,,the ,,empire ,,of ,,the ,,east ,,by ,h4 ,b4 ,,montgomery ,,this ,,nation ,,is ,,the ,,delight ,,of ,,my ,,soul ,,st4 ,,francis ,,xavier ,,with ,,nineteen ,,illustrations ,,methuen ,,co4 #cf ,,essex ,,street ,w4,c4 ,,london ,first ,published in #aijh4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,star ,,of ,,the ,,east ,,from ,a ,,print ,,by ,,toshikata ,,preface ,on my return from another visit to ,japan a few months ago ,i found those persons in this country with whom ,i was brought into close association extremely curious and strangely ignorant regarding that ancient ,empire4 ,despite the multitude of books which have of late years been published about ,japan and things ,japanese a correct knowledge of the country and the people is1 so far as ,i can judge1 altogether lacking in ,england4 ,indeed the multiplicity of books may have something to do with that fact1 as many of them have been written by persons whose knowledge1 acquired in the course of a flying visit1 was1 to say the least1 perfunctory1 and who had no opportunities for viewing the life of the people from within and forming a sound judgment on many matters upon which the writers have dogmatically pronounced4 ,i1 accordingly1 came to the conclusion not only that there was room for one more book on ,japan1 but that another book was greatly needed--a book not technical1 historical1 abstruse or recondite1 but a book describing in simple language ,japan as it was1 is1 and will be4 ,this is the task ,i set before myself when ,i commenced to write this volume1 and the reader must be the judge to what extent ,i have been successful in the accomplishment thereof4 ,i have touched but lightly on the material development of the country of recent years4 ,i know from experience that though statistics are the fad of a few they are caviare to the great mass of the public4 ,nor have ,i dealt at all with politics or political parties in new ,japan4 ,it is1 ,i think1 unfortunate that the ,japanese people1 in adopting or adapting ,english institutions1 should have introduced the political party system so much in evidence in ,great ,britain and other ,european countries4 ,whether that system works well in the ,west1 where it has been in existence for centuries and is not always taken over-seriously by party politicians themselves1 is a question upon which ,i shall express no opinion4 ,but ,i think it is problematical whether such a system is well adapted for an ,oriental people1 possessed of and permeated by an ancient civilisation--a people whose feelings1 sentiments1 modes of thought1 prejudices and passions are so essentially different from those of ,western nations4 ,be that as it may1 ,japanese politics find no place in this work4 ,the morality or otherwise of the ,japanese is a matter which has been much discussed and written about4 ,the views of speakers and writers in regard thereto1 so far as ,i have been able to ascertain them1 have been largely affected by their prejudices or the particular standpoint from which they have regarded the matter4 ,the result1 in my opinion1 has been that an entirely erroneous conception of the whole subject of ,japanese morality has not only been formed but has been set forth in speech or writing1 and a grave injustice has been done to the ,japanese in this matter1 to say nothing of the entirely false view of the whole question which has been promulgated4 ,in this book ,i have endeavoured to deal with this thorny subject1 so far as it can be dealt with in a book1 free from prejudice or preconceived ideas of any kind4 ,i have simply confined myself to facts1 and have endeavoured to represent the whole matter as it appears to the ,japanese and to morality according to the ,japanese standard4 ,i have deemed it necessary to deal at some length with the various phases of ,japanese art1 which it is no exaggeration to say has permeated the whole nation so that the ,japanese may truthfully be termed the most artistic people in the world4 ,of course it is impossible to deal exhaustively in a work of this kind with ,japanese art4 ,i have1 however1 endeavoured to describe the principal art industries of the country and to set forth what ,i may term the catholicity of art in ,japan4 ,i have also dealt with the question how far art has been affected by the ,europeanising of the nation which has taken place of recent years1 and the effect thereof4 ,the religion of the ,japanese1 the ,constitution1 the home life of the people1 the ,army and ,navy1 the financial position of the country are all subjects treated as fully as possible1 inasmuch as they are matters essential to be understood in order to realise the ,japan of to-day4 ,the ,japan of the future ,i have attempted to forecast in two final chapters4 ,but the ,japan of to-day and the ,japan of the future can neither be understood nor realised unless the reader have in his mind some idea as to the ,japan of the past--not the barbaric or uncivilised ,japan brought into contact with civilisation and suddenly discarding its barbarism1 which is1 ,i fear1 the conception many persons still have1 but1 as ,i have sought to show1 a highly civilised country holding itself aloof from ,european influences and excluding1 so long as possible1 the ,european invasion of its shores just because it had convinced itself by painful experience that ,european ideas and manners and methods were undesirable and unsuitable for a great island nation which possessed and cherished a civilisation of its own1 had high artistic ideas and ideals1 had its own code of morals1 its own conception of chivalry1 and was1 on the whole1 undoubtedly happy1 contented1 and prosperous4 ,i trust the chapter ,i have written on this subject will tend to dispel many erroneous ideas4 ,the book is the result of my own investigations1 and the opinions expressed therein are entirely my own4 ,i have1 however1 read nearly every work on ,japan that has appeared in recent years1 and when the views put forward in any of these have not coincided with my own ,i have endeavoured1 by impartial investigation and inquiry1 to arrive at a correct conclusion in the matter4 ,no doubt some of my views and opinions will be questioned and criticised1 but ,i claim to have written this book with a mind free from prejudices of any kind4 ,i have sought to depict ,japan as it really is1 not the ,japan seen through glasses of various colours1 of which1 ,i think1 the public has had enough4 ,h4 ,b4 ,m4 ,,contents ,,page ,,preface v ,,chapter ,i4 ,a ,,glimpse ,,at ,,the ,,past #a ,,ii4 ,,the ,,country3 ,,its ,,physical ,,features--,,products--,,fauna--,,flora 1 ,,etc4 #ag ,,iii4 ,,the ,,japanese ,,race ,,and ,,its ,,language #bi ,,iv4 ,,the ,,religions ,,of ,,japan1 ,,their ,,influences ,,and ,,effects #ci ,v4 ,,the ,,constitution--,,the ,,crown ,,and ,,the ,,houses ,,of ,,parliament #di ,,vi4 ,,the ,,people1 ,,their ,,life ,,and ,,habits #fc ,,vii4 ,,trade1 ,,commerce1 ,,and ,,industries #hj ,,viii4 ,,japan',s ,,financial ,,burdens ,,and ,,resources #ij ,,ix4 ,,education #ajb ,x4 ,,the ,,japanese ,,army ,,and ,,navy #aag ,,xi4 ,,japanese ,,art--,,introductory--,,lacquer ,,and ,,porcelain #aca ,,xii4 ,,japanese ,,art--,,sculpture--,,metal ,,work--,,painting #adi ,,xiii4 ,,japanese ,,architecture #afg ,,xiv4 ,,postal ,,and ,,other ,,means ,,of ,,communication #agf ,,xv4 ,,law ,,and ,,order #ahe ,,xvi4 ,,literature ,,and ,,the ,,drama #aic ,,xvii4 ,,newspapers ,,in ,,japan #bjb ,,xviii4 ,,japanese ,,morality #baa ,,xix4 ,,japan ,,and ,,china #bba ,,xx4 ,,europeans ,,in ,,japan #bca ,,xxi4 ,a ,,visit ,,to ,,some ,,buddhist ,,temples #bdd ,,xxii4 ,,the ,,ainos #bej ,,xxiii4 ,,japan ,,as ,,it ,,is ,,to-,,day #beh ,,xxiv4 ,,the ,,future ,,of ,,japan--,,physical--,,moral--,,mental #bgf ,,xxv4 ,,the ,,future ,,of ,,japan--,,national--,,political--,,its ,,influence ,,on ,,the ,,world #bhh ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations ,a ,,star ,,of ,,the ,,east ,frontispiece ,from a ,print by ,toshikata ,,facing ,,page ,,the ,,sweet ,,scent ,,of ,,the ,,cherry ,,blossom #cj ,from a ,print by ,hiroshige ,a ,,cherry ,,blossom ,,party #dh ,from a ,print by ,hiroshige ,,street ,,scene ,,on ,,new ,,year',s ,,day #gb ,from a ,print by ,hiroshige ,,rice ,,planting1 ,,province ,,of ,,hoki #hi ,from a ,print by ,hiroshige ,,amateur ,,conchologists #aaj ,from a ,print by ,hiroshige ,,view ,,of ,,fusi-,,yama ,,from ,a ,,tea ,,house #ach ,from a ,print by ,hiroshige ,,kutani ,,earthenware1 ,,decorated ,,with ,,polychrome ,,enamels4 ,,early ,,eighteenth ,,century #adf ,,incense-,,burner1 ,,awata ,,fayence4 ,,eighteenth ,,century ,from ,the ,arts of ,japan1 by ,edward ,dillon ,,bronze ,,incense-,,burner ,,and ,,small ,,flower-,,vase4 ,,eighteenth ,,century #aed ,from ,the ,arts of ,japan1 by ,edward ,dillon ,,kakemono ,,on ,,paper4 ,,attributed ,,to ,,matahei ,,kakemono ,,on ,,paper4 ,,attributed ,,to ,,shimman1 ,,ukiyo #afj ,,school4 ,,eighteenth ,,century ,from ,the ,arts of ,japan1 by ,edward ,dillon ,,tea ,,house1 ,,near ,,tokio #agj ,from a ,print by ,hiroshige ,,rial ,,transport3 ,,basket ,,slung ,,on ,,ropes1 ,,province ,,of ,,hida #ahb ,from a ,print by ,hiroshige ,a ,,labour ,,of ,,love #aih ,from a ,print by ,toshikata ,,the ,,eternal ,,feminine #bah ,from a ,print by ,toshikata ,a ,,ministering ,,angel #bdb ,from a ,print by ,toshikata ,,fireworks ,,in ,,tokio 7,,summer7 #bfd ,from a ,print by ,hiroshige ,a ,,sign ,,of ,,the ,,times #bgh ,,the ,,empire ,,of ,,the ,,east ,,chapter ,i ,a ,,glimpse ,,at ,,the ,,past ,i have seen it stated in a popular handbook that ,japan possesses a written history extending over two thousand five hundred years1 while its sovereigns have formed an unbroken dynasty since #ffj ,b4,c41 but that the authentic history begins about #djj ,a4,d4 ,authentic history is1 ,i consider1 not a very apt phrase in this connection4 ,most ,japanese history is legendary1 and authenticity in history1 ,japanese or ,european1 even much later than #djj ,a4,d41 is hopeless to look for4 ,i have no intention of leading my readers into1 as ,i should find a difficulty in extricating them from1 the mazes of ,japanese history at any date4 ,i simply propose to give them a glimpse of ,japan as it has appeared to ,europeans since it was first discovered by three storm-tossed ,portuguese sailors about the year #aedb4 ,i say discovered with full knowledge of the fact that ,marco ,paolo1 as early as #abge1 dictated to a friend when imprisoned at ,genoa that stirring narrative1 ,maravigliose ,cose1 which1 by the way1 was not printed for nearly two centuries later4 ,that narrative was read by and1 it is stated1 so fired the imagination of ,christopher ,columbus as to lead him to set out on that voyage of exploration which ended in the discovery of ,america4 ,marco ,paolo's narrative must1 however1 be received with caution4 ,i regard it as largely legendary4 ,he never himself visited ,japan1 and his glowing description of the ,isles washed by stormy seas and abounding in gold and pearls was founded on what he had been told by the ,chinese he had met during his ,eastern travels4 ,the commencement of ,european intercourse with ,japan may1 as ,i have said1 be taken to be #aedb1 when three ,portuguese adventurers in a ,chinese junk were driven by stress of weather on a part of the ,japanese coast under the authority of the ,prince of ,bungo4 ,the ,portuguese were kindly received by the natives1 and a treaty or arrangement seems to have been entered into whereby a ,portuguese vessel was to be annually despatched to ,japan laden with woollen cloths1 furs1 silks1 taffetas1 and other articles4 ,some years later a ,japanese noble1 ,hansiro by name1 murdered another ,japanese and fled the country4 ,he found his way to ,goa1 where he came under the influence of some ,portuguese priests1 and was eventually converted to ,christianity and baptized4 ,he was1 if the records of his career are correct1 desirous to bring to his fellow-countrymen not only the knowledge of the ,christian religion but many articles of ,european commerce4 ,the great ,apostle of the ,east and disciple of ,ignatius ,loyola1 ,st4 ,francis ,xavier1 had then recently arrived in ,goa1 where he appears to have taken up with ardour the project of converting ,japan4 ,both enterprises1 the material and the spiritual1 seem to have been organised about the same time4 ,a ship was loaded with articles likely to be in demand in ,japan1 and ,francis ,xavier embarked in another vessel1 with the ,japanese refugee and a number of ,jesuit priests as missionaries4 ,the vessels in due course arrived at ,bungo1 and both priests and traders were cordially1 not to say enthusiastically1 received4 ,foreigners were evidently not then excluded from ,japan1 and no objection whatever was made to the ,christian propaganda in any part of the country4 ,the efforts of the ,jesuit missionaries were crowned with remarkable success4 ,all ranks and classes1 from priest to peasant1 embraced the ,catholic faith4 ,churches1 schools1 convents1 and monasteries sprang up all over the country4 ,the only opposition came from the ,bonzes1 or native priests1 who felt their influence and power declining4 ,they appealed to the ,emperor to banish the ,roman ,catholic priests1 but the imperial edict simply was1 ,leave the strangers in peace4 ,for forty years or thereabouts ,catholicism not only flourished but was triumphant4 ,indeed1 a ,japanese mission of three princes was despatched to ,pope ,gregory ,,xiii4 laden with valuable presents4 ,the arrival of this mission was acclaimed as a veritable triumph throughout ,catholic ,europe4 ,by a stroke of irony its advent there was almost contemporaneous with not only the overthrow but the almost total extinction of ,christianity in ,japan4 ,the edict for the banishment of the missionaries was published in #aehg4 ,it was followed by persecutions1 martyrdoms1 and the rasing of all the ,christian churches and buildings--the destruction1 in a word1 of ,christianity in ,japan4 ,this was in due course followed by not only the expulsion of all foreigners from the country--with the exception of the ,dutch1 who were allowed to have a factory at ,nagasaki--but the enactment of a law1 rigidly observed for two and a half centuries1 that no ,japanese should leave his country on any pretence whatever1 and no foreigner be permitted to land therein4 ,prior to this edict the ,japanese had been enterprising sailors and had extended their voyages to many distant lands4 ,what1 it might be asked1 was the reason of or occasion for this violent change in the attitude of the ,japanese to ,christianity and the presence of ,europeans in their midst8 ,it is impossible1 at this length of time1 to arrive at a correct answer to this question1 largely mixed up as it has been with the odium theologicum4 ,we have been told that the result was greatly or altogether due to the pride1 arrogance1 and avarice of the ,roman ,catholic priests2 to the pretensions of the ,pope1 which came to be regarded with suspicion by the feudatory princes of ,japan1 as also to the cupidity and cunning of the traders4 ,how far any or all of these alleged causes were responsible for the change in ,japanese opinion ,i shall not venture to pronounce4 ,suffice it to remark that1 whatever the cause1 there must have been some powerful1 impelling influence at work to induce the nation not only to cast out the stranger within its gates1 but to exclude him for two and a half centuries1 and veto any inhabitant of ,japan leaving its shores and thus being brought into contact with1 and stand the chance of being contaminated by1 the foreigner4 ,we may regret the destruction of ,christianity in ,japan1 but at the same time we may1 ,i think1 accept the fact that the uprising of ,japan against the foreigner at the close of the sixteenth century was simply the result of the gorge which had arisen in the nation against the foreigner's manners1 methods1 and morals1 his trampling underfoot of national prejudices and ideas1 his cupidity1 his avarice1 his cruelty1 his attempt to impose on ,japanese civilisation a veneer which it did not desire and deemed it was much better without4 ,it must be remembered that the missionaries and the traders had a common nationality1 and that the ,japan of the sixteenth century did not find it possible to differentiate between them4 ,down to the nineteenth century we have to rely for our knowledge of ,japan and the ,japanese on the narratives of the few travellers who managed to visit that country more or less by stealth1 or from the information derived from ,europeans serving in the ,dutch factory at ,nagasaki4 ,every ,englishman has heard of ,will ,adams and his ,japanese wife1 but though his career was romantic and interesting it has added but little to our knowledge of ,japan at the time of his visit thereto4 ,in #agbg ,dr4 ,kaemfer's work on ,japan was published4 ,kaemfer had been physician to the ,dutch factory at ,nagasaki1 and1 accordingly1 had some opportunities of studying ,japanese life and character4 ,his book in the original form is rare1 but ,i am glad to say that a cheap edition1 a reprint of the ,english edition produced by the ,royal ,society in #agbg1 has recently been published in this country4 ,kaemfer's work is spoiled and its utility or reliability largely impaired by the fanciful theories put forward by the author respecting the origin of the ,japanese4 ,much of his information is1 of course1 mere hearsay1 and a great deal of it1 by the light of what we now know1 is not only misleading but nonsensical4 ,a considerable amount of space is devoted by ,kaemfer to chimerical animals1 and he dilates upon the awful sanctity that surrounds the person of the ,emperor4 ,there is1 he remarks1 such a ,holiness ascribed to all the parts of his ,body that he dares not cut off neither his hair1 nor his beard1 nor his nails4 ,however1 lest he should grow too dirty1 they may clean him in the night when he is asleep2 because they say that what is taken from his ,body at that time had been stolen from him1 and that such a theft does not prejudice his ,holiness or ,dignity4 ,in a notice of this new edition of ,kaemfer's work ,i have seen it asserted that the book is the foundation of nearly all that was known or written of ,japan till the last twenty-five years4 ,how such a statement as this came to be published ,i quite fail to comprehend4 ,there was plenty of literature in reference to ,japan far more reliable than ,kaemfer's whimsical yarns at a much earlier period than twenty-five years back4 ,sir ,rutherford ,alcock's ,the ,capital of the ,tycoon was1 ,i think1 published in #ahfc4 ,sir ,rutherford was the first resident ,british ,minister in ,japan1 and his book remains a stirring and1 making allowance for the author's prejudices on various matters1 on the whole a vivid picture of ,japan as it was in the early sixties4 ,alcock's book was followed by many others1 and twenty-five years ago the world was so far from being dependent on ,kaemfer for its knowledge of ,japan that1 as ,i have said1 it had even then quite a library of recent and reliable books in regard to that country4 ,following ,kaemfer1 a little later in the eighteenth century1 a ,swedish physician1 ,thunberg by name1 who also had been attached to the ,dutch factory at ,nagasaki1 wrote a book undoubtedly interesting and of great value4 ,that country1 he remarks1 is in many respects a singular country1 and with regard to customs and institutions totally different from ,europe1 or1 ,i had almost said1 from any other part of the world4 ,of all the nations that inhabit the three largest parts of the globe1 the ,japanese deserve to rank the first1 and to be compared with the ,europeans2 and although in many points they must yield the palm to the latter1 yet in various other respects they may with great justice be preferred to them4 ,here1 indeed1 as well as in other countries1 are found both useful and pernicious establishments1 both rational and absurd institutions2 yet still we must admire the steadiness which constitutes the national character1 the immutability which reigns in the administration of their laws and in the exercise of their public functions1 the unwearied assiduity of this nation to do and to promote what is useful1 and a hundred other things of a similar nature4 ,that so numerous a people as this should love so ardently and so universally 7without even a single exception to the contrary7 their native country1 their ,government1 and each other--that the whole country should be1 as it were1 enclosed1 so that no native can get out1 nor foreigner enter in1 without permission--that their laws should have remained unaltered for several thousand years--and that justice should be administered without partiality or respect of persons--that the ,governments can neither become despotic nor evade the laws in order to grant pardons or do other acts of mercy--that the monarch and all his subjects should be clad alike in a particular national dress--that no fashions should be adopted from abroad1 nor new ones invented at home--that no foreign war should have been waged for centuries past--that a great variety of religious sects should live in peace and harmony together--that hunger and want should be almost unknown1 or at least known but seldom1--all this must appear improbable1 and to many as impossible as it is strictly true1 and deserving of the utmost attention4 ,he goes on to say1 ,if the laws in this country are rigid1 the police are equally vigilant1 while discipline and good order are scrupulously observed4 ,the happy consequences of this are extremely visible and important1 for hardly any country exhibits fewer instances of vice4 ,and as no respect whatever is paid to persons1 and at the same time the laws preserve their pristine and original purity1 without any alterations1 explanations1 and misconstructions1 the subjects not only imbibe1 as they grow up1 an infallible knowledge of what ought or ought not to be done1 but are likewise enlightened by the example and irreproachable conduct of their superiors in age4 ,most crimes are punished with death--a sentence which is inflicted with less regard to the magnitude of the crime than to the audacity of the attempt to transgress the hallowed laws of the empire1 and to violate justice1 which together with religion they consider as the most sacred things in the whole land4 ,fines and pecuniary mulcts they regard as equally repugnant to justice and reason1 as the rich are thereby freed from all punishment--a procedure which to them appears the height of absurdity4 ,in the towns it often happens that the inhabitants of a whole street are made to suffer for the malpractice of a single individual1 the master of a house for the faults of his domestics1 and parents for those of their children1 in proportion to the share they may have had in the transaction4 ,in ,europe1 which boasts a purer religion and a more enlightened philosophy1 we very rarely see those punished who have debauched and seduced others1 never see parents and relatives made to suffer for neglecting the education of their children and kindred1 at the same time that these heathens see the justice and propriety of such punishment4 ,dealing with agriculture1 the ,swedish physician remarked3 ,agriculture is in the highest esteem with the ,japanese1 insomuch that 7the most barren and untractable mountains excepted7 one sees here the surface of the earth cultivated all over the country1 and most of the mountains and hills up to their very tops4 ,neither rewards nor encouragements are necessary in a country where the tillers of the ground are considered as the most useful class of citizens and where they do not groan under various oppressions1 which in other countries have hindered1 and ever must hinder1 the progress of agriculture4 ,the duties paid by the farmer of his corn in kind are indeed very heavy1 but in other respects he cultivates his land with greater freedom than the lord of a manor in ,sweden4 ,he is not hindered two days together at a time1 in consequence of furnishing relays of horses1 by which he perhaps earns a groat and often returns with the loss of his horses2 he is not dragged from his field and plough to transport a prisoner or a deserter to the next castle2 nor are his time and property wasted in making roads1 building bridges1 almshouses1 parsonage-houses1 and magazines4 ,he knows nothing of the impediments and inconveniences which attend the maintenance and equipments of horses and foot soldiers4 ,and what contributes still more to his happiness1 and leaves sufficient scope for his industry in cultivating his land is this--that he has only one master1 viz41 his feudal lord1 without being under the commands of a host of masters1 as with us4 ,no parcelling out of the land forbids him to improve to the least advantage the portion he possesses1 and no right of commonage1 belonging to many1 prevents each from deriving profit from his share4 ,all are bound to cultivate their land1 and if a husbandman cannot annually cultivate a certain portion of his fields he forfeits them1 and another who can is at liberty to cultivate them4 ,meadows are not to be met with in the whole country2 on the contrary1 every spot of ground is made use of either for corn-fields or else for plantations of esculent-rooted vegetables3 so that the land is neither wasted upon extensive meadows for the support of cattle and saddle-horses1 nor upon large and unprofitable plantations of tobacco2 nor is it sown with seed for any other still less necessary purpose2 which is the reason that the whole country is very thickly inhabited and populous1 and can without difficulty give maintenance to all its innumerable inhabitants4 ,let us now take a step1 a long step1 forward in time from the ,swedish physician relating his impressions in the seventeenth century1 to an ,american in the eighteenth century delivering his opinions on ,japan and the ,japanese as viewed from the ,american standpoint at that period4 ,the sitter is the same1 and1 what is more1 he sits on his heels to-day just as his grandfather did to ,thunberg1 yet it is hard to see any points of resemblance--a lesson to all theologians and politicians who still indulge the dreams that uniformity of opinion on the plainest matters of fact and observation can ever be attained among men1 however honest and conscientious they may be in their efforts after unity4 ,the ,chinese proverb with more wisdom declares1 ',truth is one1 but opinions are many4' ,all officials serve in pairs1 as spies upon each other1 and this pervades the entire polity of ,japan4 ,it is a government of espionage4 ,everybody is watched4 ,no man knows who are the secret spies around him1 even though he may be and is acquainted with those that are official4 ,the emperors themselves are not exempt2 governors1 grand councillors1 vassal princes1 all are under the eye of an everlasting unknown police4 ,this wretched system is even extended to the humblest of the citizens4 ,every town is divided into collections of five families1 and every member of such a division is personally responsible for the conduct of the others2 everything which occurs1 therefore1 out of the ordinary course in any one of these is instantly reported by the other four to save themselves from censure4 ,the ,ziogoon 7,tycoon7 has his minions about the ,mikado and the ,grand ,council have theirs about the ,ziogoon4 ,and the cowardice engendered by such ceaseless distrust necessarily leads to cruelty in penalties4 ,when an official has offended1 or even when in his department there has been any violation of law1 although beyond his power of prevention1 so sure is he of the punishment of death1 that he anticipates it by ripping up his own body rather than be delivered over to the executioner and entailing disgrace and ruin on all his family4 ,there cannot under such a system be anything like judicious legislation founded on enquiry and adapted to the ever-varying circumstances of life4 ,as ,government functionaries they lie and practise artifice to save themselves from condemnation by the higher powers3 it is their vocation4 ,as private gentlemen they are frank1 truthful1 and hospitable4 ,taking a further step and coming down to the year #ahgg1 ,i have before me1 as ,i write1 the private letter of a naval officer of an impressionable age visiting ,japan for the first time and giving his opinions thereof1 at a period when ,japan was just beginning to feel really at work the distinct influences of ,western civilisation--the beginning1 in fact1 of the extraordinary metamorphosis which has been witnessed of recent years4 ,he remarks3 ,probably to the traveller seeking the marvellous and desiring the beautiful1 there is no more interesting country to pay a visit to than ,japan4 ,in something under a decade that country astonished1 and1 at first1 rather amused the civilised world by emerging from the acme of barbarism to the extremes of civilisation4 ,it was but a very few years ago that a foreigner could not land in the country unless accompanied by a ,government escort4 ,but now that is all changed4 ,the foreigner is welcomed1 his habits and religion are not alone tolerated but respected2 his dress is copied to an extreme that indeed proves imitation to be the sincerest flattery1 and but for the olive complexion1 flat nose and dark hair1 a ,japanese gentleman of the period is very little different from his ,english contemporary4 ,there is a tendency ,i find among a good many persons1 whose ideas on the subject of race and geography are slightly mixed1 to confound the ,japanese with the ,chinese1 and to imagine that the two names indicate no greater difference than at present exist between an ,englishman and an ,irishman4 ,the fact1 however1 is that a greater difference exists among these two nationalities than can be either imagined or described1 and1 considering their contiguity1 it is indeed surprising that they have scarcely a habit or a pursuit in common4 ,the mind of the modern ,japanese is progressive and acquisitive4 ,the mind of the ,chinaman of the nineteenth century1 as far as he allows it to be seen1 is as torpid and retrogressive as his ancestors of the ,confucian period4 ,up to the year #ahfh ,japan was governed jointly by a ,tycoon and a ,mikado together with a council of the ,daimios1 or great feudal princes1 in whose hands all real power rested4 ,the spiritual sovereign was the ,mikado1 nominally the chief ruler1 the ,tycoon being considered his first subject4 ,all enactments required his sanction4 ,the office of the ,tycoon was hereditary and he gradually absorbed all the powers of the ,state4 ,in #ahfh a revolution occurred which culminated in the overthrow of the spiritual head and the seating of the ,tycoon on the throne as an hereditary prince with the title of ,mikado4 ,there is now no such person as a ,tycoon in ,japan4 ,the insurrection of #ahfh also saw the downfall of the ,daimios or feudal princes of ,japan4 ,these princes had each standing armies of their own1 and administered justice in their own territories4 ,their retainers were the famous two-sworded men so long a terror to ,europeans1 and who strongly objected to any intercourse with foreigners1 probably foreseeing its inevitable result4 ,in #ahfh the whole of these ferocious men were disarmed1 and a standing army modelled on the ,french fashion established for the defence of the ,empire4 ,the ,japanese ,navy was organised about the same time by an ,english officer1 and at first consisted of a few obsolete ,american and ,english men-of-war4 ,that1 however1 is now a thing of the past1 the ,japanese ,government having during the past few years spent many millions in purchasing modern ironclads and other vessels of the most approved type1 and the ,japanese ,navy bids fair before long to become a power in the ,far ,east4 ,concerning the oft-debated question of ,japanese morality ,i can say little4 ,their ideas on the subject are1 to put it mildly1 somewhat lax1 and would no doubt shock any one strongly imbued with morality as it is in vogue 7theoretically7 in ,european countries4 ,that there is not that privacy between the sexes which prevails in other countries may be indicated by the fact that men and women make their ablutions together in the public wash-houses4 ,nevertheless the ,japanese have a code of morality peculiar to themselves1 and any infidelity on the part of a woman to her husband is punished with severity4 ,the great drawback to the prosperity of ,japan is a matter that prevails in some more ancient civilised lands1 viz41 an enormous issue of paper-money4 ,young ,japan1 finding it easy to print notes to pay its obligations1 printed them to the extent of twenty millions sterling in all sizes from #e cents to #ajj dollars4 ,the consequence is that this paper-money has depreciated in value to the extent of #ae per cent4 ,the ,government1 however1 have seen their mistake1 and are gradually calling it in1 and have established a very fine mint with a gold and silver coinage4 ,insurrections have also been a drag on ,japan in its progress4 ,the ,prince of ,satsuma1 one of the most powerful of the ancient ,daimios1 has never acknowledged the present system of government and has periodically rebelled against it4 ,this year a serious rebellion broke out at ,kagoshima1 and was not quelled without great loss of life and a heavy expenditure4 ,his followers behaved with great fanaticism1 many of them loading themselves with gunpowder rushing into the midst of the enemy and setting fire to the powder1 killing themselves by so doing1 but also1 to the admiration of their less ardent comrades1 killing numbers of the enemy4 ,against no ancient custom has the ,japanese ,government more set its face than tattooing4 ,any persons in ,japan now either allowing themselves to be tattooed or performing the operation on any one else are liable to imprisonment4 ,blacking the teeth1 a custom prevalent among the women on being married1 is rapidly dying out1 being discouraged by the authorities4 ,the glimpses of ,japan shown us by ,thunberg and the ,american ,i have quoted prove clearly enough1 even were it not amplified by a host of other testimony ,i have not space to refer to1 that the ,japan of the sixteenth1 seventeenth1 eighteenth1 and early part of the nineteenth centuries was a highly civilised country in which law and order reigned supreme1 where respect for authority was marked1 the standard of comfort1 if not high1 was at any rate sufficient1 the domestic relations and family life were almost ideal1 clean living was the custom1 crime was at a minimum1 education was universal1 amusements were plentiful1 the artistic feeling and instincts were not the cult of a class but were shared by the common people4 ,this was the nation1 self-contained and self-satisfied1 that some persons1 like the young naval officer from whom ,i have quoted1 gravely affirm to have been steeped in barbarism until it came under ,western influences and went in for frock-coats and silk hats for the men1 ,paris costumes for the women1 and an ,army and ,navy on ,european lines4 ,if these be the factors which constitute civilisation ,i admit that ,japan has only recently been civilised4 ,being of opinion1 however1 that civilisation does not consist in costumery1 but is a refining and educating influence1 ,i prefer to regard ,japan as a country of more ancient civilisation than ,great ,britain1 which has of recent years determined to tack on to that civilisation some ,western manners and customs and facilities4 ,many of ,japan's greatest thinkers1 a few ,western philosophers who can look beyond a costume1 the telegraph or the telephone1 are strongly of opinion that in the process of modern development ,japan has not improved either morally or materially1 and that1 regarded through the dry light of philosophy1 her pretensions to be considered a highly civilised nation were greater half a century back than they are at the present moment4 ,upon that matter my readers must form their own opinion4 ,it is a question1 the answer to which largely depends upon the point of view from which it is regarded and the factors taken into or left out of account4 ,in the first year of the ,meiji 7#ahfh7 the ,emperor1 in an edict1 laid down clearly and concisely the lines on which he and his advisers had determined that ,japan should for the future be governed4 ,the old uncivilised way shall be replaced by the eternal principles of the universe4 ,the best knowledge shall be sought throughout the world so as to promote the imperial welfare4 ,the eternal principles of the universe is a resonant phrase needing interpretation4 ,the rulers of ,japan to-day1 if they were interrogated on the subject1 would probably reply that the record of ,japan for over thirty-eight years past is the practical interpretation of the ,emperor's cryptic utterance4 ,be that as it may1 the ink was hardly dry on the ,imperial edict before ,japan laid herself out with earnestness1 not to say enthusiasm1 to carry into effect the principles enunciated in the edict4 ,the whole country was quickly in a positive ferment of energy4 ,the brightest intellects among its youth were despatched to foreign lands to acquire knowledge and wisdom to be applied at home in due course1 education was taken in hand1 so also was the reorganisation of the ,army and ,navy1 and railways1 telegraphs1 and various other accessories of ,european civilisation were introduced into the country4 ,japan1 in a word1 became quickly transformed and1 being unable any longer to keep the foreigner out1 she determined to utilise him and in the future fight him1 should fighting be necessary1 with his own weapons1 intellectual rather than material1 but not omitting the material4 ,thirty-eight years and more have elapsed since the issue of the ,imperial edict referred to1 and this book is designed to show what results have flowed therefrom1 along what lines the development of ,japan has proceeded1 and what are the position and prospects of that country to-day4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,the ,,country--,,its ,,physical ,,features--,,products--,,fauna--,,flora 1 ,,etc4 ,the ,empire of ,japan 7a corruption of ,nippon1 the native name7 is composed of four large islands--,honshiu1 ,shikoku1 ,kiushiu1 and ,yesso1 besides some thousands of smaller isles4 ,the ,kurile ,isles1 north of ,yesso1 and in the neighbourhood of ,kamschatka1 have been incorporated in the ,empire since #ahge1 and the ,loo-,choo ,islands1 some #ejj miles south-west of ,japan's southern extremity1 since #ahgf4 ,the great island of ,formosa1 situated off the coast of ,china1 was ceded to ,japan as the outcome of the ,chino-,japanese ,war in #ahie1 while as the result of the recent conflict with ,russia1 ,japan has obtained back the southern half of the large island of ,sakhalin1 which formerly entirely belonged to her1 as well as ,port ,arthur and ,dalny on the mainland1 not to speak of the preponderating influence she has obtained in ,korea1 which is now practically under the suzerainty of ,japan4 ,the population of the ,empire according to the last census was about forty-seven millions1 and1 like that of ,great ,britain1 it is annually increasing4 ,the proximity of ,japan to the ,asiatic ,continent1 despite the lessons in geography which the late war afforded1 is not1 ,i think1 generally understood4 ,the nearest point of the ,japanese coast is only #ajj miles distant from ,korea1 while between the two lies the important island of ,tsu-shima1 which ,japan found so useful as a strategic position during the war with ,russia4 ,the island of ,sakhalin1 the southern portion of which1 as ,i have said1 has lately passed into the possession of ,japan1 is about #bj miles distant from the northern part of ,yesso1 while at some places the island is only separated from the ,russian mainland by #e or #f miles of water4 ,the distance between ,hakodate1 in ,yesso1 and the great ,russian port of ,vladivostock is somewhere about #bjj miles4 ,this contiguity of ,japan to the ,asiatic ,continent has already had a marked effect on the politics of the world1 and in the future1 if ,i mistake not1 is likely to be a preponderating factor therein4 ,the area of ,japan is about half as large again as that of the ,united ,kingdom4 ,the southern extremity of the country is in latitude #ca ,n41 the northern in latitude #de ,n4 ,the ,japanese islands are undoubtedly of volcanic origin1 and many of the volcanoes in the country are still more or less active4 ,the general conformation of the land leads one to suppose that the islands are the summits of mountain ranges which some thousands of years back had their bases submerged by the rising of the sea or else had by degrees settled down beneath the surface of the ocean4 ,the general characteristic of the country is mountainous1 and only about one-sixth of the total area is in cultivation4 ,fuji-yama1 the loftiest mountain1 for which the ,japanese have a peculiar veneration and which has been immortalised in the art of the country1 has an altitude of #ab1gcj feet4 ,the next in height1 ,mount ,mitake1 ascends some #i1jjj feet1 and there are many others of #e1jjj feet or more4 ,japan has from time to time been ravaged by1 and indeed still is subject to1 terrible earthquakes4 ,these dire calamities seem to recur at regular intervals4 ,the ,japanese islands appear to be in the centre of great volcanic disturbances--a fact which probably accounts for those seismic outbreaks which periodically devastate considerable tracts of the country and cause tremendous havoc to life and property4 ,the written records1 extending back some #a1djj or #a1ejj years1 clearly prove that earthquakes even more terrible in their effects than any that have taken place in recent times were of frequent occurrence4 ,it is1 of course1 possible that these records may be inaccurate or have been largely exaggerated1 but they at any rate tend to show that those great cosmic forces which are popularly termed earthquakes have been constantly at work in ,japan ever since any written records have been preserved and no doubt long anterior to that time4 ,as the islands are narrow and mountainous there are no great rivers and none available for important navigation4 ,none of the rivers exceed #bjj miles in length4 ,although ,japan is situated much further south than ,great ,britain1 its northern extremity being in about the same latitude as ,cornwall1 its climate is1 on the whole1 not unlike that of this country4 ,of course the climate of such a mountainous country and one extending over #ad degrees of latitude varies considerably4 ,that of the island of ,yesso1 for example1 is in winter rigorous to a degree1 a fact in some measure caused by a cold current which flows down its eastern shores from the ,sea of ,okohotsk4 ,professor ,rein1 who has given great attention to the matter of the ,japanese climate1 has remarked in reference thereto3 ,the climate of ,japan reflects the characteristics of that of the neighbouring continent1 and exhibits like that two great annual contrasts--a hot1 damp summer and a cold relatively dry winter2 these two seasons lie under the sway of the monsoons1 but the neighbouring seas weaken the effects of these winds and mitigate their extremes in such a manner that neither the summer heat nor the cold of winter attain the same height in ,japan as in ,china at the same latitudes4 ,spring and autumn are extremely agreeable seasons2 the oppressive summer heat does not last long1 and in winter the contrast between the nightly frosts and the midday heat1 produced by considerable insulation but still more by the raw northerly winds1 causes frequent chills1 though the prevailing bright sky makes the season of the year much more endurable than in many other regions where the winter cold is equal4 ,as a fact the climate of ,japan agrees very well with most ,europeans1 so that people have already begun to look upon certain localities as climatic watering-places where the inhabitant of ,hong ,kong and ,shanghai can find refuge from the oppressive heat of summer and invigorate his health4 ,the mean annual temperature of ,tokio is about #ef4 ,the lowest temperature is in ,january or ,february1 when the thermometer seldom falls below #be1 the highest in ,august1 when it sometimes rises to #ie or #ajj in the shade1 the average being #hb4 ,the ,japanese suffer a good deal from the effects of the wintry weather1 bronchial1 chest1 and rheumatic affections being prevalent4 ,the dwellings of the people1 somewhat flimsy in construction as they are1 are not well adapted to withstand the effects of a low temperature4 ,on the whole the people must be pronounced to be extremely healthy--a fact probably due to their scrupulous cleanliness1 to the excellent ventilation of their houses1 and1 as regards those living in the towns1 to the wide and well-kept streets where nothing offensive is allowed to remain4 ,the country has1 however1 from time to time been subject to epidemics introduced from without1 cholera and the plague having more than once carried death throughout the length and breadth of the land4 ,those circular storms known as cyclones in the ,indian ,ocean and typhoons in further ,eastern seas have from time to time wrought great devastation in ,japan4 ,fortunately these revolving storms are of brief duration1 and in the neighbourhood of ,japan they do not so frequently occur as in the ,china ,sea4 ,japan is well provided with good harbours1 that of ,nagasaki in especial being one of the finest in the world4 ,sheltered completely by lofty and beautiful hills1 with deep water throughout1 it is an ideal anchorage4 ,until recently foreign trade was confined to the treaty ports2 but as the country has now been completely thrown open1 there is no doubt that the many fine harbours which ,japan possesses1 and which so far have hardly been utilised at all1 will in due course become the centres of great commercial activity4 ,the ,inland ,sea--the beautiful ,mediterranean of ,japan--abounds with excellent anchorages1 most of which have hitherto been only entered by an occasional junk4 ,regarding the mineral wealth of the country1 it is impossible to speak with any precision4 ,it was not until after the ,revolution of #ahfh that the mining industry assumed importance in ,japan4 ,at first the ,government itself owned several mines1 but these were not financially successful1 and they were after a time disposed of to private owners4 ,the old mining regulations have recently been superseded by a new mining law4 ,in accordance with this the ,minister of ,agriculture and ,commerce is the official who permits1 approves1 cancels1 or suspends the right of mining1 whether permanently or on trial4 ,i may1 however1 at once remark that the ,japanese ,government has not up to the present held out much encouragement to the speculative prospector4 ,gold is believed to exist in considerable quantities in ,yesso1 and as a matter of fact1 although the amount mined is still small1 it is annually increasing4 ,coal is abundant in various parts of the country and the mines are extensively worked4 ,in #aijc there were over ten million tons of coal produced1 and the quantity is at the present time assuredly very much greater4 ,the coal is not of such a good quality as either ,welsh or ,north ,country1 but there is a large and growing demand for it in the ,east1 and coal is undoubtedly a highly important part of ,japan's latent wealth4 ,copper1 a metal which is in increasing demand1 exists in ,japan in enormous quantities1 and she promises at no very far-distant date to be the chief copper-producing country of the world4 ,iron and sulphur are also found1 and there are many other minerals1 some of which are more or less worked4 ,the ,japanese ,mining ,law1 it may be interesting to relate1 recognises the following minerals and mineral ores1 which may accordingly be taken as existing in the country3 ,gold1 silver1 copper1 lead1 tin1 hematite1 antimony1 quicksilver1 zinc1 iron1 manganese and arsenic1 plumbago1 coal1 kerosene1 sulphur1 bismuth1 phosphorus1 peat4 ,whatever the mineral wealth of ,japan--and the extent and variety thereof are probably yet not fully realised--there can be no question as to the value of its arboreal products4 ,the lacquer-tree 7rhus vernicifera71 which furnishes the well-known ,japanese lacquer1 the paper mulberry1 the elm1 oak1 maple1 bamboo1 camphor1 and many other descriptions of trees1 grow in abundance4 ,the forests of ,japan cover nearly #fj per cent4 of the land4 ,for some years after the ,revolution there was a reduction in the wooded area1 nearly four million acres having been cleared for occupation4 ,of late years1 however1 forestry has been scientifically taken in hand1 and about one and a half million acres have been replanted in districts which have not been found suitable for farming4 ,the climate of ,japan varies so greatly that there is a corresponding variety in its trees4 ,about eight hundred kinds of forest trees are suitable for cultivation in ,japan1 varying from the palm and the bamboo to the fir and many other trees with which we are familiar in this country4 ,the ,japanese are above all things an agricultural people4 ,the tobacco plant1 the tea shrub1 potatoes1 rice1 wheat1 barley1 millet1 cotton1 rape1 and many cereals other than those ,i have mentioned are extensively cultivated4 ,the great mass of the people of ,japan live on the land1 and though ,i think the tendency1 as in ,great ,britain1 is for the large towns to magnetically draw the dwellers in the country1 nevertheless agriculture is still held in high esteem1 and the peasant is content to dwell on the land and live by it4 ,rice is the staple food of the people1 and it is grown everywhere2 indeed the yearly harvest of it affects the ,japanese economy quite as much as1 if not even more than1 the wheat crop does that of ,europe4 ,the ,japanese peasant is almost as dependent on rice as the ,irish peasant used to be on potatoes4 ,the water1 so necessary for irrigating the land1 is supplied by the streams and rivulets which are plentiful in the country4 ,the ,japanese agriculturist has long been famous for the admirable manner in which he keeps and tills his farm4 ,the fields are clean as regards weeds1 and order and neatness are perceptible everywhere4 ,the labour is almost entirely manual1 and men1 women1 and children all take part in the work4 ,fruit is abundant in ,japan1 but it is for the most part of an inferior quality4 ,grapes1 apples1 pears1 plums1 peaches1 chestnuts1 persimmons1 oranges1 figs1 lemons1 citrons1 melons1 and wild strawberries are all grown1 but except as regards the grapes ,i cannot speak in laudatory terms of ,japanese fruit4 ,the flowers of many fruit trees seem more appreciated than the fruit itself4 ,the floral kingdom is rich1 beautiful and varied4 ,probably in no other part of the world are flowers so greatly appreciated as in ,japan4 ,they enter largely into various popular festivals4 ,the ,japanese1 as most people know1 excel in the art of gardening and the dwarfing of trees and shrubs4 ,the flower vendor is a familiar sight1 and there is never any lack of buyers4 ,the poorest householder will do without anything almost rather than deprive himself of flowers4 ,these enter largely into the religious services of the people1 and are also extensively placed on the graves of the departed4 ,flowers1 indeed1 play an important part in the lives of the ,japanese4 ,japan has long been famous for the great number of its evergreens4 ,a large number of the plants growing wild are of this class1 so that even in winter the land has not the bare appearance characteristic of ,european countries at that time of the year4 ,coniferous plants are abundant1 many of them being peculiar to ,japan4 ,the coasts abound with fish of an excellent quality1 and this1 with rice1 forms the staple diet of the people4 ,tea is1 as ,i have said1 largely cultivated1 and indeed may be regarded as the national beverage4 ,it has been cultivated in the country for over two thousand years4 ,it is an article of faith in ,japan that tea strengthens the body4 ,it is drunk everywhere and at all times1 without either milk or sugar--the true way1 ,i think1 in which to appreciate its flavour4 ,the tea-house in ,japan occupies the same position as the public-house in this country1 but it has many advantages over the latter4 ,in the towns and some other parts of ,japan1 sak--a spirit distilled from rice--is drunk1 and when the ,japanese has to any extent been ,europeanised or brought into contact with ,europeans1 he affects a taste for ,european varieties of alcohol4 ,on the whole1 however1 the people are distinctly a sober race4 ,the principal towns are ,tokio1 the capital1 with a population of about one and half millions1 ,osaka1 having a population nearly as great1 ,kyoto1 the ancient capital1 ,nagoya1 ,kob1 ,yokohama1 and ,nagasaki4 ,yokohama may be regarded as the ,european headquarters2 indeed it is largely a ,european town1 while ,nagasaki has more than any other been under ,european influences1 the ,dutch having1 as ,i have already stated1 had a factory there1 in the suburb of ,decima1 continuously ever since the expulsion of foreigners from the country in the sixteenth century4 ,railway communication in ,japan is a subject upon which much might be written4 ,for many years there was only one line in the country--that between ,yokohama and ,tokio1 about #bb miles in length4 ,at the present time there are some #d1ejj miles of railway open1 and extensions are either in progress or in contemplation4 ,of the lines now being worked1 about one-third are the property of the ,government1 the rest having been constructed by private enterprise4 ,this dual system of ownership has its disadvantages1 and it will doubtless not be permitted to last4 ,railway construction has already had a considerable effect on the opening up of the country1 and as the construction is extended the development of ,japan will doubtless proceed in an increasing ratio4 ,the scenery of ,japan has provided a theme for so many pens that ,i do not feel inclined to do more than refer to it in passing4 ,much of the scenery is sublime but1 truth to tell1 its beauty1 or perhaps it would be more correct to say the effect thereof on the sightseer1 has been somewhat marred of recent years by the influx of those persons colloquially known as globe trotters1 the railway extensions to which ,i have referred1 and the erection of large hotels run on ,european lines4 ,nikko1 the incomparable1 with its glorious scenery and its still more glorious temples1 the meandering ,daynogawa1 the beauteous ,lake ,chiuzenji1 on which a quarter of a century or so ago a ,european provided with a passport and having his headquarters at a neighbouring tea-house might gaze at his leisure1 and meditate in a glorious silence broken only by the sound of the ripples of the water or the cry of the birds from the neighbouring woods1 all are now vulgarised4 ,the personally conducted tourist is there and very much in evidence4 ,he wanders carelessly1 often contemptuously1 through the ancient temples1 regarding temples1 scenery1 river1 lakes1 merely as something to be done4 ,the change was1 ,i suppose1 inevitable1 but the change is one that ,i think is in some respects to be regretted4 ,the tourist brings money and spends it freely1 and the country no doubt reaps the advantage thereof1 but the effect on the ,japanese brought into contact with the ,european under such conditions is not1 in my opinion1 always1 or often1 beneficial4 ,i have not much to remark in regard to the fauna of ,japan4 ,the domestic animals are comparatively few4 ,the fact of the inhabitants not eating animal food has led to their paying little or no attention to the breeding of those animals which are largely in request in foreign countries4 ,horses1 however1 are fairly plentiful1 though small4 ,japan1 as ,i have elsewhere remarked1 has been handicapped in the organisation of her cavalry by the lack of a proper supply of suitable horses1 and she has recently despatched a commission to ,europe to effect purchases with a view of putting this matter right1 and improving the breed of horses in the county4 ,oxen and cows were till recently entirely1 and are still largely1 used for purposes of draught only4 ,sheep and pigs have been introduced from abroad1 but they have not been generally distributed1 and in many parts of ,japan have never been seen4 ,the wild animals of ,japan are neither numerous nor important4 ,the black bear and the wolf still exist1 chiefly in the ,northern ,island1 but it is certain that at no far-distant date they will1 unless artificially preserved1 go the way of all wild animals in civilised countries4 ,the red-faced monkey is there1 the only kind found in ,japan1 and snakes exist1 but they are for the most part harmless4 ,the art of the country will have familiarised ,europeans with the presence of the crane and the stork1 which play such a prominent part therein4 ,indeed the wild birds of the country are more numerous than the animals4 ,i am not aware whether geological research in ,japan has been sufficiently extensive or systematic to ascertain whether1 and if so what1 any species of animals have ever existed there other than those at present found in the country4 ,it certainly is in some respects extraordinary that a country so close to the ,asiatic ,continent and possessing such a variety of climates should1 as regards the animal kingdom from the standpoint of the zoologist1 be put down as distinctly poor4 ,the fact1 or supposed fact1 to which ,i have previously referred1 that the ,japanese islands are the summits of mountain ranges which many thousand years ago had their bases submerged by the rising of the sea or had gradually settled down beneath the surface of the ocean1 may1 of course1 account for the poverty of ,japan in regard to the animals therein4 ,i must leave other pens than mine to descant on that interesting if highly speculative matter4 ,be that as it may1 if the fauna of ,japan is poor1 the country certainly makes up for it by the variety and magnificence of its flora--a flora which deserves to be studied1 and which has done so much to brighten not only the appearance of the country but the lives of its inhabitants4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,the ,,japanese ,,race ,,and ,,its ,,language ,there are1 ,i have always thought1 two ways in which any race should be considered if it is desired to form a correct idea in regard to it1 viz41 from an ethnological and philological standpoint4 ,no race deserves to be closer studied in these matters than the ,japanese4 ,indeed1 ,i am of opinion that it is impossible to arrive at any clear or correct opinion concerning it without having1 however slightly1 investigated its racial descent and the language which1 among ,eastern dialects1 has so long been as great a puzzle to the philologist as has ,basque among the ,european languages4 ,respecting the origin of the ,japanese we know practically nothing--at any rate nothing authentic4 ,the native legends and histories afford us neither guide nor clue in the matter4 ,these legends and histories tell us that the ,japanese are descended from the gods1 but ,i am quite certain that the modern ,japanese receives that fact 787 with something more than the proverbial grain of salt4 ,according to the old legend ,ninigi-no-,nikoto was a god despatched by his grandmother the ,sun-goddess to take possession of ,japan1 and the land was peopled by him and his entourage4 ,this god-man1 it is stated1 lived over #cjj1jjj years2 his son1 ,hohoderni1 attained to twice that period of longevity1 while a grandchild1 ,ugaya by name1 reached the respectable old age of #hcf1jdb years4 ,ugaya was1 it is stated1 the father of ,jimmu1 the first ,emperor4 ,it is not necessary to seriously notice fables or legends or poetic imagery1 or whatever these tales may be deemed to be1 although ,i may remark that the divine descent of the sovereign of ,japan has1 so far as ,i know1 never been formally repudiated1 and it is still explicitly1 if not implicitly1 held4 ,dr4 ,kaemfer1 whose great work ,i have already referred to1 propounded therein the somewhat fanciful theory that the ,japanese are really the direct descendants of the ancient ,babylonians1 and that their language is one of those which ,sacred ,writ mentions the all-wise ,providence thought fit to infuse into the minds of the vain builders of the ,babylonian ,tower4 ,according to his theory1 which to me seems absolutely ludicrous1 the ,japanese came through ,persia1 then along the shores of the ,caspian ,sea and by the bank of the ,oxus to its source4 ,from there1 he suggests1 they crossed ,china1 descended the ,amoor1 proceeded southwards to ,korea1 and found their way across the intervening sea to the ,japanese islands4 ,another theory1 which has found many supporters1 is that the ,japanese are descended from the ,ainos1 the hairy race still to be found in the island of ,yesso4 ,an advocate of this view seeks to bolster up his faith by the evidences of an aboriginal race still to be found in the relics of the ,stone ,age in ,japan4 ,flint arrows and spear-heads1 he remarks1 hammers1 chisels1 scrapers1 kitchen refuse1 and various other trophies are frequently excavated1 or may be found in the museum or in homes of private persons4 ,though covered with the soil for centuries1 they seem as though freshly brought from an ,aino hut in ,yesso4 ,in scores of striking instances the very peculiar ideas1 customs1 and superstitions of both ,japanese and ,aino are the same1 or but slightly modified4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,sweet ,,scent ,,of ,,the ,,cherry ,,blossom ,,from ,a ,,print ,,by ,,hiroshige ,this seems to me to be no evidence at all4 ,flint arrows1 spear-heads1 hammers1 and so on are to be found in every part of the world4 ,mankind all over the globe seems to have evolved its civilisation1 or what passes for it1 in very much the same way1 viz41 by process of experiment4 ,another authority has asserted that the short1 round skull1 the oblique eyes1 the prominent cheek-bones1 the dark1 black hair1 and the scanty beard all proclaim the ,manchus and ,koreans as the nearest congeners of the ,japanese4 ,this authority considers it positive that the latter are a ,tungusic race1 and that their own traditions and the whole course of their history are incompatible with any other conclusion than that ,korea is the route by which the immigrant tribes made their entry into ,kiushiu from their original ,manchurian home4 ,while accepting this theory with some reservations1 ,i may remark that ,i altogether fail to see what the whole course of ,japanese history has to do with the matter4 ,japanese history1 as ,i have previously observed1 is almost altogether legendary1 and proves nothing except the credulity of those who have accepted it as statements of fact4 ,ethnology1 ,i admit1 is a most interesting field for speculation4 ,it is one in which the mind can positively run riot and the imagination revel4 ,the wildest theories have been put forward in regard to many of the world's races1 and philological arguments of the thinnest possible kind have been used to bolster them up4 ,for example1 one very able writer on this matter has broached a theory respecting the origin of the ,japanese1 and supported it by what seems to be very plausible evidence4 ,he assumes1 on what grounds ,i know not1 that there was a white race earlier in the field of history than the ,aryans1 and that the seat of this white race was in ,high ,africa4 ,that it was from ,africa that migrations were made to ,north1 ,central1 and ,south ,america1 as well as to ,egypt1 and subsequently to ,babylonia and1 apparently1 to ,india4 ,in due course1 according to this authority1 ,syria and ,babylonia were conquered by the ,semites1 while the ,aryans became masters of ,europe1 ,asia ,minor1 and ,india4 ,the suggestion is that the conquerors of the ,japanese islands and the founders of the ,japanese language and mythology were of the ,turano-,african type4 ,that these invaders intermarried with a mixed short race1 and that the new dominating ,japanese race maintained and propagated their dialect of the language and their sect of the religion1 and displaced the pure natives4 ,the same authority suggests that when the ,pacific route to ,america was closed by the weakness of the ,turano ,africans and the rising of cannibals and other savages 7where did they rise from87 the ,japanese were isolated on the east4 ,on their west the ,turano-,african dynasties in ,china and ,korea fell1 and were replaced by natives1 the same series of events taking place as in ,egypt1 ,peru1 ,mexico1 c4 ,the principal evidence in support of this somewhat startling theory is the similarity between the words in use in ,japanese and in certain ,african languages4 ,but if evidence of that nature is to be accepted in proof of somewhat improbable theories1 it will be possible to prove almost anything in regard to the origin of races4 ,i utterly reject all these far-fetched theories4 ,any unprejudiced man looking at the ,japanese1 the ,chinaman1 and the ,korean will have no doubt whatever in his own mind as to their racial affinity4 ,differences there most certainly are1 just as there are between the ,frenchman and the ,englishman1 or even the ,englishman and the ,scotchman1 but what ,i may term the pronounced characteristics are the same--the colour of the skin1 the oblique eyes1 the dark hair1 and the contour of the skull4 ,these people1 whatever the present difference in their mental1 moral1 and physical characteristics1 have quite evidently all come from the same stock4 ,they are1 in a word1 ,mongolians1 and any attempt to prove that one particular portion of this stock is ,turano-,african1 or something else equally absurd from an ethnological point of view1 seems to me to be positively childish4 ,there was probably originally a mixture of races1 ,malay as well as others1 which has had its effect on the peculiar temperament of the ,japanese as he is to-day compared with the ,chinaman4 ,of course language cannot be left out of account in the question of the racial origin of any people1 and the ,japanese language has1 as ,i have said1 long been a puzzle for the philologist4 ,in the early times we are told the ,japanese had no written language4 ,the language in use before the opening up of communications with ,korea and ,china stood alone4 ,indeed there is only one language outside ,japan which has any affinity therewith1 that is the language of the inhabitants of the ,loo-,choo ,islands4 ,philologists have excluded the language from the ,aryan and ,semitic tongues1 and included it in the ,turanian group4 ,it is said to possess all the characteristics of the ,turanian family being agglutinated1 that is to say1 maintaining its roots in their integrity without formative prefixes1 poor in conjunctions1 and copious in the use of participles4 ,it is uncertain when alphabetical characters were introduced into ,japan1 but it is believed to have happened when intercourse with ,korea was first opened about the commencement of the ,christian ,era4 ,the warrior ,empress1 ,jungu-kogo1 is said to have carried away from ,korea as many books as possible after the successful invasion of that country4 ,in the third century the son of the ,emperor ,ojin learned to read ,chinese works1 and henceforward the ,chinese language and literature seem to have been introduced into ,japan4 ,a great impetus was given to the spread of ,chinese literature by the introduction of ,buddhism and ,buddhist writings in the sixth century1 and the effect thereof is now apparent in the number of ,chinese words in the ,japanese language4 ,the question as to the origin of the earliest written characters employed in ,japan is one that has produced1 and probably will continue to produce1 much controversy4 ,these are known as ,shinji letters of the ,god ,age1 but they have left no traces in the existing alphabet4 ,there is a remarkable difference between the written and spoken dialects of ,japan4 ,the grammars of the two are entirely different1 and it is possible to speak the language colloquially and yet not be able to read a newspaper1 book1 or letter2 while1 on the other hand1 it is possible to know the written language thoroughly1 and yet be unable to carry on a conversation with a ,japanese4 ,the spoken language1 as a matter of fact1 is not difficult except in regard to the complicated construction of the words4 ,the difficulty is in reference to the written language4 ,there are really three modes or systems of writing3 the first consists of the use of the ,chinese characters1 the second and third of two different alphabets4 ,although the ,japanese have adopted the ,chinese characters and learned to attach to them the same meaning as obtains in ,china1 the construction of sentences is sometimes so totally different that it is difficult for a ,chinaman to read a book written by a ,japanese in the ,chinese characters1 while the ,japanese cannot read ,chinese books unless he has specially studied ,chinese4 ,it is evident from what ,i have said that it is difficult to obtain a complete knowledge of the written language of ,japan in its ,chinese form4 ,there is a certain school of thought in ,japan which is enthusiastic for the replacement of the present complicated system by the introduction of a ,roman alphabet1 but ,i feel bound to say that this school has not made much progress1 and it is not likely to be successful4 ,although the present system has its disadvantages1 it has its advantages likewise4 ,the written characters are those common to about #dej millions of the world's people1 and ,i think that the use of the ,chinese characters in ,japan will be a factor of considerable importance in the future history of the world1 because ,i am convinced that ,japan is destined to exercise a preponderating influence in and over ,china1 and that the exercise of that influence will be greatly facilitated by the written characters which both nations have in common4 ,i may at once candidly confess that ,i have no theory to broach in respect of the origin of the ,japanese people or the language that they speak4 ,in such matters theorising appears to me to be a pure waste of time4 ,one has only to look round the world as it is to-day1 or for the matter of that within the confines of one's own country1 to see how rapidly the people living for long periods in a certain part of the country develop distinct characteristics not only in physiognomy but in dialect4 ,it is only the existence of the printing press which has1 so to speak1 stereotyped the languages of nations and prevented variations becoming fixed1 variations and dialects which in days prior to the existence of printing presses were evolved into distinct languages4 ,take the ,british ,isles for example1 any part of them1 ,yorkshire1 ,scotland1 ,ireland1 ,london1 and note the difference between the spoken language of certain classes and the language as printed in newspapers and books4 ,given a nation isolated1 or comparatively isolated1 for many hundreds of years1 it is difficult to say to what extent its language might be evolved or in what degree the few chance visitors thereto may introduce words which are readily adapted to or adopted in the language and influence it for all time4 ,take1 for example1 a word which any visitor to ,china or ,japan must have heard over and over again1 viz41 ,joss1 as applied to ,god4 ,this is1 as most people know1 simply a corruption of the ,portuguese name for the deity4 ,i hope some philologist a few thousand years hence who may trace that word to its original source will not adduce therefrom that either the ,chinese or the ,japanese sprang from a ,latin race4 ,the most ancient ,japanese writings date from the eighth century4 ,these are ,japanese written in ,chinese characters1 but the ,chinese written language as also its literature and the teachings of the great ,chinese philosopher1 ,confucius1 are believed to have been introduced several hundreds of years previously4 ,this contact with and importation from ,china undoubtedly had a marked effect in inducing what ,i may term atrophy in the development of the ,japanese language as also the growth of its own literature1 that is a literature entirely devoid of ,chinese influences4 ,indeed it is impossible to speculate on what might have been the development of ,japan and in what direction that development would have proceeded had she never come under the influence of the ,chinese language1 literature1 religion1 and artistic principles4 ,i have not the slightest doubt myself1 as ,i have said before1 that the ,japanese are of the same stock as the ,chinese and ,koreans4 ,i have no theory in regard to the origin of the ,ainos1 who are most likely the aboriginal inhabitants4 ,they are quite evidently a distinct race from the ,japanese proper1 although of course there has been some interbreeding between them4 ,the language of ,japan naturally suggests some reference to its literature1 of which there is no lack1 either ancient or modern4 ,i have dealt with this matter in some detail in a subsequent chapter4 ,the old literature of ,japan is but little known to ,europeans1 and probably most ,europeans would be incapable of appreciating or understanding it4 ,it abounds in verbal artifices1 and the whole habits of life and modes of thought and conception of things1 material and spiritual1 of the ,japanese of those days were so totally different to those of the ,european as to render it almost unintelligible to the latter4 ,there are1 however1 scholars who have waded through this literature as also through the poetry of ,japan and have found great delight therein4 ,in the process of translating an ,oriental language1 full of depths of subtlety of thought and expressing ,oriental ideas in an ,oriental manner1 much1 if not most1 of its beauty and charm must be lost4 ,that is1 ,i think1 why the ,japanese prose and poetry when translated into ,english seem so bald and lifeless4 ,we know by experience that even a ,european language loses in the process of translation which is1 except in very rare instances1 a purely mechanical art4 ,how much more so must be the case in regard to an ,oriental language with its depths of hyperbole and replete with imagery1 idealism1 and flowery illustrations4 ,i have referred to the literature of modern ,japan1 the ephemeral literature1 in a chapter on its newspaper press4 ,the modern literature1 whether ephemeral or otherwise1 is distinctly not on ,oriental lines4 ,the influence of the ,west permeates it4 ,distinctive ,japanese literature is1 ,i imagine1 a thing of the past1 and ,i fear it will be less and less studied as time goes on4 ,young ,japan is a hustler1 to use a modern word1 and it has no time and mayhap not much inclination for what it perhaps regards as somewhat effete matter4 ,it thinks hurriedly and acts rapidly1 and it1 accordingly1 aspires to express its thoughts and ideas through a medium which shall do so concisely and effectively4 ,whatever the origin of the ,japanese race or the ,japanese language1 whether the former came from the plains of ,babylon1 the heights of ,africa1 or from some part of the ,american ,continent1 or was evolved on the spot1 one thing is certain--that the ,japanese race and the ,japanese language have been indelibly stamped on the world's history4 ,the ethnologist may still puzzle himself as to the origin of these forty-seven millions of people and feel annoyed because he cannot classify them to his own satisfaction4 ,the philologist may feel an equal or even a greater puzzle in reference to their language4 ,these are merely speculative matters which may interest or amuse the man who has the time for such pursuits1 but they are1 after all1 of no great practical importance4 ,the future of a race is of more concern than its past1 and1 whatever the origin of a language may have been1 if that language serves in the processes of development to give expression to noble thoughts1 whether in prose or poetry1 to voice the wisdom of the people1 to preach the gospel of human brotherhood1 it matters little how it was evolved or whence it came4 ,it is because ,i believe that the ,japanese race and the ,japanese language have a great future before them in the directions ,i have indicated that ,i have dealt but lightly1 ,i hope none of my readers will think contemptuously1 with the theories that have been put forward in reference to the origin of both4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,the ,,religions ,,of ,,japan1 ,,their ,,influences ,,and ,,effects ,most persons in this country if they were asked what was the religion of the ,japanese people would probably answer ,buddhism4 ,as a matter of fact1 though ,buddhism was introduced into ,japan from ,korea as far back as #eeb ,a4,d41 it is not and never has been the preponderating religion in ,japan4 ,at the same time ,i quite admit that it has had a marked effect on the religious life of the people1 and that it again has been influenced by the ancient ,shinto 7literally1 ,the way of the gods7 belief of the ,japanese people4 ,this belief1 a compound of mythology and ancestral worship1 was about the first century largely encrusted by ,confucian doctrines or maxims1 mostly ethical1 imported from ,china4 ,of the precise doctrines of ,shintoism but little is even now known4 ,it has apparently no dogmas and no sacred book4 ,i am aware that there are the ancient ,shinto rituals1 called ,nurito1 and that in reference to them a vast amount of more or less erudite commentary has been written4 ,the result1 however1 has not been very enlightening4 ,i think that ,kaemfer succinctly summed up the ,shinto faith in reference to the ,japanese people when he remarked1 ,the more immediate end which they propose to themselves is a state of happiness in this world4 ,in other words1 if this assertion be correct1 ,shintoism preaches utilitarianism4 ,as to the origin of this religion there is very much the same uncertainty and quite as large an amount of theorising as is the case in reference to the ,japanese race and language4 ,the most generally received opinion is that ,shintoism is closely allied with1 if not an offshoot of1 the old religion of the ,chinese people prior to the days of ,confucius4 ,originally ,shinto was in all probability a natural religion1 but1 like all religious systems1 it has developed or suffered from accretions until the ancient belief is lost in obscurity4 ,the author of a now somewhat out-of-date book1 entitled ,progress of ,japan1 asserts that the religion of the ,japanese consists in a belief that the productive ethereal spirit being expanded through the whole universe1 every part is in some degree impregnated with it and therefore every part is in some measure the seat of the ,deity2 whence local gods and goddesses are everywhere worshipped and consequently multiplied without end4 ,like the ancient ,romans and ,greeks they acknowledge a supreme being1 the first1 the supreme1 the intellectual1 by which men have been reclaimed from rudeness and barbarism to elegance and refinement1 and been taught through privileged men and women not only to live with more comfort but to die with better hope4 ,such a religion1 however it may be described1 seems to me to be in effect ,pantheism4 ,when ,buddhism was introduced into ,japan the ,buddhist priesthood seems to have made no difficulty about receiving the native gods into their ,pantheon4 ,gradually the greater number of the ,shinto temples were served by ,buddhist priests who introduced into them the elaborate ornaments and ritual of ,buddhism4 ,the result was a kind of hybrid religion1 the line of demarcation between the ancient and the imported faith not being very clearly defined4 ,hence perhaps the religious tolerance of the ,japanese for so many centuries1 even to ,christianity when first introduced by ,st4 ,francis ,xavier4 ,about the beginning of the eighteenth century there was something akin to a religious reformation in ,japan in the direction of the revival of pure ,shintoism4 ,for a century and a half subsequently ,shintoism held up its head1 and eventually1 as the outcome of the ,revolution of #ahfh1 which marked a turning-point in the history of ,japan1 ,buddhism was disestablished and disendowed and ,shinto was installed as the ,state religion4 ,simultaneously many thousand of ,buddhist temples were stripped of their magnificent and elaborate ornaments and handed over to ,shinto keeping2 but the downfall of ,buddhism was merely of a temporary nature4 ,nevertheless ,shinto is1 ostensibly at any rate1 still the ,state religion4 ,certain temples are maintained from public funds and certain official religious functions take place in ,shinto edifices4 ,buddhism1 acclimatised though it has been in ,japan for thirteen centuries1 is still a foreign religion1 but it has played1 and to some extent still plays1 an important part in the life and history of the nation1 and it has1 as ,i have said1 materially influenced the ancient faith of ,japan and in turn been influenced by it4 ,i have no intention of describing1 much less tracing1 the history of ,buddhism1 whether in ,japan or elsewhere4 ,it is a subject on which many writers have descanted and in regard to which much might still be written4 ,there is no doubt whatever that ,buddhism as it exists to-day1 whether in ,ceylon1 ,india1 ,china1 or ,japan1 is widely different from the religion of its founder4 ,many of its original doctrines were purely symbolical and poetical4 ,these have been evolved into something they were certainly never intended to mean4 ,that the principles of the ,buddhist religion are essentially pure and moral no one who has any knowledge of it can deny4 ,it preaches above all things the suppression of self1 and it inculcates a tenderness and fondness for all forms of life4 ,according to ,griffis1 ,its commandments are the dictates of the most refined morality4 ,besides the cardinal prohibitions against murder1 stealing1 adultery1 lying1 drunkenness and unchastity1 every shade of vice1 hypocrisy1 anger1 pride1 suspicion1 greediness1 gossiping1 cruelty to animals is guarded against by special precepts4 ,among the virtues recommended we find not only reverence of parents1 care of children1 submission to authority1 gratitude1 moderation in times of prosperity1 submission in times of trial1 equanimity at all times1 but virtues such as the duty of forgiving insults and not rewarding evil with evil4 ,this is a pretty exhaustive moral code1 and though ,buddhism has often been taunted with the fact that its followers do not practically carry out its precepts and live up to the level of its high moral teaching1 ,buddhism is not1 ,i would suggest1 the only religion against which such taunts can be levelled4 ,the history of ,buddhism ever since its introduction into ,japan has been an eventful one4 ,it has had its ups and its downs4 ,it came into the country under royal auspices1 it has nearly always enjoyed the royal favour1 and ,i think its existence1 during at any rate the first few centuries it was in the country1 has been due to that fact rather than to any pronounced affection on the part of the mass of the people for it4 ,one ,emperor1 ,shirakawa by name1 is recorded to have erected more than #ej1jjj pagodas and statues throughout the country in honour of ,buddha4 ,many of these works are still1 after many centuries1 in an excellent state of preservation1 and are of deep interest not only to the antiquarian but to any student of the religious history of a nation4 ,the ,buddhist priests1 like the ,jesuits in ,european countries1 during many centuries captured and controlled education in ,japan and showed themselves thoroughly progressive in their methods and the knowledge they inculcated4 ,art and medicine were introduced under their auspices and1 whatever one may think of1 or whatever criticism may be passed on the religion itself1 it is impossible1 in my opinion1 to deny that ,buddhism on the whole has had a vast and1 ,i venture to think1 not an unhealthy influence on every phase of ,japanese national and domestic life4 ,the strength and weakness of ,buddhism have undoubtedly lain in the fact that it possessed and possesses no dogmatic creed4 ,it concerned itself almost entirely with self-mastery1 self-suppression1 the duty of doing good in this world without looking forward to any reward for the same in the next4 ,it preached benevolence in the true meaning of that word in every shape and form4 ,it taught that benevolence was the highest aspiration of a noble spirit4 ,benevolence was1 indeed1 the master virtue1 the crown1 the coping stone1 of all virtues4 ,as the term is used in ,buddhist teaching1 it may be regarded as the synonym of love and a close study of the teaching of ,buddhism on this subject must impress any thinking man strongly with the idea that it was very much the teaching of ,christ in reference to the love of one's neighbour4 ,buddhism in ,japan at any rate has not been conservative2 it has gone the way of most religious systems1 has been subject to development and has evolved from time to time different sects1 some of which have held and preached dogmas which would1 ,i think1 have astounded1 and ,i feel certain would have been anathematised by1 the founder of ,buddhism4 ,the principal of the sects now existing in ,japan are the ,tendai1 ,shingon ,yoko and ,ken1 all of which1 ,i may observe1 are of ,chinese origin4 ,besides these there are the ,shin and the ,nichiren evolved in ,japan and dating from the thirteenth century4 ,respecting the metaphysics of ,buddhism and their effect on the ,japanese people ,i cannot1 ,i think1 do better than quote from that great authority on all things ,japanese1 ,mr4 ,basil ,hall ,chamberlain1 whose writings have done so much1 not only to awaken an interest in ,japan but to give correct ideas respecting the life of the people4 ,he remarks1 in this connection1 ,the complicated metaphysics of ,buddhism have awakened no interest in the ,japanese nation4 ,another fact1 curious but true1 is that these people have never been at the trouble to translate the ,buddhist canon into their own language4 ,the priests use a ,chinese version1 the laity no version at all nowadays1 though to judge from the allusions scattered up and down ,japanese literature they would seem to have been more given to searching the ,scriptures a few hundred years ago4 ,the ,buddhist religion was disestablished and disendowed during the years #ahga-d--;a step taken in consequence of the temporary ascendency of ,shinto4 ,at the present time a faint struggle is being carried on by the ,buddhist priesthood against rivals in comparison with whom ,shinto is insignificant3 we mean the two great streams of ,european thought--,christianity and physical science4 ,a few--a very few--men trained in ,european methods fight for the ,buddhist cause4 ,they do so1 not as orthodox believers in any existing sect1 but because they are convinced that the philosophical contents of ,buddhism in general are supported by the doctrine of evolution1 and that this religion needs therefore only to be regenerated on modern lines in order to find universal acceptance4 ,the ,reformation of #ahfh in ,japan followed much the same course in regard to religious matters as the ,reformation in ,england4 ,it laid vandal hands on ,buddhist temples and ornaments of priceless value4 ,the objective point of this religious ,reformation was presumably very much the same as that which occurred in this country1 viz41 a reversion to simplicity in religion4 ,the ,shinto ,temple which is invariably thatched is a development of the ancient ,japanese hut1 whereas the ,buddhist ,temple1 which is of ,indian origin1 is tiled1 and as regards its internal fittings and ornamentation is elaborate in comparison with the plain appearance of the ,shinto edifice4 ,so far as the ,japan of to-day is concerned these two religions may be regarded as moribund1 although their temples are still thronged by the lower classes of the people4 ,they exist because they are there1 but they have no vitality1 no message for the people1 and it is questionable whether any of ,japan's great thinkers or the educated classes in the country1 whichever religion they may nominally belong to1 have faith or belief in it4 ,a man may have1 or for sundry reasons profess1 a creed in ,japan as in other countries without believing in it4 ,custom and prejudices are as strong there as elsewhere1 and it is often easier to appear to acquiesce in a religion than to openly reject it4 ,there are1 ,i know1 some optimistic persons who believe1 or affect to believe1 that ,christianity is in due course destined to replace the ancient faiths in ,japan4 ,they point to what was effected by ,st4 ,francis ,xavier in the sixteenth century1 and they imagine that the ,japan of the twentieth century is only waiting to finally unshackle itself from ,shintoism and ,buddhism before arraying itself in the garb of ,christianity4 ,well1 ,christian missions have had a fair field in ,japan for many years past1 and though many members of those missions have been men of great piety1 zeal1 and learning1 they have made comparatively little headway among and have exercised extremely little influence on the mass of the ,japanese people4 ,indeed1 the fair field that all ,christian missions without distinction have had1 in my opinion1 accounts for the small amount of progress they have made4 ,because all the leading ,christian denominations are there--,roman ,catholicism1 ,church of ,england1 ,greek ,church1 ,congregationalists1 ,methodists1 ,baptists1 ,salvation ,army1 ,society of ,friends1 and others--all preaching and proclaiming their own particular dogmas and all lumped together by the ,japanese under the generic title of ,christians4 ,the ,japanese may1 ,i think1 be excused if he fails to differentiate between them4 ,he views and hears their differences in dogma4 ,he observes that there is no bond of union1 and frequently considerable jealousy among these numerous sects4 ,each claims to preach the truth1 and the ,japanese concludes that as they cannot all be right they may possibly all be wrong4 ,it is only on this assumption that it is possible to account for the little headway made by ,christianity in ,japan in view of the labour and money devoted by different religious bodies to its propagation for many years past4 ,there is1 let me add1 no marked hostility to ,christianity in ,japan--only indifference4 ,the educated ,japanese of to-day is1 ,i believe1 for the most part an agnostic1 and he views ,shintoism1 ,buddhism1 ,christianity alike1 except in so far as he regards the first two as more or less national and the last as an exotic4 ,at the commencement of the seventeenth century the ,japanese ,christians are stated to have amounted in numbers to one million4 ,at the present time it is doubtful if they total up to one hundred thousand4 ,and this despite the splendid religious organisations that exist1 the facilities that are given for the propagation of the ,christian faith1 and the opportunities which were certainly not in existence three hundred years ago4 ,into the causes of this comparative failure of ,christianity in ,japan to-day as compared with its marvellous progress in the sixteenth century1 ,i do not propose to enter4 ,the enthusiasm of a ,francis ,xavier is not an everyday event1 and the ,japanese of the sixteenth century was1 mayhap1 more impressed by the missionaries of those days1 arriving in flimsy and diminutive vessels after undergoing the perils and hardships of long voyages1 having neither purse nor scrip nor wearing apparel except what they stood up in1 than he is by the modern missionary arriving as a first-class passenger in a magnificent steamer and during his residence in the country lacking none of the comforts or amenities of life4 ,or it may be that the ,japanese mind has advanced and developed during the past three centuries1 has now less hankering after metaphysical subtleties1 and fails to comprehend or to sympathise with abstruse theological dogmas and doctrines4 ,if ,christianity appealed to him as in the days of ,francis ,xavier as the one faith professed by the ,western world1 it would probably impress him to a far greater extent than it does at present when1 as ,i have before said1 he views ,christianity as a disorganised body composed of hundreds of sects each rejecting1 and many of them anathematising1 what the others teach4 ,he considers there is no need for investigation until ,christianity has itself determined what is the precise truth that non-,christian countries are to be asked to accept4 ,regarding the influence of the ,buddhist and ,shinto religions during the many centuries they have existed in the country on the lives of the people1 ,i propose to make a few remarks4 ,too often one hears or reads of speakers and writers describing ,japan as a country steeped in paganism and addicted to pagan habits and customs with all 7somewhat indefinite this67 that they involve4 ,to describe ,buddhism as paganism merely shows a lamentable amount of ignorance2 nor should ,i be inclined to include ,shintoism in a term which1 whatever its precise meaning1 is invariably intended to be opprobrious6 ,after all1 any religion must be largely judged by its effects on the lives of its adherents1 and judged by that standard ,i do not think1 as regards the ,japanese1 either ,buddhism or ,shintoism ought to be sweepingly condemned4 ,if many of the customs and practices of both religions seem silly or absurd2 if either or both inculcate or lead to superstition1 it can at least be said of both that they teach a high moral code1 and that the average ,japanese in his life1 his family relations1 his philosophy1 his patriotism1 his bodily cleanliness1 and in many other respects1 offers an example to other nations which deem themselves more highly civilised1 which possess a purer religion and too often1 with that lack of charity which is frequently the result of an excess of ignorance1 unsparingly condemn the ,japanese as pagans or heathens4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,cherry ,,blossom ,,party ,,from ,a ,,print ,,by ,,hiroshige ,,chapter ,v ,,the ,,constitution--,,the ,,crown ,,and ,,the ,,houses ,,of ,,parliament ,a ,constitution1 if we are to accept the dogmatic assertions of those who have written with a show of learning on the subject1 ought to be evolved rather than established by any parliamentary or despotic act4 ,the history of the world certainly tends to prove that paper ,constitutions have not been over-successful in the past4 ,there assuredly has been no lack of them in the last century or so1 and although some1 if not all1 of them have been practically tried1 a very few have attained any considerable measure of success4 ,the ,english ,constitution has long been held up to the rest of the world by writers on ,constitutional history as a model of what a ,constitution ought to be1 for the somewhat paradoxical reason that it is nowhere clearly1 if indeed at all1 defined4 ,it is largely the outcome of custom and usage1 and it is claimed for it that on the whole it has worked better than any cut-and-dried paper ,constitution would have done4 ,nevertheless there does not appear to be any good and valid reason why a ,constitution should not be as clearly defined as an ,act of ,parliament4 ,undefined ,constitutions have worked well at certain periods when there was a tacit general consent as to their meaning1 but they have not always been able to withstand the strain of fierce controversy and the coming into existence of factors which were undreamt of when these ,constitutions were originally evolved1 and definitions or additions or amendments thereto have1 accordingly1 become necessary4 ,the promulgation of a ,constitution for ,japan in ,february1 #ahhi1 was an event of great interest to the civilised world4 ,there were1 of course1 at the time a large number of persons who prophesied that this ,constitution would go the way of many others that had preceded it--that it would1 in fact1 be found unworkable and1 being so found1 ,constitutional ,government in ,japan would eventuate1 as it had elsewhere1 in the resumption of autocratic rule as the only alternative to anarchy4 ,it is pleasing to be able to record that these prophecies have1 after nearly eighteen years' experience1 not been fulfilled1 and that the ,japanese ,constitution1 well thought out and devised as it was1 seems not only likely to endure but is admirably adapted to all the circumstances and needs of the country4 ,in order to fully comprehend the events that gradually led up to the establishment of ,constitutional government in ,japan1 and the precise place of the ,crown and aristocracy in that government1 it is1 ,i think1 essential to make a rapid review of past events in that country4 ,in ancient times the ,mikado was both the civil ruler and the military leader of his people4 ,under him there were exercising authority throughout the land about #aej feudal lords4 ,feudalism of one kind or another prevailed in ,japan until #ahfh4 ,towards the end of the sixteenth century the feudal principle was apparently on the decline4 ,in the year #afjj1 however1 ,tokagawa ,iyoyasu1 with an army composed of the clans of the east and north defeated the combined forces of those of the west and south at the battle of ,sakigahara and proclaimed himself ,shogun4 ,the feudal lords of the various clans throughout the country then became his vassals and paid homage to him4 ,the ,tokagawa family practically governed the country till the ,revolution of #ahfh1 when the present ,emperor took the reins of government into his own hands and finally abolished feudalism and with it the authority of the ,daimios4 ,many persons even now believe that the ,shogun1 or ,tycoon as he was usually called in ,europe1 was a usurper4 ,as a matter of fact he received investiture from the ,mikado1 and his authority was1 nominally at any rate1 a derived one4 ,at the same time there is no doubt that the real power of the ,state was in his hands while the de jure ruler lived in the capital in complete seclusion surrounded by all the appanages and ceremonial of royalty4 ,up to the year #ahfh ,japan was divided into numerous provinces governed by ,daimios1 or territorial lords1 each of whom maintained large standing armies4 ,they were all subject to the ,shogun1 while retaining the right to rule their particular provinces in ordinary matters4 ,in #ahfh the ,shogun fell1 and there can be little doubt his fall was to some extent brought about by the concessions which had been made to foreign ,powers in regard to the opening of the country to foreign trade4 ,in #ahfh the ,shogun repaired to ,kyoto1 the first time for #bej years1 and paid homage to the ,mikado4 ,feudalism was then1 as ,i have said1 abolished1 the ,emperor took the reins of authority into his own hands1 formed a central ,government at ,tokio and reigned supreme as an absolute monarch4 ,the sacred throne was established at the time when the heavens and earth became separated4 ,this has long been an axiom of ,japanese belief1 but it has been somewhat modified of late years1 even the assertion of it by the ,sovereign himself4 ,a leading ,japanese statesman who has written an article on the subject of the ,emperor and his place in the ,constitution has asserted that he is ,heaven descended1 sacred and divine4 ,i do not think that the modern ,japanese entertains this transcendental opinion nor1 indeed1 do ,i find that the ,emperor himself has of late years put forward any such pretensions4 ,for example1 in the ,imperial proclamation on the ,constitution of the ,empire on ,february #aa1 #ahhi1 the ,emperor declared that he had by virtue of the glories of our ancestors ascended the ,throne of a lineal succession unbroken for ages eternal4 ,whereas in the ,imperial ,rescript declaring war against ,china on ,august #a1 #ahid1 he contented himself with asserting that he was seated on a ,throne occupied by the same dynasty from time immemorial4 ,the italics are mine1 and the difference in the pretensions which ,i desire to emphasise is certainly remarkable4 ,when granting a ,constitution the ,emperor1 as has been and probably will be the custom of all monarchs so acting1 declared that the legislative power belonged to him but that he intended to exercise it with the consent of the ,imperial ,diet4 ,the convocation of the ,diet belongs exclusively to the ,emperor4 ,it has no power to meet without his authority1 and if it did so meet its acts and its actions would be null and void4 ,in this respect the ,diet is on precisely the same basis as the ,english ,parliament4 ,according to the ,constitution the ,emperor1 when the ,diet is not sitting1 can issue ,imperial ordinances which shall have the effect of law so long as they do not contravene any existing law4 ,the article authorising these ordinances defines that they shall only be promulgated in consequence of an urgent necessity to maintain public safety or to avert public calamities1 and all such ordinances must be laid before the ,diet at its next sitting1 and in the event of the same not being approved they become null and void4 ,to my mind1 one of the most interesting portions of the ,constitution is that which lays down succinctly and tersely the rights and duties of ,japanese subjects4 ,in this section there are contained within about fifty lines the declaration of innumerable rights for which mankind in various parts of the world during many hundreds of years fought and bled and endured much suffering4 ,just let me mention a few of them4 ,no ,japanese subject shall be arrested1 detained1 tried or punished unless according to law4 ,except as provided by law the house of no ,japanese subject shall be entered or searched without his consent4 ,except in the cases provided by law1 the secrecy of the letters of every ,japanese subject shall remain inviolate4 ,the right of property of every ,japanese subject shall remain inviolate4 ,japanese subjects shall enjoy freedom of religious belief4 ,japanese subjects shall enjoy liberty of speech1 writing1 publication1 public meetings and associations4 ,japanese subjects may present petitions4 ,we have in these few brief provisoes the sum total of everything that1 in effect1 constitutes the liberty of the subject4 ,the ,diet of ,japan1 like the ,parliament of ,great ,britain1 consists of two ,houses--a ,house of ,peers and a ,house of ,representatives4 ,the ,house of ,peers is composed of 7#a7 the members of the ,imperial family1 7#b7 ,princes and ,marquises1 7#c7 ,counts1 ,viscounts and ,barons who are elected thereto by the members of their respective orders1 7#d7 persons who have been specially nominated by the ,emperor on account of meritorious service or by reason of their erudition1 7#e7 persons who have been elected1 one member for each city and prefecture of the ,empire1 by and from among the taxpayers of the highest amount of direct national taxes on land1 industry1 or trade1 and who had subsequently received the approval of the ,emperor4 ,it will be seen that the members of the ,imperial family1 the ,princes and ,marquises1 have an inalienable right to sit in the ,house of ,peers1 the latter rank on attaining the age of #be years4 ,in regard to ,counts1 ,viscounts1 and ,barons there is no such right4 ,those ranks1 like the ,peers of ,scotland and ,ireland1 meet together and select one-fifth of their number to represent them in the ,house of ,peers for a term of seven years4 ,any subject over thirty years of age nominated by the ,emperor for meritorious service or erudition remains a life member4 ,those returned by the cities and prefectures remain members for a period of seven years4 ,it is provided by the ,constitution that the number of members of the ,house of ,peers who are not nobles shall not exceed the number of the members bearing a title of nobility4 ,the question of the necessity for the existence of a second chamber and the composition thereof has been keenly debated in this and other countries of recent years4 ,it seems to me that in this matter ,japan has hit upon the happy mean4 ,she has combined in her ,house of ,peers the aristocratic or hereditary element in a modified degree with the principle of life membership by which she secures the services and counsel of the great intellects of the land1 and such as have done the ,state good service in any capacity4 ,at the same time she has not excluded the representative element from her second chamber--a fact which must largely obviate any possibility of the ,house of ,peers becoming a purely class body4 ,a second chamber so constituted must obviously serve an extremely useful purpose in preserving an equilibrium between political parties1 in preventing the rushing through and passing into law of hastily considered measures4 ,for the composition of her second chamber1 ,japan has taken all human means possible to obtain whatever is representative of the stability1 the intellect1 the enterprise and the patriotism of the country4 ,the composition of the ,house of ,representatives1 which answers to our ,house of ,commons1 is as interesting as that of the ,upper ,chamber4 ,when the ,constitution was first promulgated the principle of small electoral districts obtained1 one member being elected for each district4 ,this system was found or believed to be faulty1 and hence1 after some years' experience1 large electoral districts combined with a single vote have been instituted4 ,it may be interesting to relate that both systems1 the large and the small districts1 were drafted by an ,englishman1 ,mr4 ,thomas ,hair4 ,cities whose population exceeds #cj1jjj are formed into separate electoral districts while a city with less than #cj1jjj inhabitants is1 with its suburbs1 constituted a district4 ,the number of members allowed to each district depends on the population4 ,for a population of #acj1jjj or under one member is allowed1 and for every additional #fe1jjj persons above the former number an additional member is allotted4 ,the number of members in the ,house of ,representatives is #cha1 or little over half that of which our ,house of ,commons consists4 ,the population of the two countries is almost identical1 and experience serves to show that the number of ,members of ,parliament in ,japan is sufficiently numerous for all practical purposes and that any material addition thereto would be more likely to impede than to accelerate the wheels of legislative progress4 ,neither the ,japanese ,constitution nor the ,electoral ,law makes any provision for the representation of minorities1 that aim of so many well-meaning persons in different countries4 ,in ,japan the majority rules as everywhere1 and minorities must submit4 ,manhood suffrage is not yet a fait accompli in ,japan4 ,under the present law to qualify a ,japanese subject to exercise the franchise he must pay #ae yen 7about #cjs47 or more1 indirect taxation4 ,only a ,japanese subject can vote at elections4 ,no foreigner has any electoral rights1 but if he becomes a naturalised ,japanese subject he obtains all the privileges appertaining to that position4 ,each ,house of ,parliament in ,japan possesses a president and vice-president1 who are elected by the members4 ,the president of each ,house receives an annual allowance of #d1jjj yen 7about #djj7 and the vice-president #b1jjj yen 7about #bjj74 ,the payment of ,members of ,parliament is in vogue in ,japan4 ,the elected and nominated1 but not the hereditary1 members of the ,house of ,peers1 and each member of the ,house of ,representatives1 receives an annual allowance of #hjj yen 7about #hj74 ,they are also paid travelling expenses in accordance with the regulations on the subject4 ,it may be interesting to state that there is a clause in the ,constitution which enacts that the president1 vice-president1 and members of the two ,houses who are entitled to annual allowances shall not be permitted to decline the same6 ,it says much for the estimate of patriotism entertained in ,japan when the ,constitution was promulgated that such a clause as this should have been considered necessary4 ,debate in both the ,japanese ,houses of ,parliament is free and the proceedings public4 ,there will be no occasion for the uprising of a ,wilkes in ,japan to obtain permission to publish ,parliamentary ,debates4 ,the ,constitution1 however1 contains a proviso for the sitting of either ,house with closed doors upon the wish of the president or of not less than ten members1 the same being agreed to by the ,house1 or upon the demand of the ,government with or without the consent of the ,house4 ,when in the former event a motion for a secret sitting is made1 strangers have to withdraw from the ,house and the motion is voted on without debate4 ,the proceedings of a secret meeting of either ,chamber are not allowed to be published4 ,the ,japanese ,constitution1 which is certainly a document containing not only provisions of an epoch-making nature but most elaborate details in regard to even minor matters1 includes in seven or eight lines one or two excellent rules in regard to what is termed ,the ,passing of the ,budget4 ,under these rules1 when the ,budget is introduced into the ,house of ,representatives the ,committee thereon must finish the examination of it within fifteen days and report thereon to the ,house1 while no motion for any amendment in the ,budget can be made the subject of debate unless it is supported by at least thirty members4 ,the ,constitution of ,japan1 as ,i have remarked1 contains a vast amount of detail4 ,the framers of that ,constitution seem to have been endowed with an abnormal amount of prevision4 ,in fact they foresaw the possibility of occurrences and made provision for those occurrences that nations which are1 or which consider themselves to be1 more highly civilised have not yet taken any adequate steps to deal with4 ,for example1 ,article #ib of the ,constitution enacts that in neither ,house of ,parliament shall the use of coarse language or personalities be allowed1 while ,article #ic declares that when any member has been vilified or insulted either in the ,house or in a meeting of a ,committee he shall appeal to the ,house and demand that proper measures shall be taken4 ,there shall1 it is decreed1 be no retaliation among members4 ,the ,constitution also contains several salutary regulations in reference to the disciplinary punishment of members4 ,the establishment of a ,parliament in ,japan has produced parties and a party system4 ,i suppose that was inevitable4 ,in every country there is1 and as human nature is constituted there always will be1 two parties representative of two phases of the human mind3 the party in a hurry to effect progress because it deems progress desirable1 and the party that desires to cling as long as possible to the ancient ways because it knows them and has had experience of them and looks askance at experiments--experiments for which that somewhat hackneyed phrase a leap in the dark has long done service4 ,i have no intention1 as ,i said in the ,preface1 of dealing at all with ,japanese politics4 ,there is no doubt a good deal of heat1 and the resultant friction1 evoked in connection with politics in ,japan as elsewhere4 ,perhaps this young nation--that is1 young from a parliamentary point of view--takes politics too seriously4 ,time will remedy that defect1 if it be a defect4 ,at the same time1 ,i may express the opinion that1 however severe party strife may be in ,japan1 and though the knocks given and received in the course thereof are hard and some of the language not only vigorous but violent1 the members of all parties have at heart and as their objective point the advancement of ,japan and the good of the country generally4 ,the ,japanese ,constitution1 though not a very lengthy1 is such an all-embracing document that in a hurried survey of it1 it is possible to overlook many important features4 ,it provides for the establishment of a ,privy ,council to deliberate upon important matters of ,state1 but only when consulted by the ,emperor4 ,it enforces the responsibility of the ,ministers of ,state for all advice given to the ,emperor and decrees that all laws1 ,imperial ordinances and ,imperial rescripts of any kind relating to affairs of ,state1 must be countersigned by a ,minister of ,state4 ,the ,constitution also defines the position1 authority1 and independence of the judges4 ,that ,constitution contains a proviso all-important in reference to the upright administration of the law1 a proviso which it took years of agitation to obtain in this country1 that no judge shall be deprived of his position unless by way of criminal sentence or disciplinary punishment4 ,all trials and judgments of the court of law are to be conducted publicly4 ,provision is made1 when there exists any fear of a trial in open court being prejudicial to peace and order or to the maintenance of public morality1 for the same to be held in camera4 ,i may add1 before ,i take leave of the ,constitution1 with a view of showing how all-embracing as ,i have said are the various matters dealt with therein1 that it defines and declares that the style of address for the ,emperor and ,empress shall be ,his1 ,her1 or ,your ,majesty1 while that for the ,imperial ,princes and ,princesses shall be ,his1 ,her1 ,their1 or ,your ,highness or ,highnesses4 ,in regard to no matter connected with ,japan have ,i found so large an amount of misconception prevalent as in reference to the position of the ,emperor of that country4 ,the divine descent which is still sometimes claimed for the sovereigns of ,japan and which has never1 so far as ,i know1 been officially repudiated1 has caused some persons to regard the ,emperor from a somewhat ludicrous standpoint4 ,in this very prosaic and materialistic age1 when very few persons have profound beliefs on any subject1 the spectacle of one of the sovereigns of the earth still claiming a divine origin is one that appeals to the ludicrous susceptibilities of that vague entity the man in the street4 ,it is not well1 however1 that people should criticise statements in royal proclamations or in royal assertions too seriously4 ,even in this country there are documents issued from time to time bearing the royal sign manual which every one regards as interesting but meaningless formalities--interesting because they are a survival of medival documents which meant something some hundreds of years ago and still remain though their meanings have long since lapsed4 ,and yet there are persons in this country who peruse such documents and know that they are simply words signifying practically nothing1 who severely criticise the assertion of a long-used title by the ,japanese ,emperor upon issuing a royal proclamation4 ,i am not aware whether his ,imperial ,majesty or his ,ministers of ,state implicitly accept his divine descent1 but this ,i do know--that those persons who regard the present ,emperor of ,japan as a ,state puppet1 arrogating more or less divine attributes1 are labouring under a profound delusion4 ,there is no abler man in ,japan at the present moment4 ,there is no abler man among the sovereigns of the world4 ,in fact1 ,i should be inclined to place the ,emperor of ,japan at the head of the world's great statesmen4 ,he is no monarch content to reign but not to govern1 concerned simply about ceremonial and the fripperies and gew-gaws of royalty4 ,he is a constitutional sovereign certainly4 ,he has always shown the deepest respect for the ,constitution ever since its promulgation1 and never in the slightest degree attempted to infringe or override any portion of it4 ,at the same time he is an effective force in the ,government of ,japan4 ,there is nothing too great or too little in the ,empire or in the relations of the ,empire with foreign ,powers for his ken4 ,he1 in a word1 has the whole reins of government in his hands1 and he exercises over every department and detail of it a minute and rigid supervision which is1 in my opinion1 largely responsible for the efficiency of the internal administration of the country as also for the place that ,japan holds among the ,great ,powers of the world4 ,i cannot leave a consideration of this subject without referring to the assistance rendered to the ,emperor by1 as also to the debt ,japan owes to1 some six or seven great men in that country whose names ,i shall not inscribe here because to do so would be to some extent invidious1 several of whom do not1 as a matter of fact1 hold any formal position in the ,government of the country4 ,the wisdom of these men has been a great boon for such a country as ,japan1 and if she is not now as sensible of it as she ought to be future ages will1 ,i feel sure1 recognise the debt that ,japan owes to them4 ,some persons with an intimate knowledge of ,japan have told me that it is not1 after all1 a constitutional ,state but in effect1 though not in name1 an oligarchy4 ,this word has in the past often had unpleasant associations1 and one does not like to apply it in reference to the ,government of a progressive and enlightened country4 ,still the word strictly means government by a small body of men1 and if in those men is included the larger part of the wisdom of the country1 and they exercise their power solely and exclusively for the benefit of the country1 ,i am not certain that such a form of government is not the best that could be devised4 ,of course1 humanity being as it is1 an oligarchy1 has its dangers and its temptations4 ,i will say1 however1 of the wise men of ,japan1 the men to whom ,i have been referring and who whether in office or out of office have exercised1 and must continue to exercise1 a marked and predominant influence on the government of the country1 that their patriotism has never been called in question1 and no one has at any time suggested that they were influenced by self-seeking or other unworthy motives1 or had any aspirations save the material and moral advancement of ,japan and her elevation to a prominent position among the ,great ,powers of the world4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,the ,,people--,,their ,,life ,,and ,,habits ,after all1 the life of the people is the most interesting1 as ,i think it is the most instructive1 matter connected with any country4 ,it is assuredly impossible to form a clear or indeed any correct idea in regard to a nation unless we know something of the manners and customs1 the daily life1 the amusements1 the vices of its people4 ,unless we can1 as it were1 take a bird's-eye view of the people at work and at play1 at their daily avocations in their homes1 see them as they come into the world1 as they go through life's pilgrimage1 and1 finally1 as they pay the debt of nature and are carried to their last resting-place in accordance with the national customs1 with the respect or the indifference the nation shows for its dead4 ,if one is to arrive at a correct idea regarding the life and habits of the ,japanese people it is1 ,i think1 essential to get away from the ports and large towns where they have been influenced by or brought much into contact with ,europeans1 and see them as they really are1 free from conventionalities1 artificialities1 and the effects of ,western habits and customs which have undoubtedly been pronounced in those centres where ,europeans congregate4 ,the house in ,japan does not play the important part it does in this country4 ,when a man in ,england1 whatever his station in life may be1 contemplates taking a wife and settling down1 as the phrase goes1 the home and the contents thereof become an all-important matter and one needing much thought and discussion4 ,in ,japan there is no such necessity4 ,a ,japanese house is easily run up--and taken down4 ,the walls are constructed of paper and slide in grooves between the beams of the floor which is raised slightly above the ground4 ,the partitions between the rooms can easily be taken down and an additional room as easily run up4 ,the house is1 as a rule1 only one storey high4 ,the carpets consist of matting only1 and practically no furniture is necessary4 ,a witty writer on ,japan has aptly and wittily remarked that an ,englishman's house may be his castle1 a ,japanese's house is his bedroom and his bedroom is a passage4 ,the occupant of this house sits on the floor1 sleeps on the floor1 and has his meals on the floor4 ,the floor is kept clean by the simple process of the inhabitants removing their boots1 or what do duty for boots1 and leaving them at the entrance1 so as to avoid soiling the matting with which the floor of each room is covered4 ,this is a habit which has much to commend it1 and is1 ,i suggest1 worthy of imitation by other countries4 ,after all1 the ,japanese mode of life has a great deal to be said in its favour4 ,it seems strange at first1 but after the visitor to the country has got over his initial fit of surprise at the difference between the ,japanese domestic economy and his own1 he will1 if he be a man of unprejudiced mind1 admit that it certainly has its points4 ,the bulk of the population is poor1 very poor1 but that poverty is not emphasised in their homes to the same extent as in ,european countries4 ,the house--a doll's house some irreverent people term it--with paper partitions doing duty for walls1 white matting1 a few cooking utensils costs only a few shillings4 ,it can1 as ,i have said1 be taken down and run up easily1 and enlarged almost indefinitely4 ,the inhabitants sleep on the floor1 and the bedding consists not as with us of mattresses1 palliasses1 and other more or less insanitary articles1 but of a number1 great or small1 and elaborate or otherwise1 in accordance with the means of the owner1 of what ,i will term quilts4 ,the ,japanese pillow is a fearful and wonderful article4 ,i can never imagine how it was evolved and why it has remained so long unimproved4 ,it is made of wood and there is a receptacle for the head4 ,the ,european who uses it finds that it effectually banishes sleep1 while the ordinary ,japanese is apparently unable to sleep without it4 ,in most houses1 however poor1 a kakemono1 or wall picture1 is to be seen4 ,it is usually the only decoration save an occasional vase containing flowers1 and of course flowers themselves1 which are in evidence everywhere4 ,light is1 or used to be1 given by a lamp1 a kind of ,chinese lantern on a lacquer stand1 the light being given by a rush candle4 ,i am sorry1 however1 to say that these in some respects artistic lanterns are being generally replaced by hideous petroleum or kerosene lamps1 not only ugly but a constant source of danger in these flimsy houses4 ,the most important accessory of nearly all ,japanese houses is the bath-room1 or wash-house1 to use a more appropriate term4 ,the hot bath is a universal institution in the country1 and nearly every ,japanese man and woman1 whatever his or her station in life1 washes the body thoroughly in extremely hot water more than once daily4 ,the ,japanese1 as regards the washing of their persons1 are the cleanest race in the world1 but many hygienic laws are set at defiance possibly because they are not understood4 ,a gradual improvement is1 however1 taking place in these matters1 and the cleanliness as regards the body and their houses1 which is such a pleasing feature of the people1 will no doubt extend in other directions also4 ,japanese houses are habitable enough in warm weather1 but in winter-time they are1 as might be expected1 exceedingly cold1 especially as the arrangements for warming them are of an extremely primitive nature4 ,those complaints which are induced or produced by cold are prevalent in the country4 ,the food of the people is as simple as their houses1 and as inexpensive4 ,a ,japanese family it has been calculated can live on about #aj a year4 ,a little fish1 rice1 and vegetables1 with incessant tea1 is the national dietary4 ,the people living on this meagre fare are1 on the whole1 a strong and sturdy race1 but it is questionable if the national physique would not be vastly improved were the national diet also4 ,i have touched on this matter elsewhere1 so ,i need not refer to it further here4 ,tobacco is the constant consoler of the ,japanese in all his troubles4 ,why he smokes such diminutive pipes ,i have never been able to understand4 ,they only hold sufficient tobacco for a few whiffs1 and when staying in a ,japanese house the constant tap1 tap1 tap of the owner's pipe as he empties the ashes out prior to refilling it reminds one of the woodpecker4 ,there are doubtless some persons1 especially those persons who consider that to enjoy life a superabundance or even a plethora of material comforts are necessary1 who1 after reading a description of the home and fare of the ,japanese peasant1 will assume that his life is a burden and that he derives no enjoyment whatever from it4 ,nothing could be more erroneous4 ,there is probably not a more joyous being on the face of the globe than the ,japanese4 ,his wants are few1 and in that fact probably lies his happiness4 ,he does not find his enjoyment in material things1 but he has his enjoyment all the same1 and ,i think on the whole that he probably gets more out of life and has more fitting ideas regarding it than the ,englishman who considers an abundance of beef and beer its objective point4 ,to me one of the most pleasing features of ,japan is the fondness and tenderness of the ,japanese of all ranks and classes for children4 ,the ,japanese infant is the tyrant of ,japan1 and nothing is good enough for it4 ,the women1 as most people know1 carry their babies on their backs instead of in their arms4 ,a baby is1 however1 not so for very long in ,japan4 ,very young ,japanese girls may be seen carrying their little baby brothers and sisters behind their backs1 and thus learning their maternal duties in advance4 ,the position of women in ,japan1 married women1 is not so satisfactory as it ought to be4 ,the laws in regard to divorce are1 ,i think1 too easy1 and a ,japanese possesses facilities for getting rid of his wife which does not tend to the conservation of home-life4 ,the custom1 which was at one time universal1 of women blackening their teeth1 has largely diminished1 and will no doubt in due course become obsolete4 ,the idea which underlay it was that the woman should render herself unattractive to other men4 ,there was no object in having such an adventitious attraction as pearly teeth for her husband1 who might be presumed to know what her attractions really were4 ,the ,japanese woman in her education has inculcated three obediences1 viz41 obedience to parents1 obedience to husband1 and after the death of the latter obedience to son4 ,although the ,japanese girl comes of age at #ad she cannot marry without her father's consent until she is #be4 ,the dress of the ,japanese people is so well known that it is not necessary for me to describe it4 ,the kimono is1 ,i think1 a graceful costume1 and ,i am very sorry that so many women in the upper classes have discarded the national dress for ,european garments4 ,japanese women who wear the national costume do not don gloves4 ,if their hands are cold they place them in their sleeves1 which are long and have receptacles containing many and various things1 including a pocket-handkerchief1 which is usually made of paper1 and sometimes a pot of lip-salve to colour the lips to the orthodox tint4 ,the poorer classes1 of course1 do not go in for such frivolities4 ,talking of paper handkerchiefs reminds me of the innumerable uses to which paper is put in ,japan2 it serves for umbrellas and even for coats1 and is altogether a necessity of existence almost for the great mass of the people4 ,i have referred to the lack of what may be deemed material comforts in ,japan1 as also to the fact that the ,japanese are a joyous race but that their enjoyment is not of a material nature4 ,they are1 in fact1 easily amused1 and their enjoyment takes forms which would hardly appeal to a less emotional people4 ,in the large towns the theatre is a perennial source of amusement4 ,i have referred to the theatre in the chapter dealing with the drama1 and remarked therein that the excess of by-play1 irrelevant by-play1 in a ,japanese drama was rather wearisome to the ,european spectator4 ,not so to the ,japanese4 ,he positively revels in it4 ,the theatre is for him something real and moving4 ,he has1 whatever his age1 all the zest of a youth for plays and spectacles4 ,how far the ,europeanising of the country1 which is having1 and is bound still further to have1 an effect on dramatic art1 will affect the amusements of the people and their proneness for the theatre remains to be seen4 ,there is so far nothing approaching the ,english music-hall in ,japan4 ,let me express a hope that there never will be4 ,it is a long cry from the graceful ,geisha to the inanities and banalities which appear to be the stock-in-trade of music-hall performances in this country4 ,these appear to meet a home want1 but ,i sincerely trust they will be reserved for home delectation and not be inflicted in any guise upon ,japan4 ,the matter of music-halls suggests some reference to the ideas of the ,japanese in respect of music4 ,the educated classes appear to have an appreciation of ,european music1 but ,japanese music requires1 ,i should say1 an educational process4 ,some superficial ,european writers declare that the ,japanese have not the least conception of either harmony or melody1 and that what passes for music in the country is simply discord4 ,it might have struck these writers that criticism of this kind in reference to a most artistic people could hardly be correct4 ,any one who has listened to the ,geisha or heard the singing of trained ,japanese would certainly not agree in such statements as ,i have referred to4 ,japanese music is like ,japanese art--it has its own characteristics and will1 ,i am sure1 repay being carefully studied4 ,festivals and feasts1 religious and otherwise1 which are many and varied1 afford some relaxation for the people4 ,there are1 according to a list compiled1 some #bh religious festivals1 #af national holidays1 and #ad popular feast-days4 ,new ,year's ,day is termed ,shihohai1 and on it the ,emperor prays to all his ancestors for a peaceful reign4 ,two days subsequently1 on ,genjisai1 he makes offerings to him and all his ,imperial ancestors1 while two days later still all ,government officers make official calls4 ,these are legal holidays4 ,the #aath of ,february 7,kigen ,setsu7 and the #crd of ,april 7,jimmu-,tenno-sai7 are observed as the anniversaries respectively of the accession to the throne and the death of ,jimmu-,tenno1 the first ,emperor4 ,the #agth of ,october 7,shinsho-sai7 is the national harvest festival4 ,on this day the ,emperor offers the first crop of the year to his divine ancestor1 ,tenshoko ,daijin4 ,it may be interesting to record that the #beth of ,december 7,christmas ,day71 is observed as a holiday by the ,custom-house department for the accommodation of foreign employees4 ,the popular festivals are equally interesting and curious4 ,the #crd of ,march 7,oshinasama71 is the girls' or dolls' festival1 while the #eth of ,may 7,osekku71 is the boys' festival1 or ,feast of ,flags4 ,a three days' festival1 #acth-#aeth of ,july 7,bon ,matsuri71 is the ,all ,souls' ,day of ,japan in honour of the sacred dead4 ,the #ith of ,september 7,kikku ,no ,sekku71 is the festival of chrysanthemums1 the national flower1 and the #bjth of ,november1 appropriately near the ,lord ,mayor of ,london's day1 is the festival held by the merchants in honour of ,ebisuko1 the ,god of ,wealth4 ,the ,feast of ,flags--the boys' festival--is one much esteemed by the ,japanese people4 ,on the occasion of it every house the owner of which has been blessed with sons displays a paper carp floating from a flagstaff4 ,if a male child has come to the establishment during the year the carp is extra large4 ,it is considered a reproach to any married woman not to have this symbol flying outside the house on the occasion of this feast4 ,why the carp has been selected as a symbol is a matter upon which there is much difference of opinion4 ,the carp1 it is said1 is emblematic of the youth who overcomes all the difficulties that lie in his path during life1 but ,i confess ,i rather fail to see what connection there is between this fish and such an energetic youth4 ,on this day the boys have dolls representative of ,japanese heroes and personages of the past as well as toy swords and toy armour4 ,on the girls' festival--the ,feast of ,dolls--there is no outward and visible display4 ,the fact of a girl having been born in the family is not considered a matter to be boasted of4 ,on this feast there is a great display indoors of dolls4 ,as a matter of fact dolls form a very important part of the heirlooms of every ,japanese family of any importance4 ,when a girl is born a pair of dolls are procured for her4 ,dolls are much more seriously treated than they are in ,european countries1 where they are bought with the full knowledge that they will quickly be destroyed4 ,in ,japan the dolls are packed away for nearly the whole of the year in the go-down1 and are only produced at this particular festival4 ,i may add that not only the dolls themselves but furniture for them are largely in request in ,japan1 and that this dolls' festival is really a very important function in the national life4 ,new ,year's festival is the great day of the year in ,japan4 ,in this respect it approximates to our ,christmas4 ,not only the houses but the streets are decorated1 and every town in the land has at this particular season an unusually festive appearance4 ,at this period visits are exchanged1 and ,new ,year's presents are the correct thing4 ,on the ,bon ,matsuri1 or ,all ,souls' ,day1 the ,japanese have a custom somewhat similar to that which obtains in ,roman ,catholic countries on the #bnd of ,november4 ,on the first night of the feast the tombs of the dead during the past year are adorned with ,japanese lanterns4 ,on the second night the remaining tombs are likewise decorated1 while on the third night it is the custom1 although it is now somewhat falling into desuetude1 for the relatives of the dead to launch toy vessels made of straw laden with fruit and coins as well as a lantern4 ,these toy ships have toy sails1 and the dead are supposed to sail in them to oblivion until next year's festival4 ,these toy ships1 of course1 catch fire from the lanterns4 ,not so very many years ago the spectacle of these little vessels catching fire on some large bay was a very pretty one4 ,i am afraid this feast has a tendency to die out--a fact which is greatly to be regretted1 as there is behind it much that is poetical and beautiful4 ,wrestling1 as most people know1 is a favourite amusement of the ,japanese1 and wrestling matches excite quite as much interest as boxing used to do in this country4 ,of late years ,english people have taken much interest in ,ju ,jitsu4 ,the ,japanese style of wrestling is certainly peculiar1 and training does not apparently enter so much into it as is considered essential in reference to displays of strength or skill in this country4 ,one sometimes sees very expert ,japanese wrestlers who are not only fat but bloated4 ,the ,japanese have long been celebrated archers1 and archery1 though it is largely on the wane1 is much more in evidence than is the case in this country4 ,it is an art in which a great many of the people excel1 and archery grounds still exist in many of the towns4 ,marriages and christenings have important parts in the social life of the people4 ,these ceremonies1 however1 are not quite so obtrusive as they are in ,western lands4 ,as regards christenings1 if ,i may use such a term in reference to a non-,christian people1 the first1 or almost the first1 ceremony in reference to the infant in ,japan is1 or used to be1 the shaving of its head thirty days after birth1 after which it was taken to the temple to make its first offering1 a pecuniary one1 to the gods4 ,this shaving of babies is no doubt diminishing1 at any rate in the large towns4 ,indeed1 everything in regard to the dressing of and dealing with the hair in ,japan is1 if ,i may use the term1 in a state of transition4 ,illustration3 ,,street ,,scene ,,on ,,new ,,year',s ,,day ,,from ,a ,,print ,,by ,,hiroshige ,some writers on ,japan have been impressed by the fact that the ,japanese appear to be more concerned about the dead than the living4 ,ancestor worship plays an important part in the religious economy of ,japanese life1 and1 as ,i have shown1 the ,all ,souls' ,day in ,japan is an important national festival4 ,but the respect that these people have for their dead is not shown only on one or two or three days of the year2 it may be deduced from a visit to any of their cemeteries4 ,these are nearly always picturesquely situated1 adorned with beautiful trees1 and exquisitely kept in order4 ,indeed1 the cemeteries are in striking contrast to those of ,european countries4 ,the hideous and inartistic tombstones and monuments1 the urns and angels1 and the stereotyped conventionalities of graveyards in this country are all absent4 ,there is usually only a simple tablet over each grave bearing the name of the deceased and the date of his death1 and occasionally some simple word or two summing up succinctly those qualities he had1 or was supposed to have1 possessed4 ,near each grave is usually a flower-vase1 and it is nearly always filled with fresh flowers4 ,as ,i have remarked1 flowers play an important part in the lives of the ,japanese people1 and with them no part is more important than the decoration of the graves of their dead4 ,in ,england flowers also play an important part in connection with the dead--on the day of the funeral4 ,it is then considered the correct thing for every one who knew the deceased to send a wreath to be placed upon his coffin4 ,these wreaths1 frequently exceedingly numerous1 are conveyed to the cemetery1 where they are allowed to rot on top of the grave4 ,to me there is no more mournful sight than a visit to a great ,london cemetery1 where one sees these rotting emblems1 which quite palpably meant nothing save the practice of a conventionality4 ,the ,japanese1 however poor his worldly circumstances may be1 is not content with flowers1 costly flowers on the day of the funeral2 he places his vase alongside the grave of the departed1 and by keeping that vase filled with fresh and beautiful flowers he sets forth as far as he possibly can his feeling of respect for the dead and the fact that the dead one still lives in his memory4 ,one cannot study1 however cursorily1 the lives of the ,japanese people on the whole without being convinced of the fact that there is among them not only a total absence of but no desire whatever for luxury4 ,the whole conception of life among these people seems to me to be a healthy and a simple one4 ,it is not in any way1 or at any rate to any great extent1 a material conception4 ,the ordinary ,japanese--the peasant1 for example--does not hanker after a time when he will have more to eat and more to drink4 ,he finds himself placed in a certain position in life1 and he attempts to get the best out of life that he can4 ,i do not suggest1 of course1 that the ,japanese peasant has ever philosophically discussed this matter with himself or perhaps thought deeply1 if at all1 about it4 ,i am merely recording what his view of life is judging by his actions4 ,he1 ,i feel confident1 enjoys life4 ,in some respects his life no doubt is a hard one1 but it has its alleviations1 and if ,i judge him aright the ordinary ,japanese does not let his mind dwell overmuch on his hardships1 but is content to get what pleasure he can out of his surrounding conditions4 ,one very pleasing characteristic of the ,japanese men and women to which ,i have already referred is the habit of personal cleanliness4 ,in every town in the country public baths are numerous1 and every house of any pretensions has a bath-room4 ,the ,japanese use extremely hot water to wash in4 ,the women do not enter the bath immediately upon undressing1 but in the first instance1 throwing some pailsful of water over the body1 they sit on the floor and scrub themselves with bran prior to entering the bath1 performing this operation two or three times4 ,men do not indulge in a similar practice1 and ,i have never been able to understand why this different mode of bathing should obtain in reference to the two sexes4 ,in houses possessing a bath-room the bath consists merely of a wooden tub with a stove to heat the water4 ,the bath is used by the whole family in succession--father1 mother1 children1 servants4 ,shampooing also forms an important part of the ,japanese system of cleanliness4 ,it is not1 as in this country1 confined to the head1 but approximates to what we term massage1 and consists in a rubbing of the muscles of the body--a fact which not only has a beneficial effect physically1 but is also efficacious in the direction of cleanliness4 ,nearly every house in ,japan possesses a garden1 and the garden is a source of perpetual delight to every ,japanese4 ,he is enabled to give full vent therein to his love of flowers4 ,some critics have found fault with ,japanese gardens on account of their monotony4 ,miniature lakes1 grass plots1 dwarfed trees1 and trees clipped and trained into representations of objects animate and inanimate are the prevailing characteristics4 ,a similar remark might1 however1 be made in regard to the gardens of1 say1 ,london suburban houses1 with this exception--that the ,japanese gardens show infinitely more good taste on the part of the cultivators of them4 ,these little gardens throw a brightness into the life of the people which it is impossible to estimate4 ,in the chapter which ,i have devoted to the religions of the ,japanese people1 ,i have remarked that religion appears to be losing its influence upon the educated classes of the country1 who are quickly developing into agnostics4 ,no such remark can1 however1 be made in reference to the great mass of the ,japanese people4 ,for them religion is an actuality4 ,take it out of their lives and you will take much that makes their lives not only enjoyable but endurable4 ,as a writer on ,japan has somewhat irreverently observed1 the ,japanese is very chummy with heaven4 ,he just as readily invokes the aid of his household gods in the pursuit of his amours as in less illegitimate aspirations4 ,he regards them as kind friends who will help1 rather than as severe censors who have to be propitiated4 ,the spiritual aspect of the ,deity has not1 ,i think1 entered at all into the conceptions of the ordinary ,japanese4 ,his ideas in regard to ,god or the gods--his pantheon is a large and a comprehensive one--are altogether anthropomorphic4 ,every action of his life1 however small1 is in some way or other connected with an unseen world4 ,in this matter1 ,buddhism and ,shintoism have got rather mixed1 and1 as ,i have elsewhere said1 if the founder of ,buddhism were reincarnated in ,japan to-day1 he would find it difficult to recognise his religion in some of the developments of ,buddhism as it exists in ,japan4 ,nevertheless1 this anthropomorphic idea of ,god1 however it may fit the ,japanese for the next world1 undoubtedly comforts him in this4 ,the religious festivals1 which are numerous1 are gala days in his life1 and the services of religion bring him undoubtedly much consolation4 ,but he does not of necessity go to a temple to conduct that uplifting of the heart which is1 after all1 the best service of man to the ,creator4 ,every house has its little shrine1 and although some superior persons may laugh at the act of burning a joss-stick1 or some other trivial act of worship1 as merely ignorant superstition1 ,i think the unprejudiced man would look rather at the motive which inspired the act4 ,if this poor ignorant native burns his joss-stick1 makes his offering of a cake1 lights a lamp in front of an image1 or takes part in any other act which in effect means the lifting up of his soul to something higher and greater than himself that he can now only see through a glass darkly1 surely he ought not to be condemned4 ,at any rate ,i will pass no condemnation on him4 ,outside the accretions which have undoubtedly come upon ,buddhism and ,shintoism in the many centuries they have existed in ,japan1 ,i desire once more to emphasise the fact1 to which ,i have previously made reference1 that both these religions have had1 and ,i believe still have1 a beneficial effect1 from a moral point of view1 on the ,japanese people4 ,there is nothing in their ethical code to which the most censorious person can raise the slightest objection4 ,they have inculcated on the ,japanese people through all the ages1 not only the necessity1 but the advisability of doing good4 ,buddhism1 in particular1 has preached the doctrine of doing good1 not only to one's fellow-creatures but to the whole of animate nature4 ,these two religions have1 in my opinion1 placed the ethical conceptions of the ,japanese people on a high plane4 ,in my remarks on the people of ,japan ,i do not think ,i can more effectually sum up their salient characteristics than has been done by the writer of a guide to that country4 ,the courtly demeanour of the people1 he says1 is a matter of remark with all who visit ,japan1 and so universal is the studied politeness of all classes that the casual observer would conclude that it was innate and born of the nature of the people2 and probably the quality has become somewhat of a national characteristic1 having been held in such high esteem1 and so universally taught for so many centuries--at least1 it seems to be as natural for them to be polite and formal as it is for them to breathe4 ,their religion teaches the fundamental tenets of true politeness1 in that it inculcates the reverence to parents as one of the highest virtues4 ,the family circle fosters the germs of the great national trait of ceremonious politeness4 ,deference to age is universal with the young4 ,the respect paid to parents does not cease when the children are mature men and women4 ,it is considered a privilege as well as an evidence of filial duty to study the wants and wishes of the parents1 even before the necessities of the progeny of those who have households of their own4 ,i do not think that it is necessary for me to add much to these wise and pregnant remarks4 ,the more one studies the ,japanese people1 the more ,i think one's admiration of them increases4 ,they have1 in my opinion1 in many respects arrived1 probably as the result of the accumulated experience of many ages1 at a right perception and conception of the philosophy of life4 ,judged from the highest1 and as ,i think only true1 standpoint1 that is the standpoint of happiness not in a merely material but in a spiritual form1 they have reached a condition that but few nations have yet attained4 ,they may provoke the pity of the man who believes in full diet and plenty of it1 and who fails to comprehend how a people living on a meagre fare of fish and rice can be contented1 much less happy1 but the ,japanese in his philosophy has realised a fact that happiness is something other than material1 and that a man or woman can be largely independent of the accidentals of life and can attain a realisation of true happiness by keeping under the1 too often1 supremacy of matter over mind in the average human being4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,trade--,,commerce--,,and ,,industries ,nothing is perhaps so strongly indicative of the progress that ,japan has made as the record of her trade and commerce4 ,i have no intention of inflicting on my readers a mass of figures1 but ,i shall have to give a few in order to convey some idea as to the country's material development of recent years4 ,japan1 it must be recollected1 is in her youth in respect of everything connected with commerce and industry4 ,when the country was isolated it exported and imported practically nothing1 and its productions were simply such as were necessary for the inhabitants1 then far less numerous than at present4 ,when the ,revolution took place trade and commerce were still at a very low ebb1 and the ,japanese connected with trade was looked upon with more or less of contempt1 the soldier's and the politician's being the only careers held much in esteem4 ,for innumerable centuries the chief industry of ,japan was agriculture1 and even to-day more than half of the population is engaged thereon4 ,partly owing to religious influences1 and partly from other causes1 the mass of the people have been1 and still are in effect1 vegetarians4 ,the present trade of ,japan is in startling contrast with that of her near neighbour ,china1 which1 with an area about twenty-three times greater1 and a population nearly nine times as large1 has actually a smaller volume of exports4 ,all the statistics available in reference to ,japan's trade1 commerce1 and industries point to the enormous and annually increasing development of the country4 ,indeed1 the trade has marvellously increased of recent years4 ,since #ahij the annual value of ,japan's exports has risen from #e1jjj1jjj to #ce1jjj1jjj1 the imports from #h1jjj1jjj to #dd1jjj1jjj4 ,that the imports will continue in similar progression1 or indeed to anything like the same amount1 ,i do not believe4 ,japan of recent years has imported machinery1 largely from ,europe and ,america1 and used it as patterns to be copied or improved upon by her own workmen4 ,out of #be cotton-mills1 for example1 in ,osaka1 the machinery for one had been imported from the ,united ,states4 ,the rest the ,japanese have made themselves from the imported pattern4 ,there were also in ,osaka recently #cj flour-mills ready for shipment to the wheat regions of ,manchuria4 ,one of these mills had been imported from ,america1 while the remaining #bi have been constructed in ,osaka at a cost for each of not more than one-fifth that paid for the imported mill4 ,shortly after peace had been declared between ,russia and ,japan1 the ,marquis ,ito is reported to have said to ,mr4 ,mc,kinley3 ,you need not be afraid that we will allow ,japanese labourers to come to the ,united ,states4 ,we need them at home4 ,in a couple of months we will bring home a million men from ,manchuria4 ,we are going to teach them all how to manufacture everything in the world with the best labour-saving machinery to be found4 ,instead of sending you cheap labour we will sell you ,american goods cheaper than you can manufacture them yourselves4 ,the ,japanese ,government seems to some extent to be going in for a policy of ,state ,socialism4 ,the tobacco trade in the ,empire is now entirely controlled by the ,government4 ,the ,tobacco ,law extinguished private tobacco dealers and makers1 the ,government took over whatever factories it deemed suitable for the purpose1 built others1 and now makes a profit of about #c1jjj1jjj sterling annually1 while the tobacco is said to be of a superior quality and the workmen better paid than was the case under private enterprise4 ,how far ,japan intends to go in the direction of ,state ,socialism ,i am not in a position to say4 ,many modern ,japanese statesmen are quite convinced of the fact that the private exploitation of industry is a great evil and one that ought to be put a stop to4 ,on the other hand1 there are ,japanese statesmen who are firmly convinced that the ,state control of industries can only result in the destruction of individual initiative and genius1 with the inevitable result of reducing everybody to a dead level of incompetence4 ,in this matter ,japan will have1 as other nations have had1 to work out her own salvation4 ,in the process of experiment many mistakes will no doubt be made1 but ,japan starts with this advantage in respect of ,state ,socialism1 precisely as in regard to her ,army and ,navy--that her statesmen1 her leading public men1 her great thinkers1 have no prejudices or preconceived ideas4 ,all they desire is that the nation as a whole shall boldly advance on that path of progress by the lines which shall best serve to place the country in a commanding position among the ,great ,powers of the world1 and at the same time to promote the happiness1 comfort1 and prosperity of the people4 ,the ,japanese are great in imitation1 but they are greater perhaps in their powers of adaptation4 ,they have so far shown a peculiar faculty for fitting to ,japanese requirements and conditions the machinery1 science1 industry1 c41 necessary to their proper development4 ,japan is without doubt now keenly alive1 marshalling all her industrial forces in the direction of seeking to become supreme in the trade and commerce of the ,far ,east4 ,the aim of ,japanese statesmen is to make their country self-productive and self-sustaining4 ,we may1 ,i think1 accordingly look forward to the time1 not very far distant1 when ,japan will cease to import machinery and other foreign products for which there has hitherto been a brisk demand1 when she will build her own warships and merchant steamers1 as she now partially does1 and generally be largely independent of those ,western ,powers of which she has heretofore been such a good customer4 ,at the present time the chief manufactures of the country are silk1 cotton1 cotton yarn1 paper1 glass1 porcelain1 and ,japan ware1 matches and bronzes1 while shipbuilding has greatly developed of recent years4 ,the principal imports are raw cotton1 metals1 wool1 drugs1 rails and machinery generally1 as well as sugar and1 strange to say1 rice4 ,japan exports silk1 cotton1 tea1 coal1 camphor and1 let me add1 matches and curios4 ,the trade in the latter has assumed considerable proportions1 and ,i fear ,i must add that much of what is exported is made exclusively for the ,european market4 ,according to the latest figures1 the country's annual exports amounted to about #ce1jjj1jjj1 and its imports to about #dd1jjj1jjj4 ,i venture to prophesy that these figures will ere long be largely inverted4 ,silk is the most important item of ,japan's foreign trade4 ,the rearing of silkworms has been assiduously undertaken from time immemorial1 or the ages eternal according to some ,japanese historians4 ,like so many other arts and industries of the country1 silkworms are believed to have been introduced from ,china4 ,for some time prior to the opening of ,japan to ,european trade and influences the silk industry had rather languished owing to the enforcement of certain sumptuary laws confining the wearing of silk garments to a select class of the community1 but so soon as ,japan discarded her policy of isolation from the rest of the world the production of and demand for silk rapidly increased1 and the trade in it has now assumed considerable dimensions4 ,strange to say1 silk is still in ,japan what linen was at one time in the ,north of ,ireland--a by-industry of the farmer1 a room in his house being kept as a rearing chamber for the silkworms1 which are carefully looked after by his family4 ,according to official returns1 there are rather more than two and a half million families so engaged1 and nearly half a million silk manufacturers4 ,the largest part of the silk exported goes to the ,united ,states of ,america4 ,closely allied with the production of silk is the mulberry-tree1 the leaves of which form the staple food of the silkworm4 ,this plant is cultivated with great care throughout the country1 and indeed there are many mulberry farms entirely devoted to the culture of the tree and the conservation of its leaves4 ,rice1 as ,i have elsewhere stated1 forms the principal article of food of the ,japanese people4 ,japan at present does not produce quite sufficient rice for the consumption of her population1 and a large quantity has1 accordingly1 to be imported4 ,the danger of this for an island country has been quite as often emphasised by ,japanese statesmen as the similar danger in respect of the wheat supply of ,great ,britain has been by ,english economists4 ,many practical steps have been taken on the initiative of the ,japanese ,government in the direction of improving the cultivation of rice1 the irrigation of the fields1 c4 ,as time goes on no doubt the food of the people will become more varied4 ,indeed1 there has been a movement in that direction1 especially in the large towns4 ,a nation which largely lives on one article of diet1 the production of which is subject to the vicissitudes of good and bad harvests1 is1 it must be admitted1 not in a satisfactory position in reference to the food of its people4 ,if rice is the national food1 tea is emphatically the national beverage1 despite the large consumption of sak and the increasing consumption of the really excellent beer now brewed in ,japan4 ,like most other things1 the tea-shrub is said to have been imported into ,japan from ,china4 ,almost since the opening of the country1 the ,united ,states has been ,japan's best customer in respect of tea1 and she has from time to time fallen into line with the requirements of the ,united ,states ,government in regard to the quality of tea permitted to be imported into that country4 ,for instance1 when1 in #ahig1 the ,united ,states ,legislature passed a law forbidding the importation of tea of inferior quality and providing for the inspection of all imported tea by a fixed standard sample1 the ,tea ,traders ,association of ,japan established tea inspection offices in ,yokohama and other ports1 and all the tea exported from the country was and still is passed through these offices4 ,the tea is rigidly tested1 and if it comes up to the required standard is shipped in bond to the ,united ,states4 ,the quality of the tea is thus amply guaranteed1 and it1 accordingly1 commands a high price in the ,american ,continent4 ,the value of the tea exported to the ,united ,states amounts to something like #a1bjj1jjj1 and there are no signs of any falling off in the demand for it4 ,canada is also a good customer of ,japan for the same article1 but ,great ,britain and the other ,european countries at present take no ,japanese tea4 ,i do not know why this is the case as the tea is really excellent1 and it has1 as regards what is exported1 the decided advantage of being inspected by experts and the quality guaranteed4 ,the tea industry is undoubtedly one of great national importance1 the total annual production amounting to about #fe1jjj1jjj pounds1 the greater portion of which is1 of course1 consumed in the country4 ,i have already referred to the importance of ,japanese arboriculture1 and to the steps taken by the ,japanese ,government in reference to the administration of forests and the planting with trees of various parts of the country not suitable for agriculture4 ,the ,state at the present time owns about #ed1jjj1jjj acres of forests1 which are palpably a very great national asset4 ,i may mention that the petroleum industry is growing in ,japan4 ,the quantity of petroleum in the country is believed to be very great1 and every year new fields are being developed4 ,the consumption of oil by the people is considerable1 and it is hoped that ere long ,japan will be able to produce all that she requires4 ,the petroleum is somewhat crude1 providing about #ej per cent4 of burning oil4 ,tobacco1 as ,i have elsewhere remarked1 is now a ,state monopoly1 and forms a considerable item in the ,state revenue4 ,the quality has much improved since the manufacture of it has ceased to be a private industry4 ,the ,japanese are inveterate smokers1 and the intervention of the ,state in this matter1 although it has been criticised by political economists in the country and out of it1 and is undoubtedly open to criticism from some points of view1 has1 ,i think1 been justified by results4 ,the making of sugar from beetroot has been attempted in ,japan1 but the results have not been over-successful4 ,the efforts in this direction are1 however1 being persisted in1 and it is hoped that1 especially in ,formosa1 the beet--sugar industry may develop in importance4 ,the manufacture of paper in ,japan has long been an important national industry4 ,paper has been and still is used there for many purposes for which it has never been utilised in ,european countries4 ,originally it was largely made from rice1 and the mulberry shrub has also been used for paper manufacture4 ,the rise and development of a newspaper press in ,japan and the impetus given to printing has1 of course1 largely increased the demand for paper4 ,this is being met by the adaptation of other vegetable products for the purpose of making paper1 and it seems quite certain that ,japan will be totally independent of any importation of foreign paper to meet the great and greatly increasing demand for that article in the country4 ,salt is1 ,i may remark1 a ,government monopoly in ,japan4 ,no one except the ,government1 or some person licensed by the ,government1 is allowed to import salt from abroad1 while no one can manufacture salt without ,government permission4 ,salt made by salt manufacturers is purchased by the ,government1 which sells it at a fixed price4 ,this particular monopoly has only recently been established1 and the reason put forward for it is a desire to improve and develop the salt industry and at the same time to add to the national revenue4 ,whether a monopoly in what is a necessary of life is economically defensible is a question1 to my mind1 hardly open to argument4 ,that the revenue of the country will benefit by the salt monopoly is unquestionable4 ,as might have been expected1 the opening up of ,japan to ,western influences has induced or produced1 inter alia1 some ,western forms of political and social and1 indeed1 socialistic associations4 ,the antagonism between capital and labour and the many vexed and intricate questions involved in the quarrel are already beginning to make themselves felt in ,japan4 ,it was1 ,i suppose1 inevitable4 ,labour is an important factor in an industrial nation like ,japan1 and there is already heard the cry--call it fact or fallacy as you choose--with which we are now so familiar in this country and on the ,continent1 that labour is the source of all wealth4 ,japan will no doubt1 like other countries1 sooner or later have to face a solution of the problems involved in these recurring disputes and this apparently deep-rooted antagonism between the possessors of wealth and the possessors of muscle4 ,already many associations have been established whose aim and object is to voice the sentiments of labour and assert its rights4 ,indeed1 there is a newspaper1 the ,labour ,world1 the champion of the rights of the ,japanese workmen4 ,so far the law in ,japan does not regard with as tolerant an eye as is the case in this country labour demonstrations and the occasionally reckless oratory of labour champions4 ,the police regulations forbid the working classes embarking in collective movements and demonstrating against their employers in the matter of wages and working hours4 ,a suggestion of a strike of workmen is officially regarded with an unfriendly eye1 and strikes themselves1 picketing1 and various other ,western methods of coercing employers to come round to the views of the employed1 would not at present be tolerated in ,japan4 ,no doubt these ,western devices will assert themselves in time4 ,the attempt to keep down the effective outcome of labour organisation in a country with an enormous labour population is not likely to be successful for long4 ,socialism is making great progress in ,japan1 and the ,state has1 whether consciously or not1 given it a certain amount of countenance by the steps it has taken in reference to the tobacco and salt industries1 c4 ,the extent to which newspapers are now read in ,japan--a matter ,i refer to more fully in another chapter--will undoubtedly tend to mould public opinion to such a degree that no ,government could afford to resist it4 ,illustration3 ,,rice ,,planting1 ,,province ,,of ,,hoki ,,from ,a ,,print ,,by ,,hiroshige ,the trade1 commerce1 and industries of ,japan appear to me to be1 on the whole1 in a healthy and flourishing condition4 ,in them1 and of course in her industrious population1 ,japan possesses a magnificent asset4 ,the country is rich in undeveloped resources of various kinds1 the people are patriotic to a degree1 and ,i feel sure that the additional burdens which the recent war with ,russia has for the time entailed will be cheerfully borne4 ,i am confident1 moreover1 that under the wise guidance of the ,emperor and her present statesmen ,japan will make successful efforts to liquidate her public debt1 to relieve herself of her foreign liabilities1 and generally to proceed untrammelled and unshackled on that path of progress and material development that1 ,i believe1 lies before her1 and which will1 ,i am sure1 at no far-distant date place her securely and permanently in the position of one of the ,great ,world ,powers4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,japan',s ,,financial ,,burdens ,,and ,,resources ,there are a good many people1 some so-called financial experts among the number1 who are of opinion1 and have expressed themselves to that effect1 that the financial position of ,japan is an unsound one4 ,they depict that country as weighed down with a load of debt1 mostly incurred for her warlike operations against ,russia1 and the revenue as largely mortgaged for the payment of the interest on that debt4 ,some of these experts have told us that the facility with which ,japan was able to raise loans on comparatively moderate terms in the ,european money-markets1 and the rush that was made by investors to subscribe to her loans1 are matters which must have a baneful effect on the rulers of ,japan4 ,these latter1 we are assured1 found themselves in the position not only of being able to raise money easily1 but of positively having to refuse money which was forced upon them by eager investors when the ,japanese loans were put upon the market4 ,the result was1 so it has been said1 to encourage extravagance in expenditure and to lead ,japan to suppose that whenever she wanted money for any purpose she had only to come to ,europe and ask for it4 ,the financial experts who so argue1 if such puerile assertions can be dignified by the name of argument1 talk as if ,japan were like a child with a new toy4 ,the ,japanese statesmen--in which term ,i of course include the ,mikado1 one of the world's greatest statesmen--are by no means so simple as some of these financial experts would have us believe4 ,indeed1 ,i will go further1 and venture to assert that the statesmen are far more astute than the experts4 ,the former emphatically know what they are about1 financially and otherwise1 and they are assuredly in no need of any ,occidental giving them a lead in the matter4 ,if ,i desired to adduce any evidence on that head ,i need only point to the ,financial and ,economical ,annual of ,japan1 published every year at the ,government printing office in ,tokio4 ,this exhaustive work deals with the different departments of ,government4 ,the section ,i have before me1 which is for the year #aije1 treats of the ,department of ,finance and it certainly serves1 and very effectively serves1 to show that the ,japanese are not1 as they so often have been depicted1 children in matters of this kind4 ,this ,government handbook is not only exhaustive but illuminative4 ,published in ,english1 everything of which it treats is explained in simple and concise language4 ,there is an entire absence of that official jargon which tends1 even if it is not intended1 to render ,government publications in this country unintelligible to the ordinary reader4 ,the plain man who peruses this ,japanese year-book can at least understand it1 and he will1 among other things1 grasp the fact that the ,japanese have got the whole question of finance in all its ramifications at their fingers' ends4 ,the total ,national ,debt of ,japan in #aije amounted to #iid1dcg1cdj yen1 or1 roughly1 #ajj1jjj1jjj sterling--a sum which the publication ,i have referred to works out to be at the rate of #ai4edh yen1 or about #cis4 per head of the population4 ,of the debt some #dc1jjj1jjj was incurred to defray a part of the cost of the war with ,russia4 ,as an indication of the estimate of the credit of ,japan within her own territory as well as abroad1 ,i may record the fact that the ,exchequer ,bonds which were issued in the country in #aijd and #aije for the purpose of defraying the extraordinary expenses of the war were largely over-subscribed1 the first issue to the extent of #deb per cent41 the second #cbb per cent41 the third #bdf per cent41 and the fourth #dij per cent4--a record surely6 ,abroad ,japan's loans were no less successful4 ,the three issues made in ,europe during the war were literally rushed for by the investing public1 with the result that whereas in ,may1 #aijd1 ,japan offered for subscription a loan of #aj1jjj1jjj1 the issue price being #ic #ajs4 and the rate of interest #f per cent41 in ,march1 #aije1 despite the fact of two previous loans and the exhaustion of the country incidental to a long and expensive war1 she was able to place on the market a loan of thirty millions at #d per cent4 interest1 the issue price being #ij4 ,a ,national ,debt which amounts to less than #b per head of the population compares very favourably with that of ,great ,britain1 which totals up to something like #ai per head1 leaving out of account the immense and yearly growing indebtedness of our great cities and towns4 ,furthermore1 almost the whole of the ,national ,debt of this country1 as of the ,european ,powers generally1 has been incurred not only for unproductive1 but as a matter of fact for destructive purposes4 ,the vast loans of ,europe have been raised for the purpose of waging bloody wars1 some at least of which history has pronounced to have been gigantic1 not to say wicked1 blunders4 ,much of the ,national ,debt of ,japan1 on the contrary1 has been incurred for useful1 productive1 and even remunerative purposes--improving the means of transport1 constructing railways1 c4 ,the various loans outstanding up to the year #ahhg1 on which ,japan was paying very high rates of interest1 as much as #i per cent4 on one foreign loan1 were in that year converted and consolidated by the issue of a loan bearing interest at the rate of #e per cent4 per annum--a proceeding which materially improved ,japan's financial position and demonstrated that her credit stood high4 ,the war with ,china in #ahid-e necessitated fresh borrowing to the amount of over #ab1jjj1jjj4 ,subsequent loans were issued in order to extend the railway system of the country and so develop its trade1 for such public works as the establishment of a steel foundry1 the extension of the telephone system1 the introduction of the leaf tobacco monopoly1 for the development of ,formosa and1 another most important matter1 the redemption of paper-money4 ,in the early days of her expansion ,japan suffered greatly from the evils of inconvertible paper-money and strenuous efforts had for a long time been made by the ,government for the redemption of the paper-money and the improvement of the general financial condition4 ,in #ahij it was found that the reserve fund kept in the ,treasury for the exchange of paper-money of #a yen and upwards was insufficient to meet the demand4 ,to meet this emergency1 the maximum amount of convertible bank-notes issued by the ,bank of ,japan against securities was increased from #gj1jjj1jjj yen 7#g1afi1ibg7 to #he1jjj1jjj yen 7#h1gjf1cdj71 of which sum #bb1jjj1jjj yen were advanced to the ,government without interest4 ,this sum added to the original reserve fund of #aj1jjj1jjj yen 7#a1jbd1bge7 was employed for completing the redemption of paper-money of #a yen and upward4 ,subsequent loans for the purposes of the war with ,russia ,i have already referred to4 ,besides funded ,japan has also1 like this country1 had experience of unfunded debt in the shape of ,treasury ,bills1 temporary loans from the ,bank of ,japan1 c4 ,financial operations of this kind are1 however1 ,i imagine1 necessary for all ,governments to meet current expenses4 ,to briefly recapitulate ,japan's indebtedness and borrowings generally up to the end of ,march1 #aije1 these amounted to1 in all1 #adj1jde1jcj1 of which sum #ch1ahg1cfi has from time to time been paid off1 leaving a balance of #aja1heg1ffa owing by the nation4 ,when we consider that for this large1 but not unduly large1 sum ,japan has waged two considerable wars1 and raised herself to the position of a great naval and military ,power1 that she has developed and organised a magnificent ,army1 provided herself with a strong1 efficient1 and thoroughly up-to-date ,navy1 has constructed railways and public works1 and generally has placed herself in a capital position to work out her own destiny free from the fear of foreign interference1 ,i altogether fail to see how she can be accused of financial extravagance4 ,there is certainly no extravagance in the administration of her finances4 ,london might1 ,i suggest1 learn much from ,tokio in this matter4 ,the system of financial check and thorough and rapid audit of public accounts is in ,japan as near perfection as anything of the kind can be4 ,though the late war did produce1 as ,i suppose all wars do1 peculation1 most of it was discovered and the punishment of the culprits was sharp and decisive4 ,there was no opportunity for financial scandals in the campaign with ,russia such as occurred during the ,south ,african ,war4 ,every country1 of course1 produces rogues1 and war seems1 inter alia1 to breed roguery on a large scale1 but in the ,japanese methods of finance the checks are so effective that roguery in the public services has a bad time of it in war as well as in peace4 ,as ,i have already remarked1 ,i am of opinion the debt of ,japan is by no means excessive1 especially in view of the fact that a large part of it has been devoted to purposes which are profitable4 ,the debt works out1 as ,i have shown1 at something under #b per head of the population1 and that population is steadily increasing4 ,that ,japan is well able to pay the interest on her debt there can be no question whatever1 and that when the present debt becomes due for redemption she will be able to raise the necessary funds for that purpose on terms even more favourable than those at which she has hitherto placed her loans ,i am confident4 ,i must emphasise the fact1 since so many persons seem to be oblivious of it1 that this is no mushroom ,south ,american ,republic borrowing money merely for the purpose of spending it on very unproductive and occasionally very doubtful objects1 but a ,great ,world ,power sensible of its obligations1 sensible likewise of the policy and necessity of maintaining the national credit1 and confident that the national resources and the patriotism of its people will enable it not only to bear the present financial burdens but even greater1 should these be found necessary for the defence of the country or for its development4 ,the ability of a nation as of an individual to discharge its debts depends of course upon its resources4 ,no man possessing even a perfunctory knowledge of the resources of ,japan would surely venture to express alarm at the increase in her debt and scepticism as to her being able to meet the annual interest on that debt as well as the constantly increasing expenses of administration4 ,the resources of the country have1 in my opinion1 as yet scarcely been realised1 and certainly have not been anything like fully developed4 ,and when ,i use the word resources ,i do not employ it as it is so often employed in respect of minerals1 although the mineral wealth of ,japan is considerable4 ,her resources1 as ,i estimate them1 are to be found in her large and rapidly increasing population--a population perhaps the most industrious in the world1 persevering1 enterprising1 methodical1 and performing1 whatever be its appointed task1 that task with all its might as a labour of love1 in fact1 not as the irksome toil of the worker who is a worker simply because he can be nothing else4 ,it is this great industrial hive which in the near future will supply ,china and other ,eastern countries with all1 or nearly all1 those articles they now obtain elsewhere4 ,what ,i may term the ,european industries of ,japan have of recent years been largely developed or evolved4 ,take1 for example1 an item1 insignificant in one way--that of matches4 ,in #aijd matches to the value of #i1gfc1hfj yen1 or1 roughly1 one million sterling1 were exported1 and1 strange to relate1 ,european clothing to the value of #bhg1dfd yen4 ,the glib people who talk about ,japan biting off more than she can chew1 and with a light heart borrowing money she will find a difficulty in repaying1 have apparently not grasped the fact that ,japan possesses many very eminent financiers who have quite as much1 if not more1 claim to be considered financial experts than some of those gentlemen who pose in that capacity here in ,england4 ,the ,japanese financiers have1 moreover1 the advantage of an intimate knowledge of their own country and its potentialities4 ,the ,japanese ,government has always had the benefit of the advice of these singularly able men1 and the result has been that its financial operations of recent years at any rate have invariably been well organised and skilfully and economically effected4 ,i cannot speak too highly of the capacity shown by the ,japanese in everything relating to banking4 ,the ,banks--of course ,i refer to the ,national ,banks and not to the ,european ,banks having branches in the country--have very quickly attained a high status in the ,international ,banking world1 and are undoubtedly on a very firm financial basis4 ,and there are many great houses in ,japan which1 although not ostensibly bankers1 cannot be left out of consideration in any remarks on this head4 ,they occupy a position somewhat analogous to that of the ,rothschilds in this country4 ,let me take for example the house of ,mitsui1 the name of which constantly crops up in ,japanese finance4 ,the history of this ancient house has much that is picturesque about it1 reminding one of the old merchant princes of ,venice4 ,the family originally belonged to the ,jujiwara clan1 and its origin is traced back to a certain ,mitsui who lived as a feudal lord in the fifteenth century4 ,at the time of the fall of the ,ashikaja ,shogun he lived in a state of perpetual war1 and the god of war was not propitious to him4 ,he retired to a neighbouring village and became the overlord of the district4 ,he was succeeded by his son1 who removed to ,matsusuzaka1 where he settled down as a private citizen and man of business1 and laid the foundations of the present ,mitsui house4 ,in the middle of the sixteenth century his descendant became a merchant4 ,his son moved to ,kyoto1 where he started a large goods store1 which is represented in ,tokio to-day by the ,mitsui ,hofukuten4 ,subsequently1 at the beginning of the seventeenth century1 a member of the same house invented and introduced the system of retailing for cash1 which was an absolute revolution of business methods at that time in ,japan4 ,in addition to that he organised an excellent system for the remittance of money from one part of the country to the other1 as also a carrier's business--two very remarkable facts when one remembers in what a primitive and elementary condition of development the monetary business of ,japan was at that period4 ,in the year #afhg the ,mitsuis were appointed by the ,government purveyors and controllers of the public exchange1 and in recognition of the excellent manner in which the duties were performed1 they were given the grant of a large estate in ,yeddo4 ,in #agbc the head of the family1 carrying out the verbal wishes of his father1 assembled his brothers and sisters and then and there drew up in writing a set of family rules which have ever since been practically the articles of association of the house of ,mitsui4 ,these rules embodied on business-like lines and in business-like language the principle that the family and not the individual forms the ultimate union in ,eastern life4 ,it was not one or the other of the six brothers of which the family consisted when these rules were drawn up that was to trade1 but the whole family as one unit4 ,there was to be unlimited liability as far as the property of each one was concerned1 and the profits of all were to be divided4 ,this agreement is the identical one under which the great house of ,mitsui is run to-day4 ,under it the family prospered exceedingly1 so that when ,japan decided to take on some portion of ,western civilisation1 the ,mitsuis acted as the principal financial agents of the ,government1 and it was mainly owing to the enormous financial resources of the house placed by them at the disposal of the ,government that the country was enabled at the period of the revolution to pass successfully through what might have been a most disastrous crisis4 ,as some reward for the great services rendered at the time1 the present head of the house was created a peer4 ,since the opening of ,japan to ,western influence the business of the ,mitsuis has enormously increased1 and has been extended in various directions4 ,in #ahgf their money exchange business was converted into a ,bank on the joint stock system1 but with unlimited liability as far as the ,mitsui family was concerned4 ,in the same year1 for the purpose of engaging in general foreign trade1 the ,mitsui ,bussan ,kwiasha was formed1 better known in ,europe and ,america as ,mitsui ,co4 ,in #ahii the family acquired from the ,government the concession of the ,meike coal-mines1 and there was then formed the ,mitsui ,kaishan1 or ,mining ,department1 which has the management of this mining concession together with many others which have since been acquired4 ,to-day the house of ,mitsui consists of eleven families under a system of joint liability bound together by the old rules drawn up close upon two centuries back4 ,the wealth of the collective families is unquestionably great1 and the confidence of the people of ,japan in this great financial firm is shown by the immense amount of money it holds on deposit4 ,in one or other branches of their varied businesses they give employment to a very large number of persons4 ,they have initiated an exceedingly interesting system of insurance for their employees4 ,each is allowed #aj per cent4 interest on his wages up to three years on condition of its being deposited in the ,mitsui ,bank1 with the proviso that the sum shall be forfeited in case of the embezzlement of any of the ,company's money4 ,during the late war1 as well as in that with ,china1 the ,mitsui house had immense transactions with the ,government in providing war material1 steamers for transport1 supplies1 c41 and their magnificent organisation enabled them to carry out their various undertakings without the slightest hitch4 ,i may also add that the name of ,mitsui headed the various charitable funds which were started in the country in connection with the war4 ,i am sure that this necessarily imperfect sketch of this famous ,japanese house will convince my readers of the fact that in finance1 as in other respects1 ,japan has already shown a capacity for holding her own with ,western nations4 ,i have headed this chapter ,japan's ,financial ,burdens and ,resources1 but ,i am not quite sure that the word burdens is not a misnomer4 ,japan appears to me--and ,i may claim to have studied the matter with some little attention--to have no financial burdens1 if burdens be taken to mean something that is inconveniently felt1 that is difficult to carry4 ,there is here no people weighed down under the crushing incubus of debt4 ,there is a springiness and alertness1 a go-ahead energy about the nation--symptoms not usually connected with the carrying of burdens4 ,japan seems to me to be in somewhat the same position in regard to finance as ,france was after the close of the war with ,germany when the former nation found itself saddled with a tremendous debt incurred for war expenditure and the indemnity which had to be paid to the conquering nation4 ,the fact1 however1 as we all know1 instead of depressing the ,french people seems to have put the whole country on its mettle1 with the result that the heavy interest of the enormous debt was easily met and effective steps taken to reduce the principal4 ,the borrowings of ,japan in ,europe in the future are likely to be small1 because she will be able to obtain what she needs at home1 and provided she is not drawn into any war she will find her expanding revenue sufficient not only for the current expenses of administration as well as for the interest on her debt1 but over and above all this enabling her year by year to provide a sinking fund which will in due course materially reduce even if it does not entirely extinguish the national indebtedness4 ,in my opinion ,japan can look forward to its financial future with equanimity4 ,in regard to its financial past it has the satisfaction of thinking that heavy in one sense though its financial obligations be they have not at any rate been squandered for unworthy purposes4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,education ,in ,england a vast amount was last year heard respecting education4 ,speakers on platforms and writers in newspapers and other periodical literature day by day and week by week for many months kept pouring forth words1 words1 words on this matter4 ,it is not my intention to refer at all beyond what ,i have said to the somewhat lively education controversy in ,england which even as ,i write is by no means ended4 ,any such reference would be out of place in a book of this kind1 and even were it not ,i confess ,i have no inclination whatever to rush into this particular fray4 ,but it seems to me a curious fact that other countries1 ,japan amongst the number1 have long since settled1 and apparently settled satisfactorily1 a problem which here in ,england is still under discussion1 acrid discussion1 and is yet quite evidently far from being permanently solved4 ,the provisions and arrangements a nation has made for the education of its youth are1 to my mind1 an excellent test of the precise standard to which its civilisation has attained2 because the future of a nation is with its youth1 and that future must largely depend on the extent to and the manner in which its youth have been taught not only all those subjects which are commonly classified as knowledge but their duties and responsibilities as citizens4 ,judged by this test1 ,japan has every right to rank high among the nations of the world4 ,and it can also be said of her in this matter that the education of her people is no new thing4 ,it is not one among the many things she has learned from the ,west4 ,education was in vogue in ,japan when that country was isolated from the rest of the world4 ,certainly ,japan's contact with ,europe and ,america has vastly improved her educational system1 enabling her1 as it has done1 to utilise to the full the great advance there has been in scientific knowledge of every description during the last half-century or so4 ,but1 as far back as the seventh century1 if history or tradition be correct1 an educational code was promulgated in ,japan4 ,certainly this code was limited in its application to certain classes1 but education was gradually extended throughout the country1 and even in days somewhat remote from the present time every member of the ,samurai class was expected to include the three ,r's1 or the ,japanese equivalent of them1 in his curriculum4 ,the ordinary ,samurai was1 in fact1 as regards reading and writing an educated man at a time when ,british ,generals and even ,british ,sovereigns were somewhat hazy in regard to their orthography and caligraphy4 ,soon after the ,revolution of #ahfh a ,board of ,education was instituted in ,japan1 and the whole educational system of the country--because one had existed under the rule of a ,tycoon--was taken in hand and reorganised4 ,three years later a separate ,department of ,education was formed at a time almost synonymous with the setting up of ,school ,boards in ,england4 ,as soon as it got itself into working order the ,education ,department despatched a number of specially selected ,japanese to various ,european countries as well as to the ,united ,states of ,america to inquire into and report upon the system of education in existence and its suitability for adaptation or adoption in ,japan4 ,when these representatives returned from their mission and sent in their reports a code was compiled and the ,mikado1 in promulgating it1 declared the aims of his ,government to be that education should be so diffused throughout the country that eventually there might not be a village with an ignorant family nor a family with an ignorant member4 ,it was a noble ideal1 and ,i may remark that1 though of course it has not been realised in all its fulness and probably will not be for very many years to come1 it has been to a larger extent attained than a somewhat similar ideal which the late ,mr4 ,forster is supposed to have entertained in reference to the effect of the ,education ,act which established a system of compulsory education for ,england and ,wales4 ,in succeeding years various changes were made in the system of national education1 and in #ahhc that which now exists was brought into force4 ,this is in effect compulsory education4 ,since education was first organised on any plan in ,japan the number under instruction has steadily risen1 and at present more than #ij per cent4 of the children regularly attend school4 ,in #ahgc the number was #a1ahj1jjj2 it is now over #e1jjj1jjj4 ,there are about #bi1jjj primary schools1 of which about #f1ejj are higher primary schools with a million pupils4 ,the total cost of the primary schools is somewhere about #c1jjj1jjj4 ,the question will no doubt be asked1 ,what kind of education do these #e1jjj1jjj pupils receive1 and to what extent is it adapted to make them good citizens of a great ,empire8 ,the subjects taught in the ordinary primary schools embrace morals1 the ,japanese language1 arithmetic and gymnastics4 ,one or more subjects1 such as drawing1 singing1 or manual work may be added1 and1 in schools for females1 sewing4 ,in the higher primary schools the subjects of instruction include morals1 the ,japanese language1 arithmetic1 ,japanese history1 geography1 science1 drawing1 singing1 and gymnastics1 and1 in schools for females1 sewing4 ,besides these agriculture1 commerce1 and manual work1 as well as the ,english language1 are optional subjects4 ,the moral lessons taught in these schools1 ,i may remark1 are not based upon any particular religious doctrines or dogmas1 but are entirely and absolutely secular4 ,children have to be #f years of age before commencing their scholastic education1 and have to remain at school until they have attained #ad years4 ,the parents or guardians of children are compelled to send them to school to complete1 as a minimum of education1 the ordinary primary school course4 ,education in the higher primary schools is not compulsory1 and it is1 accordingly1 a pleasing fact that #fj per cent4 of those children who have passed through the ordinary schools voluntarily go to the higher primary schools4 ,every municipal or rural community is compelled to maintain one or more primary schools sufficient1 as regards size and the number of the staff1 to educate all the children in the district4 ,the establishment of higher primary schools is voluntary1 and that so many of them are in existence is ample proof that the benefit of higher education is fully appreciated in ,japan4 ,instruction in all the schools is practically free4 ,no fee may be charged save with the consent of the local governor1 and when one is imposed it must not exceed the equivalent of #e;d4 per month in a town school and half that sum in a rural school4 ,as regards secondary education1 it is compulsory for one school to be established in each of the forty-seven prefectures into which ,japan is divided4 ,the course of study at the secondary schools extends over five years1 with an optional supplementary course limited to twelve months4 ,the curriculum of the secondary school embraces morals1 the ,japanese and ,chinese languages1 one foreign language1 history and geography1 mathematics1 natural history1 physics and chemistry1 the elements of law and political economy1 drawing1 singing1 gymnastics1 and drills4 ,the course of study is uniform in all ,japanese schools4 ,candidates for admission to the secondary schools must be over #ab years of age1 and have completed the second year's course of the higher primary school4 ,there are about three hundred of the secondary schools in existence--a number1 as will be seen1 six times as large as that obliged to be established by law4 ,the pupils number over a hundred thousand and the cost approximates #ejj1jjj4 ,there are also #agj high schools for girls besides normal schools in each prefecture designed to train teachers for the primary and secondary schools4 ,the course of study in these schools is for men four years1 for women three years4 ,the whole of the pupils' expenses1 including the cost of their board and lodging1 is paid out of local funds4 ,there are also higher normal schools designed to train teachers for the ordinary normal schools4 ,it will thus be seen that there is a systematic course of education for what ,i may term the common people in ,japan1 extending from the higher normal to the ordinary primary school4 ,there are besides in ,japan higher schools1 the object of which is to prepare young men for a ,university education4 ,the expense of these schools is entirely borne by the ,state4 ,japan prides herself1 and justly1 in being unique in the possession of such schools4 ,the course of study in them extends over three years and is split up into three departments4 ,the pupils select the particular department into which they desire to enter1 and their selection1 of course1 depends on the precise course of study they intend to take up on entering the ,university4 ,the first department is for those who propose to study law or literature1 the second for those who mean to go in for engineering1 science1 or agriculture1 and the third for aspirants as medical men4 ,candidates for admission to these schools must be over #ag years of age and have completed the secondary school course4 ,a reference to these higher schools naturally leads up to the ,imperial ,university of ,tokio1 as well as the kindred ,university at ,kyoto4 ,there are six colleges in the former1 viz41 law1 medicine1 engineering1 literature1 science1 and agriculture1 while ,kyoto ,university possesses four colleges1 viz41 law1 medicine1 literature and science1 and engineering4 ,when the ,imperial ,university was established almost all the ,professors therein were ,europeans or ,americans1 but there has been a material alteration in this respect1 and now the foreign ,professors are few4 ,most of the ,japanese instructors have1 however1 been educated abroad4 ,the course of study extends over four years in the case of students of law and medicine1 and three years in the case of students of other subjects4 ,there is not the same freedom in regard to study as exists at ,oxford1 ,cambridge1 and some other more or less leisurely seats of learning4 ,in the ,japanese ,universities the students have to enter upon a regular prescribed course of study with some few optional subjects4 ,the ,universities confer degrees in law1 medicine1 engineering1 literature1 science1 and agriculture4 ,the examinations leading up to and for the degrees are much more severe than those in any ,university in this country1 with the possible exception of that of ,london4 ,it may interest my readers to learn that the largest number of degrees are taken in law1 the smallest in science4 ,we have heard a great deal of recent years respecting technical education in ,great ,britain1 which many persons suggest is at a very low ebb4 ,for what is in one sense a new country1 ,japan seems to have taken steps to provide an excellent system of technical education4 ,there are a small number of ,state higher technical schools1 agricultural1 commercial1 and industrious4 ,technical schools of lower grades are maintained by prefectures and urban bodies1 and they receive grants in aid from national funds4 ,there are in all about four hundred technical schools in the country4 ,the few facts respecting education in ,japan which ,i have put as tersely as possible before my readers1 should1 ,i think1 convince them of the fact that in regard to this all-important question ,japan has made and is making vigorous efforts--and efforts all of which are in the right direction4 ,it must be remembered that in the education of her youth she has to face difficulties which are altogether unknown in this as in other ,european countries4 ,one of these difficulties is the fact that ,japanese literature is more or less mixed up with ,chinese literature1 and1 accordingly1 it is necessary for the ,japanese to learn ,chinese as well as ,japanese characters1 and also to study the ,chinese classics4 ,another difficulty is the one ,i touched on in my remarks on the ,japanese language1 viz41 the difference between the written and spoken languages of ,japan4 ,in old times the written and spoken languages were no doubt identical1 but ,chinese literature influenced the country to so great an extent that the written language in time became more and more ,chinese1 while the spoken dialect remained ,japanese4 ,the consequence is that the written language is more or less a hotch-potch of ,chinese characters and the ,japanese alphabet4 ,whether it will be possible to overcome these obvious difficulties remains to be seen4 ,several remedies have been proposed but none has so far been adopted4 ,one remedy was the use of the ,japanese alphabet alone for the written language1 another the introduction and adoption of the ,european alphabet4 ,manifestly the difficulty of effecting such a change as the adoption of either of these plans would involve would be enormous4 ,still the retention of the present complicated system is without doubt the great obstacle in the way of educational progress in ,japan1 and it speaks eloquently for the patience and pertinacity of the youth of that country that they have effected so much in so short a time in view of the difficulties that have had to be encountered4 ,the strong points of the youth of ,japan in the matter of education are1 in my opinion1 their great powers of concentration and their indomitable application to study and perseverance in whatever they undertake4 ,of their powers of absorption of any subject there can be no question4 ,it has been urged1 as against this1 that the ,japanese possess the defect not uncommon among people of any race1 viz41 that the capacity for rapidly assimilating knowledge is to some extent counteracted or rendered abortive by an incapacity to practically apply that knowledge4 ,i may say for myself that though ,i have often heard this objection urged ,i have not seen any indications of this lack of ability to practically apply knowledge on the part of the ,japanese4 ,i should have thought that the ,russo-,japanese war would have afforded ample demonstration of the ability of the ,japanese to put to good account the knowledge they had acquired and assimilated in their seminaries4 ,i certainly think that the system of education1 as it exists in ,japan to-day1 is one not only admirably adapted for the people of that country1 but one from which some ,western nations might learn a few things4 ,japan has1 in her education system1 settled the religious question simply by ignoring it4 ,her morality as inculcated in every school in the country1 is a purely secular morality4 ,i know that there are some persons who will deem secular morality a contradiction in terms4 ,indeed there are many eminent ,japanese who do not approve of the present system4 ,count ,okuma1 for example1 one of the ablest men in the country1 bewails the lack of a moral standard4 ,the upper classes have1 he remarks1 ,chinese philosophy1 the great mass of the people have nothing4 ,in the ,western world1 he points out1 ,christianity supplies the moral standard1 while in ,japan some desire to return to old forms1 others prefer ,christianity2 some lean on ,kant1 others on other philosophers4 ,christianity may supply the moral standard in the ,western world1 as ,count ,okuma asserts1 but if he has studied recent politics in a particular part of the ,western world1 he must have seen that ,christianity in that part is by no means in accord as to the teaching of religion in its schools1 or what moral code1 if any1 should be substituted for dogmatic instruction4 ,perhaps1 after all1 ,japan has not decided amiss in for the present at any rate deciding that secular morality shall be the only ethical instruction given in her schools4 ,that code which she teaches1 so far as ,i have had an opportunity of studying it1 is one which contains nothing that could be in the slightest degree objected to by the votaries of any religious system either in the ,east or in the ,west4 ,illustration3 ,,amateur ,,conchologists ,,from ,a ,,print ,,by ,,hiroshige ,although it has no direct connection with morality1 secular or otherwise1 it may be of interest if ,i give here a synopsis of the teaching given in ,japanese schools in reference to the behaviour of the pupils towards foreigners4 ,these rules have been collected by an ,english newspaper in ,japan1 and they certainly serve to show that the youth of ,japan are in this matter receiving instruction which1 whether regarded from an ethical standpoint or merely that of good manners1 cannot be too highly commended4 ,never call after foreigners passing along the streets or roads4 ,when foreigners make inquiries1 answer them politely4 ,if unable to make them understand1 inform the police of the fact4 ,never accept a present from a foreigner when there is no reason for his giving it1 and never charge him anything above what is proper4 ,do not crowd around a shop when a foreigner is making purchases1 thereby causing him much annoyance4 ,the continuance of this practice disgraces us as a nation4 ,since all human beings are brothers and sisters1 there is no reason for fearing foreigners4 ,treat them as equals and act uprightly in all your dealings with them4 ,be neither servile nor arrogant4 ,beware of combining against the foreigner and disliking him because he is a foreigner2 men are to be judged by their conduct and not by their nationality4 ,as intercourse with foreigners becomes closer and extends over a series of years1 there is danger that many ,japanese may become enamoured of their ways and customs and forsake the good old customs of their forefathers4 ,against this danger you must be on your guard4 ,taking off your hat is the proper way to salute a foreigner4 ,the bending of the body low is not to be commended4 ,when you see a foreigner be sure and cover up naked parts of the body4 ,hold in high regard the worship of ancestors and treat your relations with warm cordiality1 but do not regard a person as your enemy because he or she is a ,christian4 ,in going through the world you will often find a knowledge of a foreign tongue absolutely essential4 ,beware of selling your souls to foreigners and becoming their slaves4 ,sell them no houses or lands4 ,aim at not being beaten in your competition with foreigners4 ,remember that loyalty and filial piety are our most precious national treasures and do nothing to violate them4 ,it seems to me a pity that education on somewhat similar lines to that embodied in these interesting rules cannot be imparted to the youth of this and other ,european countries4 ,it would certainly tend1 ,i think1 in the direction of good manners which are1 ,i fear1 sadly lacking in many of the pupils who have undergone a course of ,school ,board instruction in ,england4 ,a question that may arise in regard to the details of ,japanese education is how far and in what degree do the pertinacity and zeal of the youth of ,japan for knowledge affect their physique4 ,we know that mens sana in corpore sano is the ideal at which every one concerned with the education of young people of both sexes ought to strive4 ,there is no doubt whatever that too close an attention to study of any kind1 too constant an exercise of the mental faculties1 unless it is accompanied by a corresponding exercise of the body1 very often has an injurious effect upon the human frame4 ,count ,okuma1 in referring to this matter1 has pointed out that the great difficulty of the difference between the written and spoken languages is a very serious tax upon the pupils in all the schools1 necessitating1 as it does1 the duplicating of their work4 ,so much time1 he considers1 has to be spent by them in study on account of this duplicating that it is quite impossible for students to have sufficient physical exercise1 while if it were decided to devote more time to exercise1 the years allotted to education would have to be lengthened--a fact which must involve a serious loss in regard to the work of the nation4 ,i do not take quite such a pessimistic view of the lack of physical education of the youth of ,japan4 ,in the first place1 gymnastics form part1 an important part1 of the course of instruction in all schools throughout the country1 and in the next place the young people of ,japan1 so far as ,i have been able to arrive at an opinion in the matter1 are almost if not quite as enthusiastic in regard to various forms of outdoor sport as are those of this country4 ,the buoyancy and enthusiasm of youth are1 indeed1 very much the same all over the world4 ,it is only when youth comes to what are very often erroneously described as years of discretion that artificiality begins to assert itself4 ,base-ball1 lawn-tennis1 bicycling1 and rowing are all extensively patronised by the young men of ,japan1 and cricket has of recent years come considerably into vogue4 ,the students of the ,imperial ,university have not only shown no disinclination1 but1 on the contrary1 an avidity to combine athletics with their studies1 and in base-ball especially they have more than held their own against the foreigner4 ,i confess ,i have no desire to see the craze for outdoor sports which is so much in evidence in this country extending to ,japan4 ,some of the public schools in ,england are much more famous for their cricket1 football1 and other teams than for the education imparted in them4 ,many a young man leaves those schools an excellent cricketer or football player1 but1 from an educational point of view1 very badly equipped for the battle of life4 ,the happy mean is surely the best in this as in other matters1 and ,i venture to think that the youth of ,japan in regarding education as the essential matter and outdoor sport as merely a subsidiary one have shown sound judgment4 ,in my remarks on education in ,japan ,i have dealt principally with the schools for boys4 ,i may1 however1 remark that in the arrangements she has made for the education of the other sex she has shown the same thoroughness4 ,in the primary schools the boys and girls are taken in without any distinction1 though separate classes are usually formed4 ,there are subsequently higher schools for girls4 ,the percentage of the female sex attending these schools is less than that of the other4 ,there are in all about seventy-five of these schools in ,japan with some twenty thousand pupils4 ,the course of instruction in them is moral precepts1 ,japanese language1 a foreign language1 history1 geography1 mathematics1 science1 drawing1 training for domestic affairs1 cutting-out and sewing1 music and gymnastics4 ,i think in regard to these schools the ,japanese authorities have shown sound judgment in decreeing that music shall not necessarily form part of the education of every young girl1 but may be omitted for those pupils for whom the art may be deemed difficult4 ,were a similar rule to be adopted in this country quite a number of people would be saved a large amount of unnecessary torture4 ,there is also a higher normal school for women at ,tokio1 as likewise an ,academy of ,music4 ,the ,tokio ,jiogakkwan is an institution established by some foreign philanthropists for the purpose of educating ,japanese girls of a respectable class in ,anglo-,saxon attainments4 ,this institution has between two and three hundred pupils1 but ,i am not in a position to state what measure of success1 if any1 it has achieved1 nor indeed do ,i know what ,anglo-,saxon attainments are supposed to be4 ,many of them ,i should have thought were quite unsuitable for the ordinary ,japanese girl1 tending1 as they must1 to destroy her national individuality4 ,there is also a girls' college in ,tokio called the ,women's ,university4 ,it does not confer degrees1 but it gives a very high education1 and it is largely patronised4 ,i stated at the commencement of this chapter that ,i was of opinion the provisions and arrangements a nation had made for the education of its youth were an excellent test of the standard to which its civilisation has attained4 ,i hope the slight sketch ,i have given my readers of the system of education in existence in ,japan will enable them to form an estimate as to the place ,japan should occupy if judged by the standard referred to4 ,in my opinion1 seeing that it is less than forty years since the country passed through a drastic revolution--a revolution which destroyed all these social forces which had been in existence and had exercised a tremendous influence on the life of the people for many centuries--it is1 ,i think1 not only extraordinary but highly creditable to her rulers that ,japan should have in that short interval organised and perfected such a system of education as exists in the country to-day4 ,under that system every boy and girl in the land receives an admirable course of instruction1 and is afforded facilities for still further extending and enlarging that course1 and1 if his or her abilities1 ambitions1 and opportunities incline them that way1 to proceed steadily onward in the acquisition of knowledge1 until they obtain as a coping stone1 that final course1 in the capital either at the ,imperial ,university or the ,women's ,university where the sum of all the knowledge of the world is at the disposal of those who have the capacity and the aspiration to acquire it4 ,,chapter ,x ,,the ,,japanese ,,army ,,and ,,navy ,a work on ,japan which did not include some reference to the ,army and ,navy would manifestly be incomplete4 ,it is hardly any exaggeration to assert that nothing in regard to the metamorphosis of ,japan has so impressed the ,western mind as the extraordinary progress of its naval and military forces4 ,both in this country and on the ,continent it was1 of course1 known that ,japan had been for years evolving both an ,army and ,navy1 but ,i imagine most persons thought that this action on her part was merely a piece of childish extravagance1 and that her land and sea forces would1 if they were ever pitted against ,europeans1 prove as impotent as ,orientals nearly always have proved4 ,i am quite aware that naval and military experts of various nationalities who had studied matters on the spot were of a different opinion4 ,they witnessed the high state of efficiency of both the ,japanese ,army and ,navy1 the patriotic spirit of the officers and men1 their enthusiasm for their work1 and that universal feeling of bravery1 if it be bravery1 which consists in an absolute contempt of life4 ,still ,i think1 even to the experts1 the splendid organisation and overwhelming superiority of ,japan in her encounter with ,china came as somewhat of a surprise4 ,the complete victory of the ,island ,nation in that struggle was1 ,i know1 to a certain extent discounted in some quarters by the stories that were published as to the wretched condition of both the ,chinese ,army and ,navy1 their utter unfitness and unpreparedness for war1 the incompetence and corruption of the officers1 and so on4 ,there were many otherwise well informed persons who felt confident that though ,japan had experienced little or no difficulty in mastering ,china1 the case would be different when1 if ever1 she was involved in war with a ,european power4 ,i do not think these doubts were prevalent or indeed present at all1 in the minds of the naval and military authorities4 ,no responsible statesman or official in ,japan desired war4 ,the ,japanese are not in any sense a bellicose people4 ,still1 the statesmen of the country were fully alive to the fact that it might be necessary to fight for the national existence4 ,they had had experience in the past of the ambition of ,russia to aggrandise herself at the expense of ,japan4 ,they saw1 or thought they saw1 that ,russia had designs on ,korea1 and they were determined to frustrate those designs1 and so perhaps obviate in the best manner possible future attempts on the independence of ,japan itself4 ,and hence it came about that serious efforts were directed to create an ,army and ,navy strong and efficient4 ,the creation1 or perhaps it would be more correct to say the reorganisation1 of the ,army was entrusted1 soon after the ,revolution of #ahfh1 to a few ,european officers1 and it has proceeded throughout on ,european lines4 ,the task was not so difficult as might have been expected4 ,in old ,japan the terms soldier and ,samurai were synonymous1 and the security of the territory of each of the great feudal princes depended on the strength of his army4 ,the ,continental system of conscription was adopted and still obtains4 ,all ,japanese males between the ages of #ag and #dj are liable to military service4 ,the ,service is divided into ,active1 ,landwehr1 ,dept1 and ,landsturn services4 ,the ,active service is divided into service with the colours and service with the first reserve4 ,the former is obligatory for all who have reached the full age of #bj years1 and such service is for a period of three years4 ,service in the first reserve is compulsory for all who have finished service with the colours1 and lasts for a period of four years and four months4 ,the ,landwehr reserve is comprised of those who have finished the first reserve term1 and it continues for a period of five years4 ,the ,dept service is divided into two sections4 ,the first1 which lasts seven years and four months1 is made up of those who have not been enlisted for ,active service1 while the second1 extending over one year and four months1 consists of those who have not been enlisted for first ,dept service4 ,the ,landsturn is in two divisions--one for those who have completed the term of ,landwehr service and the first ,dept service1 and the second for all who are not on the other services4 ,this system of conscription1 of course1 lends itself to criticism1 and it has been criticised by the military experts of great military nations1 but on the whole it has been proved by the experience of the two wars in which ,japan has been involved during the last twelve years to have worked well1 and it probably answers as well as any system that could be devised1 the needs of the country1 and the characteristics of the people thereof4 ,the ,japanese are1 as these recent wars amply demonstrated1 patriotic to a degree4 ,they not only have great powers of perseverance1 but great capacities for assimilation and adaptation1 and are considered by many military authorities probably the very best raw material in the world out of which to make soldiers4 ,conscription may not be an ideal system for any country4 ,it is1 of course1 better from one point of view that the armed forces of a nation should voluntarily enlist rather than be pressed men4 ,but conscription in ,japan has never been1 and is not likely to be1 such a burden as is the case among some ,european nations4 ,the ,japanese idea of patriotism is something totally different to that which obtains in the ,west4 ,the late war afforded ample evidence of that1 were any needed4 ,the war with ,russia has been so recently concluded that it is not necessary to enter at any length into a consideration of the ,japanese ,army4 ,the history of that war gave ocular demonstration to the ,european nations1 however incredulous they may previously have been on the subject1 that ,japan was in fact a great military ,power4 ,in the course of that war she put in the field somewhere about #gjj1jjj men1 conveyed them across the sea to a foreign country1 and showed throughout the struggle a capacity for the most wonderful military organisation4 ,the smallest details were most carefully attended to2 there was an entire absence of that muddle so much in evidence when ,european nations are engaged in hostilities4 ,respecting the fighting qualities of the ,japanese soldier it is hardly necessary to say anything4 ,on the field of battle or during the long1 arduous and monotonous work of a siege he has shown himself alike a model soldier4 ,perhaps he has shone most in the hour of victory by his moderation4 ,every foreign officer who saw the work done by the ,japanese ,army throughout the various incidents of the ,russian ,war was lost in admiration4 ,to me the most pleasing feature of that war was the ease with which the soldier1 on coming back to ,japan1 returned to the peaceful pursuits of civil life4 ,the bumptious braggadocio that ,european military nations have developed has no counterpart in ,japan4 ,the war was1 in the estimation of the people1 a sacred duty4 ,the burdens which it entailed were cheerfully borne4 ,the ,japanese soldier bore his hardships or gave up his life equally cheerfully4 ,at the same time the conclusion of the war came as a relief1 and the mass of the soldiery gladly went through the ,japanese equivalent of turning their swords into ploughshares4 ,japan has demonstrated that she is a great military nation1 and the organisation of her ,army is one that might well be studied by the military authorities of other countries4 ,the weak point of the ,japanese ,army is its cavalry4 ,whether cavalry in the warfare of the future will play the important part that it has played in that of the past is a matter upon which ,i do not care to dogmatically pronounce1 especially as military authorities are by no means in agreement in regard thereto1 or indeed as to the precise functions of cavalry in military warfare4 ,the difficulties of ,japan in regard to organising an efficient cavalry have been largely1 if not altogether1 owing to the lack of good horses in the country4 ,the ,japanese horses have not been conspicuous for quality1 while the number available has not been anything like sufficient to enable the cavalry to be brought up to a proper condition of strength and efficiency4 ,the ,japanese military authorities have long been sensible of this fact1 and the late war amply demonstrated it4 ,with its usual thoroughness1 the ,government has1 as soon as possible after the close of the war1 taken steps to remedy this weak point in its military system1 and quite recently two delegates of the ,ministry of ,agriculture have been despatched to ,europe on a horse-purchase mission4 ,ten million yen have1 ,i understand1 been apportioned for the purpose of improving the national breed of horses1 and the delegates have been instructed to purchase suitable animals for breeding4 ,the ,japanese ,government has almost invariably been successful in anything it has undertaken1 and ,i venture to predict--it is scarcely a hazardous prophesy--that the horse supply of the country will ere long be put on a satisfactory footing and the cavalry be rendered as efficient as every other branch of the ,japanese ,army4 ,there is no fear of a military autocracy in ,japan4 ,the recent war proved not only the bravery of the rank and file of the ,army1 but the high military talent of the officers4 ,the art of war had evidently been studied from every point of view1 and was diligently applied4 ,the ,japanese talent1 in my opinion1 consists not in a mere mechanical copying1 but in a practical adaptation of all that is best in ,western civilisation4 ,the tactics and strategy displayed during the war with ,russia showed originality in conception1 brilliancy and daring4 ,if that war did not discover a ,napoleon among the ,japanese generals1 it can at least be said that ,japan has no need of a ,napoleon4 ,as ,i have said1 there is no fear of the development of a military autocracy in that country or the uprising of a general with ,napoleonic ideas and ambition4 ,the generals who justly earned distinction during the recent war are singularly modest men1 with no capacity for self-advertising and no desire whatever for self-aggrandisement4 ,they are not only content but anxious1 now that the war is over1 to sink into obscurity4 ,history will1 however1 not permit of that4 ,their achievements in the recent campaign will long afford subject-matter for study and the instruction of the military students of the future4 ,in this book ,i have as far as possible avoided mentioning names1 otherwise ,i would gladly inscribe on its pages the names of those many generals who earned fame in the ,russo-,japanese ,war4 ,i feel perfectly certain that every endeavour will be made to maintain the ,japanese ,army in the high state of efficiency it has reached4 ,at the same time ,i would emphasise the fact that that ,army is intended solely for defence4 ,japan has1 in a word1 no military ambitions outside her own territory4 ,and as of the ,army1 so of the ,navy4 ,perhaps the prowess of ,japan's ,fleet impressed the ,english people even more than the victories of her soldiers4 ,because the ,navy1 as it is to-day1 is largely the outcome of ,english training and the application of ,english ideas4 ,in the first instance ,japan borrowed from the ,british ,government the services of some of its best naval officers to develop the ,japanese ,navy4 ,a naval college was established in the capital1 modelled on the ,english system of training4 ,a dockyard was also constructed at ,yokosko under ,french guidance4 ,it is1 however1 a mistake to suppose that ,japan had no ,navy or no ambitions in the direction of creating one prior to ,english naval officers being lent to the ,japanese ,government to assist in the reorganisation of the ,navy4 ,the determination to create a fleet on ,european lines was entertained by ,japanese statesmen as far back as the 'fifties1 when the ,european ,powers and the ,united ,states of ,america were bringing pressure to bear on ,japan with a view of obtaining trading facilities and the opening up of the country generally4 ,the ,japanese statesmen of those days were wise enough to see that unless ,japan was to be permanently under the tutelage of the ,european ,powers1 it was necessary for her to construct a fleet and army on ,european lines4 ,soon afterwards a naval school1 under ,dutch instructors1 was established at ,nagasaki1 and a certain number of selected officers and men were sent to ,europe to undergo a course of instruction1 and several war-vessels were ordered from ,holland4 ,in #ahed a two-masted ship was built in ,japan from an ,english model1 and subsequently two others4 ,during the war between ,russia and ,great ,britain a ,russian sloop was wrecked on the ,japanese coast1 and permission was obtained for ,japanese workmen to be employed in the repairs of the vessel1 with a view of giving them an opportunity of gaining some practical knowledge of naval architecture4 ,in #ahee the ,king of ,holland presented a steam corvette to the ,tycoon4 ,in this year the now familiar ,japanese ensign--a red ball on a white ground--was introduced1 and has since remained the national flag4 ,on the arrival of ,lord ,elgin in ,japan on a mission in #aheg a sailing vessel at ,nagasaki was flying the flag of an ,admiral of the ,japanese ,navy4 ,in the same year a steam yacht was presented to the ,tycoon by the late ,queen ,victoria1 and was formally handed over to the ,japanese ,government by ,lord ,elgin4 ,his secretary relates that the yacht got under way1 commanded by a ,japanese captain and manned by ,japanese sailors1 while her machinery was worked by ,japanese engineers4 ,the secretary1 in his account of the incident1 relates that notwithstanding the horizontal cylinders and other latest improvements with which her engines were fitted1 the men had learnt their lesson well1 and were confident in their powers1 and the yacht steamed gallantly through and round the ,fleet1 returning to her anchorage without a hitch4 ,this authoritative statement ought to dispose of the absurd story which has long been a chestnut among the ,english community in ,japan and the ,english naval officers on the ,china station1 that when the old ,confederate ,ram1 the ,stonewall ,jackson1 was purchased in ,america and brought to ,yokohama a somewhat ludicrous incident occurred4 ,according to the story1 which1 ,i may observe1 is one of the ben trovato order1 when steam was got up in the vessel for trial purposes it had to steam round and about ,yokohama ,harbour1 to the great danger of the foreign warships and merchant steamers there1 until the steam was in due course exhausted and the machinery automatically stopped through the lack of any motive power to drive it1 as the ,japanese engineer in charge did not know how to shut off steam4 ,the ,stonewall ,jackson1 ,i may observe1 did not take part in the now almost forgotten battle of ,hakodate1 which took place at the time of the ,revolution1 and may be regarded as the expiring effort of old ,japan to stay the march of events in that country4 ,in the battle of ,hakodate the rebel fleet was totally destroyed1 and the various clans in the country who possessed war-vessels of one kind or other presented them to the central ,government4 ,these vessels1 it must be confessed1 were not of much1 if any1 utility in the direction of forming a ,navy1 and ,i am not aware how many of them1 or indeed whether any of them1 were utilised for the purpose of inaugurating that ,navy which has now become world-famous4 ,in #aheh the naval school1 which1 as ,i have already stated1 had been established at ,nagasaki1 was transferred to ,yeddo1 and a few years later the ,japanese ,government determined to obtain the assistance of some ,english naval officers with a view of giving instruction in the school4 ,application was accordingly made to the ,british ,government through the ,minister in ,yeddo1 and the sanction of the ,admiralty having been obtained1 a number of ,english naval officers were selected1 and despatched to ,japan as instructors in the ,yeddo ,naval ,college4 ,amongst these officers1 it may be interesting to state1 was ,admiral ,sir ,a4 ,k4 ,wilson1 ,v4,c41 ,g4,c4,b41 the late ,commander-in-,chief of the ,channel ,fleet4 ,in the year #ahgc a number of other naval officers were sent out from ,england1 the previous staff having been withdrawn on the outbreak of the ,civil ,war4 ,this staff was in charge of ,admiral ,sir ,a4 ,l4 ,douglas1 till recently ,commander-in-,chief at ,portsmouth1 and for some years subsequently an ,english naval officer was at the head of the instructing staff of the college4 ,japan was fortunate in one respect--in the ,englishmen she entrusted with the evolution of her ,navy4 ,she was fortunate in attracting the men best fitted for the work1 and also in inspiring them with a high conception of their task4 ,some ,englishmen are of opinion that ,japan has somewhat forgotten her obligations in this matter4 ,young ,japan1 they suggest1 desires to forget the influences to which the country mainly owes its present magnificent fleet4 ,that fleet is undoubtedly1 for the most part1 the outcome of ,english conceptions and ,english training4 ,there is one man whose name1 ,i think1 deserves to be recorded in connection therewith4 ,i refer to the late ,lieutenant ,a4 ,g4 ,s4 ,hawes1 of the ,royal ,marine ,light ,infantry1 who left the ,english ,service and worked strenuously1 enthusiastically1 and earnestly to build up the personnel of the ,japanese ,navy in the early 'seventies4 ,there were others whose efforts in the same direction assisted in that consummation1 but ,hawes's services were unique and splendid4 ,he believed in ,japan1 and he threw himself into his work with a zeal and ardour which were beyond praise4 ,his services were dispensed with1 as were those of the other ,english officers and men1 when it was felt that ,japan had learnt sufficient to work out her own destiny as a naval ,power4 ,the labours of these men may not have been adequately recognised at the time1 but their work remains1 and is in evidence to-day4 ,hawes received a decoration from the ,mikado1 and the ,british ,government gave him a consular appointment in some obscure quarter of the globe1 where he died a disappointed man1 fully sensible of the value of the work he had performed and inspired1 a firm believer in the future of ,japan as a great naval ,power1 but disgusted with the non-recognition of his labours4 ,the ,navy of ,japan as it is to-day is a triumph of organisation4 ,discussing a short time ago the question with an ex-officer of the ,mercantile ,marine who had1 by a curious chance1 served as a ,naval ,reserve officer in both the ,english and ,japanese ,navies1 he explained to me the wonderful progress of the latter by pointing out that it had been1 as it were1 called instantaneously into existence4 ,the ,japanese ,navy1 he observed1 had no past and no traditions to hamper its development2 its officers and administrators had only one desire--to get the best of everything in modern naval science from anywhere4 ,there was no cult of seamanship1 no dead wall of prejudice to trammel modern naval developments4 ,there was no prejudice at the ,japanese ,admiralty against anything--save stagnation4 ,progress was the keynote and watchword of the ,japanese ,navy4 ,my friend assured me that it was1 as regards equipment1 organisation1 and general efficiency1 the finest fighting force the world has ever seen4 ,so far as my own knowledge of the matter goes1 and so far as ,i am competent to express an opinion on the subject1 ,i fully endorse these observations4 ,a visit to a ,japanese vessel-of-war1 however perfunctory the knowledge of the visitor may be on matters naval1 very soon convinces him of the fact that the ,japanese naval officers and men are filled not only with ardour but enthusiasm for their profession1 that efficiency and proficiency are the watchwords1 and that the desire of every one connected with the ,navy1 from the ,admiral downwards1 is to maintain the personnel and materiel of the ,fleet in the highest possible condition of efficiency4 ,if1 as some ,englishmen imagine is the case1 there is a tendency on the part of young ,japan to be oblivious of the fact that the ,navy of the country is greatly indebted for its present state of efficiency to the zeal and efforts of ,english naval officers in its early days1 there is no question that the feeling of the officers and men of the ,japanese ,navy to their ,english comrades is of a very hearty nature4 ,the formal alliance with ,great ,britain was highly popular in the ,japanese ,fleet1 and ,i have never heard any officer connected therewith speak in any but the highest and most cordial terms of their ,english confrres4 ,it is not1 ,i think1 necessary for me to refer to the deeds of and the work done by the ,japanese ,navy in the course of the war with ,russia2 very much the same remarks that ,i have made in regard to the ,army apply here4 ,nothing was lost sight of or omitted that could in the slightest degree tend to ensure or secure success4 ,everything seems to have been foreseen4 ,nothing was left to chance4 ,the results were precisely what might have been expected1 and what indeed were expected1 by those who had an intimate knowledge of the manner in which the ,japanese ,navy was organised for war4 ,i regard it especially in alliance with the ,english ,fleet1 as one of the greatest safeguards for the peace of the world4 ,i trust the alliance between this country and ,japan may be of a permanent nature4 ,i may remark in respect of the ,fleet1 as ,i have of the ,army1 that ,japan has no unworthy ambitions4 ,her desire is to conserve what she possesses and to render her ,island ,empire secure from invasion or molestation4 ,closely connected with the development of ,japan's ,navy is that of her ,mercantile ,marine4 ,a few words in regard to it may therefore not be out of place here4 ,the insular position and the mountainous condition of the country1 as well as its extent of seaboard1 early impressed on the makers of new ,japan the necessity for creating not only a great mercantile fleet but also for developing the shipbuilding industry4 ,both these ambitions have been largely realised4 ,at first their consummation was attended with many difficulties4 ,the ,japanese1 as ,i have already remarked in this book1 were many centuries ago enterprising sailors1 but when the country was closed voyages of discovery or trade automatically came to an end4 ,with the awakening of ,japan a change immediately took place1 and steps were taken to create and develop the ,mercantile ,marine4 ,a ,japanese gentleman1 ,mr4 ,iwasaki1 in #ahgb started a line of steamers1 subsidised by the ,government1 the well-known ,mitsu ,bishi ,company4 ,shortly afterwards another company was formed to compete against it4 ,this line was also subsidised by the ,government1 but as the rivalry did not prove profitable to either the two lines were amalgamated in #ahhe under the title of ,nippon ,yusen ,kaisha4 ,since then a number of other shipping companies have been formed in ,japan1 and the ,nippon ,yusen ,kaisha has largely extended its operations1 opening up communication with ,bombay1 ,england1 and the ,continent1 ,melbourne1 c4 ,in fact1 the ,japanese flag is now seen in many parts of the world1 while the ,japanese ,mercantile ,marine has advanced by leaps and bounds1 and is still annually increasing4 ,at the end of #aijd there were about #bdj steamers flying the ,japanese flag1 with a gross tonnage of over #gij1jjj4 ,japan now ranks high among the maritime nations of the world1 and her position therein1 unless ,i am very much mistaken1 will still further advance in the years to come4 ,there are1 ,i know1 a great number of worthy people1 both in this country and ,japan1 who regard the expenditure on an ,army and ,navy as entirely unproductive1 and look forward to the halcyon days when all such expenditure shall cease and the taxation now devoted to these purposes shall be diverted to more worthy objects4 ,i am afraid1 as the world is at present constituted1 there is no prospect of such a1 in some respects1 desirable consummation being effected4 ,nowadays the most effective means a nation can possess in the direction of the maintenance and enjoyment of peace is to be well prepared for war4 ,that is a fact of which ,i am sure the men responsible for the government of ,japan are firmly convinced2 and ,i believe they are right4 ,i am certain1 as ,i have said before1 that the world has nothing to fear from the armed strength of ,japan by land or sea4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,,japanese ,,art--,,introductory--,,lacquer ,,ware1 ,,pottery ,,and ,,porcelain ,japanese art is a subject which invites exhaustive treatment4 ,to deal with it adequately in two or three chapters of a general work on ,japan is obviously impossible4 ,still it is1 ,i think1 possible1 within the limits at my disposal1 to give my readers some conception of that art to which ,japan is so greatly indebted for the extraordinary way in which she has impressed the world4 ,the art of ,japan is in a sense unique1 and it may be that to some extent the ,japanese atmosphere1 so to speak1 is essential in order to fully appreciate it4 ,mr4 ,chamberlain1 in his ,things ,japanese1 has observed that ,to show a really fine piece of lacquer to one of the uncultivated natives of ,europe or ,america is1 as the ,japanese proverb says1 like giving guineas to a cat4 ,much the same remark might1 however1 be made in reference to the art products of any country4 ,be that as it may1 the ,japanese people are now largely dependent on the foreigner for art patronage4 ,it may be that this has resulted in art-artisans abandoning their old standard and devoting themselves to the manufacture of whatever pays best1 prostituting the spirit of art to the promptings of gain1 and compelling the native to cater for foreign taste rather than to adhere to ,japanese canons of art4 ,i am afraid that the commercial spirit is fatal to art of any kind4 ,the true artist1 like the poet1 in an ideal state of existence would only work under inspiration1 but1 unfortunately1 the artist1 like the poet1 is daily faced by that necessity which knows no law and demands the subsistence of the body as an essential for work of any kind4 ,perhaps some of my readers might desire a definition of art4 ,there are1 ,i know1 people in this world who can never approach the consideration of or deal with any subject unless the subject itself and every term in connection therewith is precisely defined4 ,in reference to ,japanese art ,i am inclined to employ the words of ,mr4 ,walter ,crane in opening1 many years ago1 the annual exhibition of the ,arts and ,crafts ,society4 ,he remarked3 ,the true root and basis of all art lies in the handicrafts4 ,if there is no room or chance of recognition for really artistic power and feeling in design and craftsmanship--if art is not recognised in the humblest object and material1 and felt to be as valuable1 in its own way1 as the more highly rewarded pictorial skill--the art cannot be in a sound condition4 ,and if artists cease to be found among the crafts1 there is great danger that they will vanish from the arts also1 and become manufacturers and salesmen instead4 ,japanese art is unquestionably of that kind which requires a certain educational process4 ,it does not1 for instance1 at once appeal to that vague entity the man in the street4 ,there is a grotesqueness about some of it1 a lack of perspective in much of it1 which is caviare to a large number of persons4 ,this much1 however1 can be said about ,japanese art--that it is original4 ,it is almost altogether the outcome of the artistic instincts of the people4 ,undoubtedly it has been to a large extent influenced by ,buddhism1 and1 as we have seen1 ,buddhism is a foreign religion2 but at the same time ,i think it may fairly be asserted that1 though the ,buddhist religion may have influenced and utilised ,japanese art1 it has never killed1 or indeed affected to any degree1 what ,i may term the individualistic artistic instincts of the nation4 ,japanese art requires to be closely studied4 ,it is something that grows upon one1 and the closer it is studied the greater its influence4 ,to me one of its most pleasing features is what ,i have termed in the ,preface its catholicity4 ,it is not1 as art is in so many ,european countries1 the cult of a few1 a sort of ,eleusynian mystery into which a select number of persons have been initiated4 ,it has1 on the contrary1 permeated1 and exercised an influence upon1 the whole nation1 and been employed for even the most humble purposes4 ,it is for this reason that1 as ,i have previously observed1 ,i am of opinion the ,japanese may be considered and described as the most artistic people in the world4 ,i have referred to the grotesqueness and lack of perspective incidental to some descriptions of ,japanese art4 ,it certainly neglects chiaroscuro and linear perspective1 and it displays an entire lack of form knowledge4 ,the human figure and face have apparently never been studied at all4 ,the colouring is frequently splendid1 while the figures are for the most part anatomically incorrect4 ,one would think that ,japanese artists had never seen their own or any other human bodies4 ,a rigid adherence to conventionality is1 in my opinion1 a defect of all ,japanese art4 ,by conventionality ,i do not1 of course1 mean what ,i may term the individuality of the art itself1 but the fact that ,japanese artists have felt themselves largely bound by the traditions of their art to treat the human and other figures not in accordance with nature1 but altogether in accordance with the conventions of that art1 and to entirely ignore perspective4 ,i am quite aware that some enthusiastic lovers of things ,japanese admire1 or affect to admire1 these defects4 ,they have been described as a protest against the too rigid rules exacted in ,western art4 ,i suggest1 however1 that art in its highest form should seek to be true to nature1 and in so far as ,japanese art fails in this respect it is1 ,i think1 defective4 ,at the same time ,i cordially admit that its defects are more than compensated by its splendid workmanship1 its gorgeous colouring1 and its striking originality4 ,it was only about forty or fifty years ago that ,japanese art became known to any extent in ,europe4 ,certainly the ,portuguese missionaries introduced by ,francis ,xavier and the traders in the ,dutch factory at ,nagasaki were in the habit of exporting a few articles to ,europe1 chiefly porcelain ware made to order4 ,i fear both missionaries and merchants regarded ,japanese art1 as we now know it1 as barbaric1 and never in the slightest degree realised either its beauties or its originality4 ,neither they nor the many millions of art-lovers in ,europe dreamt that ,japan was a country where art was universal1 not esoteric--an art with schools1 traditions1 masters1 and masterpieces4 ,probably the ,paris ,exhibition of #ahfg1 to which the ,prince of ,satsuma sent a collection of ,japanese artistic treasures1 was the occasion when the true inwardness of ,japanese art burst upon the ,western world as a whole4 ,it was a veritable revelation4 ,it at once aroused enthusiasm and curiosity1 and ,i fear cupidity1 among ,european artists and art collectors4 ,europe was awakened to the possibilities of ,japan as an art nation1 and ,japan1 failing to realise or properly appreciate the artistic accumulated wealth it possessed1 commenced to part with it in a truly reckless manner4 ,the depletion of the art treasures of the country commenced about this time1 and though that depletion has been largely arrested1 it is nevertheless still1 to some extent1 going on4 ,japanese art1 as it has come under the cognisance of a foreigner1 may be considered in connection with four or five purposes to which it has been employed or adapted4 ,first amongst these ,i place lacquer1 next pottery and porcelain1 then carving in wood and iron1 metal-work and painting4 ,the lacquer industry has been in existence in ,japan so long as we have any authoritative history of the country4 ,if any credence is to be given to tradition1 long before the ,christian era there was an official whose sole duty it was to superintend the production of lacquer for the ,imperial ,court1 and specimens over a thousand years old1 though rare1 still exist4 ,the process of lacquering is a somewhat intricate one1 and varies1 of course1 in accordance with the time and labour spent on the article to be lacquered1 and the cost of the same4 ,after the article has been carefully made from specially selected wood--in the case of the choicest specimens of lacquer work this is usually a pine-wood of fine grain--it is first coated with a preparation composed of clay and varnish1 which1 after being permitted to dry1 is smoothed down with a whetstone4 ,when this operation has been concluded1 the article proposed to be lacquered is covered with some substance1 either silk1 cloth1 or paper4 ,it is then given from one to five coats of the foregoing mixture1 each coat being permitted to dry before the next is applied4 ,after this has been effected1 the whetstone is again employed with a view of obtaining a perfectly smooth surface when the lacquering proper commences4 ,this may be a perfunctory or it may be a very complicated operation1 according to the value of the article1 layer after layer of the varnish--from one to fifty coats--being laid upon the material at intervals4 ,after the final coat has been applied1 the smoothing process commences4 ,the whole of these operations are1 however1 only the preliminaries to the scheme of decoration1 which is often very elaborate4 ,the dusts of powders used for this purpose are of various kinds and of varying cost4 ,when the ornamentation which often consists in colouring the groundwork with particles of gold dust has been completed1 sometimes as many as a dozen coatings of transparent lacquer are imposed upon the same4 ,the art of lacquering in ,japan dates back at least #a1bjj or #a1cjj years1 and tradition assigns it a period more ancient still4 ,there are1 however1 few if any articles of lacquer ware now in the country1 whose origin can be traced back so many years4 ,at any rate1 there is no satisfactory evidence in regard to the antiquity of any specimens of lacquer ware dating back more than seven or eight centuries4 ,in old ,japan the manufacturer of lacquer work was intimately associated with the domestic life of the upper classes4 ,griffis tells us that nearly every ,daimio had his ,court lacquerer1 and that a set of household furniture and toilet utensils was part of the dowry of a noble lady4 ,on the birth of a daughter1 he relates1 it was common for the lacquer artist to begin the making of a mirror case1 a washing bowl1 a cabinet1 a clothes rack1 or a chest of drawers1 often occupying from one to five whole years on a single article4 ,an inro1 or pill-box1 might require several years for perfection1 though small enough to go into a fob4 ,by the time the young lady was marriageable1 her outfit of lacquer was superb4 ,the names of many of the great lacquer artists of ,japan are still venerated4 ,the masterpieces of ,hoyami ,koyetsu who flourished in the sixteenth century1 are still1 though rare1 procurable4 ,japan numbers on her roll of fame twenty-eight great lacquer artists4 ,there have1 of course1 been many hundreds1 and indeed thousands1 in the past centuries whose work was superb1 but the twenty-eight are deemed to be the immortals of this particular art4 ,one of these great men1 ,ogawa ,ritsuo1 is famous for the number and variety of the materials--mother-of-pearl1 coral1 tortoise-shell1 c4 c41 he used in his work4 ,a profuse richness is its chief characteristic4 ,one of his pupils imitated in his work various materials--pottery and wood-carving1 and bronzes4 ,the last famous artist in lacquer1 ,watanobe ,tosu1 died about thirty years ago4 ,whether he is destined to have a successor or successors remains to be seen4 ,these lacquer artists1 as ,i have indicated1 worked not for lucre1 but for love4 ,attached to some ,daimios household1 they devoted their lives1 their energies1 their imagination1 their artistic instincts to the devising of splendid work and the making of beautiful1 ingenious1 absolutely artistic and1 at the same time1 entirely useful articles4 ,it is impossible within the space at my disposal to deal in detail with the large variety of lacquer work produced in ,japan with the various kinds of lacquer1 or with what ,i may term the artistic idiosyncrasies of ,japanese lacquer work4 ,one can now hardly believe that until the opening up of ,japan half a century or so ago1 few specimens of lacquer found their way to ,europe1 although ,japanese porcelain had been largely imported and was highly prized4 ,even at the present time ,i do not think that the artistic beauties of ,japanese lacquer work have been appreciated in this country to anything like the extent they deserve to be4 ,i have heard people remark1 for example1 that they failed to understand the perpetual reproduction of the great snow-covered mountain ,fusi-,yama in ,japanese designs1 while they could see nothing in these storks1 bewildering landscapes1 and grotesque figures4 ,perhaps the best explanation of the constant appearance of ,fusi-,yama in all ,japanese work is that which ,de ,fonblanque gives4 ,he says3 ,if there is one sentiment universal amongst all ,japanese1 it is a deep and earnest reverence for their sacred mountain4 ,it is their ideal of the beautiful in nature1 and they never tire of admiring1 glorifying1 and reproducing it4 ,it is painted1 embossed1 carved1 engraved1 modelled in all their wares4 ,the mass of the people regard it not only as the shrine of their dearest gods1 but the certain panacea for their worst evils1 from impending bankruptcy or cutaneous diseases to unrequited love or ill-luck at play4 ,it is annually visited by thousands and thousands of pilgrims4 ,the ,japanese artist in constantly reproducing ,fusi-,yama has merely voiced national sentiment and feeling4 ,illustration3 ,,view ,,of ,,fusi-,,yama ,,from ,a ,,tea ,,house ,,from ,a ,,print ,,by ,,hiroshige ,the substance applied to wood to produce what is called lacquer1 is not what is generally known in ,england as varnish4 ,it is really the sap of the rhus vernicifera which contains1 among other ingredients1 about #c per cent4 of a gum soluble in water4 ,it has to undergo various refining processes before being mixed with the colouring matter1 while the greatest care is exercised throughout with a view of obviating the possibility of dust or any other foreign matter finding its way into the mixture4 ,the fine polish usually seen on lacquer work is not actually the result of the composition applied1 but is produced by incessant polishing4 ,the lacquered articles in old ,japan were used for various purposes--mirror cases1 fans1 letter-carriers1 the inro1 which was at one time a necessary part of every ,japanese gentleman's attire2 it was secured to the sash1 and utilised to hold medicine powders1 for perfumes1 as a seal-box1 c41 seals being at one time1 as indeed they are to some extent still1 in use in place of a signature4 ,but the amount of ancient lacquer ware now in ,japan1 or1 indeed1 of artistic articles made solely for use and not merely to sell1 is1 as ,i have said1 small4 ,european collectors have denuded the country2 the treasures of the ,daimios1 which were almost recklessly sold when they were disestablished1 and to a large extent disendowed1 have been distributed all over the globe1 and a large quantity1 perhaps the largest quantity1 of the lacquer work now made in the country is manufactured solely for the purpose of being sold as curios either at home or abroad4 ,that this fact has largely lowered the artistic ideals and debased the artistic taste in ,japan appears to be the general opinion4 ,much of the present-day work of ,japan in lacquer1 as in other articles1 is certainly to my mind artistic and beautiful in the extreme1 but obviously1 men working almost against time to turn out curios1 for which there is a persistent demand on the part of visitors who are not always by temperament or training fitted to appreciate the artistic or the beautiful1 are unlikely to produce such fine or original work as the artisan of old leisurely employed at his craft and pluming himself1 not on the amount of his earnings or the extent of his output1 but on the quality and artistic merits of his work4 ,next to lacquer in importance amongst the ,japanese arts1 ,i think1 comes ceramic ware1 which has long had a great vogue in ,europe1 and indeed was highly prized here many years before the artistic skill of the ,japanese in lacquer was generally known4 ,that decorative art1 as expressed in the pottery and porcelain of ,japan1 has been largely influenced by ,china and ,korea seems to be unquestionable4 ,the ,japanese have nevertheless imparted to it a peculiar charm of their own1 the outcome of originality in ideas1 while the art has1 through many centuries1 been fortunate enough to have been fostered and encouraged by the great and powerful of the land4 ,as a people the ,japanese are entirely free from anything that savours of ostentation1 and this fact is emphasised in their art just as it is in their homes4 ,the charm of the ceramic ware of ,japan1 in my opinion1 consists in the beauty of its colouring rather than in its figuring4 ,this ceramic ware1 as my readers probably know1 differs greatly in appearance1 quality1 and1 ,i may add1 in price according to the particular part of the country in which it is produced4 ,it is not necessary to be an art connoisseur to grasp the fact that1 say1 the famous ,satsuma ware is distinct in almost every respect from that of ,imari1 ,kaga1 ,ise1 ,raku1 ,kyoto1 c4 ,all these different wares have charms peculiar to each4 ,it is really marvellous to think that a country with such a comparatively small area as ,japan should have produced so many different kinds of ceramic ware1 each possessing distinct and pronounced characteristics1 and having indeed little affinity with each other save in regard to the general excellence of the workmanship and the artistic completeness of the whole4 ,as ,i have said1 both ,korea and ,china have had a marked influence on the manufacture of pottery and porcelain in ,japan4 ,korean potters appear to have settled there prior to the ,christian era1 and to have imparted to the ,japanese the first rudiments of knowledge in regard to working in clay1 but the development of the process was greatly due to ,chinese influences4 ,during the thirteenth century1 one ,toshiro paid a visit to ,china1 where he exhaustively studied everything relating to the potter's art4 ,on his return to his own country he introduced great improvements1 both in manufacture and decoration1 and made1 it is believed1 for the first time1 glazed pottery4 ,soon afterwards household utensils of lacquer began to go out of use1 being replaced by those made of clay1 and a great impetus was accordingly given to the trade of the potter4 ,tea1 which is believed to have been introduced into ,japan from ,china in the year #hjj does not appear to have come into general use till the sixteenth century4 ,the tea ceremonies known as the ,cha-no-yu came into vogue about the same time1 and undoubtedly had an immense influence on the ceramic art4 ,the articles used in the tea ceremonies included an iron kettle resting on a stand2 a table or stand of mulberry wood #b feet high2 two tea-jars containing the tea2 a vessel containing fresh water2 a tea-bowl4 ,it is not my purpose to describe the many interesting details of these tea ceremonies4 ,suffice it to observe that they gave a great impetus to the manufacture of costly and elaborate china4 ,the leaders of society1 as we should term them1 who took part in these ceremonies exercised a judicious and enlightened patronage of the ceramic art4 ,they encouraged rising talent1 and welcomed new developments4 ,there can1 ,i think1 be no doubt that ,japan1 in an artistic sense1 owes much to the frequenters of these tea ceremonies4 ,tea-jars and tea-bowls especially became1 under the patronage and guidance of these men1 choice works of art1 and were bestowed by the great and powerful on their friends1 by whom they were greatly cherished and handed down as heirlooms4 ,some of these treasures still remain in the country1 a large number have been purchased by art connoisseurs and taken to various parts of the world1 while many1 of course1 have from various causes perished4 ,under the conditions of life which obtained in old ,japan the ceramic art reached a pitch of excellence1 not to say glory1 which it is never likely to attain either in ,japan or elsewhere4 ,it was emphatically a period of art for art's sake4 ,the patronage1 if ,i may use a word perhaps not strictly accurate1 of the great artists of those days was exercised in such a manner as to enable them to employ all their talents1 artistic ideals1 and enthusiasm in the direction of producing masterpieces of their craft4 ,the secrets of porcelain manufacture are believed to have been brought to ,japan from ,china about the beginning of the sixteenth century4 ,in the year #aeac1 ,gorodayu1 ,shonsui1 of ,ise1 returned from ,china and settled in ,arita1 in the province of ,hizen1 which at once became and still remains the headquarters of the famous ,imari ware4 ,the porcelain produced here is chiefly1 but not altogether1 the blue and white combination1 but ,arita also makes porcelain ware decorated in various colours and exceedingly ornate in appearance4 ,it is1 however1 stated that this ornate ,imari ware was first made for exportation to ,china to supply the ,portuguese market at ,macao1 and that it was afterwards fostered by the ,dutch at ,nagasaki1 whose exportations of the ware to ,europe were on a considerable scale4 ,this peculiar style of decoration is believed to have been due to the demands of the ,dutch1 whose patrons in ,europe would have none other4 ,one remark ,i may make in this connection1 viz41 that those enormous vases and other similar articles of ,japanese ware which have long been so greatly prized in ,europe1 and many of which are magnificent specimens of decorative art1 are not1 in one sense1 characteristically ,japanese4 ,the ,japanese has always1 if ,i may so express it1 used art as the handmaiden of utilitarianism4 ,every article intended for the ,japanese home had to be not merely a thing of beauty but a thing for use4 ,it never entered the minds of the ,japanese to hang beautiful specimens of their porcelain ware on their walls1 or what did duty for walls1 to collect dust4 ,they used vases certainly of a moderate size to hold flowers1 tea-pots and tea-cups for the purpose of making and drinking tea1 water-bottles and various other articles for domestic use2 everything in fact was1 as ,i have said1 designed not only from an artistic but a utilitarian standpoint1 and hence it is1 ,i think1 that art1 as ,i have already remarked1 has permeated the whole people4 ,even in the poorest house in ,japan it is possible to see1 in the ordinary articles in domestic use1 some attempt at art1 and1 ,i may add1 some appreciation of it on the part of the users of those articles4 ,in my opinion when art is not applied to articles of general utility but is confined to articles not intended for use1 art becomes1 as is largely the case in this country1 either the cult of a class or the affectation of a class1 and its beauties and inward meaning cease to have any effect upon1 just because they are not understood by1 the great mass of the people4 ,satsuma ware is probably the most widely known1 and the most esteemed among foreigners1 of ,japanese porcelain4 ,its soft1 cream-like colour is now known in every part of the world1 while the delicate colour decorations imposed upon the cream-like background1 certainly give a most effective appearance4 ,i question however whether1 from a purely artistic standpoint1 ,satsuma is worthy of being compared with many of the other porcelains in ,japan4 ,much of it as seen in ,europe was specially made for ,europe1 and having been so is1 ,i suggest1 not in the true sense artistic4 ,as a matter of fact ,satsuma ware was introduced from ,korea1 and was made in the first instance solely for the use of the ,prince of ,satsuma and his friends4 ,the kilns were originally built on ,korean models1 and the potters in ,satsuma remained a class apart1 not being allowed to marry with the outside world4 ,kaga ware is well known to all art connoisseurs4 ,this porcelain is rare4 ,the masters of the art of ,kaga ware1 with its exquisite colouring and elaborate ornamentation in gold and silver1 have left no successors1 while their output was small4 ,the ware is of course still made1 and as the clay of the district is of a dark red colour1 the ware has a uniform tint4 ,bizen ware reached the apotheosis of its perfection just before the ,revolution4 ,it is made in the province of ,bizen4 ,the better kind is made of a white or light bluish clay1 and well baked in order to receive the red-brown colour1 whereas the commoner kind is of a red clay4 ,the various ,kyoto wares are remarkable for their quaint forms1 and some of them are highly prized4 ,it would1 of course1 be impossible for me to attempt in detail a description of the other very numerous ceramic wares of ,japan4 ,undoubtedly1 as ,i have said1 ,satsuma is the most popular with ,europeans1 but it is not1 and ,i do not think it deserves to be1 the most highly prized by art connoisseurs4 ,the ceramic wares of ,japan may be classified under three headings3 7#a7 ,pottery1 ornamented by scoring and glazing2 7#b7 ,a cream-coloured faience with a glaze often crackled and delicately painted2 7#c7 ,hard porcelain4 ,under the first of these classifications may be included ,bizen1 ,seto1 ,raku1 and some other wares4 ,under the second ,i place ,satsuma and some less important similar products4 ,among the porcelains the most famous are those of ,kutania1 ,hizen1 and ,kyoto4 ,in regard to decorations1 the ,japanese have utilised the seven gods of good fortune1 many landscapes1 a few of the domestic animals--the dragon1 phoenix1 an animal with the body and hoofs of a deer1 the tail of a bull1 and with a horn on its forehead1 a monster lion1 and the sacred tortoise4 ,trees1 plants1 grasses1 and flowers of various kinds1 and some of the badges in ,japanese heraldry are also largely made use of4 ,however grotesque some of these objects may be1 or however grotesque the representations of animals and even landscapes may be1 no one who has closely studied it can deny the fact that the effect of ,japanese decorative art as applied to the ceramic ware of the country is1 on the whole1 magnificent4 ,the more one studies it the more impressed one is with its marvellous beauty and the originality which has been brought to bear upon it4 ,i defy any man or woman1 who possesses the artistic sensibilities1 even in a latent degree1 to visit a gallery containing the masterpieces of ,japanese ceramic art1 closely study them in all their details1 and minutely examine the attention which the artist has given to even the smallest of those details without being impressed by its power4 ,it is1 ,i consider1 a liberal education to any person who has the slightest prepossession for art to wander through such a gallery and admire the masterpieces of these wonderful art-workers of ,japan4 ,the demand for the various art products of ,japan in both ,europe and ,america has had its perhaps inevitable result in not only the manufacture of articles simply and solely for the foreign market1 but in the what ,i may term faking of modern to represent ancient art productions4 ,old ,satsuma1 for example1 is a case in point4 ,the genuine old ,satsuma ware1 by constant use1 obtained1 like meerschaum1 a delightful tint4 ,modern ,satsuma is comparatively white1 and so1 in order to pander to the taste of the ,european collector of the ancient article1 the modern is stained to the required shade4 ,the article itself is genuine1 and indeed beautiful1 but this faking of it to meet ,european and ,american tastes is one of the results1 ,i fear1 of ,western influences4 ,what the precise effect of ,european influences may be on the old porcelain art of ,japan it is impossible to say4 ,so far as ,i am concerned1 ,i have no hesitation in expressing my own opinion that it will not be a healthy influence4 ,art for art's sake is1 ,i admit1 difficult when the plutocrats of the ,west1 with a craze or a fad for ,eastern art1 are pouring out their wealth in order to obtain specimens thereof4 ,demand usually induces supply1 and the ,japanese artisan of to-day would be more than human did he not respond to the demand of the ,west for ,old ,satsuma and other specimens of the artistic treasures in pottery and porcelain of ,japan4 ,the spirit of commercialism is1 as ,i have said before1 fatal to art4 ,if the artist is forced to work quickly and cheaply he quite evidently cannot bring his individuality into play4 ,he must transform his studio into a workshop1 and ponder only1 or chiefly1 upon the possibility of his output4 ,i have been much struck in this connection with the remarks of a writer in regard to orders for art work sent from ,new ,york to ,japan4 ,i can remember1 he said1 one of our great ,new ,york dealers marking on his samples the colours that pleased most of his buyers1 who themselves were to place the goods4 ,all other colours or patterns were tabooed in his instructions to the makers in ,japan4 ,this was the rude mechanism of the change1 the coming down to the worst public taste1 which must be that of the greatest number at any time4 ,illustration3 ,,kutani ,,earthenware1 ,,decorated ,,with ,,polychrome ,,enamels ,,early ,,eighteenth ,,century ,illustration3 ,,incense ,,burner ,,awata ,,fayence4 ,,eighteenth ,,century ,as regards the modern porcelain of ,japan ,i need say but little4 ,originality is apparently dead1 and the makers of to-day are content to copy the past4 ,no doubt the purely mechanical processes of manufacture have been greatly improved1 and much1 if not most1 of the modern ceramic ware of ,japan is extremely beautiful4 ,at the same time some of it1 especially that which is made solely for the foreign market1 is to my mind neither artistic nor beautiful4 ,it is decorated1 if ,i may use such a term1 in most of the colours of the rainbow1 and rendered more gaudy still by a plethora of very poor gilding4 ,there is in ,japan a certain school of progressive ideas in reference to the art of the country4 ,this school is of opinion that ,japanese art should not1 so to speak1 remain stereotyped1 but that it should assimilate and adapt and apply all that is good and beautiful in ,western art4 ,the objects that this school has in view are no doubt laudable1 but ,i confess ,i hope with all my heart that those objects will fail of accomplishment4 ,there has been already far too much ,europeanising of ,japanese art1 and the result1 so far as ,i have been able to judge1 is not encouraging in respect of any further advance or development in that direction4 ,japanese art1 and especially the ceramic art1 possesses1 as ,i have before said1 an individuality which can only be spoiled1 even if it be not destroyed1 by adding on to or mixing up with it the totally distinct art and art methods of ,western civilisation4 ,were this done it would become a bastard or a mongrel art1 and1 as history affords abundant evidence1 would in due course lapse into a condition of utter decadence4 ,quite a volume might be written on the subject of marks on ,japanese pottery and porcelain4 ,these have long interested and frequently misled the collector4 ,they are of various kinds4 ,sometimes there is a mark signifying the reign or part of the reign of an emperor1 or the name of a place at which the article was made1 or1 more frequently still1 the name of the particular potter whose handicraft it was4 ,sometimes ,chinese dates are found impressed on the article without any regard to chronological correctness4 ,indeed1 ,chinese dates are to be found on ,japanese porcelain indicating a period long anterior to that in which the manufacture of porcelain was known in ,japan4 ,these spurious dates have proved pitfalls for collectors4 ,the mark is sometimes impressed with a seal or painted2 occasionally it is merely scratched4 ,the investigation of these marks is a recondite study assuredly full of interest1 but1 as ,i have said1 prolific in pitfalls for the unwary or the too-credulous4 ,,chapter ,,xii ,,japanese ,,art 7continued7--,,sculpture--,,metal ,,work--,,painting ,probably of all the ,japanese arts there is none more interesting or instructive than that of sculpture in wood and ivory4 ,the sculpture of ,japan undoubtedly had its origin in the service of the ,buddhist religion4 ,that religion1 as ,i have attempted to show1 has always utilised art in the decoration of its temples and shrines as well as in the perpetuation of the image of ,buddha himself4 ,at the beginning of the seventeenth century an edict was promulgated directing that every house should contain a representation of ,buddha1 and1 as the result of this1 the sculpture trade received a considerable impetus4 ,tobacco was introduced into the country in the same century1 and the smoking thereof soon came greatly into vogue among the ,japanese people4 ,tobacco necessitated a pouch or bag to contain the same1 and this in turn induced or produced the manufacture of something wherewith to attach the bag to the girdle4 ,hence the evolution of the netsuk1 now as famous in ,europe as in ,japan4 ,the carving of netsuks developed into a very high art2 indeed1 there is perhaps no branch of ,japanese art which has aroused more enthusiasm among foreign collectors and connoisseurs4 ,quite recently ,i attended a sale of netsuks in ,london at which the bidding was both fast and furious1 while the prices realised were enormous4 ,the netsuk1 strictly speaking1 was the toggle attached by a cord to the tobacco pouch1 inro1 or pipe of the ,japanese man1 with the object of preventing the article slipping through the girdle or sash1 but the word has been more loosely employed by foreigners until1 in popular parlance1 it has come to embrace all small carvings4 ,netsuks were nearly always representations of the human figure1 and various reasons have been advanced to account for this fact4 ,i need not consider those reasons in these pages1 as they1 as well as the arguments by which they are attempted to be supported1 are almost entirely speculative4 ,the distinguishing characteristic of the true netsuk is two holes admitting of a string being run through them4 ,these holes were often concealed behind the limbs of the figure4 ,the material of which netsuks were made varied1 and consisted of ivory1 wood horns1 fish-bones1 and stones of various kinds4 ,those made of wood are undoubtedly the most ancient1 ivory being of comparatively recent importation into ,japan4 ,nevertheless1 the netsuks made of ivory now command the highest price4 ,the names of many of the great netsuk-makers are still famous1 and much of their work is certainly artistic and beautiful to a degree4 ,i am afraid that in the collecting of netsuks many ,european lovers of ,japanese art have burnt their fingers4 ,the genuine old artistic productions are now extremely rare1 but a brisk trade has sprung up in reproductions which are skilfully coloured to give them the appearance of age4 ,the netsuk1 ,i must reiterate1 was an almost indispensable adjunct to the costume of every ,japanese man1 and it was1 accordingly1 made for use and not for ornament alone4 ,of late years wood and ivory sculpture in ,japan has largely degenerated and deteriorated owing to the output of articles not of utility1 but made for the foreign market--curios1 in fact4 ,no one who has visited ,japan can have failed of being impressed by those gigantic statues of ,buddha which have been erected in different parts of the country4 ,the largest and best known is the ,dai ,butsu1 at ,kamakura1 a few miles from ,yokohama4 ,the height of this great statue is nearly #ej feet1 in circumference it is #ig feet4 ,the length of the face is #h feet #e inches1 the width of mouth #c feet #b inches1 and it has been asserted--though ,i do not guarantee the accuracy of the calculation--that there are #hcj curls upon the head1 each curl #i inches long4 ,the statue is composed of layers of bronze brazed together4 ,it is hollow1 and persons can ascend by a ladder into the interior4 ,the ,dai ,butsu at ,nara is taller than the one at ,kamakura4 ,it is dissimilar to most of the others in the country in having a black face of a somewhat ,african type4 ,this image is stated to have been erected in the year #gej ,a4,d41 and the head has1 ,i believe1 been replaced several times4 ,in the ,kamakura ,dai ,butsu both hands rest upon the knees1 while in the one at ,nara the right arm is extended upward with the palm of the hand placed to the front4 ,the statue at ,nara is made of bronze which is stated to be composed of gold #ejj1 mercury #a1iej1 tin #af1hbg1 and copper #ihf1jhj lbs41 the total weight of the statue being about #dhj tons4 ,nearly all the ,dai ,butsus in the country are of ancient workmanship4 ,there is a modern one constructed of wood erected in the year #ahjj at ,kyoto1 #fj feet high4 ,as a work of art it has1 however1 no pretensions1 which rest entirely upon its size4 ,criticisms in regard to the artistic merits of these immense images have been numerous and by no means unanimous4 ,to my mind they are superb specimens of the work of the old metallurgists of ,japan1 and they are1 moreover1 deeply interesting as indicative of the ideas of their designers in regard to the expression of placid repose of ,nirvana4 ,mr4 ,basil ,chamberlain has appositely remarked in reference to the great statue at ,kamakura3 ,no other gives such an impression of majesty or so truly symbolises the central idea of ,buddhism1 the intellectual calm which comes of perfected knowledge and the subjugation of all passion4 ,and ,lafcadio ,hearn1 that learned authority on everything ,japanese1 who has brought into all his writings a poetical feeling which breathes the very spirit of old ,japan1 has observed in regard to the same statue3 ,the gentleness1 the dreamy passionlessness of those features--the immense repose of the whole figure--are full of beauty and charm4 ,and1 contrary to all expectations1 the nearer you approach the giant ,buddha the greater the charm becomes4 ,you look up into the solemnly beautiful face--into the half-closed eyes1 that seem to watch you through their eyelids of bronze as gently as those of a child2 and you feel that the image typifies all that is tender and solemn in the soul of the ,east4 ,yet you feel also that only ,japanese thought could have created it4 ,its beauty1 its dignity1 its perfect repose1 reflect the higher life of the race that imagined it1 and1 though inspired doubtless by some ,indian model1 as the treatment of his hair and various symbolic marks reveal1 the art is ,japanese4 ,so mighty and beautiful is the work that you will for some time fail to notice the magnificent lotus plants of bronze1 fully #ae feet high1 planted before the figure on another side of the great tripod in which incense rods are burning4 ,kaemfer1 writing in the seventeenth century1 remarked of the ,japanese3 ,as to all sorts of handicraft1 they are wanting neither proper materials nor industry and application1 and so far is it that they should have any occasion to send for masters abroad1 that they rather exceed all other nations in ingenuity and neatness of workmanship1 particularly in brass1 gold1 silver1 and copper4 ,in metal work the ,japanese have certainly cultivated art to a high degree4 ,much of that metal work was1 of course1 employed in connection with articles which modern conditions of life in ,japan have rendered absolutely or almost entirely obsolete4 ,the bronze workers of ,japan were and indeed are still famous4 ,their work as displayed in braziers1 incense-holders1 flower-vases1 lanterns1 and various other articles evinces great skill1 while the effects often produced by the artists in the inlaying and overlaying of metals with a view of producing a variegated picture has long been the wonder and admiration of the ,western world4 ,it is almost safe to assert that the finest specimens of work of this kind can never be reproduced4 ,in casting1 too1 there was no lack of skill in old ,japan4 ,the big bell at ,kyoto1 which is #ad feet high by over #i feet in diameter1 is a sufficient object-lesson as to the proficiency attained in casting in bygone days4 ,much of the bronze work of ,japan1 especially in birds and insects1 is to me incomparable4 ,the modern bronze work of the country1 though certainly beautiful1 does not in any respect or any degree approach that of the masters of two or three hundred years ago4 ,in the manipulation of metals and amalgams these men have reached a higher standard of perfection than had previously or has since been attained4 ,the bronze work of ,japan is not1 in my opinion1 as generally appreciated as it deserves to be4 ,there is1 ,i think1 nothing of the same kind in the world to be compared with it when it was at its best4 ,like much of the other art of ,japan modern conditions are1 as ,i have said1 not conducive either to its progress or development4 ,still1 there is no lack of skill in this particular branch of art in ,japan at the present time1 and ,i have seen some very admirable1 not to say magnificent1 specimens of modern bronze work4 ,illustration3 ,,bronze ,,incense-,,burner ,,and ,,small ,,flower-,,vase ,,eighteenth ,,century ,armour is now nearly as effete in ,japan as in this country1 and yet in the decoration of armour the ,japanese artist in metal was in the past not only skilful but beautiful4 ,fine specimens of armour are now extremely rare4 ,that particular kind of work has1 of course1 gone never to return4 ,next in importance to armour came the sword4 ,some of us can remember when the two-sworded men of ,japan were still actualities1 not1 as they have now become1 historical entities1 the terror of the foreign community there4 ,the sword was an important and1 indeed1 an essential weapon in the conditions of society that obtained in old ,japan1 not only for self-defence but for offensive purposes1 either in respect of family feuds or individual quarrels1 which were almost invariably settled by the arbitrament of the sword4 ,that weapon was also used for those suicides known as hara-kiri1 the outcome of wounded honour or self-respect1 which were such prominent features in the ,japanese life of the past4 ,some ,western writers have attempted to poke a mild kind of fun at this proneness of the ,japanese for the happy despatch on what seemed to the writers very flimsy or trivial grounds4 ,to me1 on the contrary1 the practice of hara-kiri1 indefensible as it may be in some respects1 indicates the existence of a high code of honour1 the slightest infringement of which rendered life intolerable4 ,the sword then had innumerable functions1 and1 like almost every article of utility in ,japan1 it became the subject of elaborate ornamentation4 ,the blade itself was brought to a high state of perfection1 and as regards the tempering of the steel has been the admiration of cutlers in every part of the globe4 ,indeed the sword-makers of ,japan are famous from the tenth century downwards4 ,many of the sword-blades had mottoes inscribed on them1 and most had designs ornate and often elaborate4 ,the accessories of the blade and the ornamentation thereof lent full scope for that artistic adornment which has for ages past1 as ,i have more than once remarked1 been characteristic of almost every article used in ,japan4 ,the wearing of the sword was confined to persons of a certain rank1 and different classes wore different kinds of swords4 ,about the sixteenth century the custom of wearing two swords1 one large1 the other about the size of a dirk1 came into fashion4 ,the two-handed sword was essentially a war sword4 ,the colour of the scabbard was almost invariably black with a tinge of red or green1 and it was in most instances beautifully lacquered4 ,the possessor of a sword gave full vent to his tastes in regard to the size and decoration of his weapon4 ,according to ,griffis3 ,daimios often spent extravagant sums upon a single sword and small fortunes upon a collection4 ,a ,samurai1 however poor1 would have a blade of sure temper and rich mountings1 deeming it honourable to suffer for food that he might have a worthy emblem of his rank4 ,on ,january #a1 #ahgg1 the wearing of swords was abolished by an ,imperial decree1 and foreigners visiting or resident in ,japan in that and the following years were able to pick up magnificent swords for a few dollars each4 ,i have not space to describe in detail the many accessories which went to form the complete sword for the strong man armed in old ,japan1 or the elaborate and artistic ornamentation of every detail4 ,in many of the small pieces of metal work which adorned the swords gold1 silver1 platina1 copper1 iron1 steel1 zinc1 besides numerous alloys were used4 ,the abolition of sword-wearing gave a death-blow to the industry in connection with the making of swords except in so far as it has been continued for the purpose of turning them out for the ,european market4 ,but during the many centuries the art of metal work1 as exemplified in sword manufacture and the ornamentation of the sword and the various accessories of it1 existed in ,japan it reached a magnificent height of perfection4 ,dealing only with one period of it a ,french writer has remarked3 ,what a galaxy of masters illuminated the close of the eighteenth century6 ,what a multitude of names and works would have to be cited in any attempt to write a monograph upon sword furniture6 ,the humblest artisan1 in this universal outburst of art1 is superior in his mastery of metal to any one we could name in ,europe4 ,how many artists worthy of a place in the rank are only known to us by a single piece1 but which is quite sufficient to evidence their power6 ,from #agij to #ahdj art was at fever heat1 the creative faculty produced marvels4 ,besides the making and ornamentation of swords the metal workers in ,japan attained great skill in the design and finish of many other articles which were in constant use by the people--pipes1 cases to hold the ,indian ink which formed the writing material1 the clasps and buttons of tobacco pouches1 besides vases1 c4 ,in reference to the making of alloys these metal workers showed considerable ingenuity1 the alloys used1 amalgams of gold1 silver1 copper1 and other metals in deft proportions1 resulting in magnificent effects as regards ornamentation and permanency4 ,japan has undoubtedly been greatly aided in the height to which the art of the country of various kinds has attained by the plentifulness of minerals therein4 ,gold1 silver1 copper1 iron1 lead1 tin1 and many other minerals exist4 ,strange to say1 gold at one time was considered no more valuable than silver--a fact which may account for the lavish manner in which it was used for decorative purposes in art of all descriptions4 ,i fear that an inevitable result of ,western influences and the great1 indeed drastic1 changes which have been effected thereby in the ideas1 manners1 and customs of the ,japanese people has been the decay1 if not the destruction1 of the art connected with metal work4 ,sword manufacture and everything relating thereto is1 of course1 gone2 other metal industries are following suit4 ,the result1 as ,i have said1 was inevitable1 but it is none the less deplorable4 ,although it requires an expert to deal with and describe in all its infinite detail the metal work of ,japan1 it does not need an expert's knowledge to profoundly admire it and be lost in admiration at the skill displayed and the pains taken in respect of every part of it4 ,the workers in this1 as indeed in all the other art industries of ,japan in the past1 were quite evidently not men in a hurry or much exercised concerning their output1 and scamping their work in order to establish a record4 ,their hearts must have been in everything they undertook1 and their sole aim1 whatever they did1 to put into their work all their skill and knowledge and love of the beautiful4 ,they1 in fact1 worked not for pelf but for sheer love of art1 and so long as the work of these artists of various kinds endures the world will assuredly never cease to admire it4 ,painting has1 in ,japan1 long been greatly cultivated1 and in some respects highly developed4 ,there are various recognised schools of painting1 but ,i shall not weary my readers with any attempt1 necessarily imperfect as it would be1 to describe them in detail4 ,china and the ,buddhist religion have profoundly influenced painting as the other arts of ,japan4 ,indeed1 the early painters of ,japan devoted themselves almost entirely to religious subjects4 ,most of their work was executed on the walls1 ceilings1 and sliding screens of the ,buddhist temples1 but some of it still exists in kakemonos1 or wall pictures1 and makimonos1 or scroll pictures4 ,in the ninth century painting1 as well as the arts of architecture and carving1 flourished exceedingly4 ,kyoto appears to have been the great artistic centre4 ,the construction of temples throughout the country proceeded apace1 and it is related that no less than #ac1jjj images were carved and painted during the reign of one emperor4 ,kyoto was1 in fact1 the centre of religious art4 ,we are told that the entire city was in a constant artistic ferment1 that whole streets were converted into studios and workshops1 and that the population of idols and images was as numerous as the human habitation4 ,nearly all the temples then constructed and adorned have vanished1 but that at ,shiba still remains to convey to us some idea of the artistic glories of this period of intense religious belief1 which gave expression to its fervour and its faith in architecture1 carving1 and painting4 ,about the thirteenth century flower and still-life painting came into vogue4 ,almost simultaneously religious fervour1 as expressed in art1 began to grow cold4 ,the artist became the hanger-on of the ,daimio1 who was too often employed in burning temples and destroying their artistic treasures4 ,the painter then painted as his fancy led him1 and if he treated of religious subjects did not invariably do so in a reverential spirit4 ,from time to time new schools of painting arose1 culminating1 in the eighteenth century1 in the ,shijo school1 which made a feature of painting animals1 birds1 fishes1 flowers1 c41 from nature1 instead of adhering to the conventional style which had previously prevailed4 ,the colouring of some of the work of this school is superb and is greatly in request among art collectors4 ,of late years painting in ,japan seems1 to some extent1 to have come under ,western influences4 ,there is1 indeed1 a progressive party in painting which not only does not resist these ,western influences but actually advocates the utilisation of ,western materials and methods in painting and the discarding of all that had made ,japanese painting essentially what it is4 ,i confess to a hope that this progressive school will not make quite so much progress as its disciples desire4 ,to introduce ,european pigments1 canvas1 brushes1 c41 and discard the materials formerly in use1 to get rid of the ,japanese method of treating subjects1 whether landscapes1 country scenes1 the life of the people1 representations of animals1 and so on1 and replace that method by imitations of ,european schools of painting1 must simply involve the destruction of all that is essentially and characteristically ,japanese and the replacing of it by something that is not ,japanese or indeed ,oriental4 ,the essence of art is originality4 ,i admit that art may come under foreign influences and be improved1 just as it may be degraded1 by them4 ,if the influences of foreign art are to be advantageous that art must1 ,i suggest1 be in some measure akin to the style of the art which is affected by it4 ,for example1 the influence in the past of ,china or ,korea upon an analogous style of art in ,japan4 ,but for ,japanese painters to remodel their peculiar style upon that of ,europe must prove as fatal to ,japanese painting as an art as any similar endeavour of ,european painters to remodel their style upon that of ,japan would be fatal to the distinctive art of ,europe4 ,i make this statement with full knowledge of the fact that some art critics in this country declare that ,mr4 ,whistler and other artists have been largely affected or influenced in their style by a study of ,japanese art in painting and its methods4 ,i have referred to kakemonos1 those wall pictures which are such a pleasing feature of the simple decoration of ,japanese houses4 ,many of these are superb specimens of art1 and the same remark may be made in reference to the makimonos1 or scroll pictures4 ,it may be that not every ,western eye can appreciate these ,japanese paintings fully at a first glance1 but they certainly grow upon one1 and ,i hope the time is far distant when kakemonos will be replaced in ,japanese homes by those mural decorations1 if ,i may so term them1 to be seen in so many ,english houses1 which are a positive eyesore to any person with even the faintest conception of art4 ,the work of the old painters of ,japan1 as it appears on kakemonos and makimonos1 is now rare4 ,much of it1 as is the case with the other art treasures of the country1 has gone abroad4 ,i am1 however1 of opinion that painting has not deteriorated to anything like the same extent as some of the other ,japanese arts4 ,the subjects depicted by the artists have during the centuries from time to time changed1 but the technique has altered but little4 ,it does not1 ,i know1 appeal to everybody1 but it is the kind of art1 ,i reiterate1 that grows upon one4 ,no person who has interested himself in painting in modern ,japan1 especially on kakemonos1 can1 ,i think1 have failed to be impressed by the exquisite and beautiful work which the ,japanese artists in colour to-day produce4 ,illustration3 ,,kakemono ,,on ,,paper ,,attributed ,,to ,,matahei ,illustration3 ,,kakemono ,,on ,,paper ,,attributed ,,to ,,shimman1 ,,ukiyo ,,school4 ,,eighteenth ,,century ,silk and satin embroidery as an industry and an art at one time attained considerable importance in ,japan1 but of recent years has greatly declined4 ,the craze among the upper classes for ,european dress has1 of course1 seriously affected the demand for elaborately embroidered silk and satin garments1 and is bound to affect it to an even greater extent in the future as the custom of wearing ,european garb spreads among the people4 ,no one with any artistic sensibilities can help regretting the fact that ,japan is gradually but surely discarding the distinctive costume of her people4 ,that costume was in every respect appropriate to their physique and facial characteristics4 ,the same certainly cannot be said of ,european attire4 ,however1 it is now1 ,i suppose1 hopeless to arrest the movement in this direction1 and in a comparatively few years1 no doubt1 the ancient and historic dress of the ,japanese people will be as obsolete as the silks1 satins1 ruffles1 c41 of our forefathers4 ,and what remark shall ,i make of ,japanese curios1 the trade in which has assumed such very large dimensions8 ,have they no claim1 some of my readers may ask1 to be included in a chapter on art8 ,there is no doubt that many purchasers of them would be shocked were they to be told that there was nothing artistic in many1 if not most1 of these articles1 that they were made simply and solely for the ,european market1 and that the manufacture of curios for this purpose was now just as much a trade as is the making of screws in ,birmingham4 ,i am quite prepared to admit that some of the articles included in the generic term curios1 which can now be purchased in every large town in ,great ,britain1 are pretty and effective1 but as regards many of them there is certainly nothing artistic or indeed particularly or peculiarly ,japanese4 ,this making of curios for the foreign market has1 as ,i have said1 assumed considerable dimensions in ,japan of recent years1 and in connection therewith the ,japanese has certainly assimilated many ,western ideas in reference to pushing his wares4 ,as an example in point of this ,i will quote here an anecdote told me by a friend who had a considerable knowledge of ,japan in the 'seventies4 ,during one of his journeyings inland1 when staying at a ,japanese tea-house1 he was initiated into the use of ,japanese tooth-powder1 which is in pretty general use among the lower classes4 ,on leaving ,japan he purchased and brought to ,england a considerable quantity of this tooth-powder1 and on settling down in ,london he discovered a ,japanese shop where it was on sale4 ,for some seventeen or eighteen years he purchased the tooth-powder at the shop1 sold in the little boxes in which it was vended in ,japan1 not only using it himself but introducing it to a large number of his acquaintances4 ,one day last year1 on going into the shop referred to to make a further purchase1 he was informed that they were run out of tooth-powder and did not quite know if they would have any more4 ,my friend returned a month or two later to the same shop on the same errand bent1 and asked if they had received a fresh supply4 ,he was told that a further supply had come to hand of very much the same description1 but at double the price4 ,he purchased a box1 the outside of which bore the following inscription in ,english3 ,japanese ,sanitary ,dentifrice2 ,superior ,quality4 ,apply the powder to the teeth by means of a brush1 using moderate friction over the whole surface4 ,on opening the box my friend found the powder was perfumed--perfumed for the ,european market6 ,now tooth-powder is1 of course1 not a curio1 nor is the expression moderate friction over the whole surface1 ,i may remark1 characteristically ,japanese4 ,the little anecdote is1 ,i think1 typical of the change that has come over and is still actively in progress in ,japan--a change which1 however inevitable1 and beneficial though in many respects ,i believe it to be1 is most assuredly not beneficial to the interests of art of any kind4 ,the fact of the matter is that the hurry-scurry of modern civilisation is not conducive to artistic work of any description4 ,the man in a hurry is unlikely to accomplish anything of permanent value4 ,working against time is utterly subversive of the realisation of artistic ideals4 ,the past1 whether in the ,west or the ,east1 when railways1 telegraphs1 telephones1 newspapers1 and all the adjuncts of modern progress were unknown1 was the period when men did good and enduring work4 ,they could then concentrate their minds upon their art free from those hundred-and-one discomposing and disconcerting influences which are the concomitants of modern civilisation4 ,the true artist thinks only of his art2 for him it is not merely a predominant1 but his sole interest4 ,he brings to it all his mind1 his ideas and ideals1 his energy1 enthusiasm1 pertinacity2 in it is concentrated all his ambition4 ,extraneous matters can only distract his mind from his art1 and accordingly are to be abjured4 ,i fear this exclusiveness1 this aloofness1 is rare nowadays in the ,west2 it is perhaps less rare in the ,east1 but it is becoming rarer there as ,western influences1 ,western ideas1 and ,western modes of life and method of regarding life make progress4 ,the poet1 the painter1 the sculptor1 the novelist1 the dramatist1 if their work is to be other than ephemeral1 need an atmosphere of repose and quietude wherein the mind can work and fashion those ideas which are to be given material expression free from all distracting and disturbing influences4 ,where can the aspiring artist1 under modern conditions of life1 find such a haven of rest8 ,and even if he find it ,i fear he too often has no desire to cast anchor there4 ,the distractions of life are frequently alluring1 and the embryonic artists of to-day assure us that they must1 in modern jargon1 keep in touch with modern thought with a view of1 in modern slang1 being up-to-date4 ,ideas such as these--and they seem to me to be not only largely prevalent but almost universal--are in my opinion fatal1 not only to the development but to the very existence of art4 ,we see in this country the effect upon every department thereof4 ,poetry1 painting1 sculpture1 literature1 the drama1 are by almost general consent in a state of utter decadence4 ,the great poet or painter1 the great artist in words1 on canvas1 in marble1 or in wood--where is he8 ,are there any signs or portents of his advent8 ,none4 ,modern conditions of life have killed the artist1 and replaced him by artistic mediocrities or mechanicians who labour not for love but for lucre1 and are more concerned about the amount of their output than the quality thereof4 ,and as of ,england and ,europe so ,i fear is it1 and will it be to a greater extent1 in the near future in ,japan4 ,the artist in lacquer1 porcelain1 metal1 painting1 embroidery1 cannot exist under the conditions of modern progress4 ,he may still produce good and beautiful work1 but it will be no longer artistic in the higher sense of that word1 just because those ideas and ideals which make the artist and connote art cannot exist in their fulness and purity amidst the hurry and bustle and turmoil and desire for wealth which are the essential characteristics of the civilisation of ,europe and ,america to-day--a civilisation which ,japan has imported1 and to a large degree assimilated1 and which she must accept with its defects as well as its advantages4 ,we may1 and must1 regret the effect of this civilisation upon the art of old ,japan1 but there is no good shutting one's eyes to obvious facts or affecting to believe that in due course we shall witness a renaissance in ,japan1 a new birth of all that is great and grand and magnificent in her past history4 ,there has for some years been a movement to prevent1 as far as possible1 the passing out of ,japan of its art treasures4 ,the ,government has diligently catalogued all that remain in the temples and public buildings to obviate their being sold1 and museums have been built for the purpose of collecting and exhibiting all that is best and representative of ,japanese art ,there has also been a movement among the noblemen and the upper classes in the direction of forming private collections4 ,it was time that steps such as these should be taken4 ,it is a thousand pities they were not taken earlier4 ,the drain of ,japan's art treasures went on unchecked year after year1 and it is probable that the private and public collections of ,europe and ,america contain more ,japanese art treasures than are now to be found in ,japan itself4 ,i am aware that in these collections are also to be found no little of the spurious1 and many articles with no claim to be considered artistic in any sense of the word1 but at the same time there is no doubt that1 as ,i have said1 for years1 there was a constant export of artistic wealth from ,japan4 ,the ,revolution of #ahfh1 with its consequent cataclysms1 caused the treasures of many of the great families to come on the market1 with the result that they were bought up at prices often greatly below their intrinsic value and shipped from the country4 ,they are of course gone for ever1 and the only thing that now remains to ,japan is to prevent as far as possible any of the treasures which she possesses meeting with a similar fate4 ,i know perfectly well that art1 like music1 knows nothing of nationality1 and that there is no reason why the resident of ,london or ,new ,york should not enjoy the beauties of ,japanese art1 and feast his eyes on the work of some great ,japanese artist of three or four hundred years back just as much as the citizen of ,tokio4 ,this is in one sense true1 but at the same time one cannot help sympathising with the patriotic desire of a people to retain in their midst specimens of the artistic conceptions and the artistic work of those famous men who are now ashes1 but whose work remains as a symbol and an incentive to their countrymen to maintain a high standard1 and to practise art simply and solely for the love of it4 ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,japanese ,,architecture ,there are1 perhaps1 some superior persons who may consider that ,japanese architecture has no claim to be regarded as art4 ,these persons have no conception of art in architecture unless it be ,doric1 ,gothic1 ,byzantine1 ,early ,english1 or something of the kind1 and unless it be expressed in bricks and mortar4 ,now ,japanese architecture is only wood1 but though only wood1 as regards its majestic beauty1 seemliness1 and adaptability to the purposes for which it is intended1 it stands unique4 ,moreover1 it is the only timber architecture in the world that has attained in any degree artistic importance4 ,almost every building in ,japan is1 or1 to speak more accurately1 was1 constructed of wood--a fact possibly due to the interminable earthquakes to which the country was long1 and is still occasionally1 subjected4 ,in ,japanese architecture no brick or stone is used unless it be for foundations2 nevertheless1 this restriction to wood material has not prevented the ,japanese architects of the past raising stupendous structures which in beauty of adornment and durability have long been the admiration of the ,western world4 ,the ,temple of ,nara1 for example1 was constructed three hundred years before the foundations of ,westminster ,abbey were laid4 ,as ,dr4 ,dresser has pertinently remarked in this connection3 ,what buildings can we show in ,england which have existed since the eighth century and are yet almost as perfect as when first built8 and yet our buildings rest on a solid foundation1 and not on earth which is constantly rocked by natural convulsions4 ,the porch of the temple of ,todaji is erected upon pillars #ajj feet high by #ab feet in circumference1 and yet this porch is merely the entrance to another porch equally large1 which again is itself the approach to the temple containing an image of ,buddha #ec feet high with a halo #hc feet in diameter4 ,the sanctuary of the ancient temple at ,nara1 already referred to1 has columns quite #ajj feet high consisting of a single stem4 ,these ancient fanes are not bald architectural ruins4 ,their decoration1 as ancient as the building itself1 is quite as permanent4 ,they are ablaze in every part with majestic decorations in gold and all the colours of the rainbow1 as gorgeous and impressive now as they were when first applied by the hands of the decorators more than a thousand years ago4 ,as a recent writer on this subject has appositely remarked3 ,it is in detail the ,japanese architect most excels1 for if he conceives like a giant he invariably finishes like a jeweller4 ,every detail to the very nails1 which are not dull surfaces but rendered exquisite ornaments1 is a work of art4 ,everywhere we encounter friezes and carvings in relief1 representing in quaint colour harmonies flowers and birds1 or heavenly spirits playing upon flutes and stringed instruments4 ,it must often strike the thinking man as a curious fact that these old religious edifices1 whether in ,europe or the ,far ,east1 seem to have a permanence about them such as is not characteristic of modern buildings of the same kind4 ,the reason1 ,i think1 must have been that the men who were employed in the designing and construction of these ancient buildings1 whether in the ,east or ,west1 were not mere mercenaries employed for a particular purpose1 but men full of faith in their religion1 a building in whose honour and for whose services they were employed to erect1 and who threw into their work their whole souls1 so to speak--gave1 in fact1 the best of what they had1 and employed all their zeal1 energy1 and enthusiasm with a view of perpetuating1 whether in stone1 brick1 or wood1 the faith they so firmly held and so dearly loved4 ,some of the problems that the ,japanese builders of the past had to face in the erection of a few of the great temples which still adorn the country have proved insoluble to many ,european engineers and architects4 ,the erection and support of the magnificent pagoda at ,nikko is an example in point4 ,dr4 ,dresser has referred to this and pointed out what he deemed a great waste of material in connection therewith4 ,he failed to understand for what reason an enormous log of wood ascended in the centre of a structure from its base to the apex--a log of wood about #b feet in diameter--while near the lower end one equally large was bolted to each of the four sides of the central mass4 ,when ,dr4 ,dresser expressed surprise on the subject he was told that the walls must be strong enough to support the central block2 and on his pointing out that the central block was not supported by the sides1 he was taken up to the top of the building and the fact demonstrated to him that the huge central mass was suspended like the clapper of a bell4 ,on descending again1 while lying on the ground1 he saw that there was quite an inch of space between the soil and the great pendulum--a safeguard against damage by earthquake4 ,for many hundreds of years the centre of gravity of this building has1 by its swinging1 been kept within the base1 and the fact shows1 were evidence needed1 that the ,japanese architects who designed this great ,nikko ,pagoda and similar structures were men of scientific capacities who had thought out every problem connected with the safety and permanence of the building they were employed to design4 ,the domestic dwellings of the great mass of the ,japanese people are of the simplest possible type4 ,they are no doubt evolved from the hut of the ,ainos1 probably the aborigines of the islands1 still to be found in the island of ,yesso4 ,there are no walls as we understand the term1 the sides being composed1 in winter1 of amado1 or sliding screens made of wood1 and in summer of shoji1 or oil-paper slides4 ,this enables1 in hot weather1 the whole of the side of the house to be moved1 and the air to be given free ingress and egress4 ,nor are these habitations divided off into permanent rooms1 as in this and other ,european countries4 ,paper screens which slide into grooves divide the space according to requirements4 ,the wood-work of these dwellings1 which are largely composed of camphor-wood1 is both within and without left unpainted1 and they generally present a neat and alluring appearance4 ,when one compares the dwelling-places of the poorest inhabitants of ,japan with the hovels in this country1 and more especially in ,ireland1 occupied by the peasants1 one is really lost in wonder at the ignorance of those persons who call ,japan1 and no doubt still believe it to have been1 an uncivilised country until it was brought intimately into association with ,occidental nations4 ,illustration3 ,,tea ,,house1 ,,near ,,tokio ,,from ,a ,,print ,,by ,,hiroshige ,as we ascend in the social scale in ,japan we find1 of course1 a difference in architecture4 ,the principle remains very much the same1 but1 as might be expected1 the buildings are more elaborate and there is a wealth of ornamentation which is absent from those of the lower classes4 ,i am inclined to think that what ,i may call ecclesiastical art has largely influenced the decoration of the houses of the nobles and upper classes in ,japan4 ,many of the old feudal castles1 which were gems of ,japanese architecture1 no longer exist1 but some of those which still remain are exceedingly beautiful specimens of wooden architecture4 ,the castle of ,nagoya1 built in the early part of the seventeenth century1 is supposed to be the finest specimen of the kind in ,japan4 ,but the ,japanese never seems to have been overmuch concerned respecting his dwelling4 ,to comprehend the beauty of ,japanese architecture1 to see it in its purity and to realise all the grandeur that can be crowded into it1 it is necessary to study it in the religious edifices of the country4 ,plainness is the characteristic of the ,shinto temple2 built as a rule of pine1 it has a thatched roof4 ,the fact of its being an edifice of the ,shinto religion is self-evident from the torii which stand before every ,shinto temple4 ,there are no idols or exterior ornamentation of any kind4 ,the walls are left untouched by either the painter or the lacquerer4 ,in the ,buddhist temples1 on the contrary1 the ,japanese artist has had afforded him full scope for the exercise of his ornamental ingenuity4 ,numerous courtyards have to be traversed before reaching the temple itself4 ,these courtyards contain many small buildings1 bronze or stone lanterns1 belfries1 pavilions1 pagodas1 c41 c41 all elaborately decorated4 ,amongst the supplementary buildings connected with1 but occasionally independent of1 ,buddhist temples1 none is more interesting than the pagoda so intimately associated with ,buddhism in every part of the ,far ,east and so typically ,oriental in its architecture4 ,what may have been the precise origin of these five- or seven-storied erections1 for what purpose they were intended1 or what symbolism1 if any1 they were the expression of1 is now largely a matter of conjecture4 ,no one who has visited the ,east can at any rate have failed to be impressed by them4 ,in ,japan where1 save the lower storey1 the whole is lacquered red1 they are a striking feature of the country4 ,the lower storey1 by the way1 is decorated with numerous painted carvings4 ,topping the whole building is the twisted spire of bronze4 ,like most other things in ,japan1 the origin and development of the architecture of the country is lost in the twilight of obscurity4 ,korea appears to have influenced ,japanese architecture1 just as it has ,japanese art of various kinds4 ,it is an extraordinary fact that this portion of ,asia contiguous to the ,japanese islands1 which has for so many hundreds of years past exercised such a subtle influence on the art and industries of ,japan1 should at the commencement of the twentieth century have passed under the suzerainty of that country4 ,when one fully comprehends the connection in various ways of ,korea with ,japan in all the past centuries1 one begins to understand the sentimental feeling which has influenced the whole nation in regard to the possibility of ,korea passing under the domination of any other ,power4 ,at the beginning of the third century ,korea was invaded by ,japan and1 although the country was then conquered1 it1 as has not infrequently under similar circumstances happened in history1 exercised a potent effect on both the art and architecture of ,japan4 ,korean architecture1 of course1 was not original2 it was based on that of ,china1 which in its turn came from ,burmah1 and that again probably from ,india4 ,in the course of the seventh century1 however1 the imported architecture more or less assumed the general style which has since remained distinctly ,japanese and although it undoubtedly embodies everything that was best in the architecture of the countries from which it derived its essential features1 appears to me to have an originality of its own4 ,no man who has not visited the great temples at ,shiba and ,nikko can understand to what heights of sublimity wooden architecture can rise1 what a gorgeous tout ensemble can be accomplished by harmonious colour schemes deftly blended by artists who had made a study of colour and all the details connected therewith1 and knew how to render a picturesque effect which should be imposing without being either gaudy or glaring4 ,i am afraid that the results of ,western civilisation have been1 and will continue to be1 fatal to ,japanese architects4 ,judging by the buildings which have been erected in the country since ,western influences have reigned supreme ,japanese architecture is not only dead but buried4 ,these edifices--hotels1 ,government buildings1 railway stations and so on1 are an attempt to combine ,western and ,japanese styles4 ,the result is an incongruity1 to express it mildly1 sufficient to cause the artistic mind to shudder4 ,the men who built the temples at ,shiba1 at ,nikko1 and in various other parts of the country1 and the pagodas which dot the land1 are dead1 and have left no successors4 ,there is nothing1 in my opinion1 that is more likely to be influenced1 and more injuriously influenced1 by ,western ideas than the architecture of ,japan4 ,there is a tendency in the country to erect ,european buildings1 and ,i suppose it is one that it is impossible to complain of4 ,the ,japanese houses1 although they have advantages in the summer-time1 are undoubtedly not well fitted to withstand the rigours of winter2 and ,i have no doubt that1 from the standpoint of material comfort1 a replacement of them by buildings erected on ,european lines might be an advantage4 ,but from the artistic point of view such a change is one impossible to contemplate without a feeling of regret4 ,there is1 of course1 no human possibility of temples such as those at ,shiba and ,nikko ever again being erected in ,japan4 ,as ,i have previously remarked1 buildings such as these are something more than mere material constructions2 they are the embodiment in material form of a living faith which the designers and builders attempted to set forth in their work4 ,an age of disbelief1 of indifference1 of agnosticism1 is not conducive to the construction of such edifices4 ,we need not go to ,japan for evidence of that obvious fact4 ,the hideous monstrosities in the shape of cathedrals1 churches1 and chapels that have been built in this country during the past century or two are abundant proof1 were any needed1 that the faith and piety whose outward and visible manifestation is to be seen in ,westminster ,abbey1 ,canterbury ,cathedral1 ,york ,minster1 and various other noble architectural fanes is no longer with us2 it has gone1 and1 apparently1 inspiration with it4 ,we can now only construct walls1 and put roofs on them--admirable edifices1 no doubt1 to keep out the rain1 but signifying nothing from an artistic or idealistic point of view4 ,and so it is in regard to ,japan4 ,architecture there1 considered as an art1 is dead4 ,it may be imitated or reproduced1 but the reproduction will impose on no person of artistic sensibilities or knowledge1 any more than a ,sheraton reproduction hailing from the ,tottenham ,court ,road would impose on a connoisseur as the genuine work of that great artist in furniture4 ,the art of ,japan has1 especially since the opening up of the country1 been closely studied and investigated1 and many learned tomes have been written concerning it4 ,i do not1 however1 think that the art of the country as expressed in its architecture has received anything like the attention it deserves4 ,this may possibly arise from the fact1 to which ,i have already referred1 that many people have what ,i may term a restricted definition or conception of art4 ,others there are1 again1 who consider wooden architecture to be almost a contradiction in terms4 ,words or definitions in a matter of this kind seem to me to be childish4 ,the lover of the beautiful1 the admirer of the historic1 the investigator of the ebb and flow of religious systems and of the sentiments and spirit that have influenced and moulded them at different periods of their existence1 can in the ancient wooden temples of ,japan find abundant material for enjoyment1 instruction1 reflection4 ,i have no hesitation in including these buildings in that surely expansive and comprehensive term1 ,art4 ,,chapter ,,xiv ,,postal ,,and ,,other ,,means ,,of ,,communication ,the advancement of a nation1 may1 ,i think1 be accurately gauged by the facilities it possesses or has developed for the communication of its inhabitants1 either by personal intercourse or those other means which science has of late years discovered or evolved for the transmission of thought1 whether on business or otherwise--the letter post1 the telegraph1 and the telephone4 ,i accordingly purpose briefly describing the extent to which1 in these respects1 ,japan has assimilated and utilised ,western ideas4 ,i have already touched on the matter of railway communication1 so ,i will not again refer to it in any detail4 ,i may1 however1 remark that although railways in ,japan have done much to open up the country and provide for more frequent and rapid intercourse between man and man1 they still lack much in the matter of ,european ideas of comfort4 ,there are three classes of carriages1 and the fares of each are extremely low4 ,the gauge is narrow2 the carriages are open1 as in ,america1 with one long seat running down each side and a shorter one at the end4 ,in the first-class carriages tea is provided1 a kettle and tea-pot wherein to make the beverage being placed on the floor between the seats for the use of passengers4 ,no doubt ere long the ,japanese will be more impressed than they appear to be at present as to the necessity for express trains1 high speeds1 ,pullman and restaurant cars1 as well as for other now indispensable characteristics of ,english and ,american railways4 ,the initial railway line in ,japan was that between ,yokohama and the capital4 ,it was popular and well patronised from the first1 in contradistinction to the record of railways in ,china1 where the initial line--that between ,shanghai and ,wusung--had to be bought up and pulled up by the ,chinese authorities1 in view of the number of ,chinamen who persisted in committing suicide by placing themselves in front of the train as a protest--and a most effective protest1 it must be admitted--against the introduction into their country of this contrivance of the foreign devils4 ,the contrast in the manner in which the introduction of railways was received in ,china and ,japan respectively is1 ,i think1 characteristic of the difference in the disposition and mental attitude of the people of the two countries4 ,a postal service modelled on that of ,europe was inaugurated in ,japan in #ahga by the introduction of a ,government letter post between ,tokio1 ,kyoto1 ,osaka1 and ,yokohama4 ,arrangements had1 of course1 long previously existed for the transmission of official correspondence throughout the country1 but private letters were conveyed by private carriers4 ,the following year the official postal service was extended to the whole of ,japan1 but not till twelve months later were private carriers abolished and the post-office1 with all its various ramifications1 constituted a ,state monopoly4 ,postcards1 embossed envelopes1 newspaper wrappers1 and all the paraphernalia--so far as they had then been developed--of ,european post-offices were adopted by the ,japanese postal authorities1 and caught on with the people with surprising rapidity4 ,in #ahge mail steamers were established between ,japan and the ,chinese ports1 and the next year ,japan1 which at that time had1 as ,i have elsewhere mentioned1 to view post-offices established in the treaty ports1 herself planted ,japanese post-offices in both ,china and ,korea4 ,the ,postal ,union was joined in #ahgg1 and from that time the ,japanese post-office has developed1 pari passu with the post-offices of ,european countries until at the present time it is in some respects ahead of them in the matter of enterprise and the facilities it affords4 ,the ,inland ,parcel ,post was established in #ahib1 and it has had a marked effect in the opening up of the country and the familiarising of the people with many commodities1 principally ,european1 of which they had previously no knowledge4 ,at the present time there are considerably over #f1jjj post-offices4 ,about a thousand millions of letters and postcards--a favourite means of communication--are handled yearly4 ,the number of parcels at present sent through the post amounts to about eleven millions annually4 ,every description of post-office business as known in ,europe is not only transacted in ,japan1 but1 so far as results go to show1 each new phase seems to fill a distinct want on the part of the people4 ,take the matter of postal orders for example1 the introduction of which in this country was so vigorously opposed by the banking community1 but a facility which has proved of incalculable utility and convenience to the mass of the public4 ,postal orders1 when introduced into ,japan1 quickly came into favour4 ,in the first year only a certain number of offices were authorised to issue and to pay these orders4 ,this number has now been largely increased1 and many millions of postal orders are at present annually sold in ,japan4 ,the ,international ,postal ,order ,service has also assumed considerable dimensions1 and has largely aided1 ,i think1 in the industrial and commercial development of the country4 ,post ,office ,savings ,banks were established in ,japan as far back as #ahge4 ,the object1 as in this country1 was to encourage thrift among the mass of the people4 ,the maximum deposit in one year of any depositor is limited to #ejj yen 7about #ej74 ,the ,post ,office ,savings ,bank has been largely utilised1 and both the number of depositors and the sums deposited continue to grow on a scale which shows that the utility and benefit of this institution are greatly appreciated by the ,japanese people4 ,at first the ,savings ,bank was worked at a loss2 it took time to develop1 while in its infancy banking methods were probably not as well understood by the ,japanese authorities as they now are4 ,at the present time the ,post ,office ,savings ,bank in ,japan is so worked that it not only pays all its expenses but returns a profit to the national exchequer4 ,in this respect it very favourably compares with the ,post ,office ,savings ,bank as administered in this country1 which is not only worked at a loss1 but1 owing to various causes1 has entailed a liability1 nominal though it be1 on the ,british taxpayer4 ,telegraphs were first introduced into ,japan in #ahfi1 and1 as was the custom at that time in almost all countries1 the telegraph followed the railway4 ,the first line was between the capital and ,yokohama4 ,as time progressed some steps were taken in the direction of developing the system1 but it was not until #ahgh that the telegraph service in ,japan was placed on a proper footing4 ,in #ahgi the ,international ,telegraph ,union was entered4 ,at the present time ,japan is covered by a network of telegraph wires1 and every important island is in communication with the capital4 ,telegrams may be sent either in the ,japanese or ,european languages4 ,like every other means of communication1 the telegraph has been rapidly adopted by the ,japanese people1 and it now forms such a part of the national life that it is almost impossible to imagine the country without a telegraph system4 ,there are about #b1fjj telegraph offices in ,japan1 and over twenty million messages are annually despatched therefrom4 ,i think it will be admitted that--especially in view of the difficulties occasioned by the necessity of the operators in the telegraph offices being conversant to some extent with the characteristics of two absolutely different descriptions of languages--the progress made by ,japan1 and the development and extension of the telegraph service of the country1 have been really remarkable4 ,when the question of introducing telephones into ,japan came up for consideration it was treated somewhat more practically than was the case with reference to a similar matter in this country4 ,there was there as here a difference of opinion as to whether telephonic communication should be left to private enterprise or be constituted a ,government monopoly4 ,after somewhat prolonged investigation it was decided that the telephone service should be set up and worked by the ,government1 and in the year #ahij the first telephone1 that between ,tokio and ,yokohama1 was opened4 ,at first1 strange to say1 this new device of ,western civilisation appears somewhat to have hung fire1 and no general demand sprung up for the fitting of the telephone to private houses4 ,it required1 as indeed was the case in this country1 some education of the people in regard to the paramount advantages of always having this means of communication at hand4 ,the process of education in this respect was not prolonged4 ,before the telephone had been many years in the country the demand for its installation in houses and offices became so great that the ,government had to obtain a special grant of money in order to carry out the necessary work4 ,according to the latest returns there are somewhere about #cej telephone offices open to the public1 while the approximate number of messages transmitted is about #aej1jjj1jjj4 ,the time is not far distant when1 as ,i think will also be the case in this country1 the telephone will be deemed to be an indispensable adjunct of almost every house in the towns of ,japan4 ,in connection with the means of communication one or two remarks in reference to tramways may not be out of place4 ,these are entirely1 or almost entirely1 electric1 and have certainly1 if we are to judge by the patronage accorded to them1 been very favourably received by the ,japanese people4 ,according to the latest returns ,i have available there were twenty-two tramway companies in ,japan1 which between them1 in the year #aijd1 carried the very respectable total of over #gc1jjj1jjj passengers4 ,all of these lines save one are electric4 ,the first electric tramway1 that in ,kyoto1 was opened in #ahie1 so that the development of the country in this direction has proceeded rapidly4 ,the ,tokio ,electric ,tramway ,company pays a dividend of #aa per cent41 and although this is a record which some of the other lines have not yet attained1 and may not possibly attain1 nevertheless these matters must not be altogether looked at from the point of view of dividends4 ,the shareholder very probably regards them from that standpoint1 but ,i suggest that the facilities given to a town may be as great or even greater by a tramway paying #b1 or #c1 or #e per cent4 as by one paying double that figure4 ,indeed1 large dividends are often earned by cutting down expenditure or abstaining from expenditure designed to increase the facilities of passengers4 ,there is every prospect of electric tramways being extended to every town of any importance in ,japan1 and ,i am confident they will greatly aid in the industrial development of the land4 ,illustration3 ,,rial ,,transport2 ,,basket ,,slung ,,on ,,ropes1 ,,province ,,of ,,hida ,,from ,a ,,print ,,by ,,hiroshige ,i cannot leave a consideration of the means of communication in ,japan without making some reference to that somewhat peculiar vehicle which is by so many persons deemed to be essentially characteristic of the country1 although1 as a matter of fact1 ,i believe it is of comparatively recent introduction1 having been introduced either by a ,european or an ,american2 ,i refer1 of course1 to the jinricksha4 ,before ,japan became to so great an extent the objective point of the globe-trotter1 and ,europe1 through the medium of numerous books1 was rendered conversant with everything relating to the country1 nothing more struck the imagination of the new arrival in ,japan than the sight of this extraordinary vehicle--a kind of armchair on wheels with two shafts1 pulled by a man scantily clad and with extremely muscular legs4 ,whoever was the individual responsible for the invention of the jinricksha1 he certainly conferred a great boon on all foreigners resident in ,japan before railways and tramways and other means of communication became as prevalent as they now are4 ,the long distances traversed by the man between the shafts of a jinricksha and the speed he attained and maintained were almost a marvel to the foreign visitor4 ,it was possible to get about the country in one of these vehicles quite as fast as any horse-drawn vehicle could convey one1 and quite as comfortably4 ,i have heard it stated that the men who pull these vehicles unduly develop their legs at the expense of other portions of their body1 and that the speed at which they run and which they certainly keep up for extraordinarily long periods has extremely injurious effects on their constitution1 so that they are1 as a rule1 not long-lived4 ,i am not aware1 nor have ,i been able to ascertain1 whether such statements are mere theories or have any foundation in fact4 ,this much ,i will say1 that the ,japanese jinricksha-runners are an extraordinary class in reference to the speed which they attain dragging a goodly weight for a very long distance4 ,it does not seem likely that the jinricksha1 acclimatised as it has been in ,japan1 will be ousted by other modern contrivances for getting about the country4 ,it is still very much in evidence1 and it is universally admitted by those who have had experience of it to be a most comfortable means of locomotion4 ,why it has never come into favour1 at least to any extent1 elsewhere than in ,japan ,i have never been able to understand4 ,certainly jinrickshas can be hired at ,shanghai1 and they are to be seen at one or two other places in the ,far ,east1 but it may be regarded as a distinctly ,japanese vehicle1 although1 as ,i have said1 there is nothing ,japanese about it excepting its adaptation in the country4 ,i remarked at the commencement of this chapter that we may properly gauge the progress of a nation by the facilities it possesses or has developed for inter-communication personally and otherwise4 ,i hope the few remarks ,i have made on this head may enable my readers to form some idea as to the position of ,japan in this matter4 ,i have not wearied them with statistics1 but ,i have1 ,i think1 said enough to show that in everything relating to communication1 whether it be the locomotion of the individual or the facilities given to him to communicate his wishes1 desires1 aspirations1 sentiments1 ,japan is now well in line with all the other great civilised ,powers1 and has reason to be proud of the progress she has made and the manner in which she has adapted to the requirements of her people the ideas and inventions she has obtained from ,europe and ,america4 ,,chapter ,,xv ,,law ,,and ,,order ,in every nation which aspires to be regarded as civilised the supremacy of the law and the maintenance of order are matters of supreme importance4 ,the most perfect code of law ever devised is quite evidently of no importance unless adequate means exist for enforcing its provisions1 and although justice may be lauded as a most admirable object of attainment1 yet1 unless the courts of the country are independent1 hold the scales evenly and use the sword with impartiality1 justice will remain merely a sentiment1 and there will be no practical exemplification of it4 ,i have considered in this book as tersely as possible most of the factors of civilisation in ,japan4 ,let me briefly deal with this matter of law and order4 ,when the ,revolution was effected in #ahfh the whole legal procedure of the country was thrown more or less into a condition of disorganisation4 ,prior to #ahfh1 as my readers will have seen1 feudal principles prevailed in ,japan4 ,the feudal lords1 or ,daimios1 administered justice1 or what passed for it1 within their own territories1 and they were answerable to the central authority4 ,in theory the feudal lords were commissioners of the ruling sovereign from whom they derived their authority2 in practice they were very largely a law unto themselves1 and their subjects had little or no practical chance of redress in the event of their suffering any injustice4 ,it is very difficult to ascertain whether there was in reality a legal code of any kind in existence and under the ken of these feudal lords4 ,the legal system then in vogue appears to have been based for the most part on custom and usage4 ,a writer on the subject has remarked that the few written laws were of a thoroughly practical character4 ,unfortunately ,i have not had an opportunity of acquainting myself with the nature of these laws4 ,they were probably1 like everything else in the country1 imported from ,china1 and indeed the ,chinese legal system has been supreme in ,japan until recently1 and even now ,i am not quite certain that much of its influence does not remain4 ,i have read that the fundamental principle underlying the written laws referred to was that3 ,the people should obey the law1 but should not know the law4 ,the code was accordingly a secret one4 ,i have not space1 nor indeed have ,i any inclination1 to deal with what is1 after all1 an academical question as to the law prevalent in ,japan prior to the ,revolution4 ,it was probably for the most part1 just as in other countries when feudalism existed1 a kind of rough-and-ready justice1 which perhaps served its purpose well at the time1 and depended more as regards the matter of justice upon the administrator of it than upon the code itself4 ,though the ,revolution took place in #ahfh1 it was not until #ahga that the ,daimios were deprived of all their administrative authority4 ,the whole of the country was then divided into districts under the control of the central ,government1 and all relics of feudalism and class privileges1 which had been numerous1 were ruthlessly swept away4 ,in due course a civil code1 commercial code1 code of civil procedure1 and code of criminal procedure were issued4 ,one or two of these codes were found not to work well in practice1 and they have been submitted to and revised by committees specially appointed for that purpose4 ,as ,i stated in the chapter on the ,constitution the independence of the judges is recognised and provided for4 ,the legal system of ,japan at the present time is eclectic4 ,as ,i have said1 the ,chinese system of legal procedure long obtained1 and its influences may perhaps to some extent still remain4 ,nevertheless ,japan has gone to various countries and selected what she deemed good in each for her present legal system4 ,the jurisprudence of both ,france and ,england have been largely drawn on4 ,in reference to the civil law custom is1 as might have been expected in view of the circumstances of the country1 still strongly relied on4 ,there has often been a difficulty in ascertaining custom owing to the changed and changing conditions of the nation1 and in reference thereto very much the same procedure has followed as in this country where the question of custom is so frequently pleaded in the courts of law4 ,some of the ,german system of jurisprudence has also been included in the ,japanese legal system4 ,as ,i have elsewhere observed1 the suggestion to abolish extra-territoriality1 and with it the foreign courts in ,japan1 met with a considerable amount of opposition from the foreign community there who believed that they would not be able to obtain justice in the ,japanese courts4 ,these fears have been shown to be groundless1 and it is now generally recognised that the foreigner in ,japan need have no fear of going into a ,japanese court where he is1 whether it be a civil or criminal matter1 certain to obtain a perfectly fair trial4 ,closely connected with law is the matter of police4 ,in ,japan the police of the country are entirely under the control of the ,state1 just as are the constabulary in ,ireland4 ,the police are under the orders of the ,minister of the ,interior1 who has a special office for dealing with the matter4 ,the cost of the force is1 however1 paid by each prefecture1 the ,state granting a small subsidy4 ,according to the latest statistics1 the police force of ,japan amounted to something under #ce1jjj officers and men4 ,when we consider that this body of men is responsible for the enforcement of the law and the preservation of order among some #dg1jjj1jjj people1 it will1 ,i think1 be admitted that the number is not excessive4 ,the social condition of the ,japanese police1 if ,i may use such a term1 is higher than that of the police in this and other countries4 ,in ,japan the police force had its genesis after the abolition of feudalism1 and1 as a matter of fact1 a large proportion of the first members thereof belonged to the ,samurai class4 ,the social position and intellectual attainment of these young men gave what ,i may term a standing to the police force in ,japan which it has not yet lost4 ,of course1 nothing like the same class of men is now attracted to it1 the salaries are comparatively small and the work is not over-congenial for people whose ideas are such as those of the ,japanese4 ,i may mention1 as an interesting feature in this connection1 that the ,government have established a police and prison college in ,tokio1 where both police and prison officials are effectively trained for the discharge of their duties4 ,this college was established when extra-territoriality was abolished1 with the view of ensuring a higher training in view of the additional responsibilities that would devolve upon the police and prison officials4 ,from police ,i naturally come to some consideration of prisons4 ,there are a large number of people in this country who have the idea in their mind that prisons are a weak point in all foreign countries1 and that it is only in ,england that these regrettable institutions are properly managed4 ,in fact the idea now seems to be prevalent here that we have gone too far in the direction of making prisons comfortable1 and that excellent alliteration ,coddled ,criminals has more than once done duty in print in this connection4 ,i consider that the present prison system in ,japan is regulated and administered on sounder principles than those that obtain in this country4 ,there are in all about #adj prisons in ,japan4 ,all the old prisons in the country were constructed of wood and arranged on the associate system4 ,a separate cell system is1 however1 specially provided for foreign criminals1 who are given clothes1 bedding1 and other articles to which they are used4 ,the ,government1 a few years ago1 commenced the construction of a number of new prisons1 for the most part built of brick1 in which a mixed system of separation and association1 according to the offences of the prisoners1 will be employed4 ,the windows of these prisons were directed to be made especially large1 so that the prisoners might have plenty of light and air4 ,this is a matter in which some foreign ,governments1 that of this country included1 might well take a lesson from ,japan4 ,it is pleasing to be able to state that since #ahii the inmates of the prisons have been decreasing in number4 ,there is nothing quite analogous to the ticket-of-leave system in this country4 ,parole is suggested by a prison governor to the ,minister of ,justice in reference to any prisoner whom he may deem worthy of the privilege1 provided that prisoner has completed three-fourths of the sentence imposed upon him and has shown a disposition to live more worthily4 ,i do not quite know how this latter fact is made plain in gaol1 but at any rate the prison governor has to be convinced of it4 ,a prisoner thus released remains under police supervision during the remainder of his sentence4 ,in ,japan the death penalty is not confined to murder4 ,it may be inflicted for robbery with violence1 homicide1 wounds inflicted by children upon their fathers1 mothers1 and grand-parents1 as well as for arson4 ,this sounds a somewhat drastic blood code1 but when ,i state that the average number of persons executed in ,japan does not exceed thirty a year1 it will be seen that either the crimes mentioned are infrequent or that the punishment of death is only inflicted in extreme cases4 ,one interesting feature of the ,japanese prison system is the granting of medals to criminals who have shown an amendment of their lives by good conduct and diligence at their work4 ,the privileges enjoyed by persons possessing these medals are so interesting that ,i will transcribe them here3-- #a4 ,all medallists are supplied with superior kinds of garments and other articles4 #b4 ,each medallist is allowed to send out two letters per month4 #c4 ,medallists enjoy the privilege of bathing prior to other prisoners1 hot water being used in accordance with the general custom of the ,japanese people4 #d4 ,the supply of accessories is increased in quantity every week for medallists1 according to the number of medals granted1 to the extent of an increased expense of two sen or less for one meal per person4 ,this increase is granted once a week to the possessor of two medals1 and three times a week for each possessor of three medals4 #e4 ,the allotment of earnings is made in the following proportion1 the remainder being applied to prison expenses3-- ,three-tenths to each felon to whom one medal has been granted4 ,four-tenths to each misdemeanant to whom one medal has been awarded4 ,four-tenths to each felon having been granted two medals4 ,five-tenths to each felon possessing three medals4 ,six-tenths to each misdemeanant granted three medals4 ,there is no need for me to deal with the question of punishment of criminals in ,japanese prisons4 ,i may1 however1 remark that in respect of foreign criminals every effort is made to treat them in accordance with their conditions of national life in regard to bathing1 food1 c4 ,in reference to the question of prison labour1 which has become somewhat of a vexed economic problem in this country1 the ,japanese authorities do not appear to experience much difficulty4 ,the object of the prison system of labour is to give the prisoners a careful training1 and to encourage diligence1 so that on their return to the world they may not experience difficulty in obtaining employment4 ,the labour is of two kinds--,government1 and for private individuals4 ,in the latter case the necessary labour is obtained from the prisons direct1 the employers supplying the material4 ,i think this part of the system is perhaps open to question1 as it has been found in other countries productive of grave abuses4 ,the discharged prisoner in ,japan1 as in other countries1 finds a difficulty in obtaining employment1 and several societies similar to those in existence here have been established with a view of assisting discharged prisoners4 ,i have not sufficient information to enable me to say what measure of success these societies have achieved4 ,in a country like ,japan1 which is endeavouring to perfect all her institutions1 ,i hope that the discharged prisoner problem will be solved otherwise than by philanthropic societies4 ,the criminal who has completed his sentence ought to be deemed to have purged his offence1 and has a right to return to the community and obtain work until1 if ever1 he again misconducts himself4 ,i hope my few remarks on the subject of the means taken in ,japan to maintain law and order will tend to convince my readers that in every detail of her administration ,japan has shown a capacity for adapting what is good in foreign nations and moulding it for her own purposes4 ,the foreign community in ,japan has long since got over its state of panic in regard to the danger of suing and being sued in ,japanese courts1 and the possibility of being an inmate of a ,japanese gaol4 ,the years that have elapsed since the treaties were revised have demonstrated clearly that1 if anything1 extra consideration is shown to the foreigner in all the details of the administration of the law in ,japan4 ,i remarked at the beginning of this chapter that the supremacy of the law and the maintenance of order are matters of supreme importance in every civilised country4 ,japan has recognised this fact1 and she has acted upon the recognition thereof with most admirable results4 ,,chapter ,,xvi ,,literature ,,and ,,the ,,drama ,the literature of ,japan is a somewhat recondite subject1 while the ,japanese drama is at present1 like many other things in the country1 to a great extent in a state of transition4 ,still1 some remarks on these two matters are1 ,i consider1 absolutely essential in order that my readers may form some idea of two important phases of ,japanese life4 ,the literature of ,japan is indeed largely mixed up with the national life through many centuries--a reflection1 in fact1 of it4 ,the late ,sir ,edwin ,arnold1 whose great authority on everything connected with ,japan is generally admitted1 has observed in reference to the literature of that country3 ,the time will come when ,japan1 safe1 famous1 and glad with the promise of peaceful years to follow and to reward this present period of life and death conflict1 will engage once again the attraction of the ,western nations on the side of her artistic and intellectual gifts4 ,already in this part of the globe persons of culture have become well aware how high and subtle is her artistic genius2 and by and by it will be discovered that there are real treasures to be found in her literature4 ,moreover1 ,england1 beyond any other ,european country1 is likely to be attracted to this branch1 at present naturally neglected1 of what may be called the spiritual side of ,japanese life4 ,the drawback to the fulfilment of the somewhat optimistic forecast of ,sir ,edwin ,arnold is the great difficulty experienced by the ,western nations in acquiring a sufficient knowledge of the language in which the treasures of ,japanese literature are embedded if not entombed4 ,no man can ever grasp the beauties of a literature1 and especially an ,oriental literature1 through the medium of a translation1 however well done4 ,a translation is like a diamond with the brilliancy removed1 if we can imagine such a thing4 ,it may be faultlessly correct in its rendering1 and yet absolutely misleading in its interpretation of the original4 ,japanese literature embraces poetry1 history1 fiction1 books of ceremony and travel1 as well as many works of an ethical nature4 ,poetry is supposed to have reached its most brilliant period in ,japan a long way back--long even before ,geoffrey ,chaucer took up his pen to write those immortal lines which ,i fear but comparatively few ,englishmen now read4 ,in reference to this poetry of twelve hundred years ago1 ,mr4 ,aston--perhaps the greatest authority on the subject--remarks3 ,while the eighth century has left us little or no prose literature of importance1 it was emphatically the golden age of poetry4 ,japan has now outgrown the artless effusions described in the preceding chapter1 and during this period produced a body of verse of an excellence which has never since been surpassed4 ,the reader who expects to find this poetry of a nation just emerging from the barbaric stage of culture characterised by rude1 untutored vigour1 will be surprised to learn that1 on the contrary1 it is distinguished by polish rather than power4 ,it is delicate in sentiment and refined in language1 and displays exquisite skill of phrase with a careful adherence to certain canons of composition of its own4 ,i confess my knowledge of the language is insufficient to enable me to read ,japan's literary treasures in the original1 and as ,i have remarked1 no man through the medium of a translation can adequately form a correct opinion respecting any description of foreign literature4 ,i fear1 however1 that modern ,japan is as little concerned with its eighth-century poetry as the modern ,englishman is with that of ,chaucer1 not to speak of those great poets1 most of whom are now forgotten1 who lived long before ,chaucer and whose verses were not only read but sung throughout the length and breadth of the land4 ,in a much later period of the history of the country1 literature was undoubtedly greatly in vogue4 ,there was evolved what ,i may term a distinct literary class1 the language and literature of ,china were diligently studied1 and very much of the literature of this time is written in ,chinese4 ,that language1 indeed1 seems to have been at one period regarded in ,japan very much as ,latin was1 and in some quarters is even still1 regarded in ,europe as the appropriate medium for expressing the most sublime thoughts of the brightest intellects4 ,the fiction of this period1 usually termed the ,heian--and there is plenty of it still in existence--was for the most part written by women1 so that it will be seen the female novelist is not1 as some persons appear to imagine1 a comparatively modern development4 ,after the twelfth century--and most of the literature ,i have referred to is anterior to that--petty wars between the feudal princes appear to have been incessant1 and the whole country was for a great number of years more concerned with fighting than with literature4 ,history or historical romance seems to have been the favourite literary exercitation during this period4 ,a good deal of the literature thereof is still1 ,i understand1 read in ,japan1 especially by its youth1 for whom the stirring episodes embodied in the history and historical romances of these bellicose times seem to have an especial fascination4 ,the ,tokugawa period1 covering the #bgj years during which the ,government of the ,tycoon was installed in ,yeddo1 was one during which literature made great progress in ,japan4 ,those years were a time of profound peace2 the country was cut off from the rest of the world1 thrown in upon itself1 and accordingly had ample leisure1 and possibly much inclination1 to develop its artistic side1 especially in literature4 ,the study of books was prevalent everywhere1 and quite a band of teachers arose in the land whose mission it was to expound its ancient literature1 and exhume for public edification and delectation many of the buried literary treasures of the past4 ,these teachers were not content with mere oral description2 they wrote what would now be termed treatises or commentaries1 many of which show great depth of learning1 by way of expounding and explaining the classics of ,japan with a view of bringing them within the ken of the great mass of the people4 ,this period 7the ,tokugawa7 also had its works of fiction2 it produced many dramas and1 ,i believe1 some1 if not much1 poetry4 ,the romances of this time are1 ,i am told1 written principally for or down to the level of the common people4 ,the classics of ,japan were1 and probably still are1 like the classics of ,greece and ,rome in respect of the mass of the people of this country1 not understood1 and most likely were they1 would not be appreciated4 ,and hence in the ,tokugawa period what ,i may term the popular writer was evolved1 and he turned out1 under a nom-de-plume for the most part1 books for the lower orders4 ,these works are now regarded as somewhat vulgar1 but they are in many respects a mirror of the age in which they were written1 and it is doubtful if they are much coarser in style than some of the novels published in ,england in the eighteenth century4 ,vulgarity1 it must be remembered1 is largely a matter of opinion1 and because either the ,japanese of to-day or the foreigner who has perused1 perhaps in a translation1 this fiction of a couple of centuries back1 dubs it according to the opinion of to-day vulgar1 it by no means follows that it was so considered in ,japan two hundred years back4 ,since the ,revolution of #ahfh it is doubtful if ,japan has produced any distinctive literature4 ,the whole country and all the national modes of thought have been in a state of transition1 a condition of unrest--circumstances not conducive to the production of classical literature2 moreover1 literary ideas and conceptions have changed and are still changing--changing rapidly4 ,the development of a powerful newspaper press must have a marked and far-reaching effect on ,japanese literature4 ,so also must the study of ,western literature by the educated classes--a study which is both extensive and increasing4 ,japanese literature is now undoubtedly in the melting-pot1 so to speak1 and what will be the precise result it is impossible to determine4 ,it must be confessed that the modern ,japanese who has been educated according to ,western methods1 and is adequately acquainted with the languages and literature of ,europe1 is infrequently an admirer of the peculiar literature of his own country4 ,possibly it suffers by comparison4 ,japan has produced no ,dante1 or ,shakespeare1 or ,milton4 ,the moods of her people1 and probably the limitations and peculiarities of the language1 have prevented the possibility of the appearance of such divine geniuses4 ,there is1 its critics declare1 an absence of sustained power and sublimity in ,japanese literature generally1 while the didactic and philosophical1 if not altogether lacking1 is extremely rare therein4 ,but it seems to me the height of absurdity to compare the literature of a country like ,japan with the literature of some other land where everything is1 and always has been1 essentially different4 ,to properly comprehend1 and probably to be able to appreciate ,japanese literature1 it would be necessary to get1 so to speak1 into the atmosphere in which it was produced4 ,to judge it by twentieth-century standards and canons of criticism and from ,european standpoints is not only unfair but must create a totally false impression4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,labour ,,of ,,love ,,from ,a ,,print ,,by ,,toshikata ,in every country which has attained any degree of civilisation1 and even in some countries whose civilisation is still imperfect1 the drama has played an important part1 and ,japan has been no exception to the rule4 ,its dramatic literature is1 ,i believe1 of considerable extent1 and to understand1 much less appreciate it properly would require very profound study4 ,many of the more or less ancient dramas are works not only containing the dialogue of the play but much descriptive matter4 ,they were1 as a matter of fact1 written for theatres in which there were to be not actors but marionettes1 singers being engaged to sing the lines out of sight while the puppets depicted the characters4 ,some of these dramas have1 since they were written1 been adapted for the ordinary stage and the characters portrayed by ,japan's most famous actors4 ,the theatre was long looked down upon and it is only of comparatively recent years that it has been looking up4 ,a large number of persons in this country still appear to be under the impression that there are no actresses on the ,japanese stage4 ,this is1 of course1 a mistake1 caused no doubt by the fact that in ,japanese theatres the female characters in a play are so often impersonated by men4 ,some two or three centuries back actors and actresses used1 as in ,europe1 to play in the same piece1 but this was for some reason or other interdicted1 and ever since there have been companies composed of men and women respectively4 ,in the male companies some of the female parts naturally fell to men and in the female companies the male parts were of necessity depicted by women4 ,of recent years the tendency is to revert to the ancient practice and to come into line with the custom of ,european countries in this matter1 and ere long1 no doubt in ,japanese theatres the female characters will be taken by women and the male characters by men4 ,the theatre has always been a popular institution in ,japan1 and the pieces usually played have very much the same motif as the dramas formerly so popular in this country--the discomfiture of the villain and the triumph of virtue4 ,the ,japanese theatre does not appeal to the ordinary ,european visitor1 or indeed to many ,europeans living in the country4 ,in the first place1 the performance is too long for the ,european taste1 and in the next1 most ,japanese plays are of one kind1 and concerned with one period--the feudal4 ,there is1 moreover1 a plethora of by-play--sword exercise and acrobatic performances--which have nothing whatever to do with the plot of the piece4 ,in fact1 irrelevancy appears to the ,european the chief characteristic of what he sees on the stage of a ,japanese theatre4 ,nor does the play1 as is usual in serious dramas in this country1 revolve round one character1 the hero or heroine4 ,indeed it is not always easy to earmark1 so to speak1 the leading character1 and it is occasionally doubtful in many ,japanese plays whether there is any hero or heroine4 ,but the same remark may be made here as in reference to the literature of the country4 ,it is probably essential to get into the ,japanese atmosphere in order to properly appreciate a ,japanese play4 ,the drama in ,japan at any rate serves1 and so far as ,i have had an opportunity of forming an opinion in the matter1 serves well1 its purpose to interest and amuse the frequenters of the theatres1 besides which the lessons it inculcates are for the most part of a moral nature4 ,the high art of the ,japanese theatre is represented by the ,n1 which ,i suppose fills much the same position as does the ,italian opera in this country4 ,the ,n is1 ,i believe1 very ancient4 ,the written text is sung2 there is a principal and a secondary character and a chorus4 ,the dialogue is as ancient1 some critics say as archaic1 as the time in which the play was written1 and ,i understand it requires being educated up to it in order to fully appreciate the ,n4 ,the ordinary ,japanese would probably just as much fail to comprehend or like it as would the ,englishman from ,mile ,end1 were he taken to ,covent ,garden1 and invited to go into raptures over one of ,mozart's or ,meyerbeer's masterpieces4 ,a performance of the ,n would probably interest those who find excitement in a representation of ,oedipus ,tyrannus1 or some ,greek play4 ,still1 the ,n is appreciated by a large number of the intellectual classes in ,japan1 who find an interest in the representation of this ,japanese opera1 as ,i suppose it may be termed4 ,as ,i have already said1 very much the same remarks made in reference to the literature of ,japan apply to its drama4 ,that country is still in the transition stage1 and both its drama and its literature will undoubtedly be profoundly modified in future years4 ,western literature and ,western dramatic art have already exercised considerable influence1 and there are movements on foot whose object is to replace the old ideas and methods1 especially in the matter of the representation of dramatic works by those which obtain in ,europe and ,america4 ,whether these movements will be successful or not remains to be seen4 ,there is certainly a large body of public opinion not only opposed but antagonistic to them4 ,in spite of the rapid development of ,japan in recent years1 there is a very strong conservative party in the country--a party which1 though it recognises or acquiesces in the desirability of change in many directions1 is not prepared to throw overboard everything because it is old4 ,i sincerely hope that the distinctive literature and dramatic art of the country will not be allowed to die out4 ,japan cannot afford to forget the past with its influences on the national life and character1 influences at work for many ages which have assuredly had a material effect in elevating her to the position she at present occupies4 ,,chapter ,,xvii ,,newspapers ,,in ,,japan ,japan having taken on most of the characteristics and some of the idiosyncracies of ,western civilisation1 has naturally developed a newspaper press of its own4 ,of course newspapers in ,japan are no new thing4 ,mr4 ,kumoto1 editor of the ,japan ,times1 claims for ,japanese journalism an origin as far back as the early part of the seventeenth century4 ,long before1 he remarks1 our doors of seclusion were forced open by the impatient nations of the ,west1 our ancestors had found a device by which they kept themselves in touch with current events and news4 ,the news-sheets of those days were roughly got up1 being printed from wooden blocks hastily purchased for each issue4 ,they were meagre in news1 uncouth in form1 and quite irregular in appearance1 there being no fixed date for publication4 ,neither were they issued by any particular and fixed publisher4 ,anybody could issue them1 and at any time they pleased4 ,these sheets were called ,yomuri1 which1 being translated1 means 'sold by hawking4' ,these ancient newspapers had1 however1 palpably nothing in common with modern journalism1 and anything in the shape of criticism or comment1 or any attempt to guide or mould public opinion was1 of course1 not to be found therein4 ,he would have been a bold man at the beginning of the seventeenth century1 or indeed very much later1 who would have ventured to print and publish anything tending to influence public opinion1 or having the appearance of being a criticism on those in authority4 ,we may take it that for all practical purposes the rise of the native newspaper press of ,japan did not take place till some time after the ,revolution of #ahfh4 ,if its rise has been recent its progress has certainly been rapid4 ,there can be no question that both the rise and development of the vernacular press has been largely influenced by ,english journalism4 ,there have always1 since the opening of the country1 been ,english newspapers in ,japan1 and very admirable newspapers too4 ,one or more ,englishmen have started papers printed in ,japanese1 and although these ventures were not commercially successful1 they1 at any rate1 showed the way for ,japanese journalism4 ,mr4 ,kumoto in his very interesting remarks published in ,stead's ,japan and the ,japanese1 gives an amusing illustration of the somewhat amateur business lines on which the native ,japanese newspapers were at first produced4 ,he quotes the following notice which appeared in one of them3 ,the editors note with satisfaction the growing prosperity of their venture1 and notify their subscribers that in view of the increased labour and trouble entailed on them by their increasing circulation1 the gracious subscribers will kindly spare them the trouble by sending for their copies instead of having them delivered to them as before4 ,there has certainly been a remarkable development in the ,japanese newspaper press since this somewhat jejune announcement was published4 ,tokio at the present time possesses about forty daily newspapers1 and there is hardly a town in the country of any importance that has not one or two papers of its own4 ,there are now more than a thousand magazines and newspapers of various kinds published in the country--a number which yearly increases1 and is certain to increase in the near future to a very much greater extent4 ,but besides newspapers1 ,japan possesses news agencies on somewhat similar lines to those that exist in this country1 whose function it is to supply the press with the latest news on every matter of public and1 ,i am afraid1 sometimes of merely private importance4 ,whether these news agencies perform useful functions either in this country or in ,japan1 is a matter upon which ,i shall express no opinion4 ,news acquired in a hurry in competition with other agencies which exist for a similar purpose1 and purveyed to journals printed in a hurry and read in a hurry1 does not often allow of discrimination being exercised in regard to its circulation4 ,the sensational element in the native press in ,japan is quite as much in evidence as in that of this country4 ,in regard to this kind of literary fare1 the appetite increases with feeding1 if ,i may vary an old ,french proverb1 and the sensational journals of the ,japanese capital are increasing in demand from every part of the country4 ,as to the part which the press of ,japan exercises in moulding public opinion1 ,i confess ,i have not formed any clear idea2 indeed1 it is one upon which it is difficult to come to any conclusion4 ,how far the press there moulds1 and how far it follows public opinion is somewhat problematical4 ,be that as it may1 many of the native papers are vigorously and effectively written1 and indeed many eminent men in ,japan have been either directly or indirectly connected with the press4 ,the newspapers of ,japan differ in this respect from those of this country--that there is a press law there1 and newspapers are in theory1 at any rate1 somewhat more hampered in their criticisms and the publication of news than is the case here4 ,this press law seems to have irritated the ,english more than the vernacular press of ,japan1 especially during the late war4 ,under the provisions of the law1 a warning is always given to an offending newspaper before any official action is taken4 ,the ,english journals in ,japan have1 perhaps not unnaturally1 not so far been able to divest themselves of the idea that they have still extra-territorial rights1 and are consequently justified in publishing any criticisms or news irrespective of the provisions of the press law4 ,newspapers in ,japan do not of course attain such large circulations as some of those in ,england4 ,i do not think there is any paper in the country with a circulation exceeding #ajj1jjj1 and there are only one or two which reach anything like that figure4 ,advertising in ,japan in papers has not attained the same importance as in this country4 ,of course all the journals1 whether daily or weekly1 have a large number of advertisements1 but the non-advertisement portion of the paper forms a greater portion of the whole than is the case here4 ,it may interest some of my readers to know that poetry which has long been tabooed by the press of this country is still a feature in that of ,japan1 and that the novel to be continued in our next1 is also served up for the delectation of ,japanese readers4 ,a free press in a free country is no doubt an admirable institution1 but it has its disadvantages4 ,i need not enumerate them1 as my readers probably know them as well as ,i do myself4 ,indeed1 both in ,england and ,america of late years we have had plenty of object-lessons1 were any needed1 in regard to these disadvantages4 ,the yellow press is a phrase which has now come into general use to denote the certain kind of journalism which lives and thrives by pandering to the desire that so many persons in this world have for morbid sensationalism and the publication of nauseating and shocking details4 ,people who have appetites of this kind are in need of having them perennially gratified1 and accordingly it naturally comes about that the conductors of journals such as ,i have referred to1 if they cannot provide a sufficient quantity of sensationalism true or partly true1 have either to invent it or exaggerate some perhaps innocent or innocuous incident4 ,i am sorry to say that yellow journalism is not only not unknown in ,japan1 but is apparently in a very flourishing condition there4 ,i regret the fact all the more because the people of ,japan are not yet sufficiently educated or enlightened to receive what they read in the newspaper in a sceptical spirit4 ,that educational and enlightening process is only effected by a long course of newspaper reading4 ,even in this country we can remember the time when any statement was implicitly believed because it was in the papers4 ,now some other and better evidence of the truth of any report is needed than the publication thereof in a newspaper4 ,young ,japan will no doubt ere long assimilate this fact1 and when it does the yellow press of ,japan will probably find its clientle a diminishing quantity4 ,i hope my readers will not deduce from these remarks that ,i entertain1 on the whole1 a poor opinion of the native press of ,japan4 ,considering the difficulties it has had to contend with1 ,i consider that the progress it has made during the comparatively few years it has been in existence is as wonderful as anything in the country4 ,and ,i am furthermore of opinion that the influence it exercises is1 on the whole1 a healthy one4 ,it has done a great work in the education of the mass of the ,japanese people in the direction of taking a broader view of life and teaching them that there is a world outside their own particular locality and beyond their own country4 ,and while referring to the newspaper press ,i may also give a meed of praise to the large number of journals and magazines of a literary1 scientific1 and religious nature4 ,the effect of these ably conducted periodicals as an educational influence must be immense4 ,the number of them is gradually growing1 and the support rendered to them serves to show1 were any proof needed1 how profoundly interested the ,japan of to-day is in all those questions1 whether political1 scientific1 religious1 or literary1 which are not the possession of or the subject of discussion among any particular nation but are exercising the minds and consciences of the civilised world4 ,one pleasing feature of the native press of ,japan ,i cannot help referring to1 and that is the friendly sentiments which it almost invariably expresses in regard to ,great ,britain4 ,as ,i have before remarked1 it was this country which in some degree influenced at first the ,japanese press4 ,i am pleased that of late at any rate1 since the somewhat heated agitation in reference to the revision of the treaties has come to an end1 its tone has been almost universally friendly to this country1 and its approval of the alliance between ,japan and ,great ,britain was not only unanimous but enthusiastic4 ,the ,english newspapers in ,japan are still1 as they have always been1 ably conducted journals4 ,captain ,brinkley1 the editor of one of them1 is a great authority on everything connected with ,japan1 and the paper he edits is worthy of all that is best in ,english journalism4 ,at the same time it is hardly necessary to remark that the ,english press in ,japan exercises little or no influence outside the immediate circle it represents4 ,it very naturally looks at everything1 or almost everything1 not from the point of view of the ,japanese but from that of the foreigner in ,japan4 ,it may be truthfully averred of the foreign press that1 considered as a whole1 it has never done anything or attempted to do anything to break down the barriers caused by racial differences4 ,the ,european press in ,japan has in tone always been distinctly anti-,japanese1 and the sentiments which it has expressed and the vigorous1 not to say violent1 language in which those sentiments have been expressed has undoubtedly in the past occasioned much bitterness of feeling among the ,japanese people or that portion of it which either read or heard of those sentiments4 ,the characteristics or idiosyncracies of the people of ,japan were either exaggerated or misrepresented1 and there were not unnaturally reprisals quite as vigorous in the native newspapers4 ,during the war with ,china1 for example1 the attitude of the ,european press was exasperating to a degree--that is1 exasperating to the ,japanese people4 ,there were journals which avowedly took the part of ,china and expressed a desire for ,china's success4 ,the victories of ,japan in the course of the war were sneered at and at first belittled4 ,subsequently1 when the success of ,japan was self-evident1 it was suggested by some of these newspapers that she was suffering from swelled head and was in need of being put in her place and kept there4 ,and1 accordingly1 when certain of the ,european ,powers stepped in and deprived ,japan of the fruits of her victories1 the action of those ,powers was applauded1 and the undoubted sympathy of the ,english people in ,england with ,japan in the matter was derided by ,english editors in ,japan as mere maudlin sentimentality4 ,language of this kind occasioned deep resentment among the people of the country4 ,the foreign press is now1 ,i am glad to say1 saner1 inasmuch as it to some extent recognises facts and the trend of events1 but ,i fear it even still is for the most part representative of a community which regards the ,japanese from the standpoint that most ,europeans in the ,far ,east regard the ,eastern races with whom they are brought in contact4 ,the position of the ,english papers in ,japan has1 ,i should say1 been considerably affected of recent years by the development of the vernacular press4 ,twenty-five years or so ago they were practically the only organs that voiced public opinion of any kind in the country4 ,now they only voice the opinion of a section of the foreign community4 ,a reference to a quarter of a century ago brings up memories of a gentleman connected to some extent with the newspaper press in ,japan of those days4 ,i refer to the late ,mr4 ,wergman1 who owned and edited and filled--,i am not quite certain he did not print--that somewhat extraordinary journal1 the ,yokohama ,punch4 ,it appeared at uncertain intervals1 and it dealt both in print and illustration with various members of the foreign community in ,yokohama and its neighbourhood with a vigour and freedom1 not to say licence1 which would now hardly be tolerated4 ,its proprietor is long since dead1 and so ,i believe is the journal which he owned and whose fitful appearances used to create such a mild excitement among the foreign community in ,yokohama4 ,the functions of the press as a mirror of the times1 as a censor of men and things1 and as a guide and a leader of public opinion are of considerable importance4 ,as ,i have before remarked the press of ,japan is at present if not in its infancy at any rate in its youth4 ,it is accordingly ebullient1 energetic1 optimistic4 ,time will no doubt correct many of its failings4 ,be that as it may1 ,i certainly am of opinion that1 considering everything1 it has attained a wonderful degree of development1 that it has reached a position of great importance in the country as an educational and enlightening influence1 and that all who wish well to ,japan may look upon its future with hope4 ,it will no doubt play an important part as the years roll by in the development of the country and in the holding up before the people of worthy ideals in reference to economic conditions1 material progress1 and the conservation of the prestige and security of the ,japanese ,empire4 ,,chapter ,,xviii ,,japanese ,,morality ,in the ,preface ,i remarked that ,japanese morality was a thorny subject4 ,i use the word morality in its now generally accepted rather than in its absolutely correct meaning4 ,morality1 strictly speaking1 is the practice of moral duties apart from religion or doctrine2 it treats of actions as being right or wrong--is1 in brief1 ethics4 ,the old morality play1 for example1 was not1 as some people seem to suppose1 especially concerned with the relations of the sexes2 it was a drama in which allegorical representations of all the virtues and vices were introduced as dramatis person4 ,however1 words1 like everything else in this world1 change their meaning1 and1 though the dictionary interpretation of morality is1 as ,i have stated it1 colloquially at any rate1 the word has now come for the most part to signify sexual conduct1 and it is in that sense1 as ,i have said1 ,i use it4 ,the subject of the morality of the ,japanese is one that has been much discussed for many years past1 and accordingly is one in regard to which it may be urged that there is little or nothing more to be said4 ,i am not of that opinion4 ,in the first place1 much of the discussion has been simply the mere assertions of men1 or sometimes of women1 who either did not have the opportunity1 or else had not the inclination1 to investigate matters for themselves1 and were therefore largely dependent on the hearsay evidence of not always unprejudiced persons4 ,or they sometimes jumped to very pronounced and erroneous conclusions from extremely imperfect observation or information4 ,let me take as an example in point1 a lady1 now dead1 who wrote many charming books of travel--the late ,mrs4 ,bishop1 better known as ,miss ,bird4 ,in her journeyings through the country ,miss ,bird relates in ,unbeaten ,tracks in ,japan1 that she passed through a wide street in which the houses were large and handsome and open in front4 ,their highly polished floors and passages1 she remarks1 looked like still water1 the kakemonos1 or wall pictures1 on their side-walls were extremely beautiful1 and their mats were very fine and white4 ,there were large gardens at the back with fountains and flowers1 and streams1 crossed by light stone bridges1 sometimes flowed through the houses4 ,the lady1 who was on the look-out for a resting-place1 not unnaturally expressed a desire to put up at one of these delightful sylvan retreats1 but her native attendant informed her that was impossible1 as they were kashitsukeyas1 or tea-houses of a disreputable character4 ,miss ,bird1 on the strength of this information1 thought it incumbent upon herself to pronounce the somewhat sweeping judgment that there is much even on the surface to indicate vices which degrade and enslave the manhood of ,japan4 ,such a statement is1 of course1 the merest clap-trap1 but even were it true1 it might be permissible to remark that if vice exists it is surely better for it to be on than beneath the surface4 ,such vice as does exist in ,japan is1 in my opinion1 distinctly on the surface1 and ,i have no hesitation in describing the morals of the ,japanese people to be1 on the whole1 greatly superior to those of ,western nations4 ,there can1 ,i think1 be no question that a large number of ,european people have formed their estimate of ,japanese women either from a visit to a comic opera such as ,the ,geisha1 or from a perusal of a book like ,pierre ,loti's fascinating work1 ,madame ,chrysanthme4 ,this is in effect the story of a liaison between a man and a ,japanese girl of the lower classes1 with1 of course1 a large amount of local colouring1 and rendered generally charming by the writer's brilliant literary style4 ,unfortunately1 that large number of ,europeans who have never visited ,japan have taken the ,french academician's study of a girl of a certain class as a life picture of the typical ,japanese woman who is1 accordingly1 deemed to be more or less1 to use an accepted euphemism1 a person of easy virtue4 ,nothing could1 of course1 be more erroneous1 no conclusion further from the truth4 ,the remarks of ,mr4 ,arthur ,diosy in his book1 ,the ,new ,far ,east1 on this head are so much to the point in reference to the utter misconception of even many visitors to ,japan in the matter of the chastity of the average ,japanese women that ,i venture to transcribe them3 ,has it not been repeated to him 7the globe-trotter7 that these people have no conception of virtue or of modesty8 ,so he frequently treats the maids at the inn1 the charming human humming-birds who wait upon him at the tea-house1 and the ,geisha summoned to entertain him1 with a cavalier familiarity that would infallibly lead to his summary expulsion from any well-regulated hotel or public-house1 or other places of public entertainment at home1 did he dare to show such want of respect to a chambermaid or to one of the haughty fair ones serving at a bar4 ,he means no harm in nine cases out of ten2 he has been told that ,japanese girls don't mind what you say to them1 and as to the tea-house girls1 well1 they are no better than they should be 444 but they are good little women1 as capable of guarding their virtue as any in the world1 and it saddens one to think how often they endure1 from a feeling of consideration for the foreigner who does not know any better1 they pityingly think1 cavalier treatment they would not submit to from a ,japanese4 ,having said so much ,i feel ,i am free to admit that a somewhat different standard of morality does obtain in ,japan to that which exists1 or is supposed to exist1 among ,occidental nations4 ,after all1 morality is to some extent a matter of convention1 and a people must1 ,i suggest1 be judged rather by the way in which it lives up to its standard than by the standard itself1 which among some ,western nations is not always strictly observed4 ,the whole subject of morality between the sexes is one upon which a portly volume might be written4 ,the sexual relations have been affected by many circumstances1 some of them entirely conventional and having little or nothing to do with morality as such1 while poetry and romance and sentiment have been allowed to complicate1 and still render difficult a dispassionate consideration of the whole matter4 ,macaulay in one of his essays has observed that the moral principle of a woman is frequently more impaired by a single lapse from virtue than that of a man by twenty years of intrigue4 ,he explains this seeming paradox by asserting that a vice sanctioned by the general opinion is merely a vice1 while a vice condemned by the general opinion produces a pernicious effect on the whole character4 ,one1 says ,macaulay1 is a local malady1 the other is a constitutional taint4 ,i have quoted the famous historian in this connection because his observations are1 ,i think1 illustrative of my contention1 viz41 that morality is largely a matter of convention1 sanctioned or condemned by what ,macaulay terms the general opinion4 ,i frankly admit that prostitution has never been regarded in ,japan as it is1 or is affected to be1 in this and other ,european countries4 ,in ancient days the public women of the capital and the large towns were as famous as in ,athens of old1 and were regarded as amongst the best educated and best mannered of their sex4 ,the ,japanese have ever looked upon prostitution as what is termed a necessary evil1 and they have always sought to regulate and supervise it with a view of obviating those evils1 terrible in their consequences1 which are frequently the result of permitting it to go unchecked4 ,and accordingly the ,yoshiwara has long been a recognised institution in every considerable town in the country1 the ,yoshiwara being that particular portion of the town in which prostitutes are alone permitted to reside4 ,there is1 so far as ,i know1 no prostitution outside the ,yoshiwara1 and the inmates thereof are subject to a rigorous supervision and inspection1 medical and otherwise1 which has produced excellent results4 ,the inmates of the ,yoshiwara are not recruited as are the similar class in the ,west4 ,here the unfortunate usually plies her trade as a dernier ressort4 ,in a moment of temptation she has gone wrong1 as the phrase goes1 the fact becomes public1 she is too often cold-shouldered and hustled even by her immediate relations1 and her downward progress is swift and certain4 ,nor is there for her1 except in rare cases1 any chance of rehabilitation4 ,she is too hopeless to exclaim ,resurgam6 and if in an optimistic frame of mind she did so purpose she would find the consummation difficult if not impossible4 ,she is1 in a word1 on the way to irretrievable ruin and a shameful end1 and she knows it4 ,such is1 as ,i have said1 not the case in ,japan4 ,the lot of the prostitute there has never been regarded with the loathing which it excites in this country4 ,houses of ill-fame were1 and are still1 recruited not from those whose previous lapse from virtue has rendered no other mode of livelihood possible than that from immorality1 but by those whom stern necessity has driven to the step as a means either of supporting themselves or of assisting parents or their near relatives4 ,such a sacrifice--a terrible sacrifice1 ,i admit--has in ,japan never been regarded with horror1 but as in a sense laudable4 ,the finger of scorn must not be pointed at a woman who has voluntarily sacrificed what women hold most dear1 not from lust or from the desire of leading a gay life or pampering or adorning the body1 but perhaps to save father or kin from ruin or starvation4 ,the ,yoshiwara has1 of course1 other recruits1 but in the main its inmates are not the victims of lust but of self-sacrifice4 ,there is too often a whole tragedy in the story of a ,japanese girl of this kind1 and it is deplorable when the self-righteous ,european comes along and points the finger of scorn at her4 ,i am aware that though not despised1 as in this country1 the lot of the inmate of the ,yoshiwara is often1 if not always1 a horrible one4 ,she is1 as a rule1 sold1 or sells herself1 for a lump sum of money to which amount is added the cost of her outfit1 usually as much as the price paid to the woman or her relatives4 ,until this amount was worked off--and the accounts were1 of course1 not over accurately kept--the woman was to all intents the chattel of her master4 ,this has1 undoubtedly1 for many centuries been the custom of the country4 ,i am glad1 however1 to be able to state that quite recently the highest court in ,japan has decided that1 whatever custom may have decreed1 the law gives1 and will give1 no sanction to any such custom4 ,a girl confined in the ,yoshiwara was forcibly taken away therefrom4 ,the owner of the house in which she resided1 as her debt had not been liquidated1 considered he had a lien upon her1 and he invoked the aid of the law to assist him to assert what he considered to be his rights and retake possession of the girl4 ,the case was strenuously fought and taken to several courts1 with the result ,i have stated4 ,this decision will probably have far-reaching effects and declaring1 as it does1 that the inmates of the ,yoshiwara are not slaves or chattels1 it is to be cordially welcomed4 ,the assertion of ,miss ,bird1 already referred to1 that the manhood of ,japan is enslaved and degraded by vice is one which ,i have no hesitation in describing as gross exaggeration4 ,vice1 of course1 there is in ,japan1 vice of various kinds and degrees1 but the ordinary ,japanese man is not1 in my opinion1 nearly so immoral as the average ,european4 ,the chastity of the ,japanese woman ,i place still higher4 ,the fact1 already stated1 that the inmates of the ,yoshiwara are not generally recruited from those who have lapsed from virtue might be urged in proof of this4 ,nor is the fact that prostitution is not in ,japan regarded with the same loathing as in this country1 in my opinion1 to be taken as any evidence of an immoral tone4 ,the ideas that obtain on the matter1 in ,japan at any rate1 hold out the possibility of moral redemption for the inmates of the ,yoshiwara1 and as a matter of fact many women in ,japan who1 through the force of compulsion1 have entered this place1 frequently marry1 and marry well1 and subsequently live absolutely chaste lives4 ,the standard of morality among the married women of ,japan is1 ,i may remark1 high1 and is rarely lowered4 ,i hope ,i shall not shock my readers if ,i remark that ,i consider the stringent regulations that exist in ,japan as to the supervision of the ,yoshiwara in many respects admirable4 ,it will probably surprise many persons to learn that the high state of organisation in regard to everything connected with the superintendence of these places1 as also the development of lock hospitals1 is largely due to the zeal and exertions of the late ,dr4 ,g4 ,birnie ,hill1 of the ,royal ,navy1 who was for many years lent by the ,admiralty to the ,japanese ,government for that purpose4 ,under his auspices a stringent system of medical supervision was organised1 which has been attended with excellent results in the direction of stamping out and obviating diseases which1 ,i may observe1 are of foreign importation4 ,i know that the existence of any system of medical inspection will1 in the estimate of a large number of estimable men and women in this country1 be regarded as proof positive of the immorality of the ,japanese4 ,we mustn't recognise vice1 is their contention4 ,i am of opinion1 on the contrary1 that we should either recognise vice and restrict1 restrain1 and regulate it1 or else make vice illegal1 as the ,puritans did1 and fine or imprison both men and women addicted to it4 ,i could understand either of these two courses1 but ,i must confess that ,i altogether fail to fathom the state of mind of those persons who adopt neither opinion1 but either assert or infer that in the name of religion1 morality1 modesty1 and many other commendable things1 we should permit our streets and thoroughfares to be infested by women plying their immoral trade with all the resultant consequences4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,eternal ,,feminine ,,from ,a ,,print ,,by ,,toshikata ,as ,i stated at the commencement of this chapter1 a nation should be judged not only by its standard of morality but by the degree in which it lives up to or falls short of that standard4 ,judged by this1 surely the fairest1 the only fair1 rule1 ,japan has every reason to be considered a moral country4 ,those shocking crimes which appear to be the outcome of either the aberration or the inversion of the sexual instincts are almost unknown there4 ,nor do ,i consider that the public estimate of prostitution on the whole makes for immorality4 ,if an evil exist1 and prostitution is undoubtedly an evil1 it is surely better to regulate it than to affect to be oblivious of it4 ,the ,japanese attitude towards prostitution at any rate leaves a door open for the woman who has1 from whatever the reason1 lapsed from the paths of virtue to return thereto4 ,this appears to my mind to be a more satisfactory state of things than the continual harrying and worrying of prostitutes in the name of indignant virtue and the driving of them on the streets4 ,the aspect of the great thoroughfares of ,london1 especially by night1 does not give the ,oriental visitor thereto a high idea of ,english morality4 ,it is1 nevertheless1 an extraordinary fact that the ,englishman or the ,englishwoman who has mayhap lived in ,london most of his or her life1 when he or she visits ,japan in the course of1 perhaps1 a round the world trip in ninety days1 and learns that there is in each ,japanese town a ,yoshiwara1 the inmates of which are subject to supervision and regulation1 lifts up his or her hands in holy horror1 returns home with a virtuous indignation1 and has no hesitation in henceforth declaring1 whether in speech or writing1 that the ,japanese are a grossly immoral people4 ,the average ,japanese is1 very rightly in my opinion1 indignant at the constant assertions of writers1 well or ill-informed1 that his country is essentially immoral4 ,he is not only indignant but astounded4 ,he has1 if he has been to this country1 seen here much that has not tended to impress him with the belief that the ,english people are themselves in a position to dogmatise on this vexed question of morality4 ,he is1 if he has visited the great cities and towns of ,great ,britain1 by no means convinced that the action of ,japan in establishing a ,yoshiwara whose inmates are under proper supervision1 medical and otherwise1 is not better from every point of view1 that of morality included1 than turning loose women into the streets to accost every passer-by and place temptations in the way of youth4 ,on the other hand1 the ,japanese who has not left his own country1 but is of an observant nature and of a logical disposition1 fails to comprehend why the ,european in ,europe should dogmatise upon and affect to be disgusted with what he terms the immorality of the ,japanese4 ,the ,japanese who has lived all his life in his own country has had ample opportunities for studying the ,europeans resident there1 and ,i fear he has not always been impressed by their high moral tone or their ultra-moral conduct4 ,i might say much more upon that head1 but ,i shall refrain4 ,i conclude this chapter by reiterating the expression of my belief that the ,japanese are1 when rightly considered1 a moral people4 ,they have their own code of morals1 and they act up to it4 ,there are few nations of whom as much could be said4 ,,chapter ,,xix ,,japan ,,and ,,china ,the results of the war between ,russia and ,japan seem to have caused a large number of persons to work themselves into a state of incipient panic regarding what has been graphically1 if not quite correctly1 termed the yellow peril4 ,japan1 a nation of some #dg1jjj1jjj people1 had thrown down the gauntlet and totally defeated1 both by land and sea1 one of the great military ,powers of the world4 ,japan had done all this as a result of some quarter of a century spent in modelling and training her ,army and ,navy on ,european lines1 and adopting ,european arms of destruction4 ,of course1 so argued the panic-mongers1 ,china must be impressed by such an object-lesson--,china1 which has for so many years past been1 and is still being1 squeezed by the ,european ,powers4 ,the result of ,japan's triumph would inevitably be1 so we were asked to believe1 that ,china would invite the former to organise the ,chinese ,army and ,navy on ,japanese lines4 ,as the outcome thereof1 a nation1 not of forty1 but of four hundred millions1 would be trained to arms1 and1 if the ,chinese raw material proved as good as the ,japanese1 a nation so powerful1 if it proceeded ,west on conquest bent1 would carry everything before it1 and1 unlike the last ,eastern invaders of ,europe1 the ,turks1 would be unlikely to be stopped on its onward course at ,vienna4 ,the ,german ,emperor was amongst those who have voiced the cry of the yellow peril4 ,he does not1 however1 appear to have cast himself for the part of ,john ,sobieski1 with ,berlin instead of ,vienna as the decisive battle-ground4 ,the persons who have so argued and have attempted to raise this silly cry of the yellow peril1 with a view of alarming ,europe were1 ,i think1 merely the victims of an exuberant imagination4 ,their facts have no existence save in the realms of fancy1 and as they reasoned from faulty premises on imperfect or erroneous information1 their conclusions were1 as might have been expected1 not only inaccurate1 but absurdly ludicrous4 ,there is no yellow peril1 no prospect whatever of it1 either present or remote4 ,the attitude of ,china1 that vast though heterogeneous nation1 is1 since the close of the ,russo-,japanese ,war1 ,i admit1 one of the most intense interest4 ,some persons may consider that in a book about ,japan any other than a passing reference to ,china is out of place1 and that1 moreover1 for me to deal with the attitude of ,china is to wander into political regions--a peripatetic proceeding ,i deprecated in the ,preface4 ,i am of opinion1 however1 that it is impossible to thoroughly understand ,japan and to appreciate the attitude of that country to the ,western ,powers without some remarks respecting the present and prospective relations of ,china and ,japan4 ,i also think that some consideration of this bogey of the yellow peril is not only out of place but indispensable in order to form a correct idea of the precise effect of recent events in the ,far ,east and the possible outcome of them4 ,to any person who has closely studied ,far ,eastern problems the attitude of ,china since the close of the war between ,japan and ,russia is in no way surprising2 the forces that have long been steadily at work in that ancient ,empire are now only attaining any degree of development4 ,there is nothing1 in my opinion1 in the history of the world more dramatic than the way in which ,china has waited4 ,that country is now1 ,i believe1 about to show that the waiting policy has been a sound one1 and ,i am confident it will eventually prove triumphant4 ,in #aijj ,i expressed in print the opinion that not a single acre of ,japanese soil would ever be permitted to be annexed by a foreign country2 ,i spoke of the policy of ,china for the ,chinese1 and remarked that that principle and policy had been repeated throughout the length and breadth of that vast ,empire1 and had been absorbed1 as it were1 into the very marrow of its people4 ,it is in many respects interesting and curious1 indeed almost comical1 the manner in which that lesson has been driven home upon the ,chinese4 ,russia has always been to them a powerful1 persistent1 and aggressive neighbour1 a more formidable aggressor1 indeed1 because perhaps nearer1 than any of the other ,powers of ,europe1 whom ,i am sorry to say ,china has always looked upon very much as the substantial householder regards the burglar4 ,now that ,japan has tried conclusions with ,russia and has soundly thrashed the latter1 great1 slumbering ,china1 proud1 conservative1 but supremely conscious of its latent resources1 has been waking up4 ,the ,chinese1 as a matter of fact1 have very little veneration1 respect1 or esteem1 for their ,japanese neighbours4 ,the former plume themselves on being the aristocrats of the ,east1 and they reason1 with some show of plausibility1 that if the upstart ,japanese have been able to so thoroughly rout the ,russian forces the potential possibilities of ,china on the warpath are enormous4 ,every thoughtful student of the ,east has looked forward to what ,i may term the ,japanisation of ,china as one of the inevitable results of the recent conflict in the ,far ,east4 ,to a certain extent the ,japanisation of ,china has commenced1 but at the same time one cannot be oblivious of the fact that the ,chinese1 with their traditions and sense of self-importance1 have not the slightest intention of slavishly following in the lead of those islanders whom they have always contemned1 but mean to strike out a line for themselves4 ,if what we believe to be civilisation is to be developed in ,china1 it will be developed by the ,chinese themselves4 ,if they are going to possess railways1 telegraphs1 telephones1 and all the machinery of that material advancement which we call progress1 and sometimes civilisation1 the ,chinese themselves will be the importers and adapters and1 in due course1 the manufacturers thereof4 ,now that the great fight in the ,far ,east is over1 it certainly looks as if the ,chinese at last realised the fact that development is an inevitable necessity4 ,the master-spirits in the country have assuredly come to the conclusion1 possibly with regret1 that ,china can no longer remain in that delightful state of isolation which permitted every man in the ,empire to spend the arc of his life1 from his cradle to his grave1 in a state of restful security4 ,china is1 in spite of herself1 and certainly against the inclinations of the mass of the populace1 being swept into the maelstrom of struggle now that the people1 or rather their leaders1 realise the position4 ,their attitude seems to me to be magnificent4 ,if railways have to be made they will be made by the ,chinese2 the concessions already granted must--this is the universal feeling--be bought back1 even at a profit1 from those who have acquired them1 by the ,chinese themselves4 ,not one new concession must1 on any pretence whatever1 ever again be granted to a foreigner4 ,and if this ,western civilisation is to be forced upon the ,chinese1 they intend to take it with all its attendant precautions4 ,they are naturally a peaceful and unaggressive people1 but they have grasped the fact that1 as a strong man armed is in the best position to safeguard his house1 however peaceful his individual proclivities may be1 so too1 if a nation is to defend its territory and its territorial wealth against spoliation1 it must be armed for that purpose4 ,for many years past ,great ,britain and ,france and other countries have been sending missionaries to ,china to expound to the ,chinese people those sublime doctrines enunciated in the ,sermon on the ,mount4 ,the ,chinese have diagnosed1 from the acts of the ,european ,powers generally as well as from the actions of individual ,europeans resident in ,china1 the precise value to be attached to ,christianity4 ,for purely defensive purposes ,china will have almost immediately an ,army which has been effectively described by the ,times correspondent as being able to relieve the ,european ,powers of any anxiety respecting the integrity of the ,chinese ,empire4 ,people who have not visited the ,far ,east1 and who entirely derive their opinions and information in regard thereto from the newspapers1 cannot possibly realise what effect the policy of the ,european ,powers has had upon nations like ,china and ,japan4 ,a professedly ,christian country like ,great ,britain going to war to force the sale of opium on a people who did not want to be debauched2 a power like ,germany annexing ,kiaochao as a golgotha for two murdered priests--proceedings such as these1 and there have been many such during the last forty or fifty years1 have been taken seriously to heart by the ,far ,eastern races1 whether in ,china or ,japan4 ,all the time the ,occidental ,powers1 with a total lack of any sense of humour1 have persisted in sending missionaries to these people to inculcate doctrines which are the very antitheses of the practices of ,european nations to these people whom it is sought to convert4 ,it would be1 in my opinion1 nothing more than the outcome of eternal justice if this great big1 old1 sleepy ,china1 which has been for so many years pricked and prodded and despoiled1 were at length to take up arms for a great revenge4 ,but ,china1 if my prevision be correct1 is going to do nothing of the kind4 ,what she does mean to do is simply to keep ,china for the ,chinese4 ,she is not1 as so many persons imagined and still imagine would be the case1 going to be led as a powerful ox with a ,japanese driver4 ,chinese students are in hundreds in ,japan1 learning from that country all that the ,japanese have acquired from ,europe4 ,young1 alert1 capable men ,i found them without exception1 sucking the brains of all that is best in ,japan precisely as the ,japanese have sucked the brains of all that is best in ,europe for their own objects and to their own advantage4 ,the immediate danger in ,china seems1 so far as ,i can judge1 to be that the anti-foreign feeling1 which is undoubtedly intense especially in the south of the ,empire1 may come to a head any day and prematurely explode4 ,the nincompoops and quidnuncs and newspaper men ravenous for copy who prate about a yellow peril may1 in this latter fact1 find some slight excuse for their blatant lucubrations4 ,there is no real yellow peril4 ,poor old ,china1 which has been so long slumbering1 is just rousing herself and making arrangements for defence against the white peril1 materialistic civilisation1 and misrepresented ,christianity4 ,the only yellow peril that ,i have been able to diagnose is the peril to the trade of ,europe and the ,united ,states of ,america with ,china--a peril that appears to me to be imminent4 ,that ,japan intends to capture a large1 indeed the largest1 proportion of that trade ,i am firmly convinced4 ,that she will succeed in effecting her object ,i have not the slightest doubt4 ,at the present moment only about #e per cent4 of the imports into ,china are from ,japan1 the remainder being either from ,india1 ,europe1 or ,america4 ,situated in close contiguity to ,china1 having assimilated everything of importance not only in regard to the employment but the manufacture of machinery from ,europe and the ,united ,states1 possessing an industrious and intelligent population1 ,japan is quite obviously in a magnificent position to supply ,china1 and supply her on much better terms1 with the greater number of those commodities which ,china now has to import either from ,europe or ,america4 ,japan1 as ,i have said1 intends to lay herself out to capture the major portion of this trade2 she is quite justified in doing so1 and there is every reason to suppose that she will attain her object4 ,that the ,chinese students who have come to ,japan and are flocking there month by month in increasing numbers1 with a thirst for knowledge and a desire to assimilate all those ,western influences and ideas and aids that have placed ,japan in her present prominent position among the nations1 when they1 in due course1 return to their own country1 will of a certainty exercise a considerable influence therein1 there can be no doubt4 ,i also feel sure that ,japan will render considerable assistance to ,china in regard to the remodelling and reorganisation of the ,chinese ,army and ,navy4 ,it is as certain as anything in this uncertain world that before very many years have elapsed the naval and military forces of ,china will undergo as great a transformation as those of ,japan have undergone4 ,i believe1 and ,i may say that this belief is shared by a number of naval and military men who have had practical opportunities for forming an opinion in the matter1 that the raw material existing in ,china for the making of an effective and efficient ,army and ,navy is as good as that in ,japan4 ,we know that the late ,general ,gordon1 who had excellent opportunities for arriving at a sound conclusion in the matter1 expressed himself in glowing terms in regard to the capabilities of the ,chinaman as a soldier were he properly trained1 organised1 and officered4 ,but that ,china1 any more than ,japan1 entertains ambitious military projects ,i utterly disbelieve4 ,the only aspiration of ,china as regards ,europe is--to be let alone4 ,she fears1 as she has every reason to fear1 ,european aggression4 ,she has had ample experience in the past that the flimsiest pretexts have been utilised for the purpose of filching her territory and exacting from her pecuniary fines under the name of indemnities4 ,we know by a recent incident that the indemnity exacted from ,china by this country in respect of the ,boxer rebellion was not really required for the ostensible purposes for which it was imposed4 ,a large proportion of it lay at the ,bank of ,england unappropriated1 and eventually was attached by a rapacious ,chancellor of the ,exchequer for the purpose of alleviating the burdens of the ,british taxpayer4 ,china is determined to have no more incidents such as this in the future1 and the ,russo-,japanese ,war has given her occasion for serious thought in the matter as well as pointed an obvious moral4 ,as a result of her cogitations1 she has concluded that the most effective means she can take in the direction of preserving the inviolability of her territory and preventing the exaction of periodical monetary tributes on the part of foreign ,powers1 is to establish a strong and efficient ,army and ,navy4 ,as a matter of fact1 ,i consider that in so determining ,china is acting not only in her own interests1 but in the interests of the ,great ,powers of ,europe4 ,not very many years ago that excellent sailor1 ,lord ,charles ,beresford1 wrote a book entitled1 somewhat too previously1 ,the ,break-up of ,china4 ,in selecting a title for his work ,lord ,charles without doubt voiced the opinion prevalent1 not only in this country but in ,europe1 at the time he wrote it4 ,the statesmen of nearly all the foreign ,powers then seemed to have arrived at the conclusion that the scramble for ,china was imminent and1 utilising their experience from what took place when the scramble for ,africa was effected twenty years ago1 they began apportioning in advance the territory that ought to fall to their lot4 ,in this matter1 however1 they were wofully mistaken2 the diplomatic physicians of the world may have diagnosed the symptoms quite accurately1 but the patient surprised them all in regard to the course of the disease and her recuperative powers4 ,there will be no break-up of ,china1 and consequently we are not likely to witness any scramble for ,china4 ,there has undoubtedly been an awakening of ,china1 an awakening to her danger1 to a sense of the extent to which her interests were imperilled4 ,she wants1 as ,i have said1 to be severely left alone1 and she is determined as far as possible to effect that consummation4 ,the men of light and leading in ,china know perfectly well that they cannot now1 even if they would1 shut their country against ,european trade1 ,european residents1 ,european visitors4 ,they are prepared to accept all these1 but they will not have ,european interference4 ,china is determined to work out her own destiny or salvation1 call it which you will1 and ,japan is both willing and anxious to give her all possible assistance in that direction4 ,the yellow peril bogey is1 in my opinion1 the silliest and most absurd cry that has ever been put forward by responsible persons4 ,,chapter ,,xx ,,europeans ,,in ,,japan ,like everything else in ,japan1 the status and position of the foreigner have been materially changed1 in fact revolutionised1 of recent years4 ,when the country was1 in the first instance1 opened after its long period of isolation from the rest of the world1 treaties were signed with ,great ,britain1 the ,united ,states1 ,france1 and nearly all the other ,european ,powers1 whereby ,japan agreed to open seven ports1 subsequently known as treaty ports1 to foreign trade in which ports foreigners were to be permitted to reside and to carry on their business4 ,foreigners were at the same time--not by the wish of the ,japanese ,government1 but as the outcome of the pressure put upon ,japan by the various ,powers--granted extra-territorial rights1 that is to say they were exempt from the jurisdiction of the ,japanese courts of law4 ,this being the case foreign courts were constituted in ,japan with jurisdiction over the subjects of the nation which set up the court4 ,in these courts foreigners sued and were sued1 and crimes committed by and against foreigners were tried4 ,as regards ,great ,britain a ,supreme ,court for ,china and ,japan was constituted whose headquarters were at ,shanghai4 ,there were ,consular ,courts and a very involved kind of legal procedure generally established1 mostly by ,order in ,council1 which ,i need not consider in detail as it is now effete4 ,there was1 moreover1 as regards ,great ,britain at any rate1 a ,bar practising in these courts1 one member of which1 ,mr4 ,f4 ,v4 ,dickins1 is justly remembered not for his forensic but for his literary efforts in the direction of depicting the inner life of the ,japanese people4 ,into these foreign courts all the jargon1 the quips and quibbles of ,english law were imported4 ,these courts were1 not unnaturally1 an eyesore to the ,japanese people4 ,i may observe in passing that these extra-territorial courts still exist in ,china1 and though the ,supreme ,court of ,china and ,japan has been shorn of that part of its title which refers to ,japan it remains1 and is likely for some time longer to remain1 the supreme legal tribunal of the ,english residents in the ,chinese ,empire4 ,but besides extra-territorial courts there were extra-territorial post-offices4 ,the ,english1 the ,american1 and1 ,i think1 the ,french ,governments had post-offices in ,japan which transacted postal duties of all kinds just as if they had been in ,london1 ,new ,york1 and ,paris instead of in a foreign country4 ,there may have been some excuse for this in the early days2 but these foreign post-offices remained until quite recently1 depriving ,japan of a portion of her revenue at a time when she had developed a magnificent postal service of her own4 ,over and above foreign courts and post-offices there were actually foreign municipal bodies4 ,a certain amount of ground at the treaty ports was constituted a foreign settlement wherein the foreigners resided4 ,within these settlements a municipal council was formed1 which regulated everything therein4 ,in these settlements the ,japanese ,government had no more power or authority than they had in ,battersea4 ,these settlements were in effect foreign territory on the ,japanese soil1 to use what seems to be a paradox4 ,in exchange for the privilege of extra-territoriality granted to foreign residents in ,japan1 they were placed under restrictions4 ,these included not being able to travel in the country outside a radius of #be miles from the treaty ports unless provided with passports1 which1 ,i may remark1 there was never any difficulty in obtaining1 and not being permitted to live beyond the same radius4 ,foreigners engaged in trade in ,japan had a great advantage in regard to a very low scale of customs duties1 not more than #e per cent4 ad valorem1 but they were strictly prohibited from owning land4 ,this system of extra-territoriality was extremely unpopular with the whole of the ,japanese people1 and a constant movement was in force in the country for the abrogation of what the ,japanese considered an invidious distinction and in the direction of making every person who voluntarily took up residence in ,japan answerable to the law of the land and under the jurisdiction of the ,japanese courts4 ,the revenue of the country was also1 of course1 injuriously effected by the post-office privileges already referred to as well as by the differential treatment of foreigners in regard to import duties4 ,as was to be expected1 any proposal for the abolition of extra-territorial rights and the revision of the regulations in regard to import duties met with a strenuous opposition from the foreign residents in ,japan4 ,on the other hand1 it must be confessed that the ,japanese people opposed any compromise in the direction of granting foreigners facilities in return for the privileges that were asked to be waived4 ,the proposal to allow foreigners to own land was vigorously inveighed against4 ,so was a suggestion to establish mixed courts--the kind of compromise1 by the way1 which would probably have equally irritated foreigners and natives4 ,it is1 ,i think1 satisfactory to be able to relate that in the end and after many years of agitation it was the ,british ,government which took the initiative in the matter1 and some ten or twelve years ago concluded a treaty with ,japan wherein the privileges of ,english courts1 ,european municipalities1 and differential import duties were abandoned1 while in return proprietary rights1 except in regard to land1 were granted to foreigners4 ,there are1 mayhap1 some persons at the present day who are not aware of the fact that for a good many years after ,japan was to a limited extent opened to foreigners several of the ,powers retained an armed force in that country for the protection of foreign residents4 ,great ,britain1 for instance1 had a large number of marines at ,yokohama4 ,the presence of these troops was extremely unpalatable to the ,japanese authorities1 but of course pleasing to the foreign residents1 who opposed their withdrawal just as they opposed the abrogation of extra-territoriality4 ,i am afraid the reason for the removal of this armed force as far as ,great ,britain was concerned was economic rather than founded on any particular principle4 ,be that as it may1 in #ahgc ,japan was successful in assuring the ,british ,government that she was able and prepared to protect all foreigners residing in the country1 and in that year the last foreign soldier was withdrawn from ,japanese territory4 ,those who remember the agitation--and a very fierce and noisy and provocative agitation it was--in opposition to the revision of ,japan's treaties with the foreign ,powers with a view of getting rid of extra-territoriality will have a lively recollection of the pessimistic forebodings of the speakers and writers in reference to the future of the foreign community in that country were the exclusive privileges they then enjoyed taken away from them4 ,the gentlemen who uttered these sentiments were no doubt sincerely convinced of their truth1 but ,i am glad to be able to relate that time has shown them to have been false prophets4 ,there may be1 and no doubt are1 foreigners in ,japan who bemoan the good old days1 but ,i am confident that the great mass of the foreign community now recognises the fact that the revision of the treaties and the withdrawal of extra-territorial privileges were inevitable and that no evil results have ensued in consequence4 ,the ,japanese courts of law have neither terrorised nor oppressed foreigners4 ,they have1 on the contrary1 sought to hold the scales of justice evenly1 and ,i believe that these courts now enjoy1 as ,i am sure they deserve1 the fullest confidence in their integrity and justice of every foreigner residing in the country4 ,i have noticed a tendency on the part of writers on ,japan to refer to the foreign community in that ,empire as if it were a community bound together by some particular principle and working in unison for some definite object4 ,of course such a view is nonsensical4 ,the foreign community in ,japan1 in which for the purpose of my remarks ,i do not include the ,chinese1 is one composed of a large number of nationalities which have very little in common1 and amongst whom a good deal of rivalry prevails4 ,it may have been that when the question of revising the treaties was being keenly agitated1 self-interest1 or what was deemed to be self-interest1 occasioned a sort of fictitious unity among foreigners1 but at the present time1 so far as my observation has gone1 there is very little real unity among the foreigners in ,japan4 ,the ,english1 of course1 predominate in numbers1 and they have also the major portion of the trade in their hands4 ,whether such a condition of things will much longer obtain is a moot question4 ,i am of opinion1 as ,i have elsewhere indicated1 that the trade of ,japan will very largely pass into the hands of the ,japanese themselves1 and that the foreign element in ,japan is accordingly not only unlikely to increase in number but is almost certain to diminish4 ,in the early days when ,japan was first opened to the ,western world and ,english traders went there to push their commodities1 we heard a good deal about the peculiar ethics of ,japanese commercial morality4 ,the ,european merchant either was1 or affected to be1 shocked at the loose commercial code of honour of those with whom he was brought into contact in ,japan1 and he expressed himself accordingly4 ,however much or little ground there may have been for these accusations many years ago ,i am not in a position to judge4 ,in forming any opinion in this matter1 if that opinion is to be correct1 it is1 ,i think1 essential to remember the conditions of society in ,japan when it was first opened to ,european trade4 ,in old ,japan there were four recognised classes of society--the ,samurai1 the farmers1 the artisans1 and the merchants4 ,the last two were somewhat looked down upon by the others4 ,it is1 accordingly1 hardly to be wondered at that the condition of industry and commerce was the least satisfactory feature in the initial stages of national development4 ,despised alike by the gentry and the peasantry1 the traders were in a somewhat sorry plight when ,japan was thrown open4 ,the low social status of the trading class in ,japan was due to the feudal ideas which prevailed for so many centuries4 ,the people were impressed with the productive power of the soil1 and jumped at the conclusion that the merchant class must necessarily be immoral1 since it purchased the produce of the soil at a low price and sold it at a profit4 ,very similar ideas have prevailed in countries other than ,japan4 ,it is not so very many years ago that in ,england a man of good family1 much less a member of the aristocracy1 going into trade was looked upon with no very favourable eyes4 ,we know that the ideas that not so very many years ago obtained in this country in reference to this matter have entirely altered4 ,trade is now considered to furnish most excellent scope and opportunities for the energy and capital of all classes of the community4 ,and the same ideas have been working in ,japan4 ,the merchant there is no longer a member of a despised class4 ,the scions of the most ancient families in ,japan1 as in ,england1 have embarked in trade and brought to their business those high ideals which they have derived from their ancestors4 ,the criticisms of commercial morality in ,japan which were so prevalent not very many years ago are now entirely obsolete4 ,i fear1 however1 that the effect of them still to some extent remains1 and that there are a large number of people in this country who even now believe that the ,japanese1 from a commercial point of view1 are what is termed tricky4 ,i hope my remarks on this head may serve to disabuse the minds of some of those persons who still entertain these extremely erroneous ideas4 ,i do not think that there is a very large amount of social intercourse between the ,europeans in ,japan and the ,japanese themselves4 ,the ,european in the ,east1 or at any rate the ,englishman in the ,east1 so far as ,i have been able to judge1 always appears to me to assume an air--it may be an unconscious air--of superiority to the inhabitants of the country in which he resides4 ,that this is frequently extremely galling to them there can be no question4 ,any one who has conversed with the intelligent native of ,india must be aware of that fact4 ,whether the greatness of the ,anglo-,saxon race be in some degree or in a large measure due to the belief that the ,anglo-,saxon has in himself is a question ,i need not consider4 ,but ,i think there can be no doubt of the fact that this sense of superiority1 however much or little justification there may be for it1 is a characteristic not likely to be appreciated by foreigners1 and especially ,orientals1 and ,i think ,i am justified in remarking that the ,japanese do not at all appreciate it4 ,the ,european may impress the ,oriental in one of several ways2 he has for the most part done so by his great military or naval prowess4 ,that is the way in which ,great ,britain has impressed the natives of ,india4 ,the ,english are in that country as a conquering race4 ,they have practically never been defeated1 and the respect which they have obtained is the respect that the weak have for the strong4 ,in ,japan such a state of things is no longer possible4 ,the results of the ,russian ,war have rendered it impossible for all time4 ,an ,oriental nation has met a ,european ,power on the field and on the high seas1 and soundly thrashed it4 ,there is1 however1 another way in which the ,european might impress the ,oriental4 ,the former professes to have a purer religion and a higher code of morals4 ,he has sought to impose his religion upon every race with which he has been brought into contact1 and if he has not sought to impose his moral system1 he has1 at any rate1 severely criticised that of the people with whom he has been brought into contact1 and compared it with his own to their disadvantage4 ,in ,japan1 where there is a large foreign community1 the thinking1 logical ,japanese has had abundant opportunities for studying not only the principles of ,western religions and ,western morality1 but also the practice of them by ,western residents in his own land4 ,the result has been to give him much food for reflection4 ,he reads the criticisms of ,europe upon the ,yoshiwara and the ,japanese attitude generally towards prostitution1 while he has ample evidence of the fact that many of the patrons of the ,yoshiwara are to be found among the ,european community in ,japan4 ,and so of religion4 ,the various ,christian denominations of the ,western world aspire to convert ,japan1 and send missionaries there for that purpose4 ,the ,japanese gives them a fair field1 and he has shown no aversion to investigate their dogmas4 ,at the same time he sees that a large proportion1 ,i might perhaps say the majority1 of the ,european residents in ,japan do not trouble to attend the ,christian places of worship1 while many of them make no disguise of their contempt for ,christianity in general and the missionaries in particular4 ,what conclusion1 may ,i ask1 can the logical1 reasoning ,japanese come to in these matters8 ,there can be no doubt whatever that the foreign residents in ,japan have accomplished a great work in regard to the development of the country4 ,the settlements established by them at the various treaty ports and the administration of those settlements as municipalities reflected great credit upon all those concerned1 and was a splendid object-lesson for the ,japanese people4 ,great ,britain1 too1 may1 ,i think1 be congratulated on the men she has selected to represent her at the ,japanese ,court4 ,there is no man to whom both ,great ,britain and ,japan are more indebted than the late ,sir ,harry ,parkes4 ,i cannot remember during how many years he was the ,british ,minister at ,tokio1 but during the whole of his term of office he used his best endeavours in the direction of showing ,japan the way she ought to go in the path of progress1 and in rendering her all the assistance possible in that direction by procuring for her the very best assistance of every description4 ,i strongly advise every person interested in ,japan and its development to peruse the ,life of ,sir ,harry ,parkes1 by ,mr4 ,f4 ,v4 ,dickins and ,mr4 ,stanley ,l4 ,poole4 ,one interesting feature in ,sir ,harry ,parkes's career ,i may record here1 as ,i have had it on the authority of a gentleman conversant with the facts4 ,sir ,harry was always a persona gratissima with the ,japanese ,government1 and about the year #ahgg he and the late ,admiral ,sir ,a4 ,p4 ,ryder1 then ,commander-in-,chief on the ,china station1 had a conversation respecting1 in view of the aggressive policy of ,russia in the ,far ,east1 obtaining a ,british coaling station much further north than ,hong ,kong4 ,admiral ,ryder mentioned as an appropriate place the island of ,tsu-shima1 so famous in the recent war with ,russia4 ,sir ,harry ,parkes promised to use his good offices with the ,japanese ,government to obtain permission to occupy this island with a view of its ultimate cession to ,great ,britain4 ,the permission was duly obtained1 and ,admiral ,ryder thereupon cabled home to the ,admiralty for the necessary permission to take over the island4 ,his request was promptly vetoed1 and ,great ,britain1 accordingly1 lost for ever the opportunity of obtaining an admirable coaling station and a splendid strategical position in the ,far ,east4 ,it is quite certain that ,japan does not now regret the refusal of ,great ,britain to accept her too generous offer4 ,europeans have been in ,japan1 and very much in evidence1 during the past half-century or so1 but ,i do not think that the residents in the country have exercised much influence upon ,japan4 ,during that period there have been enormous changes2 the whole life of the nation has1 in fact1 been revolutionised4 ,but these changes have not been wrought1 or indeed greatly affected1 by the ,european residents in the country4 ,the changes have emanated from ,europe and ,america--not that portion of ,europe and ,america which went to ,japan for its own objects4 ,i make1 of course1 a particular exception in regard to those naval and military and scientific men to whose exertions ,japan owes so much of her advancement4 ,but ,i do say of the ordinary trader or merchant that he has come to ,japan1 and left it without producing much effect1 if any1 on the development of the nation1 or leaving behind him any influences of a useful nature4 ,the ,european in ,japan necessarily suggests some allusion to that large and annually increasing number of persons who visit the country4 ,their residence in ,japan is usually of very limited duration1 but1 however short it may be1 it is apparently quite long enough to enable them to form pronounced views upon many and varied matters connected with the country and the people4 ,i have no hesitation in asserting that the erroneous opinions so prevalent in ,europe in regard to ,japan and the ,japanese people are largely the outcome of the far too numerous books that have been written and published in reference to that country of recent years4 ,ten ,days in ,japan may be an alluring title for a book of travel1 but quite evidently ten days are not sufficient to form an opinion and promulgate it upon every phase of ,japanese life1 nor for the solution of many vexed problems4 ,and yet1 so far as my perusal of these books has gone1 the shorter the period a man or woman has spent in ,japan the more pronounced his or her views in regard to the country4 ,the matter is hardly worth referring to were it not that these opinions1 hastily arrived at and apparently as hurriedly rushed into print1 have been accepted by some people as incontrovertible facts4 ,another class of work that ,i think a reader should be warned against is the book of the man who has lived in ,japan for a time and seen life only from a certain standpoint4 ,the book of a bishop or a missionary may be and often is of undoubted value in reference to his work and matters connected with his work1 but when the writer gets outside this particular province and deals with subjects his knowledge of which must be at the best second-hand he is almost certain to perpetrate some flagrant mistakes1 and occasionally indite the most egregious nonsense4 ,i shall not particularly apply these remarks1 but ,i think it necessary to utter this word of warning as the literary effusions of some very estimable men and women in regard to ,japan have given occasion for many false misconceptions being entertained in regard to that country4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,ministering ,,angel ,,from ,a ,,print ,,by ,,toshikata ,the cry of ,japan for the ,japanese has undoubtedly been heard in that land1 and during the agitation over the revision of the treaties the foreign community appeared to be under the impression that the policy emphasised in that cry was the one which ,japan desired to attain4 ,for myself ,i do not believe it4 ,i am positive that ,japan to-day has no desire to exclude foreigners1 or to revert into her old position of isolation4 ,i believe1 on the contrary1 that she desires to welcome foreigners and to give them every facility within proper limits for pursuing their enterprises4 ,at the same time she has no desire for the foreign adventurer1 prospector1 or embryo company promoter4 ,she does not wish1 in fact1 that ,japan shall be exploited either in respect of minerals or any other purpose with the object of directly or indirectly pouring wealth into ,london or any other city4 ,the enterprising gentlemen from ,england and other countries who have sought to obtain concessions of various kinds in ,japan have failed in their object4 ,their efforts would probably only have brought discredit on the country1 and could hardly by any possibility have aided in its material advancement4 ,there is only one word of advice that ,i should feel inclined to proffer the ,european in ,japan1 and that is to refrain less from exercising his caustic wit at the expense of the ,japanese people4 ,a nation which has passed through such drastic changes as have characterised ,japan in the last two or three decades can no doubt furnish abundant opportunities for the jibes of the flippant1 and the humour of those who consider they are endowed with a pretty wit4 ,but the exercise of sardonic humour and an excessive sarcasm tends to promote ill-feeling and serves no useful purpose4 ,the right spirit1 in my opinion1 for any man to regard ,japan is as a nation struggling to obtain and assimilate all that is best in the world and aspiring to be in fact an eclectic power4 ,it can at least be said of ,japan that it is the only nation in the world's history which has entertained such aspirations and has sought to give effect to them4 ,,chapter ,,xxi ,a ,,visit ,,to ,,some ,,buddhist ,,temples ,i was lying awake in my room in the ,myako ,hotel1 the window looking out across the town below towards the eastern hills and framed with clusters of red maple4 ,it was the clear stillness of a frosty morning before dawn1 not motion enough in the autumn air to stir a ripe red maple leaf1 and as ,i lay in bed suddenly the air itself seemed to heave a sigh of music mellow1 soft1 and yet full1 gradual in its coming as in its going1 all-pervading1 strange and wonderful4 ,stillness again1 and then it came again1 or rather not so much came as was there1 and then was not there2 for it seemed to come from no whither1 and to leave not even the footprint of an echo in the air behind4 ,there was sanctity in the very sound itself4 ,its music was like vocal incense arising before the awful rose of dawn1 beyond those purple eastern hills4 ,how unlike1 ,i thought1 the jar and clangour of our church bells in ,london on a ,sunday morning rattling like a fire alarm1 whose only possible religious suggestion is to tumble out of bed to escape the flames of hell4 ,the musical summons of this bell was sufficient1 however1 to induce me to go out for a stroll through the temples in the morning twilight4 ,all on the crest of the hill behind the hotel is a row of temples crowning the height4 ,one mounts a flight of steps and then comes on avenues with rows of ancient trees on either side that make the avenues look like great aisles of which the immense trees are the columns supporting the deep1 blue roof4 ,nothing is more striking about these temples than the delightful harmony between their natural surroundings and the buildings themselves4 ,they blend so perfectly that one loses sight of the meeting between nature and art4 ,from the steps onward all seems a harmonious part of the sanctified whole4 ,trees1 creepers1 and natural flowers peep in and almost entwine themselves with the marvellously painted or carved foliage of the temple itself4 ,the rich lichens and mosses of the tree-trunks vie in depth and beauty of colour with the inlaid traceries of the columns4 ,early as the hour was ,i was not alone in the first temple ,i came to4 ,with tinkling steps of wooden shoes a little woman pattered up the stone stairs to one of the shrines1 pulled the heavy cord of the small bell above her head to awaken the attention of the ,deity1 and then with joined hands encircled with beads and with bowed head whispered her morning prayer4 ,i just caught in soft1 supplicatory accents the opening words1 ,namu ,amida ,butsu--,hear me1 compassionate ,lord ,buddha--words that soon become familiar as one visits these temples2 the great refrain of these people's prayers when they pray before the image of ,him1 honoured1 wisest1 best1 most pitiful1 whose lips comfort the world4 ,and then1 having finished her prayers1 the little woman pattered back to her home in the town below1 while others come and make their devotions likewise1 all leaving the temple as if that placid1 inscrutable image had whispered in the ear of each some word of comfort4 ,in the courtyard beyond the great ,temple of ,kiomidyu ,i came upon a wonderful bell4 ,there was room for over a dozen men to stand inside the great bronze shell4 ,it was hung just above the ground between plain timber uprights1 and the mellow softness of tone was accounted for by the way in which it was struck4 ,instead of metal striking against metal a great tree-trunk is suspended horizontally outside2 this is swung backwards and forwards and then allowed to strike against the metal4 ,even when standing close to it there is nothing one would call noise1 but a great1 full1 rich sound fills the air in a manner impossible to describe4 ,i passed on to the latticed shrine dedicated to ,kamnoshut ,no ,kami1 the goddess of lovers4 ,as ,i waited there three little ,japanese girls came up the steps4 ,each had a small piece of paper in her hand1 and winding them up they deftly placed the papers in the lattice with the thumb and little finger of their hands4 ,on these were written their petitions4 ,one of them held a bunch of brilliant maple leaves in her hand1 and judging from their faces--plain little faces all of them--it was easy to understand they wanted divine assistance in their love affairs4 ,it was difficult to understand the goddess retaining any reputation for compassion if their prayers were not answered4 ,after they had gone next came a dainty little geisha1 a pretty girl1 whose lover must have been a sad worry to her1 judging by the look on her anxious little face1 as she placed her petition between the bars4 ,all through these temples it was obvious that the agnosticism1 or indifference1 or attitude of politeness towards possibilities1 which has apparently taken possession of the upper classes in ,japan1 possibly as the result of contact with the ,west1 is in no way prevalent among the masses4 ,in all the country parts that ,i visited and in the large temples in the great cities there was everywhere evidence of faith as sincere and devout as can be found in the churches of the most ,christian country in ,europe4 ,unlike ,china1 there was nowhere any sign of the temples falling into decay4 ,every temple in ,china looks like a neglected mausoleum decaying over the corpse of a dead religion1 and the priests look like sextons of a neglected graveyard4 ,but here in ,kyoto two of the largest temples were undergoing elaborate repairs1 and in ,tokio an immense new temple is being erected in the heart of the city4 ,in ,kyoto at the ,temple of ,nishi ,hong ,wangi ,i was present at a great seven days' religious festival4 ,from nine o'clock in the morning until six o'clock in the evening the temple was perpetually thronged with people4 ,i visited it in the afternoon4 ,in one large room a priest was preaching4 ,his congregation was largely composed of country people from all the districts round1 who had journeyed in with their wives and families4 ,there had been an abundant harvest1 it was over and stored1 and the people had come to give thanks4 ,a great part of the congregation were blue-clad peasants with white handkerchiefs around their heads4 ,many of them had brought their children with them4 ,the priest preached sitting down1 in a quiet conversational tone4 ,from what a ,japanese friend was kind enough to translate for me1 there was nothing esoteric in the ,buddhism he was teaching4 ,it was simply plain lessons to the people1 how to make good their simple lives interspersed with stories and anecdotes that occasionally amused his congregation4 ,following the crowd that kept streaming out from his hall towards the larger temple1 ,i passed under a plain portico of huge wooden columns1 severe and simple on the outside1 but gorgeous with rich carvings of gold lacquer panels and hangings of richly wrought embroideries within4 ,the entire floor of the great building was crowded1 and the overflow of the congregation knelt upon the flags outside the door4 ,with difficulty ,i picked my way inside4 ,two rows of priests in brilliantly coloured vestments were arranged on either side of the central figure of ,buddha4 ,between them was the chief priest4 ,behind the altar screen was an invisible choir4 ,in alternating numbers the solemn1 supplicating chant was led by either row of priests4 ,in a way it reminded one of the ,gregorian chant one often hears in ,catholic churches1 but in this ,buddhist chanting there was that curious ,oriental strain of semi-tones that gave a strange and peculiar plaint to the chorus4 ,faint blue columns of incense were streaming slowly from bronze censors towards the carved roof1 and diffusing a delightful aromatic odour throughout the building4 ,the congregation was composed of all sorts and conditions of the population1 although the majority were peasants2 there were a number of ,japanese ladies who came accompanied by their maids1 and here and there the brighter costume of a ,geisha was to be seen among the crowd4 ,the series of services lasted for seven days4 ,this was the fifth4 ,beginning at six o'clock in the morning1 it went on till six o'clock in the evening4 ,it was just at its conclusion while ,i was there4 ,mingling with the chorus from the priests and the choir ran a low murmur from the crowd4 ,the old country men and women said their prayers aloud1 and the refrain of ,namu ,amida ,butsu seemed perpetually in one's ears4 ,as the conclusion of the service approached1 the voices of the choir1 the priests1 and the congregation increased in strength and volume1 and ceased suddenly in a final chord of supplication4 ,for a few moments there was stillness over the bowed heads of the congregation1 and then the priests rose and the crowd began to stream down the great flight of steps4 ,in the streets outside were rows of booths1 where printed prayers and brightly embroidered triangular cloths1 beads and images were being sold as mementoes of these services4 ,the whole congregation1 even old men and women1 as they toddled down the steps at the base of which they put on their shoes1 reminded one forcibly of a lot of children coming out from school4 ,laughing1 chattering1 and joking1 there was a look of satisfaction and contentment on all their faces1 returning homewards1 as if they felt that in reply to their prayer1 ,namu ,amida ,butsu1 the compassionate ,lord ,buddha1 had listened to their prayer1 and whispered in answer to the heart of each1 ,comfort ye1 my people4 ,,chapter ,,xxii ,,the ,,ainos ,a book on ,japan would be incomplete without some reference to the ,ainos1 that mysterious race found1 and found only1 in the northern island of ,yesso4 ,the ,ainos have long been the puzzle of the ethnologist4 ,where the ,ainos came from or to what other race they are akin are problems that have given occasion for much learned dissertation1 but are still as far off solution as ever4 ,mr4 ,basil ,chamberlain1 all of whose writings upon ,japan are replete with erudition and information1 has observed that the ,aino race deserves to be studied because its domain once extended over the entire ,japanese ,archipelago1 and also because it is1 so to speak1 almost at its last gasp4 ,unfortunately the evidence for the latter fact is more conclusive than for the former4 ,the ,ainos are1 it seems1 to be no exception to that mysterious law of the survival of the fittest1 which decrees that an inferior race shall go down before the superior1 and in due course become merely a name4 ,i have called this a mysterious law because such disappearance is not necessarily the result of conquest or of ruthless destruction4 ,when the inferior race is brought into contact with the superior it seems1 by some mysterious process1 to be infected with the elements of decay1 to be impregnated with the germs of annihilation4 ,and1 accordingly1 it comes about1 in accordance with the dictates of the law ,i have referred to1 that although a society has been founded in ,japan very much on the lines of our ,aborigines ,protection ,society1 an ,aino ,preservation ,society1 the ,ainos seem doomed to extinction at no far-distant date4 ,whether or not the ,ainos once inhabited the whole of the ,japanese islands and trekked north to get away from their conquerors1 there can be no doubt of the fact that they are in almost every respect the very antithesis of the ,japanese4 ,the latter are a smooth-skinned race1 the ,ainos an extremely hairy one4 ,the ,japanese are essentially a clean1 a scrupulously clean people1 the ,ainos just as essentially dirty4 ,the long beards and general facial appearance of the latter are altogether in startling contrast to the physiognomy of the average ,japanese4 ,when ethnology fails to place a race1 philology often steps in with more or less of success4 ,the ,aino language has been profoundly studied by many eminent philologists1 but ,i do not think the results have tended to throw much1 if any1 light on the mystery as to the origin and racial affinities of the ,ainos4 ,in general structure the language is not unlike that of the ,japanese1 but this might be expected as the result of centuries of intercourse between the two people4 ,the ,ainos live almost solely by fishing and hunting4 ,the ,japanese laws1 which have year by year been made more stringent1 have somewhat interfered with the sporting proclivities of the people4 ,nets and fish traps are now forbidden1 and fishing for the most part is effected by means of a spear or harpoon1 either from the shore or from the somewhat primitive canoes used by the people4 ,poisoned arrows were once largely used for the purpose of capturing game1 but they are now forbidden by law4 ,originally the modus operandi in hunting was to set a trap with one of these arrows placed in it1 and drive the game on to the same4 ,the head of the arrow was only loosely fastened1 and broke1 leaving the poison inside even if the animal managed to pull out the shaft4 ,the bear is found in ,yesso1 and that animal has entered very largely into every phase of ,aino life1 somewhat circumscribed though this is4 ,that animal was1 or used to be1 the objective point of ,aino festivals1 and seems1 to some extent at any rate1 to have had a part in their crude religious ideas4 ,bears1 are1 however1 becoming rare in ,yesso1 and the ,japanese ,government1 which is paternal even in regard to the fauna of the islands1 has from time to time interfered with many venerable ,aino customs4 ,the religion of this interesting race is almost as mysterious as everything else appertaining to it4 ,the ,ainos have no idols and no temples1 and their religious rites are of a decidedly simple nature4 ,they1 however1 seem to believe in an infinity of spirits inhabiting various and varied things1 and their pantheon is seemingly a crowded one4 ,i have said seemingly1 because the beliefs of a people such as this are difficult to get at1 and even when one has got at them almost impossible to comprehend4 ,one writer has termed the religion of the ,ainos1 a very primitive nature-worship1 and their gods invisible1 formless conceptions4 ,such definitions do not convey much information4 ,nature-worship is a vague description and invisible1 formless conceptions of the deity or deities are not confined to the ,ainos4 ,possibly1 like all peoples but little advanced or developed mentally1 their religious conceptions are of the vaguest and have assumed no definite shape4 ,a fear of the unknown1 a blind groping in the dark are1 mayhap1 all that the ,aino possesses in reference to the spiritual world4 ,although the religion of the ,aino when living is somewhat incomprehensible his religious ceremonies in reference to the dead are of a somewhat elaborate nature4 ,after life has become extinct the first proceeding is to light an enormous fire in the house4 ,the corpse is then dressed in its best clothes and laid beside the fire1 where are also placed dishes1 a drinking-cup1 and the implements of the chase4 ,in the case of a woman1 instead of these1 her beads and other ornaments are laid alongside of her2 for both sexes a pipe and a tobacco-box1 so greatly used during life1 are considered essentials when dead4 ,cakes made of rice or millet and a cup of sak1 are also put upon the floor4 ,a kind of wake or funeral feast follows1 at which the mourners throw some sak on the corpse as a libation to its departed spirit1 break off pieces of the cake and bury it in the ashes4 ,the body is covered with a mat slung upon a pole and carried to the grave1 followed by the mourners1 each of whom places something in the grave1 which1 it is believed1 will be carried to the next world with the spirit of the deceased person4 ,at the conclusion of the ceremony the mourners wash their hands in water which has been brought for the purpose4 ,this is then thrown on the grave and the vessel which conveyed it is broken in pieces and also thrown on the grave4 ,the widow of the deceased shaves her head1 while the man cuts his beard and hair1 as outward symbols of grief4 ,many of these ceremonies1 it will be seen1 are such as are more or less common to all primitive races4 ,there is1 indeed1 a marked resemblance between the habit of the ,ainos in burying articles with the deceased for his use in the next world and that of the ,north ,american ,indians4 ,but ,i am not inclined to deduce any theory in reference to the origin of the ,ainos from the existence of these customs4 ,mankind1 in every part of the world1 seems to have evolved his religious beliefs in very much the same way4 ,his conception of the hereafter appears to have proceeded on precisely similar lines4 ,the higher his scale in civilisation the more spiritual and the less material his conception of the future4 ,the lower his scale precisely the reverse is the fact4 ,the savage1 which of course the ,aino really is1 cannot imagine a future state where there is no eating and drinking and hunting1 and he1 accordingly1 thinks it incumbent on him1 in order to show his respect for the dead1 to provide the corpse with those articles which he deems essential in that unknown world where1 according to his conception1 eating and drinking and hunting will be as prevalent as in this4 ,the ,ainos have a great respect for the graves of their dead1 and ,japanese legislation has taken the necessary steps to prevent any tampering therewith4 ,some years ago a few scientists from ,europe went on an expedition from ,hakodate with a view of obtaining information respecting the manners and customs of the ,ainos4 ,in the course of this expedition some graves were broken into and skulls and limbs extracted therefrom for the purpose of being taken to ,europe for scientific research4 ,this proceeding occasioned an angry outburst on the part of this usually placid people1 and the ,japanese authorities gave the necessary instructions to prevent the possibility of such an occurrence in future4 ,i suppose the scientists1 in the ardour of their enthusiasm1 are hardly to be blamed4 ,science too frequently overlooks sentiment1 which is1 after all1 one of the most potent forces in the world4 ,the dwellings of the ,japanese are supposed to have been evolved from those of the ,ainos4 ,both build their houses roof first1 making the framework and placing the supports with shorter pieces for rafters1 all being tied together with a rope made of some kind of fibre4 ,poles1 #e or #f feet high at regular intervals are then placed in the ground1 each pole having a fork at the top and short horizontal pieces from one to the other1 the roof frame is then erected on and secured to the poles and subsequently thatched with straw4 ,the floor is of earth1 with the fireplace in the centre4 ,as in ,japanese houses1 mats are used for sitting and sleeping purposes4 ,the utensils of the ,ainos are much more primitive than those in use by the ,japanese people1 and generally it may be remarked of the ,ainos that their wants are few and that the people are content to live their own life in their own way and only desire to be severely left alone4 ,the dress is very similar to that of the ,japanese peasant4 ,the men1 however1 wear at certain seasons thick rain-coats made of salmon skin1 as also leggings made of a fibre peculiar to themselves1 and high boots constructed of straw4 ,i am sorry to have to relate that the ,ainos have a fondness for sak1 and there is a good deal of intoxication among them4 ,the climate of the island of ,yesso1 as ,i have already remarked1 is extremely severe in the winter-time1 and there can be little doubt that many of the ,ainos suffer extreme privations4 ,there have been a few cases of intermarriage between the two races1 but unions of this nature are not looked on with any favour by either4 ,attempts have been made by some of the missionaries in ,japan to convert the ,ainos to ,christianity1 but ,i fear the attempts made in this direction have been attended with a very scant measure of success4 ,a people such as this possesses minds of childlike simplicity1 and to endeavour to get it to comprehend the abstruse doctrines and dogmas of ,christianity is an almost hopeless task4 ,the climate of ,yesso is such as to render it possible for missionary efforts to take place only at certain seasons of the year1 and ,i do not think there has been1 so far as my information goes1 any systematic propaganda of ,christianity among this interesting race4 ,it is certainly a somewhat extraordinary fact that while the other islands of ,japan have been rapidly assimilating and are being steadily influenced by the civilisation of ,europe and ,america1 the northern island appears to be1 except possibly at ,hakodate1 in a state of complete isolation from all these influences and effects4 ,whether the ,ainos have any conception of the influences at work in and the progress being made by the ,empire of which they are subjects1 ,i do not know1 but to me it is both interesting and curious to regard this ancient and decaying race1 either indifferent to or ignorant of all the bustle and hurry and worry of modern civilisation so close to them and yet so far removed from their childlike minds and ideas4 ,the question may be asked1 ,how comes it that a highly civilised people such as the ,japanese have been for many hundreds of years1 have exercised practically no influence upon this subject race inhabiting a portion of their territory8 ,a nation such as ,japan1 with a literature and an art of its own1 with two highly developed religious systems1 and with many of those other characteristics which are included in the term civilisation8 ,how is it that neither art nor literature nor religion1 nor any other characteristic of civilisation has1 in the slightest degree1 influenced this aboriginal race8 ,indeed1 if the theories of ethnologists in regard to the ,ainos be correct1 and we are to judge by the ancient remains that have been found throughout ,japan1 the ,ainos1 when they were in undisputed possession of the ,japanese ,archipelago1 were in a much more advanced condition of civilisation than they are to-day4 ,the questions that ,i have put afford food for reflection1 but they are difficult1 if not impossible1 to answer4 ,i am certain1 however1 that the ,japanese ,government desires to1 if possible1 preserve the ,aino race from extinction1 and that it aspires to give this ancient people all the advantages of education and civilisation generally4 ,unfortunately the ,ainos themselves are the obstacle to the carrying into effect of this project4 ,they desire to live their own life in their own way4 ,they have not only no wish to be1 but they resent any effort to make them1 either educated or civilised4 ,they are what some people would term children of nature1 out of place decidedly in a modern go-ahead eclectic ,power like ,japan1 but an interesting survival of the past1 and likewise an interesting reminder that the highly civilised races of to-day have1 in their time1 been evolved from very similar children of nature4 ,,chapter ,,xxiii ,,japan ,,as ,,it ,,is ,,to-,,day ,in the ,japan of to-day the world has before it a unique example of an ,eastern people displaying the power to assimilate and to adopt the civilisation of the ,west1 while preserving its own national dignity unimpaired1 aptly remarks a modern writer4 ,it is1 indeed1 in its powers of assimilation and adaptation that ,japan1 ,i think1 stands unique among not only the nations of the world at the present time1 but amongst the nations of whom we have any historical record4 ,in one of his books on ,japan--books which ,i may1 in passing1 remark give a more vivid insight into the life of the ,japanese people than the works of any other writer--,mr4 ,lafcadio ,hearn remarks that the so-called adoption of ,western civilisation within a term of comparatively few years cannot mean the addition to the ,japanese brain of any organs or powers previously absent from her1 nor any sudden change in the mental or moral character of the race4 ,changes of that kind cannot be made in a generation4 ,the ,europeanising of ,japan1 ,mr4 ,hearn in fact suggests1 means nothing more than the rearrangement of a part of the pre-existing machinery of thought1 while the mental readjustments effected by taking on ,western civilisation1 or what passes for it1 have given good results only along directions in which the ,japanese people have always shown special capacity4 ,there has1 in a word1 he asserts1 been no transformation--nothing more than the turning of old abilities into new and larger channels4 ,indeed the tendency of the people of ,japan1 when dispassionately investigated1 will be seen to have been always moving in the same direction4 ,a slight retrospect will1 ,i think1 clearly prove the truth of this assertion4 ,it is now about fifty years since ,japan was first awakened1 perhaps rudely awakened1 from her slumber of two and a half centuries4 ,when the ,european ,powers and the ,united ,states of ,america knocked1 perhaps somewhat rudely1 at her door1 it turned slowly on its hinges and creaked owing to the rust of many long years4 ,how came it that a country which had imported its art1 literature1 religion1 and civilisation1 a country which until #ahfh had a medival feudalism for its social basis1 a country which until then was notorious for the practice of hara-kiri and the fierceness of its two-sworded ,samurai should so suddenly take on ,western attributes and become a seat of liberty and the exponent of ,western civilisation in the ,far ,east8 ,all this is to some persons a rather perplexing problem4 ,but the reasons are not1 ,i think1 far to seek4 ,if we go back many centuries we shall find that ,japan1 though always tenacious of her national characteristics1 never evinced any indisposition to mingle with or adopt what was good in other races4 ,the national character for many hundreds of years has always displayed what ,i may term the germs of liberalism1 and has not been influenced by narrow and petty national ideals concerning the customs1 religion1 art1 or literature of other countries4 ,as against this statement may be urged the action of ,japan in expelling the ,portuguese missionaries1 destroying thoroughly ,christianity1 both buildings and converts1 and effectually and effectively shutting the country against all intercourse with ,europe and ,america for over two centuries4 ,the answer of the ,japanese of to-day to this question is simple enough4 ,they point out that1 although the object of ,st4 ,francis ,xavier and his missionaries was essentially spiritual1 viz41 to convert ,japan to ,christianity1 that of many of the foreigners who accompanied or succeeded him was not in any sense spiritual1 but on the contrary was grossly and wickedly material4 ,accordingly ,japan1 having rightly or wrongly concluded that not only her civilisation but her national life1 her independent existence1 were menaced by the presence and the increasing number of these foreigners1 she decided1 on the principle that desperate diseases require desperate remedies1 to expel them and to effectually seal her country against any possibility of future foreign invasions4 ,i am not1 ,i may remark1 defending her action in the matter2 ,i am only putting forward the views of ,japanese men of light and leading of to-day in regard thereto4 ,when1 many centuries ago1 the ,koreans brought to ,japan the religion1 laws1 literature1 and art of ,china1 these were adopted and assimilated4 ,both ,buddhism and ,confucianism existed side by side in the country with the old ,shinto religion4 ,and1 accordingly1 during the many centuries which have elapsed since the religion of ,china and the ethical doctrines of her great teacher were introduced into ,japan1 there has never been a violent conflict between them and the ancient religion of the country4 ,had the ,portuguese invaders confined themselves to a religious propaganda only1 the ,christian converts they made would not have been interfered with and the ,christian religion1 strong and vigorous1 would have existed uninterruptedly in ,japan until to-day side by side with ,buddhism and ,shintoism4 ,when ,st4 ,francis ,xavier came to ,japan ,buddhism was the prevailing religion1 and it undoubtedly had1 as it still has1 a great hold upon the people4 ,but the preaching of the intrepid ,jesuit and the missionaries he brought with him had an enormous success4 ,the ,christian religion was embraced by representatives of every class4 ,in the year #aeej ,st4 ,francis1 writing to ,goa1 placed on record for all time his opinion of the ,japanese4 ,the nation1 writes he1 with which we have to deal here surpasses in goodness any of the nations ever discovered4 ,they are of a kindly disposition1 wonderfully desirous of honour1 which is placed above everything else4 ,they listen with great avidity to discourse about ,god and divine things4 ,in the native place of ,paul they received us very kindly1 the ,governor1 the chief citizens1 and indeed the whole populace4 ,give thanks to ,god therefore that a very wide and promising field is open to you for your well-roused piety to spend its energies in4 ,it certainly was a remarkable fact that a nation which had for so many centuries been under the influences of ,buddhism should have welcomed these ,portuguese missionaries4 ,but it must be remembered that ,japan had not that prejudice against foreigners which is very often the outcome of foreign conquest and foreign oppression4 ,no foreign ,power had ever conquered or indeed set its foot in the land4 ,both ,china and ,korea had made various attempts on the independence of ,japan1 but unsuccessfully4 ,japan had never had to endure any humiliation at the hands of foreign invaders1 consequently her nationalism had no narrow1 selfish meaning1 and accordingly she saw no reason for putting any obstacle in the way of ,st4 ,francis ,xavier and his followers until she concluded1 however much or little reason there may have been for her conclusions1 that the incoming of these foreigners in some measure menaced her national existence4 ,before she arrived at that conclusion she was apparently prepared to welcome all that was good in the ethical teaching of the ,portuguese missionaries1 and1 if a section of her population desired to embrace a religion to whose ethical teaching she had no objection2 there was no reason1 in her opinion1 why that religion should not exist side by side with those more ancient religions which had lived amicably together during many centuries4 ,for nearly two hundred and fifty years ,japan resolved to remain in a state of isolation4 ,then1 as ,i have said1 ,european ,powers and the great ,republic of the ,west came knocking and knocking loudly at her doors1 and as a result thereof her thinking men came to realise that in a state of isolation a continued civilised existence is impossible4 ,accordingly ,japan1 tentatively at first1 opened certain portions of her country to ,european intercourse1 and as an inevitable consequence thereof found it necessary to adopt ,european ideas--and ,european armaments4 ,the country had kept out the aggressor for some two thousand years or thereabouts1 and ,japan clearly saw that if the aggressor was to be kept out in the future1 the near future1 she would probably have to fight to maintain her national existence4 ,the war with ,china was the outcome of the feeling that ,korea under the suzerainty of ,china was a constant menace to not only the prosperity but the existence of the ,empire4 ,the same feeling undoubtedly led to the war with ,russia1 as ,japan considered1 and rightly in my opinion1 that the possession of ,korea by ,russia meant the loss of national independence4 ,that war was not as so many wars have been1 the result of a racial hatred1 the outcome of a spirit of revenge1 or waged for aggressive designs4 ,it was forced upon ,japan1 and was in every sense purely defensive4 ,japan waged it confident in her own strength from the fact that in the two thousand years of her history she had1 in all the conflicts in which she had engaged1 kept in view the one ideal--the conservation of the national existence1 an ideal which she has consistently realised4 ,the position of ,japan at the present moment is not only extremely interesting but extraordinary in a degree4 ,she is the cynosure for the eyes of the civilised world1 and for some years she has been subjected at the hands of experts and amateurs of all descriptions to the most minute investigation4 ,every phase of her national life has been rigidly scrutinised and exhaustively written about4 ,the national character and characteristics have undergone the most intricate psychological examination1 and if the world does not now know the real ,japan it is certainly not from lack of material1 literary material1 whereon to form a judgment4 ,indeed the attention ,japan has received has been sufficient to turn the head of any people4 ,i am not sure that this large output of literature on matters ,japanese has effected very much in the direction of enabling a sound judgment to be formed regarding the country and the people4 ,many writers who have dissertated upon ,japan during the past couple of decades seem to have imagined that they had discovered it1 and their impressions have been penned from that standpoint4 ,there used some years ago to be an advertisement of a ,popular ,educator in which a youth with a curly head of hair and a face of delightful innocence was depicted4 ,underneath the portrait the inquiry was printed1 ,what will he become8 ,and there was then given an illustrated alternative as to the appearance of this innocent youth at different ages in his career according to the path he trod in life4 ,one alternative eventuated in the final evolution of an ancient and1 from his appearance1 very palpable villain1 the other of a benevolent-looking old gentleman who quite evidently only lived to do good4 ,it seems to me that a large number of persons in various parts of the world are to-day1 as they have been for some time past1 asking the question in reference to ,japan1 ,what will she become8 ,it is without doubt a highly interesting inquiry1 but the answer to it1 so far as my knowledge goes1 is not like the advertisement ,i have referred to1 one of two courses--the one leading to perdition1 the other to prosperity4 ,on the contrary1 the answers seem to be as numerous and varied as the answerers1 and most of the answers would appear to have been arrived at simply and merely by the false premises and very often the entirely erroneous facts of the inquirers4 ,a favourite and fallacious method of dealing with ,japan is that of regarding it as an ,oriental nation1 essentially ,oriental with a thin veneer of ,occidentalism4 ,people who so reason1 or occasionally do not reason at all but confine themselves to mere assertions1 suggest that the difference between the ,oriental and the ,occidental is such that not a few years of perfunctory contact but centuries of time are necessary to bring about a real transmogrification4 ,persons who so think point not only to the difference in everything material in respect of ,east and ,west1 but to a radical difference in psychology1 an entire distinction in the mental outlook of each4 ,they accordingly conclude that the differences so evident on all sides are not mere accidentals but fundamental1 ineradicable4 ,scratch the ,japanese1 they in effect say1 and beneath his veneer of civilisation you will find the barbarian1 barbarism and ,orientalism being with these persons synonymous terms4 ,and if any incredulity in the matter be expressed they will triumphantly point to the recurrence of hara-kiri among the soldiers and sailors in the late war4 ,a well-known writer on racial psychology has expressed himself dogmatically on this very point4 ,i will quote two or three of his pronouncements in the matter4 ,illustration3 ,,fireworks ,,in ,,tokio 7,,summer7 ,,from ,a ,,print ,,by ,,hiroshige ,each race possesses a constitution as unvarying as its anatomical constitution4 ,there seems to be no doubt that the former corresponds to a certain special structure of the brain4 ,a negro or a ,japanese may easily take a university degree or become a lawyer2 the sort of varnish he thus acquires is1 however1 quite superficial1 and has no influence on his mental constitution4444 ,what no education can give him because they are created by heredity alone1 are the forms of thought1 the logic1 and1 above all1 the character of the ,western man4 ,cross-breeding constitutes the only infallible means at our disposal of transforming in a fundamental manner the character of a people1 heredity being the only force powerful enough to contend with heredity4 ,cross-breeding allows of the creation of a new race1 possessing new physical and psychological characteristics4 ,now1 whether these views be correct in the main or partially correct as regards other races1 ,i have no hesitation in describing them as inaccurate to a degree in reference to the ,japanese4 ,not peculiar brain formation1 but social evolution1 environment1 education are responsible for the traits which distinguish the ,japanese from other ,eastern nations4 ,to assert1 as do some psychological experts1 that the mental constitution of races is as distinct and unchangeable as their physiological or anatomical characteristics is1 to my mind1 a fact not borne out by the history of the world4 ,physiological or anatomical distinctions are apparent1 and can be classified2 mental idiosyncrasies do not lend themselves to cataloguing4 ,it is1 ,i know1 possible to draw up at any particular period a list of what ,i may term the idiosyncrasies of any race at that period4 ,a writer in a ,london newspaper some little time back attempted to do so in reference to ,oriental races generally4 ,he enumerated the degraded position of women1 the licentiousness of the men1 the recognition and prevalence of prostitution1 the non-desire of the youth for play1 contempt for ,western civilisation1 and general hatred of foreigners4 ,admitting these charges to be correct1 the characteristics detailed are1 ,i may point out1 merely ephemeral incidents4 ,a contempt for ,western civilisation and hatred of the foreigner1 for example1 which was certainly at one time pronounced in ,japan1 are rapidly passing away4 ,the position of women in that country has also greatly improved1 just as it has improved in ,europe1 while as regards prostitution and licentiousness ,europe has1 in my opinion1 no need to throw stones4 ,there are undoubtedly a large number of persons who are convinced1 or have been convinced1 by the arguments of others1 that the progress of ,japan is a mere mushroom growth which cannot last4 ,a few years ago one of the leading ,english papers in ,japan attempted1 to some extent1 to voice this opinion in an article striking the note of warning for the benefit of the ,west against putting too much faith in those writers who had intimately studied ,japan from within1 and whose works were in general appreciation not only for their literary style1 but for the vivid insight they gave into everything respecting the country4 ,quoth the journal in question3-- ,in the case of such writers as ,sir ,edwin ,arnold and ,mr4 ,lafcadio ,hearn1 it is quite apparent that the logical faculty is in abeyance4 ,imagination reigns supreme4 ,as poetic flights or outbursts the works of these authors on ,japan are delightful reading4 ,but no one who has studied the ,japanese in a deeper manner1 by more intimate daily intercourse with all classes of the people than either of these writers pretends to have had1 can possibly regard a large part of their description as anything more than pleasing fancy4 ,both have given rein to the poetic fancy1 and thus have1 from a purely literary point of view1 scored a success granted to few4444 ,but as exponents of ,japanese life and thought they are unreliable4444 ,they have given form and beauty to much that never existed1 except in vague outline or in undeveloped germs in the ,japanese mind4 ,in doing this they have unavoidably been guilty of misrepresentation4444 ,the ,japanese nation of ,arnold and ,hearn is not the nation we have known for a quarter of a century1 but a purely ideal one manufactured out of the author's brains4 ,it is high time that this was pointed out4 ,for while such works please a certain section of the ,english public1 they do a great deal of harm among a section of the ,japanese public1 as could be easily shown in detail did space allow4 ,i quite admit the fact that many ,japanese themselves are quite convinced that there is a great gulf fixed between the ideas and the philosophy of ,europe and those of the ,east1 their own country included4 ,in a book dealing particularly with the art of ,japan1 written in ,english by a ,japanese1 he attempts to emphasise this matter4 ,he remarks3 ,asia is one4 ,the ,himalayas divide only to accentuate two mighty civilisations--the ,chinese1 with its communism of ,confucius1 and the ,indian1 with its individualism of the ,vedas4 ,but not even the snowy barriers can interrupt for one moment that broad expanse of love for the ,ultimate and ,universal which is the common-thought inheritance of every ,asiatic race1 enabling them to produce all the great religions of the world1 and distinguishing them from those maritime people of the ,mediterranean and the ,baltic who loved to dwell on the particular1 and to search out the means not the end of life4 ,indeed1 the writer of this book appears to be in a condition of transcendentalism in reference to the ,east4 ,in another portion of it he waxes eloquent in regard to what he terms the glory of ,asia1 in language which ,i will briefly quote4 ,he remarks3-- ,but the glory of ,asia is something more positive than these4 ,it lies in that vibration of peace that beats in every heart2 that harmony which brings together emperor and peasant2 that sublime intuition of oneness which commands all sympathy1 all courtesy1 to be its fruits1 making ,takakura1 ,emperor of ,japan1 remove his sleeping robes on a winter night because the frost lay cold on the hearths of his poor2 or ,taiso of ,tang forego food because his people were feeling the pinch of famine2 444 it lies in that worship of feeling which casts around poverty the halo of greatness1 impresses his stern simplicity of apparel on the ,indian prince1 and sets up in ,china a throne whose imperial occupant--alone amongst the great secular rulers of the world--never wears a sword4 ,it were unkind to criticise eloquence of this description too seriously4 ,the fact1 if it be a fact1 that the ,emperor of ,china never wears a sword is in one sense interesting but it proves nothing4 ,it is well to get down from eloquence of this kind to concrete facts1 to come back to the point whence we started1 viz41 ,what will ,japan become8 ,what is her present condition8 ,any one who compares the ,japan of to-day with the ,japan of1 say1 thirty or forty years ago will1 ,i think1 impatiently sweep aside some of the absurd theories to which ,i have referred1 psychological and otherwise4 ,the unprejudiced man1 letting his mind indulge in retrospect1 and comparing that retrospective view with the present actuality1 will1 ,i believe1 have no difficulty in determining that though ,japan is and must remain an ,oriental nation1 what she has acquired of recent years is neither veneer or varnish1 but has been assimilated into the very system of the people4 ,very probably ,japan will never become thoroughly ,occidentalised4 ,there are many of us who hope she never may4 ,i believe1 however1 that in adopting many ,occidental customs and habits she will adapt and modify them to her own needs1 and in due course evolve a race neither distinctly ,occidental nor ,oriental while retaining many of her past customs and her ancient characteristics4 ,she will1 in a word1 be as far as possible an eclectic nation1 and it is1 so far as ,i know1 the first time in the history of the world that an attempt has been made to develop such4 ,there are1 ,i know1 many people in ,europe as well as in ,japan who feel and express some apprehension in regard to what they term young ,japan4 ,this term1 like many other terms1 has never been accurately defined1 but ,i take it to mean that portion of the country consisting of the young or younger men who have been educated according to ,western ideas1 have acquired ,western modes of thought1 and have developed--,i do not use the word in an opprobrious sense--a bumptiousness4 ,it is assumed1 on what grounds ,i know not1 that this section--it must after all be a small section--of the population of the country has aspirations to make things hum1 if ,i may use an expressive bit of ,american slang4 ,young ,japan1 we are led to believe1 is intensely ambitious and extremely cocksure4 ,it cannot and will not go slow2 on the contrary1 it is in a fearful hurry1 and is in reference to every matter political1 commercial1 religious1 a hustler4 ,it has no doubts upon any subject1 and no difficulty in regard to making up its mind on any matter4 ,this is what we hear and read4 ,how much of it all is true ,i know not4 ,i am very largely of opinion that this representation of young ,japan is altogether a caricature4 ,youth we know in every clime is impulsive and impetuous4 ,there is no need to go to ,japan to convince ourselves of that fact4 ,but youth1 if it have these defects1 also possesses enthusiasm1 and ,i should be inclined to describe that as one of the most pleasing characteristics of the youth of ,japan4 ,after all1 time will cure ,young ,japan of some of its defects4 ,young ,japan will grow old1 and if it loses its enthusiasm it will gain experience4 ,i not only have no fear of these vivacious young men who love their country and are proud of it4 ,i regard them not as a danger1 but as a pleasing feature in the progress of ,japan1 and a potent factor in its future prosperity4 ,the writers and critics to whom ,i have referred in this chapter seem to be oblivious of the fact that progress is the law of nature4 ,it has nothing to do with either climate or race4 ,i admit that it may be affected by environment or other causes of a temporary nature4 ,the ,occidental visiting the ,east sees things that are strange to him--a people1 the colour of whose skin and the contour of whose features are different to his own2 costume1 style of architecture1 and many other matters entirely dissimilar to what he has viewed in his own country4 ,he accordingly jumps to the absolutely erroneous conclusion that these people are uncivilised1 and that their lack of civilisation is due to some mental warp or some defect in either the structure or the size of their brain4 ,of course such a conception is entirely erroneous1 and yet it is marvellous to what an extent it prevails4 ,these people are for all practical purposes the same as himself1 except that they have been affected by various matters and circumstances that ,i have called ephemeral4 ,what a nation1 like an individual1 needs is the formation of a distinct character4 ,now1 the character of a nation depends1 in my opinion1 on the high or low estimate it has formed as to the meaning and purpose of life1 and also the extent to which it adheres to the unwritten moral law1 which is1 after all1 something superior to1 because higher than1 mere legal enactments4 ,i confess that as ,i wander about this marvellous country of ,japan1 as ,i mingle with its common people and see them in various phases of their lives ,i say to myself1 as ,st4 ,francis ,xavier said of them more than three hundred years ago1 ,this nation is the delight of my soul4 ,the critic1 the hypercritic1 is everywhere4 ,he suspects everybody and everything4 ,he can find occult motives and psychological reasons for everything4 ,i confess ,i am a trifle tired of the critic1 especially the psychological critic1 in reference to ,japan4 ,i view the people there as they are to-day1 and ,i have satisfied myself that we can see at work in ,japan the formation of a nation with a character4 ,i care not to investigate the mental processes at work1 or the difference between the brain of the ,japanese and the brain of the ,european4 ,i do see this1 however1 that the leaders of the people1 the educated and cultured classes of the land1 are intent on cutting out of the national character anything which is indefensible1 or has been found unserviceable1 and equally intent on adopting and adapting from any and every nation such qualities as it is considered would the better enable ,japan to advance on the paths of progress and freedom1 illuminating her way as a nation and as a people by a shining illustration of all that is best in the world1 having sloughed off voluntarily and readily every characteristic1 however ancient1 which reason and justice and experience had shown to be unworthy of a power aspiring to stand out prominently before the world4 ,in ,sir ,rutherford ,alcock's work on ,japan1 ,the ,capital of the ,tycoon1 published some forty-four years ago1 a work which1 as ,i have elsewhere said1 is of undoubted value though somewhat marred by the prejudices of the author1 he attempted a forecast of the future of the country1 but1 like so many prophets1 his vaticinations have proved highly inaccurate4 ,japan1 he remarked1 is on the great highway of nations1 the coveted of ,russia1 the most absorbing1 if not the most aggressive of all the ,powers2 and a perpetual temptation alike to merchant and to missionary1 who1 each in different directions1 finding the feudalism and spirit of isolation barriers to their path1 will not cease to batter them in breach1 or undermine them to their downfall4 ,such seems to be the probable fate of ,japan1 and its consummation is little more than a question of time4 ,when all is accomplished1 whether the civilising process will make them as a people wiser1 better1 or happier1 is a problem of more doubtful solution4 ,one thing is quite certain1 that the obstructive principle which tends to the rejection of all ,western innovations and proselytism as abominations1 is much too active and vigorous in the ,japanese mind to leave a hope that there will not be violent and obstinate resistance2 and this inevitably leading to corresponding violence in the assault1 there must be a period of convulsion and disorder before the change can be effected1 and new foundations laid for another social edifice4 ,whether the civilising process will make the ,japanese people wiser1 better1 or happier is the problem the answer to which can only be given in the future4 ,obviously we are not in a position to completely answer this question to-day4 ,indeed1 before answering it at any time it might be advisable to invite the definition of wisdom and happiness4 ,there were wisdom and happiness long prior to the time when the merchant and the missionary to whom ,sir ,rutherford ,alcock refers battered and undermined ,japan's feudalism and spirit of isolation4 ,but1 mirable dictu1 ,japan1 instead of developing that obstructive principle which ,sir ,rutherford considered was so active and vigorous in the ,japanese mind has1 on the contrary1 developed a spirit of adaptation and assimilation of ,western innovations1 and in so doing has in all probability saved herself from the cupidity not only of ,russia1 but of other ,western ,powers4 ,sir ,rutherford ,alcock was not a psychologist1 but quite evidently he too misread the ,japanese mind and its workings4 ,truth to tell1 ,japan as it is to-day gives the lie to nearly all the prophets1 and demonstrates that the psychologist is merely a charlatan4 ,her development1 her evolution has proceeded along no particular lines4 ,the fearful and awful rocks in the way1 medivalism and feudalism1 were got rid of almost with a stroke of the pen1 and everybody in ,japan1 from the ,emperor to the peasant1 has adapted himself to the changed order of things4 ,it is the most wonderful transformation scene in the history of the world1 and it is still in progress4 ,what the end of it all will be ,i have1 bearing the dangers of prophecy well in mind1 attempted to show in a final chapter4 ,but ,i may remark that nothing in regard to the forces at work in ,japan of recent years1 and the outcome of the same so far gives me at any rate more unmixed pleasure than the way in which the theorists have been confounded1 those men who cut and carve and label human beings1 whether individually or in the aggregate1 as if they were mere blocks of wood4 ,the ,oriental mind1 we have been told1 cannot do this2 ,oriental prejudices and idiosyncrasies and modes of thought and hereditary influences will not admit of that2 the traditions of the ,far ,east1 that mysterious thing1 will prevent the other--we have been told all this1 ,i repeat1 and told it ad nauseam4 ,japan as it is to-day refutes these prophecies1 these dogmatic pronouncements1 psychical and ethnological4 ,the ,japanese race1 when regarded from what ,i deem to be the only correct standpoint for forming a sound judgment as to the position it holds among the races of the world1 namely1 in respect of the size and convolution of the brain1 occupies in my opinion a high1 a very high place4 ,all other factors1 often given such undue prominence in forming an estimate as to the character of any people ,i regard as mere accidentals4 ,the story of ,japan during the last thirty or forty years affords ample proof of what ,i have said2 the position of the country to-day offers visible demonstration of it4 ,japan has reached and will keep the position of a great ,power1 and the ,japanese that of a great people1 just because of the preponderating mental abilities of the population of the country1 its capacity for assimilation1 its desire for knowledge1 its pertinacity1 strenuousness1 and aspirations to possess and acquire by the process of selection the very best the world can give it4 ,,chapter ,,xxiv ,,the ,,future ,,of ,,japan--,,physical--,,moral--,,mental ,i know by experience1 even if the history of the world had not furnished many examples to prove it1 that prophecy is risky4 ,it is a fascinating pastime inasmuch as it affords the imaginative faculties full scope1 but at the same time it is a mistake to let the imagination run riot4 ,i have no intention1 in considering the future of ,japan1 of depicting an ,arcadia or a ,utopia the outcome of one's desire rather than of the knowledge that one possesses of the possibilities of the country and the belief that in due course those possibilities will become actualities4 ,of course ,i admit that ,i may be mistaken in my estimate of the future1 but ,i think an estimate of the future can only be based on a knowledge of the present1 and it is upon that knowledge that ,i mean to attempt some forecast of what ,i believe to be the destiny of ,japan4 ,the ,future of ,japan is a theme that has exercised the pens of many writers1 who have given to the world many and most divergent views in regard thereto--the result1 ,i think1 of regarding the subject from a narrow or single point of view1 instead of looking at it broadly1 boldly1 and dispassionately4 ,in respect of a population of between forty and fifty millions in rapid process of transformation and taking on perhaps rather hurriedly1 and1 it may be1 some superfluous or unnecessary attributes of ,western civilisation1 it is not only possible but easy to light on many ludicrous incidents and draw absolutely false conclusions from them4 ,one visitor to ,japan1 for example1 who wrote a series of essays on that country1 since produced in book form1 the laudable object of which was to present to the ,british public the real ,japan with a view of counteracting the effects of those superficial narratives to be found by the dozen in circulating libraries of the personal views and experiences of almost every literary wayfarer who has crossed the ,pacific1 has followed this bad plan in his remarks on ,the ,future of ,japan4 ,imitation for imitation's sake is1 or was1 in his opinion1 a growing evil in ,japan4 ,a certain gentleman1 he relates1 a wealthy merchant of ,osaka1 desired to celebrate the two hundredth anniversary of a copper mine coming into the possession of his family4 ,the plan he finally decided to adopt was to present each of his three hundred employees with a swallow-tail coat4 ,another ,japanese gentleman1 who had fallen in with the habit of the ,new ,year's ,day call imitated from the ,americans1 improved upon it by leaving on his doorstep a large box with a lid and this notice above it3 ,to ,visitors4 ,i am out1 but ,i wish you a ,happy ,new ,year all the same4 ,n4,b4--,please drop your ,new ,year's ,presents into the box4 ,over a well-known tobacconist's shop the writer of the book in question observed the following notice3 ,when we first opened our tobacco store at ,tokio our establishment was patronised by ,miss ,nakakoshi1 a celebrated beauty of ,inamato-ro1 ,shin-yoshiwara1 and she would only smoke tobacco purchased at our store4 ,through her patronage our tobacco became widely known1 so we call it by the name of ,ima ,nakakoshi4 ,and we beg to assure the public that it is as fragrant and sweet as the young lady herself4 ,try it and you will find our words prove true4 ,finally1 over a pastry-cook's shop in ,tokio he read and made a note of the following3 ,cakes and ,infections4 ,now what do these several trivial1 indeed contemptible1 anecdotes prove8 ,what arguments in regard to a nation of forty-seven millions of people can be bolstered up by instancing the imperfect acquaintance of a ,japanese pastry-cook with the ,english language8 ,the writer does not in so many words delineate the future of ,japan as it appears to him1 but he suggests it1 and his ,japan of the future is quite evidently to be nothing more or less than a kind of international dustheap whereon ,europe and ,america have dumped all that is bad and rotten and deplorable in their modern social and political life4 ,here is the inferential forecast of the gentleman in question3 ,when ,japan rings with the rattle of machinery2 when the railway has become a feature of her scenery2 when the boiler-chimney has defaced her choicest spots1 as the paper-makers have already obliterated the delights of ,oji2 when the traditions of yashiki and shizoku alike are all finally engulfed in the barrack-room2 when her art reckons its output by the thousand dozen2 when the power in the land is shared between the politician and the plutocrat2 when the peasant has been exchanged for the 'factory hand1' the kimono for the slop-suit1 the tea-house for the music-hall1 the geisha for the lion comique1 and the daimio for the beer-peer--will ,japan then have made a wise bargain1 and will she1 looking backward1 date a happier era from the day we forced our acquaintance upon her at the cannon's mouth8 ,illustration3 ,a ,,sign ,,of ,,the ,,times ,criticism of this kind1 if it may be dignified by that term1 no doubt affords opportunity for what is considered smart writing1 and enables the persons indulging in it to air their witticisms and show their sense of the humorous1 but it not only serves no useful purpose1 but1 on the contrary1 is pernicious in its effects1 inasmuch as it occasions1 not unnaturally1 a feeling of soreness on the part of those1 whether individuals or a nation1 who are made the subject of it4 ,japan has too often been the butt of the humourist4 ,i have no desire to deprecate humour1 which no doubt gives a savour to life1 but that humour which is only exercised at the expense of others1 in my opinion1 needs reprobation4 ,as ,i have said1 ,japan among nations has been subjected to too much of it1 and it is to be hoped that in future writers about the country will endeavour to avoid making their little jokes1 or serving up afresh the antiquated chestnuts of the foreign community4 ,the future of ,japan may1 ,i think1 be considered under some half-dozen headings3 ,the physical improvement of the ,japanese race2 ,its moral advancement2 ,its intellectual advancement2 ,japan's national future2 ,her political future2 and finally1 ,the influence of the ,japanese ,empire on other ,far ,eastern races and on the world generally4 ,as regards the physical improvement of the race1 ,i admit this is a somewhat difficult subject in regard to which to make any forecast4 ,the stature of the ,japanese is undoubtedly small1 and the chest measurement small likewise4 ,at the same time1 any one moving about ,japan must have noticed the fact that there are quite a large number of very tall men and women in the country1 and that a goodly proportion of the inhabitants compare favourably in their physical attributes with ,european people4 ,as ,i have observed elsewhere in this book1 the dietary of the ,japanese race has for many centuries back been almost entirely a vegetarian one4 ,i know very well that vegetarianism has its advocates1 and some of the arguments put forward in support of it are plausible if not convincing4 ,at the same time1 ,i think1 it cannot be denied that those races which have been in the habit of eating meat for many centuries have1 as regards physique1 demonstrated that whether man was or was not intended to be a carnivorous animal1 his development into a carnivorous animal has at any rate succeeded in enhancing and developing his physical powers4 ,of late years there has been possibly as the result of intercourse with ,europeans1 a large increase in the number of the inhabitants of ,japan who eat meat4 ,this tendency on the part of the population is growing1 and ,i believe in the course of comparatively few years there will be a radical change in the dietary of the people4 ,this change1 if it be effected1 must1 ,i would suggest1 have a material influence on their physique4 ,we all know that food is essential for the building up of the human frame and its maintenance1 and ,i think there are few people who would question the fact that the condition of the human frame1 whether in individuals or the aggregates of individuals that we term nations1 must be largely affected by the food partaken of4 ,i1 accordingly1 look forward1 not immediately of course1 to a material change in the general physique of the ,japanese people4 ,i am not1 as ,i know some persons are1 of opinion that that change is likely to be brought about by intermarriage or unions of a temporary nature between ,japanese and ,europeans4 ,there have been a few marriages1 and there have no doubt been a good many unions1 but the effect on the national breed has been small1 and though it may be to some extent greater in the future1 ,i do not look in this direction for any alteration in the physical characteristics of the ,japanese people4 ,that alteration will1 in my opinion1 be brought about by a change in the food of the people4 ,as regards the moral advancement of the ,japanese race ,i shall say little1 for the somewhat paradoxical reason that it is a matter on which so much might be said4 ,indeed1 this is a subject on which a definition of the term moral might be advisable before entering into any prolonged consideration of it4 ,i shall not attempt that definition1 simply because ,i feel convinced that to do so would be to provoke controversy4 ,as ,i have said in this book1 moral1 morality1 and immorality are all terms that have to some extent lost their original meaning4 ,i may say briefly in this connection that ,i use the term moral advancement simply and solely in respect of the practice of the duties of life from a high ethical point of view4 ,that is1 ,i know1 a somewhat vague definition1 but ,i think it will serve its purpose4 ,ever since ,japan has been thrown open to foreigners we have heard a good deal about morality and immorality1 both in the strict and the perverted sense of those words4 ,the ,european who came there1 male and female1 was1 or affected to be1 shocked at the relations between the sexes he found prevailing4 ,he saw prostitution recognised and regulated4 ,he heard of1 and in the old days possibly saw1 something of phallic worship4 ,he witnessed or heard of men and women making their ablutions together in public wash-houses1 and he--sometimes it was a she--affected to be horrified at such a proceeding4 ,better1 much better1 it was inferred1 the custom of the lower classes in ,england1 never to wash at all1 than this horrible outrage on public decency4 ,and then the merchant or the trader who came to ,japan1 he also prated about commercial immorality1 and the prevalence of untruthfulness among the ,japanese with whom he did business4 ,and in other directions too there were criticisms passed upon ,japanese manners and customs1 and many of these were condemned and denounced as immoral or wicked very often for no better reason than that they differed from those that obtained in ,europe4 ,however much or little ground there may have been for these charges against the ,japanese people1 ,i am not now concerned to discuss4 ,one thing ,i will remark--that the ,japanese possess two religions which1 whatever their effects and no matter to what extent superstition may have been engrafted on them1 have always held up a high moral standard4 ,and if one dips even cursorily into the writings of the ethical teachers of ,japan in the past1 we invariably find the inculcation of an exalted standard of morals4 ,indeed1 the practice of the ,japanese people at the present time1 as in all times in regard to the relations between parents and children1 of wife to husband1 of the people to the ,state1 have been beyond criticism4 ,in these matters ,western nations have much to learn from them4 ,since the opening of the country to ,europe1 the ,japanese ,government has shown itself alive to ,european criticism on many points4 ,it has effectually stamped out phallic worship2 it has1 in deference to ,european susceptibilities1 abolished mixed bathing in the public wash-houses2 and in various other ways it has striven in the direction of raising the standard of moral conduct throughout the country4 ,that it has not attempted to put down prostitution1 but1 on the contrary1 has recognised and regulated it1 has been made a charge against it4 ,the ,japanese ,government has most likely come to the conclusion that prostitution cannot be put down1 and such being the case it has decided that1 with a view of obviating those evils which are the outcome of it1 the only alternative is to regulate it4 ,i admit that in an ideal state of existence prostitution would not exist1 but no country in the world has yet reached or approximated that ideal state4 ,the evil of prostitution is just as flagrant in ,europe as in the ,east1 but ,japan so far alone among the ,great ,powers of the world has seen fit to tackle this difficult and delicate matter1 and to some extent regulate it4 ,that her rulers look forward to the time when the ,yoshiwara shall have ceased to exist ,i firmly believe1 and ,i am convinced that they mean to do everything possible towards that consummation4 ,but the rulers of ,japan are not mere sentimentalists2 they have to recognise facts1 and recognising facts they have done what seems best to them under the circumstances4 ,as regards commercial morality1 ,i believe even the ,european merchants and traders in the country admit that there has of late years been a marked improvement4 ,in old ,japan commercialism was looked down upon4 ,making a profit out of buying and selling was regarded as degrading2 those who indulged in such practices were despised1 and not unnaturally the trader1 finding himself a member of a contemned class1 lived down to the low level on which he had been placed4 ,in old ,japan traders1 in the presence of the ,samurai1 were1 when addressing him1 required to touch the ground with their foreheads2 when talking to him they had to keep their hands on the ground4 ,such a state of things1 of course1 has long been effete1 but the influences thereof remained for a considerable time after the acts had ceased4 ,there has now been effected a revulsion of feeling in such matters4 ,commerce is honoured1 trade is esteemed1 and the ,japan of to-day is convinced of the fact that on her commerce1 trade1 and industries the future of the country largely depends4 ,men of the highest rank1 men of the greatest culture1 men of the deepest probity are now embarked in trade and commerce in ,japan2 the whole moral atmosphere connected with trade has changed1 and there are at the present time no more honourable men in the whole commercial world than those of ,japan4 ,in this matter there has undoubtedly been an enormous advance in ideas and ideals4 ,this advance1 ,i believe1 is destined to extend in other directions--indeed1 in every direction4 ,the ,japan of to-day has1 ,i think1 so far as ,i have been able to gauge it1 a feeling--a deep feeling1 which perhaps ,i can best describe as noblesse oblige4 ,it is sensible of the position the country has attained2 it is full of hope and enthusiasm for the future thereof2 it believes implicitly that it is incumbent on it not only to attain but to maintain a high moral standard in every direction4 ,it has been urged as against the ,japan of to-day by a writer on the subject that ,spencer and ,mill and ,huxley have been widely read by the educated classes1 and that ,western thought and practice as to the structure of society and the freedom of the individual have been emphasised throughout the country4 ,i confess to feeling no alarm in regard to the moral future of ,japan because it has perused the works of the three philosophers named4 ,it gives me no trepidation to read that ,mill's work on ,representative ,government has been translated into a volume of five hundred pages in ,japanese and reached its third edition4 ,i am1 on the contrary1 pleased to learn that ,japan of to-day is concerned about culture1 desirous of reading the works of those great philosophers whose names are among the immortal4 ,there are no principles enunciated in any of the books of ,spencer1 ,mill1 or ,huxley that1 so far as ,i know1 can undermine the moral character of the ,japanese4 ,on the contrary1 ,i believe that a perusal of the writings of those great men will tend to assist the ,japanese into a clearer understanding of moral principles1 and in a desire to apply them to the duties of life4 ,i look forward with great hope and a pronounced confidence to the moral future of ,japan4 ,everything that ,i have seen in the country1 everything that ,i have been able to learn respecting the people thereof--the ideas prevailing1 the teaching given in its schools and universities1 the whole trend of thought in the land1 the literature read and produced1 the aspirations1 in fact1 of the ,japanese people to-day--lead me to think and to believe most firmly that in the ,japan of the future we shall witness a nation on a higher moral plane than any of those with which the history of the world acquaints us4 ,closely connected with the moral advancement of ,japan is its intellectual advancement4 ,i have referred to the statement made by a writer that the ,japan of to-day is addicted to reading the works of certain ,english philosophers1 and that one of these books translated into ,japanese had run through several editions4 ,this fact is typical of the intellectual ferment1 the thirst for knowledge of all kinds that exists in the country to-day4 ,that craving is not for philosophical works alone2 it extends to and embraces every form of literature of an instructive or enlightening character4 ,it is in evidence in the higher schools and the universities of the country2 it is to be witnessed in the many periodicals which exist for the promotion of culture and the spread of knowledge4 ,this intellectual ferment1 as ,i have1 ,i think1 appropriately termed it1 is extending rapidly1 and is1 ,i believe1 destined to assume much greater proportions4 ,the literature of the world is at the present time literally being devoured by ,young ,japan4 ,i do not regard this literary voracity as the mere outcome of curiosity1 or as in any way symptomatic of mere mental unrest4 ,young ,japan appears1 like ,lord ,bacon1 to take all knowledge for its field of study1 and in accord with the philosophical principles of that great man1 the principles of utility and progress1 to be concerned with everything that can alleviate the sufferings and promote the comforts of mankind4 ,of course1 at the present time this condition of craving for knowledge is confined1 from the point of view of numbers1 to a small portion of the people4 ,but the intellectuals of every country are in a minority--in some countries in a miserable minority--and the influence they exercise is never proportionate to their numbers4 ,at the same time the intellectuals of ,japan are1 in view of the fact that the country has for some short time been open to ,western influences1 an amazingly large proportion of the population4 ,i am of opinion that this intellectual movement in ,japan is destined to widen considerably1 and that its influence on the people will be immense4 ,during the whole history of the world the potency of mind over matter has been the greatest wonder4 ,in these present days this potency is even more pronounced1 and mere brute force is nowadays only made effective when it is influenced and regulated and organised by mind4 ,i regard the intellectual development of ,japan as one of the most pleasing features that have accrued from its contact with ,western civilisation4 ,i do not mean to suggest that there was an intellectual atrophy in the country prior to those influences making themselves felt1 but there was an isolation which is never good for intellectual development4 ,the broader the sympathies of nations1 as of individuals1 the wider their outlook1 the better for their mental progress4 ,when ,japan was in a condition of isolation the literature available for her people was limited both in style and quantity4 ,her people now have at their disposal the intellect of the whole civilised world1 the great thoughts of the great men of all ages4 ,and it is pleasing to be able to relate that no more appreciative readers of the world's classics are to be found than the young intellectuals of ,japan to-day4 ,i have said that ,i regard this intellectual enthusiasm as one of the most pleasing features of modern ,japan4 ,that it is destined to have great results ,i am firmly convinced4 ,i believe1 and ,i am not naturally an optimist1 that in the ,japan of the future1 the not far-distant future1 the world is destined to see a nation not only morally but mentally great1 a nation which will develop in conjunction those high moral qualities which will give it what ,i may term a pronounced1 a well-defined character1 and an intellectual greatness superior to that of ancient ,greece and ,rome1 because restrained and illumined by the predominance and potency of moral characteristics which those great nations did not possess4 ,,chapter ,,xxv ,,the ,,future ,,of ,,japan--,,national--,,political--,,its ,,influence ,,on ,,the ,,world ,i have now come to my final chapter1 in which ,i propose to offer some remarks embodying my opinion as to the future of ,japan from a national and political standpoint1 as also her influence upon the world generally4 ,the theme is a great one1 and would require a volume for its proper treatment4 ,obviously1 therefore1 it cannot be dealt with other than cursorily in the few pages ,i am about to devote to it4 ,readers of this book will1 ,i think1 have had borne in upon them the fact that ,i am not only an ardent admirer of1 but a believer in ,japan and the ,japanese4 ,i utterly scout the idea put forward by some writers that what they have taken on of ,western civilisation is either a veneer or a varnish1 or that the advancement of the nation resembles the growth of the mushroom and is no more stable4 ,i regard the ,japanese as a serious people and the nation as having a serious purpose4 ,if ,i did not there would be no need for me to dilate upon its future1 for the simple reason that its future would be incomprehensible1 and accordingly be absolutely impossible to forecast4 ,as it is1 it appears to me that the future of ,japan is as plain as the proverbial pike-staff4 ,i say this with a full knowledge of the dangers attendant on prophecy and the risk to the reputation of the vaticinator should events prove that he was mistaken in his prevision or erroneous in his conclusions4 ,i have traced in these pages what ,i may term the national development of ,japan2 how1 after two and a half centuries of isolation1 it1 recognising the force of circumstances1 determined to impose upon its own ancient civilisation all that was best in that of the ,west1 and1 having so determined1 took practical and effective steps to that end4 ,what is to be the result of it all1 the result1 that is to say1 not upon a few thousands1 or hundreds of thousands1 of ,japanese1 but upon the nation as a whole8 ,will these accretions on the old civilisation of the land mould and influence and alter the people generally1 or will the effect be circumscribed and merely develop a class standing out apart from the great body of the people and affecting a superiority because of its ,western culture8 ,in my opinion the result will be not partial1 but universal1 though not immediate4 ,there are1 of course1 large portions of ,japan1 many millions of its population1 upon whom the opening up of the country has1 as yet had little1 if any1 effect4 ,many of the ,japanese people have hardly ever seen a foreigner1 or1 if they have1 have viewed him with no little curiosity4 ,they certainly have not realised1 and possibly have not suspected1 the effect which foreign influences are likely to have upon this ,land of the ,rising ,sun4 ,but influences1 we know1 may be effective without being felt1 and ,i am convinced1 from what ,i have seen and heard and the investigations ,i have been enabled to make1 that the ,japan of to-day is not only in transition--in rapid transition--but that its evolution is sure and certain1 and that the result thereof will be the ultimate development of a nation which will assuredly impress the world and will very probably have a much more potent effect upon it than mere numbers would account for4 ,it is the building up of a nation such as this that ,i confidently look forward to in the future4 ,we of this generation may not1 probably will not1 live to see it--we certainly shall not in its ultimate development--but we can already see at work the forces which are to produce it1 and the eye of faith1 of a reasonable faith1 built not on mere surmise or ardent hopes1 but upon the expectation of a reasonable issue to the factors at work producing it1 assures us that the ,japan of the future will1 as ,i have said1 be a nation whose light will shine1 and shine brilliantly1 before the whole world4 ,and as regards the political future of this wonderful country1 ,i feel ,i can speak with equal confidence4 ,what a marvellous change has come over this land1 or our conception of this land1 since the first ,british ,minister resident there penned his impressions on approaching it4 ,a cluster of isles1 he remarked1 appeared on the farthest verge of the horizon1 apparently inhabited by a race at once grotesque and savage--not much given to hospitality1 and rather addicted to martyrising strangers of whose creed they disapproved4 ,thus much stood out tolerably distinctly1 but little else that was tangible4 ,severance from all social ties1 isolation from one's kind1 and a pariah existence1 far away from all centres of civilisation--far beyond the utmost reach of railroad or telegraph--came much more vividly before me2 and in ,rembrandt masses of shade1 with but one small ray of light1 just enough to give force and depth to the whole--a sense of duty1 a duty that must be done1 whether pleasant or otherwise1 and about which there was no choice4 ,what a world of anxiety and doubt the consciousness of this saves us6 ,this exordium reads more like the utterance of a man being led out to execution than a ,minister going to a country possessing an ancient civilisation--a civilisation which had had its effect on every phase of the national life4 ,what would not many of us now give to have been in the place of ,sir ,rutherford ,alcock1 visiting this land shortly after it had been opened after #bej years of isolation6 ,how we should revel in its artistic treasures1 which had not then been dispersed all over the world2 and what pleasure we should have taken in seeing feudalism otherwise than in the pages of history6 ,and yet ,sir ,rutherford ,alcock was only expressing the opinions of his time4 ,he could see nothing in ,japan but a grotesque and uncivilised people whom the ,western nations had to deal with in a peremptory manner4 ,what a change there has been in the intervening forty-four years6 ,japan now stands out prominently among the nations1 her political future appears to be secure1 and it is none the less secure because of the difficulties she has encountered and overcome in attaining her present position4 ,i emphasise all the more readily her present and future political position since1 as ,i have previously observed in this book1 ,i believe that that position will be one exercised for the good of the world4 ,i look upon ,japan as a great civilising factor in the future of the human race because1 strong though she is and stronger though she will become1 ,i am positive that her strength will never be put forward for any selfish aims or from any improper motives4 ,it is for this reason that ,i welcome the alliance with ,great ,britain4 ,i hope that alliance will not be limited to any term of years1 but will be extended indefinitely1 because in it ,i see a prospect and an assurance for the peace of the world4 ,inseparable from any allusion to the political future of ,japan is some consideration of the influence that she is likely to exercise upon the world generally4 ,any person taking up an atlas and looking at the position occupied by ,japan must1 if he is of a thoughtful disposition1 be impressed by it4 ,take the question of the ,pacific--one which1 in view of the change in the policy of the ,united ,states of recent years1 must assume considerable importance in the future4 ,there are various factors which must be taken into account here4 ,the construction of the ,panama ,canal is one1 the completion of the ,siberian ,railway another1 the development of ,canada and the completion of the railway lines that now penetrate nearly every part of that vast dominion is a third4 ,japan is now1 in fact1 the very centre of three great markets--those of ,europe1 ,asia1 and ,america4 ,in the struggle for the mastery of the ,pacific1 which appears certain to come1 and will probably come sooner than many people suppose1 ,japan is certain to take a momentous part4 ,not only in respect of her own islands1 but in reference to the great island of ,formosa1 ceded to her by ,china as the outcome of the war with that ,power1 ,japan occupies a unique and a most important position in the ,pacific4 ,as regards the mastery of the ,pacific1 in reference to which so much has been written and so much speculation1 a large amount of it unprofitable1 has been indulged1 ,i shall say but little4 ,on the shores of the ,pacific ,russia still remains a power1 which1 though defeated by ,japan1 is still one of considerable importance4 ,on the other side of the ocean there is the ,united ,states1 which1 as some persons think1 has given hostages to fortune by annexing the ,philippine ,islands4 ,england1 moreover1 claims consideration in respect not only of her possessions in the ,straits ,settlements1 ,hong ,kong1 c41 but by reason of her great ,navy and1 ,i may add1 her alliance with ,japan4 ,then1 too1 there are ,china1 and1 if of less importance1 ,france and ,germany4 ,of all these ,japan1 in my opinion1 occupies the commanding position4 ,she not only occupies the commanding position1 but she is1 ,i think1 from various causes1 bound to play a great part in the future mastery of the ,pacific4 ,it is apparent that in the attainment and assertion of that mastery naval power must have a great and predominant part1 and it is to the development of her naval power that ,japan is devoting all her energies4 ,like ,great ,britain1 from whom she has learned many lessons in this respect1 she sees that an island empire can only maintain its position by possessing an overpowering naval force4 ,as ,i have said before1 ,i am fully convinced of the fact that in the development of her ,navy1 as of her ,army1 ,japan has no aggressive designs4 ,her aspiration is the security and prevention from invasion of her island and the preservation of her national independence4 ,at the same time1 situated as she is in the great ,pacific ,ocean1 she has palpably1 from her position1 rights and responsibilities and duties outside the immediate confines of her ,empire4 ,that1 ,i think1 will be admitted by any one4 ,the phrase1 spheres of influence has become somewhat hackneyed of recent years1 and it has occasionally been used to give colour to aggressive designs4 ,there may1 too1 be people who would say that spheres of influence is not a term that can properly be applied to a great water-way such as the ,pacific4 ,i am not1 however1 on the present occasion arguing with pedants4 ,what ,i desire is to broadly emphasise the fact that in the future of the ,pacific--those innumerable isles dotted here and there over its surface1 ,japan is a factor that cannot be left out of account4 ,year by year her position there is increasing in importance4 ,steamers ply to her ports weekly from ,vancouver and ,san ,francisco4 ,the ,japanese population are emigrating to the ,pacific shores of ,america1 the trade and commerce of ,japan with the ,american ,continent are growing and broadening4 ,everything in fact tends to show that within a comparatively short space of time ,japan will have asserted her position1 not only as a ,great ,world ,power1 but as a great commercial nation in the ,pacific4 ,what is to be the outcome of it all8 is the question that will naturally arise to the mind4 ,i think that one outcome of it will be1 as ,i have shown1 the capture by ,japan of the ,chinese trade1 if not in its entirety1 at any rate in a very large degree4 ,another outcome will1 ,i believe1 be the enormous development of ,japanese trade with both the ,united ,states and ,canada4 ,some people may remark that these are not essentially political matters1 and that ,i am somewhat wandering from my point in treating of them in connection with the influence of ,japan upon the world generally4 ,i do not think so4 ,a nation may assert its influence and emphasise its importance to just as great an extent by its trade as by the double-dealings of diplomacy or by other equally questionable methods4 ,of one thing ,i am convinced1 and that is that the influence of ,japan upon the rest of the world will be a singularly healthy one4 ,that country has fortunately struck out for itself1 in diplomacy as in other matters1 a new line4 ,it has not behind it any traditions1 nor before it prejudices wherewith to impede its progress4 ,the diplomacy of ,japan will1 accordingly1 be conducted in a straightforward manner1 and its record so far in this respect has1 ,i think1 provided a splendid object-lesson for the rest of the world4 ,the influence of ,japan upon the other nations will ,i hope1 as ,i believe1 continue to be of a healthy nature4 ,if that country sets forth prominently the fact that while aspiring to be great1 it possesses none of those attributes that we have previously associated with great nations1 the attributes of greed1 covetousness1 aggressiveness1 and overbearing--an arrogant attitude in regard to weaker ,powers1 it will have performed a notable service in the history of the world4 ,for myself ,i have no doubt whatever that ,japan will teach this lesson1 and in teaching it will have justified the great place that she has attained among the nations of the earth4 ,i have now concluded the task that ,i set before myself4 ,my readers must be judges as to the measure of success1 if any1 ,i have attained in it4 ,to attempt a survey of the past1 present1 and future of a great and ancient nation within the limited space at my disposal has been by no means easy4 ,every subject ,i have had under consideration has invited discursiveness1 and tempted me to linger and dilate upon it1 and it alone4 ,the fascination of ,japan must be upon every one1 or almost every one1 who writes about it1 and that fascination is1 ,i may observe1 like the art of the country1 catholic4 ,whether we deeply and exhaustively investigate one subject and one subject only1 or take a hurried glance at every or almost every subject1 we feel a glamour in respect of this wonderful country and its equally wonderful people4 ,while ,i have endeavoured to prevent this fascination1 this glamour1 affecting my judgment1 ,i am not ashamed to plead guilty to1 but am1 in fact1 rather proud of it4 ,indeed1 ,i shall feel gratified if a perusal of this book induces a few persons here and there to study still more deeply the history1 the religion1 the art of ,japan1 and the whole trend of events in that country during the past forty years4 ,every phase of the national life lends itself to investigation1 and will1 ,i feel sure1 reward the investigator4 ,he will1 unless he be a person of a singularly unemotional disposition1 utterly lacking in all those finer feelings which especially distinguish man from the brutes1 hardly fail of being1 before he has proceeded far in his investigations1 quickly under the alluring influences of this ,far ,eastern land1 entering heartily1 zealously1 and enthusiastically into its national life and the developments thereof in all their various ramifications4 ,the fascination that ,japan has exercised upon writers such as ,arnold and ,hearn is what it does1 though no doubt in a smaller degree1 upon less gifted men4 ,it is given to few to drink in and absorb the subtle charm of the country so thoroughly and express it so graphically and delicately1 with such beauty and power and withal so much truth as have those brilliant men4 ,i regard this great and growing fascination of ,occidentals for this fair ,eastern land and its inhabitants as a long step in the direction of the realisation of the brotherhood of man2 that ideal state of things which we hope for so expectantly1 longingly1 perhaps too often sceptically2 that happy time when national prejudices1 jealousies1 and animosities will have faded into oblivion1 when nations by the simple process of studying one another1 as ,japan has been studied of recent years1 will get to understand one another1 when the literature and art of nations will be no longer merely national1 but world possessions1 when wars shall have ceased and the policy of aggression have come to be regarded as an evil thing1 when1 in a word1 the brotherhood of man shall be no longer an idle dream1 a mere speculative aspiration which no practical person ever expected to see realised1 but an actuality within measurable distance of being accomplished4 ,all these things may as yet be dreams1 but let us dream them4 ,the more they are dreamed1 the more likely is the prospect of their realisation4 ,one thing at least fills me with ardent hope1 and that is the ,japan1 as ,i see it to-day1 compared with the ,japan of forty years ago4 ,if such an upheaval is possible for one nation1 who shall put any bounds to the potentialities of the world8 ,so let us dream our dreams1 and in our waking moments cast afar our eyes upon the land of the ,rising1 aye1 now the ,risen ,sun1 take heart and dream again in quiet confidence that some day1 in some future reincarnation1 mayhap1 we shall witness the realisation of our hopes1 and see that after all our dreams were merely an intelligent anticipation of the glad time coming4 ,,index ,a ,acrobatic performances1 #aii ,actresses1 #aii ,adams1 ,will1 #e ,advancement1 ,intellectual1 #bgi1 #bhe ,physical1 #bgi ,moral1 #bgi1 #bha ,advertising in newspapers1 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#bae1 #baf1 #bah1 #bbj1 #bci ,young ,japan1 #bgj1 #bhg ,the ,gresham ,press1 ,,unwin ,,brothers1 ,,limited4 ,,woking ,,and ,,london4 ,transcriber's ,note ,minor punctuation errors have been repaired4 ,hyphenation and use of accents has been made consistent4 ,archaic spelling has been preserved as printed4 ,index items have been made consistent with the main text4 ,the following amendments have been made3 ,page #ag--,kiusiu amended to ,kiushiu--444 ,honshiu1 ,shikoku1 ,kiushiu1 and ,yesso1 besides some thousands of smaller isles4 ,page #bb--;aboreal amended to arboreal--444 there can be no question as to the value of its arboreal products4 ,page #dh--opprobious amended to opprobrious--444 whatever its precise meaning1 is invariably intended to be opprobrious6 ,page #bjb--,zumoto amended to ,kumoto--,mr4 ,kumoto1 editor of the ,japan ,times1 444 ,page #bde--whisperered amended to whispered--444 and with bowed head whispered her morning prayer4 ,illustrations have been moved where necessary so that they are not in the middle of a paragraph4 ,the frontispiece illustration has been moved to follow the title page4