 broccolis and cauliflowers with the greater number of their flowers in an aborted condition1 incapable of producing seed1 and borne in a dense corymb instead of an open panicle2 savoys with their blistered and wrinkled leaves2 and borecoles and kails1 which come nearest to the wild parent-form4 ,there are also various frizzled and laciniated kinds1 some of such beautiful colours that ,vilmorin in his ,catalogue of #ahea enumerates ten varieties which are valued solely for ornament4 ,some kinds are less commonly known1 such as the ,portuguese ,couve ,tronchuda1 with the ribs of its leaves greatly thickened2 and the ,kohlrabi or choux-raves1 with their stems enlarged into great turnip-like masses above the ground2 and the recently formed new race 7#i_/fe4 ',journal de la ,soc4 ,imp4 d',horticulture' #ahee page #bed quoted from ',gartenflora' ,april #ahee47 of the choux-raves1 already including nine sub- varieties1 in which the enlarged part lies beneath the ground like a turnip4 ,although we see such great differences in the shape1 size1 colour1 arrangement1 and manner of growth of the leaves and stem1 and of the flower-stems in the broccoli and cauliflower1 it is remarkable that the flowers themselves1 the seed-pods and seeds1 present extremely slight differences or none at all4 7#i_/ff4 ,godron ',de l',espece' tome #b page #eb2 ,metzger ',syst4 ,beschreibung der ,kult4 ,kohlarten' #ahcc s4 #f47 ,i compared the flowers of all the principal kinds2 those of the ,couve ,tronchuda are white and rather smaller than in common cabbages2 those of the ,portsmouth broccoli have narrower sepals1 and smaller1 less elongated petals2 and in no other cabbage could any difference be detected4 ,with respect to the seed-pods1 in the purple ,kohlrabi alone1 do they differ1 being a little longer and narrower than usual4 ,i made a collection of the seeds of twenty- eight different kinds1 and most of them were undistinguishable2 when there was any difference it was excessively slight2 thus1 the seeds of various broccolis and cauliflowers1 when seen in mass1 are a little redder2 those of the early green ,ulm savoy are rather smaller2 and those of the ,breda kail slightly larger than usual1 but not larger than the seeds of the wild cabbage from the coast of ,wales4 ,what a contrast in the amount of difference is presented if1 on the one hand1 we compare the leaves and stems of the various kinds of cabbage with their flowers1 pods1 and seeds1 and on the other hand the corresponding parts in the varieties of maize and wheat6 ,the explanation is obvious2 the seeds alone are valued in our cereals1 and their variations have been selected2 whereas the seeds1 seed- pods1 and flowers1 have been utterly neglected in the cabbage1 whilst many useful variations in their leaves and stems have been noticed and preserved from an extremely remote period1 for cabbages were cultivated by the old ,celts4 7#i_/fg4 ,regnier ',de l',economie ,publique des ,celtes' #ahah page #dch47 ,it would be useless to give a classified description 7#i_/fh4 ,see the elder ,de ,candolle in ',transact4 of ,hort4 ,soc4' volume #e2 and ,metzger ',kohlarten' etc47 of the numerous races1 sub-races1 and varieties of the cabbage2 but it may be mentioned that ,dr4 ,lindley has lately proposed 7#i_/fi4 ',gardener's ,chronicle' #ahei page #iib47 a system founded on the state of development of the terminal and lateral leaf-buds4 ,thus3 ,i4 ,all the leaf-buds active and open1 as in the wild-cabbage1 kail1 etc4 ,,ii4 ,all the leaf-buds active1 but forming heads1 as in ,brussel-sprouts1 etc4 ,,iii4 ,terminal leaf-bud alone active1 forming a head as in common cabbages1 savoys1 etc4 ,,iv4 ,terminal leaf-bud alone active1 and open1 with most of the flowers abortive and succulent1 as in the cauliflower and broccoli4 ,v4 ,all the leaf-buds active and open1 with most of the flowers abortive and succulent1 as in the sprouting-broccoli4 ,this latter variety is a new one1 and bears the same relation to common broccoli1 as ,brussel-sprouts do to common cabbages2 it suddenly appeared in a bed of common broccoli1 and was found faithfully to transmit its newly-acquired and remarkable characters4 ,the principal kinds of cabbage existed at least as early as the sixteenth century 7#i_/gj4 ,alph4 ,de ,candolle ',geograph4 ,bot4' pages #hdb and #ihi471 so that numerous modifications of structure have been inherited for a long period4 ,this fact is the more remarkable as great care must be taken to prevent the crossing of the different kinds4 ,to give proof of this3 ,i raised #bcc seedlings from cabbages of different kinds1 which had purposely been planted near each other1 and of the seedlings no less than #aee were plainly deteriorated and mongrelised2 nor were the remaining #gh all perfectly true4 ,it may be doubted whether many permanent varieties have been formed by intentional or accidental crosses2 for such crossed plants are found to be very inconstant4 ,one kind1 however1 called ,cottager's ,kail1 has lately been produced by crossing common kail and ,brussel- sprouts1 recrossed with purple broccoli 7#i_/ga4 ',gardener's ,chronicle' ,february #aheh page #abh471 and is said to be true2 but plants raised by me were not nearly so constant in character as any common kind of cabbage4 ,although most of the kinds keep true if carefully preserved from crossing1 yet the seed-beds must be yearly examined1 and a few seedlings are generally found false2 but even in this case the force of inheritance is shown1 for1 as ,metzger has remarked 7#i_/gb4 ',kohlarten' s4 #bb47 when speaking of ,brussel-sprouts1 the variations generally keep to their unter art1 or main race4 ,but in order that any kind may be truly propagated there must be no great change in the conditions of life2 thus cabbages will not form heads in hot countries1 and the same thing has been observed with an ,english variety grown during an extremely warm and damp autumn near ,paris4 7#i_/gc4 ,godron ',de l',espece' tome #b page #eb2 ,metzger ',kohlarten' s4 #bb47 ,extremely poor soil also affects the characters of certain varieties4 ,most authors believe that all the races are descended from the wild cabbage found on the western shores of ,europe2 but ,alph4 ,de ,candolle 7#i_/gd4 ',geograph4 ,bot4' page #hdj47 forcibly argues1 on historical and other grounds1 that it is more probable that two or three closely allied forms1 generally ranked as distinct species1 still living in the ,mediterranean region1 are the parents1 now all commingled together1 of the various cultivated kinds4 ,in the same manner as we have often seen with domesticated animals1 the supposed multiple origin of the cabbage throws no light on the characteristic differences between the cultivated forms4 ,if our cabbages are the descendants of three or four distinct species1 every trace of any sterility which may originally have existed between them is now lost1 for none of the varieties can be kept distinct without scrupulous care to prevent intercrossing4 ,the other cultivated forms of the genus ,brassica are descended1 according to the view adopted by ,godron and ,metzger 7#i_/ge4 ,godron ',de l',espece' tome #b page #ed2 ,metzger ',kohlarten' s4 #aj471 from two species1 ,b4 napus and rapa2 but according to other botanists from three species2 whilst others again strongly suspect that all these forms1 both wild and cultivated1 ought to be ranked as a single species4 ,brassica napus has given rise to two large groups1 namely1 ,swedish turnips 7believed to be of hybrid origin7 7#i_/gf4 ',gardener's ,chronicle and ,agricult4 ,gazette' #ahef page #gbi4 ,see more especially ibid #ahfh page #bge3 the writer asserts that he planted a variety of cabbage 7,b4 oleracea7 close to turnips 7,b4 rapa7 and raised from the crossed seedlings true ,swedish turnips4 ,these latter plants ought1 therefore1 to be classed with cabbages or turnips1 and not under ,b4 napus47 and ,colzas1 the seeds of which yield oil4 ,brassica rapa 7of ,koch7 has also given rise to two races1 namely1 common turnips and the oil-giving rape4 ,the evidence is unusually clear that these latter plants1 though so different in external appearance1 belong to the same species2 for the turnip has been observed by ,koch and ,godron to lose its thick roots in uncultivated soil2 and when rape and turnips are sown together they cross to such a degree that scarcely a single plant comes true4 7#i_/gg4 ',gardener's ,chronicle and ,agricult4 ,gazette' #ahee page #gcj47 ,metzger by culture converted the biennial or winter rape into the annual or summer rape1--varieties which have been thought by some authors to be specifically distinct4 7#i_/gh4 ,metzger1 ',kohlarten' s4 #ea47 ,in the production of large1 fleshy1 turnip-like stems1 we have a case of analogous variation in three forms which are generally considered as distinct species4 ,but scarcely any modification seems so easily acquired as a succulent enlargement of the stem or root--that is1 a store of nutriment laid up for the plant's own future use4 ,we see this in our radishes1 beet1 and in the less generally known turnip-rooted celery1 and in the finocchio1 or ,italian variety of the common fennel4 ,mr4 ,buckman has lately proved by his interesting experiments bow quickly the roots of the wild parsnip can be enlarged1 as ,vilmorin formerly proved in the case of the carrot4 7#i_/gi4 ,these experiments by ,vilmorin have been quoted by many writers4 ,an eminent botanist1 ,prof4 ,decaisne1 has lately expressed doubts on the subject from his own negative results1 but these cannot be valued equally with positive results4 ,on the other hand1 ,m4 ,carriere has lately stated 7',gardener's ,chronicle' #ahfe page #aaed71 that he took seed from a wild carrot1 growing far from any cultivated land1 and even in the first generation the roots of his seedlings differed in being spindle-shaped1 longer1 softer1 and less fibrous than those of the wild plant4 ,from these seedlings he raised several distinct varieties47 ,this latter plant1 in its cultivated state1 differs in scarcely any character from the wild ,english carrot1 except in general luxuriance and in the size and quality of its roots2 but ten varieties1 differing in the colour1 shape1 and quality of the root1 are cultivated in ,england and come true by seed4 7#i_/hj4 ,loudon's ',encyclop4 of ,gardening' page #hce47 ,hence with the carrot1 as in so many other cases1 for instance with the numerous varieties and sub-varieties of the radish1 that part of the plant which is valued by man1 falsely appears alone to have varied4 ,the truth is that variations in this part alone have been selected2 and the seedlings inheriting a tendency to vary in the same way1 analogous modifications have been again and again selected1 until at last a great amount of change has been effected4 ,with respect to the radish1 ,m4 ,carriere1 by sowing the seed of the wild ,raphanus raphanistrum in rich soil1 and by continued selection during several generations1 raised many varieties1 closely like the cultivated radish 7,r4 sativus7 in their roots1 as well as the wonderful ,chinese variety1 ,r4 caudatus3 7see ',journal d',agriculture pratique' tome #a #ahfi page #aei2 also a separate essay ',origine des ,plantes ,domestiques' #ahfi47 ,raphanus raphanistrum and sativus have often been ranked as distinct species1 and owing to differences in their fruit even as distinct genera2 but ,professor ,hoffman 7',bot4 ,zeitung' #ahgb page #dhb7 has now shown that these differences1 remarkable as they are1 graduate away1 the fruit of ,r4 caudatus being intermediate4 ,by cultivating ,r4 raphanistrum during several generations 7ibid #ahgc page #i71 ,professor ,hoffman also obtained plants bearing fruits like those of ,r4 sativus4 ,,pea 7,pisum sativum74 ,most botanists look at the garden-pea as specifically distinct from the field-pea 7,p4 arvense74 ,the latter exists in a wild state in ,southern ,europe2 but the aboriginal parent of the garden-pea has been found by one collector alone1 as he states1 in the ,crimea4 7#i_/ha4 ,alph4 ,de ,candolle ',geograph4 ,bot4' #ifj4 ,mr4 ,bentham ',hort4 ,journal' volume #i #ahee page #ada believes that garden and field peas belong to the same species1 and in this respect he differs from ,dr4 ,targioni47 ,andrew ,knight crossed1 as ,i am informed by the ,rev4 ,a4 ,fitch1 the field-pea with a well-known garden variety1 the ,prussian pea1 and the cross seems to have been perfectly fertile4 ,dr4 ,alefield has recently studied 7#i_/hb4 ',botanische ,zeitung' #ahfj s4 #bjd47 the genus with care1 and1 after having cultivated about fifty varieties1 concludes that certainly they all belong to the same species4 ,it is an interesting fact already alluded to1 that1 according to ,o4 ,heer 7#i_/hc4 ',die ,pflanzen der ,pfahlbauten' #ahff s4 #bc47 the peas found in the lake-habitations of ,switzerland of the ,stone and ,bronze ages1 belong to an extinct variety1 with exceedingly small seeds1 allied to ,p4 arvense or the field-pea4 ,the varieties of the common garden-pea are numerous1 and differ considerably from one another4 ,for comparison ,i planted at the same time forty-one1 ,english and ,french varieties4 ,they differed greatly in height1-- namely from between #f and #ab inches to #h feet 7#i_/hd4 ,a variety called the ,rounciva attains this height1 as is stated by ,mr4 ,gordon in ',transact4 ,hort4 ,soc4' #bnd series volume #a #ahce page #cgd from which paper ,i have taken some facts471--in manner of growth1 and in period of maturity4 ,some differ in general aspect even while only two or three inches in height4 ,the stems of the ,prussian pea are much branched4 ,the tall kinds have larger leaves than the dwarf kinds1 but not in strict proportion to their height3--,,hair',s ,,dwarf ,,monmouth has very large leaves1 and the ,,pois ,,nain ,,hatif1 and the moderately tall ,,blue ,,prussian1 have leaves about two-thirds of the size of the tallest kind4 ,in the ,,danecroft the leaflets are rather small and a little pointed2 in the ,,queen ,,of ,,dwarfs rather rounded2 and in the ,,queen ,,of ,,england broad and large4 ,in these three peas the slight differences in the shape of the leaves are accompanied by slight differences in colour1 in the ,,pois ,,geant ,,sans ,,parchemin1 which bears purple flowers1 the leaflets in the young plant are edged with red2 and in all the peas with purple flowers the stipules are marked with red4 ,in the different varieties1 one1 two1 or several flowers in a small cluster1 are borne on the same peduncle2 and this is a difference which is considered of specific value in some of the ,leguminosae4 ,in all the varieties the flowers closely resemble each other except in colour and size4 ,they are generally white1 sometimes purple1 but the colour is inconstant even in the same variety4 ,in ,,warner',s ,,emperor1 which is a tall kind1 the flowers are nearly double the size of the ,,pois ,,nain ,,hatif2 but ,,hair',s ,,dwarf ,,monmouth1 which has large leaves1 likewise has large flowers4 ,the calyx in the ,,victoria ,,marrow is large1 and in ,,bishop',s ,,long ,,pod the sepals are rather narrow4 ,in no other kind is there any difference in the flower4 ,the pods and seeds1 which with natural species afford such constant characters1 differ greatly in the cultivated varieties of the pea2 and these are the valuable1 and consequently the selected parts4 ,,sugar ,,peas1 or ,,pois ,,sans ,,parchemin1 are remarkable from their thin pods1 which1 whilst young1 are cooked and eaten whole2 and in this group1 which1 according to ,mr4 ,gordon includes eleven sub-varieties1 it is the pod which differs most2 thus ,,lewis',s ,,negro-,,podded ,,pea has a straight1 broad1 smooth1 and dark- purple pod1 with the husk not so thin as in the other kinds2 the pod of another variety is extremely bowed2 that of the ,,pois ,,geant is much pointed at the extremity2 and in the variety ,a ,,grands ,,cosses the peas are seen through the husk in so conspicuous a manner that the pod1 especially when dry1 can hardly at first be recognised as that of a pea4 ,in the ordinary varieties the pods also differ much in size2--in colour1 that of ,,woodford',s ,,green ,,marrow being bright-green when dry1 instead of pale brown1 and that of the purple-podded pea being expressed by its name2- -in smoothness1 that of ,,danecroft being remarkably glossy1 whereas that of the ,,ne ,,plus ,,ultra is rugged2 in being either nearly cylindrical1 or broad and flat2--in being pointed at the end1 as in ,,thurston',s ,,reliance1 or much truncated1 as in the ,,american ,,dwarf4 ,in the ,,auvergne ,,pea the whole end of the pod is bowed upwards4 ,in the ,,queen ,,of ,,the ,,dwarfs and in ,,scimitar ,,peas the pod is almost elliptic in shape4 ,i here give drawings of the four most distinct pods produced by the plants cultivated by me4 7,,figure #da4 ,,pods ,,and ,,peas4 ,i4 ,queen of ,dwarfs4 ,,ii4 ,american ,dwarf4 ,,iii4 ,thurston's ,reliance4 ,,iv4 ,pois ,geant sans parchemin4 a4 ,dan ,o',rourke ,pea4 b4 ,queen of ,dwarfs ,pea4 c4 ,knight's ,tall ,white ,marrow4 a4 ,lewis's ,negro ,pea47 ,in the pea itself we have every tint between almost pure white1 brown1 yellow1 and intense green2 in the varieties of the ,,sugar ,,peas we have these same tints1 together with red passing through fine purple into a dark chocolate tint4 ,these colours are either uniform or distributed in dots1 striae1 or moss-like marks2 they depend in some cases on the colour of the cotyledons seen through the skin1 and in other cases on the outer coats of the pea itself4 ,in the different varieties1 the pods contain1 according to ,mr4 ,gordon1 from eleven or twelve to only four or five peas4 ,the largest peas are nearly twice as much in diameter as the smallest2 and the latter are not always borne by the most dwarfed kinds4 ,peas differ much in shape1 being smooth and spherical1 smooth and oblong1 nearly oval in the ,,queen ,,of ,,the ,,dwarfs1 and nearly cubical and crumpled in many of the larger kinds4 ,with respect to the value of the differences between the chief varieties1 it cannot be doubted that1 if one of the tall ,,sugar-,,peas1 with purple flowers1 thin-skinned pods of an extraordinary shape1 including large1 dark-purple peas1 grew wild by the side of the lowly ,,queen ,,of ,,the ,,dwarfs1 with white flowers1 greyish-green1 rounded leaves1 scimitar-like pods1 containing oblong1 smooth1 pale-coloured peas1 which became mature at a different season3 or by the side of one of the gigantic sorts1 like the ,,champion ,,of ,,england1 with leaves of great size1 pointed pods1 and large1 green1 crumpled1 almost cubical peas1--all three kinds would be ranked as distinct species4 ,andrew ,knight 7#i_/he4 ',phil4 ,tract4' #agii page #aif47 has observed that the varieties of peas keep very true1 because they are not crossed by insects4 ,as far as the fact of keeping true is concerned1 ,i hear from ,mr4 ,masters of ,canterbury1 well known as the originator of several new kinds1 that certain varieties have remained constant for a considerable time1--for instance1 ,,knight',s ,,blue ,,dwarf1 which came out about the year #ahbj4 7#i_/hf4 ',gardener's ,magazine' volume #a #ahbf page #aec47 ,but the greater number of varieties have a singularly short existence3 thus ,loudon remarks 7#i_/hg4 ',encyclopaedia of ,gardening' page #hbc47 that sorts which were highly approved in #ahba1 are now1 in #ahcc1 nowhere to be found2 and on comparing the lists of #ahcc with those of #ahee1 ,i find that nearly all the varieties have changed4 ,mr4 ,masters informs me that the nature of the soil causes some varieties to lose their character4 ,as with other plants1 certain varieties can be propagated truly1 whilst others show a determined tendency to vary2 thus two peas differing in shape1 one round and the other wrinkled1 were found by ,mr4 ,masters within the same pod1 but the plants raised from the wrinkled kind always evinced a strong tendency to produce round peas4 ,mr4 ,masters also raised from a plant of another variety four distinct sub-varieties1 which bore blue and round1 white and round1 blue and wrinkled1 and white and wrinkled peas2 and although he sowed these four varieties separately during several successive years1 each kind always reproduced all four kinds mixed together6 ,with respect to the varieties not naturally intercrossing1 ,i have ascertained that the pea1 which in this respect differs from some other ,leguminosae1 is perfectly fertile without the aid of insects4 ,yet ,i have seen humble-bees whilst sucking the nectar depress the keel-petals1 and become so thickly dusted with pollen1 that it could hardly fail to be left on the stigma of the next flower which was visited4 ,nevertheless1 distinct varieties growing closely together rarely cross2 and ,i have reason to believe that this is due to their stigmas being prematurely fertilised in this country by pollen from the same flower4 ,the horticulturists who raise seed-peas are thus enabled to plant distinct varieties close together without any bad consequences2 and it is certain1 as ,i have myself found1 that true seed may be saved during at least several generations under these circumstances4 7#i_/hh4 ,see ,dr4 ,anderson to the same effect in the ',bath ,soc4 ,agricultural ,papers' volume #d page #hg47 ,mr4 ,fitch raised1 as he informs me1 one variety for twenty years1 and it always came true1 though grown close to other varieties4 ,from the analogy of kidney-beans ,i should have expected 7#i_/hi4 ,i have published full details of experiments on this subject in the ',gardener's ,chronicle' #aheg ,october #be47 that varieties thus circumstanced would have occasionally crossed2 and ,i shall give in the eleventh chapter two cases of this having occurred1 as shown 7in a manner hereafter to be explained7 by the pollen of the one variety having acted directly on the seeds of the other4 ,whether many of the new varieties which incessantly appear are due to such occasional and accidental crosses1 ,i do not know4 ,nor do ,i know whether the short existence of almost all the numerous varieties is the result of mere change of fashion1 or of their having a weak constitution1 from being the product of long-continued self- fertilisation4 ,it may1 however1 be noticed that several of ,andrew ,knight's varieties1 which have endured longer than most kinds1 were raised towards the close of the last century by artificial crosses2 some of them1 ,i believe1 were still vigorous in #ahfj2 but now1 in #ahfe1 a writer1 speaking 7#i_/ij4 ',gardener's ,chronicle' #ahfe page #chg47 of ,knight's four kinds of marrows1 says1 they have acquired a famous history1 but their glory has departed4 ,with respect to ,beans 7,faba vulgaris71 ,i will say but little4 ,dr4 ,alefield has given 7#i_/ia4 ',bonplandia' #aj1 #ahfb s4 #cdh47 short diagnostic characters of forty varieties4 ,everyone who has seen a collection must have been struck with the great difference in shape1 thickness1 proportional length and breadth1 colour1 and size which beans present4 ,what a contrast between a ,windsor and ,horse-bean6 ,as in the case of the pea1 our existing varieties were preceded during the ,bronze age in ,switzerland 7#i_/ib4 ,heer ',die ,pflanzen der ,pfahlbauten' #ahff s4 #bb47 by a peculiar and now extinct variety producing very small beans4 7#i_/ic4 ,mr4 ,bentham informs me that in ,poitou and the adjoining parts of ,france1 varieties of ,phaseolus vulgaris are extremely numerous1 and so different that they were described by ,savi as distinct species4 ,mr4 ,bentham believes that all are descended from an unknown eastern species4 ,although the varieties differ so greatly in stature and in their seeds1 there is a remarkable sameness in the neglected characters of foliage and flowers1 and especially in the bracteoles1 an insignificant character in the eyes even of botanists47 ,,potato 7,solanum tuberosum74 ,there is little doubt about the parentage of this plant2 for the cultivated varieties differ extremely little in general appearance from the wild species1 which can be recognised in its native land at the first glance4 7#i_/id4 ,darwin ',journal of ,researches' #ahde page #bhe4 ,sabine in ',transact4 ,hort4 ,soc4' volume #e page #bdi47 ,the varieties cultivated in ,britain are numerous2 thus ,lawson 7#i_/ie4 ',synopsis of the ,vegetable ,products of ,scotland' quoted in ,wilson's ',british ,farming' page #cag47 gives a description of #age kinds4 ,i planted eighteen kinds in adjoining rows2 their stems and leaves differed but little1 and in several cases there was as great a difference between the individuals of the same variety as between the different varieties4 ,the flower varied in size1 and in colour between white and purple1 but in no other respect1 except that in one kind the sepals were somewhat elongated4 ,one strange variety has been described which always produces two sorts of flowers1 the first double and sterile1 the second single and fertile4 7#i_/if4 ,sir ,g4 ,mackenzie1 in ',gardener's ,chronicle' #ahde page #gij47 ,the fruit or berries also differ1 but only in a slight degree4 7#i_/ig4 ,putsche und ,vertuch ',versuch einer ,monographie der ,kartoffeln' #ahai s4 #i1 #ae4 ,see also ,dr4 ,anderson ',recreations in ,agriculture' volume #d page #cbe47 ,the varieties are liable in very different degree to the attack of the ,colorado potato-beetle4 7#i_/ih4 ,walsh ',the ,american ,entomologist' #ahfi page #afj4 ,also ,s4 ,tenney ',the ,american ,naturalist' ,may #ahga page #aga47 ,the tubers1 on the other hand1 present a wonderful amount of diversity4 ,this fact accords with the principle that the valuable and selected parts of all cultivated productions present the greatest amount of modification4 ,they differ much in size and shape1 being globular1 oval1 flattened1 kidney-like1 or cylindrical4 ,one variety from ,peru is described 7#i_/ii4 ',gardener's ,chronicle' #ahfb page #ajeb47 as being quite straight1 and at least six inches in length1 though no thicker than a man's finger4 ,the eyes or buds differ in form1 position1 and colour4 ,the manner in which the tubers are arranged on the so-called roots or rhizomes is different2 thus1 in the gurken-kartoffeln they form a pyramid with the apex downwards1 and in another variety they bury themselves deep in the ground4 ,the roots themselves run either near the surface or deep in the ground4 ,the tubers also differ in smoothness and colour1 being externally white1 red1 purple1 or almost black1 and internally white1 yellow1 or almost black4 ,they differ in flavour and quality1 being either waxy or mealy2 in their period of maturity1 and in their capacity for long preservation4 ,as with many other plants which have been long propagated by bulbs1 tubers1 cuttings1 etc41 by which means the same individual is exposed during a length of time to diversified conditions1 seedling potatoes generally display innumerable slight differences4 ,several varieties1 even when propagated by tubers1 are far from constant1 as will be seen in the chapter on ,bud-variation4 ,dr4 ,anderson 7#i_/ajj4 ',bath ,society ,agricult4 ,papers' volume #e page #abg4 ,and ',recreations in ,agriculture' volume #e page #hf47 procured seed from an ,irish purple potato1 which grew far from any other kind1 so that it could not at least in this generation have been crossed1 yet the many seedlings varied in almost every possible respect1 so that scarcely two plants were exactly alike4 ,some of the plants which closely resembled each other above ground1 produced extremely dissimilar tubers2 and some tubers which externally could hardly be distinguished1 differed widely in quality when cooked4 ,even in this case of extreme variability1 the parent-stock had some influence on the progeny1 for the greater number of the seedlings resembled in some degree the parent ,irish potato4 ,kidney potatoes must be ranked amongst the most highly cultivated and artificial races2 nevertheless their peculiarities can often be strictly propagated by seed4 ,a great authority1 ,mr4 ,rivers 7#i_/aja4 ',gardener's ,chronicle' #ahfc page #fdc47 states that seedlings from the ash-leaved kidney always bear a strong resemblance to their parent4 ,seedlings from the fluke-kidney are still more remarkable for their adherence to their parent stock1 for1 on closely observing a great number during two seasons1 ,i have not been able to observe the least difference1 either in earliness1 productiveness1 or in the size or shape of their tubers4 ,,chapter #a4,x4 ,,plants continued--,,fruits--,,ornamental ,,trees--,,flowers4 ,,fruits4 ,,grapes4 ,,vary ,,in ,,odd ,,and ,,trifling ,,particulars4 ,,mulberry4 ,,the ,,orange ,,group4 ,,singular ,,results ,,from ,,crossing4 ,,peach ,,and ,,nectarine4 ,,bud-,,variation4 ,,analogous ,,variation4 ,,relation ,,to ,,the ,,almond4 ,,apricot4 ,,plums4 ,,variation ,,in ,,their ,,stones4 ,,cherries4 ,,singular ,,varieties ,,of4 ,,apple4 ,,pear4 ,,strawberry4 ,,interblending ,,of ,,the ,,original ,,forms4 ,,gooseberry4 ,,steady ,,increase ,,in ,,size ,,of ,,the ,,fruit4 ,,varieties ,,of4 ,,walnut4 ,,nut4 ,,cucurbitaceous ,,plants4 ,,wonderful ,,variation ,,of4 ,,ornamental ,,trees4 ,,their ,,variation ,,in ,,degree ,,and ,,kind4 ,,ash-,,tree4 ,,scotch-,,fir4 ,,hawthorn4 ,,flowers4 ,,multiple ,,origin ,,of ,,many ,,kinds4 ,,variation ,,in ,,constitutional ,,peculiarities4 ,,kind ,,of ,,variation4 ,,roses4 ,,several ,,species ,,cultivated4 ,,pansy4 ,,dahlia4 ,,hyacinth4 ,,history ,,and ,,variation ,,of4 ,,the ,,vine 7,vitis vinifera7 7,grapes74 ,the best authorities consider all our grapes as the descendants of one species which now grows wild in western ,asia1 which grew wild during the ,bronze age in ,italy 7#aj_/a4 ,heer ',pflanzen der ,pfahlbauten' #ahff s4 #bh471 and which has recently been found fossil in a tufaceous deposit in the south of ,france4 7#aj_/b4 ,alph4 ,de ,candolle ',geograph4 ,bot4' page #hgb2 ,dr4 ,a4 ,targioni-,tozzetti in ',jour4 ,hort4 ,soc4' vol #i page #acc4 ,for the fossil vine found by ,dr4 ,g4 ,planchon see ',nat4 ,hist4 ,review' #ahfe ,april page #bbd4 ,see also the valuable works of ,m4 de ,saporta on the ',tertiary ,plants of ,france4'7 ,some authors1 however1 entertain much doubt about the single parentage of our cultivated varieties1 owing to the number of semi-wild forms found in ,southern ,europe1 especially as described by ,clemente 7#aj_/c4 ,godron ',de l',espece' tome #b page #ajj47 in a forest in ,spain2 but as the grape sows itself freely in ,southern ,europe1 and as several of the chief kinds transmit their characters by seed 7#aj_/d4 ,see an account of ,m4 ,vibert's experiments by ,alex4 ,jordan in ',mem4 de l',acad4 de ,lyon' tome #b #aheb page #ajh471 whilst others are extremely variable1 the existence of many different escaped forms could hardly fail to occur in countries where this plant has been cultivated from the remotest antiquity4 ,that the vine varies much when propagated by seed1 we may infer from the largely increased number of varieties since the earlier historical records4 ,new hot-house varieties are produced almost every year2 for instance 7#aj_/e4 ',gardener's ,chronicle' #ahfd page #dhh47 a golden-coloured variety has been recently raised in ,england from a black grape without the aid of a cross4 ,van ,mons 7#aj_/f4 ',arbres ,fruitiers' #ahcf tome #b page #bij47 reared a multitude of varieties from the seed of one vine1 which was completely separated from all others1 so that there could not1 at least in this generation1 have been any crossing1 and the seedlings presented les analogues de toutes les sortes1 and differed in almost every possible character both in the fruits and foliage4 ,the cultivated varieties are extremely numerous2 ,count ,odart says that he will not deny that there may exist throughout the world #gjj or #hjj1 perhaps even #ajjj varieties1 but not a third of these have any value4 ,in the catalogue of fruit cultivated in the ,horticultural ,gardens of ,london1 published in #ahdb1 #ii varieties are enumerated4 ,wherever the grape is grown many varieties occur3 ,pallas describes #bd in the ,crimea1 and ,burnes mentions #aj in ,cabool4 ,the classification of the varieties has much perplexed writers1 and ,count ,odart is reduced to a geographical system2 but ,i will not enter on this subject1 nor on the many and great differences between the varieties4 ,i will merely specify a few curious and trifling peculiarities1 all taken from ,odart's highly esteemed work 7#aj_/g4 ,odart ',ampelographie ,universelle' #ahdi47 for the sake of showing the diversified variability of this plant4 ,simon has classed grapes into two main divisions1 those with downy leaves1 and those with smooth leaves1 but he admits that in one variety1 namely the ,rebazo1 the leaves are either smooth1 or downy2 and ,odart 7page #gj7 states that some varieties have the nerves alone1 and other varieties their young leaves1 downy1 whilst the old ones are smooth4 ,the ,pedro-,ximenes grape 7,odart page #cig7 presents a peculiarity by which it can be at once recognised amongst a host of other varieties1 namely1 that when the fruit is nearly ripe the nerves of the leaves or even the whole surface becomes yellow4 ,the ,barbera d',asti is well marked by several characters 7page #dbf71 amongst others1 by some of the leaves1 and it is always the lowest on the branches1 suddenly becoming of a dark red colour4 ,several authors in classifying grapes have founded their main divisions on the berries being either round or oblong2 and ,odart admits the value of this character2 yet there is one variety1 the ,maccabeo 7page #ga71 which often produces small round1 and large oblong1 berries in the same bunch4 ,certain grapes called ,nebbiolo 7page #dbi7 present a constant character1 sufficient for their recognition1 namely1 the slight adherence of that part of the pulp which surrounds the seeds to the rest of the berry1 when cut through transversely4 ,a ,rhenish variety is mentioned 7page #bbh7 which likes a dry soil2 the fruit ripens well1 but at the moment of maturity1 if much rain falls1 the berries are apt to rot2 on the other hand1 the fruit of a ,swiss variety 7page #bdc7 is valued for well sustaining prolonged humidity4 ,this latter variety sprouts late in the spring1 yet matures its fruit early2 other varieties 7page #cfb7 have the fault of being too much excited by the ,april sun1 and in consequence suffer from frost4 ,a ,styrian variety 7page #bed7 has brittle foot-stalks1 so that the clusters of fruit are often blown off2 this variety is said to be particularly attractive to wasps and bees4 ,other varieties have tough stalks1 which resist the wind4 ,many other variable characters could be given1 but the foregoing facts are sufficient to show in how many small structural and constitutional details the vine varies4 ,during the vine disease in ,france certain old groups of varieties 7#aj_/h4 ,m4 ,bouchardat in ',comptes ,rendus' ,december #a1 #ahea quoted in ',gardener's ,chronicle' #aheb page #dce4 ,see also ,c4,v4 ,riley on the manner in which some few of the varieties of the ,american ,labruscan ,vine escape the attacks of the ,phylloxera3 ',fourth ,annual ,report on the ,insects of ,missouri' #ahgb page #fc and ',fifth ,report' #ahgc page #ff47 have suffered far more from mildew than others4 ,thus the group of ,chasselas1 so rich in varieties1 did not afford a single fortunate exception2 certain other groups suffered much less2 the true old ,burgundy1 for instance1 was comparatively free from disease1 and the ,carminat likewise resisted the attack4 ,the ,american vines1 which belong to a distinct species1 entirely escaped the disease in ,france2 and we thus see that those ,european varieties which best resist the disease must have acquired in a slight degree the same constitutional peculiarities as the ,american species4 ,,white ,,mulberry 7,morus alba74 ,i mention this plant because it has varied in certain characters1 namely1 in the texture and quality of the leaves1 fitting them to serve as food for the domesticated silkworm1 in a manner not observed with other plants2 but this has arisen simply from such variations in the mulberry having been attended to1 selected1 and rendered more or less constant4 ,m4 de ,quatrefages 7#aj_/i4 ',etudes sur les ,maladies actuelles du ,ver a ,soie' #ahei page #cba47 briefly describes six kinds cultivated in one valley in ,france3 of these the ,,amourouso produces excellent leaves1 but is rapidly being abandoned because it produces much fruit mingled with the leaves3 the ,,antofino yields deeply cut leaves of the finest quality1 but not in great quantity3 the ,,claro is much sought for because the leaves can be easily collected3 lastly1 the ,,roso bears strong hardy leaves1 produced in large quantity1 but with the one inconvenience1 that they are best adapted for the worms after their fourth moult4 ,,mm4 ,jacquemet-,bonnefont1 of ,lyon1 however1 remark in their catalogue 7#ahfb7 that two sub-varieties have been confounded under the name of the roso1 one having leaves too thick for the caterpillars1 the other being valuable because the leaves can easily be gathered from the branches without the bark being torn4 ,in ,india the mulberry has also given rise to many varieties4 ,the ,indian form is thought by many botanists to be a distinct species2 but as ,royle remarks 7#aj_/aj4 ',productive ,resources of ,india' page #acj471 so many varieties have been produced by cultivation that it is difficult to ascertain whether they all belong to one species2 they are1 as he adds1 nearly as numerous as those of the silkworm4 ,,the ,,orange ,,group4 ,we here meet with great confusion in the specific distinction and parentage of the several kinds4 ,gallesio 7#aj_/aa4 ',traite du ,citrus' #ahaa4 ',teoria della ,riproduzione ,vegetale' #ahaf4 ,i quote chiefly from this second work4 ,in #ahci ,gallesio published in folio ',gli ,agrumi dei ,giard4 ,bot4 di ,firenze' in which he gives a curious diagram of the supposed relationship of all the forms471 who almost devoted his life-time to the subject1 considers that there are four species1 namely1 sweet and bitter oranges1 lemons1 and citrons1 each of which has given rise to whole groups of varieties1 monsters1 and supposed hybrids4 ,one high authority 7#aj_/ab4 ,mr4 ,bentham ',review of ,dr4 ,a4 ,targioni-,tozzetti1 ,journal of ,hort4 ,soc4' volume #i page #acc47 believes that these four reputed species are all varieties of the wild ,citrus medica1 but that the shaddock 7,citrus decumana71 which is not known in a wild state1 is a distinct species2 though its distinctness is doubted by another writer of great authority on such matters1 namely1 ,dr4 ,buchanan ,hamilton4 ,alph4 ,de ,candolle 7#aj_/ac4 ',geograph4 ,bot4' page #hfc471 on the other hand--and there cannot be a more capable judge--advances what he considers sufficient evidence of the orange 7he doubts whether the bitter and sweet kinds are specifically distinct71 the lemon1 and citron1 having been found wild1 and consequently that they are distinct4 ,he mentions two other forms cultivated in ,japan and ,java1 which he ranks undoubted species2 he speaks rather more doubtfully about the shaddock1 which varies much1 and has not been found wild2 and finally he considers some forms1 such as ,adam's apple and the bergamotte1 as probably hybrids4 ,i have briefly abstracted these opinions for the sake of showing those who have never attended to such subjects1 how perplexing they are4 ,it would1 therefore1 be useless for my purpose to give a sketch of the conspicuous differences between the several forms4 ,besides the ever-recurrent difficulty of determining whether forms found wild are truly aboriginal or are escaped seedlings1 many of the forms1 which must be ranked as varieties1 transmit their characters almost perfectly by seed4 ,sweet and bitter oranges differ in no important respect except in the flavour of their fruit1 but ,gallesio 7#aj_/ad4 ',teoria della ,riproduzione' pages #eb-eg47 is most emphatic that both kinds can be propagated by seed with absolute certainty4 ,consequently1 in accordance with his simple rule1 he classes them as distinct species2 as he does sweet and bitter almonds1 the peach and nectarine1 etc4 ,he admits1 however1 that the soft-shelled pine-tree produces not only soft-shelled but some hard-shelled seedlings1 so that a little greater force in the power of inheritance would1 according to this rule1 raise a soft-shelled pine-tree into the dignity of an aboriginally created species4 ,the positive assertion made by ,macfayden 7#aj_/ae4 ,hooker ',bot4 ,misc4' volume #a page #cjb2 volume #b page #aaa47 that the pips of sweet oranges produced in ,jamaica1 according to the nature of the soil in which they are sown1 either sweet or bitter oranges1 is probably an error2 for ,m4 ,alph4 ,de ,candolle informs me that since the publication of his great work he has received accounts from ,guiana1 the ,antilles1 and ,mauritius1 that in these countries sweet oranges faithfully transmit their character4 ,gallesio found that the willow-leafed and the ,little ,china oranges reproduced their proper leaves and fruit2 but the seedlings were not quite equal in merit to their parents4 ,the red-fleshed orange1 on the other hand1 fails to reproduce itself4 ,gallesio also observed that the seeds of several other singular varieties all reproduced trees having a peculiar physiognomy1 partly resembling their parent-forms4 ,i can adduce another case3 the myrtle leaved orange is ranked by all authors as a variety1 but is very distinct in general aspect3 in my father's greenhouse1 during many years1 it rarely yielded any fruit1 but at last produced one2 and a tree thus raised was identical with the parent-form4 ,another and more serious difficulty in determining the rank of the several forms is that1 according to ,gallesio 7#aj_/af4 ',teoria della ,riproduzione' page #ec47 they largely intercross without artificial aid2 thus he positively states that seeds taken from lemon-trees 7,c4 lemonum7 growing mingled with the citron 7,c4 medica71 which is generally considered as a distinct species1 produced a graduated series of varieties between these two forms4 ,again1 an ,adam's apple was produced from the seed of a sweet orange1 which grew close to lemons and citrons4 ,but such facts hardly aid us in determining whether to rank these forms as species or varieties2 for it is now known that undoubted species of ,verbascum1 ,cistus1 ,primula1 ,salix1 etc41 frequently cross in a state of nature4 ,if indeed it were proved that plants of the orange tribe raised from these crosses were even partially sterile1 it would be a strong argument in favour of their rank as species4 ,gallesio asserts that this is the case2 but he does not distinguish between sterility from hybridism and from the effects of culture2 and he almost destroys the force of this statement by another 7#aj_/ag4 ,gallesio ',teoria della ,riproduzione' page #fi47 namely1 that when he impregnated the flowers of the common orange with the pollen taken from undoubted ,,varieties of the orange1 monstrous fruits were produced1 which included little pulp1 and had no seeds1 or imperfect seeds4 ,in this tribe of plants we meet with instances of two highly remarkable facts in vegetable physiology3 ,gallesio 7#aj_/ah4 ,ibid page #fg47 impregnated an orange with pollen from a lemon1 and the fruit borne on the mother tree had a raised stripe of peel like that of a lemon both in colour and taste1 but the pulp was like that of an orange and included only imperfect seeds4 ,the possibility of pollen from one variety or species directly affecting the fruit produced by another variety of species1 is a subject which ,i shall fully discuss in the following chapter4 ,the second remarkable fact is1 that two supposed hybrids 7#aj_/ai4 ,gallesio ',teoria della ,riproduzione' pages #ge1 #gf47 7for their hybrid nature was not ascertained71 between an orange and either a lemon or citron1 produced on the same tree leaves1 flowers1 and fruit of both pure parent-forms1 as well as of a mixed or crossed nature4 ,a bud taken from any one of the branches and grafted on another tree produces either one of the pure kinds or a capricious tree reproducing the three kinds4 ,whether the sweet lemon1 which includes within the same fruit segments of differently flavoured pulp 7#aj_/bj4 ',gardener's ,chronicle' #ahda page #fac471 is an analogous case1 ,i know not4 ,but to this subject ,i shall have to recur4 ,i will conclude by giving from ,a4 ,risso 7#aj_/ba4 ',annales du ,museum' tome #bj page #ahh47 a short account of a very singular variety of the common orange4 ,it is the citrus aurantium fructu variabili1 which on the young shoots produces rounded-oval leaves spotted with yellow1 borne on petioles with heart-shaped wings2 when these leaves fall off1 they are succeeded by longer and narrower leaves1 with undulated margins1 of a pale-green colour embroidered with yellow1 borne on footstalks without wings4 ,the fruit whilst young is pear-shaped1 yellow1 longitudinally striated1 and sweet2 but as it ripens1 it becomes spherical1 of a reddish-yellow1 and bitter4 ,,peach ,,and ,,nectarine 7,amygdalus persica74 ,the best authorities are nearly unanimous that the peach has never been found wild4 ,it was introduced from ,persia into ,europe a little before the ,christian era1 and at this period few varieties existed4 ,alph4 ,de ,candolle 7#aj_/bb4 ',geograph4 ,bot4' page #hhb471 from the fact of the peach not having spread from ,persia at an earlier period1 and from its not having pure ,sanscrit or ,hebrew names1 believes that it is not an aboriginal of ,western ,asia1 but came from the terra incognita of ,china4 ,the supposition1 however1 that the peach is a modified almond which acquired its present character at a comparatively late period1 would1 ,i presume1 account for these facts2 on the same principle that the nectarine1 the offspring of the peach1 has few native names1 and became known in ,europe at a still later period4 7,,figure #db4-,,peach ,,and ,,almond ,,stones1 of natural size1 viewed edgeways4 #a4 ,common ,english peach4 #b4 ,double1 crimson-flowered1 ,chinese ,peach4 #c4 ,chinese ,honey ,peach4 #d4 ,english ,almond4 #e4 ,barcelona ,almond4 #f4 ,malaga ,almond4 #g4 ,soft-shelled ,french ,almond4 #h4 ,smyrna ,almond47 ,andrew ,knight 7#aj_/bc4 ',transactions of ,hort4 ,soc4' volume #c page #a and volume #d page #cif and note to page #cgj4 ,a coloured drawing is given of this hybrid471 from finding that a seedling-tree1 raised from a sweet almond fertilised by the pollen of a peach1 yielded fruit quite like that of a peach1 suspected that the peach-tree is a modified almond2 and in this he has been followed by various authors4 7#aj_/bd4 ',gardener's ,chronicle' #ahef page #ecb4 ,a writer1 it may be presumed ,dr4 ,lindley1 remarks on the perfect series which may be formed between the almond and the peach4 ,another high authority1 ,mr4 ,rivers1 who has had such wide experience1 strongly suspects 7',gardener's ,chronicle' #ahfc page #bg7 that peaches1 if left to a state of nature1 would in the course of time retrograde into thick-fleshed almonds47 ,a first-rate peach1 almost globular in shape1 formed of soft and sweet pulp1 surrounding a hard1 much furrowed1 and slightly flattened stone1 certainly differs greatly from an almond1 with its soft1 slightly furrowed1 much flattened1 and elongated stone1 protected by a tough1 greenish layer of bitter flesh4 ,mr4 ,bentham 7#aj_/be4 ',journal of ,hort4 ,soc4' volume #i page #afh47 has particularly called attention to the stone of the almond being so much more flattened than that of the peach4 ,but in the several varieties of the almond1 the stone differs greatly in the degree to which it is compressed1 in size1 shape1 strength1 and in the depth of the furrows1 as may be seen in figure #db 7,nos4 #d to #h7 of such kinds as ,i have been able to collect4 ,with peach-stones also 7,nos4 #a to #c7 the degree of compression and elongation is seen to vary2 so that the stone of the ,chinese ,honey-peach 7,no4 #c7 is much more elongated and compressed than that of the 7,no4 #h7 ,smyrna almond4 ,mr4 ,rivers1 of ,sawbridgeworth1 to whom ,i am indebted for some of the specimens above figured1 and who has had such great horticultural experience1 has called my attention to several varieties which connect the almond and the peach4 ,in ,france there is a variety called the ,peach-,almond1 which ,mr4 ,rivers formerly cultivated1 and which is correctly described in a ,french catalogue as being oval and swollen1 with the aspect of a peach1 including a hard stone surrounded by a fleshy covering1 which is sometimes eatable4 7#aj_/bf4 ,whether this is the same variety as one lately mentioned 7',gardener's ,chronicle' #ahfe page #aaed7 by ,m4 ,carriere under the name of persica intermedia1 ,i know not2 this variety is said to be intermediate in nearly all its characters between the almond and peach2 it produces during successive years very different kinds of fruit47 ,a remarkable statement by ,m4 ,luizet has recently appeared in the ',revue ,horticole' 7#aj_/bg4 ,quoted in ',gardener's ,chronicle' #ahff page #hjj471 namely1 that a ,peach-almond1 grafted on a peach1 bore1 during #ahfc and #ahfd almonds alone1 but in #ahfe bore six peaches and no almonds4 ,m4 ,carriere1 in commenting on this fact1 cites the case of a double-flowered almond which1 after producing during several years almonds1 suddenly bore for two years in succession spherical fleshy peach-like fruits1 but in #ahfe reverted to its former state and produced large almonds4 ,again1 as ,i hear from ,mr4 ,rivers1 the double-flowering ,chinese peaches resemble almonds in their manner of growth and in their flowers2 the fruit is much elongated and flattened1 with the flesh both bitter and sweet1 but not uneatable1 and it is said to be of better quality in ,china4 ,from this stage one small step leads us to such inferior peaches as are occasionally raised from seed4 ,for instance1 ,mr4 ,rivers sowed a number of peach-stones imported from the ,united ,states1 where they are collected for raising stocks1 and some of the trees raised by him produced peaches which were very like almonds in appearance1 being small and hard1 with the pulp not softening till very late in the autumn4 ,van ,mons 7#aj_/bh4 ,quoted in ',journal de ,la ,soc4 ,imp4 d',horticulture' #ahee page #bch47 also states that he once raised from a peach-stone a peach having the aspect of a wild tree1 with fruit like that of the almond4 ,from inferior peaches1 such as these just described1 we may pass by small transitions1 through clingstones of poor quality1 to our best and most melting kinds4 ,from this gradation1 from the cases of sudden variation above recorded1 and from the fact that the peach has not been found wild1 it seems to me by far the most probable view1 that the peach is the descendant of the almond1 improved and modified in a marvellous manner4 ,one fact1 however1 is opposed to this conclusion4 ,a hybrid1 raised by ,knight from the sweet almond by the pollen of the peach1 produced flowers with little or no pollen1 yet bore fruit1 having been apparently fertilised by a neighbouring nectarine4 ,another hybrid1 from a sweet almond by the pollen of a nectarine1 produced during the first three years imperfect blossoms1 but afterwards perfect flowers with an abundance of pollen4 ,if this slight degree of sterility cannot be accounted for by the youth of the trees 7and this often causes lessened fertility71 or by the monstrous state of the flowers1 or by the conditions to which the trees were exposed1 these two cases would afford a good argument against the peach being the descendant of the almond4 ,whether or not the peach has proceeded from the almond1 it has certainly given rise to nectarines1 or smooth peaches1 as they are called by the ,french4 ,most of the varieties1 both of the peach and nectarine1 reproduce themselves truly by seed4 ,gallesio 7#aj_/bi4 ',teoria della ,riproduzione ,vegetale' #ahaf page #hf47 says he has verified this with respect to eight races of the peach4 ,mr4 ,rivers 7#aj_/cj4 ',gardener's ,chronicle' #ahfb page #aaie47 has given some striking instances from his own experience1 and it is notorious that good peaches are constantly raised in ,north ,america from seed4 ,many of the ,american sub-varieties come true or nearly true to their kind1 such as the white-blossom1 several of the yellow-fruited freestone peaches1 the blood clingstone1 the heath1 and the lemon clingstone4 ,on the other hand1 a clingstone peach has been known to give rise to a freestone4 7#aj_/ca4 ,mr4 ,rivers ',gardener's ,chronicle' #ahei page #ggd47 ,in ,england it has been noticed that seedlings inherit from their parents flowers of the same size and colour4 ,some characters1 however1 contrary to what might have been expected1 often are not inherited2 such as the presence and form of the glands on the leaves4 7#aj_/cb4 ,downing ',the ,fruits of ,america' #ahde pages #dge1 #dhi1 #dib1 #did1 #dif4 ,see also ,f4 ,michaux ',travels in ,n4 ,america' ,english translation page #bbh4 ,for similar cases in ,france see ,godron ',de l',espece' tome #b page #ig47 ,with respect to nectarines1 both cling and freestones are known in ,north ,america to reproduce themselves by seed4 7#aj_/cc4 ,brickell ',nat4 ,hist4 of ,n4 ,carolina' page #ajb and ,downing ',fruit ,trees' page #eje47 ,in ,england the new white nectarine was a seedling of the old white1 and ,mr4 ,rivers 7#aj_/cd4 ',gardener's ,chronicle' #ahfb page #aaif47 has recorded several similar cases4 ,from this strong tendency to inheritance1 which both peach and nectarine trees exhibit1--from certain slight constitutional differences 7#aj_/ce4 ,the peach and nectarine do not succeed equally well in the some soil3 see ,lindley ',horticulture' page #cea47 in their nature1--and from the great difference in their fruit both in appearance and flavour1 it is not surprising1 notwithstanding that the trees differ in no other respects and cannot even be distinguished1 as ,i am informed by ,mr4 ,rivers1 whilst young1 that they have been ranked by some authors as specifically distinct4 ,gallesio does not doubt that they are distinct2 even ,alph4 ,de ,candolle does not appear perfectly assured of their specific identity3 and an eminent botanist has quite recently 7#aj_/cf4 ,godron ',de l',espece' tome #b #ahei page #ig47 maintained that the nectarine probably constitutes a distinct species4 ,hence it may be worth while to give all the evidence on the origin of the nectarine4 ,the facts in themselves are curious1 and will hereafter have to be referred to when the important subject of bud-variation is discussed4 ,it is asserted 7#aj_/cg4 ',transact4 ,hort4 ,soc4' volume #f page #cid47 that the ,boston nectarine was produced from a peach-stone1 and this nectarine reproduced itself by seed4 7#aj_/ch4 ,downing's ',fruit ,trees' page #ejb47 ,mr4 ,rivers states 7#aj_/ci4 ',gardener's ,chronicle' #ahfb page #aaie47 that from stones of three distinct varieties of the peach he raised three varieties of nectarine2 and in one of these cases no nectarine grew near the parent peach-tree4 ,in another instance ,mr4 ,rivers raised a nectarine from a peach1 and in the succeeding generation another nectarine from this nectarine4 7#aj_/dj4 ',journal of ,horticulture' ,february #e1 #ahff page #ajb47 ,other such instances have been communicated to me1 but they need not be given4 ,of the converse case1 namely1 of nectarine-stones yielding peach-trees 7both free and clingstones71 we have six undoubted instances recorded by ,mr4 ,rivers2 and in two of these instances the parent nectarines had been seedlings from other nectarines4 7#aj_/da4 ,mr4 ,rivers in ',gardener's ',chronicle' #ahei page #ggd1 #ahfb page #aaie2 #ahfe page #ajei2 and ',journal of ,hort4' #ahff page #ajb47 ,with respect to the more curious case of full-grown peach-trees suddenly producing nectarines by bud-variation 7or sports as they are called by gardeners71 the evidence is superabundant2 there is also good evidence of the same tree producing both peaches and nectarines1 or half-and-half fruit2 by this term ,i mean a fruit with the one-half a perfect peach1 and the other half a perfect nectarine4 ,peter ,collinson in #agda recorded the first case of a peach-tree producing a nectarine 7#aj_/db4 ',correspondence of ,linnaeus' #ahba pages #g1 #h1 #gj47 and in #agff he added two other instances4 ,in the same work1 the editor1 ,sir ,j4,e4 ,smith1 describes the more remarkable case of a tree in ,norfolk which usually bore both perfect nectarines and perfect peaches2 but during two seasons some of the fruit were half and half in nature4 ,mr4 ,salisbury in #ahjh 7#aj_/dc4 ',transact4 ,hort4 ,soc4' volume #a page #ajc47 records six other cases of peach-trees producing nectarines4 ,three of the varieties are named2 viz41 the ,alberge1 ,belle ,chevreuse1 and ,royal ,george4 ,this latter tree seldom failed to produce both kinds of fruit4 ,he gives another case of a half-and-half fruit4 ,at ,radford in ,devonshire 7#aj_/dd4 ,loudon's ',gardener's ,mag4' #ahbf volume #a4 page #dga47 a clingstone peach1 purchased as the ,chancellor1 was planted in #ahae1 and in #ahbd1 after having previously produced peaches alone1 bore on one branch twelve nectarines2 in #ahbe the same branch yielded twenty-six nectarines1 and in #ahbf thirty-six nectarines1 together with eighteen peaches4 ,one of the peaches was almost as smooth on one side as a nectarine4 ,the nectarines were as dark as1 but smaller than1 the ,elruge4 ,at ,beccles a ,royal ,george peach 7#aj_/de4 ,loudon's ',gardener's ,mag4' #ahbh page #ec47 produced a fruit1 three parts of it being peach and one part nectarine1 quite distinct in appearance as well as in flavour4 ,the lines of division were longitudinal1 as represented in the woodcut4 ,a nectarine- tree grew five yards from this tree4 ,professor ,chapman states 7#aj_/df4 ,ibid #ahcj page #eig47 that he has often seen in ,virginia very old peach-trees bearing nectarines4 ,a writer in the ',gardener's ,chronicle' says that a peach tree planted fifteen years previously 7#aj_/dg4 ',gardener's ,chronicle' #ahda page #fag47 produced this year a nectarine between two peaches2 a nectarine-tree grew close by4 ,in #ahdd 7#aj_/dh4 ',gardener's ,chronicle' #ahdd page #ehi47 a ,vanguard peach- tree produced1 in the midst of its ordinary fruit1 a single red ,roman nectarine4 ,mr4 ,calver is stated 7#aj_/di4 ',phytologist' volume #d page #bii47 to have raised in the ,united ,states a seedling peach which produced a mixed crop of both peaches and nectarines4 ,near ,dorking 7#aj_/ej4 ',gardener's ,chronicle' #ahef page #eca47 a branch of the ,teton de ,venus peach1 which reproduces itself truly by seed 7#aj_/ea4 ,godron1 ',de l',espece' tome #b page #ig471 bore its own fruit so remarkable for its prominent point1 and a nectarine rather smaller but well formed and quite round4 ,the previous cases all refer to peaches suddenly producing nectarines1 but at ,carclew 7#aj_/eb4 ',gardener's ,chronicle' #ahef page #eca47 the unique case occurred1 of a nectarine-tree1 raised twenty years before from seed and never grafted1 producing a fruit half peach and half nectarine2 subsequently bore a perfect peach4 ,to sum up the foregoing facts2 we have excellent evidence of peach-stones producing nectarine-trees1 and of nectarine-stones producing peach-trees1-- of the same tree bearing peaches and nectarines1--of peach-trees suddenly producing by bud-variation nectarines 7such nectarines reproducing nectarines by seed71 as well as fruit in part nectarine and in part peach1- -and1 lastly1 of one nectarine-tree first bearing half-and-half fruit1 and subsequently true peaches4 ,as the peach came into existence before the nectarine1 it might have been expected from the law of reversion that nectarines would have given birth by bud-variation or by seed to peaches1 oftener than peaches to nectarines2 but this is by no means the case4 ,two explanations have been suggested to account for these conversions4 ,first1 that the parent trees have been in every case hybrids 7#aj_/ec4 ,alph4 ,de ,candolle ',geograph4 ,bot4' page #hhf47 between the peach and nectarine1 and have reverted by bud-variation or by seed to one of their pure parent forms4 ,this view in itself is not very improbable2 for the ,mountaineer peach1 which was raised by ,knight from the red nutmeg-peach by pollen of the violette hative nectarine 7#aj_/ed4 ,thompson in ,loudon's ',encyclop4 of ,gardening' page #iaa471 produces peaches1 but these are said ,,sometimes to partake of the smoothness and flavour of the nectarine4 ,but let it be observed that in the previous list no less than six well-known varieties and several unnamed varieties of the peach have once suddenly produced perfect nectarines by bud variation3 and it would be an extremely rash supposition that all these varieties of the peach1 which have been cultivated for years in many districts1 and which show not a vestige of a mixed parentage1 are1 nevertheless1 hybrids4 ,a second explanation is1 that the fruit of the peach has been directly affected by the pollen of the nectarine3 although this certainly is possible1 it cannot here apply2 for we have not a shadow of evidence that a branch which has borne fruit directly affected by foreign pollen is so profoundly modified as afterwards to produce buds which continue to yield fruit of the new and modified form4 ,now it is known that when a bud on a peach-tree has once borne a nectarine the same branch has in several instances gone on during successive years producing nectarines4 ,the ,carclew nectarine1 on the other hand1 first produced half-and-half fruit1 and subsequently pure peaches4 ,hence we may confidently accept the common view that the nectarine is a variety of the peach1 which may be produced either by bud-variation or from seed4 ,in the following chapter many analogous cases of bud-variation will he given4 ,the varieties of the peach and the nectarine run in parallel lines4 ,in both classes the kinds differ from each other in the flesh of the fruit being white1 red1 or yellow2 in being clingstones or freestones2 in the flowers being large or small1 with certain other characteristic differences2 and in the leaves being serrated without glands1 or crenated and furnished with globose or reniform glands4 7#aj_/ee4 ',catalogue of ,fruit in ,garden of ,hort4 ,soc4' #ahdb page #aje47 ,we can hardly account for this parallelism by supposing that each variety of the nectarine is descended from a corresponding variety of the peach2 for though our nectarines are certainly the descendants of several kinds of peaches1 yet a large number are the descendants of other nectarines1 and they vary so much when thus reproduced that we can scarcely admit the above explanation4 ,the varieties of the peach have largely increased in number since the ,christian era1 when from two to five varieties were known 7#aj_/ef4 ,dr4 ,a4 ,targioni-,tozzetti ',journal ,hort4 ,soc4' volume #i page #afg4 ,alph4 de ,candolle ',geograph4 ,bot4' page #hhe47 and the nectarine was unknown4 ,at the present time1 besides many varieties said to exist in ,china1 ,downing describes1 in the ,united ,states1 seventy-nine native and imported varieties of the peach2 and a few years ago ,lindley 7#aj_/eg4 ',transact4 ,hort4 ,soc4' volume #e page #eed4 ,see also ,carriere ',description et ,class4 des ,varietes de ,pechers4'7 enumerated one hundred and sixty-four varieties of the peach and nectarine grown in ,england4 ,i have already indicated the chief points of difference between the several varieties4 ,nectarines1 even when produced from distinct kinds of peaches1 always possess their own peculiar flavour1 and are smooth and small4 ,clingstone and freestone peaches1 which differ in the ripe flesh either firmly adhering to the stone1 or easily separating from it1 also differ in the character of the stone itself2 that of the freestones or melters being more deeply fissured1 with the sides of the fissures smoother than in clingstones4 ,in the various kinds the flowers differ not only in size1 but in the larger flowers the petals are differently shaped1 more imbricated1 generally red in the centre and pale towards the margin3 whereas in the smaller flowers the margin of the petal is usually more darkly coloured4 ,one variety has nearly white flowers4 ,the leaves are more or less serrated1 and are either destitute of glands1 or have globose or reniform glands 7#aj_/eh4 ,loudon's ',encyclop4 of ,gardening' page #ijg47 and some few peaches1 such as the ,brugnen1 bear on the same tree both globular and kidney-shaped glands4 7#aj_/ei4 ,m4 ,carriere in ',gardener's ,chronicle' #ahfe page #aaed47 ,according to ,robertson 7#aj_/fj4 ',transact4 ,hort4 ,soc4' volume #c page #ccb4 ,see also ',gardener's ,chronicle' #ahfe page #bga to same effect4 ,also ',journal of ,horticulture' ,september #bf1 #ahfe page #bed47 the trees with glandular leaves are liable to blister1 but not in any great degree to mildew2 whilst the non-glandular trees are more subject to curl1 to mildew1 and to the attacks of aphides4 ,the varieties differ in the period of their maturity1 in the fruit keeping well1 and in hardiness1--the latter circumstance being especially attended to in the ,united ,states4 ,certain varieties1 such as the ,bellegarde1 stand forcing in hot-houses better than other varieties4 ,the flat-peach of ,china is the most remarkable of all the varieties2 it is so much depressed towards the summit1 that the stone is here covered only by roughened skin and not by a fleshy layer4 7#aj_/fa4 ',transact4 ,hort4 ,soc4' volume #d page #eab47 ,another ,chinese variety1 called the ,honey-peach1 is remarkable from the fruit terminating in a long sharp point2 its leaves are glandless and widely dentate4 7#aj_/fb4 ',journal of ,horticulture' ,september #h1 #ahec page #ahh47 ,the ,emperor of ,russia peach is a third singular variety1 having deeply double-serrated leaves2 the fruit is deeply cleft with one-half projecting considerably beyond the other3 it originated in ,america1 and its seedlings inherit similar leaves4 7#aj_/fc4 ',transact4 ,hort4 ,soc4' volume #f page #dab47 ,the peach has also produced in ,china a small class of trees valued for ornament1 namely the double-flowered2 of these1 five varieties are now known in ,england1 varying from pure white1 through rose1 to intense crimson4 7#aj_/fd4 ',gardener's ,chronicle' #aheg page #baf47 ,one of these varieties1 called the camellia-flowered1 bears flowers above #b #a_/d inches in diameter1 whilst those of the fruit-bearing kinds do not at most exceed #a #a_/d inch in diameter4 ,the flowers of the double-flowered peaches have the singular property 7#aj_/fe4 ',journal of ,hort4 ,soc4' volume #b page #bhc47 of frequently producing double or treble fruit4 ,finally1 there is good reason to believe that the peach is an almond profoundly modified2 but whatever its origin may have been1 there can be no doubt that it has yielded during the last eighteen centuries many varieties1 some of them strongly characterised1 belonging both to the nectarine and peach form4 ,,apricot 7,prunus armeniaca74 ,it is commonly admitted that this tree is descended from a single species1 now found wild in the ,caucasian region4 7#aj_/ff4 ,alph4 de ,candolle ',geograph4 ,bot4' page #hgi47 ,on this view the varieties deserve notice1 because they illustrate differences supposed by some botanists to be of specific value in the almond and plum4 ,the best monograph on the apricot is by ,mr4 ,thompson 7#aj_/fg4 ',transact4 ,hort4 ,soc4' #bnd series volume #a #ahce page #ef4 ,see also ',cat4 of ,fruit in ,garden of ,hort4 ,soc4' #crd edition #ahdb47 who describes seventeen varieties4 ,we have seen that peaches and nectarines vary in a strictly parallel manner2 and in the apricot1 which forms a closely allied genus1 we again meet with variations analogous to those of the peach1 as well as to those of the plum4 ,the varieties differ considerably in the shape of their leaves1 which are either serrated or crenated1 sometimes with ear-like appendages at their bases1 and sometimes with glands on the petioles4 ,the flowers are generally alike1 but are small in the ,masculine4 ,the fruit varies much in size1 shape1 and in having the suture little pronounced or absent2 in the skin being smooth1 or downy1 as in the orange-apricot2 and in the flesh clinging to the stone1 as in the last-mentioned kind1 or in readily separating from it1 as in the ,turkey- apricot4 ,in all these differences we see the closest analogy with the varieties of the peach and nectarine4 ,in the stone we have more important differences1 and these in the case of the plum have been esteemed of specific value3 in some apricots the stone is almost spherical1 in others much flattened1 being either sharp in front or blunt at both ends1 sometimes channelled along the back1 or with a sharp ridge along both margins4 ,in the ,moorpark1 and generally in the ,hemskirke1 the stone presents a singular character in being perforated1 with a bundle of fibres passing through the perforation from end to end4 ,the most constant and important character1 according to ,thompson1 is whether the kernel is bitter or sweet3 yet in this respect we have a graduated difference1 for the kernel is very bitter in ,shipley's apricot2 in the ,hemskirke less bitter than in some other kinds2 slightly bitter in the ,royal2 and sweet like a hazel-nut in the ,breda1 ,angoumois1 and others4 ,in the case of the almond1 bitterness has been thought by some high authorities to indicate specific difference4 ,in ,n4 ,america the ,roman apricot endures cold and unfavourable situations1 where no other sort1 except the ,masculine1 will succeed2 and its blossoms bear quite a severe frost without injury4 7#aj_/fh4 ,downing ',the ,fruits of ,america' #ahde page #aeg3 with respect to the ,alberge apricot in ,france see page #aec47 ,according to ,mr4 ,rivers 7#aj_/fi4 ',gardener's ,chronicle' #ahfc page #cfd471 seedling apricots deviate but little from the character of their race3 in ,france the ,alberge is constantly reproduced from seed with but little variation4 ,in ,ladakh1 according to ,moorcroft 7#aj_/gj4 ',travels in the ,himalayan ,provinces' volume #a #ahda page #bie47 ten varieties of the apricot1 very different from each other1 are cultivated1 and all are raised from seed1 excepting one1 which is budded4 ,,plums 7,prunus insititia74 7,,figure #dc4 ,,plum ,,stones1 of natural size1 viewed laterally4 #a4 ,bullace ,plum4 #b4 ,shropshire ,damson4 #c4 ,blue ,gage4 #d4 ,orleans4 #e4 ,elvas4 #f4 ,denyers ,victoria4 #g4 ,diamond47 ,formerly the sloe1 ,p4 spinosa1 was thought to be the parent of all our plums2 but now this honour is very commonly accorded to ,p4 insititia or the bullace1 which is found wild in the ,caucasus and ,n4-,western ,india1 and is naturalised in ,england4 7#aj_/ga4 ,see an excellent discussion on this subject in ,hewett ,c4 ,watson ',cybele ,britannica' volume #d page #hj47 ,it is not at all improbable1 in accordance with some observations made by ,mr4 ,rivers 7#aj_/gb4 ',gardener's ,chronicle' #ahfe page #bg471 that both these forms1 which some botanists rank as a single species1 may be the parents of our domesticated plums4 ,another supposed parent-form1 the ,p4 domestica1 is said to be found wild in the region of the ,caucasus4 ,godron remarks 7#aj_/gc4 ',de l',espece' tome #b page #id4 ,on the parentage of our plums see also ,alph4 ,de ,candolle ',geograph4 ,bot4' page #hgh4 ,also ,targioni-,tozzetti ',journal ,hort4 ,soc4' volume #i page #afd4 ,also ,babington ',manual of ,brit4 ,botany' #ahea page #hg47 that the cultivated varieties may be divided into two main groups1 which he supposes to be descended from two aboriginal stocks2 namely1 those with oblong fruit and stones pointed at both ends1 having narrow separate petals and upright branches2 and those with rounded fruit1 with stones blunt at both ends1 with rounded petals and spreading branches4 ,from what we know of the variability of the flowers in the peach and of the diversified manner of growth in our various fruit-trees1 it is difficult to lay much weight on these latter characters4 ,with respect to the shape of the fruit1 we have conclusive evidence that it is extremely variable3 ,downing 7#aj_/gd4 ',fruits of ,america' pages #bgf1 #bgh1 #bhd1 #caj1 #cad4 ,mr4 ,rivers raised 7',gardener's ,chronicle' #ahfc page #bg7 from the ,prune-peche1 which bears large1 round1 red plums on stout1 robust shoots1 a seedling which bears oval1 smaller fruit on shoots that are so slender as to be almost pendulous47 gives outlines of the plums of two seedlings1 namely1 the red and imperial gages1 raised from the greengage2 and the fruit of both is more elongated than that of the greengage4 ,the latter has a very blunt broad stone1 whereas the stone of the imperial gage is oval and pointed at both ends4 ,these trees also differ in their manner of growth3 the greengage is a very short- jointed1 slow-growing tree1 of spreading and rather dwarfish habit2 whilst its offspring1 the imperial gage1 grows freely and rises rapidly1 and has long dark shoots4 ,the famous ,washington plum bears a globular fruit1 but its offspring1 the emerald drop1 is nearly as much elongated as the most elongated plum figured by ,downing1 namely1 ,manning's prune4 ,i have made a small collection of the stones of twenty-five kinds1 and they graduate in shape from the bluntest into the sharpest kinds4 ,as characters derived from seeds are generally of high systematic importance1 ,i have thought it worth while to give drawings of the most distinct kinds in my small collection2 and they may be seen to differ in a surprising manner in size1 outline1 thickness1 prominence of the ridges1 and state of surface4 ,it deserves notice that the shape of the stone is not always strictly correlated with that of the fruit3 thus the ,washington plum is spherical and depressed at the pole1 with a somewhat elongated stone1 whilst the fruit of the ,goliath is more elongated1 but the stone less so1 than in the ,washington4 ,again1 ,denyer's ,victoria and ,goliath bear fruit closely resembling each other1 but their stones are widely different4 ,on the other hand1 the ,harvest and ,black ,margate plums are very dissimilar1 yet include closely similar stones4 ,the varieties of the plum are numerous1 and differ greatly in size1 shape1 quality1 and colour1--being bright yellow1 green1 almost white1 blue1 purple1 or red4 ,there are some curious varieties1 such as the double or ,siamese1 and the ,stoneless plum3 in the latter the kernel lies in a roomy cavity surrounded only by the pulp4 ,the climate of ,north ,america appears to be singularly favourable for the production of new and good varieties2 ,downing describes no less than forty1 of which seven of first-rate quality have been recently introduced into ,england4 7#aj_/ge4 ',gardener's ,chronicle' #ahee page #gbf47 ,varieties occasionally arise having an innate adaptation for certain soils1 almost as strongly pronounced as with natural species growing on the most distinct geological formations2 thus in ,america the imperial gage1 differently from almost all other kinds1 is peculiarly fitted for ,,dry ,,light soils where many sorts drop their fruit1 whereas on rich heavy soils the fruit is often insipid4 7#aj_/gf4 ,downing ',fruit ,trees' page #bgh47 ,my father could never succeed in making the ,wine-,sour yield even a moderate crop in a sandy orchard near ,shrewsbury1 whilst in some parts of the same county and in its native ,yorkshire it bears abundantly3 one of my relations also repeatedly tried in vain to grow this variety in a sandy district in ,staffordshire4 ,mr4 ,rivers has given 7#aj_/gg4 ',gardener's ,chronicle' #ahfc page #bg4 ,sageret in his ',pomologie ,phys4' page #cdf enumerates five kinds which can be propagated in ,france by seed3 see also ,downing ',fruit ,trees of ,america' page #cje1 #cab1 etc47 a number of interesting facts1 showing how truly many varieties can be propagated by seed4 ,he sowed the stones of twenty bushels of the greengage for the sake of raising stocks1 and closely observed the seedlings2 all had the smooth shoots1 the prominent buds1 and the glossy leaves of the greengage1 but the greater number had smaller leaves and thorns4 ,there are two kinds of damson1 one the ,shropshire with downy shoots1 and the other the ,kentish with smooth shoots1 and these differ but slightly in any other respect3 ,mr4 ,rivers sowed some bushels of the ,kentish damson1 and all the seedlings had smooth shoots1 but in some the fruit was oval1 in others round or roundish1 and in a few the fruit was small1 and1 except in being sweet1 closely resembled that of the wild sloe4 ,mr4 ,rivers gives several other striking instances of inheritance3 thus1 he raised eighty thousand seedlings from the common ,german ,quetsche plum1 and not one could be found varying in the least1 in foliage or habit4 ,similar facts were observed with the ,petite ,mirabelle plum1 yet this latter kind 7as well as the ,quetsche7 is known to have yielded some well-established varieties2 but1 as ,mr4 ,rivers remarks1 they all belong to the same group with the ,mirabelle4 ,,cherries 7,prunus cerasus1 avium1 etc474 ,botanists believe that our cultivated cherries are descended from one1 two1 four1 or even more wild stocks4 7#aj_/gh4 ,compare ,alph4 ,de ,candolle ',geograph4 ,bot4' page #hgg4 ,bentham and ,targioni-,tozzetti in ',hort4 ,journal' volume #i page #afc2 ,godron ',de l',espece' tome #b page #ib47 ,that there must be at least two parent species we may infer from the sterility of twenty hybrids raised by ,mr4 ,knight from the morello fertilised by pollen of the ,elton cherry2 for these hybrids produced in all only five cherries1 and one alone of these contained a seed4 7#aj_/gi4 ',transact4 ,hort4 ,soc4' volume #e #ahbd page #bie47 ,mr4 ,thompson 7#aj_/hj4 ,ibid second series volume #a #ahce page #bdh47 has classified the varieties in an apparently natural method in two main groups by characters taken from the flowers1 fruit1 and leaves2 but some varieties which stand widely separate in this classification are quite fertile when crossed2 thus ,knight's ,early ,black cherries are the product of a cross between two such kinds4 ,mr4 ,knight states that seedling cherries are more variable than those of any other fruit-tree4 7#aj_/ha4 7 ,in the ,catalogue of the ,horticultural ,society for #ahdb eighty varieties are enumerated4 ,some varieties present singular characters3 thus1 the flower of the ,cluster cherry includes as many as twelve pistils1 of which the majority abort2 and they are said generally to produce from two to five or six cherries aggregated together and borne on a single peduncle4 ,in the ,ratafia cherry several flower- peduncles arise from a common peduncle1 upwards of an inch in length4 ,the fruit of ,gascoigne's ,heart has its apex produced into a globule or drop2 that of the white ,hungarian ,gean has almost transparent flesh4 ,the ,flemish cherry is a very odd-looking fruit1 much flattened at the summit and base1 with the latter deeply furrowed1 and borne on a stout1 very short footstalk4 ,in the ,kentish cherry the stone adheres so firmly to the footstalk1 that it could be drawn out of the flesh2 and this renders the fruit well fitted for drying4 ,the ,tobacco-leaved cherry1 according to ,sageret and ,thompson1 produces gigantic leaves1 more than a foot and sometimes even eighteen inches in length1 and half a foot in breadth4 ,the weeping cherry1 on the other hand1 is valuable only as an ornament1 and1 according to ,downing1 is a charming little tree1 with slender1 weeping branches1 clothed with small1 almost myrtle-like foliage4 ,there is also a peach-leaved variety4 ,sageret describes a remarkable variety1 ,,le ,,griottier ,,de ,,la ,,toussaint1 which bears at the same time1 even as late as ,september1 flowers and fruit of all degrees of maturity4 ,the fruit1 which is of inferior quality1 is borne on long1 very thin footstalks4 ,but the extraordinary statement is made that all the leaf-bearing shoots spring from old flower-buds4 ,lastly1 there is an important physiological distinction between those kinds of cherries which bear fruit on young or on old wood2 but ,sageret positively asserts that a ,bigarreau in his garden bore fruit on wood of both ages4 7#aj_/hb4 ,these several statements are taken from the four following works1 which may1 ,i believe1 be trusted3 ,thompson in ',hort4 ,transact4' see above2 ,sageret ',pomologie ,phys4' #ahcj pages #ceh1 #cfd1 #cfg1 #cgi2 ',catalogue of the ,fruit in the ,garden of ,hort4 ,soc4' #ahdb pages #eg1 #fj2 ,downing ',the ,fruits of ,america' #ahde pages #ahi1 #aie1 #bjj47 ,,apple 7,pyrus malus74 ,the one source of doubt felt by botanists with respect to the parentage of the apple is whether1 besides ,p4 malus1 two or three other closely allied wild forms1 namely1 ,p4 acerba and praecox or paradisiaca1 do not deserve to be ranked as distinct species4 ,the ,p4 praecox is supposed by some authors 7#aj_/hc4 ,mr4 ,lowe states in his ',flora of ,madeira' quoted in ',gardener's ,chronicle' #ahfb page #bae that the ,p4 malus1 with its nearly sessile fruit1 ranges farther south than the long-stalked ,p4 acerba1 which is entirely absent in ,madeira1 the ,canaries1 and apparently in ,portugal4 ,this fact supports the belief that these two forms deserve to be called species4 ,but the characters separating them are of slight importance1 and of a kind known to vary in other cultivated fruit-trees47 to be the parent of the dwarf paradise stock1 which1 owing to the fibrous roots not penetrating deeply into the ground1 is so largely used for grafting2 but the paradise stocks1 it is asserted 7#aj_/hd4 ,see ',journ4 of ,hort4 ,tour1 by ,deputation of the ,caledonian ,hort4 ,soc4' #ahbc page #dei47 cannot be propagated true by seed4 ,the common wild crab varies considerably in ,england2 but many of the varieties are believed to be escaped seedlings4 7#aj_/he4 ,h4,c4 ,watson ',cybele ,britannica' volume #a page #ccd47 ,every one knows the great difference in the manner of growth1 in the foliage1 flowers1 and especially in the fruit1 between the almost innumerable varieties of the apple4 ,the pips or seeds 7as ,i know by comparison7 likewise differ considerably in shape1 size1 and colour4 ,the fruit is adapted for eating or for cooking in various ways1 and keeps for only a few weeks or for nearly two years4 ,some few kinds have the fruit covered with a powdery secretion1 called bloom1 like that on plums2 and it is extremely remarkable that this occurs almost exclusively among varieties cultivated in ,russia4 7#aj_/hf4 ,loudon's ',gardener's ,mag4' volume #f #ahcj page #hc47 ,another ,russian apple1 the white ,astracan1 possesses the singular property of becoming transparent1 when ripe1 like some sorts of crabs4 ,the ,,api ,,etoile has five prominent ridges1 hence its name2 the ,,api ,,noir is nearly black3 the ,,twin ,,cluster ,,pippin often bears fruit joined in pairs4 7#aj_/hg4 ,see ',catalogue of ,fruit in ,garden of ,hort4 ,soc4' #ahdb and ,downing ',american ,fruit ,trees4'7 ,the trees of the several sorts differ greatly in their periods of leafing and flowering2 in my orchard the ,,court ,,pendu ,,plat produces leaves so late1 that during several springs ,i thought that it was dead4 ,the ,tiffin apple scarcely bears a leaf when in full bloom2 the ,cornish crab1 on the other hand1 bears so many leaves at this period that the flowers can hardly be seen4 7#aj_/hh4 ,loudon's ,gardener's ,magazine' volume #d #ahbh page #aab47 ,in some kinds the fruit ripens in mid- summer2 in others1 late in the autumn4 ,these several differences in leafing1 flowering1 and fruiting1 are not at all necessarily correlated2 for1 as ,andrew ,knight has remarked 7#aj_/hi4 ',the ,culture of the ,apple' page #dc4 ,van ,mons makes the same remark on the pear ',arbres ,fruitiers' tome #b #ahcf page #dad471 no one can judge from the early flowering of a new seedling1 or from the early shedding or change of colour of the leaves1 whether it will mature its fruit early in the season4 ,the varieties differ greatly in constitution4 ,it is notorious that our summers are not hot enough for the ,newtown ,pippin 7#aj_/ij4 ,lindley's ',horticulture' page #aaf4 ,see also ,knight on the ,apple-,tree1 in ',transact4 of ,hort4 ,soc4' volume #f page #bbi471 which is the glory of the orchards near ,new ,york2 and so it is with several varieties which we have imported from the ,continent4 ,on the other hand1 our ,court of ,wick succeeds well under the severe climate of ,canada4 ,the ,caville rouge de ,micoud occasionally bears two crops during the same year4 ,the ,burr ,knot is covered with small excrescences1 which emit roots so readily that a branch with blossom-buds may be stuck in the ground1 and will root and bear a few fruit even during the first year4 7#aj_/ia4 ,transact4 ,hort4 ,soc4' volume #a #ahab page #abj47 ,mr4 ,rivers has recently described 7#aj_/ib4 ',journal of ,horticulture' ,march #ac1 #ahff page #aid47 some seedlings valuable from their roots running near the surface4 ,one of these seedlings was remarkable from its extremely dwarfed size1 forming itself into a bush only a few inches in height4 ,many varieties are particularly liable to canker in certain soils4 ,but perhaps the strangest constitutional peculiarity is that the ,winter ,majetin is not attacked by the mealy bug or coccus2 ,lindley 7#aj_/ic4 ',transact4 ,hort4 ,soc4' volume #d page #fh4 ,for ,knight's case see volume #f page #edg4 ,when the coccus first appeared in this country it is said 7volume #b page #afc7 that it was more injurious to crab-stocks than to the apples grafted on them4 ,the ,majetin apple has been found equally free of the coccus at ,melbourne in ,australia 7',gardener's ,chronicle' #ahga page #ajfe74 ,the wood of this tree has been there analysed1 and it is said 7but the fact seems a strange one7 that its ash contained over #ej per cent of lime1 while that of the crab exhibited not quite #bc per cent4 ,in ,tasmania ,mr4 ,wade 7',transact4 ,new ,zealand ,institute' volume #d #ahga page #dca7 raised seedlings of the ,siberian ,bitter ,sweet for stocks1 and he found barely one per cent of them attacked by the coccus4 ,riley shows 7',fifth ,report on ,insects of ,missouri' #ahgc page #hg7 that in the ,united ,states some varieties of apples are highly attractive to the coccus and others very little so4 ,turning to a very different pest1 namely1 the caterpillar of a moth 7,carpocapsa pomonella71 ,walsh affirms 7',the ,american ,entomologist' ,april #ahfi page #afj7 that the maiden-blush is entirely exempt from apple-worms4 ,so1 it is said1 are some few other varieties2 whereas others are peculiarly subject to the attacks of this little pest47 states that in an orchard in ,norfolk infested with these insects the ,majetin was quite free1 though the stock on which it was grafted was affected3 ,knight makes a similar statement with respect to a cider apple1 and adds that he only once saw these insects just above the stock1 but that three days afterwards they entirely disappeared2 this apple1 however1 was raised from a cross between the ,golden ,harvey and the ,siberian ,crab2 and the latter1 ,i believe1 is considered by some authors as specifically distinct4 ,the famous ,st4 ,valery apple must not be passed over2 the flower has a double calyx with ten divisions1 and fourteen styles surmounted by conspicuous oblique stigmas1 but is destitute of stamens or corolla4 ,the fruit is constricted round the middle1 and is formed of five seed-cells1 surmounted by nine other cells4 7#aj_/id4 ',mem4 de ,la ,soc4 ,linn4 de ,paris' tome #c #ahbe page #afd2 and ,seringe ',bulletin ,bot4' #ahcj page #aag47 ,not being provided with stamens1 the tree requires artificial fertilisation2 and the girls of ,st4 ,valery annually go to faire ses pommes1 each marking her own fruit with a ribbon2 and as different pollen is used the fruit differs1 and we here have an instance of the direct action of foreign pollen on the mother plant4 ,these monstrous apples include1 as we have seen1 fourteen seed-cells2 the pigeon-apple 7#aj_/ie4 ,gardener's ,chronicle' #ahdi page #bd47 on the other hand1 has only four1 instead of1 as with all common apples1 five cells2 and this certainly is a remarkable difference4 ,in the catalogue of apples published in #ahdb by the ,horticultural ,society1 #hig varieties are enumerated2 but the differences between most of them are of comparatively little interest1 as they are not strictly inherited4 ,no one can raise1 for instance1 from the seed of the ,ribston ,pippin1 a tree of the same kind2 and it is said that the ,sister ,ribston ,pippin was a white semi-transparent1 sour-fleshed apple1 or rather large crab4 7#aj_/if4 ,r4 ,thompson1 in ',gardener's ,chronicle' #ahej page #ghh47 ,yet it was a mistake to suppose that with most varieties the characters are not to a certain extent inherited4 ,in two lots of seedlings raised from two well-marked kinds1 many worthless crab-like seedlings will appear1 but it is now known that the two lots not only usually differ from each other1 but resemble to a certain extent their parents4 ,we see this indeed in the several sub-groups of ,russetts1 ,sweetings1 ,codlins1 ,pearmains1 ,reinettes1 etc4 7#aj_/ig4 ,sageret ',pomologie ,physiologique' #ahcj page #bfc4 ,downing ',fruit ,trees' pages #acj1 #acd1 #aci1 etc4 ,loudon's ',gardener's ,mag4' volume #h p4 #cag4 ,alexis ,jordan ',de l',origine des diverses ,varietes' in ',mem4 de l',acad4 ,imp4 de ,lyon' tome #b #aheb pages #ie1 #aad4 ',gardener's ,chronicle' #ahej pages #ggd1 #ghh471 which are all believed1 and many are known1 to be descended from other varieties bearing the same names4 ,,pears 7,pyrus communis74 ,i need say little on this fruit1 which varies much in the wild state1 and to an extraordinary degree when cultivated1 in its fruit1 flowers1 and foliage4 ,one of the most celebrated botanists in ,europe1 ,m4 ,decaisne1 has carefully studied the many varieties 7#aj_/ih4 ',comptes ,rendus' ,july #f1 #ahfc472 although he formerly believed that they were derived from more than one species1 he now thinks that all belong to one4 ,he has arrived at this conclusion from finding in the several varieties a perfect gradation between the most extreme characters2 so perfect is this gradation that he maintains it to be impossible to classify the varieties by any natural method4 ,m4 ,decaisne raised many seedlings from four distinct kinds1 and has carefully recorded the variations in each4 ,notwithstanding this extreme degree of variability1 it is now positively known that many kinds reproduce by seed the leading characters of their race4 7#aj_/ii4 ',gardener's ,chronicle' #ahef page #hjd2 #aheg page #hbj2 #ahfb page #aaie47 ,,strawberries 7,fragaria74 ,this fruit is remarkable on account of the number of species which have been cultivated1 and from their rapid improvement within the last fifty or sixty years4 ,let any one compare the fruit of one of the largest varieties exhibited at our ,shows with that of the wild wood strawberry1 or1 which will be a fairer comparison1 with the somewhat larger fruit of the wild ,american ,virginian ,strawberry1 and he will see what prodigies horticulture has effected4 7#aj_/ajj4 ,most of the largest cultivated strawberries are the descendants of ,f4 grandiflora or chiloensis1 and ,i have seen no account of these forms in their wild state4 ,methuen's ,scarlet 7,downing ',fruits' page #ebg7 has immense fruit of the largest size1 and belongs to the section descended from ,f4 virginiana2 and the fruit of this species1 as ,i hear from ,prof4 ,a4 ,gray1 is only a little larger than that of ,f4 vesca1 or our common wood-strawberry47 ,the number of varieties has likewise increased in a surprisingly rapid manner4 ,only three kinds were known in ,france1 in #agdf1 where this fruit was early cultivated4 ,in #agff five species had been introduced1 the same which are now cultivated1 but only five varieties of ,fragaria vesca1 with some sub-varieties1 had been produced4 ,at the present day the varieties of the several species are almost innumerable4 ,the species consist of1 firstly1 the wood or ,alpine cultivated strawberries1 descended from ,f4 vesca1 a native of ,europe and of ,north ,america4 ,there are eight wild ,european varieties1 as ranked by ,duchesne1 of ,f4 vesca1 but several of these are considered species by some botanists4 ,secondly1 the green strawberries1 descended from the ,european ,f4 collina1 and little cultivated in ,england4 ,thirdly1 the ,hautbois1 from the ,european ,f4 elatior4 ,fourthly1 the ,scarlets1 descended from ,f4 virginiana1 a native of the whole breadth of ,north ,america4 ,fifthly1 the ,chili1 descended from ,f4 chiloensis1 an inhabitant of the west coast of the temperate parts both of ,north and ,south ,america4 ,lastly1 the pines or ,carolinas 7including the old ,blacks71 which have been ranked by most authors under the name of ,f4 grandiflora as a distinct species1 said to inhabit ,surinam2 but this is a manifest error4 ,this form is considered by the highest authority1 ,m4 ,gay1 to be merely a strongly marked race of ,f4 chiloensis4 7#aj_/aja4 ',le ,fraisier' par le ,comte ,l4 de ,lambertye #ahfd page #ej47 ,these five or six forms have been ranked by most botanists as specifically distinct2 but this may be doubted1 for ,andrew ,knight 7#aj_/ajb4 ',transact4 ,hort4 ,soc4' volume #c #ahbj page #bjg47 who raised no less than #djj crossed strawberries1 asserts that the ,f4 virginiana1 chiloensis and grandiflora may be made to breed together indiscriminately1 and he found1 in accordance with the principle of analogous variation1 that similar varieties could be obtained from the seeds of any one of them4 ,since ,knight's time there is abundant and additional evidence 7#aj_/ajc4 ,see an account by ,prof4 ,decaisne1 and by others in ',gardener's ,chronicle' #ahfb page #cce and #aheh page #agb2 and ,mr4 ,barnet's paper in ',hort4 ,soc4 ,transact4' volume #f #ahbf page #agj47 of the extent to which the ,american forms spontaneously cross4 ,we owe indeed to such crosses most of our choicest existing varieties4 ,knight did not succeed in crossing the ,european wood-strawberry with the ,american ,scarlet or with the ,hautbois4 ,mr4 ,williams of ,pitmaston1 however1 succeeded2 but the hybrid offspring from the ,hautbois1 though fruiting well1 never produced seed1 with the exception of a single one1 which reproduced the parent hybrid form4 7#aj_/ajd4 ',transact4 ,hort4 ,soc4' volume #e #ahbd page #bid47 ,major ,r4 ,trevor ,clarke informs me that he crossed two members of the ,pine class 7,myatt's ,b4 ,queen and ,keen's ,seedling7 with the wood and hautbois1 and that in each case he raised only a single seedling2 one of these fruited1 but was almost barren4 ,mr4 ,w4 ,smith1 of ,york1 has raised similar hybrids with equally poor success4 7#aj_/aje4 ',journal of ,horticulture' ,december #cj1 #ahfb page #ggi4 ,see also ,mr4 ,prince to the same effect ibid #ahfc page #dah47 ,we thus see 7#aj_/ajf4 ,for additional evidence see ',journal of ,horticulture' ,december #i1 #ahfb page #gba47 that the ,european and ,american species can with some difficulty be crossed2 but it is improbable that hybrids sufficiently fertile to be worth cultivation will ever be thus produced4 ,this fact is surprising1 as these forms structurally are not widely distinct1 and are sometimes connected in the districts where they grow wild1 as ,i hear from ,professor ,asa ,gray1 by puzzling intermediate forms4 ,the energetic culture of the ,strawberry is of recent date1 and the cultivated varieties can in most cases be classed under some one of the above native stocks4 ,as the ,american strawberries cross so freely and spontaneously1 we can hardly doubt that they will ultimately become inextricably confused4 ,we find1 indeed1 that horticulturists at present disagree under which class to rank some few of the varieties2 and a writer in the ',bon ,jardinier' of #ahdj remarks that formerly it was possible to class all of them under some one species1 but that now this is quite impossible with the ,american forms1 the new ,english varieties having completely filled up the gaps between them4 7#aj_/ajg4 ',le ,fraisier' par le ,comte ,l4 de ,lambertye pages #bba1 #bcj47 ,the blending together of two or more aboriginal forms1 which there is every reason to believe has occurred with some of our anciently cultivated productions1 we see now actually occurring with our strawberries4 ,the cultivated species offer some variations worth notice4 ,the ,black ,prince1 a seedling from ,keen's ,imperial 7this latter being a seedling of a very white strawberry1 the white ,carolina71 is remarkable from its peculiar dark and polished surface1 and from presenting an appearance entirely unlike that of any other kind4 7#aj_/ajh4 ',transact4 ,hort4 ,soc4' volume #f page #bjj47 ,although the fruit in the different varieties differs so greatly in form1 size1 colour1 and quality1 the so-called seed 7which corresponds with the whole fruit in the plum7 with the exception of being more or less deeply embedded in the pulp1 is1 according to ,de ,jonghe 7#aj_/aji4 ',gardener's ,chronicle' #aheh page #agc47 absolutely the same in all3 and this no doubt may be accounted for by the seed being of no value1 and consequently not having been subjected to selection4 ,the strawberry is properly three-leaved1 but in #agfa ,duchesne raised a single-leaved variety of the ,european wood-strawberry1 which ,linnaeus doubtfully raised to the rank of a species4 ,seedlings of this variety1 like those of most varieties not fixed by long-continued selection1 often revert to the ordinary form1 or present intermediate states4 7#aj_/aaj4 ,godron ',de l',espece' tome #a page #afa47 ,a variety raised by ,mr4 ,myatt 7#aj_/aaa4 ',gardener's ,chronicle' #ahea page #ddj471 apparently belonging to one of the ,american forms presents a variation of an opposite nature1 for it has five leaves2 ,godron and ,lambertye also mention a five-leaved variety of ,f4 collina4 ,the ,red ,bush ,alpine strawberry 7one of the ,f4 vesca section7 does not produce stolons or runners1 and this remarkable deviation of structure is reproduced truly by seed4 ,another sub-variety1 the ,white ,bush ,alpine1 is similarly characterised1 but when propagated by seed it often degenerates and produces plants with runners4 7#aj_/aab4 ,f4 ,gloede in ',gardener's ,chronicle' #ahfb page #ajec47 ,a strawberry of the ,american ,pine section is also said to make but few runners4 7#aj_/aac4 ,downing ',fruits' page #ecb47 ,much has been written on the sexes of strawberries2 the true ,hautbois properly bears the male and female organs on separate plants 7#aj_/aad4 ,barnet in ',hort4 ,transact4' volume #f page #baj471 and was consequently named by ,duchesne dioica2 but it frequently produces hermaphrodites2 and ,lindley 7#aj_/aae4 ',gardener's ,chronicle' #ahdg page #eci471 by propagating such plants by runners1 at the same time destroying the males1 soon raised a self- prolific stock4 ,the other species often showed a tendency towards an imperfect separation of the sexes1 as ,i have noticed with plants forced in a hot-house4 ,several ,english varieties1 which in this country are free from any such tendency1 when cultivated in rich soils under the climate of ,north ,america 7#aj_/aaf4 ,for the several statements with respect to the ,american strawberries see ,downing ',fruits' page #ebd2 ',gardener's ,chronicle' #ahdc page #ahh2 #ahdg page #eci2 #ahfa page #gag47 commonly produce plants with separate sexes4 ,thus a whole acre of ,keen's ,seedlings in the ,united ,states has been observed to be almost sterile from the absence of male flowers2 but the more general rule is1 that the male plants overrun the females4 ,some members of the ,cincinnati ,horticultural ,society1 especially appointed to investigate this subject1 report that few varieties have the flowers perfect in both sexual organs1 etc4 ,the most successful cultivators in ,ohio plant for every seven rows of pistillata1 or female plants1 one row of hermaphrodites1 which afford pollen for both kinds2 but the hermaphrodites1 owing to their expenditure in the production of pollen1 bear less fruit than the female plants4 ,the varieties differ in constitution4 ,some of our best ,english kinds1 such as ,keen's ,seedlings1 are too tender for certain parts of ,north ,america1 where other ,english and many ,american varieties succeed perfectly4 ,that splendid fruit1 the ,british ,queen1 can be cultivated but in few places either in ,england or ,france3 but this apparently depends more on the nature of the soil than on the climate2 a famous gardener says that no mortal could grow the ,british ,queen at ,shrubland ,park unless the whole nature of the soil was altered4 7#aj_/aag4 ,mr4 ,d4 ,beaton in ',cottage ,gardener' #ahfj page #hf4 ,see also ',cottage ,gardener' #ahee page #hh and many other authorities4 ,for the ,continent see ,f4 ,gloede in ',gardener's ,chronicle' #ahfb page #ajec47 ,la ,constantine is one of the hardiest kinds1 and can withstand ,russian winters1 but it is easily burnt by the sun1 so that it will not succeed in certain soils either in ,england or the ,united ,states4 7#aj_/aah4 ,rev4 ,w4,f4 ,radclyffe in ',journal of ,hort4' ,march #ad1 #ahfe page #bjg47 ,the ,filbert ,pine ,strawberry requires more water than any other variety2 and if the plants once suffer from drought1 they will do little or no good afterwards4 7#aj_/aai4 ,mr4 ,h4 ,doubleday in ',gardener's ,chronicle' #ahfb page #aaja47 ,cuthill's ,black ,prince ,strawberry evinces a singular tendency to mildew2 no less than six cases have been recorded of this variety suffering severely1 whilst other varieties growing close by1 and treated in exactly the same manner1 were not at all infested by this fungus4 7#aj_/abj4 ',gardener's ,chronicle' #ahed page #bed47 ,the time of maturity differs much in the different varieties3 some belonging to the wood or alpine section produce a succession of crops throughout the summer4 ,,gooseberry 7,ribes grossularia74 ,no one1 ,i believe1 has hitherto doubted that all the cultivated kinds are sprung from the wild plant bearing this name1 which is common in ,central and ,northern ,europe2 therefore it will be desirable briefly to specify all the points1 though not very important1 which have varied4 ,if it be admitted that these differences are due to culture1 authors perhaps will not be so ready to assume the existence of a large number of unknown wild parent- stocks for our other cultivated plants4 ,the gooseberry is not alluded to by writers of the classical period4 ,turner mentions it in #aegc1 and ,parkinson specifies eight varieties in #afbi2 the ,catalogue of the ,horticultural ,society for #ahdb gives #adi varieties1 and the lists of the ,lancashire nurserymen are said to include above #cjj names4 7#aj_/aba4 ,loudon's ',encyclop4 of ,gardening' page #icj2 and ,alph4 ,de ,candolle ',geograph4 ,bot4' page #iaj47 ,in the ',gooseberry ,grower's ,register' for #ahfb ,i find that #bdc distinct varieties have won prizes at various periods1 so that a vast number must have been exhibited4 ,no doubt the difference between many of the varieties is very small2 but ,mr4 ,thompson in classifying the fruit for the ,horticultural ,society found less confusion in the nomenclature of the gooseberry than of any other fruit1 and he attributes this to the great interest which the prize-growers have taken in detecting sorts with wrong names1 and this shows that all the kinds1 numerous as they are1 can be recognised with certainty4 ,the bushes differ in their manner of growth1 being erect1 or spreading1 or pendulous4 ,the periods of leafing and flowering differ both absolutely and relatively to each other2 thus the ,whitesmith produces early flowers1 which from not being protected by the foliage1 as it is believed1 continually fail to produce fruit4 7#aj_/abb4 ,loudon's ',gardener's ,magazine' volume #d #ahbh page #aab47 ,the leaves vary in size1 tint1 and in depth of lobes2 they are smooth1 downy1 or hairy on the upper surface4 ,the branches are more or less downy or spinose2 the ,hedgehog has probably derived its name from the singular bristly condition of its shoots and fruit4 ,the branches of the wild gooseberry1 ,i may remark1 are smooth1 with the exception of thorns at the bases of the buds4 ,the thorns themselves are either very small1 few and single1 or very large and triple2 they are sometimes reflexed and much dilated at their bases4 ,in the different varieties the fruit varies in abundance1 in the period of maturity1 in hanging until shrivelled1 and greatly in size1 some sorts having their fruit large during a very early period of growth1 whilst others are small1 until nearly ripe4 ,the fruit varies also much in colour1 being red1 yellow1 green1 and white--the pulp of one dark-red gooseberry being tinged with yellow2 in flavour2 in being smooth or downy1--few1 however1 of the ,red gooseberries1 whilst many of the so-called ,whites1 are downy2 or in being so spinose that one kind is called ,henderson's ,porcupine4 ,two kinds acquire when mature a powdery bloom on their fruit4 ,the fruit varies in the thickness and veining of the skin1 and1 lastly1 in shape1 being spherical1 oblong1 oval1 or obovate4 7#aj_/abc4 ,the fullest account of the gooseberry is given by ,mr4 ,thompson in ',transact4 ,hort4 ,soc4' volume #a #bnd series #ahce page #bah from which most of the foregoing facts are taken47 ,i cultivated fifty-four varieties1 and1 considering how greatly the fruit differs1 it was curious how closely similar the flowers were in all these kinds4 ,in only a few ,i detected a trace of difference in the size or colour of the corolla4 ,the calyx differed in a rather greater degree1 for in some kinds it was much redder than in others2 and in one smooth white gooseberry it was unusually red4 ,the calyx also differed in the basal part being smooth or woolly1 or covered with glandular hairs4 ,it deserves notice1 as being contrary to what might have been expected from the law of correlation1 that a smooth red gooseberry had a remarkably hairy calyx4 ,the flowers of the ,sportsman are furnished with very large coloured bracteae2 and this is the most singular deviation of structure which ,i have observed4 ,these same flowers also varied much in the number of the petals1 and occasionally in the number of the stamens and pistils2 so that they were semi-monstrous in structure1 yet they produced plenty of fruit4 ,mr4 ,thompson remarks that in the ,pastime gooseberry extra bracts are often attached to the sides of the fruit4 7#aj_/abd4 ',catalogue of ,fruits of ,hort4 ,soc4 ,garden' #crd edition #ahdb47 ,the most interesting point in the history of the gooseberry is the steady increase in the size of the fruit4 ,manchester is the metropolis of the fanciers1 and prizes from five shillings to five or ten pounds are yearly given for the heaviest fruit4 ,the ',gooseberry ,growers ,register' is published annually2 the earliest known copy is dated #aghf1 but it is certain that meetings for the adjudication of prizes were held some years previously4 7#aj_/abe4 ,mr4 ,clarkson of ,manchester on the ,culture of the ,gooseberry in ,loudon's ',gardener's ,magazine' volume #d #ahbh page #dhb47 ,the ',register' for #ahde gives an account of #aga ,gooseberry ,shows1 held in different places during that year2 and this fact shows on how large a scale the culture has been carried on4 ,the fruit of the wild gooseberry is said 7#aj_/abf4 ,downing ',fruits of ,america' page #bac47 to weigh about a quarter of an ounce or #e dwts41 that is1 #abj grains2 about the year #aghf gooseberries were exhibited weighing #aj dwts41 so that the weight was then doubled2 in #ahag #bf dwts4 #ag grs4 was attained2 there was no advance till #ahbe1 when #ca dwts4 #af grs4 was reached2 in #ahcj ,teazer weighed #cb dwts4 #ac grs42 in #ahda ,wonderful weighed #cb dwts4 #af grs42 in #ahdd ,london weighed #ce dwts4 #ab grs41 and in the following year #cf dwts4 #af grs42 and in #aheb in ,staffordshire1 the fruit of the same variety reached the astonishing weight of #cg dwts4 #g grs4 7#aj_/abg4 ',gardener's ,chronicle' #ahdd page #haa where a table is given2 and #ahde page #hai4 ,for the extreme weights gained see ',journal of ,horticulture' ,july #bf1 #ahfd page #fa47 or #hif grs42 that is1 between seven or eight times the weight of the wild fruit4 ,i find that a small apple1 #f #a_/b inches in circumference1 has exactly this same weight4 ,the ,london gooseberry 7which in #aheb had altogether gained #ccc prizes7 has1 up to the present year of #ahge1 never reached a greater weight than that attained in #aheb4 ,perhaps the fruit of the gooseberry has now reached the greatest possible weight1 unless in the course of time some new and distinct variety shall arise4 ,this gradual1 and on the whole steady increase of weight from the latter part of the last century to the year #aheb1 is probably in large part due to improved methods of cultivation1 for extreme care is now taken2 the branches and roots are trained1 composts are made1 the soil is mulched1 and only a few berries are left on each bush 7#aj_/abh4 ,mr4 ,saul of ,lancaster in ,loudon's ',gardener's ,mag4' volume #c #ahbh page #dba2 and volume #aj #ahcd page #db47 but the increase no doubt is in main part due to the continued selection of seedlings which have been found to be more and more capable of yielding such extraordinary fruit4 ,assuredly the ,highwayman in #ahag could not have produced fruit like that of the ,roaring ,lion in #ahbe2 nor could the ,roaring ,lion1 though it was grown by many persons in many places1 gain the supreme triumph achieved in #aheb by the ,london ,gooseberry4 ,,walnut 7,juglans regia74 ,this tree and the common nut belong to a widely different order from the foregoing fruits1 and are therefore here noticed4 ,the walnut grows wild on the ,caucasus and in the ,himalaya1 where ,dr4 ,hooker 7#aj_/abi4 ',himalayan ,journals' #ahed volume #b page #ccd4 ,moorcroft ',travels' volume #b page #adf describes four varieties cultivated in ,kashmir47 found the fruit of full size1 but as hard as a hickory-nut4 ,it has been found fossil1 as ,m4 de ,saporta informs me1 in the tertiary formation1 of ,france4 ,in ,england the walnut presents considerable differences1 in the shape and size of the fruit1 in the thickness of the husk1 and in the thinness of the shell2 this latter quality has given rise to a variety called the thin- shelled1 which is valuable1 but suffers from the attacks of titmice4 7#aj_/acj4 ',gardener's ,chronicle' #ahej page #gbc47 ,the degree to which the kernel fills the shell varies much4 ,in ,france there is a variety called the ,grape or cluster-walnut1 in which the nuts grow in bunches of ten1 fifteen1 or even twenty together4 ,there is another variety which bears on the same tree differently shaped leaves1 like the heterophyllous hornbeam2 this tree is also remarkable from having pendulous branches1 and bearing elongated1 large1 thin-shelled nuts4 7#aj_/aca4 ,paper translated in ,loudon's ',gardener's ,mag4' #ahbi volume #e page #bjb47 ,m4 ,cardan has minutely described 7#aj_/acb4 ,quoted in ',gardener's ,chronicle' #ahdi page #aja47 some singular physiological peculiarities in the ,june-leafing variety1 which produces its leaves and flowers four or five weeks later than the common varieties2 and although in ,august it is apparently in exactly the same state of forwardness as the other kinds1 it retains its leaves and fruit much later in the autumn4 ,these constitutional peculiarities are strictly inherited4 ,lastly1 walnut-trees1 which are properly monoicous1 sometimes entirely fail to produce male flowers4 7#aj_/acc4 ',gardener's ,chronicle' #ahdg pages #eda and #eeh47 ,,nuts 7,corylus avellana74 ,most botanists rank all the varieties under the same species1 the common wild nut4 7#aj_/acd4 ,the following details are taken from the ',catalogue of ,fruits1 #ahdb in ,garden of ,hort4 ,soc4' page #ajc2 and from ,loudon's ',encyclop4 of ,gardening' page #idc47 ,the husk1 or involucre1 differs greatly1 being extremely short in ,barr's ,spanish1 and extremely long in filberts1 in which it is contracted so as to prevent the nut falling out4 ,this kind of husk also protects the nut from birds1 for titmice 7,parus7 have been observed 7#aj_/ace4 ',gardener's ,chron4' #ahfj page #ief47 to pass over filberts1 and attack cobs and common nuts growing in the same orchard4 ,in the purple-filbert the husk is purple1 and in the frizzled-filbert it is curiously laciniated2 in the red-filbert the pellicle of the kernel is red4 ,the shell is thick in some varieties1 but is thin in ,cosford's-nut1 and in one variety is of a bluish colour4 ,the nut itself differs much in size and shape1 being ovate and compressed in filberts1 nearly round and of great size in cobs and ,spanish nuts1 oblong and longitudinally striated in ,cosford's1 and obtusely four-sided in the ,downton ,square nut4 ,,cucurbitaceous ,,plants4 ,these plants have been for a long period the opprobrium of botanists2 numerous varieties have been ranked as species1 and1 what happens more rarely1 forms which now must be considered as species have been classed as varieties4 ,owing to the admirable experimental researches of a distinguished botanist1 ,m4 ,naudin 7#aj_/acf4 ',annales des ,sc4 ,nat4 ,bot4' #dth series volume #f #ahef page #e471 a flood of light has recently been thrown on this group of plants4 ,m4 ,naudin1 during many years1 observed and experimented on above #abjj living specimens1 collected from all quarters of the world4 ,six species are now recognised in the genus ,cucurbita2 but three alone have been cultivated and concern us1 namely1 ,c4 maxima and pepo1 which include all pumpkins1 gourds1 squashes1 and the vegetable marrow1 and ,c4 moschata4 ,these three species are not known in a wild state2 but ,asa ,gray 7#aj_/acg4 ',american ,journ4 of ,science' #bnd series volume #bd #aheg page #ddb47 gives good reason for believing that some pumpkins are natives of ,n4 ,america4 ,these three species are closely allied1 and have the same general habit1 but their innumerable varieties can always be distinguished1 according to ,naudin1 by certain almost fixed characters2 and what is still more important1 when crossed they yield no seed1 or only sterile seed2 whilst the varieties spontaneously intercross with the utmost freedom4 ,naudin insists strongly 7page #ae71 that1 though these three species have varied greatly in many characters1 yet it has been in so closely an analogous manner that the varieties can he arranged in almost parallel series1 as we have seen with the forms of wheat1 with the two main races of the peach1 and in other cases4 ,though some of the varieties are inconstant in character1 yet others1 when grown separately under uniform conditions of life1 are1 as ,naudin repeatedly 7pages #f1 #af1 #ce7 urges1 douees d'une stabilite presque comparable a celle des especes les mieux caracterisees4 ,one variety1 l',orangin 7pages #dc1 #fc71 has such prepotency in transmitting its character1 that when crossed with other varieties a vast majority of the seedlings come true4 ,naudin1 referring 7page #dg7 to ,c4 pepo1 says that its races ne different des especes veritables qu'en ce qu'elles peuvent s'allier les unes aux autres par voie d'hybridite1 sans que leur descendance perde la faculte de se perpetuer4 ,if we were to trust to external differences alone1 and give up the test of sterility1 a multitude of species would have to be formed out of the varieties of these three species of ,cucurbita4 ,many naturalists at the present day lay far too little stress1 in my opinion1 on the test of sterility2 yet it is not improbable that distinct species of plants after a long course of cultivation and variation may have their mutual sterility eliminated1 as we have every reason to believe has occurred with domesticated animals4 ,nor1 in the case of plants under cultivation1 should we be justified in assuming that varieties never acquire a slight degree of mutual sterility1 as we shall more fully see in a future chapter when certain facts are given on the high authority of ,gartner and ,kolreuter4 7#aj_/ach4 ,gartner ',bastarderzeugung' #ahdi s4 #hg and s4 #afi with respect to ,maize2 on ,verbascum ibid s4 #ib and #aha2 also his ',kenntniss der ,befruchtung' s4 #acg4 ,with respect to ,nicotiana see ,kolreuter ',zweite ,forts4' #agfd s4 #ec2 though this is a somewhat different case47 ,the forms of ,c4 pepo are classed by ,naudin under seven sections1 each including subordinate varieties4 ,he considers this plant as probably the most variable in the world4 ,the fruit of one variety 7pages #cc1 #df7 exceeds in value that of another by more than two thousand fold6 ,when the fruit is of very large size1 the number produced is few 7page #de72 when of small size1 many are produced4 ,no less astonishing 7page #cc7 is the variation in the shape of the fruit1 the typical form apparently is egg-like1 but this becomes either drawn out into a cylinder1 or shortened into a flat disc4 ,we have also an almost infinite diversity in the colour and state of surface of the fruit1 in the hardness both of the shell and of the flesh1 and in the taste of the flesh1 which is either extremely sweet1 farinaceous1 or slightly bitter4 ,the seeds also differ in a slight degree in shape1 and wonderfully in size 7page #cd71 namely1 from six or seven to more than twenty-five millimetres in length4 ,in the varieties which grow upright or do not run and climb1 the tendrils1 though useless 7page #ca71 are either present or are represented by various semi-monstrous organs1 or are quite absent4 ,the tendrils are even absent in some running varieties in which the stems are much elongated4 ,it is a singular fact that 7page #ca7 in all the varieties with dwarfed stems1 the leaves closely resemble each other in shape4 ,those naturalists who believe in the immutability of species often maintain that1 even in the most variable forms1 the characters which they consider of specific value are unchangeable4 ,to give an example from a conscientious writer 7#aj_/aci4 ,godron ',de l',espece' tome #b page #fd47 who1 relying on the labours of ,m4 ,naudin1 and referring to the species of ,cucurbita1 says1 au milieu de toutes les variations du fruit1 les tiges1 les feuilles1 les calices1 les corolles1 les etamines restent invariables dans chacune d'elles4 ,yet ,m4 ,naudin1 in describing ,cucurbita pepo 7page #cj71 says1 ,ici1 d'ailleurs1 ce ne sont pas seulement les fruits qui varient1 c'est aussi le feuillage et tout le port de la plante4 ,neanmoins1 je crois qu'on la distinguera toujours facilement des deux autres especes1 si l'on veut ne pas perdre de vue les caracteres differentiels que je m'efforce de faire ressortir4 ,ces caracteres sont quelquefois peu marques3 il arrive meme que plusieurs d'entre eux s'effacent presque entierement1 mais ii en reste toujours quelques-uns qui remettent l'observateur sur la voie4 ,now let it be noted what a difference1 with regard to the immutability of the so- called specific characters this paragraph produces on the mind1 from that above quoted from ,m4 ,godron4 ,i will add another remark3 naturalists continually assert that no important organ varies2 but in saying this they unconsciously argue in a vicious circle2 for if an organ1 let it be what it may1 is highly variable1 it is regarded as unimportant1 and under a systematic point of view this is quite correct4 ,but as long as constancy is thus taken as the criterion of importance1 it will indeed be long before an important organ can be shown to be inconstant4 ,the enlarged form of the stigmas1 and their sessile position on the summit of the ovary1 must be considered as important characters1 and were used by ,gasparini to separate certain pumpkins as a ,,distinct ,,genus2 but ,naudin says 7page #bj71 these parts have no constancy1 and in the flowers of the ,turban varieties of ,c4 maxima they sometimes resume their ordinary structure4 ,again1 in ,c4 maxima1 the carpels 7page #ai7 which form the turban project even as much as two-thirds of their length out of the receptacle1 and this latter part is thus reduced to a sort of platform2 but this remarkable structure occurs only in certain varieties1 and graduates into the common form in which the carpels are almost entirely enveloped within the receptacle4 ,in ,c4 moschata the ovarium 7page #ej7 varies greatly in shape1 being oval1 nearly spherical1 or cylindrical1 more or less swollen in the upper part1 or constricted round the middle1 and either straight or curved4 ,when the ovarium is short and oval the interior structure does not differ from that of ,c4 maxima and pepo1 but when it is elongated the carpels occupy only the terminal and swollen portion4 ,i may add that in one variety of the cucumber 7,cucumis sativus7 the fruit regularly contains five carpels instead of three4 7#aj_/adj4 ,naudin ',annal4 des ,sc4 ,nat4' #dth series ,bot4 tome #aa #ahei page #bh47 ,i presume that it will not be disputed that we here have instances of great variability in organs of the highest physiological importance1 and with most plants of the highest classificatory importance4 ,sageret 7#aj_/ada4 ',memoire sur les ,cucurbitacees' #ahbf pages #f1 #bd47 and ,naudin found that the cucumber 7,c4 sativus7 could not be crossed with any other species of the genus2 therefore no doubt it is specifically distinct from the melon4 ,this will appear to most persons a superfluous statement2 yet we hear from ,naudin 7#aj_/adb4 ',flore des ,serres' ,october #ahfa quoted in ',gardener's ,chronicle' #ahfa page #aace4 ,i have often consulted and taken some facts from ,m4 ,naudin's ,memoir on ,cucumis in ',annal4 des ,sc4 ,nat4' #dth series ,bot4 tome #aa #ahei page #e47 that there is a race of melons1 in which the fruit is so like that of the cucumber1 both externally and internally1 that it is hardly possible to distinguish the one from the other except by the leaves4 ,the varieties of the melon seem to be endless1 for ,naudin after six years' study had not come to the end of them3 he divides them into ten sections1 including numerous sub-varieties which all intercross with perfect ease4 7#aj_/adc4 ,see also ,sageret ',memoire' page #g47 ,of the forms considered by ,naudin to be varieties1 botanists have made thirty distinct species6 and they had not the slightest acquaintance with the multitude of new forms which have appeared since their time4 ,nor is the creation of so many species at all surprising when we consider how strictly their characters are transmitted by seed1 and how wonderfully they differ in appearance3 ,mira est quidem foliorum et habitus diversitas1 sed multo magis fructuum1 says ,naudin4 ,the fruit is the valuable part1 and this1 in accordance with the common rule1 is the most modified part4 ,some melons are only as large as small plums1 others weigh as much as sixty-six pounds4 ,one variety has a scarlet fruit6 ,another is not more than an inch in diameter1 but sometimes more than a yard in length1 twisting about in all directions like a serpent4 ,it is a singular fact that in this latter variety many parts of the plant1 namely1 the stems1 the footstalks of the female flowers1 the middle lobe of the leaves1 and especially the ovarium1 as well as the mature fruit1 all show a strong tendency to become elongated4 ,several varieties of the melon are interesting from assuming the characteristic features of distinct species and even of distinct though allied genera3 thus the serpent-melon has some resemblance to the fruit of ,trichosanthes anguina2 we have seen that other varieties closely resemble cucumbers2 some ,egyptian varieties have their seeds attached to a portion of the pulp1 and this is characteristic of certain wild forms4 ,lastly1 a variety of melon from ,algiers is remarkable from announcing its maturity by a spontaneous and almost sudden dislocation1 when deep cracks suddenly appear1 and the fruit falls to pieces2 and this occurs with the wild ,c4 momordica4 ,finally1 ,m4 ,naudin well remarks that this extraordinary production of races and varieties by a single species and their permanence when not interfered with by crossing1 are phenomena well calculated to cause reflection4 ,,useful ,,and ,,ornamental ,,trees4 ,trees deserve a passing notice on account of the numerous varieties which they present1 differing in their precocity1 in their manner of growth1 their foliage1 and bark4 ,thus of the common ash 7,fraxinus excelsior7 the catalogue of ,messrs4 ,lawson of ,edinburgh includes twenty-one varieties1 some of which differ much in their bark2 there is a yellow1 a streaked reddish-white1 a purple1 a wart-barked and a fungous-barked variety4 7#aj_/add4 ,loudon's ',arboretum et ,fruticetum' volume #b page #abag47 ,of hollies no less than eighty-four varieties are grown alongside each other in ,mr4 ,paul's nursery4 7#aj_/ade4 ',gardener's ,chronicle' #ahff page #ajif47 ,in the case of trees1 all the recorded varieties1 as far as ,i can find out1 have been suddenly produced by one single act of variation4 ,the length of time required to raise many generations1 and the little value set on the fanciful varieties1 explains how it is that successive modifications have not been accumulated by selection2 hence1 also1 it follows that we do not here meet with sub-varieties subordinate to varieties1 and these again subordinate to higher groups4 ,on the ,continent1 however1 where the forests are more carefully attended to than in ,england1 ,alph4 ,de ,candolle 7#aj_/adf4 ',geograph4 ,bot4' page #ajif47 says that there is not a forester who does not search for seeds from that variety which he esteems the most valuable4 ,our useful trees have seldom been exposed to any great change of conditions2 they have not been richly manured1 and the ,english kinds grow under their proper climate4 ,yet in examining extensive beds of seedlings in nursery-gardens considerable differences may be generally observed in them2 and whilst touring in ,england ,i have been surprised at the amount of difference in the appearance of the same species in our hedgerows and woods4 ,but as plants vary so much in a truly wild state1 it would be difficult for even a skilful botanist to pronounce whether1 as ,i believe to be the case1 hedgerow trees vary more than those growing in a primeval forest4 ,trees when planted by man in woods or hedges do not grow where they would naturally be able to hold their place against a host of competitors1 and are therefore exposed to conditions not strictly natural3 even this slight change would probably suffice to cause seedlings raised from such trees to be variable4 ,whether or not our half-wild ,english trees1 as a general rule1 are more variable than trees growing in their native forests1 there can hardly be a doubt that they have yielded a greater number of strongly-marked and singular variations of structure4 ,in manner of growth1 we have weeping or pendulous varieties of the willow1 ash1 elm1 oak1 and yew1 and other trees2 and this weeping habit is sometimes inherited1 though in a singularly capricious manner4 ,in the ,lombardy poplar1 and in certain fastigiate or pyramidal varieties of thorns1 junipers1 oaks1 etc41 we have an opposite kind of growth4 ,the ,hessian oak 7#aj_/adg4 ',gardener's ,chronicle' #ahdb page #cf471 which is famous from its fastigiate habit and size1 bears hardly any resemblance in general appearance to a common oak2 its acorns are not sure to produce plants of the same habit2 some1 however1 turn out the same as the parent-tree4 ,another fastigiate oak is said to have been found wild in the ,pyrenees1 and this is a surprising circumstance2 it generally comes so true by seed1 that ,de ,candolle considered it as specifically distinct4 7#aj_/adh4 ,loudon's ',arboretum et ,fruticetum' volume #c page #agca47 ,the fastigiate ,juniper 7,j4 suecica7 likewise transmits its character by seed4 7#aj_/adi4 ,ibid volume #d page #bdhi47 ,dr4 ,falconer informs me that in the ,botanic ,gardens at ,calcutta the great heat caused apple-trees to become fastigiate2 and we thus see the same result following from the effects of climate and from some unknown cause4 7#aj_/aej4 ,godron ',de l',espece' tome #b page #ia describes four varieties of ,robinia remarkable from their manner of growth47 ,in foliage we have variegated leaves which are often inherited2 dark purple or red leaves1 as in the hazel1 barberry1 and beech1 the colour in these two latter trees being sometimes strongly and sometimes weakly inherited 7#aj_/aea4 ',journal of a ,horticultural ,tour1 by ,caledonian ,hort4 ,soc4' #ahbc page #ajg4 ,alph4 ,de ,candolle ',geograph4 ,bot4' page #ajhc4 ,verlot ',sur ,la ,production des ,varietes' #ahfe page #ee for the ,barberry472 deeply-cut leaves2 and leaves covered with prickles1 as in the variety of the holly well called ferox1 which is said to reproduce itself by seed4 7#aj_/aeb4 ,loudon's ',arboretum et ,fruticetum' volume #b page #ejh47 ,in fact1 nearly all the peculiar varieties evince a tendency1 more or less strongly marked1 to reproduce themselves by seed4 7#aj_/aec4 ,verlot ',des ,varietes' #ahfe page #ib47 ,this is to a certain extent the case1 according to ,bosc 7#aj_/aed4 ,loudon's ',arboretum et ,fruticetum' volume #c page #acgf471 with three varieties of the elm1 namely1 the broad-leafed1 lime-leafed1 and twisted elm1 in which latter the fibres of the wood are twisted4 ,even with the heterophyllous hornbeam 7,carpinus betulus71 which bears on each twig leaves of two shapes1 several plants raised from seed all retained the same peculiarity4 7#aj_/aee4 ',gardener's ,chronicle' #ahda page #fhg47 ,i will add only one other remarkable case of variation in foliage1 namely1 the occurrence of two sub- varieties of the ash with simple instead of pinnated leaves1 and which generally transmit their character by seed4 7#aj_/aef4 ,godron ',de l',espece' tome #b page #hi4 ,in ,loudon's ',gardener's ,mag4' volume #ab #ahcf page #cga1 a variegated bushy ash is described and figured1 as having simple leaves2 it originated in ,ireland47 ,the occurrence1 in trees belonging to widely different orders1 of weeping and fastigiate varieties1 and of trees bearing deeply cut1 variegated1 and purple leaves1 shows that these deviations of structure must result from some very general physiological laws4 ,differences in general appearance and foliage1 not more strongly marked than those above indicated1 have led good observers to rank as distinct species certain forms which are now known to be mere varieties4 ,thus1 a plane-tree long cultivated in ,england was considered by almost every one as a ,north ,american species3 but is now ascertained by old records1 as ,i am informed by ,dr4 ,hooker1 to be a variety4 ,so1 again1 the ,thuja pendula or filiformis was ranked by such good observers as ,lambert1 ,wallich1 and others1 as a true species2 but it is now known that the original plants1 five in number1 suddenly appeared in a bed of seedlings1 raised at ,mr4 ,loddige's nursery1 from ,t4 orientalis2 and ,dr4 ,hooker has adduced excellent evidence that at ,turin seeds of ,t4 pendula have reproduced the parent form1 ,t4 orientalis4 7#aj_/aeg4 ',gardener's ,chronicle' #ahfc page #ege47 ,every one must have noticed how certain individual trees regularly put forth and shed their leaves earlier or later than others of the same species4 ,there is a famous horse-chestnut in the ,tuileries which is named from leafing so much earlier than the others4 ,there is also an oak near ,edinburgh which retains its leaves to a very late period4 ,these differences have been attributed by some authors to the nature of the soil in which the trees grow2 but ,archbishop ,whately grafted an early thorn on a late one1 and vice versa1 and both grafts kept to their proper periods1 which differed by about a fortnight1 as if they still grew on their own stocks4 7#aj_/aeh4 ,quoted from ,royal ,irish ,academy in ',gardener's ,chronicle' #ahda page #gfg47 ,there is a ,cornish variety of the elm which is almost an evergreen1 and is so tender that the shoots are often killed by the frost2 and the varieties of the ,turkish oak 7,q4 cerris7 may be arranged as deciduous1 sub-evergreen1 and evergreen4 7#aj_/aei4 ,loudon ',arboretum et ,fruticetum3' for ,elm see volume #c page #acgf2 for ,oak page #ahdf47 ,,scotch ,,fir 7,pinus sylvestris74 ,i allude to this tree as it bears on the question of the greater variability of our hedgerow trees compared with those under strictly natural conditions4 ,a well-informed writer 7#aj_/afj4 ',gardener's ,chronicle' #ahdi81 page #hbb47 states that the ,scotch fir presents few varieties in its native ,scotch forests2 but that it varies much in figure and foliage1 and in the size1 shape1 and colour of its cones1 when several generations have been produced away from its native locality4 ,there is little doubt that the highland and lowland varieties differ in the value of their timber1 and that they can be propagated truly by seed2 thus justifying ,loudon's remark1 that a variety is often of as much importance as a species1 and sometimes far more so4 7#aj_/afa4 ',arboretum et ,fruticetum' volume #d page #baej47 ,i may mention one rather important point in which this tree occasionally varies2 in the classification of the ,coniferae1 sections are founded on whether two1 three1 or five leaves are included in the same sheath2 the ,scotch fir has properly only two leaves thus enclosed1 but specimens have been observed with groups of three leaves in a sheath4 7#aj_/afb4 ',gardener's ,chronicle' #aheb page #fic47 ,besides these differences in the semi-cultivated ,scotch fir1 there are in several parts of ,europe natural or geographical races1 which have been ranked by some authors as distinct species4 7#aj_/afc4 ,see ',beitrage zur ,kenntniss ,europaischer ,pinus-arten von ,dr4 ,christ3 ,flora1 #ahfd4' ,he shows that in the ,ober-,engadin ,p4 sylvestris and montana are connected by intermediate links47 ,loudon 7#aj_/afd4 ',arboretum et ,fruticetum' volume #d pages #baei and #bahi47 considers ,p4 pumilio1 with its several sub- varieties1 as mughus1 nana1 etc41 which differ much when planted in different soils1 and only come tolerably true from seed1 as alpine varieties of the ,scotch fir2 if this were proved to be the case1 it would be an interesting fact as showing that dwarfing from long exposure to a severe climate is to a certain extent inherited4 ,,the ,,hawthorn 7,crataegus oxyacantha74 ,the ,hawthorn has varied much4 ,besides endless slighter variations in the form of the leaves1 and in the size1 hardness1 fleshiness1 and shape of the berries1 ,loudon 7#aj_/afe4 ,ibid volume #b page #hcj2 ,loudon's ',gardener's ,mag4' volume #f #ahcj page #gad47 enumerates twenty-nine well-marked varieties4 ,besides those cultivated for their pretty flowers1 there are others with golden-yellow1 black1 and whitish berries2 others with woolly berries1 and others with re-curved thorns4 ,loudon truly remarks that the chief reason why the hawthorn has yielded more varieties than most other trees1 is that nurserymen select any remarkable variety out of the immense beds of seedlings which are annually raised for making hedges4 ,the flowers of the hawthorn usually include from one to three pistils2 but in two varieties1 named monogyna and sibirica1 there is only a single pistil2 and d',asso states that the common thorn in ,spain is constantly in this state4 7#aj_/aff4 ,loudon's ',arboretum et ,fruticetum' volume #b page #hcd47 ,there is also a variety which is apetalous1 or has its petals reduced to mere rudiments4 ,the famous ,glastonbury thorn flowers and leafs towards the end of ,december1 at which time it bears berries produced from an earlier crop of flowers4 7#aj_/afg4 ,loudon's ',gardener's ,mag4' volume #i #ahcc page #abc47 ,it is worth notice that several varieties of the hawthorn1 as well as of the lime and juniper1 are very distinct in their foliage and habit whilst young1 but in the course of thirty or forty years become extremely like each other 7#aj_/afh4 ,ibid volume #aa #ahce page #ejc47 thus reminding us of the well-known fact that the deodar1 the cedar of ,lebanon1 and that of the ,atlas1 are distinguished with the greatest ease whilst young1 but with difficulty when old4 ,,flowers4 ,i shall not for several reasons treat the variability of plants which are cultivated for their flowers alone at any great length4 ,many of our favourite kinds in their present state are the descendants of two or more species crossed and commingled together1 and this circumstance alone would render it difficult to detect the difference due to variation4 ,for instance1 our ,roses1 ,petunias1 ,calceolarias1 ,fuchsias1 ,verbenas1 ,gladioli1 ,pelargoniums1 etc41 certainly have had a multiple origin4 ,a botanist well acquainted with the parent-forms would probably detect some curious structural differences in their crossed and cultivated descendant2 and he would certainly observe many new and remarkable constitutional peculiarities4 ,i will give a few instances1 all relating to the ,pelargonium1 and taken chiefly from ,mr4 ,beck 7#aj_/afi4 ',gardener's ,chronicle' #ahde page #fbc47 a famous cultivator of this plant3 some varieties require more water than others2 some are very impatient of the knife if too greedily used in making cuttings2 some1 when potted1 scarcely show a root at the outside of the ball of the earth2 one variety requires a certain amount of confinement in the pot to make it throw up a flower- stem2 some varieties bloom well at the commencement of the season1 others at the close2 one variety is known 7#aj_/agj4 ,d4 ,beaton in ',cottage ,gardener' #ahfj page #cgg4 ,see also ,mr4 ,beck on the habits of ,queen ,mab in ',gardener's ,chronicle' #ahde page #bbf471 which will stand even pine-apple top and bottom heat1 without looking any more drawn than if it had stood in a common greenhouse2 and ,blanche ,fleur seems as if made on purpose for growing in winter1 like many bulbs1 and to rest all summer4 ,these odd constitutional peculiarities would enable a plant in a state of nature to become adapted to widely different circumstances and climates4 ,flowers possess little interest under our present point of view1 because they have been almost exclusively attended to and selected for their beautiful colour1 size1 perfect outline1 and manner of growth4 ,in these particulars hardly one long-cultivated flower can be named which has not varied greatly4 ,what does a florist care for the shape and structure of the organs of fructification1 unless1 indeed1 they add to the beauty of the flower8 ,when this is the case1 flowers become modified in important points2 stamens and pistils may be converted into petals1 and additional petals may be developed1 as in all double flowers4 ,the process of gradual selection by which flowers have been rendered more and more double1 each step in the process of conversion being inherited1 has been recorded in several instances4 ,in the so-called double flowers of the ,compositae1 the corollas of the central florets are greatly modified1 and the modifications are likewise inherited4 ,in the columbine 7,aquilegia vulgaris7 some of the stamens are converted into petals having the shape of nectaries1 one neatly fitting into the other2 but in one variety they are converted into simple petals4 7#aj_/aga4 ,moquin-,tandon ',elements de ,teratologie' #ahda page #bac47 ,in the hose in hose primulae1 the calyx becomes brightly coloured and enlarged so as to resemble a corolla2 and ,mr4 ,w4 ,wooler informs me that this peculiarity is transmitted2 for he crossed a common polyanthus with one having a coloured calyx 7#aj_/agb4 ,see also ',cottage ,gardener' #ahfj page #acc47 and some of the seedlings inherited the coloured calyx during at least six generations4 ,in the hen-and-chicken daisy the main flower is surrounded by a brood of small flowers developed from buds in the axils of the scales of the involucre4 ,a wonderful poppy has been described1 in which the stamens are converted into pistils2 and so strictly was this peculiarity inherited that1 out of #aed seedlings1 one alone reverted to the ordinary and common type4 7#aj_/agc4 ,quoted by ,alph4 de ,candolle ',bibl4 ,univ4' ,november #ahfb page #eh47 ,of the cock's-comb 7,celosia cristata71 which is an annual1 there are several races in which the flower-stem is wonderfully fasciated or compressed2 and one has been exhibited 7#aj_/agd4 ,knight ',transact4 ,hort4 ,soc4' volume #d page #cbb47 actually eighteen inches in breadth4 ,peloric races of ,gloxinia speciosa and ,antirrhinum majus can be propagated by seed1 and they differ in a wonderful manner from the typical form both in structure and appearance4 ,a much more remarkable modification has been recorded by ,sir ,william and ,dr4 ,hooker 7#aj_/age4 ',botanical ,magazine' tab4 #eafj figure #d2 ,dr4 ,hooker in ',gardener's ,chronicle' #ahfj page #aij2 ,prof4 ,harvey in ',gardener's ,chronicle' #ahfj page #ade2 ,mr4 ,crocker in ',gardener's ,chron4' #ahfa page #ajib47 in ,begonia frigida4 ,this plant properly produces male and female flowers on the same fascicles2 and in the female flowers the perianth is superior2 but a plant at ,kew produced1 besides the ordinary flowers1 others which graduated towards a perfect hermaphrodite structure2 and in these flowers the perianth was inferior4 ,to show the importance of this modification under a classificatory point of view1 ,i may quote what ,prof4 ,harvey says1 namely1 that had it occurred in a state of nature1 and had a botanist collected a plant with such flowers1 he would not only have placed it in a distinct genus from ,begonia1 but would probably have considered it as the type of a new natural order4 ,this modification cannot in one sense be considered as a monstrosity1 for analogous structures naturally occur in other orders1 as with ,saxifragae and ,aristolochiaceae4 ,the interest of the case is largely added to by ,mr4 ,c4,w4 ,crocker's observation that seedlings from the ,,normal flowers produced plants which bore1 in about the same proportion as the parent-plant1 hermaphrodite flowers having inferior perianths4 ,the hermaphrodite flowers fertilised with their own pollen were sterile4 ,if florists had attended to1 selected1 and propagated by seed other modifications of structure besides those which are beautiful1 a host of curious varieties would certainly have been raised2 and they would probably have transmitted their characters so truly that the cultivator would have felt aggrieved1 as in the case of culinary vegetables1 if his whole bed had not presented a uniform appearance4 ,florists have attended in some instances to the leaves of their plant1 and have thus produced the most elegant and symmetrical patterns of white1 red1 and green1 which1 as in the case of the pelargonium1 are sometimes strictly inherited4 7#aj_/agf4 ,alph4 de ,candolle ',geograph4 ,bot4' page #ajhc2 ',gardener's ,chronicle' #ahfa page #dcc4 ,the inheritance of the white and golden zones in ,pelargonium largely depends on the nature of the soil4 ,see ,d4 ,beaton in ',journal of ,horticulture' #ahfa page #fd47 ,any one who will habitually examine highly- cultivated flowers in gardens and greenhouses will observe numerous deviations in structure2 but most of these must be ranked as mere monstrosities1 and are only so far interesting as showing how plastic the organisation becomes under high cultivation4 ,from this point of view such works as ,professor ,moquin-,tandon's ',teratologie' are highly instructive4 ,,roses4 ,these flowers offer an instance of a number of forms generally ranked as species1 namely1 ,r4 centifolia1 gallica1 alba1 damascena1 spinosissima1 bracteata1 indica1 semperflorens1 moschata1 etc41 which have largely varied and been intercrossed4 ,the genus ,rosa is a notoriously difficult one1 and1 though some of the above forms are admitted by all botanists to be distinct species1 others are doubtful2 thus1 with respect to the ,british forms1 ,babington makes seventeen1 and ,bentham only five species4 ,the hybrids from some of the most distinct forms--for instance1 from ,r4 indica1 fertilised by the pollen of ,r4 centifolia--produce an abundance of seed2 ,i state this on the authority of ,mr4 ,rivers 7#aj_/agg4 ',rose ,amateur's ,guide' ,t4 ,rivers #ahcg page #ba47 from whose work ,i have drawn most of the following statements4 ,as almost all the aboriginal forms brought from different countries have been crossed and re-crossed1 it is no wonder that ,targioni- ,tozzetti1 in speaking of the common roses of the ,italian gardens1 remarks that the native country and precise form of the wild type of most of them are involved in much uncertainty4 7#aj_/agh4 ',journal ,hort4 ,soc4' volume #i #ahee page #ahb47 ,nevertheless1 ,mr4 ,rivers in referring to ,r4 indica 7page #fh7 says that the descendants of each group may generally be recognised by a close observer4 ,the same author often speaks of roses as having been a little hybridised2 but it is evident that in very many cases the differences due to variation and to hybridisation can now only be conjecturally distinguished4 ,the species have varied both by seed and by bud2 such modified buds being often called by gardeners sports4 ,in the following chapter ,i shall fully discuss this latter subject1 and shall show that bud-variations can be propagated not only by grafting and budding1 but often by seed4 ,whenever a new rose appears with any peculiar character1 however produced1 if it yields seed1 ,mr4 ,rivers 7page #d7 fully expects it to become the parent-type of a new family4 ,the tendency to vary is so strong in some kinds1 as in the ,village ,maid 7,rivers page #af71 that when grown in different soils it varies so much in colour that it has been thought to form several distinct kinds4 ,altogether the number of kinds is very great3 thus ,m4 ,desportes1 in his ,catalogue for #ahbi1 enumerates #befb as cultivated in ,france2 but no doubt a large proportion of these are merely nominal4 ,it would be useless to specify the many points of difference between the various kinds1 but some constitutional peculiarities may be mentioned4 ,several ,french roses 7,rivers page #ab7 will not succeed in ,england2 and an excellent horticulturist 7#aj_/agi4 ,the ,rev4 ,w4,f4 ,radclyffe in ',journal of ,horticulture' ,march #ad1 #ahfe page #bjg47 remarks1 that ,even in the same garden you will find that a rose that will do nothing under a south wall will do well under a north one4 ,that is the case with ,paul ,joseph here4 ,it grows strongly and blooms beautifully close to a north wall4 ,for three years seven plants have done nothing under a south wall4 ,many roses can be forced1 many are totally unfit for forcing1 among which is ,general ,jacqueminot4 7#aj_/ahj4 ',gardener's ,chronicle' #ahca page #df47 ,from the effects of crossing and variation ,mr4 ,rivers enthusiastically anticipates 7page #hg7 that the day will come when all our roses1 even moss-roses1 will have evergreen foliage1 brilliant and fragrant flowers1 and the habit of blooming from ,june till ,november4 ,a distant view this seems1 but perseverance in gardening will yet achieve wonders1 as assuredly it has already achieved wonders4 ,it may be worth while briefly to give the well-known history of one class of roses4 ,in #agic some wild ,scotch roses 7,r4 spinosissima7 were transplanted into a garden 7#aj_/aha4 ,mr4 ,sabine in ',transact4 ,hort4 ,soc4' volume #d page #bhe472 and one of these bore flowers slightly tinged with red1 from which a plant was raised with semi-monstrous flowers1 also tinged with red2 seedlings from this flower were semi-double1 and by continued selection1 in about nine or ten years1 eight sub-varieties were raised4 ,in the course of less than twenty years these double ,scotch roses had so much increased in number and kind1 that twenty-six well-marked varieties1 classed in eight sections1 were described by ,mr4 ,sabine4 ,in #ahda 7#aj_/ahb4 ',an ,encyclop4 of ,plants' by ,j4,c4 ,loudon #ahda page #ddc47 it is said that three hundred varieties could be procured in the nursery-gardens near ,glasgow2 and these are described as blush1 crimson1 purple1 red1 marbled1 two-coloured1 white1 and yellow1 and as differing much in the size and shape of the flower4 ,,pansy ,,or ,,heartsease 7,viola tricolor1 etc474 ,the history of this flower seems to be pretty well known2 it was grown in ,evelyn's garden in #afhg2 but the varieties were not attended to till #ahaj- #ahab1 when ,lady ,monke1 together with ,mr4 ,lee1 the well-known nursery-man1 energetically commenced their culture2 and in the course of a few years twenty varieties could be purchased4 7#aj_/ahc4 ,loudon's ',gardener's ,magazine' volume #aa #ahce page #dbg2 also ,journal of ,horticulture' ,april #ad1 #ahfc page #bge47 ,at about the same period1 namely in #ahac or #ahad1 ,lord ,gambier collected some wild plants1 and his gardener1 ,mr4 ,thomson1 cultivated them1 together with some common garden varieties1 and soon effected a great improvement4 ,the first great change was the conversion of the dark lines in the centre of the flower into a dark eye or centre1 which at that period had never been seen1 but is now considered one of the chief requisites of a first-rate flower4 ,in #ahce a book entirely devoted to this flower was published1 and four hundred named varieties were on sale4 ,from these circumstances this plant seemed to me worth studying1 more especially from the great contrast between the small1 dull1 elongated1 irregular flowers of the wild pansy1 and the beautiful1 flat1 symmetrical1 circular1 velvet-like flowers1 more than two inches in diameter1 magnificently and variously coloured1 which are exhibited at our shows4 ,but when ,i came to enquire more closely1 ,i found that1 though the varieties were so modern1 yet that much confusion and doubt prevailed about their parentage4 ,florists believe that the varieties 7#aj_/ahd4 ,loudon's ',gardener's ,magazine' volume #h page #ege3 volume #i page #fhi47 are descended from several wild stocks1 namely1 ,v4 tricolor1 lutea1 grandiflora1 amoena1 and altaica1 more or less intercrossed4 ,and when ,i looked to botanical works to ascertain whether these forms ought to be ranked as species1 ,i found equal doubt and confusion4 ,viola altaica seems to be a distinct form1 but what part it has played in the origin of our varieties ,i know not2 it is said to have been crossed with ,v4 lutea4 ,viola amoena 7#aj_/ahe4 ,sir ,j4,e4 ,smith ',english ,flora' volume #a page #cjf4 ,h4,c4 ,watson ',cybele ,britannica' volume #a #ahdg page #aha47 is now looked at by all botanists as a natural variety of ,v4 grandiflora2 and this and ,v4 sudetica have been proved to be identical with ,v4 lutea4 ,the latter and ,v4 tricolor 7including its admitted variety ,v4 arvensis7 are ranked as distinct species by ,babington1 and likewise by ,m4 ,gay 7#aj_/ahf4 ,quoted from ',annales des ,sciences' in the ,companion to the ',bot4 ,mag4' volume #a #ahce page #aei47 who has paid particular attention to the genus2 but the specific distinction between ,v4 lutea and tricolor is chiefly grounded on the one being strictly and the other not strictly perennial1 as well as on some other slight and unimportant differences in the form of the stem and stipules4 ,bentham unites these two forms2 and a high authority on such matters1 ,mr4 ,h4,c4 ,watson 7#aj_/ahg4 ',cybele ,britannica' volume #a page #agc4 ,see also ,dr4 ,herbert on the changes of colour in transplanted specimens1 and on the natural variations of ,v4 grandiflora1 in ',transact4 ,hort4 ,soc4' volume #d page #ai47 says that1 while ,v4 tricolor passes into ,v4 arvensis on the one side1 it approximates so much towards ,v4 lutea and ,v4 ,curtisii on the other side1 that a distinction becomes scarcely more easy between them4 ,hence1 after having carefully compared numerous varieties1 ,i gave up the attempt as too difficult for any one except a professed botanist4 ,most of the varieties present such inconstant characters1 that when grown in poor soil1 or when flowering out of their proper season1 they produced differently coloured and much smaller flowers4 ,cultivators speak of this or that kind as being remarkably constant or true2 but by this they do not mean1 as in other cases1 that the kind transmits its character by seed1 but that the individual plant does not change much under culture4 ,the principle of inheritance1 however1 does hold good to a certain extent even with the fleeting varieties of the ,heartsease1 for to gain good sorts it is indispensable to sow the seed of good sorts4 ,nevertheless1 in almost every large seed-bed a few1 almost wild seedlings reappear through reversion4 ,on comparing the choicest varieties with the nearest allied wild forms1 besides the difference in the size1 outline1 and colour of the flowers1 the leaves sometimes differ in shape1 as does the calyx occasionally in the length and breadth of the sepals4 ,the differences in the form of the nectary more especially deserve notice2 because characters derived from this organ have been much used in the discrimination of most of the species of ,viola4 ,in a large number of flowers compared in #ahdb ,i found that in the greater number the nectary was straight2 in others the extremity was a little turned upwards1 or downwards1 or inwards1 so as to be completely hooked2 in others1 instead of being hooked1 it was first turned rectangularly downwards1 and then backwards and upwards2 in others1 the extremity was considerably enlarged2 and lastly1 in some the basal part was depressed1 becoming1 as usual1 laterally compressed towards the extremity4 ,in a large number of flowers1 on the other hand1 examined by me in #ahef from a nursery-garden in a different part of ,england1 the nectary hardly varied at all4 ,now ,m4 ,gay says that in certain districts1 especially in ,auvergne1 the nectary of the wild ,v4 grandiflora varies in the manner just described4 ,must we conclude from this that the cultivated varieties first mentioned were all descended from ,v4 grandiflora1 and that the second lot1 though having the same general appearance1 were descended from ,v4 tricolor1 of which the nectary1 according to ,m4 ,gay1 is subject to little variation8 ,or is it not more probable that both these wild forms would be found under other conditions to vary in the same manner and degree1 thus showing that they ought not to be ranked as specifically distinct8 ,,the ,,dahlia ,the ,dahlia has been referred to by almost every author who has written on the variation of plants1 because it is believed that all the varieties are descended from a single species1 and because all have arisen since #ahjb in ,france1 and since #ahjd in ,england4 7#aj_/ahh4 ,salisbury in ',transact4 ,hort4 ,soc4' volume #a #ahab pages #hd1 #ib4 ,a semi-double variety was produced in ,madrid in #agij47 ,mr4 ,sabine remarks that it seems as if some period of cultivation had been required before the fixed qualities of the native plant gave way and began to sport into those changes which now so delight us4 7#aj_/ahi4 ',transact4 ,hort4 ,soc4' volume #c #ahbj page #bbe47 ,the flowers have been greatly modified in shape from a flat to a globular form4 ,anemone and ranunculus-like races 7#aj_/aij4 ,loudon's ',gardener's ,mag4' volume #f #ahcj page #gg47 which differ in the form and arrangement of the florets1 have arisen2 also dwarfed races1 one of which is only eighteen inches in height4 ,the seeds vary much in size4 ,the petals are uniformly coloured or tipped or striped1 and present an almost infinite diversity of tints4 ,seedlings of fourteen different colours 7#aj_/aia4 ,loudon's ',encyclop4 of ,gardening' page #ajce47 have been raised from the same plant2 yet1 as ,mr4 ,sabine has remarked1 many of the seedlings follow their parents in colour4 ,the period of flowering has been considerably hastened1 and this has probably been effected by continued selection4 ,salisbury1 writing #ahjh1 says that they then flowered from ,september to ,november2 in #ahbh some new dwarf varieties began flowering in ,june 7#aj_/aib4 ',transact4 ,hort4 ,soc4' volume #a page #ia2 and ,loudon's ',gardener's ,mag4' volume #c #ahbh page #agi472 and ,mr4 ,grieve informs me that the dwarf purple ,zelinda in his garden is in full bloom by the middle of ,june and sometimes even earlier4 ,slight constitutional differences have been observed between certain varieties3 thus1 some kinds succeed much better in one part of ,england than in another 7#aj_/aic4 ,mr4 ,wildman in ',gardener's ,chronicle' #ahdc page #hg4 ',cottage ,gardener' ,april #h1 #ahef page #cc47 and it has been noticed that some varieties require much more moisture than others4 7#aj_/aid4 ,m4 ,faivre has given an interesting account of the successive variations of the ,chinese primrose1 since its introduction into ,europe about the year #ahbj3 ',revue des ,cours ,scientifiques' ,june #ahfi page #dbh47 ,such flowers as the ,,carnation1 ,,common ,,tulip1 and ,,hyacinth1 which are believed to be descended1 each from a single wild form1 present innumerable varieties1 differing almost exclusively in the size1 form1 and colour of the flowers4 ,these and some other anciently cultivated plants which have been long propagated by offsets1 pipings1 bulbs1 etc41 become so excessively variable1 that almost each new plant raised from seed forms a new variety1 all of which to describe particularly1 as old ,gerarde wrote in #aeig1 were to roll ,sisyphus's stone1 or to number the sands4 ,,hyacinth 7,hyacinthus orientalis74 ,it may1 however1 be worth while to give a short account of this plant1 which was introduced into ,england in #aeif from the ,levant4 7#aj_/aie4 ,the best and fullest account of this plant which ,i have met with is by a famous horticulturist1 ,mr4 ,paul1 of ,waltham1 in the ',gardener's ,chronicle' #ahfd page #cdb47 ,the petals of the original flower1 says ,mr4 ,paul1 were narrow1 wrinkled1 pointed1 and of a flimsy texture2 now they are broad1 smooth1 solid1 and rounded4 ,the erectness1 breadth1 and length of the whole spike1 and the size of the flowers1 have all increased4 ,the colours have been intensified and diversified4 ,gerarde1 in #aeig1 enumerates four1 and ,parkinson1 in #afbi1 eight varieties4 ,now the varieties are very numerous1 and they were still more numerous a century ago4 ,mr4 ,paul remarks that it is interesting to compare the ,hyacinths of #afbi with those of #ahfd1 and to mark the improvement4 ,two hundred and thirty-five years have elapsed since then1 and this simple flower serves well to illustrate the great fact that the original forms of nature do not remain fixed and stationary1 at least when brought under cultivation4 ,while looking at the extremes1 we must not1 however1 forget that there are intermediate stages which are for the most part lost to us4 ,nature will sometimes indulge herself with a leap1 but as a rule her march is slow and gradual4 ,he adds that the cultivator should have in his mind an ideal of beauty1 for the realisation of which he works with head and hand4 ,we thus see how clearly ,mr4 ,paul1 an eminently successful cultivator of this flower1 appreciates the action of methodical selection4 ,in a curious and apparently trustworthy treatise1 published at ,amsterdam 7#aj_/aif4 ',des ,jacinthes1 de leur ,anatomie1 ,reproduction1 et ,culture' ,amsterdam #agfh47 in #agfh1 it is stated that nearly #b1jjj sorts were then known2 but in #ahfd ,mr4 ,paul found only #gjj in the largest garden at ,haarlem4 ,in this treatise it is said that not an instance is known of any one variety reproducing itself truly by seed3 the white kinds1 however1 now 7#aj_/aig4 ,alph4 de ,candolle ',geograph4 ,bot4' page #ajhb47 almost always yield white hyacinths1 and the yellow kinds come nearly true4 ,the hyacinth is remarkable from having given rise to varieties with bright blue1 pink1 and distinctly yellow flowers4 ,these three primary colours do not occur in the varieties of any other species2 nor do they often all occur even in the distinct species of the same genus4 ,although the several kinds of hyacinths differ but slightly from each other except in colour1 yet each kind has its own individual character1 which can be recognised by a highly educated eye2 thus the writer of the ,amsterdam treatise asserts 7page #dc7 that some experienced florists1 such as the famous ,g4 ,voorhelm1 seldom failed in a collection of above twelve hundred sorts to recognise each variety by the bulb alone6 ,this same writer mentions some few singular variations3 for instance1 the hyacinth commonly produces six leaves1 but there is one kind 7page #ce7 which scarcely ever has more than three leaves2 another never more than five2 whilst others regularly produce either seven or eight leaves4 ,a variety1 called la ,coryphee1 invariably produces 7page #aaf7 two flower-stems1 united together and covered by one skin4 ,the flower-stem in another kind 7page #abh7 comes out of the ground in a coloured sheath1 before the appearance of the leaves1 and is consequently liable to suffer from frost4 ,another variety always pushes a second flower-stem after the first has begun to develop itself4 ,lastly1 white hyacinths with red1 purple1 or violet centres 7page #abi7 are the most liable to rot4 ,thus1 the hyacinth1 like so many previous plants1 when long cultivated and closely watched1 is found to offer many singular variations4 ,in the two last chapters ,i have given in some detail the range of variation1 and the history1 as far as known1 of a considerable number of plants1 which have been cultivated for various purposes4 ,but some of the most variable plants1 such as ,kidney-beans1 ,capsicum1 ,millets1 ,sorghum1 etc41 have been passed over2 for botanists are not at all agreed which kinds ought to rank as species and which as varieties2 and the wild parent- species are unknown4 7#aj_/aih4 ,alph4 ,de ,candolle ',geograph4 ,bot4' page #ihc47 ,many plants long cultivated in tropical countries1 such as the ,banana1 have produced numerous varieties2 but as these have never been described with even moderate care1 they are here also passed over4 ,nevertheless1 a sufficient1 and perhaps more than sufficient1 number of cases have been given1 so that the reader may be enabled to judge for himself on the nature and great amount of variation which cultivated plants have undergone4 ,,chapter #a4,,xi4 ,,on ,,bud-,,variation1 ,,and ,,on ,,certain ,,anomalous ,,modes ,,of ,,reproduction ,,and ,,variation4 ,,bud-,,variation ,,in ,,the ,,peach1 ,,plum1 ,,cherry1 ,,vine1 ,,gooseberry1 ,,currant1 ,,and ,,banana1 ,,as ,,shown ,,by ,,the ,,modified ,,fruit4 ,,in ,,flowers3 ,,camellias1 ,,azaleas1 ,,chrysanthemums1 ,,roses1 ,,etc4 ,,on ,,the ,,running ,,of ,,the ,,colour ,,in ,,carnations4 ,,bud-,,variations ,,in ,,leaves4 ,,variations ,,by ,,suckers1 ,,tubers1 ,,and ,,bulbs4 ,,on ,,the ,,breaking ,,of ,,tulips4 ,,bud-,,variations ,,graduate ,,into ,,changes ,,consequent ,,on ,,changed ,,conditions ,,of ,,life4 ,,graft-,,hybrids4 ,,on ,,the ,,segregation ,,of ,,the ,,parental ,,characters ,,in ,,seminal ,,hybrids ,,by ,,bud- ,,variation4 ,,on ,,the ,,direct ,,or ,,immediate ,,action ,,of ,,foreign ,,pollen ,,on ,,the ,,mother-,,plant4 ,,on ,,the ,,effects ,,in ,,female ,,animals ,,of ,a ,,previous ,,impregnation ,,on ,,the ,,subsequent ,,offspring4 ,,conclusion ,,and ,,summary4 ,this chapter will be chiefly devoted to a subject in many respects important1 namely1 bud-variation4 ,by this term ,i include all those sudden changes in structure or appearance which occasionally occur in full-grown plants in their flower-buds or leaf-buds4 ,gardeners call such changes ,sports2 but this1 as previously remarked1 is an ill-defined expression1 as it has often been applied to strongly marked variations in seedling plants4 ,the difference between seminal and bud reproduction is not so great as it at first appears2 for each bud is in one sense a new and distinct individual2 but such individuals are produced through the formation of various kinds of buds without the aid of any special apparatus1 whilst fertile seeds are produced by the concourse of the two sexual elements4 ,the modifications which arise through bud-variation can generally be propagated to any extent by grafting1 budding1 cuttings1 bulbs1 etc41 and occasionally even by seed4 ,some few of our most beautiful and useful productions have arisen by bud-variation4 ,bud-variations have as yet been observed only in the vegetable kingdom2 but it is probable that if compound animals1 such as corals1 etc41 had been subjected to a long course of domestication1 they would have varied by buds2 for they resemble plants in many respects4 ,for instance1 any new or peculiar character presented by a compound animal is propagated by budding1 as occurs with differently coloured ,hydras1 and as ,mr4 ,gosse has shown to be the case with a singular variety of a true coral4 ,varieties of the ,hydra have also been grafted on other varieties1 and have retained their character4 ,i will in the first place give all the cases of bud variations which ,i have been able to collect1 and afterwards show their importance4 7#aa_/a4 ,since the publication of the first edition of this work1 ,i have found that ,m4 ,carriere1 ,chef des ,pepinieres au ,mus4 d',hist4 ,nat4 in his excellent ,essay ',production et ,fixation des ,varietes' #ahfe has given a list of bud- variations far more extensive than mine2 but as these relate chiefly to cases occurring in ,france ,i have left my list as it stood1 adding a few facts from ,m4 ,carriere and others4 ,any one who wishes to study the subject fully should refer to ,m4 ,carriere's ,essay47 ,these cases prove that those authors who1 like ,pallas1 attribute all variability to the crossing either of distinct races1 or of distinct individuals belonging to the same race but somewhat different from each other1 are in error2 as are those authors who attribute all variability to the mere act of sexual union4 ,nor can we account in all cases for the appearance through bud-variation of new characters by the principle of reversion to long-lost characters4 ,he who wishes to judge how far the conditions of life directly cause each particular variation ought to reflect well on the cases immediately to be given4 ,i will commence with bud-variations1 as exhibited in the fruit1 and then pass on to flowers1 and finally to leaves4 ,,peach 7,amygdalus persica74 ,in the last chapter ,i gave two cases of a peach-almond and a double- flowered almond which suddenly produced fruit closely resembling true peaches4 ,i have also given many cases of peach-trees producing buds1 which1 when developed into branches1 have yielded nectarines4 ,we have seen that no less than six named and several unnamed varieties of the peach have thus produced several varieties of nectarine4 ,i have shown that it is highly improbable that all these peach-trees1 some of which are old varieties1 and have been propagated by the million1 are hybrids from the peach and nectarine1 and that it is opposed to all analogy to attribute the occasional production of nectarines on peach-trees to the direct action of pollen from some neighbouring nectarine-tree4 ,several of the cases are highly remarkable1 because1 firstly1 the fruit thus produced has sometimes been in part a nectarine and in part a peach2 secondly1 because nectarines thus suddenly produced have reproduced themselves by seed2 and thirdly1 because nectarines are produced from peach-trees from seed as well as from buds4 ,the seed of the nectarine1 on the other hand1 occasionally produces peaches2 and we have seen in one instance that a nectarine-tree yielded peaches by bud-variation4 ,as the peach is certainly the oldest or primary variety1 the production of peaches from nectarines1 either by seeds or buds1 may perhaps be considered as a case of reversion4 ,certain trees have also been described as indifferently bearing peaches or nectarines1 and this may be considered as bud-variation carried to an extreme degree4 ,the grosse mignonne peach at ,montreuil produced from a sporting branch the grosse mignonne tardive1 a most excellent variety1 which ripens its fruit a fortnight later than the parent tree1 and is equally good4 7#aa_/b4 ',gardener's ,chronicle' #ahed page #hba47 ,this same peach has likewise produced by bud-variation the early grosse mignonne4 ,hunt's large tawny nectarine originated from ,hunt's small tawny nectarine1 but not through seminal reproduction4 7#aa_/c4 ,lindley ',guide to ,orchard' as quoted in ',gardener's ,chronicle' #aheb page #hba4 ,for the ,early mignonne peach see ',gardener's ,chronicle' #ahfd page #abea47 ,,plums4 ,mr4 ,knight states that a tree of the yellow magnum bonum plum1 forty years old1 which had always borne ordinary fruit1 produced a branch which yielded red magnum bonums4 7#aa_/d4 ',transact4 ,hort4 ,soc4' volume #b page #afj47 ,mr4 ,rivers1 of ,sawbridgeworth1 informs me 7,january #ahfc7 that a single tree out of #djj or #ejj trees of the ,early ,prolific plum1 which is a purple kind1 descended from an old ,french variety bearing purple fruit1 produced when about ten years old bright yellow plums2 these differed in no respect except colour from those on the other trees1 but were unlike any other known kind of yellow plum4 7#aa_/e4 ,see also ',gardener's ,chronicle' #ahfc page #bg47 ,,cherry 7,prunus cerasus74 ,mr4 ,knight has recorded 7ibid7 the case of a branch of a ,may-,duke cherry1 which1 though certainly never grafted1 always produced fruit1 ripening later1 and more oblong than the fruit on the other branches4 ,another account has been given of two ,may-,duke cherry-trees in ,scotland1 with branches bearing oblong and very fine fruit1 which invariably ripened1 as in ,knight's case1 a fortnight later than the other cherries4 7#aa_/f4 ',gardener's ,chronicle' #aheb page #hba47 ,m4 ,carriere gives 7page #cg7 numerous analogous cases1 and one of the same tree bearing three kinds of fruit4 ,,grapes 7,vitis vinifera74 ,the black or purple ,frontignan in one case produced during two successive years 7and no doubt permanently71 spurs which bore white ,frontignan grapes4 ,in another case1 on the same footstalk1 the lower berries were well- coloured black ,frontignans2 those next the stalk were white1 with the exception of one black and one streaked berry2 and altogether there were fifteen black and twelve white berries on the same stalk4 ,in another kind of grape1 black and amber-coloured berries were produced in the same cluster4 7#aa_/g4 ',gardener's ,chronicle' #aheb page #fbi2 #ahef page #fdh2 #ahfd page #ihf4 ,other cases are given by ,braun ',rejuvenescence' in ',ray ,soc4 ,bot4 ,mem4' #ahec page #cad47 ,count ,odart describes a variety which often bears on the same stalk small round and large oblong berries2 though the shape of the berry is generally a fixed character4 7#aa_/h4 ',ampelographie' etc4 #ahdi page #ga47 ,here is another striking case given on the excellent authority of ,m4 ,carriere 7#aa_/i4 ',gardener's ,chronicle' #ahff page #igj473 a black ,hamburg grape 7,frankenthal7 was cut down1 and produced three suckers2 one of these was layered1 and after a time produced much smaller berries1 which always ripened at least a fortnight earlier than the others4 ,of the remaining two suckers1 one produced every year fine grapes1 whilst the other1 although it set an abundance of fruit1 matured only a few1 and these of inferior quality4 ,,gooseberry 7,ribes grossularia74 ,a remarkable case has been described by ,dr4 ,lindley 7#aa_/aj4 ',gardener's ,chronicle' #ahee pages #eig1 #fab47 of a bush which bore at the same time no less than four kinds of berries1 namely1 hairy and red1--smooth1 small and red1--green1--and yellow tinged with buff2 the two latter kinds had a different flavour from the red berries1 and their seeds were coloured red4 ,three twigs on this bush grew close together2 the first bore three yellow berries and one red2 the second twig bore four yellow and one red2 and the third four red and one yellow4 ,mr4 ,laxton also informs me that he has seen a ,red ,warrington gooseberry bearing both red and yellow fruit on the same branch4 ,,currant 7,ribes rubrum74 ,a bush purchased as the ,champagne1 which is a variety that bears blush- coloured fruit intermediate between red and white1 produced during fourteen years on separate branches and mingled on the same branch1 berries of the red1 white1 and champagne kinds4 7#aa_/aa4 ',gardener's ,chronicle' #ahdb page #hgc2 #ahee page #fdf4 ,in the ',chronicle' page #hgf ,mr4 ,p4 ,mackenzie states that the bush still continues to bear the three kinds of fruit1 although they have not been every year alike47 ,the suspicion naturally arises that this variety may have originated from a cross between a red and white variety1 and that the above transformation may be accounted for by reversion to both parent-forms2 but from the foregoing complex case of the gooseberry this view is doubtful4 ,in ,france1 a branch of a red-currant bush1 about ten years old1 produced near the summit five white berries7 and lower down1 amongst the red berries1 one berry half red and half white4 7#aa_/ab4 ',revue ,horticole' quoted in ',gardener's ,chronicle' #ahdd page #hg47 ,alexander ,braun 7#aa_/ac4 ',rejuvenescence in ,nature' ',bot4 ,memoirs ,ray ,soc4' #ahec page #cad47 also has often seen branches on white currant-trees bearing red berries4 ,,pear 7,pyrus communis74 ,dureau de la ,malle states that the flowers on some trees of an ancient variety1 the doyenne galeux1 were destroyed by frost3 other flowers appeared in ,july1 which produced six pears2 these exactly resembled in their skin and taste the fruit of a distinct variety1 the gros doyenne blanc1 but in shape were like the bon-chretien3 it was not ascertained whether this new variety could be propagated by budding or grafting4 ,the same author grafted a bon-chretien on a quince1 and it produced1 besides its proper fruit1 an apparently new variety1 of a peculiar form with thick and rough skin4 7#aa_/ad4 ',comptes ,rendus' tome #da #ahee page #hjd4 ,the second case is given on the authority of ,gaudichaud ibid tome #cd #aheb page #gdh47 ,,apple 7,pyrus malus74 ,in ,canada1 a tree of the variety called ,pound ,sweet1 produced 7#aa_/ae4 ,this case is given in the ',gardener's ,chronicle' #ahfg page #djc471 between two of its proper fruit1 an apple which was well russeted1 small in size1 different in shape1 and with a short peduncle4 ,as no russet apple grew anywhere near1 this case apparently cannot be accounted for by the direct action of foreign pollen4 ,m4 ,carriere 7page #ch7 mentions an analogous instance4 ,i shall hereafter give cases of apple-trees which regularly produce fruit of two kinds1 or half-and-half fruit2 these trees are generally supposed1 and probably with truth1 to be of crossed parentage1 and that the fruit reverts to both parent-forms4 ,,banana 7,musa sapientium74 ,sir ,r4 ,schomburgk states that he saw in ,st4 ,domingo a raceme on the ,fig ,banana which bore towards the base #abe fruits of the proper kind2 and these were succeeded1 as is usual1 higher up the raceme1 by barren flowers1 and these by #dbj fruits1 having a widely different appearance1 and ripening earlier than the proper fruit4 ,the abnormal fruit closely resembled1 except in being smaller1 that of the ,musa chinensis or cavendishii1 which has generally been ranked as a distinct species4 7#aa_/af4 ',journal of ,proc4 ,linn4 ,soc4' volume #b ,botany page #aca47 ,,flowers4 ,many cases have been recorded of a whole plant1 or single branch1 or bud1 suddenly producing flowers different from the proper type in colour1 form1 size1 doubleness1 or other character4 ,half the flower1 or a smaller segment1 sometimes changes colour4 ,,camellia4 ,the myrtle-leaved species 7,c4 myrtifolia71 and two or three varieties of the common species1 have been known to produce hexagonal and imperfectly quadrangular flowers2 and the branches producing such flowers have been propagated by grafting4 7#aa_/ag4 ',gardener's ,chronicle' #ahdg page #bjg47 ,the ,pompon variety often bears four distinguishable kinds of flowers1--the pure white and the red-eyed1 which appear promiscuously2 the brindled pink and the rose-coloured1 which may be kept separate with tolerable certainty by grafting from the branches that bear them4 ,a branch1 also1 on an old tree of the rose-coloured variety has been seen to revert to the pure white colour1 an occurrence less common than the departure from it4 7#aa_/ah4 ,herbert ',amaryllidaceae' #ahch page #cfi47 ,crataegus oxyacantha4 ,a dark pink hawthorn has been known to throw out a single tuft of pure white blossoms 7#aa_/ai4 ',gardener's ,chronicle' #ahdc page #cia472 and ,mr4 ,a4 ,clapham1 nurseryman1 of ,bedford1 informs me that his father had a deep crimson thorn grafted on a white thorn1 which during several years1 always bore1 high above the graft1 bunches of white1 pink and deep crimson flowers4 ,azalea indica4 ,a4 indica is well known often to produce new varieties by buds4 ,i have myself seen several cases4 ,a plant of ,azalea indica variegata has been exhibited bearing a truss of flowers of ,a4 ind4 gledstanesii as true as could possibly be produced1 thus evidencing the origin of that fine variety4 ,on another plant of ,a4 ind4 variegata a perfect flower of ,a4 ind4 lateritia was produced2 so that both gledstanesii and lateritia no doubt originally appeared as sporting branches of ,a4 ind4 variegata4 7#aa_/bj4 ,exhibited at ,hort4 ,soc4 ,london4 ,report in ',gardener's ,chronicle' #ahdd page #ccg47 ,,hibiscus 7,paritium tricuspis74 ,a seedling of this plant1 when some years old1 produced1 at ,saharunpore 7#aa_/ba4 ,mr4 ,w4 ,bell ',bot4 ,soc4 of ,edinburgh' ,may #ahfc471 some branches which bore leaves and flowers widely different from the normal form4 ,the abnormal leaf is much less divided1 and not acuminated4 ,the petals are considerably larger1 and quite entire4 ,there is also in the fresh state a conspicuous1 large1 oblong gland1 full of a viscid secretion1 on the back of each of the calycine segments4 ,dr4 ,king1 who subsequently had charge of these ,gardens1 informs me that a tree of ,paritium tricuspis 7probably the very same plant7 growing there1 had a branch buried in the ground1 apparently by accident2 and this branch changed its character wonderfully1 growing like a bush1 and producing flowers and leaves1 resembling in shape those of another species1 viz41 ,p4 tiliaceum4 ,a small branch springing from this bush near the ground1 reverted to the parent-form4 ,both forms were extensively propagated during several years by cuttings and kept perfectly true4 ,althaea rosea4 ,a double yellow ,hollyhock suddenly turned one year into a pure white single kind2 subsequently a branch bearing the original double yellow flowers reappeared in the midst of the branches of the single white kind4 7#aa_/bb4 ',revue ,horticole' quoted in ',gardener's ,chronicle' #ahde page #dge47 ,,pelargonium4 ,these highly cultivated plants seem eminently liable to bud-variation4 ,i will give only a few well-marked cases4 ,gartner has seen 7#aa_/bc4 ',bastarderzeugung' #ahdi s4 #gf47 a plant of ,p4 zonale with a branch having white edges1 which remained constant for years1 and bore flowers of a deeper red than usual4 ,generally speaking1 such branches present little or no difference in their flowers3 thus a writer 7#aa_/bd4 ',journal of ,horticulture' #ahfa page #ccf47 pinched off the leading shoot of a seedling ,p4 zonale1 and it threw out three branches1 which differed in the size and colour of their leaves and stems2 but on all three branches the flowers were identical1 except in being largest in the green-stemmed variety1 and smallest in that with variegated foliage3 these three varieties were subsequently propagated and distributed4 ,many branches1 and some whole plants1 of a variety called compactum1 which bears orange-scarlet flowers1 have been seen to produce pink flowers4 7#aa_/be4 ,w4,p4 ,ayres ',gardener's ,chronicle' #ahdb page #gia47 ,hill's ,hector1 which is a pale red variety1 produced a branch with lilac flowers1 and some trusses with both red and lilac flowers4 ,this apparently is a case of reversion1 for ,hill's ,hector was a seedling from a lilac variety4 7#aa_/bf4 ,w4,p4 ,ayres ibid47 ,here is a better case of reversion3 a variety produced from a complicated cross1 after having been propagated for five generations by seed1 yielded by bud- variation three very distinct varieties which were undistinguishable from plants1 known to have been at some time ancestors of the plant in question4 7#aa_/bg4 ,dr4 ,maxwell ,masters ',pop4 ,science ,review' ,july #ahgb page #bej47 ,of all ,pelargoniums1 ,rollisson's ,unique seems to be the most sportive2 its origin is not positively known1 but is believed to be from a cross4 ,mr4 ,salter1 of ,hammersmith1 states 7#aa_/bh4 ',gardener's ,chronicle' #ahfa page #ifh47 that he has himself known this purple variety to produce the lilac1 the rose-crimson or conspicuum1 and the red or coccineum varieties2 the latter has also produced the rose d'amour2 so that altogether four varieties have originated by bud variation from ,rollisson's ,unique4 ,mr4 ,salter remarks that these four varieties may now be considered as fixed1 although they occasionally produce flowers of the original colour4 ,this year coccineum has pushed flowers of three different colours1 red1 rose1 and lilac1 upon the same truss1 and upon other trusses are flowers half red and half lilac4 ,besides these four varieties1 two other scarlet ,uniques are known to exist1 both of which occasionally produce lilac flowers identical with ,rollisson's ,unique 7#aa_/bi4 ,ibid #ahfa page #ide472 but one at least of these did not arise through bud-variation1 but is believed to be a seedling from ,rollisson's ,unique4 7#aa_/cj4 ,w4 ,paul ',gardener's ,chronicle' #ahfa page #ifh47 ,there are1 also1 in the trade 7#aa_/ca4 ,ibid page #ide47 two other slightly different varieties1 of unknown origin1 of ,rollisson's ,unique3 so that altogether we have a curiously complex case of variation both by buds and seeds4 7#aa_/cb4 ,for other cases of bud-variation in this same variety see ',gardener's ,chronicle' #ahfa pages #egh1 #fjj1 #ibe4 ,for other distinct cases of bud-variation in the genus ,pelargonium see ',cottage ,gardener' #ahfj page #aid47 ,here is a still more complex case3 ,m4 ,rafarin states that a pale rose-coloured variety produced a branch bearing deep red flowers4 ,cuttings were taken from this 'sport1' from which #bj plants were raised1 which flowered in #ahfg1 when it was found that scarcely two were alike4 ,some resembled the parent-form1 some resembled the sport1 some bore both kinds of flowers2 and even some of the petals on the same flower were rose-coloured and others red4 7#aa_/cc4 ,dr4 ,maxwell ,masters ',pop4 ,science ,review' ,july #ahgb page #bed47 ,an ,english wild plant1 the ,geranium pratense1 when cultivated in a garden1 has been seen to produce on the same plant both blue and white1 and striped blue and white flowers4 7#aa_/cd4 ,rev4 ,w4,t4 ,bree in ,loudon's ',gardener's ,mag4' volume #h #ahcb page #ic47 ,,chrysanthemum4 ,this plant frequently sports1 both by its lateral branches and occasionally by suckers4 ,a seedling raised by ,mr4 ,salter has produced by bud-variation six distinct sorts1 five different in colour and one in foliage1 all of which are now fixed4 7#aa_/ce4 ',the ,chrysanthemum3 its ,history and ,culture' by ,j4 ,salter #ahfe page #da etc47 ,a variety called cedo nulli bears small yellow flowers1 but habitually produces branches with white flowers2 and a specimen was exhibited1 which ,prof4 ,t4 ,dyer saw1 before the ,horticultural ,society4 ,the varieties which were first introduced from ,china were so excessively variable1 that it was extremely difficult to tell which was the original colour of the variety1 and which was the sport4 ,the same plant would produce one year only buff-coloured1 and next year only rose- coloured flowers2 and then would change again1 or produce at the same time flowers of both colours4 ,these fluctuating varieties are now all lost1 and1 when a branch sports into a new variety1 it can generally be propagated and kept true2 but1 as ,mr4 ,salter remarks1 every sport should be thoroughly tested in different soils before it can be really considered as fixed1 as many have been known to run back when planted in rich compost2 but when sufficient care and time are expended in proving1 there will exist little danger of subsequent disappointment4 ,mr4 ,salter informs me that with all the varieties the commonest kind of bud-variation is the production of yellow flowers1 and1 as this is the primordial colour1 these cases may be attributed to reversion4 ,mr4 ,salter has given me a list of seven differently coloured chrysanthemums1 which have all produced branches with yellow flowers2 but three of them have also sported into other colours4 ,with any change of colour in the flower1 the foliage generally changes in a corresponding manner in lightness or darkness4 ,another ,compositous plant1 namely1 ,centauria cyanus1 when cultivated in a garden1 not unfrequently produces on the same root flowers of four different colours1 viz41 blue1 white1 dark-purple1 and parti-coloured4 7#aa_/cf4 ,bree in ,loudon's ',gardener's ,mag4' volume #h #ahcb page #ic47 ,the flowers of ,anthemis also vary on the same plant4 7#aa_/cg4 ,bronn ',geschichte der ,natur' b4 #b s4 #abc47 ,,roses4 ,many varieties of the ,rose are known or are believed to have originated by bud-variation4 7#aa_/ch4 ,t4 ,rivers ',rose ,amateur's ,guide' #ahcg page #d47 ,the common double moss-rose was imported into ,england from ,italy about the year #agce4 7#aa_/ci4 ,mr4 ,shailer quoted in ',gardener's ,chronicle' #ahdh page #gei47 ,its origin is unknown1 but from analogy it probably arose from the ,provence rose 7,r4 centifolia7 by bud-variation2 for the branches of the common moss- rose have several times been known to produce ,provence roses1 wholly or partially destitute of moss3 ,i have seen one such instance1 and several others have been recorded4 7#aa_/dj4 ',transact4 ,hort4 ,soc4' volume #d #ahbb page #acg2 ',gardener's ,chronicle' #ahdb page #dbb47 ,mr4 ,rivers also informs me that he raised two or three roses of the ,provence class from seed of the old single moss-rose 7#aa_/da4 ,see also ,loudon's ',arboretum' volume #b page #ghj472 and this latter kind was produced in #ahjg by bud-variation from the common moss-rose4 ,the white moss-rose was also produced in #aghh by an offset from the common red moss-rose3 it was at first pale blush-coloured1 but became white by continued budding4 ,on cutting down the shoots which had produced this white moss-rose1 two weak shoots were thrown up1 and buds from these yielded the beautiful striped moss-rose4 ,the common moss-rose has yielded by bud-variation1 besides the old single red moss-rose1 the old scarlet semi-double moss-rose1 and the sage-leaf moss-rose1 which has a delicate shell-like form1 and is of a beautiful blush colour2 it is now 7#aheb7 nearly extinct4 7#aa_/db4 ,all these statements on the origin of the several varieties of the moss-rose are given on the authority of ,mr4 ,shailer1 who1 together with his father1 was concerned in their original propagation4 ,see ',gard4 ,chronicle' #aheb page #gei47 ,a white moss-rose has been seen to bear a flower half white and half pink4 7#aa_/dc4 ',gardener's ,chronicle' #ahde page #efd47 ,although several moss-roses have thus certainly arisen by bud-variation1 the greater number probably owe their origin to seed of moss-roses4 ,for ,mr4 ,rivers informs me that his seedlings from the old single moss-rose almost always produced moss-roses2 and the old single moss-rose was1 as we have seen1 the product by bud-variation of the double moss-rose originally imported from ,italy4 ,that the original moss-rose was the product of bud-variation is probable1 from the facts above given and from the de ,meaux moss-rose 7also a variety of ,r4 centifolia7 7#aa_/dd4 ',transact4 ,hort4 ,soc4' volume #b page #bdb47 having appeared as a sporting branch on the common rose de ,meaux4 ,prof4 ,caspary has carefully described 7#aa_/de4 ',shriften der ,phys4 ,oekon4 ,gesell4 zu ,konigsberg' ,february #c1 #ahfe s4 #d4 ,see also ,dr4 ,caspary's paper in ',transactions of the ,hort4 ,congress of ,amsterdam' #ahfe47 the case of a six-year-old white moss-rose1 which sent up several suckers1 one of which was thorny1 and produced red flowers1 destitute of moss1 exactly like those of the ,provence rose 7,r4 centifolia73 another shoot bore both kinds of flowers1 and in addition longitudinally striped flowers4 ,as this white moss-rose had been grafted on the ,provence rose1 ,prof4 ,caspary attributes the above changes to the influence of the stock2 but from the facts already given1 and from others to be given1 bud- variation1 with reversion1 is probably a sufficient explanation4 ,many other instances could be added of roses varying by buds4 ,the white ,provence rose apparently originated in this way4 7#aa_/df4 ',gardener's ,chronicle' #aheb page #gei47 ,m4 ,carriere states 7page #cf7 that he himself knows of five varieties thus produced by the ,baronne ,prevost4 ,the double and highly-coloured ,belladonna rose has produced by suckers both semi- double and almost single white roses 7#aa_/dg4 ',transact4 ,hort4 ,soc4' volume #b page #bdb472 whilst suckers from one of these semi-double white roses reverted to perfectly characterised ,belladonnas4 ,in ,st4 ,domingo1 varieties of the ,china rose propagated by cuttings often revert after a year or two into the old ,china rose4 7#aa_/dh4 ,sir ,r4 ,schomburgk ',proc4 ,linn4 ,soc4 ,bot4' volume #b page #acb47 ,many cases have been recorded of roses suddenly becoming striped or changing their character by segments3 some plants of the ,comtesse de ,chabrillant1 which is properly rose-coloured1 were exhibited in #ahfb 7#aa_/di4 ',gardener's ,chronicle' #ahfb page #fai471 with crimson flakes on a rose ground4 ,i have seen the ,beauty of ,billiard with a quarter and with half the flower almost white4 ',the ,austrian bramble 7,r4 lutea7 not rarely 7#aa_/ej4 ,hopkirk ',flora ,anomala' #afg47 produces branches with pure yellow flowers2 and ,prof4 ,henslow has seen exactly half the flower of a pure yellow1 and ,i have seen narrow yellow streaks on a single petal1 of which the rest was of the usual copper colour4 ,the following cases are highly remarkable4 ,mr4 ,rivers1 as ,i am informed by him1 possessed a new ,french rose with delicate smooth shoots1 pale glaucous-green leaves1 and semi-double pale flesh-coloured flowers striped with dark red2 and on branches thus characterised there suddenly appeared in more than one instance1 the famous old rose called the ,baronne ,prevost1 with its stout thorny shoots1 and immense1 uniformly and richly coloured double flowers2 so that in this case the shoots1 leaves1 and flowers1 all at once changed their character by bud-variation4 ,according to ,m4 ,verlot 7#aa_/ea4 ',sur ,la ,production et la ,fixation des ,varietes' #ahfe page #d471 a variety called ,rosa cannabifolia1 which has peculiarly shaped leaflets1 and differs from every member of the family in the leaves being opposite instead of alternate1 suddenly appeared on a plant of ,r4 alba in the gardens of the ,luxembourg4 ,lastly1 a running shoot was observed by ,mr4 ,h4 ,curtis 7#aa_/eb4 ',journal of ,horticulture' ,march #ahfe page #bcc47 on the old ,aimee ,vibert ,noisette1 and he budded it on ,celine2 thus a climbing ,aimee ,vibert was first produced and afterwards propagated4 ,,dianthus4 ,it is quite common with the ,sweet ,william 7,d4 barbatus7 to see differently coloured flowers on the same root2 and ,i have observed on the same truss four differently coloured and shaded flowers4 ,carnations and pinks 7,d4 caryophyllus1 etc47 occasionally vary by layers2 and some kinds are so little certain in character that they are called by floriculturists catch- flowers4 7#aa_/ec4 ',gardener's ,chronicle' #ahdc page #ace47 ,mr4 ,dickson has ably discussed the running of particoloured or striped carnations1 and says it cannot be accounted for by the compost in which they are grown3 layers from the same clean flower would come part of them clean and part foul1 even when subjected to precisely the same treatment2 and frequently one flower alone appears influenced by the taint1 the remainder coming perfectly clean4 7#aa_/ed4 ,ibid #ahdb page #ee47 ,this running of the parti- coloured flowers apparently is a case of reversion by buds to the original uniform tint of the species4 ,i will briefly mention some other cases of bud-variation to show how many plants belonging to many orders have varied in their flowers2 and many others might be added4 ,i have seen on a snap-dragon 7,antirrhinum majus7 white1 pink1 and striped flowers on the same plant1 and branches with striped flowers on a red-coloured variety4 ,on a double stock 7,matthiola incana7 ,i have seen a branch bearing single flowers2 and on a dingy-purple double variety of the wall-flower 7,cheiranthus cheiri71 a branch which had reverted to the ordinary copper colour4 ,on other branches of the same plant1 some flowers were exactly divided across the middle1 one half being purple and the other coppery2 but some of the smaller petals towards the centre of these same flowers were purple longitudinally streaked with coppery colour1 or coppery streaked with purple4 ,a ,cyclamen 7#aa_/ee4 ',gardener's ,chronicle' #ahfg page #bce47 has been observed to bear white and pink flowers of two forms1 the one resembling the ,persicum strain1 and the other the ,coum strain4 ,oenothera biennis has been seen 7#aa_/ef4 ,gartner ',bastarderzeugung' s4 #cje47 bearing flowers of three different colours4 ,the hybrid ,gladiolus colvilii occasionally bears uniformly coloured flowers1 and one case is recorded 7#aa_/eg4 ,mr4 ,d4 ,beaton in ',cottage ,gardener' #ahfj page #bej47 of all the flowers on a plant thus changing colour4 ,a ,fuchsia has been seen 7#aa_/eh4 ',gardener's ,chronicle' #ahej page #ecf47 bearing two kinds of flowers4 ,mirabilis jalapa is eminently sportive1 sometimes bearing on the same root pure red1 yellow1 and white flowers1 and others striped with various combinations of these three colours4 7#aa_/ei4 ,braun ',ray ,soc4 ,bot4 ,mem4' #ahec page #cae2 ,hopkirk ',flora ,anomala' page #afd2 ,lecoq ',geograph4 ,bot4 de l',europe' tome #c #ahed page #dje2 and ',de la ,fecondation' #ahfb page #cjc47 ,the plants of the ,mirabilis1 which bear such extraordinarily variable flowers in most1 probably in all1 cases1 owe their origin1 as shown by ,prof4 ,lecoq1 to crosses between differently coloured varieties4 ,,leaves ,,and ,,shoots4 ,changes1 through bud-variation1 in fruits and flowers have hitherto been treated of2 incidentally some remarkable modifications in the leaves and shoots of the rose and ,paritium1 and in a lesser degree in the foliage of the ,pelargonium and ,chrysanthemum1 have been noticed4 ,i will now add a few more cases of variation in leaf-buds4 ,verlot 7#aa_/fj4 ',des ,varietes' #ahfe page #e47 states that on ,aralia trifoliata1 which properly has leaves with three leaflets1 branches frequently appear bearing simple leaves of various forms2 these can be propagated by buds or by grafting1 and have given rise1 as he states1 to several nominal species4 ,with respect to trees1 the history of but few of the many varieties with curious or ornamental foliage is known2 but several probably have originated by bud-variation4 ,here is one case3--,an old ash-tree 7,fraxinus excelsior7 in the grounds of ,necton1 as ,mr4 ,mason states1 for many years has had one bough of a totally different character to the rest of the tree1 or of any other ash-tree which ,i have seen2 being short-jointed and densely covered with foliage4 ,it was ascertained that this variety could be propagated by grafts4 7#aa_/fa4 ,w4 ,mason in ',gardener's ,chronicle' #ahdc page #hgh47 ,the varieties of some trees with cut leaves1 as the oak-leaved laburnum1 the parsley-leaved vine1 and especially the fern-leaved beech1 are apt to revert by buds to the common forms4 7#aa_/fb4 ,alex4 ,braun ',ray ,soc4 ,bot4 ,mem4' #ahec page #cae2 ',gardener's ,chron4' #ahda page #cbi47 ,the fern-like leaves of the beech sometimes revert only partially1 and the branches display here and there sprouts bearing common leaves1 fern-like1 and variously shaped leaves4 ,such cases differ but little from the so- called heterophyllus varieties1 in which the tree habitually bears leaves of various forms2 but it is probable that most heterophyllous trees have originated as seedlings4 ,there is a sub-variety of the weeping willow with leaves rolled up into a spiral coil2 and ,mr4 ,masters states that a tree of this kind kept true in his garden for twenty-five years1 and then threw out a single upright shoot bearing flat leaves4 7#aa_/fc4 ,dr4 ,m4,t4 ,masters ',royal ,institution ,lecture' ,march #af1 #ahfj47 ,i have often noticed single twigs and branches on beech and other trees with their leaves fully expanded before those on the other branches had opened2 and as there was nothing in their exposure or character to account for this difference1 ,i presume that they had appeared as bud-variations1 like the early and late fruit-maturing varieties of the peach and nectarine4 ,cryptogamic plants are liable to bud-variation1 for fronds on the same fern often display remarkable deviations of structure4 ,spores1 which are of the nature of buds1 taken from such abnormal fronds1 reproduce1 with remarkable fidelity1 the same variety1 after passing through the sexual stage4 7#aa_/fd4 ,see ,mr4 ,w4,k4 ,bridgeman's curious paper in ',annals and ,mag4 of ,nat4 ,hist4' ,december #ahfa2 also ,mr4 ,j4 ,scott ',bot4 ,soc4 ,edinburgh' ,june #ab1 #ahfb47 ,with respect to colour1 leaves often become by bud-variation zoned1 blotched1 or spotted with white1 yellow1 and red2 and this occasionally occurs even with plants in a state of nature4 ,variegation1 however1 appears still more frequently in plants produced from seed2 even the cotyledons or seed-leaves being thus affected4 7#aa_/fe4 ',journal of ,horticulture' #ahfa page #ccf2 ,verlot ',des ,varietes' page #gf47 ,there have been endless disputes whether variegation should be considered as a disease4 ,in a future chapter we shall see that it is much influenced1 both in the case of seedlings and of mature plants1 by the nature of the soil4 ,plants which have become variegated as seedlings1 generally transmit their character by seed to a large proportion of their progeny2 and ,mr4 ,salter has given me a list of eight genera in which this occurred4 7#aa_/ff4 ,see also ,verlot ',des ,varietes' page #gd47 ,sir ,f4 ,pollock has given me more precise information3 he sowed seed from a variegated plant of ,ballota nigra which was found growing wild1 and thirty per cent of the seedlings were variegated2 seed from these latter being sown1 sixty per cent came up variegated4 ,when branches become variegated by bud-variation1 and the variety is attempted to be propagated by seed1 the seedlings are rarely variegated3 ,mr4 ,salter found this to be the case with plants belonging to eleven genera1 in which the greater number of the seedlings proved to be green-leaved2 yet a few were slightly variegated1 or were quite white1 but none were worth keeping4 ,variegated plants1 whether originally produced from seeds or buds1 can generally be propagated by budding1 grafting1 etc42 but all are apt to revert by bud- variation to their ordinary foliage4 ,this tendency1 however1 differs much in the varieties of even the same species2 for instance1 the golden-striped variety of ,euonymus japonicus is very liable to run back to the green- leaved1 while the silver-striped variety hardly ever changes4 7#aa_/fg4 ',gardener's ,chron4' #ahdd page #hf47 ,i have seen a variety of the holly1 with its leaves having a central yellow patch1 which had everywhere partially reverted to the ordinary foliage1 so that on the same small branch there were many twigs of both kinds4 ,in the pelargonium1 and in some other plants1 variegation is generally accompanied by some degree of dwarfing1 as is well exemplified in the ,dandy pelargonium4 ,when such dwarf varieties sport back by buds or suckers to the ordinary foliage1 the dwarfed stature still remains4 7#aa_/fh4 ,ibid #ahfa page #ifc47 ,it is remarkable that plants propagated from branches which have reverted from variegated to plain leaves 7#aa_/fi4 ,ibid #ahfa page #dcc2 ',cottage ,gardener' #ahfj page #b47 do not always 7or never1 as one observer asserts7 perfectly resemble the original plain-leaved plant from which the variegated branch arose3 it seems that a plant1 in passing by bud-variation from plain leaves to variegated1 and back again from variegated to plain1 is generally in some degree affected so as to assume a slightly different aspect4 ,,bud-,,variation ,,by ,,suckers1 ,,tubers1 ,,and ,,bulbs4 ,all the cases hitherto given of bud-variation in fruits1 flowers1 leaves1 and shoots1 have been confined to buds on the stems or branches1 with the exception of a few cases incidentally noticed of varying suckers in the rose1 pelargonium1 and chrysanthemum4 ,i will now give a few instances of variation in subterranean buds1 that is1 by suckers1 tubers1 and bulbs2 not that there is any essential difference between buds above and beneath the ground4 ,mr4 ,salter informs me that two variegated varieties of ,phlox originated as suckers2 but ,i should not have thought these worth mentioning1 had not ,mr4 ,salter found1 after repeated trials1 that he could not propagate them by root-joints1 whereas1 the variegated ,tussilago farfara can thus be safely propagated 7#aa_/gj4 ,m4 ,lemoine quoted in ',gardener's ,chronicle' #ahfg page #gd has lately observed that the ,symphytum with variegated leaves cannot be propagated by division of the roots4 ,he also found that out of #ejj plants of a ,phlox with striped flowers1 which had been propagated by root-division1 only seven or eight produced striped flowers4 ,see also on striped ,pelargoniums ',gardener's ,chronicle' #ahfg page #ajjj472 but this latter plant may have originated as a variegated seedling1 which would account for its greater fixedness of character4 ,the ,barberry 7,berberis vulgaris7 offers an analogous case2 there is a well-known variety with seedless fruit1 which can be propagated by cuttings or layers2 but suckers always revert to the common form1 which produces fruit containing seeds4 7#aa_/ga4 ,anderson ',recreations in ,agriculture' volume #e page #aeb47 ,my father repeatedly tried this experiment1 and always with the same result4 ,i may here mention that maize and wheat sometimes produce new varieties from the stock or root1 as does the sugar-cane4 7#aa_/gb4 ,for wheat see ',improvement of the ,cereals' by ,p4 ,shirreff #ahgc page #dg4 ,for maize and sugar-cane ,carriere ibid pages #dj1 #db4 ,with respect to the sugar-cane ,mr4 ,j4 ,caldwell of ,mauritius says 7',gardener's ,chronicle' #ahgd page #caf7 the ,ribbon cane has here sported into a perfectly green cane and a perfectly red cane from the same head4 ,i verified this myself1 and saw at least #bjj instances in the same plantation1 and the fact has completely upset all our preconceived ideas of the difference of colour being permanent4 ,the conversion of a striped cane into a green cane was not uncommon1 but the change into a red cane universally disbelieved1 and that both events should occur in the same plant incredible4 ,i find1 however1 in ,fleischman's ',report on ,sugar ,cultivation in ,louisiana for #ahdh by the ,american ,patent ,office1 the circumstance is mentioned1 but he says he never saw it himself47 ,turning now to tubers3 in the common ,potato 7,solanum tuberosum7 a single bud or eye sometimes varies and produces a new variety2 or1 occasionally1 and this is a much more remarkable circumstance1 all the eyes in a tuber vary in the same manner and at the same time1 so that the whole tuber assumes a new character4 ,for instance1 a single eye in a tuber of the old ,,forty-,,fold ,,potato1 which is a purple variety1 was observed 7#aa_/gc4 ',gardener's ,chronicle' #aheg page #ffb47 to become white2 this eye was cut out and planted separately1 and the kind has since been largely propagated4 ,,kemp',s ,,potato is properly white1 but a plant in ,lancashire produced two tubers which were red1 and two which were white2 the red kind was propagated in the usual manner by eyes1 and kept true to its new colour1 and1 being found a more productive variety1 soon became widely known under the name of ,,taylor',s ,,forty-,,fold4 7#aa_/gd4 ',gard4 ,chronicle' #ahda page #had47 ,the old ,,forty-,,fold ,,potato1 as already stated1 is a purple variety2 but a plant long cultivated on the same ground produced1 not1 as in the case above given1 a single white eye1 but a whole white tuber1 which has since been propagated and keeps true4 7#aa_/ge4 ,ibid #aheg page #fac47 ,several cases have been recorded of large portions of whole rows of potatoes slightly changing their character4 7#aa_/gf4 ,ibid #aheg page #fgi4 ,see also ,philips ',hist4 of ,vegetables' volume #b page #ia for other and similar accounts47 ,dahlias propagated by tubers under the hot climate of ,st4 ,domingo vary much2 ,sir ,r4 ,schomburgk gives the case of the ,butterfly variety1 which the second year produced on the same plant double and single flowers2 here white petals edged with maroon2 there of a uniform deep maroon4 7#aa_/gg4 ',journal of ,proc4 ,linn4 ,soc4' volume #b ,botany page #acb47 ,mr4 ,bree also mentions a plant which bore two different kinds of self-coloured flowers1 as well as a third kind which partook of both colours beautifully intermixed4 7#aa_/gh4 ,loudon's ',gardener's ,mag4' volume #h #ahcb page #id47 ,another case is described of a dahlia with purple flowers which bore a white flower streaked with purple4 7#aa_/gi4 ',gard4 ,chronicle' #ahej page #ecf2 and #ahdb page #gbi47 ,considering how long and extensively many ,bulbous plants have been cultivated1 and how numerous are the varieties produced from seed1 these plants have not perhaps varied so much by offsets1--that is1 by the production of new bulbs1--as might have been expected4 ,with the ,hyacinth1 however1 several instances have been given by ,m4 ,carriere4 ,a case also has been recorded of a blue variety which for three successive years gave offsets producing white flowers with a red centre4 7#aa_/hj4 ',des ,jacinthes' etc4 ,amsterdam #agfh page #abb47 ,another hyacinth bore 7#aa_/ha4 ',gardener's ,chronicle' #ahde page #bab47 on the same truss a perfectly pink and a perfectly blue flower4 ,i have seen a bulb producing at the same time one stalk or truss with fine blue flowers1 another with fine red flowers1 and a third with blue flowers on one side and red on the other2 several of the flowers being also longitudinally striped red and blue4 ,mr4 ,john ,scott informs me that in #ahfb ,imatophyllum miniatum1 in the ,botanic ,gardens of ,edinburgh1 threw up a sucker which differed from the normal form1 in the leaves being two-ranked instead of four-ranked4 ,the leaves were also smaller1 with the upper surface raised instead of being channelled4 ,in the propagation of ,,tulips1 seedlings are raised1 called selfs or breeders1 which1 consist of one plain colour on a white or yellow bottom4 ,these1 being cultivated on a dry and rather poor soil1 become broken or variegated and produce new varieties4 ,the time that elapses before they break varies from one to twenty years or more1 and sometimes this change never takes place4 7#aa_/hb4 ,loudon's ',encyclopaedia of ,gardening' page #ajbd47 ,the broken or variegated colours which give value to all tulips are due to bud-variation2 for although the ,bybloemens and some other kinds have been raised from several distinct breeders1 yet all the ,baguets are said to have come from a single breeder or seedling4 ,this bud-variation1 in accordance with the views of ,,mm4 ,vilmorin and ,verlot 7#aa_/hc4 ',production des ,varietes' #ahfe p4 #fc47 is probably an attempt to revert to that uniform colour which is natural to the species4 ,a tulip1 however1 which has already become broken1 when treated with too strong manure1 is liable to flush or lose by a second act of reversion its variegated colours4 ,some kinds1 as ,imperatrix ,florum1 are much more liable than others to flushing2 and ,mr4 ,dickson maintains 7#aa_/hd4 ',gardener's ,chronicle' #ahda page #ghb2 #ahdb page #ee47 that this can no more be accounted for than the variation of any other plant4 ,he believes that ,english growers1 from care in choosing seed from broken flowers instead of from plain flowers1 have to a certain extent diminished the tendency in flowers already broken to flushing or secondary reversion4 ,iris xiphium1 according to ,m4 ,carriere 7page #fe71 behaves in nearly the same manner1 as do so many tulips4 ,during two consecutive years all the early flowers in a bed of ,tigridia conchiflora 7#aa_/he4 ',gardener's ,chron4' #ahdi page #efe47 resembled those of the old ,t4 pavonia2 but the later flowers assumed their proper colour of fine yellow1 spotted with crimson4 ,an apparently authentic account has been published 7#aa_/hf4 ',transact4 ,lin4 ,soc4' volume #b page #ced47 of two forms of ,hemerocallis1 which have been universally considered as distinct species1 changing into each other2 for the roots of the large-flowered tawny ,h4 fulva1 being divided and planted in a different soil and place1 produced the small-flowered ,h4 flava1 as well as some intermediate forms4 ,it is doubtful whether such cases as these latter1 as well as the flushing of broken tulips and the running of particoloured carnations1--that is1 their more or less complete return to a uniform tint1--ought to be classed under bud-variation1 or ought to be retained for the chapter in which ,i treat of the direct action of the conditions of life on organic beings4 ,these cases1 however1 have this much in bud-variation1 that the change is effected through buds and not through seminal reproduction4 ,but1 on the other hand1 there is this difference--that in ordinary cases of bud- variation1 one bud alone changes1 whilst in the foregoing cases all the buds on the same plant were modified together4 ,with the potato1 we have seen an intermediate case1 for all the eyes in one tuber simultaneously changed their character4 ,i will conclude with a few allied cases1 which may be ranked either under bud-variation1 or under the direct action of the conditions of life4 ,when the common ,hepatica is transplanted from its native woods1 the flowers change colour1 even during the first year4 7#aa_/hg4 ,godron ',de l',espece' tome #b page #hd47 ,it is notorious that the improved varieties of the ,heartsease 7,viola tricolor71 when transplanted1 often produce flowers widely different in size1 form1 and colour3 for instance1 ,i transplanted a large uniformly-coloured dark purple variety1 whilst in full flower1 and it then produced much smaller1 more elongated flowers1 with the lower petals yellow2 these were succeeded by flowers marked with large purple spots1 and ultimately1 towards the end of the same summer1 by the original large dark purple flowers4 ,the slight changes which some fruit-trees undergo from being grafted and regrafted on various stocks 7#aa_/hh4 ,m4 ,carriere has lately described in the ',revue ,horticole' ,december #a1 #ahff page #deg1 an extraordinary case4 ,he twice inserted grafts of the ,aria vestita on thorn- trees 7epines7 growing in pots2 and the grafts1 as they grew1 produced shoots with bark1 buds1 leaves1 petioles1 petals1 and flower-stalks1 all widely different from those of the ,aria4 ,the grafted shoots were also much hardier1 and flowered earlier1 than those on the ungrafted ,aria47 were considered by ,andrew ,knight 7#aa_/hi4 ',transact4 ,hort4 ,soc4' volume #b page #afj47 as closely allied to sporting branches1 or bud-variations4 ,again1 we have the case of young fruit-trees changing their character as they grow old2 seedling pears1 for instance1 lose with age their spines and improve in the flavour of their fruit4 ,weeping birch-trees1 when grafted on the common variety1 do not acquire a perfect pendulous habit until they grow old3 on the other hand1 ,i shall hereafter give the case of some weeping ashes which slowly and gradually assumed an upright habit of growth4 ,all such changes1 dependent on age1 may be compared with the changes1 alluded to in the last chapter1 which many trees naturally undergo2 as in the case of the ,deodar and ,cedar of ,lebanon1 which are unlike in youth1 whilst they closely resemble each other in old age2 and as with certain oaks1 and with some varieties of the lime and hawthorn4 7#aa_/ij4 ,for the cases of oaks see ,alph4 ,de ,candolle in ',bibl4 ,univers4' ,geneva ,november #ahfb2 for limes etc4 ,loudon's ',gard4 ,mag4' volume #aa #ahce page #ejc47 ,,graft-,,hybrids4 ,before giving a summary on ,bud-variation ,i will discuss some singular and anomalous cases1 which are more or less closely related to this same subject4 ,i will begin with the famous case of ,adam's laburnum or ,cytisus adami1 a form or hybrid intermediate between two very distinct species1 namely1 ,c4 laburnum and purpureus1 the common and purple laburnum2 but as this tree has often been described1 ,i will be as brief as ,i can4 ,throughout ,europe1 in different soils and under different climates1 branches on this tree have repeatedly and suddenly reverted to the two parent species in their flowers and leaves4 ,to behold mingled on the same tree tufts of dingy-red1 bright yellow1 and purple flowers1 borne on branches having widely different leaves and manner of growth1 is a surprising sight4 ,the same raceme sometimes bears two kinds of flowers2 and ,i have seen a single flower exactly divided into halves1 one side being bright yellow and the other purple2 so that one half of the standard-petal was yellow and of larger size1 and the other half purple and smaller4 ,in another flower the whole corolla was bright yellow1 but exactly half the calyx was purple4 ,in another1 one of the dingy-red wing-petals had a narrow bright yellow stripe on it2 and lastly1 in another flower1 one of the stamens1 which had become slightly foliaceous1 was half yellow and half purple2 so that the tendency to segregation of character or reversion affects even single parts and organs4 7#aa_/ia4 ,for analogous facts see ,braun ',rejuvenescence' in ',ray ,soc4 ,bot4 ,mem4' #ahec page #cbj2 and ',gardener's ,chronicle' #ahdb page #cig2 also ,braun in ',sitzungsberichte der ,ges4 naturforschender ,freunde' ,june #ahgc page #fc47 ,the most remarkable fact about this tree is that in its intermediate state1 even when growing near both parent-species1 it is quite sterile2 but when the flowers become pure yellow or pure purple they yield seed4 ,i believe that the pods from the yellow flowers yield a full complement of seed2 they certainly yield a larger number4 ,two seedlings raised by ,mr4 ,herbert from such seed 7#aa_/ib4 ',journal of ,hort4 ,soc4' volume #b #ahdg page #ajj47 exhibited a purple tinge on the stalks of their flowers2 but several seedlings raised by myself resembled in every character the common laburnum1 with the exception that some of them had remarkably long racemes3 these seedlings were perfectly fertile4 ,that such purity of character and fertility should be suddenly reacquired from so hybridised and sterile a form is an astonishing phenomenon4 ,the branches with purple flowers appear at first sight exactly to resemble those of ,c4 purpureus2 but on careful comparison ,i found that they differed from the pure species in the shoots being thicker1 the leaves a little broader1 and the flowers slightly shorter1 with the corolla and calyx less brightly purple3 the basal part of the standard-petal also plainly showed a trace of the yellow stain4 ,so that the flowers1 at least in this instance1 had not perfectly recovered their true character2 and in accordance with this1 they were not perfectly fertile1 for many of the pods contained no seed1 some produced one1 and very few contained as many as two seeds2 whilst numerous pods on a tree of the pure ,c4 purpureus in my garden contained three1 four1 and five fine seeds4 ,the pollen1 moreover1 was very imperfect1 a multitude of grains being small and shrivelled2 and this is a singular fact2 for1 as we shall immediately see1 the pollen-grains in the dingy-red and sterile flowers on the parent-tree1 were1 in external appearance1 in a much better state1 and included very few shrivelled grains4 ,although the pollen of the reverted purple flowers was in so poor a condition1 the ovules were well formed1 and the seeds1 when mature1 germinated freely with me4 ,mr4 ,herbert raised plants from seeds of the reverted purple flowers1 and they differed a ,,very ,,little from the usual state of ,c4 purpureus4 ,some which ,i raised in the same manner did not differ at all1 either in the character of their flowers or of the whole bush1 from the pure ,c4 purpureus4 ,prof4 ,caspary has examined the ovules of the dingy-red and sterile flowers in several plants of ,c4 adami on the ,continent 7#aa_/ic4 ,see ',transact4 of ,hort4 ,congress of ,amsterdam' #ahfe2 but ,i owe most of the following information to ,prof4 ,caspary's letters47 and finds them generally monstrous4 ,in three plants examined by me in ,england1 the ovules were likewise monstrous1 the nucleus varying much in shape1 and projecting irregularly beyond the proper coats4 ,the pollen grains1 on the other hand1 judging from their external appearance1 were remarkably good1 and readily protruded their tubes4 ,by repeatedly counting1 under the microscope1 the proportional number of bad grains1 ,prof4 ,caspary ascertained that only #b4e per cent were bad1 which is a less proportion than in the pollen of three pure species of ,cytisus in their cultivated state1 viz41 ,c4 purpureus1 laburnum1 and alpinus4 ,although the pollen of ,c4 adami is thus in appearance good1 it does not follow1 according to ,m4 ,naudin's observation 7#aa_/id4 ',nouvelles ,archives du ,museum' tome #a page #adc47 on ,mirabilis1 that it would be functionally effective4 ,the fact of the ovules of ,c4 adami being monstrous1 and the pollen apparently sound1 is all the more remarkable1 because it is opposed to what usually occurs not only with most hybrids 7#aa_/ie4 ,see on this head ,naudin ibid page #ada471 but with two hybrids in the same genus1 namely in ,c4 purpureo-elongatus1 and ,c4 alpino-laburnum4 ,in both these hybrids1 the ovules1 as observed by ,prof4 ,caspary and myself1 were well-formed1 whilst many of the pollen-grains were ill-formed2 in the latter hybrid #bj4c per cent1 and in the former no less than #hd4h per cent of the grains were ascertained by ,prof4 ,caspary to be bad4 ,this unusual condition of the male and female reproductive elements in ,c4 adami has been used by ,prof4 ,caspary as an argument against this plant being considered as an ordinary hybrid produced from seed2 but we should remember that with hybrids the ovules have not been examined nearly so frequently as the pollen1 and they may be much oftener imperfect than is generally supposed4 ,dr4 ,e4 ,bornet1 of ,antibes1 informs me 7through ,mr4 ,j4 ,traherne ,moggridge7 that with hybrid ,cisti the ovarium is frequently deformed1 the ovules being in some cases quite absent1 and in other cases incapable of fertilisation4 ,several theories have been propounded to account for the origin of ,c4 adami1 and for the transformations which it undergoes4 ,the whole case has been attributed by some authors to bud-variation2 but considering the wide difference between ,c4 laburnum and purpureus1 both of which are natural species1 and considering the sterility of the intermediate form1 this view may be summarily rejected4 ,we shall presently see that1 with hybrid plants1 two embryos differing in their characters may be developed within the same seed and cohere2 and it has been supposed that ,c4 adami thus originated4 ,many botanists maintain that ,c4 adami is a hybrid produced in the common way by seed1 and that it has reverted by buds to its two parent-forms4 ,negative results are not of much value2 but ,reisseck1 ,caspary1 and myself1 tried in vain to cross ,c4 laburnum and purpureus2 when ,i fertilised the former with pollen of the latter1 ,i had the nearest approach to success1 for pods were formed1 but in sixteen days after the withering of the flowers1 they fell off4 ,nevertheless1 the belief that ,c4 adami is a spontaneously produced hybrid between these two species is supported by the fact that such hybrids have arisen in this genus4 ,in a bed of seedlings from ,c4 elongatus1 which grew near to ,c4 purpureus1 and was probably fertilised by it through the agency of insects 7for these1 as ,i know by experiment1 play an important part in the fertilisation of the laburnum71 the sterile hybrid ,c4 purpureo-elongatus appeared4 7#aa_/if4 ,braun in ',bot4 ,mem4 ,ray4 ,soc4' #ahec page #bc47 ,thus1 also1 ,waterer's laburnum1 the ,c4 alpino-laburnum 7#aa_/ig4 ,this hybrid has never been described4 ,it is exactly intermediate in foliage1 time of flowering1 dark striae at the base of the standard petal1 hairiness of the ovarium1 and in almost every other character1 between ,c4 laburnum and alpinus2 but it approaches the former species more nearly in colour1 and exceeds it in the length of the racemes4 ,we have before seen that #bj4c per cent of its pollen-grains are ill-formed and worthless4 ,my plant1 though growing not above thirty or forty yards from both parent-species1 during some seasons yielded no good seeds2 but in #ahff it was unusually fertile1 and its long racemes produced from one to occasionally even four pods4 ,many of the pods contained no good seeds1 but generally they contained a single apparently good seed1 sometimes two1 and in one case three seeds4 ,some of these seeds germinated1 and ,i raised two trees from them2 one resembles the present form2 the other has a remarkable dwarf character with small leaves1 but has not yet flowered47 spontaneously appeared1 as ,i am informed by ,mr4 ,waterer1 in a bed of seedlings4 ,on the other hand1 we have a clear and distinct account given to ,poiteau 7#aa_/ih4 ',annales de la ,soc4 de l',hort4 de ,paris' tome #g #ahcj page #ic47 by ,m4 ,adam1 who raised the plant1 showing that ,c4 adami is not an ordinary hybrid2 but is what may be called a graft-hybrid1 that is1 one produced from the united cellular tissue of two distinct species4 ,m4 ,adam inserted in the usual manner a shield of the bark of ,c4 purpureus into a stock of ,c4 laburnum2 and the bud lay dormant1 as often happens1 for a year2 the shield then produced many buds and shoots1 one of which grew more upright and vigorous with larger leaves than the shoots of ,c4 purpureus1 and was consequently propagated4 ,now it deserves especial notice that these plants were sold by ,m4 ,adam1 as a variety of ,c4 purpureus1 before they had flowered2 and the account was published by ,poiteau after the plants had flowered1 but before they had exhibited their remarkable tendency to revert into the two parent species4 ,so that there was no conceivable motive for falsification1 and it is difficult to see how there could have been any error4 7#aa_/ii4 ,an account was given in the ',gardener's ,chronicle' #aheg pages #chb1 #djj1 of a common laburnum on which grafts of ,c4 purpureus had been inserted1 and which gradually assumed the character of ,c4 adami2 but ,i have little doubt that ,c4 adami had been sold to the purchaser1 who was not a botanist1 in the place of ,c4 purpureus4 ,i have ascertained that this occurred in another instance47 ,if we admit as true ,m4 ,adam's account1 we must admit the extraordinary fact that two distinct species can unite by their cellular tissue1 and subsequently produce a plant bearing leaves and sterile flowers intermediate in character between the scion and stock1 and producing buds liable to reversion2 in short1 resembling in every important respect a hybrid formed in the ordinary way by seminal reproduction4 ,i will therefore give all the facts which ,i have been able to collect on the formation of hybrids between distinct species or varieties1 without the intervention of the sexual organs4 ,for if1 as ,i am now convinced1 this is possible1 it is a most important fact1 which will sooner or later change the views held by physiologists with respect to sexual reproduction4 ,a sufficient body of facts will afterwards be adduced1 showing that the segregation or separation of the characters of the two parent-forms by bud- variation1 as in the case of ,cytisus adami1 is not an unusual though a striking phenomenon4 ,we shall further see that a whole bud may thus revert1 or only half1 or some smaller segment4 ,the famous bizzarria ,orange offers a strictly parallel case to that of ,cytisus adami4 ,the gardener who in #afdd in ,florence raised this tree1 declared that it was a seedling which had been grafted2 and after the graft had perished1 the stock sprouted and produced the bizzarria4 ,gallesio1 who carefully examined several living specimens and compared them with the description given by the original describer1 ,p4 ,nato 7#aa_/ajj4 ,gallesio ',gli ,agrumi dei ,giard4 ,bot4 ,agrar4 di4 ,firenze' #ahci page #aa4 ,in his ',traite du ,citrus' #ahaa page #adf1 he speaks as if the compound fruit consisted in part of a lemon1 but this apparently was a mistake471 states that the tree produces at the same time leaves1 flowers1 and fruit identical with the bitter orange and with the citron of ,florence1 and likewise compound fruit1 with the two kinds either blended together1 both externally and internally1 or segregated in various ways4 ,this tree can be propagated by cuttings1 and retains its diversified character4 ,the so-called trifacial orange of ,alexandria and ,smyrna 7#aa_/aja4 ',gardener's ,chron4' #ahee page #fbh4 ,see also ,prof4 ,caspary in ',transact4 ,hort4 ,congress of ,amsterdam' #ahfe47 resembles in its general nature the bizzarria1 and differs only in the orange being of the sweet kind2 this and the citron are blended together in the same fruit1 or are separately produced on the same tree2 nothing is known of its origin4 ,in regard to the bizzarria1 many authors believe that it is a graft-hybrid2 ,gallesio1 on the other hand1 thinks that it is an ordinary hybrid1 with the habit of partially reverting by buds to the two parent- forms2 and we have seen that the species in this genus often cross spontaneously4 ,it is notorious that when the variegated ,jessamine is budded on the common kind1 the stock sometimes produces buds bearing variegated leaves3 ,mr4 ,rivers1 as he informs me1 has seen instances of this4 ,the same thing occurs with the ,oleander4 7#aa_/ajb4 ,gartner ',bastarderzeugung' s4 #faa gives many references on this subject47 ,mr4 ,rivers1 on the authority of a trustworthy friend1 states that some buds of a golden-variegated ash1 which were inserted into common ashes1 all died except one2 but the ash-stocks were affected 7#aa_/ajc4 ,a nearly similar account was given by ,brabley in #agbd in his ',treatise on ,husbandry' volume #a page #aii47 and produced1 both above and below the points of insertion of the plates of bark bearing the dead buds1 shoots which bore variegated leaves4 ,mr4 ,j4 ,anderson ,henry has communicated to me a nearly similar case3 ,mr4 ,brown1 of ,perth1 observed many years ago1 in a ,highland glen1 an ash-tree with yellow leaves2 and buds taken from this tree were inserted into common ashes1 which in consequence were affected1 and produced the ,blotched ,breadalbane ,ash4 ,this variety has been propagated1 and has preserved its character during the last fifty years4 ,weeping ashes1 also1 were budded on the affected stocks1 and became similarly variegated4 ,it has been repeatedly proved that several species of ,abutilon1 on which the variegated ,a4 thompsonii has been grafted1 become variegated4 7#aa_/ajd4 ,morren ',bull4 de l',acad4 ,r4 des ,sciences de ,belgique' #b;de series tome #bh #ahfi page #dcd4 ,also ,magnus ',gesellschaft naturforschender ,freunde1 ,berlin' ,february #ba1 #ahga page #ac2 ibid ,june #ba1 #ahgj and ,october #ag1 #ahga4 ,also ',bot4 ,zeitung' ,february #bd1 #ahga47 ,many authors consider variegation as the result of disease2 and the foregoing cases may be looked at as the direct result of the inoculation of a disease or some weakness4 ,this has been almost proved to be the case by ,morren in the excellent paper just referred to1 who shows that even a leaf inserted by its footstalk into the bark of the stock is sufficient to communicate variegation to it1 though the leaf soon perishes4 ,even fully formed leaves on the stock of ,abutilon are sometimes affected by the graft and become variegated4 ,variegation is much influenced1 as we shall hereafter see1 by the nature of the soil in which the plants are grown2 and it does not seem improbable that whatever change in the sap or tissues certain soils induce1 whether or not called a disease1 might spread from the inserted piece of bark to the stock4 ,but a change of this kind cannot be considered to be of the nature of a graft-hybrid4 ,there is a variety of the hazel with dark-purple leaves1 like those of the copper-beech3 no one has attributed this colour to disease1 and it apparently is only an exaggeration of a tint which may often be seen on the leaves of the common hazel4 ,when this variety is grafted on the common hazel 7#aa_/aje4 ,loudon's ',arboretum' volume #d page #beie471 it sometimes colours1 as has been asserted1 the leaves below the graft2 although negative evidence is not of much value1 ,i may add that ,mr4 ,rivers1 who has possessed hundreds of such grafted trees1 has never seen an instance4 ,gartner 7#aa_/ajf4 ',bastarderzeugung' s4 #fai47 quotes two separate accounts of branches of dark and white-fruited vines which had been united in various ways1 such as being split longitudinally1 and then joined1 etc42 and these branches produced distinct bunches of grapes of the two colours1 and other bunches with berries1 either striped1 or of an intermediate and new tint4 ,even the leaves in one case were variegated4 ,these facts are the more remarkable because ,andrew ,knight never succeeded in raising variegated grapes by fertilising white kinds by pollen of dark kinds2 though1 as we have seen1 he obtained seedlings with variegated fruits and leaves1 by fertilising a white variety by the already variegated dark ,aleppo grape4 ,gartner attributes the above-quoted cases merely to bud-variation2 but it is a strange coincidence that the branches which had been grafted in a peculiar manner should alone thus have varied2 and ,h4 ,adorne de ,tscharner positively asserts that he produced the described result more than once1 and could do so at will1 by splitting and uniting the branches in the manner described by him4 ,i should not have quoted the following case had not the author of ',des ,jacinthes' 7#aa_/ajg4 ,amsterdam #agfh page #abd47 impressed me with the belief not only of his extensive knowledge1 but of his truthfulness3 he says that bulbs of blue and red hyacinths may be cut in two1 and that they will grow together and throw up a united stem 7and this ,i have myself seen7 with flowers of the two colours on the opposite sides4 ,but the remarkable point is1 that flowers are sometimes produced with the two colours blended together1 which makes the case closely analogous with that of the blended colours of the grapes on the united vine branches4 ,in the case of roses it is supposed that several graft-hybrids have been formed1 but there is much doubt about these cases1 owing to the frequency of ordinary bud-variations4 ,the most trustworthy instance known to me is one1 recorded by ,mr4 ,poynter 7#aa_/ajh4 ',gardener's ,chron4' #ahfj page #fgb with a woodcut47 who assures me in a letter of the entire accuracy of the statement4 ,rosa devoniensis had been budded some years previously on a white ,banksian rose2 and from the much enlarged point of junction1 whence the ,devoniensis and ,banksian still continued to grow1 a third branch issued1 which was neither pure ,banksian nor pure ,devoniensis1 but partook of the character of both2 the flowers resembled1 but were superior in character to those of the variety called ,lamarque 7one of the ,noisettes71 while the shoots were similar in their manner of growth to those of the ,banksian rose1 with the exception that the longer and more robust shoots were furnished with prickles4 ,this rose was exhibited before the ,floral ,committee of the ,horticultural ,society of ,london4 ,dr4 ,lindley examined it and concluded that it had certainly been produced by the mingling of ,r4 banksiae with some rose like ,r4 devoniensis1 for while it was very greatly increased in vigour and in size of all the parts1 the leaves were half-way between a ,banksian and ,tea-scented rose4 ,it appears that rose-growers were previously aware that the ,banksian rose sometimes affects other roses4 ,as ,mr4 ,poynter's new variety is intermediate in its fruit and foliage between the stock and scion1 and as it arose from the point of junction between the two1 it is very improbable that it owes its origin to mere bud-variation1 independently of the mutual influence of the stock and scion4 ,lastly1 with respect to potatoes4 ,mr4 ,r4 ,trail stated in #ahfg before the ,botanical ,society of ,edinburgh 7and has since given me fuller information71 that several years ago he cut about sixty blue and white potatoes into halves through the eyes or buds1 and then carefully joined them1 destroying at the same time the other eyes4 ,some of these united tubers produced white1 and others blue tubers2 some1 however1 produced tubers partly white and partly blue2 and the tubers from about four or five were regularly mottled with the two colours4 ,in these latter cases we may conclude that a stem had been formed by the union of the bisected buds1 that is1 by graft- hybridisation4 ,in the ',botanische ,zeitung' 7,may #af1 #ahfh71 ,professor ,hildebrand gives an account with a coloured figure1 of his experiments on two varieties which were found during the same season to be constant in character1 namely1 a somewhat elongated rough-skinned red potato and a rounded smooth white one4 ,he inserted buds reciprocally into both kinds1 destroying the other buds4 ,he thus raised two plants1 and each of these produced a tuber intermediate in character between the two parent-forms4 ,that from the red bud grafted into the white tuber1 was at one end red and rough1 as the whole tuber ought to have been if not affected2 in the middle it was smooth with red stripes1 and at the other end smooth and altogether white like that of the stock4 ,mr4 ,taylor1 who had received several accounts of potatoes having been grafted by wedge-shaped pieces of one variety inserted into another1 though sceptical on the subject1 made twenty-four experiments which he described in detail before the ,horticultural ,society4 7#aa_/aji4 ',gardener's ,chronicle' #ahfi page #bbj47 ,he thus raised many new varieties1 some like the graft or like the stock2 others having an intermediate character4 ,several persons witnessed the digging up of the tubers from these graft-hybrids2 and one of them1 ,mr4 ,jameson1 a large dealer in potatoes1 writes thus1 ,they were such a mixed lot1 as ,i have never before or since seen4 ,they were of all colours and shapes1 some very ugly and some very handsome4 ,another witness says some were round1 some kidney1 pink-eyed kidney1 piebald1 and mottled red and purple1 of all shapes and sizes4 ,some of these varieties have been found valuable1 and have been extensively propagated4 ,mr4 ,jameson took away a large piebald potato which he cut into five sets and propagated2 these yielded round1 white1 red1 and piebald potatoes4 ,mr4 ,fitzpatrick followed a different plan 7#aa_/aaj4 ',gard4 ,chronicle' #ahfi page #cce472 he grafted together not the tubers but the young stems of varieties producing black1 white1 and red potatoes4 ,the tubers borne by three of these twin or united plants were coloured in an extraordinary manner2 one was almost exactly half black and half white1 so that some persons on seeing it thought that two potatoes had been divided and rejoined2 other tubers were half red and half white1 or curiously mottled with red and white1 or with red and black1 according to the colours of the graft and stock4 ,the testimony of ,mr4 ,fenn is of much value1 as he is a well known potato- grower who has raised many new varieties by crossing different kinds in the ordinary manner4 ,he considers it demonstrated that new1 intermediate varieties can be produced by grafting the tubers1 though he doubts whether such will prove valuable4 7#aa_/aaa4 ',gardener's ,chronicle' #ahfi page #ajah with remarks by ,dr4 ,masters on the adhesion of the united wedges4 ,see also ibid #ahgj pages #abgg1 #abhc47 ,he made many trials and laid the results1 exhibiting specimens1 before the ,horticultural ,society4 ,not only were the tubers affected1 some being smooth and white at one end and rough and red at the other1 but the stems and leaves were modified in their manner of growth1 colour and precocity4 ,some of these graft-hybrids after being propagated for three years still showed in their haulms their new character1 different from that of the kind from which the eyes had been taken4 ,mr4 ,fenn gave twelve of the tubers of the third generation to ,mr4 ,alex4 ,dean1 who grew them1 and was thus converted into a believer in graft- hybridisation1 having previously been a complete sceptic4 ,for comparison he planted the pure parent-forms alongside the twelve tubers2 and found that many of the plants from the latter 7#aa_/aab4 ',gard4 ,chronicle' #ahga page #hcg47 were intermediate between the two parent-forms in precocity1 in the tallness1 uprightness1 jointing1 and robustness of the stems1 and in the size and colour of the leaves4 ,another experimentalist1 ,mr4 ,rintoul1 grafted no less than fifty-nine tubers1 which differed in shape 7some being kidneys7 in smoothness and colour 7#aa_/aac4 ',gardener's ,chronicle' #ahgj page #aejf47 and many of the plants thus raised were intermediate in the tubers as well as in the haulms4 ,he describes the more striking cases4 ,in #ahga ,i received a letter from ,mr4 ,merrick1 of ,boston1 ,u4,s4,a41 who states that1 ,mr4 ,fearing ,burr1 a very careful experimenter and author of a much valued book1 ',the ,garden ,vegetables of ,america' has succeeded in producing distinctly mottled and most curious potatoes--evidently graft-hybrids1 by inserting eyes from blue or red potatoes into the substance of white ones1 after removing the eyes of the latter4 ,i have seen the potatoes1 and they are very curious4 ,we will now turn to the experiments made in ,germany1 since the publication of ,prof4 ,hildebrand's paper4 ,herr ,magnus relates 7#aa_/aad4 ',sitzungsberichte der ,gesellschaft naturforschender ,freunde zu ,berlin' ,october #ag1 #ahga47 the results of numerous trials made by ,herren ,reuter and ,lindemuth1 both attached to the ,royal ,gardens of ,berlin4 ,they inserted the eyes of red potatoes into white ones1 and vice versa4 ,many different forms partaking of the characters of the inserted bud and of the stock were thus obtained2 for instance1 some of the tubers were white with red eyes4 ,herr ,magnus also exhibited in the following year before the same ,society 7,november #ai1 #ahgb71 the produce of grafts between black1 white1 and red potatoes1 made by ,dr4 ,neubert4 ,these were made by uniting not the tubers but the young stems1 as was done by ,mr4 ,fitzpatrick4 ,the result was remarkable1 inasmuch as all the tubers thus produced were intermediate in character1 though in a variable degree4 ,those between the black and the white or the red were the most striking in appearance4 ,some from between the white and red had one half of one colour and the other half of the other colour4 ,at the next meeting of the society ,herr ,magnus communicated the results of ,dr4 ,heimann's experiments in grafting together the tubers of red ,saxon1 blue1 and elongated white potatoes4 ,the eyes were removed by a cylindrical instrument1 and inserted into corresponding holes in other varieties4 ,the plants thus produced yielded a great number of tubers1 which were intermediate between the two parent-forms in shape1 and in the colour both of the flesh and skin4 ,herr ,reuter experimented 7#aa_/aae4 ,ibid ,november #ag1 #ahgd4 ,see also excellent remarks by ,herr ,magnus47 by inserting wedges of the elongated ,white ,mexican potato into a ,black ,kidney potato4 ,both sorts are known to be very constant1 and differ much not only in form and colour1 but in the eyes of the ,black ,kidney being deeply sunk1 whereas those of the ,white ,mexican are superficial and of a different shape4 ,the tubers produced by these hybrids were intermediate in colour and form2 and some which resembled in form the graft1 i4e4 the ,mexican1 had eyes deeply sunk and of the same shape as in the stock or ,black ,kidney4 ,any one who will attentively consider the abstract now given1 of the experiments made by many observers in several countries1 will1 ,i think1 be convinced that by grafting two varieties of the potato together in various ways1 hybridised plants can be produced4 ,it should be observed that several of the experimentalists are scientific horticulturists1 and some of them potato-growers on a large scale1 who1 though beforehand sceptical1 have been fully convinced of the possibility1 even of the ease1 of making graft- hybrids4 ,the only way of escaping from this conclusion is to attribute all the many recorded cases to simple bud-variation4 ,undoubtedly the potato1 as we have seen in this chapter1 does sometimes1 though not often1 vary by buds2 but it should be especially noted that it is experienced potato- growers1 whose business it is to look out for new varieties1 who have expressed unbounded astonishment at the number of new forms produced by graft-hybridisation4 ,it may be argued that it is merely the operation of grafting1 and not the union of two kinds1 which causes so extraordinary an amount of bud-variation2 but this objection is at once answered by the fact that potatoes are habitually propagated by the tubers being cut into pieces1 and the sole difference in the case of graft-hybrids is that either a half or a smaller segment or a cylinder is placed in close opposition with the tissue of another variety4 ,moreover1 in two cases1 the young stems were grafted together1 and the plants thus united yielded the same results as when the tubers were united4 ,it is an argument of the greatest weight that when varieties are produced by simple bud-variation1 they frequently present quite new characters2 whereas in all the numerous cases above given1 as ,herr ,magnus likewise insists1 the graft-hybrids are intermediate in character between the two forms employed4 ,that such a result should follow if the one kind did not affect the other is incredible4 ,characters of all kinds are affected by graft hybridisation1 in whatever way the grafting may have been effected4 ,the plants thus raised yield tubers which partake of the widely different colours1 form1 state of surface1 position and shape of the eye of the parents2 and according to two careful observers they are also intermediate in certain constitutional peculiarities4 ,but we should bear in mind that in all the varieties of the potato1 the tubers differ much more than any other part4 ,the potato affords the best evidence of the possibility of the formation of graft-hybrids1 but we must not overlook the account given of the origin of the famous ,cytisus adami by ,m4 ,adam1 who had no conceivable motive for deception1 and the exactly parallel account of the origin of the ,bizzarria orange1 namely by graft-hybridisation4 ,nor must the cases be undervalued in which different varieties or species of vines1 hyacinths and roses1 have been grafted together1 and have yielded intermediate forms4 ,it is evident that graft-hybrids can be made much more easily with some plants1 as the potato1 than with others1 for instance our common fruit trees2 for these latter have been grafted by the million during many centuries1 and though the graft is often slightly affected1 it is very doubtful whether this may not be accounted for1 merely by a more or less free supply of nutriment4 ,nevertheless1 the cases above given seem to me to prove that under certain unknown conditions graft-hybridisation can be effected4 ,herr ,magnus asserts with much truth that graft-hybrids resemble in all respects seminal hybrids1 including their great diversity of character4 ,there is1 however1 a partial exception1 inasmuch as the characters of the two parent forms are not often homogeneously blended together in graft- hybrids4 ,they much more commonly appear in a segregated condition1--that is1 in segments either at first1 or subsequently through reversion4 ,it would seem that the reproductive elements are not so completely blended by grafting as by sexual generation4 ,but segregation of this kind occurs by no means rarely1 as will be immediately shown1 in seminal hybrids4 ,finally it must1 ,i think1 be admitted that we learn from the foregoing cases a highly important physiological fact1 namely1 that the elements that go to the production of a new being1 are not necessarily formed by the male and female organs4 ,they are present in the cellular tissue in such a state that they can unite without the aid of the sexual organs1 and thus give rise to a new bud partaking of the characters of the two parent-forms4 ,,on ,,the ,,segregation ,,of ,,the ,,parental ,,characters ,,in ,,seminal ,,hybrids ,,by ,,bud- ,,variation4 ,i will now give a sufficient number of cases to show that segregation of this kind1 namely1 by buds1 may occur in ordinary hybrids raised from seed4 ,hybrids were raised by ,gartner between ,tropaeolum minus and majus 7#aa_/aaf4 ',bastarderzeugung' s4 #edi4 ,it is1 however1 doubtful whether these plants should be ranked as species or varieties47 which at first produced flowers intermediate in size1 colour1 and structure between their two parents2 but later in the season some of these plants produced flowers in all respects like those of the mother-form1 mingled with flowers still retaining the usual intermediate condition4 ,a hybrid ,cereus between ,c4 speciosissimus and phyllanthus 7#aa_/aag4 ,gartner ibid s4 #eej47 plants which are widely different in appearance1 produced for the first three years angular1 five- sided stems1 and then some flat stems like those of ,c4 phyllanthus4 ,kolreuter also gives cases of hybrid ,lobelias and ,verbascums1 which at first produced flowers of one colour1 and later in the season1 flowers of a different colour4 7#aa_/aah4 ',journal de ,physique' tome #bc #ahgc page #ajj4 ',act4 ,acad4 ,st4 ,petersburgh' #agha part #a page #bdi47 ,naudin 7#aa_/aai4 ',nouvelles ,archives du ,museum' tome #a page #di47 raised forty hybrids from ,datura laevis fertilised by ,d4 stramonium2 and three of these hybrids produced many capsules1 of which a half1 or quarter1 or lesser segment was smooth and of small size1 like the capsule of the pure ,d4 laevis1 the remaining part being spinose and of larger size1 like the capsule of the pure ,d4 stramonium3 from one of these composite capsules1 plants perfectly resembling both parent-forms were raised4 ,turning now to varieties4 ,a ,,seedling apple1 conjectured to be of crossed parentage1 has been described in ,france 7#aa_/abj4 ,l',hermes ,january #ad1 #ahcg quoted in ,loudon's ',gardener's ,mag4' volume #ac page #bcj47 which bears fruit with one half larger than the other1 of a red colour1 acid taste1 and peculiar odour2 the other side being greenish-yellow and very sweet3 it is said scarcely ever to include perfectly developed seed4 ,i suppose that this is not the same tree as that which ,gaudichaud 7#aa_/aba4 ',comptes ,rendus' tome #cd #aheb page #gdf47 exhibited before the ,french institute1 bearing on the same branch two distinct kinds of apples1 one a reinette rouge1 and the other like a reinette canada jaunatre3 this double-bearing variety can be propagated by grafts1 and continues to produce both kinds2 its origin is unknown4 ,the ,rev4 ,j4,d4 ,la ,touche sent me a coloured drawing of an apple which he brought from ,canada1 of which half1 surrounding and including the whole of the calyx and the insertion of the foot-stalk1 is green1 the other half being brown and of the nature of the pomme gris apple1 with the line of separation between the two halves exactly defined4 ,the tree was a grafted one1 and ,mr4 ,la ,touche thinks that the branches which bore this curious apple sprung from the point of junction of the graft and stock3 had this fact been ascertained1 the case would probably have come into the class of graft-hybrids already given4 ,but the branch may have sprung from the stock1 which no doubt was a seedling4 ,prof4 ,h4 ,lecoq1 who has made a great number of crossings between the differently coloured varieties of ,mirabilis jalapa 7#aa_/abb4 ',geograph4 ,bot4 de l',europe' tome #c #ahed page #dje2 and ',de la ,fecondation' #ahfb page #cjb47 finds that in the seedlings the colours rarely combine1 but form distinct stripes2 or half the flower is of one colour and half of a different colour4 ,some varieties regularly bear flowers striped with yellow1 white1 and red2 but plants of such varieties occasionally produce on the same root branches with uniformly coloured flowers of all three tints1 and other branches with half-and-half coloured flowers1 and others with marbled flowers4 ,gallesio 7#aa_/abc4 ',traite du ,citrus' #ahaa page #de47 crossed reciprocally white and red carnations1 and the seedlings were striped2 but some of the striped plants also bore entirely white and entirely red flowers4 ,some of these plants produced one year red flowers alone1 and in the following year striped flowers2 or conversely1 some plants1 after having borne for two or three years striped flowers1 would revert and bear exclusively red flowers4 ,it may be worth mentioning that ,i fertilised the ,,purple ,,sweet-,,pea 7,lathyrus odoratus7 with pollen from the light-coloured ,,painted ,,lady3 seedlings raised from the same pod were not intermediate in character1 but perfectly resembled either parent4 ,later in the summer1 the plants which had at first borne flowers identical with those of the ,,painted ,,lady1 produced flowers streaked and blotched with purple2 showing in these darker marks a tendency to reversion to the mother-variety4 ,andrew ,knight 7#aa_/abd4 ',transact4 ,linn4 ,soc4' volume #i page #bfh47 fertilised two white grapes with pollen of the ,aleppo grape1 which is darkly variegated both in its leaves and fruit4 ,the result was that the young seedlings were not at first variegated1 but all became variegated during the succeeding summer2 besides this1 many produced on the same plant bunches of grapes which were all black1 or all white1 or lead-coloured striped with white1 or white dotted with minute black stripes2 and grapes of all these shades could frequently be found on the same foot-stalk4 ,i will append a very curious case1 not of bud-variation1 but of two cohering embryos1 different in character and contained within the same seed4 ,a distinguished botanist1 ,mr4 ,g4,h4 ,thwaites 7#aa_/abe4 ',annals and ,mag4 of ,nat4 ,hist4' ,march #ahdh47 states that a seed from ,fuchsia coccinea fertilised by ,f4 fulgens1 contained two embryos1 and was a true vegetable twin4 ,the two plants produced from the two embryos were extremely different in appearance and character1 though both resembled other hybrids of the same parentage produced at the same time4 ,these twin plants were closely coherent1 below the two pairs of cotyledon-leaves1 into a single cylindrical stem1 so that they had subsequently the appearance of being branches on one trunk4 ,had the two united stems grown up to their full height1 instead of dying1 a curiously mixed hybrid would have been produced4 ,a mongrel melon described by ,sageret 7#aa_/abf4 ',pomologie ,physiolog4' #ahcj page #abf47 may perhaps have thus originated2 for the two main branches1 which arose from two cotyledon-buds1 produced very different fruit1--on the one branch like that of the paternal variety1 and on the other branch like to a certain extent that of the maternal variety1 the melon of ,china4 ,in most of these cases of crossed varieties1 and in some of the cases of crossed species1 the colours proper to both parents appeared in the seedlings1 as soon as they first flowered1 in the form of stripes or larger segments1 or as whole flowers or fruit of different kinds borne on the same plant2 and in this case the appearance of the two colours cannot strictly be said to be due to reversion1 but to some incapacity of fusion4 ,when1 however1 the later flowers or fruit produced during the same season1 or during a succeeding year or generation1 become striped or half-and-half1 etc41 the segregation of the two colours is strictly a case of reversion by bud-variation4 ,whether all the many recorded cases of striped flowers and fruit are due to previous hybridisation and reversion is by no means clear1 for instance with peaches and nectarines1 moss-roses1 etc4 ,in a future chapter ,i shall show that1 with animals of crossed parentage1 the same individual has been known to change its character during growth1 and to revert to one of its parents which it did not at first resemble4 ,finally1 from the various facts now given1 there can be no doubt that the same individual plant1 whether a hybrid or a mongrel1 sometimes returns in its leaves1 flowers1 and fruit1 either wholly or by segments1 to both parent- forms4 ,,on ,,the ,,direct ,,or ,,immediate ,,action ,,of ,,the ,,male ,,element ,,on ,,the ,,mother ,,form4 ,another remarkable class of facts must be here considered1 firstly1 because they have a high physiological importance1 and secondly1 because they have been supposed to account for some cases of bud-variation4 ,i refer to the direct action of the male element1 not in the ordinary way on the ovules1 but on certain parts of the female plant1 or in case of animals on the subsequent progeny of the female by a second male4 ,i may premise that with plants the ovarium and the coats of the ovules are obviously parts of the female1 and it could not have been anticipated that they would have been affected by the pollen of a foreign variety or species1 although the development of the embryo1 inside the embryonic sack1 inside the ovule and ovarium1 of course1 depends on the male element4 ,even as long ago as #agbi it was observed 7#aa_/abg4 ',philosophical ,transact4' volume #dc #agdd-de page #ebe47 that white and blue varieties of the ,pea1 when planted near each other1 mutually crossed1 no doubt through the agency of bees1 and in the autumn blue and white peas were found within the same pods4 ,wiegmann made an exactly similar observation in the present century4 ,the same result has followed several times when a variety with peas of one colour has been artificially crossed by a differently-coloured variety4 7#aa_/abh4 ,mr4 ,goss ',transact4 ,hort4 ,soc4' volume #e page #bcd3 and ,gartner ',bastarderzeugung' #ahdi ss4 #ha and #dii47 ,these statements led ,gartner1 who was highly sceptical on the subject1 carefully to try a long series of experiments3 he selected the most constant varieties1 and the result conclusively showed that the colour of the skin of the pea is modified when pollen of a differently coloured variety is used4 ,this conclusion has since been confirmed by experiments made by the ,rev4 ,j4,m4 ,berkeley4 7#aa_/abi4 ',gardener's ,chronicle' #ahed page #djd47 ,mr4 ,laxton of ,stamford1 whilst making experiments on peas for the express purpose of ascertaining the influence of foreign pollen on the mother- plant1 has recently 7#aa_/acj4 ,ibid #ahff page #ijj47 observed an important additional fact4 ,he fertilised the ,tall ,sugar-pea1 which bears very thin green pods1 becoming brownish-white when dry1 with pollen of the ,purple- podded pea1 which1 as its name expresses1 has dark-purple pods with very thick skin1 becoming pale reddish purple when dry4 ,mr4 ,laxton has cultivated the tall sugar-pea during twenty years1 and has never seen or heard of it producing a purple pod3 nevertheless1 a flower fertilised by pollen from the purple-pod yielded a pod clouded with purplish-red which ,mr4 ,laxton kindly gave to me4 ,a space of about two inches in length towards the extremity of the pod1 and a smaller space near the stalk1 were thus coloured4 ,on comparing the colour with that of the purple pod1 both pods having been first dried and then soaked in water1 it was found to be identically the same2 and in both the colour was confined to the cells lying immediately beneath the outer skin of the pod4 ,the valves of the crossed pod were also decidedly thicker and stronger than those of the pods of the mother-plant1 but this may possibly have been an accidental circumstance1 for ,i know not how far their thickness is a variable character in the ,tall ,sugar-pea4 ,the peas of the ,tall ,sugar-pea1 when dry1 are pale greenish-brown1 thickly covered with dots of dark purple so minute as to be visible only through a lens1 and ,mr4 ,laxton has never seen or heard of this variety producing a purple pea2 but in the crossed pod one of the peas was of a uniform beautiful violet-purple tint1 and a second was irregularly clouded with pale purple4 ,the colour lies in the outer of the two coats which surround the pea4 ,as the peas of the purple-podded variety when dry are of a pale greenish-buff1 it would at first appear that this remarkable change of colour in the peas in the crossed pod could not have been caused by the direct action of the pollen of the purple-pod3 but when we bear in mind that this latter variety has purple flowers1 purple marks on its stipules1 and purple pods2 and that the ,tall ,sugar-pea likewise has purple flowers and stipules1 and microscopically minute purple dots on the peas1 we can hardly doubt that the tendency to the production of purple in both parents has in combination modified the colour of the peas in the crossed pod4 ,after having examined these specimens1 ,i crossed the same two varieties1 and the peas in one pod but not the pods themselves1 were clouded and tinted with purplish-red in a much more conspicuous manner than the peas in the uncrossed pods produced at the same time by the same plants4 ,i may notice as a caution that ,mr4 ,laxton sent me various other crossed peas slightly1 or even greatly1 modified in colour2 but the change in these cases was due1 as had been suspected by ,mr4 ,laxton1 to the altered colour of the cotyledons1 seen through the transparent coats of the peas2 and as the cotyledons are parts of the embryo1 these cases are not in any way remarkable4 ,turning now to the genus ,matthiola4 ,the pollen of one kind of stock sometimes affects the colour of the seeds of another kind1 used as the mother-plant4 ,i give the following case the more readily1 as ,gartner doubted similar statements previously made with respect to the stock by other observers4 ,a well-known horticulturist1 ,major ,trevor ,clarke1 informs me 7#aa_/aca4 ,see also a paper by this observer read before the ,international ,hort4 and ,bot4 ,congress of ,london #ahff47 that the seeds of the large red- flowered ,,biennial stock1 ,matthiola annua 7,cocardeau of the ,french71 are light brown1 and those of the purple branching ,queen stock 7,m4 incana7 are violet-black2 and he found that1 when flowers of the red stock were fertilised by pollen from the purple stock1 they yielded about fifty per cent of ,,black seeds4 ,he sent me four pods from a red flowered plant1 two of which had been fertilised by their own pollen1 and they included pale brown seed2 and two which had been crossed by pollen from the purple kind1 and they included seeds all deeply tinged with black4 ,these latter seeds yielded purple-flowered plants like their father2 whilst the pale brown seeds yielded normal red-flowered plants2 and ,major ,clarke1 by sowing similar seeds1 has observed on a greater scale the same result4 ,the evidence in this case of the direct action of the pollen of one species on the colour of the seeds of another species appears to me conclusive4 ,gallesio 7#aa_/acb4 ',traite du ,citrus' page #dj47 fertilised the flowers of an orange with pollen from the lemon2 and one fruit thus produced bore a longitudinal stripe of peel having the colour1 flavour1 and other characters of the lemon4 ,mr4 ,anderson 7#aa_/acc4 ',transact4 ,hort4 ,soc4' volume #c page #cah4 ,see also volume #e page #fe47 fertilised a green-fleshed melon with pollen from a scarlet-fleshed kind2 in two of the fruits a sensible change was perceptible3 and four other fruits were somewhat altered both internally and externally4 ,the seeds of the two first- mentioned fruits produced plants partaking of the good properties of both parents4 ,in the ,united ,states1 where ,cucurbitaceae are largely cultivated1 it is the popular belief 7#aa_/acd4 ,prof4 ,asa ,gray ',proc4 ,acad4 ,sc4' ,boston volume #d #ahfj page #ba4 ,i have received statements to the same effect from other persons in the ,united ,states47 that the fruit is thus directly affected hy foreign pollen2 and ,i have received a similar statement with respect to the cucumber in ,england4 ,it is believed that grapes have been thus affected in colour1 size1 and shape3 in ,france a pale-coloured grape had its juice tinted by the pollen of the dark-coloured ,teinturier2 in ,germany a variety bore berries which were affected by the pollen of two adjoining kinds2 some of the berries being only partially affected or mottled4 7#aa_/ace4 ,for the ,french case see ',journ4 ,hort4 ,soc4' volume #a new series #ahff page #ej4 ,for ,germany see ,m4 ,jack quoted in ,henfrey's ',botanical ,gazette' volume #a page #bgg4 ,a case in ,england has recently been alluded to by the ,rev4 ,j4,m4 ,berkeley before the ,hort4 ,soc4 of ,london47 ,as long ago as #agea 7#aa_/acf4 ',philosophical ,transactions' volume #dg #agea-eb page #bjf47 it was observed that1 when differently-coloured varieties of maize grew near each other1 they mutually affected each other's seeds1 and this is now a popular belief in the ,united ,states4 ,dr4 ,savi 7#aa_/acg4 ,gallesio ',teoria della ,riproduzione' #ahaf page #ie47 tried the experiment with care3 he sowed yellow and black-seeded maize together1 and on the same ear some of the seeds were yellow1 some black1 and some mottled1 the differently coloured seeds being arranged irregularly or in rows4 ,prof4 ,hildebrand has repeated the experiment 7#aa_/ach4 ',bot4 ,zeitung' ,may #ahfh page #cbf47 with the precaution of ascertaining that the mother-plant was true4 ,a kind bearing yellow grains was fertilised with pollen of a kind having brown grains1 and two ears produced yellow grains mingled with others of a dirty violet tint4 ,a third ear had only yellow grains1 but one side of the spindle was tinted of a reddish-brown2 so that here we have the important fact of the influence of the foreign pollen extending to the axis4 ,mr4 ,arnold1 in ,canada1 varied the experiment in an interesting manner3 a female flower was subjected first to the action of pollen from a yellow variety1 and then to that from a white variety2 the result was an ear1 each grain of which was yellow below and white above4 7#aa_/aci4 ,see ,dr4 ,j4 ,stockton-,hough ',american ,naturalist' ,january #ahgd page #bi47 ,with other plants it has occasionally been observed that the crossed offspring showed the influence of two kinds of pollen1 but in this case the two kinds affected the mother-plant4 ,mr4 ,sabine states 7#aa_/adj4 ',transact4 ,hort4 ,soc4' volume #e page #fi47 that he has seen the form of the nearly globular seed-capsule of ,amaryllis vittata altered by the application of the pollen of another species1 of which the capsule has gibbous angles4 ,with an allied genus1 a well-known botanist1 ,maximowicz1 has described in detail the striking results of reciprocally fertilising ,lilium bulbiferum and davuricum with each other's pollen4 ,each species produced fruit not like its own1 but almost identical with that of the pollen-bearing species2 but from an accident only the fruit of the latter species was carefully examined2 the seeds were intermediate in the development of their wings4 7#aa_/ada4 ',bull4 de l',acad4 ,imp4 de ,st4 ,petersburg' tome #ag page #bge1 #ahgb4 ,the author gives references to those cases in the ,so#a;anaceae of fruit affected by foreign pollen1 but as it does not appear that the mother-plant was artificially fertilised1 ,i have not entered into details47 ,fritz ,muller fertilised ,cattleya leopoldi with pollen of ,epidendron cinnabarinum2 and the capsules contained very few seeds2 but these presented a most wonderful appearance1 which1 from the description given1 two botanists1 ,hildebrand and ,maximowicz1 attribute to the direct action of the pollen of the ,epidendron4 7#aa_/adb4 ',bot4 ,zeitung' ,september #ahfh page #fca4 ,for ,maximowicz's judgment see the paper last referred to47 ,mr4 ,j4 ,anderson ,henry 7#aa_/adc4 ',journal of ,horticulture' ,january #bj1 #ahfc page #df47 crossed ,rhododendron dalhousiae with the pollen of ,r4 nuttallii1 which is one of the largest-flowered and noblest species of the genus4 ,the largest pod produced by the former species1 when fertilised with its own pollen1 measured #a #b_/h inch in length and #a #a_/b in girth2 whilst three of the pods which had been fertilised by pollen of ,r4 nuttallii measured #a #e_/h inch in length and no less than #b inches in girth4 ,here the effect of the foreign pollen was apparently confined to increasing the size of the ovarium2 but we must be cautious in assuming1 as the following case shows1 that size had been transferred from the male parent to the capsule of the female plant4 ,mr4 ,henry fertilised ,arabis blepharophylla with pollen of ,a4 soyeri1 and the pods thus produced1 of which he was so kind as to send me detailed measurements and sketches1 were much larger in all their dimensions than those naturally produced by either the male or female parent-species4 ,in a future chapter we shall see that the organs of vegetation in hybrid plants1 independently of the character of either parent1 are sometimes developed to a monstrous size2 and the increased size of the pods in the foregoing cases may be an analogous fact4 ,on the other hand1 ,m4 de ,saporta informs me that an isolated female plant of ,pistacia vera is very apt to be fertilised by the pollen of neighbouring plants of ,p4 terebinthus1 and in this case the fruits are only half their proper size1 which he attributes to the influence of the pollen of ,p4 terebinthus4 ,no case of the direct action of the pollen of one variety on another is better authenticated or more remarkable than that of the common apple4 ,the fruit here consists of the lower part of the calyx and of the upper part of the flower-peduncle 7#aa_/add4 ,see on this head the high authority of ,prof4 ,decaisne in a paper translated in ',journ4 ,hort4 ,soc4' volume #a new series #ahff page #dh47 in a metamorphosed condition1 so that the effect of the foreign pollen has extended even beyond the limits of the ovarium4 ,cases of apples thus affected were recorded by ,bradley in the early part of the last century2 and other cases are given in old volumes of the ',philosophical ,transactions' 7#aa_/ade4 ,volume #dc #agdd-de page #ebe volume #de #agdg-dh page #fjb472 in one of these a ,russeting apple and an adjoining kind mutually affected each other's fruit2 and in another case a smooth apple affected a rough-coated kind4 ,another instance has been given 7#aa_/adf4 ',transact4 ,hort4 ,soc4' volume #e pages #fe and #fh4 ,see also ,prof4 ,hildebrand with a coloured figure in ',bot4 ,zeitung' ,may #ae1 #ahfh page #cbg4 ,puvis also has collected ',de ,la ,degeneration' #ahcg page #cf7 several other instances2 but it is not in all cases possible to distinguish between the direct action of foreign pollen and bud-variations47 of two very different apple-trees growing close to each other1 which bore fruit resembling each other1 but only on the adjoining branches4 ,it is1 however1 almost superfluous to adduce these or other cases1 after that of the ,st4 ,valery apple1 the flowers which1 from the abortion of the stamens1 do not produce pollen1 but are fertilised by the girls of the neighbourhood with pollen of many kinds2 and they bear fruit1 differing from one another in size1 flavour1 and colour1 but resembling in character the hermaphrodite kinds by which they have been fertilised4 7#aa_/adg4 ,t4 de ,clermont-,tonnerre in ',mem4 de la ,soc4 ,linn4 de ,paris' tome #c #ahbe page #afd47 ,i have now shown1 on the authority of several excellent observers1 in the case of plants belonging to widely different orders1 that the pollen of one species or variety1 when applied to the female of a distinct form1 occasionally causes the coats of the seeds1 the ovarium or fruit1 including even the calyx and upper part of the peduncle of the apple1 and the axis of the ear in maize1 to be modified4 ,sometimes the whole ovarium or all the seeds are thus affected2 sometimes only a certain number of the seeds1 as in the case of the pea1 or only a part of the ovarium1 as with the striped orange1 mottled grapes1 and maize1 is thus affected4 ,it must not be supposed that any direct or immediate effect invariably follows the use of foreign pollen3 this is far from being the case2 nor is it known on what conditions the result depends4 ,mr4 ,knight 7#aa_/adh4 ',transact4 of ,hort4 ,soc4' volume #e page #fh47 expressly states that he has never seen the fruit thus affected1 though he crossed thousands of apple and other fruit-trees4 ,there is not the least reason to believe that a branch which has borne seed or fruit directly modified by foreign pollen is itself affected1 so as afterwards to produce modified buds2 such an occurrence1 from the temporary connection of the flower with the stem1 would be hardly possible4 ,hence1 but very few1 if any1 of the cases of bud-variation in the fruit of trees1 given in the early part of this chapter can be accounted for by the action of foreign pollen2 for such fruits have commonly been propagated by budding or grafting4 ,it is also obvious that changes of colour in flowers1 which necessarily supervene long before they are ready for fertilisation1 and changes in the shape or colour of leaves1 when due to the appearance of modified buds1 can have no relation to the action of foreign pollen4 ,the proofs of the action of foreign pollen on the mother-plant have been given in considerable detail1 because this action1 as we shall see in a future chapter1 is of the highest theoretical importance1 and because it is in itself a remarkable and apparently anomalous circumstance4 ,that it is remarkable under a physiological point of view is clear1 for the male element not only affects1 in accordance with its proper function1 the germ1 but at the same time various parts of the mother-plant1 in the same manner1 as it affects the same part in the seminal offspring from the same two parents4 ,we thus learn that an ovule is not indispensable for the reception of the influence of the male element4 ,but this direct action of the male element is not so anomalous as it at first appears1 for it comes into play in the ordinary fertilisation of many flowers4 ,gartner gradually increased the number of pollen grains until he succeeded in fertilising a ,malva1 and has 7#aa_/adi4 ,beitrage zur ,kenntniss der ,befruchtung' #ahdd s4 #cdg-cea47 proved that many grains are first expended in the development1 or1 as he expresses it1 in the satiation1 of the pistil and ovarium4 ,again1 when one plant is fertilised by a widely distinct species1 it often happens that the ovarium is fully and quickly developed without any seeds being formed2 or the coats of the seeds are formed without any embryo being developed within4 ,prof4 ,hildebrand1 also1 has lately shown 7#aa_/aej4 ',die ,fruchtbildung der ,orchideen1 ein ,beweis fur die doppelte ,wirkung des ,pollens' ',botanische ,zeitung' ,no4 #dd et seq4 ,october #cj1 #ahfe2 and ,august #d1 #ahfe s4 #bdi47 that1 in the normal fertilisation of several ,orchideae1 the action of the plant's own pollen is necessary for the development of the ovarium2 and that this development takes place not only long before the pollen-tubes have reached the ovules1 but even before the placentae and ovules have been formed2 so that with these orchids the pollen acts directly on the ovarium4 ,on the other hand1 we must not overrate the efficacy of pollen in the case of hybridised plants1 for an embryo may be formed and its influence excite the surrounding tissues of the mother- plant1 and then perish at a very early age and be thus overlooked4 ,again1 it is well known that with many plants the ovarium may be fully developed1 though pollen be wholly excluded4 ,lastly1 ,mr4 ,smith1 the late ,curator at ,kew 7as ,i hear through ,dr4 ,hooker71 observed with an orchid1 the ,bonatea speciosa1 the singular fact that the development of the ovarium could be effected by the mechanical irritation of the stigma4 ,nevertheless1 from the number of the pollen-grains expended in the satiation of the ovarium and pistil1--from the generality of the formation of the ovarium and seed- coats in hybridised plants which produce no seeds1--and from ,dr4 ,hildebrand's observations on orchids1 we may admit that in most cases the swelling of the ovarium1 and the formation of the seed-coats are at least aided1 if not wholly caused1 by the direct action of the pollen1 independently of the intervention of the fertilised germ4 ,therefore1 in the previously given cases we have only to believe in the further power of pollen1 when applied to a distinct species or variety1 to influence the shape1 size1 colour1 texture1 etc41 of certain parts of the mother-plant4 ,turning now to the animal kingdom4 ,if we could imagine the same flower to yield seeds during successive years1 then it would not be very surprising that a flower of which the ovarium had been modified by foreign pollen should next year produce1 when self-fertilised1 offspring modified by the previous male influence4 ,closely analogous cases have actually occurred with animals4 ,in the case often quoted from ,lord ,morton 7#aa_/aea4 ',philos4 ,transact4' #ahba page #bj47 a nearly purely-bred ,arabian chestnut mare bore a hybrid to a quagga2 she was subsequently sent to ,sir ,gore ,ouseley1 and produced two colts by a black ,arabian horse4 ,these colts were partially dun-coloured1 and were striped on the legs more plainly than the real hybrid1 or even than the quagga4 ,one of the two colts had its neck and some other parts of its body plainly marked with stripes4 ,stripes on the body1 not to mention those on the legs1 are extremely rare1--,i speak after having long attended to the subject1--with horses of all kinds in ,europe1 and are almost unknown in the case of ,arabians4 ,but what makes the case still more striking is that in these colts the hair of the mane resembled that of the quagga1 being short1 stiff1 and upright4 ,hence there can be no doubt that the quagga affected the character of the offspring subsequently begot by the black ,arabian horse4 ,mr4 ,jenner ,weir informs me of a strictly parallel case3 his neighbour ,mr4 ,lethbridge1 of ,blackheath1 has a horse1 bred by ,lord ,mostyn1 which had previously borne a foal by a quagga4 ,this horse is dun with a dark stripe down the back1 faint stripes on the forehead between the eyes1 plain stripes on the inner side of the fore-legs and rather more faint ones on the hind-legs1 with no shoulder-stripe4 ,the mane grows much lower on the forehead than in the horse1 but not so low as in the quagga or zebra4 ,the hoofs are proportionally longer than in the horse1--so much so that the farrier who first shod this animal1 and knew nothing of its origin1 said1 ,had ,i not seen ,i was shoeing a horse1 ,i should have thought ,i was shoeing a donkey4 ,with respect to the varieties of our domesticated animals1 many similar and well-authenticated facts have been published 7#aa_/aeb4 ,dr4 ,alex4 ,harvey on ',a remarkable ,effect of ,cross-breeding' #ahea4 ,on the ',physiology of ,breeding' by ,mr4 ,reginald ,orton #ahee4 ',intermarriage' by ,alex4 ,walker #ahcg4 ',l',heredite ,naturelle' by ,dr4 ,prosper ,lucas tome #b page #eh4 ,mr4 ,w4 ,sedgwick in ',british and ,foreign ,medico-,chirurgical ,review' #ahfc ,july page #ahc4 ,bronn in his ',geschichte der ,natur' #ahdc b4 #b s4 #abg has collected several cases with respect to mares1 sows1 and dogs4 ,mr4 ,w4,c4,l4 ,martin 7',history of the ,dog' #ahde page #ajd7 says he can personally vouch for the influence of the male parent on subsequent litters by other dogs4 ,a ,french poet1 ,jacques ,savary1 who wrote in #affe on dogs1 was aware of this singular fact4 ,dr4 ,bowerbank has given us the following striking case3--,a black1 hairless ,barbary bitch was first accidentally impregnated by a mongrel spaniel with long brown hair1 and she produced five puppies1 three of which were hairless and two covered with ,,short brown hair4 ,the next time she was put to a black1 hairless ,barbary dog2 but the mischief had been implanted in the mother1 and again about half the litter looked like pure ,barbarys1 and the other half like the ,,short-haired progeny of the first father4 ,i have given in the text one case with pigs2 an equally striking one has been recently published in ,germany1 ',illust4 ,landwirth4 ,zeitung' #ahfh ,november #ag page #adc4 ,it is worth notice that farmers in ,s4 ,brazil 7as ,i hear from ,fritz ,muller71 and at the ,c4 of ,good ,hope 7as ,i have heard from two trustworthy persons7 are convinced that mares which have once borne mules1 when subsequently put to horses1 are extremely liable to produce colts1 striped like a mule4 ,dr4 ,wilckens of ,pogarth gives 7',jahrbuch ,landwirthschaft' #b #ahfi page #cbe7 a striking and analogous case4 ,a merino ram1 having two small lappets or flaps of skin on the neck1 was in the winter of #ahfa-fb put to several ,merino ewes1 all of whom bore lambs with similar flaps on their necks4 ,the ram was killed in the spring of #ahfb and subsequently to his death the ewes were put to other ,merino rams1 and in #ahfc to ,southdown rams1 none of whom ever have neck lappets3 nevertheless1 even as long afterwards as #ahfg1 several of these ewes produced lambs bearing these appendages471 and others have been communicated to me1 plainly showing the influence of the first male on the progeny subsequently borne by the mother to other males4 ,it will suffice to give a single instance1 recorded in the ',philosophical ,transactions1' in a paper following that by ,lord ,morton3 ,mr4 ,giles put a sow of ,lord ,western's black and white ,essex breed to a wild boar of a deep chestnut colour2 and the pigs produced partook in appearance of both boar and sow1 but in some the chestnut colour of the boar strongly prevailed4 ,after the boar had long been dead1 the sow was put to a boar of her own black and white breed--a kind which is well known to breed very true and never to show any chestnut colour1--yet from this union the sow produced some young pigs which were plainly marked with the same chestnut tint as in the first litter4 ,similar cases have so frequently occurred1 that careful breeders avoid putting a choice female of any animal to an inferior male1 on account of the injury to her subsequent progeny which may be expected to follow4 ,some physiologists have attempted to account for these remarkable results from a previous impregnation1 by the imagination of the mother having been strongly affected2 but it will hereafter be seen that there are very slight grounds for any such belief4 ,other physiologists attribute the result to the close attachment and freely intercommunicating blood-vessels between the modified embryo and mother4 ,but the analogy from the action of foreign pollen on the ovarium1 seed-coats1 and other parts of the mother-plant1 strongly supports the belief that with animals the male element acts directly on the female1 and not through the crossed embryo4 ,with birds there is no close connection between the embryo and mother2 yet a careful observer1 ,dr4 ,chapuis1 states 7#aa_/aec4 ',le ,pigeon ,voyageur ,belge' #ahfe page #ei47 that with pigeons the influence of a first male sometimes makes itself perceived in the succeeding broods2 but this statement requires confirmation4 ,,conclusion ,,and ,,summary ,,of ,,the ,,chapter4 ,the facts given in the latter half of this chapter are well worthy of consideration1 as they show us in how many extraordinary modes the union of one form with another may lead to the modification of the seminal offspring or of the buds1 afterwards produced4 ,there is nothing surprising in the offspring of species or varieties crossed in the ordinary manner being modified2 but the case of two plants within the same seed1 which cohere and differ from each other1 is curious4 ,when a bud is formed after the cellular tissue of two species or two varieties have been united1 and it partakes of the characters of both parents1 the case is wonderful4 ,but ,i need not here repeat what has been so lately said on this subject4 ,we have also seen that in the case of plants the male element may affect in a direct manner the tissues of the mother1 and with animals may lead to the modification of her future progeny4 ,in the vegetable kingdom the offspring from a cross between two species or varieties1 whether effected by seminal generation or by grafting1 often revert1 to a greater or less degree1 in the first or in a succeeding generation1 to the two parent-forms2 and this reversion may affect the whole flower1 fruit1 or leaf-bud1 or only the half or a smaller segment of a single organ4 ,in some cases1 however1 such segregation of character apparently depends on an incapacity for union rather than on reversion1 for the flowers or fruit which are first produced display by segments the characters of both parents4 ,the various facts here given ought to be well considered by any one who wishes to embrace under a single point of view the many modes of reproduction by gemmation1 division1 and sexual union1 the reparation of lost parts1 variation1 inheritance1 reversion1 and other such phenomena4 ,towards the close of the second volume ,i shall attempt to connect these facts together by the hypothesis of pangenesis4 ,in the early half of the present chapter ,i have given a long list of plants in which through bud-variation1 that is1 independently of reproduction by seed1 the fruit has suddenly become modified in size1 colour1 flavour1 hairiness1 shape1 and time of maturity2 flowers have similarly changed in shape1 colour1 in being double1 and greatly in the character of the calyx2 young branches or shoots have changed in colour1 in bearing spines and in habit of growth1 as in climbing or in weeping2 leaves have changed in becoming variegated1 in shape1 period of unfolding1 and in their arrangement on the axis4 ,buds of all kinds1 whether produced on ordinary branches or on subterranean stems1 whether simple or much modified and supplied with a stock of nutriment1 as in tubers and bulbs1 are all liable to sudden variations of the same general nature4 ,in the list1 many of the cases are certainly due to reversion to characters not acquired from a cross1 but which were formerly present and have since been lost for a longer or shorter time2--as when a bud on a variegated plant produces plain leaves1 or when the variously-coloured flowers of the ,chrysanthemum revert to the aboriginal yellow tint4 ,many other cases included in the list are probably due to the plants being of crossed parentage1 and to the buds reverting either completely or by segments to one of the two parent-forms4 7#aa_/aed4 ,it may be worth while to call attention to the several means by which flowers and fruit become striped or mottled4 ,firstly1 by the direct action of the pollen of another variety or species1 as in the cases given of oranges and maize4 ,secondly1 in crosses of the first generation1 when the colours of the two parents do not readily unite1 as with ,mirabilis and ,dianthus4 ,thirdly1 in crossed plants of a subsequent generation by reversion1 through either bud or seminal generation4 ,fourthly1 by reversion to a character not originally gained by a cross1 but which had long been lost1 as with white-flowered varieties1 which we shall hereafter see often become striped with some other colour4 ,lastly1 there are cases1 as when peaches are produced with a half or quarter of the fruit like a nectarine1 in which the change is apparently due to mere variation1 through either bud or seminal generation47 ,we may suspect that the strong tendency in the ,chrysanthemum to produce by bud-variation differently-coloured flowers1 results from the varieties having been at some time intentionally or accidentally crossed2 and this is certainly the case with some kinds of ,pelargonium4 ,so it may be to a large extent with the bud-varieties of the ,dahlia1 and with the broken colours of ,tulips4 ,when1 however1 a plant reverts by bud-variation to its two parent forms1 or to one of them1 it sometimes does not revert perfectly1 but assumes a somewhat new character1--of which fact1 instances have been given1 and ,carriere gives 7#aa_/aee4 ',production des ,varietes' page #cg47 another in the cherry4 ,many cases of bud-variation1 however1 cannot be attributed to reversion1 but to so-called spontaneous variability1 as is so common with cultivated plants raised from seed4 ,as a single variety of the ,chrysanthemum has produced by buds six other varieties1 and as one variety of the gooseberry has borne at the same time four distinct kinds of fruit1 it is scarcely possible to believe that all these variations are due to reversion4 ,we can hardly believe1 as remarked in a previous chapter1 that all the many peaches which have yielded nectarine-buds are of crossed parentage4 ,lastly1 in such cases as that of the moss-rose1 with its peculiar calyx1 and of the rose which bears opposite leaves1 in that of the ,imatophyllum1 etc41 there is no known natural species or variety from which the characters in question could have been derived by a cross4 ,we must attribute all such cases to the appearance of absolutely new characters in the buds4 ,the varieties which have thus arisen cannot be distinguished by any external character from seedlings2 this is notoriously the case with the varieties of the ,rose1 ,azalea1 and many other plants4 ,it deserves notice that all the plants which have yielded bud-variations have likewise varied greatly by seed4 ,the plants which have varied by buds belong to so many orders that we may infer that almost every plant would be liable to variation1 if placed under the proper exciting conditions4 ,these conditions1 as far as we can judge1 mainly depend on long-continued and high cultivation2 for almost all the plants in the foregoing list are perennials1 and have been largely propagated in many soils1 under different climates1 by cuttings1 offsets1 bulbs1 tubers1 and especially by budding or grafting4 ,the instances of annuals varying by buds1 or producing on the same plant differently coloured flowers1 are comparatively rare3 ,hopkirk 7#aa_/aef4 ',flora ,anomala' page #afd47 has seen this with ,convolvulus tricolor2 and it is not uncommon with the ,balsam and annual ,delphinium4 ,according to ,sir ,r4 ,schomburgk1 plants from the warmer temperate regions1 when cultivated under the hot climate of ,st4 ,domingo1 are eminently liable to bud-variation4 ,i am informed by ,mr4 ,sedgwick that moss-roses which have often been taken to ,calcutta always there lose their mossiness2 but change of climate is by no means a necessary contingent1 as we see with the gooseberry1 currant1 and in many other cases4 ,plants living under their natural conditions are very rarely subject to bud-variation4 ,variegated leaves have1 however1 been observed under such circumstances2 and ,i have given an instance of variation by buds on an ash-tree planted in ornamental grounds1 but it is doubtful whether such a tree can be considered as living under strictly natural conditions4 ,gartner has seen white and dark-red flowers produced from the same root of the wild ,achillea millefolium2 and ,prof4 ,caspary has seen a completely wild ,viola lutea bearing flowers of two different colours and sizes4 7#aa_/aeg4 ',schriften der physisch-okon4 ,gesell4 zu ,konigsberg' b4 #f ,february #c1 #ahfe s4 #d47 ,as wild plants are so rarely liable to bud-variation1 whilst highly cultivated plants long propagated by artificial means have yielded many varieties by this form of reproduction1 we are led through a series such as the following1--namely1 all the eyes in the same tuber of the potato varying in the same manner1--all the fruit on a purple plum-tree suddenly becoming yellow1--all the fruit on a double-flowered almond suddenly becoming peach like1--all the buds on grafted trees being in a very slight degree affected by the stock on which they have been worked1--all the flowers on a transplanted heartsease changing for a time in colour1 size1 and shape1--we are led by such a series to look at every case of bud- variation as the direct result of the conditions of life to which the plant has been exposed4 ,on the other hand1 plants of the same variety may be cultivated in two adjoining beds1 apparently under exactly the same conditions1 and those in the one bed1 as ,carriere insists 7#aa_/aeh4 ',production des ,varietes' pages #eh1 #gj47 will produce many bud-variations1 and those in the other not a single one4 ,again1 if we look to such cases as that of a peach-tree which1 after having been cultivated by tens of thousands during many years in many countries1 and after having annually produced millions of buds1 all of which have apparently been exposed to precisely the same conditions1 yet at last suddenly produces a single bud with its whole character greatly transformed1 we are driven to the conclusion that the transformation stands in no ,,direct relation to the conditions of life4 ,we have seen that varieties produced from seeds and from buds resemble each other so closely in general appearance that they cannot be distinguished4 ,just as certain species and groups of species1 when propagated by seed1 are more variable than other species or genera1 so it is in the case of certain bud-varieties4 ,thus1 the ,queen of ,england ,chrysanthemum has produced by this latter process no less than six1 and ,rollisson's ,unique ,pelargonium four distinct varieties2 moss-roses have also produced several other moss- roses4 ,the ,rosaceae have varied by buds more than any other group of plants2 but this may be in large part due to so many members having been long cultivated2 but within this same group1 the peach has often varied by buds1 whilst the apple and pear1 both grafted trees extensively cultivated1 have afforded1 as far as ,i can ascertain1 extremely few instances of bud- variation4 ,the law of analogous variation holds good with varieties produced by buds1 as with those produced from seed3 more than one kind of rose has sported into a moss-rose2 more than one kind of camellia has assumed an hexagonal form2 and at least seven or eight varieties of the peach have produced nectarines4 ,the laws of inheritance seem to be nearly the same with seminal and bud- varieties4 ,we know how commonly reversion comes into play with both1 and it may affect the whole1 or only segments of a leaf1 flower1 or fruit4 ,when the tendency to reversion affects many buds on the same tree1 it becomes covered with different kinds of leaves1 flowers1 or fruit2 but there is reason to believe that such fluctuating varieties have generally arisen from seed4 ,it is well known that1 out of a number of seedling varieties1 some transmit their character much more truly by seed than others2 so with bud-varieties1 some retain their character by successive buds more truly than others2 of which instances have been given with two kinds of variegated ,euonymus and with certain kinds of tulips and pelargoniums4 ,notwithstanding the sudden production of bud-varieties1 the characters thus acquired are sometimes capable of transmission by seminal reproduction3 ,mr4 ,rivers has found that moss-roses generally reproduce themselves by seed2 and the mossy character has been transferred by crossing from one species of rose to another4 ,the ,boston nectarine1 which appeared as a bud- variation1 produced by seed a closely allied nectarine4 ,on the other hand1 seedlings from some bud-variations have proved variable to an extreme degree4 7#aa_/aei4 ,carriere ',production des ,varietes' page #ci47 ,we have also heard1 on the authority of ,mr4 ,salter1 that seeds taken from a branch with leaves variegated through bud-variation1 transmit this character very feebly2 whilst many plants1 which were variegated as seedlings1 transmit variegation to a large proportion of their progeny4 ,although ,i have been able to collect a good many cases of bud-variation1 as shown in the previous lists1 and might probably1 by searching foreign horticultural works1 have collected very many more cases1 yet their total number is as nothing in comparison with that of seminal varieties4 ,with seedlings raised from the more variable cultivated plants1 the variations are almost infinitely numerous1 but their differences are generally slight3 only at long intervals of time a strongly marked modification appears4 ,on the other hand1 it is a singular and inexplicable fact that1 when plants vary by buds1 the variations1 though they occur with comparative rarity1 are often1 or even generally1 strongly pronounced4 ,it struck me that this might perhaps be a delusion1 and that slight changes often occurred in buds1 but were overlooked or not recorded from being of no value4 ,accordingly1 ,i applied to two great authorities on this subject1 namely1 to ,mr4 ,rivers with respect to fruit-trees1 and to ,mr4 ,salter with respect to flowers4 ,mr4 ,rivers is doubtful1 but does not remember having noticed very slight variations in fruit-buds4 ,mr4 ,salter informs me that with flowers such do occur1 but1 if propagated1 they generally lose their new character in the following year2 yet he concurs with me that bud-variations usually at once assume a decided and permanent character4 ,we can hardly doubt that this is the rule1 when we reflect on such cases as that of the peach1 which has been so carefully observed1 and of which such trifling seminal varieties have been propagated1 yet this tree has repeatedly produced by bud-variation nectarines1 and only twice 7as far as ,i can learn7 any other variety1 namely1 the ,early and ,late ,grosse ,mignonne peaches2 and these differ from the parent-tree in hardly any character except the period of maturity4 ,to my surprise1 ,i hear from ,mr4 ,salter that he brings the principle of selection to bear on variegated plants propagated by buds1 and has thus greatly improved and fixed several varieties4 ,he informs me that at first a branch often produces variegated leaves on one side alone1 and that the leaves are marked only with an irregular edging or with a few lines of white and yellow4 ,to improve and fix such varieties1 he finds it necessary to encourage the buds at the bases of the most distinctly marked leaves1 and to propagate from them alone4 ,by following with perseverance this plan during three or four successive seasons1 a distinct and fixed variety can generally be secured4 ,finally1 the facts given in this chapter prove in how close and remarkable a manner the germ of a fertilised seed and the small cellular mass forming a bud1 resemble each other in all their functions--in their power of inheritance with occasional reversion1--and in their capacity for variation of the same general nature1 in obedience to the same laws4 ,this resemblance1 or rather identity of character1 is shown in the most striking manner by the fact that the cellular tissue of one species or variety1 when budded or grafted on another1 may give rise to a bud having an intermediate character4 ,we have seen that variability does not depend on sexual generation1 though much more frequently its concomitant than of bud reproduction4 ,we have seen that bud-variability is not solely dependent on reversion or atavism to long-lost characters1 or to those formerly acquired from a cross1 but appears often to be spontaneous4 ,but when we ask ourselves what is the cause of any particular bud-variation1 we are lost in doubt1 being driven in some cases to look to the direct action of the external conditions of life as sufficient1 and in other cases to feel a profound conviction that these have played a quite subordinate part1 of not more importance than the nature of the spark which ignites a mass of combustible matter4 ,,chapter #a4,,xii4 ,,inheritance4 ,,wonderful ,,nature ,,of ,,inheritance4 ,,pedigrees ,,of ,,our ,,domesticated ,,animals4 ,,inheritance ,,not ,,due ,,to ,,chance4 ,,trifling ,,characters ,,inherited4 ,,diseases ,,inherited4 ,,peculiarities ,,in ,,the ,,eye ,,inherited4 ,,diseases ,,in ,,the ,,horse4 ,,longevity ,,and ,,vigour4 ,,asymmetrical ,,deviations ,,of ,,structure4 ,,polydactylism ,,and ,,regrowth ,,of ,,supernumerary ,,digits ,,after ,,amputation4 ,,cases ,,of ,,several ,,children ,,similarly ,,affected ,,from ,,non-,,affected ,,parents4 ,,weak ,,and ,,fluctuating ,,inheritance3 ,,in ,,weeping ,,trees1 ,,in ,,dwarfness1 ,,colour ,,of ,,fruit ,,and ,,flowers4 ,,colour ,,of ,,horses4 ,,non-,,inheritance ,,in ,,certain ,,cases4 ,,inheritance ,,of ,,structure ,,and ,,habits ,,overborne ,,by ,,hostile ,,conditions ,,of ,,life1 ,,by ,,incessantly ,,recurring ,,variability1 ,,and ,,by ,,reversion4 ,,conclusion4 ,the subject of inheritance is an immense one1 and has been treated by many authors4 ,one work alone1 ',de l',heredite ,naturelle' by ,dr4 ,prosper ,lucas1 runs to the length of #aefb pages4 ,we must confine ourselves to certain points which have an important bearing on the general subject of variation1 both with domestic and natural productions4 ,it is obvious that a variation which is not inherited throws no light on the derivation of species1 nor is of any service to man1 except in the case of perennial plants1 which can be propagated by buds4 ,if animals and plants had never been domesticated1 and wild ones alone had been observed1 we should probably never have heard the saying1 that like begets like4 ,the proposition would have been as self-evident as that all the buds on the same tree are alike1 though neither proposition is strictly true4 ,for1 as has often been remarked1 probably no two individuals are identically the same4 ,all wild animals recognise each other1 which shows that there is some difference between them2 and when the eye is well practised1 the shepherd knows each sheep1 and man can distinguish a fellow- man out of millions on millions of other men4 ,some authors have gone so far as to maintain that the production of slight differences is as much a necessary function of the powers of generation1 as the production of offspring like their parents4 ,this view1 as we shall see in a future chapter1 is not theoretically probable1 though practically it holds good4 ,the saying that like begets like has1 in fact1 arisen from the perfect confidence felt by breeders1 that a superior or inferior animal will generally reproduce its kind2 but this very superiority or inferiority shows that the individual in question has departed slightly from its type4 ,the whole subject of inheritance is wonderful4 ,when a new character arises1 whatever its nature may be1 it generally tends to be inherited1 at least in a temporary and sometimes in a most persistent manner4 ,what can be more wonderful than that some trifling peculiarity1 not primordially attached to the species1 should be transmitted through the male or female sexual cells1 which are so minute as not to be visible to the naked eye1 and afterwards through the incessant changes of a long course of development1 undergone either in the womb or in the egg1 and ultimately appear in the offspring when mature1 or even when quite old1 as in the case of certain diseases8 ,or again1 what can be more wonderful than the well-ascertained fact that the minute ovule of a good milking cow will produce a male1 from whom a cell1 in union with an ovule1 will produce a female1 and she1 when mature1 will have large mammary glands1 yielding an abundant supply of milk1 and even milk of a particular quality8 ,nevertheless1 the real subject of surprise is1 as ,sir ,h4 ,holland has well remarked 7#ab_/a4 ',medical ,notes and ,reflections' #crd edition #ahee page #bfg47 not that a character should be inherited1 but that any should ever fail to be inherited4 ,in a future chapter1 devoted to an hypothesis which ,i have termed pangenesis1 an attempt will be made to show the means by which characters of all kinds are transmitted from generation to generation4 ,some writers 7#ab_/b4 ,mr4 ,buckle in his ',history of ,civilisation' expresses doubts on the subject1 owing to the want of statistics4 ,see also ,mr4 ,bowen1 ,professor of ,moral ,philosophy1 in ',proc4 ,american ,acad4 of ,sciences' volume #e page #ajb471 who have not attended to natural history1 have attempted to show that the force of inheritance has been much exaggerated4 ,the breeders of animals would smile at such simplicity2 and if they condescended to make any answer1 might ask what would be the chance of winning a prize if two inferior animals were paired together8 ,they might ask whether the half-wild ,arabs were led by theoretical notions to keep pedigrees of their horses8 ,why have pedigrees been scrupulously kept and published of the ,shorthorn cattle1 and more recently of the ,hereford breed8 ,is it an illusion that these recently improved animals safely transmit their excellent qualities even when crossed with other breeds8 have the ,shorthorns1 without good reason1 been purchased at immense prices and exported to almost every quarter of the globe1 a thousand guineas having been given for a bull8 ,with greyhounds pedigrees have likewise been kept1 and the names of such dogs1 as ,snowball1 ,major1 etc41 are as well known to coursers as those of ,eclipse and ,herod on the turf4 ,even with the ,gamecock1 pedigrees of famous strains were formerly kept1 and extended back for a century4 ,with pigs1 the ,yorkshire and ,cumberland breeders preserve and print pedigrees2 and to show how such highly-bred animals are valued1 ,i may mention that ,mr4 ,brown1 who won all the first prizes for small breeds at ,birmingham in #ahej1 sold a young sow and boar of his breed to ,lord ,ducie for #dc guineas2 the sow alone was afterwards sold to the ,rev4 ,f4 ,thursby for #fe guineas2 who writes1 ,she paid me very well1 having sold her produce for #cjj pounds1 and having now four breeding sows from her4 7#ab_/c4 ,for greyhounds see ,low ',domestic ,animals of the ,british ,islands' #ahde page #gba4 ,for game-fowls see ',the ,poultry ,book' by ,mr4 ,tegetmeier #ahff page #abc4 ,for pigs see ,mr4 ,sidney's edition of ',youatt on the ,pig' #ahfj pages #aa1 #bb47 ,hard cash paid down1 over and over again1 is an excellent test of inherited superiority4 ,in fact1 the whole art of breeding1 from which such great results have been attained during the present century1 depends on the inheritance of each small detail of structure4 ,but inheritance is not certain2 for if it were1 the breeder's art 7#ab_/d4 ',the ,stud ,farm' by ,cecil page #ci47 would be reduced to a certainty1 and there would be little scope left for that wonderful skill and perseverance shown by the men who have left an enduring monument of their success in the present state of our domesticated animals4 ,it is hardly possible1 within a moderate compass1 to impress on the mind of those who have not attended to the subject1 the full conviction of the force of inheritance which is slowly acquired by rearing animals1 by studying the many treatises which have been published on the various domestic animals1 and by conversing with breeders4 ,i will select a few facts of the kind1 which1 as far as ,i can judge1 have most influenced my own mind4 ,with man and the domestic animals1 certain peculiarities have appeared in an individual1 at rare intervals1 or only once or twice in the history of the world1 but have reappeared in several of the children and grandchildren4 ,thus ,lambert1 the porcupine-man1 whose skin was thickly covered with warty projections1 which were periodically moulted1 had all his six children and two grandsons similarly affected4 7#ab_/e4 ',philosophical ,transactions' #agee page #bc4 ,i have seen only second-hand accounts of the two grandsons4 ,mr4 ,sedgwick1 in a paper to which ,i shall hereafter often refer1 states that ,,four generations were affected1 and in each the males alone47 ,the face and body being covered with long hair1 accompanied by deficient teeth 7to which ,i shall hereafter refer71 occurred in three successive generations in a ,siamese family2 but this case is not unique1 as a woman 7#ab_/f4 ,barbara ,van ,beck1 figured1 as ,i am informed by the ,rev4 ,w4,d4 ,fox1 in ,woodburn's ',gallery of ,rare ,portraits' #ahaf volume #b7 with a completely hairy face who was exhibited in ,london in #affc1 and another instance has recently occurred4 ,colonel ,hallam 7#ab_/g4 ',proc4 ,zoolog4 ,soc4' #ahcc page #af47 has described a race of two-legged pigs1 the hinder extremities being entirely wanting2 and this deficiency was transmitted through three generations4 ,in fact1 all races presenting any remarkable peculiarity1 such as solid-hoofed swine1 ,mauchamp sheep1 niata cattle1 etc41 are instances of the long-continued inheritance of rare deviations of structure4 ,when we reflect that certain extraordinary peculiarities have thus appeared in a single individual out of many millions1 all exposed in the same country to the same general conditions of life1 and1 again1 that the same extraordinary peculiarity has sometimes appeared in individuals living under widely different conditions of life1 we are driven to conclude that such peculiarities are not directly due to the action of the surrounding conditions1 but to unknown laws acting on the organisation or constitution of the individual2--that their production stands in hardly closer relation to the conditions of life than does life itself4 ,if this be so1 and the occurrence of the same unusual character in the child and parent cannot be attributed to both having been exposed to the same unusual conditions1 then the following problem is worth consideration1 as showing that the result cannot be due1 as some authors have supposed1 to mere coincidence1 but must be consequent on the members of the same family inheriting something in common in their constitution4 ,let it be assumed that1 in a large population1 a particular affection occurs on an average in one out of a million1 so that the a priori chance that an individual taken at random will be so affected is only one in a million4 ,let the population consist of sixty millions1 composed1 we will assume1 of ten million families1 each containing six members4 ,on these data1 ,professor ,stokes has calculated for me that the odds will be no less than #hccc millions to #a that in the ten million families there will not be even a single family in which one parent and two children will be affected by the peculiarity in question4 ,but numerous instances could be given1 in which several children have been affected by the same rare peculiarity with one of their parents2 and in this case1 more especially if the grandchildren be included in the calculation1 the odds against mere coincidence become something prodigious1 almost beyond enumeration4 ,in some respects the evidence of inheritance is more striking when we consider the reappearance of trifling peculiarities4 ,dr4 ,hodgkin formerly told me of an ,english family in which1 for many generations1 some members had a single lock differently coloured from the rest of the hair4 ,i knew an ,irish gentleman1 who1 on the right side of his head1 had a small white lock in the midst of his dark hair3 he assured me that his grandmother had a similar lock on the same side1 and his mother on the opposite side4 ,but it is superfluous to give instances2 every shade of expression1 which may often be seen alike in parents and children1 tells the same story4 ,on what a curious combination of corporeal structure1 mental character1 and training1 handwriting depends6 yet every one must have noted the occasional close similarity of the handwriting in father and son1 although the father had not taught his son4 ,a great collector of autographs assured me that in his collection there were several signatures of father and son hardly distinguishable except by their dates4 ,hofacker1 in ,germany1 remarks on the inheritance of handwriting2 and it has even been asserted that ,english boys when taught to write in ,france naturally cling to their ,english manner of writing2 but for so extraordinary a statement more evidence is requisite4 7#ab_/h4 ,hofacker ',ueber die ,eigenschaften' etc4 #ahbh s4 #cd4 ,with respect to ,france1 ,report by ,pariset in ',comptes ,rendus' #ahdg page #eib47 ,gait1 gestures1 voice1 and general bearing are all inherited1 as the illustrious ,hunter and ,sir ,a4 ,carlisle have insisted4 7#ab_/i4 ,hunter as quoted in ,harlan's ',med4 ,researches' page #ecj4 ,sir ,a4 ,carlisle ',phil4 ,transact4' #ahad page #id47 ,my father communicated to me some striking instances1 in one of which a man died during the early infancy of his son1 and my father1 who did not see this son until grown up and out of health1 declared that it seemed to him as if his old friend had risen from the grave1 with all his highly peculiar habits and manners4 ,peculiar manners pass into tricks1 and several instances could be given of their inheritance2 as in the case1 often quoted1 of the father who generally slept on his back1 with his right leg crossed over the left1 and whose daughter1 whilst an infant in the cradle1 followed exactly the same habit1 though an attempt was made to cure her4 7#ab_/aj4 ,girou de ,buzareingues ',de la ,generation' page #bhb4 ,i have given an analogous case in my book on ',the ,expression of the ,emotions4'7 ,i will give one instance which has fallen under my own observation1 and which is curious from being a trick associated with a peculiar state of mind1 namely1 pleasureable emotion4 ,a boy had the singular habit1 when pleased1 of rapidly moving his fingers parallel to each other1 and1 when much excited1 of raising both hands1 with the fingers still moving1 to the sides of his face on a level with the eyes2 when this boy was almost an old man1 he could still hardly resist this trick when much pleased1 but from its absurdity concealed it4 ,he had eight children4 ,of these1 a girl1 when pleased1 at the age of four and a half years1 moved her fingers in exactly the same way1 and what is still odder1 when much excited1 she raised both her hands1 with her fingers still moving1 to the sides of her face1 in exactly the same manner as her father had done1 and sometimes even still continued to do so when alone4 ,i never heard of any one1 excepting this one man and his little daughter1 who had this strange habit2 and certainly imitation was in this instance out of the question4 ,some writers have doubted whether those complex mental attributes1 on which genius and talent depend1 are inherited1 even when both parents are thus endowed4 ,but he who will study ,mr4 ,galton's able work on ',hereditary ,genius' will have its doubts allayed4 ,unfortunately it matters not1 as far as inheritance is concerned1 how injurious a quality or structure may be if compatible with life4 ,no one can read the many treatises 7#ab_/aa4 ,the works which ,i have read and found most useful are ,dr4 ,prosper ,lucas's great work ',traite de l',heredite ,naturelle' #ahdg2 ,mr4 ,w4 ,sedgwick in ',british and ,foreign ,medico-,chirurg4 ,review' ,april and ,july #ahfa and ,april and ,july #ahfc3 ,dr4 ,garrod on ,gout is quoted in these articles4 ,sir ,henry ,holland ',medical ,notes and ,reflections' #crd edition #ahee4 ,piorry ',de l',heredite dans les ,maladies' #ahdj4 ,adams ',a ,philosophical ,treatise on ,hereditary ,peculiarities' #bnd edition #ahae4 ,essay on ',hereditary ,diseases' by ,dr4 ,j4 ,steinan #ahdc4 ,see ,paget in ',medical ,times' #aheg page #aib on the ,inheritance of ,cancer2 ,dr4 ,gould in ',proc4 of ,american ,acad4 of ,sciences' ,november #h1 #ahec gives a curious case of hereditary bleeding in four generations4 ,harlan ',medical ,researches' page #eic47 on hereditary disease and doubt this4 ,the ancients were strongly of this opinion1 or1 as ,ranchin expresses it1 ,omnes ,graeci1 ,arabes1 et ,latini in eo consentiunt4 ,a long catalogue could be given of all sorts of inherited malformations and of predisposition to various diseases4 ,with gout1 fifty per cent of the cases observed in hospital practice are1 according to ,dr4 ,garrod1 inherited1 and a greater percentage in private practice4 ,every one knows how often insanity runs in families1 and some of the cases given by ,mr4 ,sedgwick are awful1--as of a surgeon1 whose brother1 father1 and four paternal uncles were all insane1 the latter dying by suicide2 of a ,jew1 whose father1 mother1 and six brothers and sisters were all mad2 and in some other cases several members of the same family1 during three or four successive generations1 have committed suicide4 ,striking instances have been recorded of epilepsy1 consumption1 asthma1 stone in the bladder1 cancer1 profuse bleeding from the slightest injuries1 of the mother not giving milk1 and of bad parturition being inherited4 ,in this latter respect ,i may mention an odd case given by a good observer 7#ab_/ab4 ,marshall quoted by ,youatt in his work on ',cattle' page #bhd471 in which the fault lay in the offspring1 and not in the mother3 in a part of ,yorkshire the farmers continued to select cattle with large hind-quarters1 until they made a strain called ,dutch-buttocked1 and the monstrous size of the buttocks of the calf was frequently fatal to the cow1 and numbers of cows were annually lost in calving4 ,instead of giving numerous details on various inherited malformations and diseases1 ,i will confine myself to one organ1 that which is the most complex1 delicate1 and probably best-known in the human frame1 namely1 the eye1 with its accessory parts4 7#ab_/ac4 ,almost any other organ might have been selected4 ,for instance ,mr4 ,j4 ,tomes ',system of ,dental ,surgery' #bnd edition #ahgc page #aad gives many instances with teeth1 and others have been communicated to me47 ,to begin with the latter3 ,i have received an account of a family in which one parent and the children are affected by drooping eyelids1 in so peculiar a manner1 that they cannot see without throwing their heads backwards4 ,mr4 ,wade1 of ,wakefield1 has given me an analogous case of a man who had not his eyelids thus affected at birth1 nor owed their state1 as far as was known1 to inheritance1 but they began to droop whilst he was an infant after suffering from fits1 and he has transmitted the affection to two out of his three children1 as was evident in the photographs of the whole family sent to me together with this account4 ,sir ,a4 ,carlisle 7#ab_/ad4 ',philosoph4 ,transact4' #ahad page #id47 specifies a pendulous fold to the eyelids1 as inherited4 ,in a family1 says ,sir ,h4 ,holland 7#ab_/ae4 ',medical ,notes and ,reflections' #crd edition page #cc47 where the father had a singular elongation of the upper eyelid1 seven or eight children were born with the same deformity2 two or three other children having it not4 ,many persons1 as ,i hear from ,sir ,j4 ,paget1 have two or three hairs in their eyebrows much longer than the others2 and even so trifling a peculiarity as this certainly runs in families4 ,with respect to the eye itself1 the highest authority in ,england1 ,mr4 ,bowman1 has been so kind as to give me the following remarks on certain inherited imperfections4 ,first1 hypermetropia1 or morbidly long sight3 in this affection1 the organ1 instead of being spherical1 is too flat from front to back1 and is often altogether too small1 so that the retina is brought too forward for the focus of the humours2 consequently a convex glass is required for clear vision of near objects1 and frequently even of distant ones4 ,this state occurs congenitally1 or at a very early age1 often in several children of the same family1 where one of the parents has presented it4 7#ab_/af4 ,this affection1 as ,i hear from ,mr4 ,bowman1 has been ably described and spoken of as hereditary by ,dr4 ,donders of ,utrecht1 whose work was published in ,english by the ,sydenham ,society in #ahfd47 ,secondly1 myopia1 or short-sight1 in which the eye is egg-shaped and too long from front to back2 the retina in this case lies behind the focus1 and is therefore fitted to see distinctly only very near objects4 ,this condition is not commonly congenital1 but comes on in youth1 the liability to it being well known to be transmissible from parent to child4 ,the change from the spherical to the ovoidal shape seems the immediate consequence of something like inflammation of the coats1 under which they yield1 and there is ground for believing that it may often originate in causes acting on the individual affected 7#ab_/ag4 ,m4 ,giraud-,teulon has recently collected abundant statistical evidence1 ',revue des ,cours ,scientifiques' ,september #ahgj page #fbe1 showing that short sight is due to the habit of viewing objects from a short distance1 c'est le travail assidu1 de pres47 and may thenceforward become transmissible4 ,when both parents are myopic ,mr4 ,bowman has observed the hereditary tendency in this direction to be heightened1 and some of the children to be myopic at an earlier age or in a higher degree than their parents4 ,thirdly1 squinting is a familiar example of hereditary transmission3 it is frequently a result of such optical defects as have been above mentioned2 but the more primary and uncomplicated forms of it are also sometimes in a marked degree transmitted in a family4 ,fourthly1 ,,cataract1 or opacity of the crystalline lens1 is commonly observed in persons whose parents have been similarly affected1 and often at an earlier age in the children than in the parents4 ,occasionally more than one child in a family is thus afflicted1 one of whose parents or other relations1 presents the senile form of the complaint4 ,when cataract affects several members of a family in the same generation1 it is often seen to commence at about the same age in each3 e4g41 in one family several infants or young persons may suffer from it2 in another1 several persons of middle age4 ,mr4 ,bowman also informs me that he has occasionally seen1 in several members of the same family1 various defects in either the right or left eye2 and ,mr4 ,white ,cooper has often seen peculiarities of vision confined to one eye reappearing in the same eye in the offspring4 7#ab_/ah4 ,quoted by ,mr4 ,herbert ,spencer ',principles of ,biology' volume #a page #bdd47 ,the following cases are taken from an able paper by ,mr4 ,w4 ,sedgwick1 and from ,dr4 ,prosper ,lucas4 7#ab_/ai4 ',british and ,foreign ,medico-,chirurg4 ,review' ,april #ahfa pages #dhb-f2 ',l',hered4 ,nat4' tome #a pages #cia-djh47 ,amaurosis1 either congenital or coming on late in life1 and causing total blindness1 is often inherited2 it has been observed in three successive generations4 ,congenital absence of the iris has likewise been transmitted for three generations1 a cleft-iris for four generations1 being limited in this latter case to the males of the family4 ,opacity of the cornea and congenital smallness of the eyes have been inherited4 ,portal records a curious case1 in which a father and two sons were rendered blind1 whenever the head was bent downwards1 apparently owing to the crystalline lens1 with its capsule1 slipping through an unusually large pupil into the anterior chamber of the eye4 ,day-blindness1 or imperfect vision under a bright light1 is inherited1 as is night-blindness1 or an incapacity to see except under a strong light3 a case has been recorded1 by ,m4 ,cunier1 of this latter defect having affected eighty-five members of the same family during six generations4 ,the singular incapacity of distinguishing colours1 which has been called ,,daltonism1 is notoriously hereditary1 and has been traced through five generations1 in which it was confined to the female sex4 ,with respect to the colour of the iris3 deficiency of colouring matter is well known to be hereditary in albinoes4 ,the iris of one eye being of different colour from that of the other1 and the iris being spotted1 are cases which have been inherited4 ,mr4 ,sedgwick gives1 in addition1 on the authority of ,dr4 ,osborne 7#ab_/bj4 ,dr4 ,osborne1 ,pres4 of ,royal ,college of ,phys4 in ,ireland1 published this case in the ',dublin ,medical ,journal' for #ahce471 the following curious instance of strong inheritance3 a family of sixteen sons and five daughters all had eyes resembling in miniature the markings on the back of a tortoiseshell cat4 ,the mother of this large family had three sisters and a brother all similarly marked1 and they derived this peculiarity from their mother1 who belonged to a family notorious for transmitting it to their posterity4 ,finally1 ,dr4 ,lucas emphatically remarks that there is not one single faculty of the eye which is not subject to anomalies2 and not one which is not subjected to the principle of inheritance4 ,mr4 ,bowman agrees with the general truth of this proposition2 which of course does not imply that all malformations are necessarily inherited2 this would not even follow if both parents were affected by an anomaly which in most cases was transmissible4 ,even if no single fact had been known with respect to the inheritance of disease and malformations by man1 the evidence would have been ample in the case of the horse4 ,and this might have been expected1 as horses breed much quicker than man1 are matched with care1 and are highly valued4 ,i have consulted many works1 and the unanimity of the belief by veterinaries of all nations in the transmission of various morbid tendencies is surprising4 ,authors who have had wide experience give in detail many singular cases1 and assert that contracted feet1 with the numerous contingent evils1 of ring-bones1 curbs1 splints1 spavin1 founder and weakness of the front legs1 roaring or broken and thick wind1 melanosis1 specific ophthalmia1 and blindness 7the great ,french veterinary ,huzard going so far as to say that a blind race could soon be formed71 crib-biting1 jibbing and ill-temper1 are all plainly hereditary4 ,youatt sums up by saying there is scarcely a malady to which the horse is subject which is not hereditary2 and ,m4 ,bernard adds that the doctrine that there is scarcely a disease which does not run in the stock1 is gaining new advocates every day4 7#ab_/ba4 ,these various statements are taken from the following works and papers3--,youatt on ',the ,horse' pages #ce1 #bbj4 ,lawrence ',the ,horse' page #cj4 ,karkeek in an excellent paper in ',gard4 ,chronicle' #ahec page #ib4 ,mr4 ,burke in ',journal of ,r4 ,agricul4 ,soc4 of ,england' volume #e page #eaa4 ',encyclop4 of ,rural ,sports' page #bgi4 ,girou de ,buzareingues ',philosoph4 ,phys4' page #bae4 ,see following papers in ',the ,veterinary2' ,roberts in volume #b page #add2 ,m4 ,marrimpoey volume #b page #chg2 ,mr4 ,karkeek volume #d page #e2 ,youatt on ,goitre in ',dogs' volume #e page #dhc3 ,youatt in volume #f pages #ff1 #cdh1 #dab2 ,m4 ,bernard volume #aa page #eci2 ,dr4 ,samesreuther on ',cattle' in volume #ab page #aha2 ,percivall in volume #ac page #dg4 ,with respect to blindness in horses see also a whole row of authorities in ,dr4 ,p4 ,lucas's great work1 tome #a page #cii4 ,mr4 ,baker in ',the ,veterinary' volume #ac page #gba1 gives a strong case of hereditary imperfect vision and of jibbing47 ,so it is in regard to cattle1 with consumption1 good and bad teeth1 fine skin1 etc4 etc4 ,but enough1 and more than enough1 has been said on disease4 ,andrew ,knight1 from his own experience1 asserts that disease is hereditary with plants2 and this assertion is endorsed by ,lindley4 7#ab_/bb4 ,knight on ',the ,culture of the ,apple and ,pear' page #cd4 ,lindley's ',horticulture' page #ahj47 ,seeing how hereditary evil qualities are1 it is fortunate that good health1 vigour1 and longevity are equally inherited4 ,it was formerly a well-known practice1 when annuities were purchased to be received during the life-time of a nominee1 to search out a person belonging to a family of which many members had lived to extreme old age4 ,as to the inheritance of vigour and endurance1 the ,english race-horse offers an excellent instance4 ,eclipse begot #ccd1 and ,king ,herod #dig winners4 ,a cock-tail is a horse not purely bred1 but with only one-eighth1 or one-sixteenth impure blood in his veins1 yet very few instances have ever occurred of such horses having won a great race4 ,they are sometimes as fleet for short distances as thoroughbreds1 but as ,mr4 ,robson1 the great trainer1 asserts1 they are deficient in wind1 and cannot keep up the pace4 ,mr4 ,lawrence also remarks1 perhaps no instance has ever occurred of a three-part-bred horse saving his ',,distance' in running two miles with thoroughbred racers4 ,it has been stated by ,cecil1 that when unknown horses1 whose parents were not celebrated1 have unexpectedly won great races1 as in the case of ,priam1 they can always be proved to be descended1 on both sides1 through many generations1 from first-rate ancestors4 ,on the ,continent1 ,baron ,cameronn challenges1 in a ,german veterinary periodical1 the opponents of the ,english race-horse to name one good horse on the ,continent1 which has not some ,english race-blood in his veins4 7#ab_/bc4 ,these statements are taken from the following works in order3--,youatt on ',the ,horse' page #dh2 ,mr4 ,darvill in ',the ,veterinary' volume #h page #ej4 ,with respect to ,robson see ',the ,veterinary' volume #c page #ehj2 ,mr4 ,lawrence on ',the ,horse' #ahbi page #i2 ',the ,stud ,farm' by ,cecil #ahea2 ,baron ,cameronn quoted in ',the ,veterinary' volume #aj page #ejj47 ,with respect to the transmission of the many slight1 but infinitely diversified characters1 by which the domestic races of animals and plants are distinguished1 nothing need be said2 for the very existence of persistent races proclaims the power of inheritance4 ,a few special cases1 however1 deserve some consideration4 ,it might have been anticipated1 that deviations from the law of symmetry would not have been inherited4 ,but ,anderson 7#ab_/bd4 ',recreations in ,agriculture and ,nat4 ,hist4' volume #a page #fh47 states that a rabbit produced in a litter a young animal having only one ear2 and from this animal a breed was formed which steadily produced one-eared rabbits4 ,he also mentions a bitch with a single leg deficient1 and she produced several puppies with the same deficiency4 ,from ,hofacker's account 7#ab_/be4 ',ueber die ,eigenschaften' etc4 #ahbh s4 #ajg47 it appears that a one-horned stag was seen in #agha in a forest in ,germany1 in #aghh two1 and afterwards1 from year to year1 many were observed with only one horn on the right side of the head4 ,a cow lost a horn by suppuration 7#ab_/bf4 ,bronn ',geschichte der ,natur' b4 #b s4 #acb471 and she produced three calves which had on the same side of the head1 instead of a horn1 a small bony lump attached merely to the skin2 but we here encroach on the subject of inherited mutilations4 ,a man who is left-handed1 and a shell in which the spire turns in the wrong directions1 are departures from the normal asymmetrical condition1 and they are well-known to be inherited4 ,,polydactylism4 ,supernumerary fingers and toes are eminently liable1 as various authors have insisted1 to be inherited4 ,polydactylism graduates 7#ab_/bg4 ,vrolik has discussed this point at full length in a work published in ,dutch1 from which ,sir ,j4 ,paget has kindly translated for me passages4 ,see1 also1 ,isidore ,geoffroy ,st4 ,hilaire ',hist4 des ,anomalies' #ahcb tome #a page #fhd47 by multifarious steps from a mere cutaneous appendage1 not including any bone1 to a double hand4 ,but an additional digit1 supported on a metacarpal bone1 and furnished with all the proper muscles1 nerves1 and vessels1 is sometimes so perfect1 that it escapes detection1 unless the fingers are actually counted4 ,occasionally there are several supernumerary digits2 but usually only one1 making the total number six4 ,this one may be attached to the inner or outer margin of the hand1 representing either a thumb or little finger1 the latter being the more frequent4 ,generally1 through the law of correlation1 both hands and both feet are similarly affected4 ,dr4 ,burt ,wilder has tabulated 7#ab_/bh4 ',massachusetts ,medical ,society' volume #b ,no4 #c2 and ',proc4 ,boston ,soc4 of ,nat4 ,hist4' volume #ad #ahga page #aed47 a large number of cases1 and finds that supernumerary digits are more common on the hands than on the feet1 and that men are affected oftener than women4 ,both these facts can be explained on two principles which seem generally to hold good2 firstly1 that of two parts1 the more specialised one is the more variable1 and the arm is more highly specialised than the leg2 and secondly that male animals are more variable than females4 ,the presence of a greater number of digits than five is a great anomaly1 for this number is not normally exceeded by any existing mammal1 bird1 or reptile4 ,nevertheless1 supernumerary digits are strongly inherited2 they have been transmitted through five generations2 and in some cases1 after disappearing for one1 two1 or even three generations1 have reappeared through reversion4 ,these facts are rendered1 as ,professor ,huxley has observed1 more remarkable from its being known in most cases that the affected person has not married one similarly affected4 ,in such cases the child of the fifth generation would have only #a-cbnd part of the blood of his first sedigitated ancestor4 ,other cases are rendered remarkable by the affection gathering force1 as ,dr4 ,struthers has shown1 in each generation1 though in each the affected person married one not affected2 moreover1 such additional digits are often amputated soon after birth1 and can seldom have been strengthened by use4 ,dr4 ,struthers gives the following instance3 in the first generation an additional digit appeared on one hand2 in the second1 on both hands2 in the third1 three brothers had both hands1 and one of the brothers a foot affected2 and in the fourth generation all four limbs were affected4 ,yet we must not over-estimate the force of inheritance4 ,dr4 ,struthers asserts that cases of non-inheritance and of the first appearance of additional digits in unaffected families are much more frequent than cases of inheritance4 ,many other deviations of structure1 of a nature almost as anomalous as supernumerary digits1 such as deficient phalanges 7#ab_/bi4 ,dr4 ,j4,w4 ,ogle gives a case of the inheritance of deficient phalanges during four generations4 ,he adds references to various recent papers on inheritance ',brit4 and ,for4 ,med4-,chirurg4 ,review' ,april #ahgb471 thickened joints1 crooked fingers1 etc41 are1 in like manner1 strongly inherited1 and are equally subject to intermission1 together with reversion1 though in such cases there is no reason to suppose that both parents had been similarly affected4 7#ab_/cj4 ,for these several statements see ,dr4 ,struthers ',edinburgh ,new ,phil4 ,journal' ,july #ahfc especially on intermissions in the line of descent4 ,prof4 ,huxley ',lectures on our ,knowledge of ,organic ,nature' #ahfc page #ig4 ,with respect to inheritance1 see ,dr4 ,prosper ,lucas ',l',heredite ,nat4' tome #a page #cbe4 ,isid4 ,geoffroy ',anom4' tome #a page #gja4 ,sir ,a4 ,carlisle in ',phil4 ,transact4' #ahad page #id4 ,a4 ,walker on ',intermarriage' #ahch page #adj gives a case of five generations2 as does ,mr4 ,sedgwick in ',brit4 and ,foreign ,medico-,chirurg4 ,review' ,april #ahfc page #dfb4 ,on the inheritance of other anomalies in the extremities see ,dr4 ,h4 ,dobell in volume #df of ,medico-,chirurg4 ,transactions #ahfc2 also ,mr4 ,sedgwick in op4 cit4 ,april #ahfc page #dfj4 ,with respect to additional digits in the negro see ,prichard ',physical ,history of ,mankind4' ,dr4 ,dieffenbach ',jour4 ,royal ,geograph4 ,soc4' #ahda page #bjh says this anomaly is not uncommon with the ,polynesians of the ,chatham ,islands2 and ,i have heard of several cases with ,hindus and ,arabs47 ,additional digits have been observed in negroes as well as in other races of man1 and in several of the lower animals1 and have been inherited4 ,six toes have been described on the hind feet of the newt 7,salamandra cristata71 and are said to have occurred with the frog4 ,it deserves notice1 that the six-toed newt1 though adult1 preserved some of its larval characters2 for part of the hyoidal apparatus1 which is properly absorbed during the act of metamorphosis1 was retained4 ,it is also remarkable that in the case of man various structures in an embryonic or arrested state of development1 such as a cleft-palate1 bifid uterus1 etc41 are often accompanied by polydactylism4 7#ab_/ca4 ,meckel and ,isid ,g4 ,st4 ,hilaire insist on this fact4 ,see also ,m4 ,a4 ,roujou ',sur quelques ,analogies du ,type ,humain' page #fa published1 ,i believe1 in the ',journal of the ,anthropolog4 ,soc4 of ,paris' ,january #ahgb47 ,six toes on the hinder feet are known to have been inherited for three generations of cats4 ,in several breeds of the fowl the hinder toe is double1 and is generally transmitted truly1 as is well shown when ,dorkings are crossed with common four-toed breeds 7#ab_/cb4 ',the ,poultry ,chronicle' #ahed page #eei47 ,with animals which have properly less than five digits1 the number is sometimes increased to five1 especially on the front legs1 though rarely carried beyond that number2 but this is due to the development of a digit already existing in a more or less rudimentary state4 ,thus1 the dog has properly four toes behind1 but in the larger breeds a fifth toe is commonly1 though not perfectly1 developed4 ,horses1 which properly have one toe alone fully developed with rudiments of the others1 have been described with each foot bearing two or three small separate hoofs3 analogous facts have been noticed with cows1 sheep1 goats1 and pigs4 7#ab_/cc4 ,the statements in this paragraph are taken from ,isidore ,geoffroy ,st4 ,hilaire ',hist4 des ,anomalies' tome #a pages #fhh-fic4 ,mr4 ,goodman gives1 ',phil4 ,soc4 of ,cambridge' ,november #be1 #ahgb the case of a cow with three well developed toes on each hind limb1 besides the ordinary rudiments2 and her calf by an ordinary bull had extra digits4 ,this calf also bore two calves having extra digits47 ,there is a famous case described by ,mr4 ,white of a child1 three years old1 with a thumb double from the first joint4 ,he removed the lesser thumb1 which was furnished with a nail2 but to his astonishment it grew again and reproduced a nail4 ,the child was then taken to an eminent ,london surgeon1 and the newly-grown thumb was removed by its socket-joint1 but again it grew and reproduced a nail4 ,dr4 ,struthers mentions a case of the partial regrowth of an additional thumb1 amputated when a child was three months old2 and the late ,dr4 ,falconer communicated to me an analogous instance4 ,in the last edition of this work ,i also gave a case of the regrowth of a supernumerary little-finger after amputation2 but having been informed by ,dr4 ,bachmaier that several eminent surgeons expressed1 at a meeting of the ,anthropological ,society of ,munich1 great doubt about my statements1 ,i have made more particular inquiries4 ,the full information thus gained1 together with a tracing of the hand in its present state1 has been laid before ,sir ,j4 ,paget1 and he has come to the conclusion that the degree of regrowth in this case is not greater than sometimes occurs with normal bones1 especially with the humerus1 when amputated at an early age4 ,he further does not feel fully satisfied about the facts recorded by ,mr4 ,white4 ,this being so1 it is necessary for me to withdraw the view which ,i formerly advanced1 with much hesitation1 chiefly on the ground of the supposed regrowth of additional digits1 namely1 that their occasional development in man is a case of reversion to a lowly1 organised progenitor provided with more than five digits4 ,i may here allude to a class of facts closely allied to1 but somewhat different from1 ordinary cases of inheritance4 ,sir ,h4 ,holland 7#ab_/cd4 ',medical ,notes and ,reflections' #ahci pages #bd1 #cd4 ,see also ,dr4 ,p4 ,lucas ',l',hered4 ,nat4' tome #b page #cc47 states that brothers and sisters of the same family are frequently affected1 often at about the same age1 by the same peculiar disease1 not known to have previously occurred in the family4 ,he specifies the occurrence of diabetes in three brothers under ten years old2 he also remarks that children of the same family often exhibit in common infantile diseases1 the same peculiar symptoms4 ,my father mentioned to me the case of four brothers who died between the ages of sixty and seventy1 in the same highly peculiar comatose state4 ,an instance has already been given of supernumerary digits appearing in four children out of six in a previously unaffected family4 ,dr4 ,devay states 7#ab_/ce4 ',du ,danger des ,mariages ,consanguins' #bnd edition #ahfb page #ajc47 that two brothers married two sisters1 their first-cousins1 none of the four nor any relation being an albino2 but the seven children produced from this double marriage were all perfect albinoes4 ,some of these cases1 as ,mr4 ,sedgwick 7#ab_/cf4 ',british and ,foreign ,medico-,chirurg4 ,review' ,july #ahfc pages #ahc1 #ahi47 has shown1 are probably the result of reversion to a remote ancestor1 of whom no record had been preserved2 and all these cases are so far directly connected with inheritance that no doubt the children inherited a similar constitution from their parents1 and1 from being exposed to nearly similar conditions of life1 it is not surprising that they should be affected in the same manner and at the same period of life4 ,most of the facts hitherto given have served to illustrate the force of inheritance1 but we must now consider cases grouped as well as the subject allows into classes1 showing how feeble1 capricious1 or deficient the power of inheritance sometimes is4 ,when a new peculiarity first appears1 we can never predict whether it will be inherited4 ,if both parents from their birth present the same peculiarity1 the probability is strong that it will be transmitted to at least some of their offspring4 ,we have seen that variegation is transmitted much more feebly by seed1 taken from a branch which had become variegated through bud-variation1 than from plants which were variegated as seedlings4 ,with most plants the power of transmission notoriously depends on some innate capacity in the individual3 thus ,vilmorin 7#ab_/cg4 ,verlot ',la ,product4 des ,varietes' #ahfe page #cb47 raised from a peculiarly coloured balsam some seedlings1 which all resembled their parent2 but of these seedlings some failed to transmit the new character1 whilst others transmitted it to all their descendants during several successive generations4 ,so again with a variety of the rose1 two plants alone out of six were found by ,vilmorin to be capable of transmitting the desired character2 numerous analogous cases could be given4 ,the weeping or pendulous growth of trees is strongly inherited in some cases1 and1 without any assignable reason1 feebly in other cases4 ,i have selected this character as an instance of capricious inheritance1 because it is certainly not proper to the parent-species1 and because1 both sexes being borne on the same tree1 both tend to transmit the same character4 ,even supposing that there may have been in some instances crossing with adjoining trees of the same species1 it is not probable that all the seedlings would have been thus affected4 ,at ,moccas ,court there is a famous weeping oak2 many of its branches are #cj feet long1 and no thicker in any part of this length than a common rope3 this tree transmits its weeping character1 in a greater or less degree1 to all its seedlings2 some of the young oaks being so flexible that they have to be supported by props2 others not showing the weeping tendency till about twenty years old4 7#ab_/ch4 ,loudon's ',gardener's ,mag4' volume #ab #ahcf page #cfh47 ,mr4 ,rivers fertilised1 as he informs me1 the flowers of a new ,belgian weeping thorn 7,crataegus oxyacantha7 with pollen from a crimson not-weeping variety1 and three young trees1 now six or seven years old1 show a decided tendency to be pendulous1 but as yet are not so much so as the mother-plant4 ,according to ,mr4 ,mac,nab 7#ab_/ci4 ,verlot ',la ,product4 des ,varietes' #ahfe page #id471 seedlings from a magnificent weeping birch 7,betula alba71 in the ,botanic ,garden at ,edinburgh1 grew for the first ten or fifteen years upright1 but then all became weepers like their parent4 ,a peach with pendulous branches1 like those of the weeping willow1 has been found capable of propagation by seed4 7#ab_/dj4 ,bronn ',geschichte der ,natur' b4 #b s4 #aba4 ,mr4 ,meehan makes a similar statement in ',proc4 ,nat4 of ,philadelphia' #ahgb page #bce47 ,lastly1 a weeping or rather a prostrate yew 7,taxus baccata7 was found in a hedge in ,shropshire2 it was a male1 but one branch bore female flowers1 and produced berries2 these1 being sown1 produced seventeen trees all of which had exactly the same peculiar habit with the parent-tree4 7#ab_/da4 ,rev4 ,w4,a4 ,leighton ',flora of ,shropshire' page #dig2 and ,charlesworth ',mag4 of ,nat4 ,hist4' volume #a #ahcg page #cj4 ,i possess prostrate trees produced from these seeds47 ,these facts1 it might have been thought1 would have been sufficient to render it probable that a pendulous habit would in all cases be strictly inherited4 ,but let us look to the other side4 ,mr4 ,mac,nab 7#ab_/db4 ,verlot op4 cit4 page #ic47 sowed seeds of the weeping beech 7,fagus sylvatica71 but succeeded in raising only common beeches4 ,mr4 ,rivers1 at my request1 raised a number of seedlings from three distinct varieties of weeping elm2 and at least one of the parent-trees was so situated that it could not have been crossed by any other elm2 but none of the young trees1 now about a foot or two in height1 show the least signs of weeping4 ,mr4 ,rivers formerly sowed above twenty thousand seeds of the weeping ash 7,fraxinus excelsior71 and not a single seedling was in the least degree pendulous3 in ,germany1 ,m4 ,borchmeyer raised a thousand seedlings1 with the same result4 ,nevertheless1 ,mr4 ,anderson1 of the ,chelsea ,botanic ,garden1 by sowing seed from a weeping ash1 which was found before the year #aghj1 in ,cambridgeshire1 raised several pendulous trees4 7#ab_/dc4 ,for these several statements see ,loudon's ',gard4 ,magazine' volume #aj #ahcd pages #djh1 #ahj2 and volume #i #ahcc page #eig47 ,professor ,henslow also informs me that some seedlings from a female weeping ash in the ,botanic ,garden at ,cambridge were at first a little pendulous1 but afterwards became quite upright3 it is probable that this latter tree1 which transmits to a certain extent its pendulous habit1 was derived by a bud from the same original ,cambridgeshire stock2 whilst other weeping ashes may have had a distinct origin4 ,but the crowning case1 communicated to me by ,mr4 ,rivers1 which shows how capricious is the inheritance of a pendulous habit1 is that a variety of another species of ash 7,f4 lentiscifolia71 now about twenty years old1 which was formerly pendulous1 has long lost this habit1 every shoot being remarkably erect2 but seedlings formerly raised from it were perfectly prostrate1 the stems not rising more than two inches above the ground4 ,thus the weeping variety of the common ash1 which has been extensively propagated by buds during a long period1 did not with ,mr4 ,rivers1 transmit its character to one seedling out of above twenty thousand2 whereas the weeping variety of a second species of ash1 which could not1 whilst grown in the same garden1 retain its own weeping character1 transmitted to its character the pendulous habit in excess6 ,many analogous facts could be given1 showing how apparently capricious is the principle of inheritance4 ,all the seedlings from a variety of the ,barberry 7,b4 vulgaris7 with red leaves inherited the same character2 only about one-third of the seedlings of the copper ,beech 7,fagus sylvatica7 had purple leaves4 ,not one out of a hundred seedlings of a variety of the ,cerasus padus1 with yellow fruit1 bore yellow fruit3 one-twelfth of the seedlings of the variety of ,cornus mascula1 with yellow fruit1 came true 7#ab_/dd4 ,these statements are taken from ,alph4 ,de ,candolle ',bot4 ,geograph4' page #ajhc473 and lastly1 all the trees raised by my father from a yellow- berried holly 7,ilex aquifolium71 found wild1 produced yellow berries4 ,vilmorin 7#ab_/de4 ,verlot op4 cit4 page #ch47 observed in a bed of ,saponaria calabrica an extremely dwarf variety1 and raised from it a large number of seedlings2 some of these partially resembled their parent1 and he selected their seed2 but the grandchildren were not in the least dwarfed3 on the other hand1 he observed a stunted and bushy variety of ,tagetes signata growing in the midst of the common varieties by which it was probably crossed2 for most of the seedlings raised from this plant were intermediate in character1 only two perfectly resembling their parent2 but seed saved from these two plants reproduced the new variety so truly1 that hardly any selection has since been necessary4 ,flowers transmit their colour truly1 or most capriciously4 ,many annuals come true3 thus ,i purchased ,german seeds of thirty-four named sub-varieties of one ,,race of ten-week stocks 7,matthiola annua71 and raised a hundred and forty plants1 all of which1 with the exception of a single plant1 came true4 ,in saying this1 however1 it must be understood that ,i could distinguish only twenty kinds out of the thirty-four named sub-varieties2 nor did the colour of the flower always correspond with the name affixed to the packet2 but ,i say that they came true1 because in each of the thirty- six short rows every plant was absolutely alike1 with the one single exception4 ,again1 ,i procured packets of ,german seed of twenty-five named varieties of common and quilled asters1 and raised a hundred and twenty- four plants2 of these1 all except ten were true in the above limited sense2 and ,i considered even a wrong shade of colour as false4 ,it is a singular circumstance that white varieties generally transmit their colour much more truly than any other variety4 ,this fact probably stands in close relation with one observed by ,verlot 7#ab_/df4 ,op4 cit4 page #ei471 namely1 that flowers which are normally white rarely vary into any other colour4 ,i have found that the white varieties of ,delphinium consolida and of the ,stock are the truest4 ,it is1 indeed1 sufficient to look through a nurseryman's seed-list1 to see the large number of white varieties which can be propagated by seed4 ,the several coloured varieties of the sweet-pea 7,lathyrus odoratus7 are very true2 but ,i hear from ,mr4 ,masters1 of ,canterbury1 who has particularly attended to this plant1 that the white variety is the truest4 ,the hyacinth1 when propagated by seed1 is extremely inconstant in colour1 but white hyacinths almost always give by seed white-flowered plants 7#ab_/dg4 ,alph4 ,de ,candolle ',geograph4 ,bot4' page #ajhb472 and ,mr4 ,masters informs me that the yellow varieties also reproduce their colour1 but of different shades4 ,on the other hand1 pink and blue varieties1 the latter being the natural colour1 are not nearly so true3 hence1 as ,mr4 ,masters has remarked to me1 we see that a garden variety may acquire a more permanent habit than a natural species2 but it should have been added1 that this occurs under cultivation1 and therefore under changed conditions4 ,with many flowers1 especially perennials1 nothing can be more fluctuating than the colour of the seedlings1 as is notoriously the case with verbenas1 carnations1 dahlias1 cinerarias1 and others4 7#ab_/dh4 ,see ',cottage ,gardener' ,april #aj1 #ahfj page #ah and ,september #aj1 #ahfa page #def2 ',gardener's ,chronicle' #ahde page #ajb47 ,i sowed seed of twelve named varieties of ,snapdragon 7,antirrhinum majus71 and utter confusion was the result4 ,in most cases the extremely fluctuating colour of seedling plants is probably in chief part due to crosses between differently-coloured varieties during previous generations4 ,it is almost certain that this is the case with the polyanthus and coloured primrose 7,primula veris and vulgaris71 from their reciprocally dimorphic structure 7#ab_/di4 ,darwin in ',journal of ,proc4 ,linn4 ,soc4 ,bot4' #ahfb page #id472 and these are plants which florists speak of as never coming true by seed3 but if care be taken to prevent crossing1 neither species is by any means very inconstant1 in colour2 thus ,i raised twenty-three plants from a purple primrose1 fertilised by ,mr4 ,j4 ,scott with its pollen1 and eighteen came up purple of different shades1 and only five reverted to the ordinary yellow colour3 again1 ,i raised twenty plants from a bright-red cowslip1 similarly treated by ,mr4 ,scott1 and every one perfectly resembled its parent in colour1 as likewise did1 with the exception of a single plant1 #gb grandchildren4 ,even with the most variable flowers1 it is probable that each delicate shade of colour might be permanently fixed so as to be transmitted by seed1 by cultivation in the same soil1 by long-continued selection1 and especially by the prevention of crosses4 ,i infer this from certain annual larkspurs 7,delphinium consolida and ajacis71 of which common seedlings present a greater diversity of colour than any other plant known to me2 yet on procuring seed of five named ,german varieties of ,d4 consolida1 only nine plants out of ninety-four were false2 and the seedlings of six varieties of ,d4 ajacis were true in the same manner and degree as with the stocks above described4 ,a distinguished botanist maintains that the annual species of ,delphinium are always self-fertilised2 therefore ,i may mention that thirty-two flowers on a branch of ,d4 consolida1 enclosed in a net1 yielded twenty-seven capsules1 with an average of #ag4b seed in each2 whilst five flowers1 under the same net1 which were artificially fertilised1 in the same manner as must be effected by bees during their incessant visits1 yielded five capsules with an average of #ce4b fine seed2 and this shows that the agency of insects is necessary for the full fertility of this plant4 ,analogous facts could be given with respect to the crossing of many other flowers1 such as carnations1 etc41 of which the varieties fluctuate much in colour4 ,as with flowers1 so with our domesticated animals1 no character is more variable than colour1 and probably in no animal more so than with the horse4 ,yet1 with a little care in breeding1 it appears that races of any colour might soon be formed4 ,hofacker gives the result of matching two hundred and sixteen mares of four different colours with like-coloured stallions1 without regard to the colour of their ancestors2 and of the two hundred and sixteen colts born1 eleven alone failed to inherit the colour of their parents3 ,autenrieth and ,ammon assert that1 after two generations1 colts of a uniform colour are produced with certainty4 7#ab_/ej4 ,hofacker ',ueber die ,eigenschaften' etc4 s4 #aj47 ,in a few rare cases peculiarities fail to be inherited1 apparently from the force of inheritance being too strong4 ,i have been assured by breeders of the canary-bird that to get a good jonquil-coloured bird it does not answer to pair two jonquils1 as the colour then comes out too strong1 or is even brown2 but this statement is disputed by other breeders4 ,so again1 if two crested canaries are paired1 the young birds rarely inherit this character 7#ab_/ea4 ,bechstein ',naturgesch4 ,deutschlands' b4 #d s4 #dfb4 ,mr4 ,brent1 a great breeder of canaries1 informs me that he believes that these statements are correct473 for in crested birds a narrow space of bare skin is left on the back of the head1 where the feathers are up-turned to form the crest1 and1 when both parents are thus characterised1 the bareness becomes excessive1 and the crest itself fails to be developed4 ,mr4 ,hewitt1 speaking of ,laced ,sebright ,bantams1 says 7#ab_/eb4 ',the ,poultry ,book' by ,w4,b4 ,tegetmeier #ahff page #bde47 that1 why this should be so ,i know not1 but ,i am confident that those that are best laced frequently produce offspring very far from perfect in their markings1 whilst those exhibited by myself1 which have so often proved successful1 were bred from the union of heavily- laced birds with those that were scarcely sufficiently laced4 ,it is a singular fact that1 although several deaf-mutes often occur in the same family1 and though their cousins and other relations are often in the same condition1 yet their parents are rarely deaf-mutes4 ,to give a single instance3 not one scholar out of #adh1 who were at the same time in the ,london ,institution1 was the child of parents similarly affected4 ,so again1 when a male or female deaf-mute marries a sound person1 their children are most rarely affected3 in ,ireland1 out of #bjc children thus produced one alone was mute4 ,even when both parents have been deaf-mutes1 as in the case of forty-one marriages in the ,united ,states and of six in ,ireland1 only two deaf and dumb children were produced4 ,mr4 ,sedgwick 7#ab_/ec4 ',british and ,foreign ,med4-,chirurg4 ,review' ,july #ahfa pages #bjj-bjd4 ,mr4 ,sedgwick has given such full details on this subject1 with ample references1 that ,i need refer to no other authorities71 in commenting on this remarkable and fortunate failure in the power of transmission in the direct line1 remarks that it may possibly be owing to excess having reversed the action of some natural law in development4 ,but it is safer in the present state of our knowledge to look at the whole case as simply unintelligible4 ,although many congenital monstrosities are inherited1 of which examples have already been given1 and to which may be added the lately recorded case of the transmission during a century of hare-lip with a cleft-palate in the writer's own family 7#ab_/ed4 ,mr4 ,sproule in ',british ,medical ,journal' ,april #ah1 #ahfc47 yet other malformations are rarely or never inherited4 ,of these latter cases1 many are probably due to injuries in the womb or egg1 and would come under the head of non-inherited injuries or mutilations4 ,with plants1 a long catalogue of inherited monstrosities of the most serious and diversified nature could easily be given2 and with plants1 there is no reason to suppose that monstrosities are caused by direct injuries to the seed or embryo4 ,with respect to the inheritance of structures mutilated by injuries or altered by disease1 it was until lately difficult to come to any definite conclusion4 ,some mutilations have been practised for a vast number of generations without any inherited result4 ,godron remarks 7#ab_/ee4 ',de l',espece' tome #b #ahei page #bii47 that different races of man have from time immemorial knocked out their upper incisors1 cut off joints of their fingers1 made holes of immense size through the lobes of their ears or through their nostrils1 tatooed themselves1 made deep gashes in various parts of their bodies1 and there is no reason to suppose that these mutilations have ever been inherited4 7#ab_/ef4 ,nevertheless ,mr4 ,wetherell states1 ',nature' ,december #ahgj page #afh1 that when he visited fifteen years ago the ,sioux ,indians1 he was informed by a physician1 who has passed much of his time with these tribes1 that some times a child was born with these marks4 ,this was confirmed by the ,u4,s4 ,government ,indian ,agent47 ,adhesions due to inflammation and pits from the small-pox 7and formerly many consecutive generations must have been thus pitted7 are not inherited4 ,with respect to ,jews1 ,i have been assured by three medical men of the ,jewish faith that circumcision1 which has been practised for so many ages1 has produced no inherited effect4 ,blumenbach1 however1 asserts 7#ab_/eg4 ',philosoph4 ,mag4' volume #d #agii page #e47 that ,jews are often born in ,germany in a condition rendering circumcision difficult1 so that a name is given them signifying born circumcised2 and ,professor ,preyer informs me that this is the case in ,bonn1 such children being considered the special favourites of ,jehovah4 ,i have also heard from ,dr4 ,a4 ,newman1 of ,guy's ,hospital1 of the grandson of a circumcised ,jew1 the father not having been circumcised1 in a similar condition4 ,but it is possible that all these cases may be accidental coincidence1 for ,sir ,j4 ,paget has seen five sons of a lady and one son of her sister with adherent prepuces2 and one of these boys was affected in a manner which might be considered like that commonly produced by circumcision2 yet there was no suspicion of ,jewish blood in the family of these two sisters4 ,circumcision is practised by ,mahomedans1 but at a much later age than by ,jews2 and ,dr4 ,riedel1 ,assistant ,resident in ,north ,celebes1 writes to me that the boys there go naked until from six to ten years old2 and he has observed that many of them1 though not all1 have their prepuces much reduced in length1 and this he attributes to the inherited effects of the operation4 ,in the vegetable kingdom oaks and other trees have borne galls from primeval times1 yet they do not produce inherited excrescences2 and many other such facts could be adduced4 ,notwithstanding the above several negative cases1 we now possess conclusive evidence that the effects of operations are sometimes inherited4 ,dr4 ,brown- ,sequard 7#ab_/eh4 ',proc4 ,royal ,soc4' volume #aj page #big4 ',communication to the ,brit4 ,assoc4' #ahgj4 ',the ,lancet' ,january #ahge page #g4 ,the extracts are from this last paper4 ,it appears that ,obersteiner ',stricker's ,med4 ,jahrbucher' #ahge ,no4 #b has confirmed ,brown-,sequard's observations47 gives the following summary of his observations on guinea-pigs2 and this summary is so important that ,i will quote the whole3-- #ast4 ,appearance of epilepsy in animals born of parents having been rendered epileptic by an injury to the spinal cord4 #bnd4 ,appearance of epilepsy also in animals born of parents having been rendered epileptic by the section of the sciatic nerve4 #crd4 ,a change in the shape of the ear in animals born of parents in which such a change was the effect of a division of the cervical sympathetic nerve4 #dth4 ,partial closure of the eyelids in animals born of parents in which that state of the eyelids had been caused either by the section of the cervical sympathetic nerve or the removal of the superior cervical ganglion4 #eth4 ,exophthalmia in animals born of parents in which an injury to the restiform body had produced that protrusion of the eyeball4 ,this interesting fact ,i have witnessed a good many times1 and ,i have seen the transmission of the morbid state of the eye continue through four generations4 ,in these animals1 modified by heredity1 the two eyes generally protruded1 although in the parents usually only one showed exophthalmia1 the lesion having been made in most cases only on one of the corpora restiformia4 #fth4 ,haematoma and dry gangrene of the ears in animals born of parents in which these ear-alterations had been caused by an injury to the restiform body near the nib of the calamus4 #gth4 ,absence of two toes out of the three of the hind leg1 and sometimes of the three1 in animals whose parents had eaten up their hind-leg toes which had become anaesthetic from a section of the sciatic nerve alone1 or of that nerve and also of the crural4 ,sometimes1 instead of complete absence of the toes1 only a part of one or two or three was missing in the young1 although in the parent not only the toes but the whole foot was absent 7partly eaten off1 partly destroyed by inflammation1 ulceration1 or gangrene74 #hth4 ,appearance of various morbid states of the skin and hair of the neck and face in animals born of parents having had similar alterations in the same parts1 as effects of an injury to the sciatic nerve4 ,it should be especially observed that ,brown-,sequard has bred during thirty years many thousand guinea-pigs from animals which had not been operated upon1 and not one of these manifested the epileptic tendency4 ,nor has he ever seen a guinea-pig born without toes1 which was not the offspring of parents which had gnawed off their own toes owing to the sciatic nerve having been divided4 ,of this latter fact thirteen instances were carefully recorded1 and a greater number were seen2 yet ,brown-,sequard speaks of such cases as one of the rarer forms of inheritance4 ,it is a still more interesting fact-- ,that the sciatic nerve in the congenitally toeless animal has inherited the power of passing through all the different morbid states which have occurred in one of its parents from the time of the division till after its reunion with the peripheric end4 ,it is not therefore simply the power of performing an action which is inherited1 but the power of performing a whole series of actions1 in a certain order4 ,in most of the cases of inheritance recorded by ,brown-,sequard only one of the two parents had been operated upon and was affected4 ,he concludes by expressing his belief that what is transmitted is the morbid state of the nervous system1 due to the operation performed on the parents4 ,with the lower animals ,dr4 ,prosper ,lucas has collected a long list of inherited injuries4 ,a few instances will suffice4 ,a cow lost a horn from an accident with consequent suppuration1 and she produced three calves which were hornless on the same side of the head4 ,with the horse1 there seems hardly a doubt that exostoses on the legs1 caused by too much travelling on hard roads1 are inherited4 ,blumenbach records the case of a man who had his little finger on the right hand almost cut off1 and which in consequence grew crooked1 and his sons had the same finger on the same hand similarly crooked4 ,a soldier1 fifteen years before his marriage1 lost his left eye from purulent ophthalmia1 and his two sons were microphthalmic on the same side4 7#ab_/ei4 ,this last case is quoted by ,mr4 ,sedgwick in ',british and ,foreign ,medico-,chirurg4 ,review' ,april1 #ahfa page #dhd4 ,for ,blumenbach see above-cited paper4 ,see also ,dr4 ,p4 ,lucas ',traite de l',hered4 ,nat4' tome #b page #dib4 ,also ',transact4 ,linn4 ,soc4' volume #i page #cbc4 ,some curious cases are given by ,mr4 ,baker in the ',veterinary' volume #ac page #gbc4 ,another curious case is given in the ',annales des ,scienc4 ,nat4' #ast series1 tome #aa page #cbd47 ,in all cases in which a parent has had an organ injured on one side1 and two or more of the offspring are born with the same organ affected on the same side1 the chances against mere coincidence are almost infinitely great4 ,even when only a single child is born having exactly the same part of the body affected as that of his injured parent1 the chances against coincidence are great2 and ,professor ,rolleston has given me two such cases which have fallen under his own observation1--namely of two men1 one of whom had his knee and the other his cheek severely cut1 and both had children born with exactly the same spot marked or scarred4 ,many instances have been recorded of cats1 dogs1 and horses1 which have had their tails1 legs1 etc41 amputated or injured1 producing offspring with the same parts ill-formed2 but as it is not very rare for similar malformations to appear spontaneously1 all such cases may be due to coincidence4 ,it is1 however1 an argument on the other side that under the old excise laws the shepherd-dog was only exempt from tax when without a tail1 and for this reason it was always removed 7#ab_/fj4 ',the ,dog' by ,stonehenge #ahfg page #aah472 and there still exist breeds of the shepherd-dog which are always born destitute of a tail4 ,finally1 it must be admitted1 more especially since the publication of ,brown-,sequard's observations1 that the effects of injuries1 especially when followed by disease1 or perhaps exclusively when thus followed1 are occasionally inherited4 7#ab_/fa4 ,the ,mot-mot habitually bites the barbs off the middle part of the two central tail-feathers1 and as the barbs are congenitally somewhat reduced on the same part of these feathers1 it seems extremely probable1 as ,mr4 ,salvin remarks1 ',proc4 ,zoolog4 ,soc4' #ahgc page #dbi1 that this is due to the inherited effects of long-continued mutilation47 ,,causes ,,of ,,non-,,inheritance4 ,a large number of cases of non-inheritance are intelligible on the principle1 that a strong tendency to inheritance does exist1 but that it is overborne by hostile or unfavourable conditions of life4 ,no one would expect that our improved pigs1 if forced during several generations to travel about and root in the ground for their own subsistence1 would transmit1 as truly as they now do their short muzzles and legs1 and their tendency to fatten4 ,dray-horses assuredly would not long transmit their great size and massive limbs1 if compelled to live on a cold1 damp mountainous region2 we have indeed evidence of such deterioration in the horses which have run wild on the ,falkland ,islands4 ,european dogs in ,india often fail to transmit their true character4 ,our sheep in tropical countries lose their wool in a few generations4 ,there seems also to be a close relation between certain peculiar pastures and the inheritance of an enlarged tail in fat-tailed sheep1 which form one of the most ancient breeds in the world4 ,with plants1 we have seen that tropical varieties of maize lose their proper character in the course of two or three generations1 when cultivated in ,europe2 and conversely so it is with ,european varieties cultivated in ,brazil4 ,our cabbages1 which here come so true by seed1 cannot form heads in hot countries4 ,according to ,carriere 7#ab_/fb4 ',production et ,fixation des ,varietes' #ahfe page #gb47 the purple- leafed beech and barberry transmit their character by seed far less truly in certain districts than in others4 ,under changed circumstances1 periodical habits of life soon fail to be transmitted1 as the period of maturity in summer and winter wheat1 barley1 and vetches4 ,so it is with animals3 for instance1 a person1 whose statement ,i can trust1 procured eggs of ,aylesbury ducks from that town1 where they are kept in houses and are reared as early as possible for the ,london market2 the ducks bred from these eggs in a distant part of ,england1 hatched their first brood on ,january #bdth1 whilst common ducks1 kept in the same yard and treated in the same manner1 did not hatch till the end of ,march2 and this shows that the period of hatching was inherited4 ,but the grandchildren of these ,aylesbury ducks completely lost their habit of early incubation1 and hatched their eggs at the same time with the common ducks of the same place4 ,many cases of non-inheritance apparently result from the conditions of life continually inducing fresh variability4 ,we have seen that when the seeds of pears1 plums1 apples1 etc41 are sown1 the seedlings generally inherit some degree of family likeness4 ,mingled with these seedlings1 a few1 and sometimes many1 worthless1 wild-looking plants commonly appear1 and their appearance may be attributed to the principle of reversion4 ,but scarcely a single seedling will be found perfectly to resemble the parent-form2 and thus may be accounted for by constantly recurring variability induced by the conditions of life4 ,i believe in this1 because it has been observed that certain fruit-trees truly propagate their kind whilst growing on their own roots2 but when grafted on other stocks1 and by this process their natural state is manifestly affected1 they produce seedlings which vary greatly1 departing from the parental type in many characters4 7#ab_/fc4 ,downing ',fruits of ,america' page #e3 ,sageret ',pom4 ,phys4' pages #dc1 #gb47 ,metzger1 as stated in the ninth chapter1 found that certain kinds of wheat brought from ,spain and cultivated in ,germany1 failed during many years to reproduce themselves truly2 but at last1 when accustomed to their new conditions1 they ceased to be variable1--that is1 they became amenable to the power of inheritance4 ,nearly all the plants which cannot be propagated with any approach to certainty by seed1 are kinds which have been long propagated by buds1 cuttings1 offsets1 tubers1 etc41 and have in consequence been frequently exposed during what may be called their individual lives to widely diversified conditions of life4 ,plants thus propagated become so variable1 that they are subject1 as we have seen in the last chapter1 even to bud-variation4 ,our domesticated animals1 on the other hand1 are not commonly exposed during the life of the individual to such extremely diversified conditions1 and are not liable to such extreme variability2 therefore they do not lose the power of transmitting most of their characteristic features4 ,in the foregoing remarks on non-inheritance1 crossed breeds are of course excluded1 as their diversity mainly depends on the unequal development of character derived from either parent or their ancestors4 ,,conclusion4 ,it has been shown in the early part of this chapter how commonly new characters of the most diversified nature1 whether normal or abnormal1 injurious or beneficial1 whether affecting organs of the highest or most trifling importance1 are inherited4 ,it is often sufficient for the inheritance of some peculiar character1 that one parent alone should possess it1 as in most cases in which the rarer anomalies have been transmitted4 ,but the power of transmission is extremely variable4 ,in a number of individuals descended from the same parents1 and treated in the same manner1 some display this power in a perfect manner1 and in some it is quite deficient2 and for this difference no reason can be assigned4 ,the effects of injuries or mutilations are occasionally inherited2 and we shall see in a future chapter that the long-continued use and disuse of parts produces an inherited effect4 ,even those characters which are considered the most fluctuating1 such as colour1 are with rare exceptions transmitted much more forcibly than is generally supposed4 ,the wonder1 indeed1 in all cases is not that any character should be transmitted1 but that the power of inheritance should ever fail4 ,the checks to inheritance1 as far as we know them1 are1 firstly1 circumstances hostile to the particular character in question2 secondly1 conditions of life incessantly inducing fresh variability2 and lastly1 the crossing of distinct varieties during some previous generation1 together with reversion or atavism-that is1 the tendency in the child to resemble its grand-parents or more remote ancestors instead of its immediate parents4 ,this latter subject will be discussed in the following chapter4 ,,end ,,of ,,volume ,i4