,transcrib]'s ,note ,! punctuation & spell+ f ! orig9al text h be5 fai?fully pres]v$4 ,only obvi\s typographical errors h be5 correct$4 ,!re are sev]al ma!matical =mulas )9 ! text4 ,!y are repres5t$ z foll[s3 ,sup]scripts3 x#c ,subscripts3 x#c ,squ>e ,root3 squ>e root ,greek ,lett]s3 pi1 !ta4 ,greek /> names are repres5t$ z alpha1 gamma1 = example4 ,,pione]s ,,( ,,sci5ce ,illu/ration ,illu/ration3 ,,newton ,f ! picture by ,knell]1 #afhi1 n[ at ,cambridge ,,pione]s ,,( ,,sci5ce ,,by ,,oliv] ,,lodge1 ,f4,r4,s4 ,,pr(essor ,,( ,,physics ,,9 ,,victoria ,,univ]sity ,,college1 ,,liv]pool ,,) ,,portraits ,,& ,,o!r ,,illu/rations ,london ,,macmillan ,,& ,,co4 ,,& ,,new ,,york #ahic ,,ri*>d ,,clay ,,& ,,sons1 ,,limit$1 ,,london ,,& ,,bungay4 ,,preface ,?is book takes its orig9 9 a c\rse ( lectures on ! hi/ory & progress ( ,a/ronomy arrang$ = me 9 ! ye> #ahhg by ?ree ( my colleagues 7,a4,c4,b41 ,j4,m41 ,g4,h4,r471 "o ( :om gave ! c\rse its "n4 ,! lectures hav+ be5 f\nd int]e/+1 x 0 natural to write !m out 9 full & publi%4 ,if ,i may claim = !m any m]it1 ,i %\ld say x consi/s 9 _! simple /atem5t & explanation ( sci5tific facts & laws4 ,! biographical details are compil$ f all readily available s\rces1 !re is no novelty or orig9ality ab\t !m2 ?\gh x is hop$ t !re may be "s vividness4 ,i h simply tri$ to pres5t a liv+ figure ( ea* ,pione] 9 turn1 & to trace 8 influ5ce on ! progress ( ?\ght4 ,i am indebt$ to _m biograph]s & writ]s1 among o!rs to ,mr4 ,e4,j4,c4 ,morton1 ^: excell5t set ( lives publi%$ by ! ,s4,p4,c4,k4 sav$ me mu* tr\ble 9 ! e>ly "p ( ! c\rse4 ,z we approa* rec5t times ! subject gr[s m complex1 & ! m5 m ne>ly contempor>ies2 h5ce ! biographical aspect dim9i%es & ! sci5tific treatm5t becomes full]1 b 9 no case has x be5 all[$ to become te*nical & g5]ally unreadable4 ,to ! fri5ds 7,c4,c4,c41 ,f4,w4,h4,m41 ,e4,f4,r47 :o ) great k9dness h revis$ ! pro(s1 & h indicat$ places :]e ! facts c\ld be made m readily intelligible by a cle>] /atem5t1 ,i express my g5u9e gratitude4 ,,univ]sity ,,college1 ,,liv]pool1 ,novemb]1 #ahib4 ,,cont5ts ,,"p ,i ,,lecture ,i ,,page ,,cop]nicus ,,& ,,! ,,motion ,,( ,,! ,,e>? #b ,,lecture ,,ii ,,ty*o ,,brah ,,& ,,! ,,e>lie/ ,,obs]vatory #cb ,,lecture ,,iii ,,kepl] ,,& ,,! ,,laws ,,( ,,planet>y ,,motion #ef ,,lecture ,,iv ,,galileo ,,& ,,! ,,inv5tion ,,( ,,! ,,telescope #hj ,,lecture ,v ,,galileo ,,& ,,! ,,inquisition #ajh ,,lecture ,,vi ,,desc>tes ,,& ,,8 ,,!ory ,,( ,,vortices #acf ,,lecture ,,vii ,,sir ,,isaac ,,newton #aei ,,lecture ,,viii ,,newton ,,& ,,! ,,law ,,( ,,gravitation #ahj ,,lecture ,,ix ,,newton',s ,,pr9cipia #bjc ,,"p ,,ii ,,lecture ,x ,,roem] ,,& ,,bradley ,,& ,,! ,,velocity ,,( ,,light #bcb ,,lecture ,,xi ,,lagrange ,,& ,,laplace--,,! ,,/ability ,,( ,,! ,,sol> ,,sy/em1 ,,& ,,! ,,nebul> ,,hypo!sis #bed ,,lecture ,,xii ,,h]s*el ,,& ,,! ,,motion ,,( ,,! ,,fix$ ,,/>s #bgc ,,lecture ,,xiii ,,! ,,discov]y ,,( ,,! ,,a/]oids #bid ,,lecture ,,xiv ,,bessel--,,! ,,di/ances ,,( ,,! ,,/>s1 ,,& ,,! ,,discov]y ,,( ,,/ell> ,,planets #cjd ,,lecture ,,xv ,,! ,,discov]y ,,( ,,neptune #cag ,,lecture ,,xvi ,,comets ,,& ,,meteors #cca ,,lecture ,,xvii ,,! ,,tides #cec ,,lecture ,,xviii ,,! ,,tides1 ,,& ,,planet>y ,,evolution #cgi ,,illu/rations ,,fig4 ,,page #a4 ,,ar*im$es #h #b4 ,,leon>do ,,da ,,v9ci #aj #c4 ,,cop]nicus #ab #d4 ,,hom]ic ,,cosmogony #ae #e4 ,,egyptian ,,symbol ,,( ,,! ,,univ]se #af #f4 ,,h9doo ,,e>? #ag #g4 ,,ord] ,,( ,,anci5t ,,planets ,,correspond+ ,,to ,,! ,,days ,,( ,,! ,,week #ai #h4 ,,ptolemaic ,,sy/em #bj #i4 ,,specim5s ,,( ,,app>5t ,,pa?s ,,( ,,v5us ,,& ,,( ,,m>s ,,among ,,! ,,/>s #ba #aj4 ,,app>5t ,,epicyclic ,,orbits ,,( ,,jupit] ,,& ,,saturn #bb #aa4 ,,egyptian ,,sy/em #bd #ab4 ,,true ,,orbits ,,( ,,e>? ,,& ,,jupit] #be #ac4 ,,orbits ,,( ,,m]cury ,,& ,,e>? #be #ad4 ,,cop]nican ,,sy/em ,,z ,,frequ5tly ,,repres5t$ #bf #ae4 ,,sl[ ,,movem5t ,,( ,,! ,,nor? ,,pole ,,9 ,a ,,circle ,,among ,,! ,,/>s #bi #af4 ,,ty*onic ,,sy/em1 ,,%[+ ,,! ,,sun ,,) ,,all ,,! ,,planets ,,revolv+ ,,r\nd ,,! ,,e>? #ch #ag4 ,,portrait ,,( ,,ty*o #da #ah4 ,,e>ly ,,out-,,door ,,quadrant ,,( ,,ty*o #dc #ai4 ,,map ,,( ,,d5m>k1 ,,%[+ ,,! ,,isl& ,,( ,,hu5 #de #bj4 ,,uraniburg #df #ba4 ,,a/rolabe #dg #bb4 ,,ty*o',s ,,l>ge ,,sextant #dh #bc4 ,,! ,,quadrant ,,9 ,,uraniburg #di #bd4 ,,ty*o',s ,,=m ,,( ,,transit ,,circle #ej #be4 ,a ,,mod]n ,,transit ,,circle #ea #bf4 ,,orbits ,,( ,,"s ,,( ,,! ,,planets ,,drawn ,,to ,,scale #fj #bg4 ,,_m-,,sid$ ,,polygon ,,or ,,approximate ,,circle ,,envelop$ ,,by ,,/raight ,,l9es #fa #bh4 ,,kepl]',s ,,idea ,,( ,,! ,,regul> ,,solids #fb #bi4 ,,diagram ,,( ,,equant #fg #cj4 ,,exc5tric ,,circle ,,suppos$ ,,to ,,be ,,divid$ ,,into ,,equal ,,areas #fh #ca4 ,,mode ,,( ,,draw+ ,,an ,,ellipse #gj #cb4 ,,kepl]',s ,,diagram ,,prov+ ,,equable ,,description ,,( ,,areas ,,= ,,an ,,ellipse #ga #cc4 ,,diagram ,,( ,a ,,planet',s ,,velocity ,,9 ,,diff]5t ,,p>ts ,,( ,,its ,,orbit #gb #cd4 ,,portrait ,,( ,,kepl] #gf #ce4 ,,curve ,,describ$ ,,by ,a ,,projectile #hb #cf4 ,,two ,,=ms ,,( ,,pulsilogy #hg #cg4 ,,t[] ,,( ,,pisa #ia #ch4 ,,view ,,( ,,! ,,half-,,moon ,,9 ,,small ,,telescope #ig #ci4 ,,portion ,,( ,,! ,,lun> ,,surface ,,m ,,highly ,,magnifi$ #ih #dj4 ,,ano!r ,,portion ,,( ,,! ,,lun> ,,surface #ii #da4 ,,lun> ,,l&scape ,,%[+ ,,e>? #ajj #db4 ,,galileo',s ,,me?od ,,( ,,e/imat+ ,,! ,,height ,,( ,,lun> ,,m\nta9 #aja #dc4 ,,"s ,,clu/]s ,,& ,,nebul #ajb #dd4 ,,/ages ,,( ,,! ,,discov]y ,,( ,,jupit]',s ,,satellites #ajc #de4 ,,eclipses ,,( ,,jupit]',s ,,satellites #aje #df4 ,,old ,,draw+s ,,( ,,saturn ,,by ,,diff]5t ,,obs]v]s1 ,,) ,,! ,,imp]fect ,,in/rum5ts ,,( ,,t ,,day #aaa #dg4 ,,phases ,,( ,,v5us #aab #dh4 ,,sunspots ,,z ,,se5 ,,) ,,l[ ,,p[] #aac #di4 ,a ,,portion ,,( ,,! ,,sun',s ,,disk ,,z ,,se5 ,,9 ,a ,,p[]ful ,,mod]n ,,telescope #aad #ej4 ,,saturn ,,& ,,8 ,,r+s #aae #ea4 ,,map ,,( ,,italy #aah #eb4 ,,portrait ,,( ,,galileo #abf #ec4 ,,portrait ,,( ,,desc>tes #adh #ed4 ,,desc>tes',s ,,eye ,,diagram #aea #ee4 ,,desc>tes',s ,,diagram ,,( ,,vortices ,,f ,,8 ,,pr9cipia #aeb #ef4 ,,manor-,,h\se ,,( ,,wool/horpe #afb #eg4 ,,projectile ,,diagram #agj #eh4 #aga #ei4 ,,diagrams ,,illu/rative ,,( ,,^? ,,ne> ,,! ,,beg9n+ #agd #fj4 ,,( ,,newton',s ,,pr9cipia #age #fa-b4 #age #fc4 ,,prismatic ,,disp]sion #ahb #fd4 ,a ,,s+le ,,con/itu5t ,,( ,,:ite ,,light ,,is ,,capable ,,( ,,no ,,m ,,disp]sion #ahc #fe4 ,,p>allel ,,beam ,,pass+ ,,?r\gh ,a ,,l5s #ahd #ff4 ,,newton',s ,,telescope #ahf #fg4 ,,! ,,sextant1 ,,z ,,n[ ,,made #ahg #fh4 ,,newton ,,:5 ,,"y #aif #fi4 ,,sir ,,isaac ,,newton #bjj #gj4 ,,ano!r ,,pr9cipia ,,diagram #bjg #ga4 ,,well-,,kn[n ,,model ,,exhibit+ ,,! ,,oblate ,,sph]oidal ,,=m ,,z ,a ,,consequ5ce ,,( ,,sp9n+ ,,ab\t ,a ,,c5tral ,,axis #bai #gb4 ,,jupit] #bba #gc4 ,,diagram ,,( ,,eye ,,look+ ,,at ,a ,,light ,,reflect$ ,,9 ,a ,,di/ant ,,mirror ,,?r\gh ,,! ,,tee? ,,( ,a ,,revolv+ ,,:eel #bch #gd4 ,,fizeau',s ,,:eel1 ,,%[+ ,,! ,,appe>ance ,,( ,,di/ant ,,image ,,se5 ,,?r\gh ,,its ,,tee? #bci #ge4 ,,eclipses ,,( ,,"o ,,( ,,jupit]',s ,,satellites #bda #gf4 ,a ,,transit ,,in/rum5t ,,= ,,! ,,briti% ,,a/ronomical ,,exp$ition1 #ahgd #bdc #gg4 ,,diagram ,,( ,,equatorially ,,m\nt$ ,,telescope #bde #gh4 ,,ab]ration ,,diagram #bej #gi4 ,,%[+ ,,! ,,?ree ,,conjunction ,,places ,,9 ,,! ,,orbits ,,( ,,jupit] ,,& ,,saturn #bei #hj4 ,,"l ,,rosse',s ,,draw+ ,,( ,,! ,,spiral ,,nebula ,,9 ,,canes ,,v5atici #bfi #ha4 ,,saturn #bga #hb4 ,,pr9ciple ,,( ,,newtonian ,,reflector #bgh #hc4 ,,h]s*el',s #dj-;,,foot ,,telescope #bhc #hd4 ,,william ,,h]s*el #bhe #he4 ,,c>ol9e ,,h]s*el #bhg #hf4 ,,d\ble ,,/>s #bhh #hg4 ,,old ,,draw+ ,,( ,,! ,,clu/] ,,9 ,,h]cules #bij #hh4 ,,old ,,draw+ ,,( ,,! ,,&rom$a ,,nebula #bia #hi4 ,,! ,,great ,,nebula ,,9 ,,orion #bib #ij4 ,,planet>y ,,orbits ,,to ,,scale #big #ia4 ,,diagram ,,illu/rat+ ,,p>allax #cjg #ib4 ,,! ,k,,nigsb]g ,,heliomet] #cab #ic4 ,,p]turbations ,,( ,,uranus #cbj #id4 ,,uranus' ,,& ,,neptune',s ,,relative ,,positions #cbe #ie4 ,,meteorite #ccc #if4 ,,meteor ,,/ream ,,cross+ ,,field ,,( ,,telescope #ccd #ig4 ,,diagram ,,( ,,direction ,,( ,,e>?',s ,,orbital ,,motion #cce #ih4 ,,p>abolic ,,& ,,elliptic ,,orbits #cdj #ii4 ,,orbit ,,( ,,halley',s ,,comet #cda #ajj4 ,,v>i\s ,,appe>ances ,,( ,,halley',s ,,comet ,,:5 ,,la/ ,,se5 #cdb #aja4 ,,head ,,( ,,donati',s ,,comet ,,( #aheh #cdc #ajb4 ,,comet #cdd #ajc4 ,,encke',s ,,comet #cde #ajd4 ,,biela',s ,,comet ,,z ,,la/ ,,se5 ,,9 ,,two ,,portions #cdf #aje4 ,,radiant ,,po9t ,,p]spective #cdh #ajf4 ,,pres5t ,,orbit ,,( ,,novemb] ,,meteors #cdi #ajg4 ,,orbit ,,( ,,novemb] ,,meteors ,,be=e ,,& ,,aft] ,,enc\nt] ,,) ,,uranus #cea #ajh4 ,,! ,,m]sey #cee #aji4 ,,co-,,tidal ,,l9es1 ,,%[+ ,,! ,,way ,,! ,,tidal ,,wave ,,rea*es ,,! ,,briti% ,,isles ,,f ,,! ,,atlantic #cei #aaj4 ,,:irl+ ,,e>? ,,model #cfd #aaa4 ,,e>? ,,& ,,moon ,,model #cfe #aab4 ,,e>? ,,& ,,moon 7,,e>?',s ,,rotation ,,neglect$7 #cff #aac4 ,,maps ,,%[+ ,,h[ ,,comp>atively ,,free ,,f ,,l& ,,ob/ruction ,,! ,,ocean ,,9 ,,! ,,s\!rn ,,hemisph]e ,,is #cfi #aad4 ,,spr+ ,,& ,,neap ,,tides #cgj #aae4 ,,tidal ,,clock #cga #aaf4 ,,sir ,,william ,,?omson 7,,"l ,,kelv97 #cgc #aag4 ,,tide-,,gauge ,,= ,,record+ ,,local ,,tides #cge #aah4 ,,h>monic ,,analyz] #cge #aai4 ,,tide-,,pr$ict] #cgf #abj4 ,,weekly ,,%eet ,,( ,,curves #cgg ,,pione]s ,,( ,,sci5ce ,,"p ,i ,,f ,,dusk ,,to ,,daylight ,,dates ,,& ,,summ>y ,,( ,,facts ,,= ,,lecture ,i ,physical ,sci5ce ( ! ,anci5ts4 ,?ales #fdj ,b4,c41 ,anaxim&] #faj ,b4,c41 ,,py?agoras #fjj ,b4,c41 ,anaxagoras #ejj ,b4,c41 ,eudoxus #djj ,b4,c41 ,,ari/otle #chd ,b4,c41 ,ari/>*us #cjj ,b4,c41 ,,ar*im$es #bhg ,b4,c41 ,erato/h5es #bgf ,b4,c41 ,,hipp>*us #afj ,b4,c41 ,ptolemy #ajj ,a4,d4 ,sci5ce ( ! ,middle ,ages4 ,cultivat$ only among ! ,arabs2 l>gely 9 ! =ms ( a/rology1 al*emy1 & algebra4 ,return ( ,sci5ce to ,europe4 ,rog] ,bacon #abdj1 ,leon>do da ,v9ci #adhj1 7,pr9t+ #adee71 ,columbus #adib1 ,cop]nicus #aedc4 ,a sket* ( ,cop]nik's life & "w4 ,born #adgc at ,?orn 9 ,pol&4 ,/udi$ ma!matics at ,bologna4 ,became an ecclesia/ic4 ,liv$ at ,frau5burg ne> m\? ( ,vi/ula4 ,sub/itut$ = ! app>5t motion ( ! heav5s ! real motion ( ! e>?4 ,publi%$ tables ( planet>y motions4 ,motion /ill suppos$ to be 9 epicycles4 ,work$ out 8 ideas = #cf ye>s1 & f9ally d$icat$ 8 "w to ! ,pope4 ,di$ j z 8 book 0 pr9t$1 ag$ #gb1 a c5tury be=e ! bir? ( ,newton4 ,a colossal /atue by ,?orwalds5 erect$ at ,w>saw 9 #ahcj4 ,,pione]s ,,( ,,sci5ce ,,lecture ,i ,,cop]nicus ,,& ,,! ,,motion ,,( ,,! ,,e>? ,! ord9>y run ( m5 live among ph5om5a ( :i* !y "k no?+ & c>e less4 ,!y see bodies fall to ! e>?1 !y he> s\nds1 !y k9dle fires1 !y see ! heav5s roll above !m1 b ( ! causes & inn] work+ ( ! :ole !y are ignorant1 & ) _! ignorance !y are cont5t4 ,und]/& ! /ructure ( a soap-bubble8 said a cultivat$ lit]>y man :om ,i "k2 ,i w\ldn't cross ! /reet to "k x6 ,& if ?is is a preval5t attitude n[1 :at mu/ h be5 ! attitude 9 anci5t times1 :5 mank9d 0 em]g+ f savag]y1 & :5 hi/ory seems compos$ ( h>assm5ts by w>s abroad & revolutions at home8 ,9 ! mo/ viol5tly di/urb$ times inde$1 ^? ) :i* ord9>y hi/ory is ma9ly occupi$1 sci5ce is q impossible4 ,x ne$s z its condition1 9 ord] to fl\ri%1 a fairly quiet1 untr\bl$ /ate1 or else a cloi/] or univ]sity remov$ f ! d9 & bu/le ( ! political & comm]cial _w4 ,9 su* places x has tak5 its rise1 & 9 su* peaceful places & quiet times true sci5ce w cont9ue to be cultivat$4 ,! great bulk ( mank9d mu/ always rema91 ,i suppose1 m or less c>eless ( sci5tific rese>* & sci5tific result1 except 9 s f> z x affects _! modes ( locomotion1 _! heal? & pleasure1 or _! purse4 ,b among a p hurri$ & busy & preoccupi$1 "s 9 ! pursuit ( ri*es1 "s 9 ! pursuit ( pleasure1 & "s1 ! majority1 9 ! /ruggle = exi/5ce1 !re arise 9 e g5]ation1 "h & !re1 "o or two great s\ls--m5 :o seem ( ano!r age & c\ntry1 :o look ^u ! bu/le & fev]i% activity & are n infect$ by x1 :o wat* o!rs a*iev+ prizes ( ri*es & pleasure & are n di/urb$1 :o look on ! _w & ! univ]se !y are born 9 ) q o!r eyes4 ,to !m x appe>s n z a baza> to buy & to sell 92 n z a ladd] to scramble up 7or d[n7 helt]-skelt] )\t kn[+ :i!r or :y2 b z a fact--a great & my/]i\s fact--to be pond]$ ov]1 /udi$1 & p]*ance 9 "s small measure und]/ood4 ,by ! multitude ^! m5 7 sne]$ at z ecc5tric or fe>$ z sup]natural4 ,_! calm1 cle>1 contemplative attitude seem$ ei!r insane or diabolic2 & accord+ly !y h be5 piti$ z en?usia/s or kill$ z blasphem]s4 ,"o ( ^! great s\ls may h be5 a prophet or prea*]1 & h call$ to 8 g5]ation to be?9k !m ( :y & :at !y 71 to /ruggle less & m$itate m1 to se>* = ?+s ( true value & n = dross4 ,ano!r has be5 a poet or musician1 & has utt]$ 9 words or 9 song ?\ghts dimly possible to _m m51 b by !m unutt]able & left in>ticulate4 ,ano!r has be5 influ5c$ /ill m directly by ! univ]se ar\nd him1 has felt at times ov]p[]$ by ! my/]y & solemnity ( x all1 & has be5 impell$ by a =ce /rong] ?an himself to /udy x1 pati5tly1 sl[ly1 dilig5tly2 cont5t if he c\ld ga!r a few crumbs ( ! great h>ve/ ( k1 happy if he c\ld grasp "s great g5]alization or wide-embrac+ law1 & s 9 "s small measure ent] into ! m9d & ?\ght ( ! ,design] ( all ?is wondr\s frame ( ?+s4 ,^! la/ h be5 ! m5 ( sci5ce1 ! great & heav5-born m5 ( sci5ce2 & !y are few4 ,9 our own day1 amid ! ?rong ( inv5tions1 !re are a multitude ( small m5 us+ ! "n ( sci5ce b work+ = _! own ends1 jo/l+ & scrambl+ j z !y w\ld jo/le & scramble 9 any o!r trade or pr(ession4 ,^! may be work]s1 !y may & d advance k1 b !y are nev] pione]s4 ,n to !m is x giv5 to op5 out great tracts ( unexplor$ t]ritory1 or to view ! promis$ l& z f a m\nta9-top4 ,( !m we %all n speak2 we w conc]n ourselves only ) ! greate/1 ! epo*-mak+ m51 to ^: life & "w we & all :o come aft] !m owe s mu*4 ,su* a man 0 ,?ales4 ,su* 0 ,ar*im$es1 ,hipp>*us1 ,cop]nicus4 ,su* pre-em95tly 0 ,newton4 ,n[ ,i am n go+ to attempt a hi/ory ( sci5ce4 ,su* a "w 9 t5 lectures w\ld be absurd4 ,i int5d to pick out a few sali5t names "h & !re1 & to /udy ^! 9 "s detail1 r ?an by attempt+ to deal ) too _m to lose individuality & di/9ctness4 ,we "k s little ( ! great names ( antiquity1 t !y are = ?is purpose sc>cely suitable4 ,9 "s dep>tm5ts ! sci5ce ( ! ,greeks 0 rem>kable1 ?\gh x is completely ov]%ad[$ by _! philosophy2 yet x 0 l>gely bas$ on :at has prov$ to be a wrong me?od ( proc$ure1 viz ! introspective & conjectural1 r ?an ! inductive & exp]im5tal me?ods4 ,!y inve/igat$ ,nature by /udy+ _! own m9ds1 by consid]+ ! mean+s ( words1 r ?an by /udy+ ?+s & record+ ph5om5a4 ,?is wrong 7?\gh by no means1 on ! face ( x1 absurd7 me?od 0 n pursu$ exclusively1 else w\ld _! sci5ce h be5 valueless1 b ! influ5ce x _h 0 su* z mat]ially to detract f ! value ( _! speculations & discov]ies4 ,= :5 tru? & falsehood are inextricably wov5 into a /atem5t1 ! tru? is z hopelessly hidd5 z if x _h nev] be5 /at$1 = we h no crit]ion to di/+ui% ! false f ! true4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #a4--;,ar*im$es4 ,besides ?is1 h[ev]1 _m ( _! discov]ies 7 ultimately lo/ to ! _w1 "s1 z at ,alex&ria1 by fire--! bigot$ "w ( a ,mohamm$an conqu]or--"s by irruption ( b>b>ians2 & all 7 buri$ s long & s completely by ! night ( ! d>k ages1 t !y _h to be r$iscov]$ almo/ z absolutely & completely z ?\gh !y _h nev] be54 ,"s ( ! names ( antiquity we %all h occasion to ref] to2 s ,i h arrang$ "s ( !m 9 *ronological ord] on page #d1 & z a repres5tative "o ,i may specially emphasize ,ar*im$es1 "o ( ! greate/ m5 ( sci5ce !re has ev] be51 & ! fa!r ( physics4 ,! only effective l9k betwe5 ! old & ! new sci5ce is af=d$ by ! ,arabs4 ,! d>k ages come z an utt] gap 9 ! sci5tific hi/ory ( ,europe1 & = m ?an a ?\s& ye>s !re 0 n a sci5tific man ( note except 9 ,arabia2 & ) ! ,arabs k 0 s mix$ up ) magic & en*antm5t t "o _c contemplate x ) any degree ( satisfaction1 & little real progress 0 made4 ,9 "s ( ! ,wav]ley ,novels y c realize ! /ate ( matt]s 9 ^! times2 & y "k h[ ! only approa* to sci5ce is ?r\gh "s ,arab sorc]] or a/rolog]1 ma9ta9$ usually by a mon>*1 & consult$ ^u all great occasions1 z ! oracles 7 ( old4 ,9 ! ?irte5? c5tury1 h[ev]1 a really great sci5tific man appe>$1 :o may be said to h]ald ! dawn ( mod]n sci5ce 9 ,europe4 ,?is man 0 ,rog] ,bacon4 ,he _c be said to d m ?an h]ald x1 h[ev]1 = we mu/ wait two hundr$ ye>s = ! next "n ( great magnitude2 moreov] he 0 isolat$1 & s f> 9 advance ( 8 "t t he left no foll[]s4 ,8 own "w suff]$ f ! prevail+ ignorance1 = he 0 p]secut$ & imprison$1 n = ! commonplace & natural reason t he fright5$ ! ,*ur*1 b m]ely because he 0 ecc5tric 9 8 habits & knew too mu*4 ,! man ,i spoke ( z com+ two hundr$ ye>s lat] is ,leon>do da ,v9ci4 ,true he is be/ kn[n z an arti/1 b if y read 8 works y w come to ! conclusion t he 0 ! mo/ sci5tific arti/ :o ev] liv$4 ,he tea*es ! laws ( p]spective 7!n new71 ( light & %ade1 ( col\r1 ( ! equilibrium ( bodies1 & ( a multitude ( o!r matt]s :]e sci5ce t\*es on art--n always q correctly accord+ to mod]n ideas1 b 9 beautiful & precise language4 ,= cle> & consci\s p[]1 = wide-embrac+ k & skill1 ,leon>do is "o ( ! mo/ rem>kable m5 t ev] liv$4 ,ab\t ?is "t ! trem5d\s inv5tion ( pr9t+ 0 a*iev$1 & ,columbus unwitt+ly discov]$ ! ,new ,_w4 ,! middle ( ! next c5tury mu/ be tak5 z ! real dawn ( mod]n sci5ce2 = ! ye> #aedc m>ks ! publication ( ! life-"w ( ,cop]nicus4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #b4--,leon>do da ,v9ci4 ,nicolas ,cop]nik 0 8 prop] "n4 ,cop]nicus is m]ely ! ,lat9iz$ =m ( x1 accord+ to ! !n prevail+ fa%ion4 ,he 0 born at ,?orn1 9 ,poli% ,prussia1 9 #adgc4 ,8 fa!r is believ$ to h be5 a ,g]man4 ,he graduat$ at ,crac[ z doctor 9 arts & m$ic9e1 & 0 de/9$ = ! ecclesia/ical pr(ession4 ,! details ( 8 life are few2 x seems to h be5 quiet & unev5tful1 & we "k v little ab\t x4 ,he 0 in/ruct$ 9 a/ronomy at ,crac[1 & le>nt ma!matics at ,bologna4 ,!nce he w5t to ,rome1 :]e he 0 made ,pr(essor ( ,ma!matics2 & soon aft]w>ds he w5t into ord]s4 ,on 8 return home1 he took *>ge ( ! pr9cipal *ur* 9 8 native place1 & became a canon4 ,at ,frau5burg1 ne> ! m\? ( ! ,vi/ula1 he liv$ ! rema9d] ( 8 life4 ,we f9d him report+ on co9age = ! ,gov]nm5t1 b o!rwise he does n appe> z hav+ ent]$ into ! life ( ! times4 ,he 0 a quiet1 s*ol>ly monk ( /udi\s habits1 & ) a reputation :i* drew to him sev]al e>ne/ /ud5ts1 :o receiv$ viv voce in/ruction f him2 s1 9 /udy & m$itation1 8 life pass$4 ,he compil$ tables ( ! planet>y motions :i* 7 f> m correct ?an any :i* _h hi!rto appe>$1 & :i* rema9$ s]viceable = long aft]w>ds4 ,! ,ptolemaic sy/em ( ! heav5s1 :i* _h be5 ! or?odox sy/em all ?r\gh ! ,*ri/ian era1 he endeav\r$ to improve & simplify by ! hypo!sis t ! sun 0 ! c5tre ( ! sy/em in/ead ( ! e>?2 & ! fir/ consequ5ces ( ?is *ange he work$ out = _m ye>s1 produc+ 9 ! end a great book3 8 "o life-"w4 ,?is fam\s "w1 ,de ,revolutionibus ,orbium ,coele/ium1 embodi$ all 8 pa9/ak+ calculations1 appli$ 8 new sy/em to ea* ( ! bodies 9 ! sol> sy/em 9 succession1 & treat$ besides ( mu* o!r recondite matt]4 ,t[>ds ! close ( 8 life x 0 put into type4 ,he c sc>cely be said to h liv$ to see x appe>1 = he 0 /rick5 ) p>alysis be=e its completion2 b a pr9t$ copy 0 br\ght to 8 b$side & put into 8 h&s1 s t he might j feel x be=e he di$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #c4--;,cop]nicus4 ,t ,cop]nicus 0 a giant 9 intellect or p[]--su* z _h liv$ 9 ! pa/1 & 7 de/9$ to live 9 ! ne> future--,i see no reason :atev] to believe4 ,he 0 j a quiet1 e>ne/1 pati5t1 & ,god-fe>+ man1 a deep /ud5t1 an unbiass$ ?9k]1 al?\gh ) no specially brilliant or /rik+ gifts2 yet to him x 0 giv5 to effect su* a revolution 9 ! :ole c\rse ( man's ?\ghts z is difficult to p>allel4 ,y "k :at ! outcome ( 8 "w 04 ,x prov$--he did n m]ely speculate1 he prov$--t ! e>? is a planet l ! o!rs1 & t x revolves r\nd ! sun4 ,yes1 x c be summ$ up 9 a s5t5ce1 b :at a revelation x conta9s4 ,if y h nev] made an ef=t to grasp ! full significance ( ?is discov]y y w n appreciate x4 ,! doctr9e is v famili> to u n[1 we h he>d x1 ,i suppose1 s9ce we 7 f\r ye>s old1 b c y realize x8 ,i "k x 0 a long "t be=e ,i c\ld4 ,?9k ( ! solid e>?1 ) trees & h\ses1 cities & c\ntries1 m\nta9s & seas--?9k ( ! va/ tracts ( l& 9 ,asia1 ,africa1 & ,am]ica--& !n picture ! :ole mass sp9n+ l a top1 & ru%+ along its annual c\rse r\nd ! sun at ! rate ( n9ete5 miles e second4 ,7 we n accu/om$ to x1 ! idea w\ld be /agg]+4 ,no wond] x 0 receiv$ ) incr$ulity4 ,b ! difficulties ( ! conception are n only physical1 !y are /ill m felt f ! speculative & !ological po9ts ( view4 ,) ?is la/1 inde$1 ! reconcilem5t _c be consid]$ complete ev5 yet4 ,!ologians d n1 inde$1 n[ d5y ! fact ( ! e>?'s subord9ation 9 ! s*eme ( ! univ]se1 b _m ( !m ignore x & pass x by4 ,s soon z ! ,*ur* awoke to a p]ception ( ! trem5d\s & revolution>y import ( ! new doctr9es1 x 0 b\nd to resi/ !m or be false to its traditions4 ,= ! :ole t5or ( m5's ?\ght mu/ h be5 *ang$ _h !y accept$ x4 ,if ! e>? 7 n ! c5tral & all-important body 9 ! univ]se1 if ! sun & planets & />s 7 n att5dant & subsidi>y lights1 b 7 o!r worlds l>g] & p]haps sup]ior to ours1 :]e 0 man's place 9 ! univ]se8 & :]e 7 ! doctr9es !y _h ma9ta9$ z irrefragable8 ,i by no means ass]t t ! new doctr9es 7 really utt]ly irreconcilable ) ! m ess5tial p>ts ( ! old dogmas1 if only !ologians _h _h pati5ce & g5ius en\gh to consid] ! matt] calmly4 ,i suppose t 9 t case !y might h rea*$ ! am\nt ( reconciliation at pres5t atta9$1 & n only h left sci5tific tru? 9 peace to spread z x c\ld1 b might p]haps !mselves h jo9$ ! b& ( e>ne/ /ud5ts & work]s1 z s _m ( ! high] ,ca?olic cl]gy d at ! pres5t day4 ,b ?is 0 too mu* to expect4 ,su* a revelation 0 n to be accept$ 9 a day or 9 a c5tury--! easie/ plan 0 to treat x z a h]esy1 & try to cru% x out4 ,n 9 ,cop]nik's life1 h[ev]1 did !y p]ceive ! dang]\s t5d5cy ( ! doctr9e--p>tly because x 0 buri$ 9 a pond]\s & le>n$ treatise n likely to be easily und]/ood2 p>tly1 p]haps1 because its prop\nd] 0 himself an ecclesia/ic2 ma9ly because he 0 a pati5t & judici\s man1 n giv5 to l\d or intol]ant ass]tion1 b cont5t to /ate 8 views 9 quiet conv]sation1 & to let !m g5tly spread = ?irty ye>s be=e he publi%$ !m4 ,&1 :5 he did publi% !m1 he us$ ! happy device ( d$icat+ 8 great book to ! ,pope1 & a c>d9al bore ! exp5se ( pr9t+ x4 ,?us did ! ,roman ,*ur* /& sponsor to a sy/em ( tru? aga9/ :i* x 0 de/9$ 9 ! next c5tury to hurl its ana!mas1 & to inflict on its conspicu\s adh]5ts torture1 imprisonm5t1 & dea?4 ,to realize ! *ange ( ?\ght1 ! utt]ly new view ( ! univ]se1 :i* ! ,cop]nican !ory introduc$1 we mu/ g back to prec$+ ages1 & try to recall ! views :i* _h be5 held z probable conc]n+ ! =m ( ! e>? & ! motion ( ! heav5ly bodies4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #d4--;,hom]ic ,cosmogony4 ,! e>lie/ record$ notion ( ! e>? is ! v natural "o t x is a flat area float+ 9 an illimitable ocean4 ,! sun 0 a god :o drove 8 *>iot across ! heav5s once a day2 & ,anaxagoras 0 ?reat5$ ) dea? & puni%$ ) bani%m5t = tea*+ t ! sun 0 only a ball ( fire1 & t x might p]haps be z big z ! c\ntry ( ,greece4 ,! obvi\s difficulty z to h[ ! sun got back to ! ea/ aga9 e morn+ 0 got ov]--n by ! conjecture t he w5t back 9 ! d>k1 nor by ! idea t !re 0 a fre% sun e day2 ?\gh1 inde$1 x 0 once believ$ t ! moon 0 creat$ once a mon?1 & p]iodically cut up into />s--b by ! doctr9e t 9 ! nor!rn "p ( ! e>? 0 a high range ( m\nta9s1 & t ! sun travell$ r\nd on ! surface ( ! sea beh9d ^!4 ,sometimes1 inde$1 y f9d a repres5tation ( ! sun be+ r[$ r\nd 9 a boat4 ,lat] on x 0 p]ceiv$ to be necess>y t ! sun %\ld be able to travel b5ea? ! e>?1 & s ! e>? 0 suppos$ to be support$ on pill>s or on roots1 or to be a dome-%ap$ body float+ 9 air--mu* l ,dean ,swift's isl& ( ,laputa4 ,! elephant & tortoise ( ! ,h9du e>? are1 no d\bt1 emblematic or typical1 n lit]al4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #e4--;,egyptian ,symbol ( ! ,univ]se4 ,! e>? a figure ) leaves1 ! heav5 a figure ) />s1 ! pr9ciple ( equilibrium & support1 ! boats ( ! ris+ & sett+ sun4 ,ari/otle1 h[ev]1 taught t ! e>? mu/ be a sph]e1 & us$ all ! or?odox argum5ts ( ! pres5t *ildr5's geography-books ab\t ! way y see %ips at sea1 & ab\t lun> eclipses4 ,to imag9e a possible antipodes mu/1 h[ev]1 h be5 a trem5d\s difficulty 9 ! way ( ?is conception ( a sph]e1 & ,i sc>cely suppose t any "o c at t "t h contemplat$ ! possibility ( su* upside-d[n regions be+ inhabit$4 ,i f9d t intellig5t *ildr5 inv>iably feel ! greate/ difficulty 9 realiz+ ! exi/5ce ( inhabitants on ! opposite side ( ! e>?4 ,/upid *ildr51 l /upid p]sons 9 g5]al1 w ( c\rse believe any?+ !y are told1 & mu* good may ! belief d !m2 b ! k9d ( difficulties felt by intellig5t & ?\ghtful *ildr5 are mo/ in/ructive1 s9ce x is q c]ta9 t ! e>ly philosoph]s mu/ h enc\nt]$ & ov]come ^? v same difficulties by _! own g5ius4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #f4--;,h9doo ,e>?4 ,h[ev]1 someh[ or o!r ! conception ( a sph]ical e>? 0 gradually grasp$1 & ! heav5ly bodies 7 p]ceiv$ all to revolve r\nd x3 "s mov+ regul>ly1 z ! />s1 all fix$ toge!r into "o sph]ical %ell or firmam5t2 "s mov+ irregul>ly & app>5tly anomal\sly--^! irregul> bodies 7 !re=e call$ planets or w&]]s4 ,sev5 ( !m 7 kn[n1 viz4 ,moon1 ,m]cury1 ,v5us1 ,sun1 ,m>s1 ,jupit]1 ,saturn1 & !re is little d\bt t ?is numb] sev51 s sugge/$1 is ! orig9 ( ! sev5 days ( ! week4 ,! above ord] ( ! anci5t planets is t ( _! suppos$ di/ance f ! e>?4 ,n always1 h[ev]1 are !y ?us quot$ by ! anci5ts3 sometimes ! sun is suppos$ ne>] ?an ,m]cury or ,v5us4 ,x has always be5 kn[n t ! moon 0 ! ne>e/ ( ! heav5ly bodies2 & "s r\gh notion ( its di/ance 0 curr5t4 ,m>s1 ,jupit]1 & ,saturn 7 plac$ 9 t ord] because t is ! ord] ( _! app>5t motions1 & x 0 natural to suppose t ! sl[e/ mov+ bodies 7 ! fur!/ (f4 ,! ord] ( ! days ( ! week %[s :at a/rolog]s consid]$ to be ! ord] ( ! planets2 on _! sy/em ( ea* successive h\r ( ! day be+ rul$ ov] by ! successive planets tak5 9 ord]4 ,! diagram 7fig4 #g7 %[s t if ! ,sun rule ! fir/ h\r ( a c]ta9 day 7!reby giv+ its "n to ! day7 ,v5us w rule ! second h\r1 ,m]cury ! ?ird1 & s on2 ! ,sun w ?us be f\nd to rule ! eigh?1 fifte5?1 & tw5ty-second h\r ( t day1 ,v5us ! tw5ty-?ird1 & ,m]cury ! tw5ty-f\r? h\r2 s ! ,moon w rule ! fir/ h\r ( ! next day1 :i* w !re=e be ,monday4 ,on ! same pr9ciple 7numb]+ r\nd ! h\rs successively1 ) ! arr[s7 ! fir/ h\r ( ! next day w be f\nd to be rul$ by ,m>s1 or by ! ,saxon deity correspond+ !reto2 ! fir/ h\r ( ! day aft]1 by ,m]cury 7,m]cr$i71 & s on 7foll[+ ! /raight l9es ( ! patt]n74 ,! ord] ( ! planets r\nd ! circle c\nt]-clockwise1 i4e4 ! direction ( _! prop] motions1 is t quot$ above 9 ! text4 ,to expla9 ! motion ( ! planets & r$uce !m to any sort ( law 0 a "w ( trem5d\s difficulty4 ,! greate/ a/ronom] ( anci5t times 0 ,hipp>*us1 & to him ! sy/em kn[n z ! ,ptolemaic sy/em is no d\bt l>gely due4 ,b x 0 deliv]$ to ! _w ma9ly by ,ptolemy1 & goes by 8 "n4 ,?is 0 a f9e piece ( "w1 & a great advance on any?+ t _h gone be=e2 = al?\gh x is ( c\rse saturat$ ) error1 /ill x is bas$ on a l>ge sub/ratum ( tru?4 ,its sup]iority to all ! previ\sly m5tion$ sy/ems is obvi\s4 ,& x really did 9 its m develop$ =m describe ! obs]v$ motions ( ! planets4 ,ea* planet 01 9 ! e>ly /ages ( ?is sy/em1 z taught1 say1 by ,eudoxus1 suppos$ to be set 9 a cry/al sph]e1 :i* revolv$ s z to c>ry ! planet ) x4 ,! sph]e _h to be ( cry/al to acc\nt = ! visibility ( o!r planets & ! />s ?r\gh x4 ,outside ! sev5 planet>y sph]es1 arrang$ "o inside ! o!r1 0 a /ill l>g] "o 9 :i* 7 set ! />s4 ,?is 0 believ$ to turn all ! o!rs1 & 0 call$ ! primum mobile4 ,! :ole sy/em 0 suppos$ to produce1 9 its revolution1 = ! few privileg$ to he> ! music ( ! sph]es1 a s\nd z ( "s magnific5t h>mony4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #g4--,ord] ( anci5t planets correspond+ to ! days ( ! week4 ,! en?usia/ic disciples ( ,py?agoras believ$ t _! ma/] 0 privileg$ to he> ?is noble *ant2 & f> be x f u to d\bt t ! rapt & absorb+ pleasure ( contemplat+ ! h>mony ( nature1 to a man s em95tly great z ,py?agoras1 mu/ be truly & adequately repres5t$ by "s su* poetic conception4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #h4--,ptolemaic sy/em4 ,! precise k9d ( motion suppos$ to be communicat$ f ! primum mobile to ! o!r sph]es s z to produce ! obs]v$ motions ( ! planets 0 modifi$ & improv$ by v>i\s philosoph]s until x develop$ into ! epicyclic tra9 ( ,hipp>*us & ( ,ptolemy4 ,x is v in/ructive to obs]ve a planet 7say ,m>s or ,jupit]7 night aft] night & plot d[n its place ) ref]5ce to ! fix$ />s on a cele/ial globe or />-map4 ,or1 in/ead ( direct obs]vation by alignm5t ) kn[n />s1 x is easi] to look out its "r asc5sion & decl9ation 9 ,:itak]'s ,almanac1 & plot ^? d[n4 ,if ?is be done = a ye> or two1 x w be f\nd t ! motion ( ! planet is by no means regul>1 b t ?\gh on ! :ole x advances x sometimes is /ation>y & sometimes goes back4#a ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #i4--,specim5s ( ,app>5t pa?s ( ,v5us & ( ,m>s among ! />s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aj4--;,app>5t epicyclic orbits ( ,jupit] & ,saturn2 ! ,e>? be+ suppos$ fix$ at ! c5tre1 ) ! ,sun revolv+ 9 a small circle4 ,a loop is made by ea* planet e ye>4 ,^! /ations & retrogressions ( ! planets 7 well kn[n to ! anci5ts4 ,x 0 n to be suppos$ = a mom5t t ! cry/al sph]es 7 subject to any irregul>ity1 nei!r 0 uni=m circul> motion to be readily ab&on$2 s x 0 surmis$ t ! ma9 sph]e c>ri$1 n ! planet itself1 b ! c5tre or axis ( a subord9ate sph]e1 & t ! planet 0 c>ri$ by ?is4 ,! m9or sph]e c\ld be all[$ to revolve at a diff]5t uni=m pace f ! ma9 sph]e1 & s a curve ( "s complexity c\ld be obta9$4 ,a curve describ$ 9 space by a po9t ( a circle or sph]e1 :i* itself is c>ri$ along at ! same "t1 is "s k9d ( cycloid2 if ! c5tre ( ! trac+ circle travels along a /raight l9e1 we get ! ord9>y cycloid1 ! curve trac$ 9 air by a nail on a coa*-:eel2 b if ! c5tre ( ! trac+ circle be c>ri$ r\nd ano!r circle ! curve describ$ is call$ an epicycloid4 ,by su* curves ! planet>y /ations & retrogressions c\ld be expla9$4 ,a l>ge sph]e w\ld h to revolve once = a ye> ( ! p>ticul> planet1 c>ry+ ) x a subsidi>y sph]e 9 :i* ! planet 0 fix$2 ?is latt] sph]e revolv+ once = a ye> ( ! e>?4 ,! actual loop$ curve ?us describ$ is depict$ = ,jupit] & ,saturn 9 ! annex$ diagram 7fig4 #aj47 ,x 0 long ago p]ceiv$ t real mat]ial sph]es 7 unnecess>y2 su* sph]es inde$1 ?\gh possibly transp>5t to light1 w\ld be imp]meable to comets3 any o!r epicyclic ge>+ w\ld s]ve1 & z a m]e description ( ! motion x is simpl] to ?9k ( a sy/em ( jo9t$ b>s1 "o long arm c>ry+ a %ort] arm1 ! two revolv+ at diff]5t rates1 & ! end ( ! %ort "o c>ry+ ! planet4 ,?is does all t is ne$ful = ! fir/ approximation to a planet's motion4 ,9 s f> z ! motion _c be ?us truly /at$1 ! %ort arm may be suppos$ to c>ry ano!r1 & t ano!r1 & s on1 s t ! resultant motion ( ! planet is comp\nd$ ( a l>ge numb] ( circul> motions ( diff]5t p]iods2 by ?is device any requir$ am\nt ( complexity c\ld be atta9$4 ,we %all return to ?is at great] l5g? 9 ,lecture ,,iii4 ,! ma9 features ( ! motion1 z %[n 9 ! diagram1 requir$ only two arms = _! expression2 "o arm revolv+ ) ! av]age motion ( ! planet1 & ! o!r revolv+ ) ! app>5t motion ( ! sun1 & always po9t+ 9 ! same direction z ! s+le arm suppos$ to c>ry ! sun4 ,?is la/ fact is ( c\rse because ! motion to be repres5t$ does n really belong to ! planet at all1 b to ! e>?1 & s all ! ma9 epicyclic motions = ! sup]ior planets 7 ! same4 ,z = ! inf]ior planets 7,m]cury & ,v5us7 !y only appe> to oscillate l ! bob ( a p5dulum ab\t ! sun1 & s x is v obvi\s t !y mu/ be really revolv+ r\nd x4 ,an anci5t ,egyptian sy/em p]ceiv$ ?is tru?2 b ! ,ptolemaic sy/em imag9$ !m to revolve r\nd ! e>? l ! re/1 ) an artificial sy/em ( epicycles to prev5t _! ev] gett+ f> away f ! neighb\rhood ( ! sun4 ,x is easy n[ to see h[ ! ,cop]nican sy/em expla9s ! ma9 features ( planet>y motion1 ! /ations & retrogressions1 q naturally & )\t any complexity4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aa4--;,egyptian sy/em4 ,let ! out] circle repres5t ! orbit ( ,jupit]1 & ! inn] circle ! orbit ( ! e>?1 :i* is mov+ fa/] ?an ,jupit] 7s9ce ,jupit] takes #dccb days to make "o revolution72 !n rememb] t ! app>5t position ( ,jupit] is ref]r$ to ! inf9itely di/ant fix$ />s & ref] to fig4 #ab4 ,let ,e#a1 ,e#b1 c41 be successive positions ( ! e>?2 ,j#a1 ,j#b1 c41 correspond+ positions ( ,jupit]4 ,produce ! l9es ,e#a ,j#a1 ,e#b ,j#b1 c41 to an enorm\sly great] circle outside1 & x w be se5 t ! t]m9ation ( ^! l9es1 repres5t+ app>5t positions ( ,jupit] among ! />s1 advances :ile ! e>? goes f ,e#a to ,e#c2 is almo/ /ation>y f some:]e ab\t ,e#c to ,e#d2 & rec$es f ,e#d to ,e#e2 s t evid5tly ! recessions ( ,jupit] are only app>5t1 & are due to ! orbital motion ( ! e>?4 ,! app>5t complications 9 ! pa? ( ,jupit]1 %[n 9 ,fig4 #aj1 are se5 to be caus$ simply by ! motion ( ! e>?1 & to be ?us completely & easily expla9$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ab4--,true orbits ( ,e>? & ,jupit]4 ,! same ?+ = an inf]ior planet1 say ,m]cury1 is ev5 /ill m easily se5 7vide figure #ac74 ,! motion ( ,m]cury is direct f ,m'' to ,m'''1 retrograde f ,m''' to ,m''1 & /ation>y at ,m'' & ,m'''4 ,x appe>s to oscillate1 tak+ #gbe days = its direct sw+1 & #dce = its return sw+4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ac4--,orbit ( ,m]cury & ,e>?4 ,on ?is sy/em no artificiality is requir$ to prev5t ,m]cury's ev] gett+ f> f ! sun3 ! radius ( its orbit limits its real & app>5t excursions4 ,ev5 if ! e>? 7 /ation>y1 ! motions ( ,m]cury & ,v5us w\ld n be ess5tially modifi$1 b ! /ations & retrogressions ( ! sup]ior planets1 ,m>s1 ,jupit]1 c41 w\ld :olly cease4 ,! complexity ( ! old mode ( reg>d+ app>5t motion may be illu/rat$ by ! case ( a travell] 9 a railway tra9 unaw>e ( 8 own motion4 ,x is z ?\gh trees1 h$ges1 di/ant objects1 7 all fly+ pa/ him & contort+ !mselves z y may see ! furr[s ( a pl\gh$ field d :5 travell+1 :ile y y\rself seem /ation>y amid/ x all4 ,h[ great a simplicity w\ld be introduc$ by ! hypo!sis t1 aft] all1 ^! ?+s might be /ation>y & "o's self mov+4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ad4--;,cop]nican sy/em z frequ5tly repres5t$4 ,b ! comet>y orbit is a mu* lat] addition1 & no attempt is made to %[ ! relative di/ances ( ! planets4 ,n[ y are n to suppose t ! sy/em ( ,cop]nicus swept away ! entire doctr9e ( epicycles2 t doctr9e c h>dly be said to be swept away ev5 n[4 ,z a description ( a planet's motion x is n incorrect1 ?\gh x is geometrically cumbr\s4 ,if y describe ! motion ( a railway tra9 by /at+ t e po9t on ! rim ( ea* :eel describes a cycloid ) ref]5ce to ! e>?1 & a circle ) ref]5ce to ! tra91 & t ! motion ( ! tra9 is comp\nd$ ( ^! cycloidal & circul> motions1 y w n be say+ :at is false1 only :at is cumbr\s4 ,! ,ptolemaic sy/em dem&$ l>ge epicycles1 dep5d+ on ! motion ( ! e>?1 ^! are :at ,cop]nicus ov]?rew2 b to express ! m9ut] details ( ! motion small] epicycles rema9$1 & grew m & m complex z obs]vations increas$ 9 accuracy1 until a great] man ?an ei!r ,cop]nicus or ,ptolemy1 viz4 ,kepl]1 replac$ !m all by a simple ellipse4 ,"o po9t ,i mu/ n omit f ?is brief notice ( ! "w ( ,cop]nicus4 ,hipp>*us _h1 by mo/ sagaci\s int]pretation ( c]ta9 obs]vations ( 81 discov]$ a rem>kable ph5om5on call$ ! precession ( ! equ9oxes4 ,x 0 a discov]y ( ! fir/ magnitude1 & su* z w\ld raise to great fame ! man :o %\ld h made x 9 any p]iod ( ! _w's hi/ory1 ev5 ! pres5t4 ,x is sc>cely expressible 9 popul> language1 & )\t "s te*nical t]ms2 b ,i c try4 ,! plane ( ! e>?'s orbit produc$ into ! sky gives ! app>5t pa? ( ! sun ?r\gh\t a ye>4 ,?is pa? is kn[n z ! ecliptic1 because eclipses only happ5 :5 ! moon is 9 x4 ,! sun keeps to x accurately1 b ! planets w&] some:at above & bel[ x 7fig4 #i71 & ! moon w&]s a good deal4 ,x is manife/1 h[ev]1 9 ord] t !re may be an eclipse ( any k9d1 t a /raight l9e mu/ be able to be drawn ?r\gh e>? & moon & sun 7n necess>ily ?r\gh _! c5tres ( c\rse71 & ?is is impossible unless "s p>ts ( ! ?ree bodies are 9 "o plane1 viz4 ! ecliptic1 or some?+ v ne> x4 ,! ecliptic is a great circle ( ! sph]e1 & is usually drawn on bo? cele/ial & t]re/rial globes4 ,! e>?'s equator also produc$ into ! sky1 :]e x may /ill be call$ ! equator 7sometimes x is awkw>dly call$ ! equ9octial71 gives ano!r great circle incl9$ to ! ecliptic & cutt+ x at two opposite po9ts1 labell$ respectively ,aries symbol & ,libra symbol1 & toge!r call$ ! equ9oxes4 ,! reason = ! "n is t :5 ! sun is 9 t "p ( ! ecliptic x is tempor>ily also on ! equator1 & h5ce is symmetrically situat$ ) respect to ! e>?'s axis ( rotation1 & consequ5tly day & night are equal all ov] ! e>?4 ,well1 ,hipp>*us f\nd1 by plott+ ! position ( ! sun = a long "t1#b t ^! po9ts ( int]section1 or equ9oxes1 7 n /ation>y f c5tury to c5tury1 b sl[ly mov$ among ! />s1 mov+ z x 7 to meet ! sun1 s t he gets back to "o ( ^! po9ts aga9 #bj m9utes #bc-a_/d seconds be=e x has really complet$ a revolution1 i4e4 be=e ! true ye> is fairly ov]4 ,?is sl[ movem5t =w>d ( ! goal-po/ is call$ precession--! precession ( ! equ9oxes4 7,"o result ( x is to %ort5 our ye>s by ab\t #bj m9utes ea*2 = ! %ort5$ p]iod has to be call$ a ye>1 because x is on ! position ( ! sun ) respect to ! e>?'s axis t our seasons dep5d47 ,cop]nicus p]ceiv$ t1 assum+ ! motion ( ! e>?1 a cle>] acc\nt ( ?is motion c\ld be giv54 ,! ord9>y approximate /atem5t conc]n+ ! e>?'s axis is t x rema9s p>allel to itself1 i4e4 has a fix$ direction z ! e>? moves r\nd ! sun4 ,b if1 in/ead ( be+ ?us fix$1 x be suppos$ to h a sl[ movem5t ( revolution1 s t x traces out a cone 9 ! c\rse ( ab\t #bf1jjj ye>s1 !n1 s9ce ! equator ( c\rse goes ) x1 ! motion ( its int]section ) ! fix$ ecliptic is s f> acc\nt$ =4 ,t is to say1 ! precession ( ! equ9oxes is se5 to be dep5d5t on1 & caus$ by1 a sl[ conical movem5t ( ! e>?'s axis4 ,! prolongation ( ea* end ( ! e>?'s axis into ! sky1 or ! cele/ial nor? & s\? poles1 w ?us sl[ly trace out an approximate circle among ! />s2 & ! c\rse ( ! nor? pole dur+ hi/oric "t is exhibit$ 9 ! annex$ diagram4 ,x is n[ situat$ ne> "o ( ! />s ( ! ,less] ,be>1 :i* we !re=e call ! ,pole />2 b n always 0 x s1 nor w x be s 9 ! future4 ,! position ( ! nor? pole #djjj ye>s ago is %[n 9 ! figure2 & a revolution w be complet$ 9 some?+ l #bf1jjj ye>s4#c ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ae4--,sl[ movem5t ( ! nor? pole 9 a circle among ! />s4 7,copi$ f ,sir ,r4 ,ball47 ,?is p]ception ( ! conical motion ( ! e>?'s axis 0 a beautiful g5]alization ( ,cop]nik's1 :]eby a multitude ( facts 7 gr\p$ into a s+le ph5om5on4 ,( c\rse he did n expla9 ! motion ( ! axis itself4 ,he /at$ ! fact t x s mov$1 & ,i d n suppose x ev] /ruck him to seek = an explanation4 ,an explanation 0 giv5 lat]1 & t a mo/ complete "o2 b ! idea ev5 ( seek+ = x is a brilliant & /rik+ "o3 ! a*ievem5t ( ! explanation by a s+le individual 9 ! way x actually 0 accompli%$ is "o ( ! mo/ a/\nd+ ?+s 9 ! hi/ory ( sci5ce2 & 7 x n t ! same individual accompli%$ a doz5 o!r ?+s1 equally & "s /ill m extraord9>y1 we %\ld rank t man z "o ( ! greate/ a/ronom]s t ev] liv$4 ,z x is1 he is ,sir ,isaac ,newton4 ,we are to rememb]1 !n1 z ! life-"w ( ,cop]nicus1 t he plac$ ! sun 9 its true place z ! c5tre ( ! sol> sy/em1 in/ead ( ! e>?2 t he greatly simplifi$ ! !ory ( planet>y motion by ?is /ep1 & also by ! simpl] epicyclic *a9 :i* n[ suffic$1 & :i* he work$ out ma!matically2 t he exhibit$ ! precession ( ! equ9oxes 7discov]$ by ,hipp>*us7 z due to a conical motion ( ! e>?'s axis2 & t1 by means ( 8 simpl] !ory & m exact planet>y tables1 he r$uc$ to "s sort ( ord] ! confus$ *aos ( ! ,ptolemaic sy/em1 ^: accumulation ( complexity & ( out/&+ errors ?reat5$ to r5d] a/ronomy impossible by ! m]e burd5 ( its detail4 ,!re are _m imp]fections 9 8 sy/em1 x is true2 b 8 great m]it is t he d>$ to look at ! facts ( ,nature ) 8 own eyes1 unhamp]$ by ! prejudice ( c5turies4 ,a sy/em v5]able ) age1 & support$ by great names1 0 univ]sally believ$1 & _h be5 believ$ = c5turies4 ,to d\bt ?is sy/em1 & to seek aft] ano!r & bett] "o1 at a "t :5 all m5's m9ds 7 gov]n$ by tradition & au?ority1 & :5 to d\bt 0 s9--?is requir$ a great m9d & a high "*4 ,su* a m9d & su* a "* _h ?is monk ( ,frau5burg4 ,& x is int]e/+ to notice t ! s-call$ religi\s scruples ( small] & less truly religi\s m5 did n affect ,cop]nicus2 x 0 no dread ( consequ5ces to "o =m ( tru? t l$ him to delay ! publication ( ! o!r =m ( tru? specially reveal$ to him4 ,9 8 d$ication he says3-- ,if !re be "s babbl]s :o1 ?\gh ignorant ( all ma!matics1 take ^u !m to judge ( ^! ?+s1 & d>e to blame & cavil at my "w1 because ( "s passage ( ,scripture :i* !y h wre/$ to _! own purpose1 ,i reg>d !m n1 & w n scruple to hold _! judgm5t 9 contempt4 ,i w conclude ) ! words ( "o ( 8 biograph]s 7,mr4 ,e4,j4,c4 ,morton73-- ,cop]nicus _c be said to h flood$ ) light ! d>k places ( nature--9 ! way t "o /up5d\s m9d subsequ5tly did--b /ill1 z we look back ?r\gh ! long vi/a ( ! hi/ory ( sci5ce1 ! dim ,titanic figure ( ! old monk seems to re> itself out ( ! dull flats ar\nd x1 pi]ces ) its head ! mi/s t ov]%ad[ !m1 & cat*es ! fir/ gleam ( ! ris+ sun1 '444 l "s iron peak1 by ! ,creator ,fir$ ) ! r$ gl[ ( ! ru%+ morn4' ,,dates ,,& ,,summ>y ,,( ,,facts ,,= ,,lecture ,,ii ,cop]nicus liv$ f #adgc to #aedc1 & 0 contempor>y ) ,p>acelsus & ,raphael4 ,ty*o ,brah f #aedf to #afja4 ,kepl] f #aega to #afcj4 ,galileo f #aefd to #afdb4 ,gilb]t f #aedj to #afjc4 ,francis ,bacon f #aefa to #afbf4 ,desc>tes f #aeif to #afej4 ,a sket* ( ,ty*o ,brah's life & "w4 ,ty*o 0 a ,dani% noble1 born on 8 ance/ral e/ate at ,knud/orp1 ne> ,hels9borg1 9 #aedf4 ,adopt$ by 8 uncle1 & s5t to ! ,univ]sity ( ,cop5hag5 to /udy law4 ,attract$ to a/ronomy by ! occurr5ce ( an eclipse on its pr$ict$ day1 ,augu/ #ba/1 #aefj4 ,began to con/ruct a/ronomical in/rum5ts1 especially a quadrant & a sextant4 ,obs]v$ at ,augsburg & ,witt5b]g4 ,/udi$ al*emy1 b 0 recall$ to a/ronomy by ! appe>ance ( a new />4 ,ov]came 8 ari/ocratic prejudices1 & deliv]$ a c\rse ( lectures at ,cop5hag51 at ! reque/ ( ! k+4 ,aft] ?is he m>ri$ a peasant girl4 ,aga9 travell$ & obs]v$ 9 ,g]many4 ,9 #aegf 0 s5t = to ,d5m>k by ,fr$]ick ,,ii41 & e/abli%$ 9 ! isl& ( ,hu51 ) an end[m5t enabl+ him to devote 8 life to a/ronomy4 ,built ,uraniburg1 furni%$ x ) spl5did in/rum5ts1 & became ! f\nd] ( accurate in/rum5tal a/ronomy4 ,8 !ories 7 poor1 b 8 obs]vations 7 admirable4 ,9 #aeib ,fr$]ick di$1 & five ye>s lat]1 ,ty*o 0 impov]i%$ & practically bani%$4 ,aft] w&]+ till #aeii1 he 0 invit$ to ,prague by ! ,emp]or ,rudolf1 & !re receiv$ ,john ,kepl] among o!r pupils4 ,b ! s5t5ce ( exile 0 too sev]e1 & he di$ 9 #afja1 ag$ #ed ye>s4 ,a man ( /rong "*1 untir+ en]gy1 & devotion to accuracy1 8 influ5ce on a/ronomy has be5 imm5se4 ,,lecture ,,ii ,,ty*o ,,brah ,,& ,,! ,,e>lie/ ,,obs]vatory ,we h se5 h[ ,cop]nicus plac$ ! e>? 9 its true position 9 ! sol> sy/em1 mak+ x m]ely "o ( a numb] ( o!r worlds revolv+ ab\t a c5tral lum9>y4 ,& obs]ve t !re are two ph5om5a to be ?us acc\nt$ = & expla9$3 fir/1 ! diurnal revolution ( ! heav5s2 second1 ! annual motion ( ! sun among ! />s4 ,! effect ( ! diurnal motion is conspicu\s to e "o1 & expla9s ! ris+1 s\?+1 & sett+ ( ! :ole visible firmam5t4 ,! effect ( ! annual motion1 i4e4 ( ! app>5t annual motion1 ( ! sun among ! />s1 is less obvi\s1 b x may be foll[$ easily en\gh by obs]v+ ! />s visible at any giv5 "t ( ev5+ at diff]5t seasons ( ! ye>4 ,at midnight1 = in/ance1 ! position ( ! sun is def9ite1 viz4 due nor? always1 b ! con/ellation :i* at t "t is due s\? or is ris+ or sett+ v>ies ) ! "t ( ye>2 an int]val ( "o mon? produc+ j ! same effect on ! appe>ance ( ! con/ellations z an int]val ( two h\rs does 7because ! day conta9s twice z _m h\rs z ! ye> conta9s mon?s71 e4g4 ! sky looks ! same at midnight on ! #a/ ( ,octob] z x does at #aj p4m4 on ! #a/ ( ,novemb]4 ,all ^! simple consequ5ces ( ! geoc5tric z oppos$ to ! helioc5tric po9t ( view 7 po9t$ out by ,cop]nicus1 9 addition to 8 great] "w ( con/ruct+ improv$ planet>y tables on ! basis ( 8 !ory4 ,b x mu/ be admitt$ t he himself felt ! hypo!sis ( ! motion ( ! e>? to be a difficulty4 ,its acceptance is by no means su* an easy & *ildi% matt] z we are apt n[ to reg>d x1 & ! ho/ility to x is n at all surpris+4 ,! human race1 aft] hav+ ridicul$ & resi/$ ! tru? = a long "t1 is apt to end 9 accept+ x s bl9dly & unimag9atively z to fail to recognize ! real a*ievem5t ( its fir/ prop\nd]s1 or ! difficulties :i* !y _h to ov]come4 ,! majority ( m5 at ! pres5t day h gr[n accu/om$ to he> ! motion ( ! e>? spok5 (3 _! acceptance ( x means no?+3 ! attitude ( ! p>adox] :o d5ies x is m intellig5t4 ,x is n to be suppos$ t ! idea ( ?us expla9+ "s ( ! ph5om5a ( ! heav5s1 especially ! daily motion ( ! entire firmam5t1 by a diurnal rotation ( ! e>? _h n /ruck any "o4 ,x 0 (t5 at ?is "t ref]r$ to z ! ,py?agorean !ory1 & x _h be5 taught1 ,i believe1 by ,ari/>*us4 ,b x 0 new to ! mod]n _w1 & x _h ! great weight ( ,ari/otle aga9/ x4 ,consequ5tly1 = long aft] ,cop]nicus1 only a few lead+ spirits c\ld be f\nd to support x1 & ! long-e/abli%$ v5]able ,ptolemaic sy/em cont9u$ to be taught 9 all ,univ]sities4 ,! ma9 objections to ! motion ( ! e>? 7 su* z ! foll[+3-- #a4 ,! motion is unfelt & difficult to imag9e4 ,t x is unfelt is due to its uni=mity1 & c be expla9$ me*anically4 ,t x is difficult to imag9e is & rema9s true1 b a mo/ important lesson we h to le>n is t difficulty ( conception is no valid argum5t aga9/ reality4 #b4 ,t ! />s d n alt] _! relative positions accord+ to ! season ( ! ye>1 b ! con/ellations pres]ve always ! same aspect precisely1 ev5 to c>eful measurem5t4 ,?is is inde$ a difficulty1 & a great "o4 ,9 ,june ! e>? is #ahd million miles away f :]e x 0 9 ,decemb]3 h[ c we see precisely ! same fix$ />s8 ,x is n possible1 unless !y are at a practically inf9ite di/ance4 ,t is ! only answ] t c be giv54 ,x 0 ! t5tative answ] giv5 by ,cop]nicus4 ,x is ! correct answ]4 ,n only f e position ( ! e>?1 b f e planet ( ! sol> sy/em1 ! same con/ellations are visible1 & ! />s h ! same aspect4 ,! :ole imm5sity ( ! sol> sy/em %r9ks to practically a po9t :5 confront$ ) ! di/ance ( ! />s4 ,n1 h[ev]1 s entirely a speck z to resi/ ! t]rific accuracy ( ! pres5t c5tury1 & _! microscopic relative displacem5t ) ! season ( ! ye> has n[ at l5g? be5 detect$1 & ! di/ance ( _m !reby measur$4 #c4 ,t1 if ! e>? revolv$ r\nd ! sun1 ,m]cury & ,v5us ought to %[ phases l ! moon4 ,s !y ought4 ,any globe mu/ %[ phases if x live ne>] ! sun ?an we d & if we g r\nd x1 = we %all see v>y+ am\nts ( its illum9at$ half4 ,! only answ] t ,cop]nicus c\ld give to ?is 0 t !y might be difficult to see )\t extra p[]s ( sight1 b he v5tur$ to pr$ict t ! phases w\ld be se5 if ev] our p[]s ( vision %\ld be enhanc$4 #d4 ,t if ! e>? mov$1 or ev5 revolv$ on its own axis1 a /one or o!r dropp$ body ought to be left f> beh9d4 ,?is difficulty is n a real "o1 l ! two la/1 & x is bas$ on an ignorance ( ! laws ( me*anics1 :i* _h n at t "t be5 =mulat$4 ,we "k n[ t a ball dropp$ f a high t[]1 s f> f lagg+1 drops a m9ute trifle 9 front ( ! foot ( a p]p5dicul>1 because ! top ( ! t[] is mov+ a trace fa/] ?an ! bottom1 by reason ( ! diurnal rotation4 ,b1 ignor+ ?is1 a /one dropp$ f ! lamp ( a railway c>riage drops 9 ! c5tre ( ! floor1 :e!r ! c>riage be mov+ /eadily or /&+ /ill2 a slant direction ( fall c\ld only be detect$ if ! c>riage 7 be+ accel]at$ or if ! brake 7 appli$4 ,a body dropp$ f a mov+ c>riage %>es ! motion ( ! c>riage1 & />ts ) t z its initial velocity4 ,a ball dropp$ f a mov+ balloon does n simply drop1 b />ts (f 9 :atev] direction ! c> 0 mov+1 its motion be+ imm$iately modifi$ by gravity1 precisely 9 ! same way z t ( a ?r[n ball is modifi$4 ,?is is1 inde$1 ! :ole philosophy ( ?r[+--to drop a ball f a mov+ c>riage4 ,! c>riage is ! h&1 &1 to ?r[ f>1 a run is tak5 & ! body is j]k$ =w>d2 ! arm is also mov$ z rapidly z possible on ! %\ld] z pivot4 ,! =e-arm c be mov$ /ill fa/]1 & ! wri/-jo9t gives yet ano!r motion3 ! art ( ?r[+ is to br+ all ^! to be> at ! same in/ant1 & !n j z !y h all atta9$ _! maximum velocity to let ! ball g4 ,x />ts (f ) ! initial velocity ?us imp>t$1 & is ab&on$ to gravity4 ,if ! vehicle 7 able to cont9ue its motion /eadily1 z a balloon does1 ! ball :5 let g f x w\ld appe> to ! occupant simply to drop2 & x w\ld /rike ! gr\nd at a spot v]tically "u ! mov+ vehicle1 ?\gh by no means v]tically bel[ ! place :]e x />t$4 ,! resi/ance ( ! air makes obs]vations ( ?is k9d inaccurate1 except :5 p]=m$ inside a c>riage s t ! air %>es 9 ! motion4 ,o!rwise a p]son c\ld toss & cat* a ball out ( a tra9 w9d[ j z well z if he 7 /ation>y2 ?\gh to a spectator outside he w\ld seem to be us+ great skill to ?r[ ! ball 9 ! p>abola adapt$ to br+ x back to 8 h&4 ,! same circum/ance enhances ! app>5t difficulty ( ! circus rid]'s jump+ feats4 ,all he has to d is to jump up & d[n on ! horse2 ! =w>d motion :i* c>ries him ?r\gh hoops belongs to him by virtue ( ! motion ( ! horse1 )\t ef=t on 8 "p4 ,?us1 !n1 x happ5s t a /one dropp$ sixte5 feet on ! e>? appe>s to fall /raight d[n1 al?\gh its real pa? 9 space is a v flat trajectory ( n9ete5 miles base & sixte5 feet height2 n9ete5 miles be+ ! di/ance trav]s$ by ! e>? e second 9 ! c\rse ( its annual j\rney r\nd ! sun4 ,no wond] t x 0 ?\ght t bodies mu/ be left beh9d if ! e>? 0 subject to su* t]rific spe$ z ?is4 ,all t ,cop]nicus c\ld sugge/ on ?is head 0 t p]haps ! atmosph]e might help to c>ry ?+s =w>d1 & enable !m to keep pace ) ! e>?4 ,!re 7 ?us sev]al out/&+ physical difficulties 9 ! way ( ! acceptance ( ! ,cop]nican !ory1 besides ! ,biblical difficulty4 ,x 0 q natural t ! idea ( ! e>?'s motion %\ld be repugnant1 & take a long "t to s9k into ! m9ds ( m52 & z sci5tific progress 0 va/ly sl[] !n ?an x is n[1 we f9d n only all prie/s b ev5 "s a/ronom]s "o hundr$ ye>s aft]w>ds /ill imag9+ ! e>? to be at re/4 ,& among !m 0 a v em95t "o1 ,ty*o ,brah4 ,x is int]e/+ to note1 moreov]1 t ! argum5t ab\t ! motion ( ! e>? be+ contr>y to ,scripture appeal$ n only to ecclesia/ics 9 ^? days1 b to sci5tific m5 also2 & ,ty*o ,brah1 be+ a man ( great piety1 & highly sup]/iti\s also1 0 s mu* influ5c$ by x1 t he endeav\r$ to devise "s s*eme by :i* ! *ief practical advantages ( ! ,cop]nican sy/em c\ld be reta9$1 & yet ! e>? be kept /ill at ! c5tre ( ! :ole4 ,?is 0 done by mak+ all ! cele/ial sph]e1 ) />s & ev]y?+1 rotate r\nd ! e>? once a day1 z 9 ! ,ptolemaic s*eme2 & !n besides ?is mak+ all ! planets revolve r\nd ! sun1 & ?is to revolve r\nd ! e>?4 ,su* is ! ,ty*onic sy/em4 ,s f> z relative motion is conc]n$ x comes to ! same ?+2 j z :5 y drop a book y may say ei!r t ! e>? rises to meet ! book1 or t ! book falls to meet ! e>?4 ,or :5 a fly buzzes r\nd y\r head1 y may say t y are revolv+ r\nd ! fly4 ,b ! absurdity ( mak+ ! :ole gigantic sy/em ( sun & planets & />s revolve r\nd our insignificant e>? 0 too great to be swall[$ by o!r a/ronom]s aft] !y _h once _h a ta/e ( ! ,cop]nican !ory2 & accord+ly ! ,ty*onic sy/em di$ a spe$y & an easy dea? at ! same "t z its inv5tor4 ,:]e9 !n lay ! magnitude ( ! man8--n 9 8 !ories1 :i* 7 pu]ile1 b 9 8 obs]vations1 :i* 7 magnific5t4 ,he 0 ! fir/ obs]vational a/ronom]1 ! f\nd] ( ! spl5did sy/em ( practical a/ronomy :i* has culm9at$ 9 ! pres5t ,gre5wi* ,obs]vatory4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #af4--,ty*onic sy/em %[+ ! sun ) all ! planets revolv+ r\nd ! e>?4 ,up to ,ty*o ! only a/ronomical measurem5ts _h be5 ( ! rude/ k9d4 ,cop]nicus ev5 improv$ ^u :at _h gone be=e1 ) measur+ rules made ) 8 own h&s4 ,ptolemy's obs]vations c\ld nev] be tru/$ to half a degree4 ,ty*o introduc$ accuracy be=e undream$ (1 & ?\gh 8 measurem5ts1 reckon$ by mod]n ideas1 are ( c\rse almo/ ludicr\sly r\gh 7rememb] no su* ?+ z a telescope or microscope 0 !n dream$ (71 yet1 e/imat$ by ! era 9 :i* !y 7 made1 !y are m>vels ( accuracy1 & n a s+le mi/ake due to c>elessness has ev] be5 detect$ 9 !m4 ,9 fact !y may be dep5d$ on almo/ to m9utes ( arc1 i4e4 to sixtie?s ( a degree4 ,= c]ta9 purposes connect$ ) ! prop] motion ( />s !y are /ill appeal$ to1 & !y s]v$ z ! c]ta9 & tru/wor?y data = succe$+ g5]ations ( !ori/s to "w ^u4 ,x 0 long1 inde$1 aft] ,ty*o's dea? be=e obs]vations approa*+ 9 accuracy to 8 7 aga9 made4 ,9 e s5se1 !re=e1 he 0 a pione]3 let u proce$ to trace 8 hi/ory4 ,born ! elde/ son ( a noble family--z noble & ignorant z sixte5 undisput$ qu>t]+s c\ld make !m1 z "o ( 8 biograph]s says--9 a p]iod :51 ev5 m ?an at pres5t1 kill+ & hunt+ 7 ! only natural ari/ocratic pursuits1 :5 all /udy 0 reg>d$ z some?+ only fit = monks1 & :5 sci5ce 0 look$ at askance z some?+ unsav\ry1 useless1 & semi-diabolic1 !re 0 little 9 8 introduction to ! _w urg+ him 9 ! direction :]e 8 g5ius lay4 ,( c\rse he 0 de/9$ = a soldi]2 b =tunately 8 uncle1 ,george ,brah1 a m educat$ man ?an 8 fa!r1 hav+ no son ( 8 own1 0 anxi\s to adopt him1 & ?\gh n p]mitt$ to d s = a "t1 succe$$ 9 gett+ 8 way on ! bir? ( a second son1 ,/5o--:o1 by ! way1 ultimately became ,privy ,c\ncillor to ! ,k+ ( ,d5m>k4 ,ty*o's uncle gave him :at he w\ld nev] h got at home--a good education2 & ultimately put him to /udy law4 ,at ! age ( ?irte5 he ent]$ ! ,univ]sity ( ,cop5hag51 & :ile !re occurr$ ! det]m9+ influ5ce ( 8 life4 ,an eclipse ( ! sun 9 ^? days 0 n reg>d$ ) ! cold-blood$ inquisitiv5ess or matt]-(-fact apa?y1 accord+ z !re is or is n any?+ to be le>nt f x1 ) :i* su* an ev5t is n[ reg>d$4 ,e occurr5ce 9 ! heav5s 0 !n believ$ to c>ry ) x ! de/9y ( nations & ! fate ( individuals1 & accord+ly 0 ( surpass+ int]e/4 ,ev] s9ce ! "t ( ,hipp>*us x _h be5 possible = "s capable man "h & !re to pr$ict ! occurr5ce ( eclipses pretty closely4 ,! ?+ is n difficult4 ,! pr$iction 0 n1 inde$1 to ! m9ute & second1 z x is n[2 b ! day c\ld usually be hit ^u pretty accurately "s "t ahead1 mu* z we n[ manage to hit ^u ! return ( a comet--b>r+ accid5ts2 & ! h\r c\ld be pr$ict$ z ! ev5t approa*$4 ,well1 ! boy ,ty*o1 among o!rs1 wat*$ = ?is eclipse on ,augu/ #ba/1 #aefj2 & :5 x appe>$ at its appo9t$ "t1 e in/9ct = ! m>vell\s1 dormant 9 8 /rong nature1 awoke to /r5u\s life1 & he det]m9$ to und]/& = himself a sci5ce p]mitt+ su* wond]ful possibilities ( pr$iction4 ,he 0 s5t to ,leipzig ) a tutor to g on ) 8 /udy ( law1 b he seems to h done z little law z possible3 he sp5t all 8 money on books & in/rum5ts1 & sat up half ! night /udy+ & wat*+ ! />s4 ,9 #aefc he obs]v$ a conjunction ( ,jupit] & ,saturn1 ! precursor1 & cause z he ?\ght x1 ( ! great plague4 ,he f\nd t ! old planet>y tables 7 z mu* z a mon? 9 error 9 fix+ ?is ev5t1 & ev5 ! ,cop]nican tables 7 sev]al days out2 s he =m$ ! resolve to devote 8 life to improv+ a/ronomical tables4 ,?is resolve he execut$ ) a v5geance4 ,8 fir/ in/rum5t 0 a jo9t$ rul] ) sights = fix+ ! position ( planets ) respect to ! />s1 & obs]v+ _! /ations & retrogressions4 ,by ?us measur+ ! angles betwe5 a planet & two fix$ />s1 its position c be plott$ d[n on a cele/ial map or globe4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ag4--,portrait ( ,ty*o4 ,9 #aefe 8 uncle ,george di$1 & made ,ty*o 8 heir4 ,he return$ to ,d5m>k1 b met ) no?+ b ridicule & contempt = 8 absurd drivell+ away ( "t ov] useless pursuits4 ,s he w5t back to ,g]many--fir/ to ,witt5b]g1 !nce1 driv5 by ! plague1 to ,ro/ock4 ,"h 8 fi]y nature l$ him into an absurd ?\gh some:at dang]\s adv5ture4 ,a qu>rel at "s fea/1 on a ma!matical po9t1 ) a c\ntryman1 ,m&]upius1 l$ to ! fix+ ( a duel1 & x 0 f\ght ) swords at #g p4m4 at ! end ( ,decemb]1 :51 if !re 0 any light at all1 x mu/ h be5 ( a flick]+ & unsatisfactory nature4 ,! result ( ?is insane p]=mance 0 t ,ty*o got 8 nose cut clean (f4 ,he manag$ h[ev] to con/ruct an artificial "o1 "s say ( gold & silv]1 "s say ( putty & brass2 b :atev] x 0 made ( !re is no d\bt t he wore x = ! re/ ( 8 life1 & x is a mo/ fam\s feature4 ,x excit$ g5]ally f> m int]e/ ?an 8 a/ronomical rese>*es4 ,x is said1 moreov]1 to h v fairly resembl$ ! orig9al1 b :e!r ?is rem>k 0 made by a fri5d or by an enemy ,i _c say4 ,"o acc\nt says t he us$ to c>ry ab\t ) him a box ( cem5t to apply :5ev] 8 nose came (f1 :i* x p]iodically did4 ,ab\t ?is "t he visit$ ,augsburg1 met ) "s k9dr$ & enlight5$ spirits 9 t t[n1 & ) mu* en?usiasm & _s con/ruct$ a great quadrant4 ,^! e>ly in/rum5ts 7 trem5d\s affairs4 ,a great numb] ( workm5 7 employ$ ^u ?is quadrant1 & x took tw5ty m5 to c>ry x to its place & erect x4 ,x /ood 9 ! op5 air = five ye>s1 & !n 0 de/roy$ by a /orm4 ,) x he made _m obs]vations4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ah4--;,e>ly out-door quadrant ( ,ty*o2 = obs]v+ altitudes by help ( ! sights ,d1 ,l & ! plumb l9e4 ,on 8 return to ,d5m>k 9 #aega1 8 fame prec$$ him1 & he 0 mu* bett] receiv$2 & 9 ord] to increase 8 p[] ( con/ruct+ in/rum5ts he took up ! /udy ( al*emy1 & l ! re/ ( ! p]suasion tri$ to make gold4 ,! preci\s metals 7 by _m old philosoph]s consid]$ to be relat$ 9 "s way to ! heav5ly bodies3 silv] to ! moon1 = in/ance--z we /ill see by ! "n lun> cau/ic appli$ to nitrate ( silv]2 gold to ! sun1 copp] to ,m>s1 lead to ,saturn4 ,h5ce a/ronomy & al*emy (t5 w5t toge!r4 ,ty*o all 8 life comb9$ a little al*emy ) 8 a/ronomical lab\rs1 & he con/ruct$ a wond]ful pat5t m$ic9e to cure all disord]s1 :i* _h z wide a circulation 9 ,europe 9 its "t z ,holl[ay's pills2 he gives a trem5d\s receipt = x1 ) liquid gold & all mann] ( +r$i5ts 9 x2 among !m1 h[ev]1 occurs a little antimony--a well-kn[n sudorific--& to ?is1 no d\bt1 :atev] efficacy ! m$ic9e possess$ 0 due4 ,s he might h gone on wa/+ 8 "t1 7 x n t 9 ,novemb]1 #aegb1 a new /> made its appe>ance1 z !y h done occasionally be=e & s9ce4 ,on ! av]age "o may say t ab\t e fifty ye>s a new /> ( fair magnitude makes its tempor>y appe>ance4 ,!y are n[ kn[n to be ! result ( "s cata/rophe or collision1 :]eby imm5se masses ( inc&esc5t gas are produc$4 ,?is "o se5 by ,ty*o became z bright z ,jupit]1 & !n di$ away 9 ab\t a ye> & a half4 ,ty*o obs]v$ all its *anges1 & endeav\r$ to measure its di/ance f ! e>?1 ) ! result t x 0 prov$ to belong to ! region ( ! fix$ />s1 at an immeasurable di/ance1 & 0 n "s ne>] & m trivial ph5om5on4 ,he 0 ask$ by ! ,univ]sity ( ,cop5hag5 to give a c\rse ( lectures on a/ronomy2 b ?is 0 a /ep he felt "s ari/ocratic av]sion to1 until a little fri5dly pressure 0 br\ght to be> ^u him by a reque/ f ! k+1 & deliv]$ !y 74 ,he n[ seems to h f9ally ?r[n (f 8 ari/ocratic prejudices1 & to h indulg$ himself 9 tread+ on ! corns ( ne>ly all ! high & mighty p he came into contact )4 ,9 %ort1 he became :at we might n[ call a viol5t ,radical2 b he 0 a good-he>t$ man1 nev]!less1 & _m are ! tales told ( 8 visits to sick peasants1 ( 8 consult+ ! />s z to _! fate--all 9 p]fect good fai?--& ( ! m$ic9es :i* he concoct$ & prescrib$ = !m4 ,! daught] ( "o ( ^! peasants he m>ri$1 & v happy ! m>riage seems to h be54 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ai4--,map ( ,d5m>k1 %[+ ! isl& ( ,hu54 ,walk] ,b\tallse4 ,n[ comes ! cr[n+ episode 9 ,ty*o's life4 ,fr$]ick ,,ii41 realiz+ h[ em95t a man !y _h among !m1 & h[ mu* he c\ld d if only he _h ! means--= we mu/ und]/& t ,ty*o1 ?\gh ( good family & well (f1 0 by no means :at we w\ld call a weal?y man--,fr$]ick ,,ii4 made him a spl5did & enlight5$ (f]4 ,! (f] 0 ?is3 t if ,ty*o w\ld agree to settle d[n & make 8 a/ronomical obs]vations 9 ,d5m>k1 he %\ld h an e/ate 9 ,norway settl$ ^u him1 a p5sion ( #djj a ye> = life1 a site = a l>ge obs]vatory1 & #bj1jjj to build x )4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bj4--,uraniburg4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ba4--;,a/rolabe4 ,an old in/rum5t ) sights = m>k+ ! positions ( ! cele/ial bodies r\ghly4 ,a sort ( skeleton cele/ial globe4 ,illu/ration3 ,,sextans ,,a/ronomicvs ,,trigonicvs ,,pro ,,di/antiis rim&is4 ,,fig4 #bb4--,ty*o's l>ge sextant2 = measur+ ! angul> di/ance betwe5 two bodies by direct sight+4 ,well1 if ev] money 0 well sp5t1 ?is 04 ,by its means ,d5m>k be=e long head$ ! nations ( ,europe 9 ! matt] ( sci5ce--a ?+ x has n done be=e or s9ce4 ,! site grant$ 0 ! isl& ( ,hu51 betwe5 ,cop5hag5 & ,els9ore2 & "h ! mo/ magnific5t obs]vatory ev] built 0 rais$1 & call$ ,uraniburg--! ca/le ( ! heav5s4 ,x 0 built on a hill 9 ! c5tre ( ! isl&1 & includ$ g>d5s1 pr9t+ %ops1 laboratory1 dwell+-h\ses1 & f\r obs]vatories--all furni%$ ) ! mo/ spl5did in/rum5ts t ,ty*o c\ld devise1 & t c\ld !n be con/ruct$4 ,x 0 decorat$ ) pictures & sculptures ( em95t m51 & altoge!r 0 a mo/ gorge\s place4 #bj1jjj no d\bt w5t f> 9 ^? days1 b ! orig9al grant 0 supplem5t$ by ,ty*o himself1 :o is said to h sp5t ano!r equal sum out ( 8 own pocket on ! place4 ,illu/ration3 ,,qvadrans ,,maximvs ,,*alibeus ,,quadrato ,,inclusus1 ,,et ,horizonti ,azimu?ali *alybeo insi/5s4 ,,fig4 #bc4--,! ,quadrant 9 ,uraniburg2 or altitude & azimu? in/rum5t4 ,= tw5ty ye>s ?is great temple ( sci5ce 0 cont9ually work$ 9 by him1 & he soon became ! =emo/ sci5tific man 9 ,europe4 ,philosoph]s1 /atesm51 & occasionally k+s1 came to visit ! great a/ronom]1 & to inspect 8 curiosities4 ,illu/ration3 ,,qvadrans ,,mvralis ,,sive ,,ti*onicus4 ,,fig4 #bd4--,ty*o's =m ( transit circle4 ,! me?od ( utilis+ ! extremely uni=m rotation ( ! e>? by wat*+ ! planets & />s z !y cross ! m]idian1 & record+ _! times ( transit2 obs]v+ also at ! same "t _! m]idian altitudes 7see obs]v] ,f71 0 ! inv5tion ( ,ty*o1 & con/itutes 8 greate/ a*ievem5t4 ,8 me?od is foll[$ to ?is day 9 all obs]vatories4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #be4--;,a mod]n transit circle1 %[+ ess5tially ! same p>ts z 9 ,ty*o's in/rum5t1 viz4 ! obs]v] wat*+ ! transit1 ! clock1 ! record] ( ! obs]vation1 & ! graduat$ circle2 ! latt] to be read by a second obs]v]4 ,& v :olesome = "s ( ^! great p]sonages mu/ h be5 ! treatm5t !y met )4 ,= ,ty*o 0 no respect] ( p]sons4 ,8 humbly-born wife sat at ! head ( ! table1 :oev] 0 !re2 & he w\ld snub & contradict a *ancellor j z soon z he w\ld a s]f4 ,:atev] =m 8 pride may h tak5 :5 a y\?1 9 8 maturity x impell$ him to ignore diff]5ces ( rank n sub/antially ju/ifi$1 & he seem$ to take a delight 9 expos+ ! ignorance ( %all[ titl$ p]sons1 to :om contradiction & exposure 7 mo/ unusual exp]i5ces4 ,= sick peasants he w\ld take no end ( tr\ble1 & w5t ab\t doctor+ !m = no?+1 till he set all ! pr(essional doctors aga9/ him2 s t :5 8 day ( mis=tune came1 z come x did1 _! influ5ce 0 n want+ to help to ru9 "o :o spoilt _! practice1 & :om !y d]id$ z a quack4 ,b "s ( ! great ignorant folk :o came to visit 8 temple ( sci5ce1 & to inspect its curiosities1 felt !mselves insult$--n always )\t reason4 ,he kept a tame maniac 9 ! h\se1 nam$ ,lep1 & he us$ to reg>d ! say+s ( ?is p]sonage z oracul>1 presag+ future ev5ts1 & f> bett] wor? li/5+ to ?an ord9>y conv]sation4 ,consequ5tly he us$ to h him at 8 banquets & fe$ him himself2 & :5ev] ,lep op5$ 8 m\? to speak1 e "o else 0 p]emptorily ord]$ to hold 8 tongue1 s t ,lep's words might be writt5 d[n4 ,9 fact x 0 some?+ l an exagg]at$ edition ( ,betsy ,trotwood & ,mr4 ,dick4 ,x mu/ h be5 an odd d9n] p>ty 7says ,pr(4 ,/u>t71 ) ?is /range1 wild1 t]ribly clev] man1 ) 8 r$ hair & braz5 nose1 sometimes fla%+ ) wit & k1 sometimes mak+ ! :ole company1 pr9ces & s]vants alike1 hold _! peace & li/5 humbly to ! rav+s ( a poor imbecile4 ,to p he despis$ he did n %[ 8 s]i\s in/rum5ts4 ,he _h o!r attractions1 9 ! %ape ( a lot ( toy ma*9]y1 little w9dmills1 & que] doors1 & gold5 globes1 & all mann] ( +5i\s tricks & automata1 _m ( :i* he _h made himself1 & ^! he us$ to %[ !m in/ead2 & no d\bt !y 7 well en\gh pleas$ ) !m4 ,^? ( ! visitors1 h[ev]1 :o really c>$ to see & und]/& 8 in/rum5ts1 w5t away en*ant$ ) 8 g5ius & hospitality4 ,i may1 p]haps1 be produc+ an unfair impression ( imp]i\sness & insol5ce4 ,ty*o 0 fi]y1 no d\bt1 b ,i ?9k we %\ld wrong him if we consid]$ him insol5t4 ,mo/ ( ! nobles ( 8 day 7 haughty p]sons1 accu/om$ to deal ) s]fs1 & v likely to sne] at & trample on any meek man ( sci5ce :om !y c\ld easily despise4 ,s ,ty*o 0 n meek2 he /ood up = ! hon\r ( 8 sci5ce1 & paid !m back 9 _! own co91 ) p]haps a little int]e/4 ,t ?is behavi\r 0 n worldly-wise is true en\gh1 b ,i "k ( no comm&m5t enjo9+ u to be worldly-wise4 ,if we knew m ab\t 8 s-call$ imbecile protg we %\ld probably f9d "s reason = ! int]e/ :i* ,ty*o took 9 him4 ,:e!r he 0 :at is n[ call$ a clairvoyant or n1 ,ty*o evid5tly reg>d$ 8 utt]ances z oracul>1 & ( c\rse :5 "o is receiv+ :at may be a revelation f heav5 x is natural to suppress ord9>y conv]sation4 ,among ! noble visitors :om he receiv$ & ent]ta9$1 x is int]e/+ to notice ,james ,i4 ( ,engl&1 :o sp5t eight days at ,uraniburg on ! occasion ( 8 m>riage ) ,anne ( ,d5m>k 9 #aeij1 & seems to h be5 deeply impress$ by 8 visit4 ,among o!r gifts1 ,james pres5t$ ,ty*o ) a dog 7depict$ 9 ,fig4 #bd71 & ?is same animal 0 subsequ5tly ! cause ( tr\ble4 ,= x seems t "o day ! ,*ancellor ( ,d5m>k1 ,wal*5dorf1 brutally kick$ ! poor bea/2 & ,ty*o1 :o 0 v fond ( animals1 gave him a piece ( 8 m9d 9 no measur$ language4 ,wal*5dorf w5t home det]m9$ to ru9 him4 ,k+ ,fr$]ick1 h[ev]1 rema9$ 8 true fri5d1 d\btless p>tly influ5c$ !reto by 8 ,que5 ,sophia1 an enlight5$ woman :o paid _m visits to ,uraniburg1 & knew ,ty*o well4 ,b un=tunately ,fr$]ick di$2 & 8 son1 a m]e boy1 came to ! ?rone4 ,n[ 0 ! "t = ! p :om ,ty*o _h (f5d$1 = ^? :o 7 jeal\s ( 8 great fame & importance1 z well z = ^? :o ca/ long+ eyes on 8 e/ate & end[m5ts4 ,! boy-k+1 too1 un=tunately paid a visit to ,ty*o1 &1 v5tur+ ^u a decid$ op9ion on "s recondite subject1 receiv$ a quiet sett+ d[n :i* he ill reli%$4 ,lett]s writt5 by ,ty*o ab\t ?is "t are full ( =ebod+4 ,he greatly dreads hav+ to leave ,uraniburg1 ) :i* 8 :ole life has = tw5ty ye>s be5 b\nd up4 ,he tries to com=t himself ) ! ?\ght t1 :]ev] he is s5t1 he w h ! same heav5s & ! same />s ov] 8 head4 ,gradually 8 ,norwegian e/ate & 8 p5sion 7 tak5 away1 & 9 five ye>s pov]ty compell$ him to ab&on 8 magnific5t temple1 & to take a small h\se 9 ,cop5hag54 ,n cont5t ) ?is1 ,wal*5dorf got a ,royal ,commission appo9t$ to inquire into ! value ( 8 a/ronomical lab\rs4 ,?is sapi5t body report$ t 8 "w 0 n only useless1 b noxi\s2 & soon aft] he 0 attack$ by ! populace 9 ! public /reet4 ,no?+ 0 left = him n[ b to leave ! c\ntry1 & he w5t into ,g]many1 leav+ 8 wife & in/rum5ts to foll[ him :5ev] he c\ld f9d a home = !m4 ,8 w&]+s 9 ?is d>k "t--"s two ye>s--are n q cle>2 b at la/ ! enlight5$ ,emp]or ( ,bohemia1 ,rudolph ,,ii41 invit$ him to settle 9 ,prague4 ,?i!r he repair$1 a ca/le 0 giv5 him z an obs]vatory1 a h\se 9 ! city1 & #cjjj cr[ns a ye> = life4 ,s 8 in/rum5ts 7 set up once m1 /ud5ts flock$ to he> him & to receive "w at 8 h&s--among !m a poor y\?1 ,john ,kepl]1 to :om he 0 v k9d1 & :o became1 z y "k1 a /ill great] man ?an 8 ma/]4 ,b ! _s ( ,ty*o 0 brok51 & ?\gh "s good "w 0 done at ,prague--m obs]vations made1 & ! ,rudolph9e tables begun--yet ! h& ( dea? 0 ^u him4 ,a pa9ful disease seiz$ him1 att5d$ ) sleeplessness & tempor>y delirium1 dur+ ! p>oxysms ( :i* he frequ5tly exclaim$1 ,ne fru/ra vixisse vide>4 7,oh t x may n appe> t ,i h liv$ 9 va967 ,quietly1 h[ev]1 at la/1 & surr\nd$ by 8 fri5ds & relatives1 ?is fi]ce1 passionate s\l pass$ away1 on ! #bd? ( ,octob]1 #afja4 ,8 belov$ in/rum5ts1 :i* 7 almo/ a "p ( himself1 7 /or$ by ,rudolph 9 a museum ) scrupul\s c>e1 until ! tak+ ( ,prague by ! ,elector ,palat9e's troops4 ,9 ?is di/urb$ "t !y got sma%$1 disp]s$1 & conv]t$ to o!r purposes4 ,"o ?+ only 0 sav$--! great brass globe1 :i* "s ?irty ye>s aft] 0 recogniz$ by a lat] k+ ( ,d5m>k z hav+ belong$ to ,ty*o1 & deposit$ 9 ! ,libr>y ( ! ,academy ( ,sci5ces at ,cop5hag51 :]e ,i believe x is to ?is day4 ,! isl& ( ,hu5 0 ov]run by ! ,dani% nobility1 & no?+ n[ rema9s ( ,uraniburg b a m\nd ( e>? & two pits4 ,z to ! real "w ( ,ty*o1 t has become immortal en\gh1--*iefly ?r\gh ! lab\rs ( 8 fri5d & s*ol> ^: life we %all consid] 9 ! next lecture4 ,,summ>y ,,( ,,facts ,,= ,,lecture ,,iii ,life & "w ( ,kepl]4 ,kepl] 0 born 9 ,decemb]1 #aega1 at ,weil 9 ,wrtemb]g4 ,fa!r an (fic] 9 ! duke's army1 "m some?+ ( a virago1 bo? v poor4 ,kepl] 0 utiliz$ z a tav]n pot-boy1 b ultimately s5t to a *>ity s*ool1 & !nce to ! ,univ]sity ( ,tb+54 ,heal? extremely delicate2 he 0 liable to viol5t attacks all 8 life4 ,/udi$ ma!matics1 & accept$ an a/ronomical lecture%ip at ,graz z ! fir/ po/ :i* (f]$4 ,endeav\r$ to discov] "s connection betwe5 ! numb] ( ! planets1 _! times ( revolution1 & _! di/ances f ! sun4 ,ultimately hit ^u 8 fanciful regul>-solid hypo!sis1 & publi%$ 8 fir/ book 9 #aeig4 ,9 #aeii 0 invit$ by ,ty*o to ,prague1 & !re appo9t$ ,imp]ial ma!matician1 at a h&some b seldom paid sal>y4 ,obs]v$ ! new /> ( #afjd4 ,endeav\r$ to f9d ! law ( refraction ( light f ,vitellio's measurem5ts1 b fail$4 ,analyz$ ,ty*o's obs]vations to f9d ! true law ( motion ( ,m>s4 ,aft] incr$ible lab\r1 ?r\gh innum]able wrong guesses1 & six ye>s ( almo/ incessant calculation1 he at l5g? em]g$ 9 8 two laws--discov]ies :i* swept away all epicycles1 def]5ts1 equants1 & o!r remnants ( ! ,greek sy/em1 & u%]$ 9 ! dawn ( mod]n a/ronomy4 ,,law ,i4 ,planets move 9 ellipses1 ) ! ,sun 9 "o focus4 ,,law ,,ii4 ,! radius vector 7or l9e jo9+ sun & planet7 sweeps out equal areas 9 equal times4 ,publi%$ 8 second book conta9+ ^! laws 9 #afji4 ,dea? ( ,rudolph 9 #afab1 & subsequ5t increas$ mis]y & mis=tune ( ,kepl]4 ,ultimately discov]$ ! connection betwe5 ! times & di/ances ( ! planets = :i* he _h be5 grop+ all 8 mature life1 & ann\nc$ x 9 #afah3-- ,,law ,,iii4 ,! squ>e ( ! "t ( revolution 7or ye>7 ( ea* planet is proportional to ! cube ( its mean di/ance f ! sun4 ,! book 9 :i* ?is law 0 publi%$ 7,on ,cele/ial ,h>monies7 0 d$icat$ to ,james ( ,engl&4 ,9 #afbj _h to int]v5e to protect 8 "m f be+ tortur$ = wit*craft4 ,accept$ a pr(essor%ip at ,l9z4 ,publi%$ ! ,rudolph9e tables 9 #afbg1 embody+ ,ty*o's obs]vations & 8 own !ory4 ,made a la/ ef=t to ov]come 8 pov]ty by gett+ ! arre>s ( 8 sal>y paid at ,prague1 b 0 unsuccessful1 &1 contract+ bra9 fev] on ! j\rney1 di$ 9 ,novemb]1 #afcj1 ag$ #ei4 ,a man ( ke5 imag9ation1 indomitable p]sev]ance1 & uncompromis+ love ( tru?1 ,kepl] ov]came ill-heal?1 pov]ty1 & mis=tune1 & plac$ himself 9 ! v highe/ rank ( sci5tific m54 ,8 laws1 s extraord9>ily discov]$1 introduc$ ord] & simplicity into :at else w\ld h be5 a *aos ( detail$ obs]vations2 & !y s]v$ z a secure basis = ! spl5did erection made on !m by ,newton4 ,sev5 planets ( ! ,ptolemaic sy/em-- ,moon1 ,m]cury1 ,v5us1 ,sun1 ,m>s1 ,jupit]1 ,saturn4 ,six planets ( ! ,cop]nican sy/em-- ,m]cury1 ,v5us1 ,e>?1 ,m>s1 ,jupit]1 ,saturn4 ,! five regul> solids1 9 appropriate ord]-- ,octah$ron1 ,icosah$ron1 ,dodecah$ron1 ,tetrah$ron1 ,cube4 ,table illu/rat+ ,kepl]'s ?ird law4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,mean di/ance ,l5g? ,cube ( ! ,squ>e ( ! ,planet4 f ,sun4 ( ,ye>4 ,di/ance4 ,"t4 ,d ,t ,d#c ,t#b ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,m]cury #chga #bdjhd #jehja #jehja ,v5us #gbcc #faeai #cghde #cghdf ,e>? #ajjjj #ajjjj #ajjjj #ajjjj ,m>s #aebcg #ahhjh #cecge #cecge ,jupit] #ebjbh #aahfb #adjhc #adjgj ,saturn #iechh #bideg #hfgib #hfggj ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,! l5g? ( ! e>?'s ye> is #cfebef days2 its mean di/ance f ! sun1 tak5 above z unity1 is #ib1jjj1jjj miles4 ,,lecture ,,iii ,,kepl] ,,& ,,! ,,laws ,,( ,,planet>y ,,motion ,x is difficult to imag9e a /rong] contra/ betwe5 two m5 engag$ 9 ! same bran* ( sci5ce ?an exi/s betwe5 ,ty*o ,brah1 ! subject ( la/ lecture1 & ,kepl]1 our subject on ! pres5t occasion4 ,! "o1 ri*1 noble1 vigor\s1 passionate1 /rong 9 me*anical +5uity & exp]im5tal skill1 b n above ! av]age 9 !oretical & ma!matical p[]4 ,! o!r1 poor1 sickly1 devoid ( exp]im5tal gifts1 & unfitt$ by nature = accurate obs]vation1 b /rong almo/ beyond competition 9 speculative subtlety & innate ma!matical p]ception4 ,! "o is ! complem5t ( ! o!r2 & f ! fact ( _! foll[+ ea* o!r s closely arose ! mo/ surpris+ b5efits to sci5ce4 ,! outw>d life ( ,kepl] is to a l>ge ext5t a m]e record ( pov]ty & mis=tune4 ,i %all only sket* 9 its broad features1 s t we may h m "t to att5d to 8 "w4 ,he 0 born 7s 8 biograph] assures u7 9 longitude #bi #g'1 latitude #dh #ed'1 on ! #ba/ ( ,decemb]1 #aega4 ,8 p>5ts seem to h be5 ( fair condition1 b by reason1 x is said1 ( 8 becom+ surety = a fri5d1 ! fa!r lo/ all 8 sl5d] income1 & 0 r$uc$ to keep+ a tav]n4 ,"y ,john ,kepl] 0 !reupon tak5 f s*ool1 & employ$ z pot-boy betwe5 ! ages ( n9e & twelve4 ,he 0 a sickly lad1 subject to viol5t illnesses f ! cradle1 s t 8 life 0 frequ5tly despair$ (4 ,ultimately he 0 s5t to a mona/ic s*ool & !nce to ! ,univ]sity ( ,tb+51 :]e he graduat$ second on ! li/4 ,mean:ile home affairs _h gone to rack & ru94 ,8 fa!r ab&on$ ! home1 & lat] di$ abroad4 ,! "m qu>rell$ ) all h] relations1 includ+ h] son ,john2 :o 0 !re=e glad to get away z soon z possible4 ,all 8 connection ) a/ronomy up to ?is "t _h be5 ! he>+ ! ,cop]nican !ory exp\nd$ 9 ,univ]sity lectures1 & def5d+ x 9 a college debat+ society4 ,an a/ronomical lecture%ip at ,graz happ5+ to (f] itself1 he 0 urg$ to take x1 & agre$ to d s1 ?\gh /ipulat+ t x %\ld n deb> him f "s m brilliant pr(ession :5 !re 0 a *ance4 ,= a/ronomy 9 ^? days seems to h rank$ z a m9or sci5ce1 l m9]alogy or meteorology n[4 ,x _h little ( ! special dignity ) :i* ! lab\rs ( ,kepl] himself 7 de/9$ s greatly to aid 9 end[+ x4 ,well1 he spe$ily became a ?or\gh ,cop]nican1 & z he _h a mo/ s+ul>ly re/less & inquisitive m9d1 full ( appreciation ( ev]y?+ relat+ to numb] & magnitude--0 a born speculator & ?9k] j z ,moz>t 0 a born musician1 or ,bidd] a born calculator--he 0 agitat$ by que/ions su* z ^!3 ,:y are !re exactly six planets8 ,is !re any connection betwe5 _! orbital di/ances1 or betwe5 _! orbits & ! times ( describ+ !m8 ,^! ?+s torm5t$ him1 & he ?\ght ab\t !m day & night4 ,x is *>act]i/ic ( ! _s ( ! times--?is que/ion+ :y !re %\ld be six planets4 ,n[adays1 we %\ld simply record ! fact & look out = a sev5?4 ,!n1 "s occult prop]ty ( ! numb] six 0 grop$ =1 su* z t x 0 equal to #a #b #c & likewise equal to #a #b #c1 & s on4 ,_m f9e reasons _h be5 giv5 = ! sev5 planets ( ! ,ptolemaic sy/em 7see1 = in/ance1 p4 #ajf71 b = ! six planets ( ! ,cop]nican sy/em ! reasons 7 n s cog5t4 ,aga91 ) respect to _! successive di/ances f ! sun1 "s law w\ld seem to regulate _! di/ance1 b x 0 n kn[n4 7,p>5!tically ,i may rem>k t x is n kn[n ev5 n[3 a crude empirical /atem5t kn[n z ,bode's law--see page #bid--;is all t has be5 discov]$47 ,once m1 ! fur!r ! planet ! sl[] x mov$2 !re seem$ to be "s law connect+ spe$ & di/ance4 ,?is also ,kepl] made cont9ual attempts to discov]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bf4--,orbits ( "s ( ! planets drawn to scale3 %[+ ! gap betwe5 ,m>s & ,jupit]4 ,"o ( 8 ideas conc]n+ ! law ( ! successive di/ances 0 bas$ on ! inscription ( a triangle 9 a circle4 ,if y inscribe 9 a circle a l>ge numb] ( equilat]al triangles1 !y envelop ano!r circle be>+ a def9ite ratio to ! fir/3 ^! might d = ! orbits ( two planets 7see ,fig4 #bg74 ,!n try inscrib+ & circumscrib+ squ>es1 hexagons1 & o!r figures1 & see if ! circles ?us def9$ w\ld correspond to ! sev]al planet>y orbits4 ,b !y w\ld n give any satisfactory result4 ,brood+ ov] ?is disappo9tm5t1 ! idea ( try+ solid figures sudd5ly /rikes him4 ,:at h plane figures to d ) ! cele/ial orbits8 he cries out2 inscribe ! regul> solids4 ,& !n--brilliant idea--he rememb]s t !re are b five4 ,euclid _h %[n t !re c\ld be only five regul> solids4#d ,! numb] evid5tly corresponds to ! gaps betwe5 ! six planets4 ,! reason ( !re be+ only six seems to be atta9$4 ,?is co9cid5ce assures him he is on ! "r track1 & ) great en?usiasm & hope he repres5ts ! e>?'s orbit by a sph]e z ! norm & measure ( all2 r\nd x he circumscribes a dodecah$ron1 & puts ano!r sph]e r\nd t1 :i* is approximately ! orbit ( ,m>s2 r\nd t1 aga91 a tetrah$ron1 ! corn]s ( :i* m>k ! sph]e ( ! orbit ( ,jupit]2 r\nd t sph]e1 aga91 he places a cube1 :i* r\ghly gives ! orbit ( ,saturn4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bg4--,_m-sid$ polygon or approximate circle envelop$ by /raight l9es1 z = in/ance by a numb] ( equilat]al triangles4 ,on ! o!r h&1 he inscribes 9 ! sph]e ( ! e>?'s orbit an icosah$ron2 & inside ! sph]e det]m9$ by t1 an octah$ron2 :i* figures he takes to inclose ! sph]es ( ,v5us & ( ,m]cury respectively4 ,! imag9$ discov]y is purely fictiti\s & accid5tal4 ,fir/ ( all1 eight planets are n[ kn[n2 & secondly1 _! real di/ances agree only v approximately ) ,kepl]'s hypo!sis4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bh4--;,frameworks ) inscrib$ & circumscrib$ sph]es1 repres5t+ ! five regul> solids di/ribut$ z ,kepl] suppos$ !m to be among ! planet>y orbits4 7,see ,summ>y at beg9n+ ( ?is lecture1 p4 #eg47 ,nev]!less1 ! idea gave him great delight4 ,he says3--,! int5se pleasure ,i h receiv$ f ?is discov]y c nev] be told 9 words4 ,i regrett$ no m ! "t wa/$2 ,i tir$ ( no lab\r2 ,i %unn$ no toil ( reckon+1 days & nights sp5t 9 calculation1 until ,i c\ld see :e!r my hypo!sis w\ld agree ) ! orbits ( ,cop]nicus1 or :e!r my joy 0 to vani% into air4 ,he !n w5t on to speculate z to ! cause ( ! planets' motion4 ,! old idea 0 t !y 7 c>ri$ r\nd by angels or cele/ial intellig5ces4 ,kepl] tri$ to e/abli% "s propell+ =ce emanat+ f ! sun1 l ! spokes ( a w9dmill4 ,?is fir/ book ( 8 br\ght him into notice1 & s]v$ z an introduction to ,ty*o & to ,galileo4 ,ty*o ,brah 0 at ?is "t at ,prague "u ! patronage ( ! ,emp]or ,rudolph2 & z he 0 kn[n to h by f> ! be/ planet>y obs]vations ( any man liv+1 ,kepl] wrote to him to "k if he might come & exam9e !m s z to p]fect 8 !ory4 ,ty*o imm$iately repli$1 ,come1 n z a /rang]1 b z a v welcome fri5d2 come & %>e 9 my obs]vations ) su* in/rum5ts z ,i h ) me1 & z a de>ly belov$ associate4 ,aft] ?is visit1 ,ty*o wrote aga91 (f]+ him ! po/ ( ma!matical assi/ant1 :i* aft] hesitation 0 accept$4 ,"p ( ! hesitation ,kepl] expresses by say+ t = obs]vations 8 sight 0 dull1 & = me*anical op]ations 8 h& 0 awkw>d4 ,he suff]$ mu* f weak eyes1 & d>e n expose himself to night air4 ,9 all ?is he 01 ( c\rse1 ! antipodes ( ,ty*o1 b 9 ma!matical skill he 0 greatly 8 sup]ior4 ,on 8 way to ,prague he 0 seiz$ ) "o ( 8 p]iodical illnesses1 & all 8 means 7 exhau/$ by ! "t he c\ld set =w>d aga91 s t he _h to apply = help to ,ty*o4 ,x is cle>1 inde$1 t = "s "t n[ he subsi/$ entirely on ! b\nty ( ,ty*o1 & he expresses himself mo/ deeply grateful = all ! k9dness he receiv$ f t noble & di/+ui%$ man1 ! head ( ! sci5tific _w at t date4 ,to illu/rate ,ty*o's k9dness & g5]osity1 ,i mu/ read y a lett] writt5 to him by ,kepl]4 ,x seems t ,kepl]1 on "o ( 8 abs5ces f ,prague1 driv5 half mad ) pov]ty & tr\ble1 fell f\l ( ,ty*o1 :om he ?\ght to be behav+ badly 9 money matt]s to him & 8 family1 & wrote him a viol5t lett] full ( reproa*es & insults4 ,ty*o's secret>y repli$ quietly en\gh1 po9t+ out ! gr\ndlessness & +ratitude ( ! accusation4 ,kepl] rep5ts in/antly1 & replies3-- ,,mo/ ,,noble ,,ty*o1 7^! are ! words ( 8 lett]71 h[ %all ,i enum]ate or rightly e/imate y\r b5efits conf]r$ on me8 ,= two mon?s y h lib]ally & gratuit\sly ma9ta9$ me1 & my :ole family2 y h provid$ = all my wi%es2 y h done me e possible k9dness2 y h communicat$ to me ev]y?+ y hold mo/ de>2 no "o1 by ^w or de$1 has int5tionally injur$ me 9 any?+2 9 %ort1 n to y\r *ildr51 y\r wife1 or y\rself h y %[n m indulg5ce ?an to me4 ,?is be+ s1 z ,i am anxi\s to put on record1 ,i _c reflect )\t con/]nation t ,i %\ld h be5 s giv5 up by ,god to my own intemp]ance z to %ut my eyes on all ^! b5efits2 t1 in/ead ( mode/ & respectful gratitude1 ,i %\ld indulge = ?ree weeks 9 cont9ual moros5ess t[>ds all y\r family1 9 headlong passion & ! utmo/ insol5ce t[>ds y\rself1 :o possess s _m claims on my v5]ation1 f y\r noble family1 y\r extraord9>y le>n+1 & di/+ui%$ reputation4 ,:atev] ,i h said or writt5 aga9/ ! p]son1 ! fame1 ! hon\r1 & ! le>n+ ( y\r excell5cy2 or :atev]1 9 any o!r way1 ,i h injuri\sly spok5 or writt5 7if !y admit no o!r m fav\rable int]pretation71 z1 to my grief1 ,i h spok5 & writt5 _m ?+s1 & m ?an ,i c rememb]2 all & ev]y?+ ,i recant1 & freely & hone/ly decl>e & pr(ess to be gr\ndless1 false1 & incapable ( pro(4 ,ty*o accept$ ! apology ?us he>tily r5d]$1 & ! tempor>y brea* 0 p]man5tly heal$4 ,9 #afja1 ,kepl] 0 appo9t$ ,imp]ial ma!matician1 to assi/ ,ty*o 9 8 calculations4 ,! ,emp]or ,rudolph did a good piece ( "w 9 ?us ma9ta9+ ^! two em95t m51 b x is q cle> t x 0 z a/rolog]s t he valu$ !m2 & all he c>$ = 9 ! planet>y motions 0 limit$ to _! suppos$ effect on 8 own & 8 k+dom's de/9y4 ,he seems to h be5 politically a weak & sup]/iti\s pr9ce1 :o 0 lett+ 8 k+dom get into hopeless confusion1 & entangl+ himself 9 all mann] ( political complications4 ,:ile ,bohemia suff]$1 h[ev]1 ! _w has b5efit$ at 8 h&s2 & ! tables ^u :i* ,ty*o 0 n[ engag$ are well call$ ! ,rudolph9e tables4 ,^! tables ( planet>y motion ,ty*o _h always reg>d$ z ! ma9 "w ( 8 life2 b he di$ be=e !y 7 f9i%$1 & on 8 dea?-b$ he intru/$ ! completion ( !m to ,kepl]1 :o loyally und]took _! *>ge4 ,! ,imp]ial funds 7 by ?is "t1 h[ev]1 s tax$ by w>s & o!r difficulties t ! tables c\ld only be proce$$ ) v sl[ly1 a /aff ( calculators be+ out ( ! "q4 ,9 fact1 ,kepl] c\ld n get ev5 8 own sal>y paid3 he got ord]s1 & promises1 & drafts on e/ates = x2 b :5 ! "t came = !m to be hon\r$ !y 7 wor?less1 & he _h no p[] to en=ce 8 claims4 ,s ev]y?+ b brood+ _h to be ab&on$ z too exp5sive1 & he proce$$ to /udy optics4 ,he gave a v accurate explanation ( ! action ( ! human eye1 & made _m hypo!ses1 "s ( !m %rewd & close to ! m>k1 conc]n+ ! law ( refraction ( light 9 d5se m$ia3 b ?\gh sev]al m9or po9ts ( int]e/ turn$ up1 no?+ ( ! fir/ magnitude came out ( ?is long rese>*4 ,! true law ( refraction 0 discov]$ "s ye>s aft] by a ,dut* pr(essor1 ,willebrod ,snell4 ,we mu/ n[ devote a little "t to ! ma9 "w ( ,kepl]'s life4 ,all ! "t he _h be5 at ,prague he _h be5 mak+ a sev]e /udy ( ! motion ( ! planet ,m>s1 analyz+ m9utely ,ty*o's books ( obs]vations1 9 ord] to f9d out1 if possible1 ! true !ory ( 8 motion4 ,ari/otle _h taught t circul> motion 0 ! only p]fect & natural motion1 & t ! heav5ly bodies !re=e necess>ily mov$ 9 circles4 ,s firmly _h ?is idea become root$ 9 m5's m9ds1 t no "o ev] seems to h contemplat$ ! possibility ( its be+ false or mean+less4 ,:5 ,hipp>*us & o!rs f\nd t1 z a matt] ( fact1 ! planets did n revolve 9 simple circles1 !y did n try o!r curves1 z we %\ld at once d n[1 b !y tri$ comb9ations ( circles1 z we saw 9 ,lecture ,i4 ,! small circle c>ri$ by a bigg] "o 0 call$ an ,epicycle4 ,! c>ry+ circle 0 call$ ! ,def]5t4 ,if = any reason ! e>? _h to be plac$ out ( ! c5tre1 ! ma9 planet>y orbit 0 call$ an ,exc5tric1 & s on4 ,b al?\gh ! planet>y pa?s might be r\ghly repres5t$ by a comb9ation ( circles1 _! spe$s c\ld n1 on ! hypo!sis ( uni=m motion 9 ea* circle r\nd ! e>? z a fix$ body4 ,h5ce 0 introduc$ ! idea ( an ,equant1 i4e4 an arbitr>y po9t1 n ! e>?1 ab\t :i* ! spe$ might be uni=m4 ,cop]nicus1 by mak+ ! sun ! c5tre1 _h be5 able to simplify a good deal ( ?is1 & to aboli% ! equant4 ,b n[ t ,kepl] _h ! accurate obs]vations ( ,ty*o to ref] to1 he f\nd imm5se difficulty 9 obta9+ ! true positions ( ! planets = long toge!r on any su* !ory4 ,he specially attack$ ! motion ( ! planet ,m>s1 because t 0 suffici5tly rapid 9 its *anges = a consid]able collection ( data to h accumulat$ ) respect to x4 ,he tri$ all mann] ( circul> orbits = ! e>? & = ,m>s1 plac+ !m 9 all sorts ( aspects ) respect to ! sun4 ,! problem to be solv$ 0 to *oose su* an orbit & su* a law ( spe$1 = bo? ! e>? & ,m>s1 t a l9e jo9+ !m1 produc$ out to ! />s1 %\ld always m>k correctly ! app>5t position ( ,m>s z se5 f ! e>?4 ,he _h to arrange ! size ( ! orbits t suit$ be/1 !n ! positions ( _! c5tres1 bo? be+ suppos$ exc5tric ) respect to ! sun2 b he c\ld n get any su* arrangem5t to "w ) uni=m motion ab\t ! sun4 ,s he re9troduc$ ! equant1 & ?us _h ano!r v>iable at 8 disposal--9 fact1 two1 = he _h an equant = ! e>? & ano!r = ,m>s1 gett+ a patt]n ( ! k9d sugge/$ 9 ,fig4 #bi4 ,! equants might divide ! l9e 9 any arbitr>y ratio4 ,all sorts ( comb9ations _h to be tri$1 ! relative positions ( ! e>? & ,m>s to be work$ out = ea*1 & comp>$ ) ,ty*o's record$ obs]vations4 ,x 0 easy to get !m to agree = a %ort "t1 b soon] or lat] a discrepancy %[$ itself4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bi4--,s repres5ts ! sun2 ,,ec1 ! c5tre ( ! e>?'s orbit1 to be plac$ z be/ suit$2 ,,mc1 ! same = ,m>s2 ,,ee1 ! e>?'s equant1 or po9t ab\t :i* ! e>? uni=mly revolv$ 7i4e4 ! po9t det]m9+ ! law ( spe$ ab\t ! sun71 likewise to be plac$ any:]e1 b suppos$ to be 9 ! l9e jo9+ ,s to ,,ec2 ,,me1 ! same ?+ = ,m>s2 ) 8,,me = an alt]native hypo!sis t p]haps ,m>s' equant 0 on l9e jo9+ ,,ec ) ,,mc4 ,i ne$ n say t all ^! attempts & grop+s1 ?us briefly summ>iz$1 entail$ enorm\s lab\r1 & requir$ n only great p]t9acity1 b a mo/ s+ul>ly con/itut$ m9d1 t c\ld ?us cont9ue grop+ 9 ! d>k )\t a possible ray ( !ory to illum9ate its se>*4 ,grope he did1 h[ev]1 ) unexampl$ dilig5ce4 ,at l5g? he hit ^u a po9t t seem$ ne>ly "r4 ,he ?\ght he _h f\nd ! tru?2 b no1 be=e long ! position ( ! planet1 z calculat$1 & z record$ by ,ty*o1 diff]$ by eight m9utes ( arc1 or ab\t "o-eigh? ( a degree4 ,c\ld ! obs]vation be wrong by ?is small am\nt8 ,no1 he _h kn[n ,ty*o1 & knew t he 0 nev] wrong eight m9utes 9 an obs]vation4 ,s he set out ! :ole we>y way aga91 & said t ) ^? eight m9utes he w\ld yet f9d out ! law ( ! univ]se4 ,he proce$$ to see if by mak+ ! planet librate1 or ! plane ( its orbit tilt up & d[n1 any?+ c\ld be done4 ,he 0 rew>d$ by f9d+ t at any rate ! plane ( ! orbit did n tilt up & d[n3 x 0 fix$1 & ?is 0 a simplification on ,cop]nicus's !ory4 ,x is n an absolute fixture1 b ! *anges are v small 7see ,laplace1 page #bff74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cj4--;,exc5tric circle suppos$ to be divid$ into equal areas4 ,! sun1 ,s1 be+ plac$ at a select$ po9t1 x 0 possible to repres5t ! v>y+ spe$ ( a planet by say+ t x mov$ f ,a to ,b1 f ,b to ,c1 & s on1 9 equal times4 ,at la/ he ?\ght ( giv+ up ! idea ( uni=m circul> motion1 & ( try+ v>y+ circul> motion1 say inv]sely z its di/ance f ! sun4 ,to simplify calculation1 he divid$ ! orbit into triangles1 & tri$ if mak+ ! triangles equal w\ld d4 ,a great piece ( luck1 !y did beautifully3 ! rate ( description ( areas 7n arcs7 is uni=m4 ,ov] ?is discov]y he greatly rejoices4 ,he feels z ?\gh he _h be5 c>ry+ on a w> aga9/ ! planet & _h triumph$2 b 8 gratulation 0 premature4 ,be=e long fre% little errors appe>$1 & grew 9 importance4 ,?us he ann\nces x himself3-- ,:ile ?us triumph+ ov] ,m>s1 & prep>+ = him1 z = "o already vanqui%$1 tabul> prisons & equat$ exc5tric fett]s1 x is buzz$ "h & !re t ! victory is va91 & t ! w> is rag+ anew z viol5tly z be=e4 ,= ! enemy left at home a despis$ captive has bur/ all ! *a9s ( ! equations1 & brok5 =? f ! prisons ( ! tables4 ,/ill1 a "p ( ! tru? _h be5 ga9$1 & 0 n to be ab&on$ any m4 ,! law ( spe$ 0 fix$3 t :i* is n[ kn[n z 8 second law4 ,b :at ab\t ! %ape ( ! orbit--,0 x aft] all possible t ,ari/otle1 & e philosoph] s9ce ,ari/otle1 _h be5 wrong8 t circul> motion 0 n ! p]fect & natural motion1 b t planets might move 9 "s o!r clos$ curve8 ,suppose he tri$ an oval4 ,well1 !re are a great v>iety ( ovals1 & sev]al 7 tri$3 ) ! result t !y c\ld be made to answ] bett] ?an a circle1 b /ill 7 n "r4 ,n[1 h[ev]1 ! geometrical & ma!matical difficulties ( calculation1 :i* be=e _h be5 t$i\s & oppressive1 ?reat5$ to become ov]:elm+2 & x is ) a ris+ s5se ( despond5cy t ,kepl] sees 8 six ye>s' unremitt+ lab\r lead+ deep] & deep] into complication4 ,"o mo/ di%e>t5+ circum/ance appe>$1 viz4 t :5 he made ! circuit oval 8 law ( equable description ( areas broke d[n4 ,t seem$ to require ! circul> orbit1 & yet no circul> orbit 0 q accurate4 ,:ile ?9k+ & pond]+ = weeks & mon?s ov] ?is new dilemma & complication ( difficulties1 till 8 bra9 reel$1 an accid5tal ray ( light broke ^u him 9 a way n n[ intelligible1 or b>ely intelligible4 ,half ! extreme bread? int]cept$ betwe5 ! circle & oval 0 #dbi_/ajj1jjj ( ! radius1 & he rememb]$ t ! optical inequality ( ,m>s 0 also ab\t #dbi_/ajj1jjj4 ,?is co9cid5ce1 9 8 own words1 woke him out ( sleep2 & = "s reason or o!r impell$ him in/antly to try mak+ ! planet oscillate 9 ! diamet] ( its epicycle in/ead ( revolve r\nd x--a s+ul> idea1 b ,cop]nicus _h _h a simil> "o to expla9 ! motions ( ,m]cury4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ca4--,mode ( draw+ an ellipse4 ,! two p9s ,f are ! foci4 ,away he />t$ ?r\gh 8 calculations aga94 ,a long c\rse ( "w night & day 0 rew>d$ by f9d+ t he 0 n[ able to hit (f ! motions bett] ?an be=e2 b :at a s+ul>ly complicat$ motion x 04 ,c\ld x be express$ no m simply8 ,yes1 ! curve s describ$ by ! planet is a comp>atively simple "o3 x is a special k9d ( oval--! ellipse4 ,/range t he _h n ?\ght ( x be=e4 ,x 0 a fam\s curve1 = ! ,greek geomet]s _h /udi$ x z "o ( ! sections ( a cone1 b x 0 n s well kn[n 9 ,kepl]'s "t4 ,! fact t ! planets move 9 x has rais$ x to ! fir/ importance1 & x is famili> en\gh to u n[4 ,b did x satisfy ! law ( spe$8 ,c\ld ! rate ( description ( areas be uni=m ) x8 ,well1 he tri$ ! ellipse1 & to 8 inexpressible delight he f\nd t x did satisfy ! condition ( equable description ( areas1 if ! sun 0 9 "o focus4 ,s1 mov+ ! planet 9 a select$ ellipse1 ) ! sun 9 "o focus1 at a spe$ giv5 by ! equable area description1 its position agre$ ) ,ty*o's obs]vations )9 ! limits ( ! error ( exp]im5t4 ,m>s 0 f9ally conqu]$1 & rema9s 9 8 prison-h\se to ?is day4 ,! orbit 0 f\nd4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cb4 ,9 a p>oxysm ( delight ,kepl] celebrates 8 victory by a triumphant figure1 sket*$ actually on 8 geometrical diagram--! diagram :i* proves t ! law ( equable description ( areas c hold good ) an ellipse4 ,! above is a trac+ ( x4 ,su* is a crude & bald sket* ( ! /eps by :i* ,kepl] rose to 8 great g5]alizations--! two laws :i* h immortaliz$ 8 "n4 ,all ! complications ( epicycle1 equant1 def]5t1 exc5tric1 & ! l1 7 swept at once away1 & an orbit ( /rik+ & beautiful prop]ties sub/itut$4 ,well might he be call$1 z he 01 ! legislator1 or law int]pret]1 ( ! heav5s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cc4--;,if ,s is ! sun1 a planet or comet moves f ,p to ,p#a1 f ,p#b to ,p#c1 & f ,p#d to ,p#e 9 ! same "t2 if ! %ad$ areas are equal4 ,he concludes 8 book on ! motions ( ,m>s ) a half comic appeal to ! ,emp]or to provide him ) ! s9ews ( w> = an attack on ,m>s's relations--fa!r ,jupit]1 bro!r ,m]cury1 & ! re/--b ! dea? ( 8 unhappy patron 9 #afab put an end to all ^! s*emes1 & r$uc$ ,kepl] to ! utmo/ mis]y4 ,:ile at ,prague 8 sal>y 0 9 cont9ual arre>1 & x 0 ) difficulty t he c\ld provide su/5ance = 8 family4 ,he _h be5 !re elev5 ye>s1 b !y _h be5 h>d ye>s ( pov]ty1 & he c\ld leave )\t regret 7 x n t he %\ld h to leave ,ty*o's in/rum5ts & obs]vations beh9d him4 ,:ile he 0 hesitat+ :at be/ to d1 & r$uc$ to ! v]ge ( despair1 8 wife1 :o _h long be5 suff]+ f l[ spirits & despond5cy1 & 8 ?ree *ildr51 7 tak5 ill2 "o ( ! sons di$ ( small-pox1 & ! wife elev5 days aft] ( l[ fev] & epilepsy4 ,no money c\ld be got at ,prague1 s aft] a %ort "t he accept$ a pr(essor%ip at ,l9z1 & )drew ) 8 two q "y rema9+ *ildr54 ,he provid$ = himself n[ p>tly by publi%+ a prophesy+ almanack1 a sort ( ,zadkiel arrangem5t--a ?+ :i* he despis$1 b ! support ( :i* he c\ld n af=d to d )\t4 ,he is cont9ually attack+ & ?r[+ s>casm at a/rology1 b x 0 ! only ?+ = :i* p w\ld pay him1 & on x aft] a fa%ion he liv$4 ,we d n f9d t 8 circum/ances 7 ev] prosp]\s1 & ?\gh #h1jjj cr[ns 7 due to him f ,bohemia he c\ld n manage to get !m paid4 ,ab\t ?is "t occurr$ a s+ul> int]ruption to 8 "w4 ,8 old "m1 ( ^: fi]ce temp] some?+ has already be5 indicat$1 _h be5 engag$ 9 a law-suit = "s ye>s ne> _! old home 9 ,wrtemb]g4 ,a *ange ( judge hav+ 9 process ( "t occurr$1 ! def5dant saw 8 way to turn ! tables on ! old lady by accus+ h] ( sorc]y4 ,%e 0 s5t to prison1 & condemn$ to ! torture1 ) ! usual intellig5t idea ( extract+ a volunt>y confession4 ,kepl] _h to hurry f ,l9z to int]pose4 ,he succe$$ 9 sav+ h] f ! torture1 b %e rema9$ 9 prison = a ye> or s4 ,h] _s1 h[ev]1 0 unbrok51 = no soon] 0 %e releas$ ?an %e comm5c$ a fre% action aga9/ h] accus]4 ,b fre% tr\ble 0 av]t$ by ! dea? ( ! poor old dame at ! age ( ne>ly eighty4 ,?is n>ration r5d]s ! unflagg+ en]gy %[n by h] son 9 8 ma!matical wre/l+s less surpris+4 ,int]sp]s$ ) ^! dome/ic tr\bles1 & ) h>ass+ & unsuccessful attempts to get 8 rights1 he /ill brood$ ov] 8 old problem ( "s possible connection betwe5 ! di/ances ( ! planets f ! sun & _! times ( revolution1 i4e4 ! l5g? ( _! ye>s4 ,x might well h be5 t !re 0 no connection1 t x 0 purely imag9>y1 l 8 old idea ( ! law ( ! successive di/ances ( ! planets1 & l s _m o!rs ( ! guesses & fancies :i* he ent]ta9$ & sp5t 8 en]gies 9 prob+4 ,b =tunately ?is "t !re 0 a connection1 & he liv$ to h ! joy ( discov]+ x4 ,! connection is ?is1 t if "o comp>es ! di/ance ( ! diff]5t planets f ! sun ) ! l5g? ( "t !y take to g r\nd him1 ! cube ( ! respective di/ances is proportional to ! squ>e ( ! correspond+ times4 ,9 o!r words1 ! ratio ( r#c to ,t#b = e planet is ! same4 ,or1 aga91 ! l5g? ( a planet's ye> dep5ds on ! #c_/b? p[] ( its di/ance f ! sun4 ,or1 once m1 ! spe$ ( ea* planet 9 its orbit is z ! inv]se squ>e-root ( its di/ance f ! sun4 ,! product ( ! di/ance into ! squ>e ( ! spe$ is ! same = ea* planet4 ,?is 7h[ev] /at$7 is call$ ,kepl]'s ?ird law4 ,x welds ! planets toge!r1 & %[s !m to be "o sy/em4 ,8 rapture on detect+ ! law 0 unb\nd$1 & he breaks out into an exult+ rhapsody3-- ,:at ,i prophesi$ two-&-tw5ty ye>s ago1 z soon z ,i discov]$ ! five solids among ! heav5ly orbits--:at ,i firmly believ$ long be=e ,i _h se5 ,ptolemy's ,h>monies--:at ,i _h promis$ my fri5ds 9 ! title ( ?is book1 :i* ,i nam$ be=e ,i 0 sure ( my discov]y--:at sixte5 ye>s ago1 ,i urg$ z a ?+ to be s\ght--t = :i* ,i jo9$ ,ty*o ,brah1 = :i* ,i settl$ 9 ,prague1 = :i* ,i h devot$ ! be/ "p ( my life to a/ronomical contemplations1 at l5g? ,i h br\ght to light1 & recogniz$ its tru? beyond my mo/ sangu9e expectations4 ,x is n eighte5 mon?s s9ce ,i got ! fir/ glimpse ( light1 ?ree mon?s s9ce ! dawn1 v few days s9ce ! unveil$ sun1 mo/ admirable to gaze ^u1 bur/ ^u me4 ,no?+ holds me2 ,i w indulge my sacr$ fury2 ,i w triumph ov] mank9d by ! hone/ confession t ,i h /ol5 ! gold5 vases ( ! ,egyptians to build up a tab]nacle = my ,god f> away f ! conf9es ( ,egypt4 ,if y =give me1 ,i rejoice2 if y are angry1 ,i c be> x2 ! die is ca/1 ! book is writt51 to be read ei!r n[ or by po/]ity1 ,i c>e n :i*2 x may well wait a c5tury = a read]1 z ,god has wait$ six ?\s& ye>s = an obs]v]4 ,soon aft] ?is great "w 8 ?ird book appe>$3 x 0 an epitome ( ! ,cop]nican !ory1 a cle> & fairly popul> exposition ( x1 :i* _h ! hon\r ( be+ at once suppress$ & plac$ on ! li/ ( books prohibit$ by ! ,*ur*1 side by side ) ! "w ( ,cop]nicus himself1 ,de ,revolutionibus ,orbium ,coele/ium4 ,?is hon\r1 h[ev]1 gave ,kepl] no satisfaction--x r occasion$ him dismay1 especially z x depriv$ him ( all pecuni>y b5efit1 & made x almo/ impossible = him to get a publi%] to und]take ano!r book4 ,/ill he work$ on at ! ,rudolph9e tables ( ,ty*o1 & ultimately1 ) "s small help f ,vi5na1 complet$ !m2 b he c\ld n get ! means to pr9t !m4 ,he appli$ to ! ,c\rt till he 0 sick ( apply+3 !y lay idle f\r ye>s4 ,at la/ he det]m9$ to pay = ! type himself4 ,:at he paid x )1 ,god kn[s1 b he did pay x1 & he did br+ out ! tables1 & s 0 fai?ful to ! behe/ ( 8 fri5d4 ,?is great publication m>ks an era 9 a/ronomy4 ,!y 7 ! fir/ really accurate tables :i* navigators ev] possess$2 !y 7 ! precursors ( our pres5t ,nautical ,almanack4 ,aft] ?is1 ! ,gr& ,duke ( ,tuscany s5t ,kepl] a gold5 *a91 :i* is int]e/+ inasmu* z x mu/ really h come f ,galileo1 :o 0 9 high fav\r at ! ,italian ,c\rt at ?is "t4 ,once m ,kepl] made a det]m9$ attempt to get 8 arre>s ( sal>y paid1 & rescue himself & family f _! bitt] pov]ty4 ,he travell$ to ,prague on purpose1 att5d$ ! imp]ial meet+1 & plead$ 8 own cause1 b x 0 all fruitless2 & exhau/$ by ! j\rney1 weak5$ by ov]-/udy1 & di%e>t5$ by ! failure1 he caught a fev]1 & di$ 9 8 fifty-n9? ye>4 ,8 body 0 buri$ at ,ratisbon1 & a c5tury ago a proposal 0 made to erect a m>ble monum5t to 8 memory1 b no?+ 0 done4 ,x matt]s little "o way or ! o!r :e!r ,g]many1 hav+ almo/ refus$ him bread dur+ 8 life1 %\ld1 a c5tury & a half aft] 8 dea?1 (f] him a /one4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cd4--,portrait ( ,kepl]1 old]4 ,! contiguity ( ! lives ( ,kepl] & ,ty*o furni%es a moral too obvi\s to ne$ po9t+ out4 ,:at ,kepl] might h a*iev$ _h he be5 reliev$ ( ^? gha/ly /ruggles = subsi/5ce "o _c tell1 b ?is mu* is cle>1 t _h ,ty*o be5 subject$ to ! same mis=tune1 in/ead ( be+ born ri* & be+ assi/$ by g5]\s & enlight5$ patrons1 he c\ld h accompli%$ v little4 ,8 in/rum5ts1 8 obs]vatory--! tools by :i* he did 8 "w--w\ld h be5 impossible = him4 ,fr$]ick & ,sophia ( ,d5m>k1 & ,rudolph ( ,bohemia1 are !re=e to be rememb]$ z co-work]s ) him4 ,kepl]1 ) 8 ill-heal? & inf]ior physical en]gy1 0 unable to comm& ! l advantages4 ,mu*1 nev]!less1 he did2 m "o _c b feel he might h done _h he be5 prop]ly help$4 ,besides1 ! _w w\ld h be5 free f ! reproa* ( accept+ ! fruits ( 8 bright g5ius :ile condemn+ ! work] to a life ( mis]y1 reliev$ only by ! beauty ( 8 own ?\ghts & ! ec/asy awak5$ 9 him by ! h>mony & precision ( ,nature4 ,conc]n+ ! me?od ( ,kepl]1 ! mode by :i* he made 8 discov]ies1 we mu/ rememb] t he gives u an acc\nt ( all ! /eps1 unsuccessful z well z successful1 by :i* he travell$4 ,he maps out 8 r\te l a travell]4 ,9 fact he comp>es himself to ,columbus or ,magellan1 voyag+ into unkn[n l&s1 & record+ 8 w&]+ r\te4 ,?is be+ rememb]$1 x w be f\nd t 8 me?ods d n diff] s utt]ly f ^? us$ by o!r philosoph]s 9 l case4 ,8 imag9ation 0 p]haps m luxuriant & 0 all[$ fre] play ?an mo/ m5's1 b x 0 nev]!less always controll$ by rigid exam9ation & comp>ison ( hypo!ses ) fact4 ,brew/] says ( him3--,ard5t1 re/less1 burn+ to di/+ui% himself by discov]y1 he attempt$ ev]y?+2 & once hav+ obta9$ a glimpse ( a clue1 no lab\r 0 too h>d 9 foll[+ or v]ify+ x4 ,a few ( 8 attempts succe$$--a multitude fail$4 ,^? :i* fail$ seem to u n[ fanciful1 ^? :i* succe$$ appe> to u sublime4 ,b 8 me?ods 7 ! same4 ,:5 9 se>* ( :at really exi/$ he sometimes f\nd x2 :5 9 pursuit ( a *imra he c\ld n b fail2 b 9 ei!r case he display$ ! same great qualities1 & t ob/9ate p]sev]ance :i* mu/ conqu] all difficulties except ^? really insurm\ntable4 ,to realize :at he did = a/ronomy1 x is necess>y = u n[ to consid] "s sci5ce /ill 9 its infancy4 ,a/ronomy is s cle> & s ?or\ghly explor$ n[1 t x is difficult to put oneself into a contempor>y attitude4 ,b take "s o!r sci5ce /ill b>ely develop$3 meteorology1 = in/ance4 ,! sci5ce ( ! wea!r1 ! succession ( w9ds & ra91 sun%9e & fro/1 cl\ds & fog1 is n[ v mu* 9 ! condition ( a/ronomy be=e ,kepl]4 ,we h pass$ ?r\gh ! /age ( ascrib+ atmosph]ic di/urbances--?und]/orms1 cyclones1 e>?quakes1 & ! l--to sup]natural ag5cy2 we h _h our ,cop]nican era3 n p]haps br\ght ab\t by a s+le individual1 b /ill a*iev$4 ,some?+ ( ! laws ( cyclone & anticyclone are kn[n1 & rude wea!r pr$ictions across ! ,atlantic are r\ghly possible4 ,b>omet]s & !rmomet]s & anemomet]s1 & all _! tribe1 repres5t ! a/ronomical in/rum5ts 9 ! isl& ( ,hu52 & our num]\s meteorological obs]vatories1 ) _! cont9ual record ( ev5ts1 repres5t ! "w ( ,ty*o ,brah4 ,obs]vation is heap$ on obs]vation2 tables are compil$2 volumes are fill$ ) data2 ! h\rs ( sun%9e are record$1 ! fall ( ra91 ! moi/ure 9 ! air1 ! k9d ( cl\ds1 ! temp]ature--millions ( facts2 b :]e is ! ,kepl] to /udy & brood ov] !m8 ,:]e is ! man to sp5d 8 life 9 evolv+ ! beg9n+s ( law & ord] f ! mid/ ( all ?is *aos8 ,p]haps z a man he may n come1 b 8 era w come4 ,?r\gh ?is /age ! sci5ce mu/ pass1 ere x is ready = ! comm&+ intellect ( a ,newton4 ,b :at a "w x w be = ! man1 :oev] he be t und]takes x--a fe>ful monoton\s gr9d ( calculation1 hypo!sis1 hypo!sis1 calculation1 a desp]ate & grop+ endeav\r to reconcile !ories ) facts4 ,a life ( su* lab\r1 cr[n$ by ?ree brilliant discov]ies1 ! _w owes 7& too late recognizes its obligation7 to ! h>%ly treat$ ,g]man g5ius1 ,kepl]4 ,,summ>y ,,( ,,facts ,,= ,,lectures ,,iv ,,& ,v ,9 #aefd1 ,mi*ael ,angelo di$ & ,galileo 0 born2 9 #afdb1 ,galileo di$ & ,newton 0 born4 ,milton liv$ f #afjh to #afgd4 ,= tea*+ ! plurality ( worlds1 ) o!r het]odox doctr9es1 & refus+ to recant1 ,bruno1 aft] six ye>s' imprisonm5t 9 ,rome1 0 burnt at ! /ake on ! #af? ( ,febru>y1 #afjj ,a4,d4 ,a natural dea? 9 ! dungeons ( ! ,inquisition sav$ ,antonio de ,dom9is1 ! expla9] ( ! ra9b[1 f ! same fate1 b 8 body & books 7 publicly burn$ at ,rome 9 #afbd4 ,! p]secution ( ,galileo began 9 #afae1 became int5se 9 #afcb1 & s la/$ till 8 dea? & aft]4 99 99 99 99 99 ,galileo ,galilei1 elde/ son ( ,v9c5zo de ,bonajuti de ,galilei1 a noble ,flor5t9e1 0 born at ,pisa1 #ah? ( ,febru>y1 #aefd4 ,at ! age ( #ag 0 s5t to ! ,univ]sity ( ,pisa to /udy m$ic9e4 ,obs]v$ ! sw+ ( a p5dulum & appli$ x to c\nt pulse-beats4 ,read ,euclid & ,ar*im$es1 & c\ld be kept at m$ic9e no m4 ,at #bf 0 appo9t$ ,lectur] 9 ,ma!matics at ,pisa4 ,read ,bruno & became smitt5 ) ! ,cop]nican !ory4 ,controv]t$ ! ,ari/otelians conc]n+ fall+ bodies1 at ,pisa4 ,h5ce became unpopul> & accept$ a *air at ,padua1 #aeib4 ,inv5t$ a !rmomet]4 ,wrote on a/ronomy1 adopt+ ! ,ptolemaic sy/em provisionally1 & s op5$ up a correspond5ce ) ,kepl]1 ) :om he =m$ a fri5d%ip4 ,lectur$ on ! new /> ( #afjd1 & publicly r5\nc$ ! old sy/ems ( a/ronomy4 ,inv5t$ a calculat+ compass or ,gunt]'s scale4 ,9 #afji inv5t$ a telescope1 aft] he>+ ( a ,dut* optician's discov]y4 ,inv5t$ ! microscope soon aft]4 ,rapidly complet$ a bett] telescope & began a survey ( ! heav5s4 ,on ! #h? ( ,janu>y1 #afaj1 discov]$ ,jupit]'s satellites4 ,obs]v$ ! m\nta9s 9 ! moon1 & r\ghly measur$ _! height4 ,expla9$ ! visibility ( ! new moon by e>?-%9e4 ,0 invit$ to ! ,gr& ,ducal ,c\rt ( ,tuscany by ,cosmo de ,m$ici1 & appo9t$ philosoph] to t p]sonage4 ,discov]$ innum]able new />s1 & ! nebul4 ,obs]v$ a triple appe>ance ( ,saturn4 ,discov]$ ! phases ( ,v5us pr$ict$ by ,cop]nicus1 & spots on ! sun4 ,wrote on float+ bodies4 ,tri$ to get 8 satellites utiliz$ = det]m9+ longitude at sea4 ,w5t to ,rome to def5d ! ,cop]nican sy/em1 !n "u (ficial discussion1 & z a result 0 =mally =bidd5 ev] to tea* x4 ,on ! accession ( ,pope ,urban ,,viii4 9 #afbc1 ,galileo aga9 visit$ ,rome to pay 8 respects1 & 0 well receiv$4 ,9 #afcb appe>$ 8 ,dialogues on ! ,ptolemaic & ,cop]nican sy/ems4 ,summon$ to ,rome1 practically imprison$1 & rigor\sly que/ion$4 ,0 made to recant #bbnd ( ,june1 #afcc4 ,=bidd5 ev]more to publi% any?+1 or to tea*1 or receive fri5ds4 ,retir$ to ,arcetri 9 brok5 d[n heal?4 ,dea? ( 8 fav\rite daught]1 ,si/] ,m>ia ,cele/e4 ,wrote & m$itat$ on ! laws ( motion4 ,discov]$ ! moon's libration4 ,9 #afcg he became bl9d4 ,! rig\r 0 !n slightly relax$ & _m visit$ him3 among !m ,john ,milton4 ,di$ #h? ( ,janu>y1 #afdb1 ag$ #gh4 ,z a prison] ( ! ,inquisition 8 "r to make a w or to be buri$ 9 consecrat$ gr\nd 0 disput$4 ,_m ( 8 manuscripts 7 de/roy$4 ,galileo1 besides be+ a s+ul>ly cle>-head$ ?9k] & exp]im5tal g5ius1 0 also some?+ ( a musician1 a poet1 & an arti/4 ,he 0 full ( hum\r z well z ( solid common-s5se1 & 8 lit]>y /yle is brilliant4 ,( 8 sci5tific a*ievem5ts ^? n[ reckon$ mo/ weighty1 are ! discov]y ( ! ,laws ( ,motion1 & ! lay+ ( ! f\ndations ( ,me*anics4 ,p>ticul>s ( ,jupit]'s ,satellites1 ,illu/rat+ _! ob$i5ce to ,kepl]'s ?ird law4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------- ,di/ance ,t#b ,"t ( f ---- ,satellite4,diamet] revolution ,jupit]1 ,t#b d#c d#c miles4 9 h\rs4 9 ,jovian :i* is miles 7,t7 radii4 practically 7d7 con/ant4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,no4 #a4 #bdcg #dbdg #fjdi #ahjcg #bbadd #hadi ,no4 #b4 #bahh #hebc #ifbc #gbfda #hiaaa #haeb ,no4 #c4 #cege #agggb #aecej #bidhh #ciafh #haec ,no4 #d4 #cjei #djjec #bfiih #afjdbf #aifgi #haeb ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------- ,! diamet] ( ,jupit] is #he1hbc miles4 ,fall+ ,bodies4 ,s9ce all bodies fall at ! same rate1 except = ! di/urb+ effect ( ! resi/ance ( ! air1 a /atem5t ( _! rates ( fall is ( int]e/4 ,9 "o second a freely fall+ body ne> ! e>? is f\nd to drop #af feet4 ,9 two seconds x drops #fd feet altoge!r1 viz4 #af feet 9 ! fir/1 & #dh feet 9 ! next second2 because at ! beg9n+ ( e second aft] ! fir/ x has ! accumulat$ velocity ( prec$+ seconds4 ,! height fall5 by a dropp$ body is n proportional to ! "t simply1 b to :at is r absurdly call$ ! squ>e ( ! "t1 i4e4 ! "t multipli$ by itself4 ,= in/ance1 9 #c seconds x drops #i #af #add feet2 9 #d seconds #af #af1 or #bef feet1 & s on4 ,! di/ances travell$ 9 #a1 #b1 #c1 #d1 c41 seconds by a body dropp$ f re/ & n appreciably resi/$ by ! air1 are #a1 #d1 #i1 #af1 #be1 c41 respectively1 ea* multipli$ by ! con/ant #af feet4 ,ano!r way ( /at+ ! law is to say t ! heights travell$ 9 successive seconds proce$ 9 ! proportion #a1 #c1 #e1 #g1 #i1 c42 aga9 multipli$ by #af feet 9 ea* case4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ce4--;,curve describ$ by a projectile1 %[+ h[ x drops f ! l9e ( fire1 ,o ,d1 9 successive seconds1 ! same di/ances ,,ap1 ,,bq1 ,,cr1 c41 z are /at$ above = a dropp$ body4 ,all ?is 0 exp]im5tally e/abli%$ by ,galileo4 ,a body takes half a second to drop #d feet2 & a qu>t] ( a second to drop #a foot4 ,! easie/ way ( e/imat+ a qu>t] ( a second ) "s accuracy is to drop a bullet "o foot4 ,a bullet ?r[n or %ot 9 any direction falls j z mu* z if m]ely dropp$2 b in/ead ( fall+ f ! />t+-po9t x drops v]tically f ! l9e ( fire4 7,see fig4 #ce74 ,! rate ( fall dep5ds on ! int5sity ( gravity2 if x c\ld be d\bl$1 a body w\ld fall twice z f> 9 ! same "t2 b to make x fall a giv5 di/ance 9 half ! "t ! int5sity ( gravity w\ld h to be quadrupl$4 ,at a place :]e ! int5sity ( gravity is #a_/cfjj ( :at x is "h1 a body w\ld fall z f> 9 a m9ute z x n[ falls 9 a second4 ,su* a place occurs at ab\t ! di/ance ( ! moon 7cf4 page #agg74 ,! fact t ! height fall5 ?r\gh is proportional to ! squ>e ( ! "t proves t ! attraction ( ! e>? or ! int5sity ( gravity is s5sibly con/ant ?r\gh\t ord9>y small ranges4 ,ov] great di/ances ( fall1 gravity _c be consid]$ con/ant2 s = ?+s fall+ ?r\gh great spaces ! ,galilean law ( ! squ>e ( ! "t does n hold4 ,! fact t ?+s ne> ! e>? fall #af feet 9 ! fir/ second proves t ! int5sity ( ord9>y t]re/rial gravity is #cb ,briti% units ( =ce p] p\nd ( matt]4 ,! fact t all bodies fall at ! same rate 7:5 ! resi/ance ( ! air is elim9at$71 proves t weight is proportional to mass2 or m explicitly1 t ! gravitative attraction ( ! e>? on matt] ne> its surface dep5ds on ! am\nt ( t matt]1 z e/imat$ by its in]tia1 & on no?+ else4 ,,lecture ,,iv ,,galileo ,,& ,,! ,,inv5tion ,,( ,,! ,,telescope ,contempor>y ) ! life ( ,kepl]1 b ov]lapp+ x at bo? ends1 comes ! great & ev5tful life ( ,galileo ,galilei1#e a man ^: influ5ce on ! developm5t ( human ?\ght has be5 great] ?an t ( any man :om we h yet consid]$1 & ^u :om1 !re=e1 x is necess>y = u1 9 ord] to c>ry out ! plan ( ^! lectures1 to be/[ mu* "t4 ,a man ( great & wide culture1 a s-call$ univ]sal g5ius1 x is z an exp]im5tal philosoph] t he takes ! fir/ rank4 ,9 ?is capacity he mu/ be plac$ alongside ( ,ar*im$es1 & x is pretty c]ta9 t betwe5 ! two !re 0 no man ( magnitude equal to ei!r 9 exp]im5tal philosophy4 ,x is p]haps too bold a speculation1 b ,i v5ture to d\bt :e!r 9 succe$+ g5]ations we f9d 8 equal 9 ! doma9 ( purely exp]im5tal sci5ce until we come to ,f>aday4 ,f>aday 0 no d\bt 8 sup]ior1 b ,i "k ( no o!r ( :om ! l c unhesitat+ly be said4 ,9 ma!matical & d$uctive sci5ce1 ( c\rse1 x is q o!rwise4 ,kepl]1 = in/ance1 & _m m5 be=e & s9ce1 h f> excell$ ,galileo 9 ma!matical skill & p[]1 ?\gh at ! same "t 8 a*ievem5ts 9 ?is dep>tm5t are by no means to be despis$4 ,born at ,pisa ?ree c5turies ago1 on ! v day t ,mi*ael ,angelo lay dy+ 9 ,rome1 he inh]it$ f 8 fa!r a noble "n1 cultivat$ ta/es1 a ke5 love ( tru?1 & an impov]i%$ patrimony4 ,v9c5zo de ,galilei1 a desc5dant ( ! important ,bonajuti family1 0 himself a ma!matician & a musician1 & 9 a book ( 8 /ill extant he decl>es himself 9 fav\r ( free & op5 inquiry into sci5tific matt]s1 unre/ra9$ by ! weight ( au?ority & tradition4 ,9 all probability ! son imbib$ ^! precepts3 c]ta9ly he act$ on !m4 ,v9c5zo1 hav+ himself exp]i5c$ ! unremun]ative "* ( sci5tific "w1 _h a horror ( 8 son's tak+ to x1 especially z 9 8 boyhood he 0 always con/ruct+ +5i\s me*anical toys1 & exhibit+ o!r m>ks ( precocity4 ,s ! son 0 de/9$ = bus9ess--to be1 9 fact1 a clo?-deal]4 ,b he 0 to receive a good education fir/1 & 0 s5t to an excell5t conv5t s*ool4 ,"h he made rapid progress1 & soon excell$ 9 all bran*es ( classics & lit]ature4 ,he delight$ 9 poetry1 & 9 lat] ye>s wrote sev]al essays on ,dante1 ,tasso1 & ,ario/o1 besides compos+ "s tol]able poems himself4 ,he play$ skilfully on sev]al musical in/rum5ts1 especially on ! lute1 ( :i* inde$ he became a ma/]1 & on :i* he solac$ himself :5 q an old man4 ,besides ?is he seems to h _h "s skill z an arti/1 :i* 0 useful aft]w>ds 9 illu/rat+ 8 discov]ies1 & to h _h a f9e s5sibility z an art critic1 = we f9d sev]al em95t pa9t]s ( t day ackn[l$g+ ! value ( ! op9ion ( ! "y ,galileo4 ,p]ceiv+ all ?is display ( ability1 ! fa!r wisely came to ! conclusion t ! sell+ ( wooll5 /uffs w\ld h>dly satisfy 8 aspirations = long1 & t x 0 wor? a sacrifice to s5d him to ! ,univ]sity4 ,s to ! ,univ]sity ( 8 native t[n he w5t1 ) ! av[$ object ( /udy+ m$ic9e1 t c>e] seem+ ! mo/ likely to be pr(itable4 ,old ,v9c5zo's horror ( ma!matics or sci5ce z a means ( obta9+ a livelihood is ju/ifi$ by ! fact t :ile ! ,univ]sity ,pr(essor ( ,m$ic9e receiv$ #b1jjj scudi a ye>1 ! ,pr(essor ( ,ma!matics _h only #fj1 t is #ac a ye>1 or #g-a_/b;d4 a day4 ,s ! son _h be5 kept prop]ly ignorant ( su* pov]ty-/rick5 subjects1 & to /udy m$ic9e he w5t4 ,b 8 natural b5t %[$ itself ev5 "h4 ,= pray+ "o day 9 ! ,ca!dral1 l a good ,ca?olic z he 0 all 8 life1 8 att5tion 0 arre/$ by ! great lamp :i*1 aft] light+ x1 ! v]g] _h left sw++ to & fro4 ,galileo proce$$ to "t its sw+s by ! only wat* he possess$--viz41 8 own pulse4 ,he notic$ t ! "t ( sw+ rema9$ z ne> z he c\ld tell ! same1 not)/&+ ! fact t ! sw+s 7 gett+ small] & small]4 ,by subsequ5t exp]im5t he v]ifi$ ! law1 & ! iso*ronism ( ! p5dulum 0 discov]$4 ,an imm5sely important practical discov]y ?is1 = ^u x all mod]n clocks are bas$2 & ,huygh5s soon appli$ x to ! a/ronomical clock1 :i* up to t "t _h be5 a crude & q untru/wor?y in/rum5t4 ,! be/ clock :i* ,ty*o ,brah c\ld get = 8 obs]vatory 0 inf]ior to "o t may n[ be pur*as$ = a few %ill+s2 & ?is *ange is ow+ to ! discov]y ( ! p5dulum by ,galileo4 ,n t he appli$ x to clocks2 he 0 n ?9k+ ( a/ronomy1 he 0 ?9k+ ( m$ic9e1 & want$ to c\nt p's pulses4 ,! p5dulum s]v$2 & pulsilogies1 z !y 7 call$1 7 ?us introduc$ to & us$ by m$ical practition]s4 ,! ,tuscan ,c\rt came to ,pisa = ! summ] mon?s1 = x 0 !n a seaside place1 & among ! suite 0 ,o/illio ,ricci1 a di/+ui%$ ma!matician & old fri5d ( ! ,galileo family4 ,! y\? visit$ him1 & "o day1 x is said1 he>d a lesson 9 ,euclid be+ giv5 by ,ricci to ! pages :ile he /ood outside ! door entranc$4 ,anyh[ he implor$ ,ricci to help him into "s k ( ma!matics1 & ! old man will+ly cons5t$4 ,s he ma/]$ ,euclid & pass$ on to ,ar*im$es1 = :om he acquir$ a great v5]ation4 ,8 fa!r soon he>d ( ?is obnoxi\s proclivity1 & did :at he c\ld to div]t him back to m$ic9e aga94 ,b x 0 no use4 ,und]nea? 8 ,gal5 & ,hippocrates 7 secret$ copies ( ,euclid & ,ar*im$es1 to be /udi$ at e available opportunity4 ,old ,v9c5zo p]ceiv$ ! b5t ( g5ius to be too /rong = him1 & at la/ gave way4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cf4--,two =ms ( pulsilogy4 ,! /r+ is w\nd up till ! sw++ weight keeps "t ) ! pulse1 & ! position ( a bead or ( an index connect$ ) ! /r+ is !n read on a scale or dial4 ,) prodigi\s rapidity ! releas$ philosoph] n[ assimilat$ ! elem5ts ( ma!matics & physics1 & at tw5ty-six we f9d him appo9t$ = ?ree ye>s to ! ,univ]sity ,*air ( ,ma!matics1 & enjoy+ ! pat]nally dread$ /ip5d ( #g-a_/b;d4 a day4 ,n[ x 0 t he pond]$ ov] ! laws ( fall+ bodies4 ,he v]ifi$1 by exp]im5t1 ! fact t ! velocity acquir$ by fall+ d[n any slope ( giv5 height 0 indep5d5t ( ! angle ( slope4 ,also1 t ! height fall5 ?r\gh 0 proportional to ! squ>e ( ! "t4 ,ano!r ?+ he f\nd exp]im5tally 0 t all bodies1 heavy & light1 fell at ! same rate1 /rik+ ! gr\nd at ! same "t4#f ,n[ ?is 0 clean contr>y to :at he _h be5 taught4 ,! physics ( ^? days 7 a simple reproduction ( /atem5ts 9 old books4 ,ari/otle _h ass]t$ c]ta9 ?+s to be true1 & ^! 7 univ]sally believ$4 ,no "o ?\ght ( try+ ! ?+ to see if x really 7 s4 ,! idea ( mak+ an exp]im5t w\ld h sav\r$ ( impiety1 because x seem$ to t5d t[>ds scepticism1 & ca/ a d\bt on a rev]5d au?ority4 ,"y ,galileo1 ) all ! en]gy & imprud5ce ( y\? 7:at a bless+ t y\? has a little imprud5ce & disreg>d ( consequ5ces 9 pursu+ a high ideal671 z soon z he p]ceiv$ t 8 in/ructors 7 wrong on ! subject ( fall+ bodies1 in/antly in=m$ !m ( ! fact4 ,:e!r he expect$ !m to be pleas$ or n is a "q4 ,anyh[1 !y 7 n pleas$1 b 7 mu* annoy$ by 8 imp]t95t arrogance4 ,x is1 p]haps1 difficult = u n[ to appreciate precisely _! position4 ,^! doctr9es ( antiquity1 :i* _h come d[n ho>y ) age1 & ! discov]y ( :i* _h reawak5$ le>n+ & quick5$ intellectual life1 7 accept$ less z a sci5ce or a philosophy1 ?an z a religion4 ,_h !y reg>d$ ,ari/otle z a v]bally inspir$ writ]1 !y c\ld n h receiv$ 8 /atem5ts ) m unhesitat+ conviction4 ,9 any dispute z to a "q ( fact1 su* z ! "o be=e u conc]n+ ! laws ( fall+ bodies1 _! me?od 0 n to make an exp]im5t1 b to turn ov] ! pages ( ,ari/otle2 & he :o c\ld quote *apt] & v]se ( ?is great writ] 0 held to settle ! "q & raise x above ! rea* ( controv]sy4 ,x is v necess>y = u to realize ?is /ate ( ?+s cle>ly1 because o!rwise ! attitude ( ! le>n$ ( ^? days t[>ds e new discov]y seems /upid & almo/ insane4 ,!y _h a cry/alliz$ sy/em ( tru?1 p]fect1 symmetrical--x want$ no novelty1 no additions2 e addition or gr[? 0 an imp]fection1 an excresc5ce1 a de=mity4 ,progress 0 unnecess>y & undesir$4 ,! ,*ur* _h a rigid sy/em ( dogma1 :i* mu/ be accept$ 9 its entirety on pa9 ( be+ treat$ z a h]etic4 ,philosoph]s _h a ca/-iron sy/em ( tru? to mat*--a sy/em f\nd$ ^u ,ari/otle--& s int]wov5 ) ! great !ological dogmas t to "q "o 0 almo/ equival5t to ca/+ d\bt ^u ! o!r4 ,9 su* an atmosph]e true sci5ce 0 impossible4 ,! life-blood ( sci5ce is gr[?1 expansion1 fre$om1 developm5t4 ,be=e x c\ld appe> x mu/ ?r[ (f ^! old %ackles ( c5turies4 ,x mu/ bur/ its old sk91 & em]ge1 worn ) ! /ruggle1 weakly & unprotect$1 b free & able to gr[ & to exp&4 ,! conflict 0 inevitable1 & x 0 sev]e4 ,is x ov] yet8 ,i fe> n q1 ?\gh s ne>ly z to di/urb sci5ce h>dly at all4 ,!n x 0 diff]5t2 x 0 t]rible4 ,hon\r to ! m5 :o bore ! fir/ %ock ( ! battle6 ,n[ ,ari/otle _h said t bodies fell at rates dep5d+ on _! weight4 ,a #e lb4 weight w\ld fall five times z quick z a #a lb4 weight2 a #ej lb4 weight fifty times z quick1 & s on4 ,:y he said s nobody kn[s4 ,he _c h tri$4 ,he 0 n above try+ exp]im5ts1 l 8 small] disciples2 b probably x nev] occurr$ to him to d\bt ! fact4 ,x seems s natural t a heavy body %\ld fall quick] ?an a light "o2 & p]haps he ?\ght ( a /one & a fea!r1 & 0 satisfi$4 ,galileo1 h[ev]1 ass]t$ t ! weight did n matt] a bit1 t ev]y?+ fell at ! same rate 7ev5 a /one & a fea!r1 b = ! resi/ance ( ! air71 & w\ld rea* ! gr\nd 9 ! same "t4 ,& he 0 n cont5t to be pooh-pooh$ & snubb$4 ,he knew he 0 "r1 & he 0 det]m9$ to make e "o see ! facts z he saw !m4 ,s "o morn+1 be=e ! assembl$ ,univ]sity1 he asc5d$ ! fam\s lean+ t[]1 tak+ ) him a #ajj lb4 %ot & a #a lb4 %ot4 ,he balanc$ !m on ! edge ( ! t[]1 & let !m drop toge!r4 ,toge!r !y fell1 & toge!r !y /ruck ! gr\nd4 ,! simultane\s clang ( ^? two weights s\nd$ ! dea?-knell ( ! old sy/em ( philosophy1 & h]ald$ ! bir? ( ! new4 ,b 0 ! *ange sudd58 ,7 8 oppon5ts conv9c$8 ,n a jot4 ,?\gh !y _h se5 ) _! eyes1 & he>d ) _! e>s1 ! full light ( heav5 %9+ ^u !m1 !y w5t back mutt]+ & discont5t$ to _! mu/y old volumes & _! g>rets1 !re to inv5t occult reasons = d5y+ ! validity ( ! obs]vation1 & = ref]r+ x to "s unkn[n di/urb+ cause4 ,!y saw t if !y gave way on ?is "o po9t !y w\ld be lett+ g _! an*orage1 & h5ce=w>d w\ld be liable to drift along ) ! tide1 n kn[+ :i!r4 ,!y d>$ n d ?is4 ,no2 !y mu/ cl+ to ! old traditions2 !y c\ld n ca/ away _! rott+ ropes & sail out on to ! free ocean ( ,god's tru? 9 a _s ( fe>less fai?4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cg4--,t[] ( ,pisa4 ,yet !y _h receiv$ a %ock3 z by a brea? ( fre% salt breeze & a da% ( spray 9 _! faces1 !y _h be5 awak5$ out ( _! com=table le?>gy4 ,!y felt ! approa* ( a new era4 ,yes1 x 0 a %ock2 & !y hat$ ! "y ,galileo = giv+ x !m--hat$ him ) ! sull5 hatr$ ( m5 :o fight = a lo/ & dy+ cause4 ,we ne$ sc>cely blame ^! m52 at lea/ we ne$ n blame !m ov]mu*4 ,to say t !y act$ z !y did is to say t !y 7 human1 7 n>r[-m9d$1 & 7 ! apo/les ( a lo/ cause4 ,b !y c\ld n "k ?is2 !y _h no exp]i5ce ( ! pa/ to guide !m2 ! conditions "u :i* !y f\nd !mselves 7 novel1 & _h to be met = ! fir/ "t4 ,conduct :i* 0 excusable !n w\ld be unp>donable n[1 9 ! light ( all ?is exp]i5ce to guide u4 ,are !re any n[ :o practically repeat _! error1 & resi/ new tru?8 :o cl+ to any old an*orage ( dogma1 & refuse to rise ) ! tide ( advanc+ k8 ,!re may be "s ev5 n[4 ,well1 ! unpopul>ity ( ,galileo sm\ld]$ = a "t1 until1 by ano!r noble imprud5ce1 he manag$ to (f5d a semi-royal p]sonage1 ,giovanni de ,m$ici1 by giv+ 8 real op9ion1 :5 consult$1 ab\t a ma*9e :i* de ,m$ici _h inv5t$ = clean+ out ! h>b\r ( ,leghorn4 ,he said x 0 z useless z x 9 fact turn$ out to be4 ,?r\gh ! influ5ce ( ! mortifi$ inv5tor he lo/ fav\r at ,c\rt2 & 8 enemies took advantage ( ! fact to r5d] 8 *air unt5able4 ,he resign$ be=e 8 ?ree ye>s 7 up1 & retir$ to ,flor5ce4 ,8 fa!r at ?is "t di$1 & ! family 7 left 9 n>r[ circum/ances4 ,he _h a bro!r & ?ree si/]s to provide =4 ,he 0 (f]$ a pr(essor%ip at ,padua = six ye>s by ! ,s5ate ( ,v5ice1 & will+ly accept$ x4 ,n[ began a v successful c>e]4 ,8 introductory address 0 m>k$ by brilliant eloqu5ce1 & 8 lectures soon acquir$ fame4 ,he wrote = 8 pupils on ! laws ( motion1 on =tifications1 on sundials1 on me*anics1 & on ! cele/ial globe3 "s ( ^! pap]s are n[ lo/1 o!rs h be5 pr9t$ dur+ ! pres5t c5tury4 ,kepl] s5t him a copy ( 8 new book1 ,my/]ium ,cosmographicum1 & ,galileo 9 ?ank+ him = x writes him ! foll[+ lett]3--#g ,i c\nt myself happy1 9 ! se>* aft] tru?1 to h s great an ally z y\rself1 & "o :o is s great a fri5d ( ! tru? itself4 ,x is really pitiful t !re are s few :o seek tru?1 & :o d n pursue a p]v]se me?od ( philosophis+4 ,b ?is is n ! place to m\rn ov] ! mis]ies ( our times1 b to congratulate y on y\r spl5did discov]ies 9 confirmation ( tru?4 ,i %all read y\r book to ! end1 sure ( f9d+ mu* t is excell5t 9 x4 ,i %all d s ) ! m pleasure1 because ,i h be5 = _m ye>s an adh]5t ( ! ,cop]nican sy/em1 & x expla9s to me ! causes ( _m ( ! appe>ances ( nature :i* are q un9telligible on ! commonly accept$ hypo!sis4 ,i h collect$ _m argum5ts = ! purpose ( refut+ ! latt]2 b ,i d n v5ture to br+ !m to ! light ( publicity1 = fe> ( %>+ ! fate ( our ma/]1 ,cop]nicus1 :o1 al?\gh he has e>n$ immortal fame ) "s1 yet ) v _m 7s great is ! numb] ( fools7 has become an object ( ridicule & scorn4 ,i %\ld c]ta9ly v5ture to publi% my speculations if !re 7 m p l y4 ,b ?is n be+ ! case1 ,i refra9 f su* an und]tak+4 ,kepl] urg$ him to publi% 8 argum5ts 9 fav\r ( ! ,cop]nican !ory1 b he hesitat$ = ! pres5t1 kn[+ t 8 decl>ation w\ld be receiv$ ) ridicule & opposition1 & ?9k+ x wis] to get r m firmly seat$ 9 8 *air be=e enc\nt]+ ! /orm ( controv]sy4 ,! six ye>s pass$ away1 & ! ,v5etian ,s5ate1 anxi\s n to lose s bright an ornam5t1 r5ew$ 8 appo9tm5t = ano!r six ye>s at a l>gely increas$ sal>y4 ,soon aft] ?is appe>$ a new />1 ! /ella nova ( #afjd1 n ! "o ,ty*o _h se5--t 0 9 #aegb--;b ! same t ,kepl] 0 s mu* int]e/$ 94 ,galileo gave a c\rse ( ?ree lectures ^u x to a great audi5ce4 ,at ! fir/ ! !atre 0 ov]-cr[d$1 s he _h to adj\rn to a hall hold+ #ajjj p]sons4 ,at ! next he _h to lecture 9 ! op5 air4 ,he took occasion to rebuke 8 he>]s = ?rong+ to he> ab\t an ephem]al novelty1 :ile = ! mu* m wond]ful & important tru?s ab\t ! p]man5t />s & facts ( nature !y _h b deaf e>s4 ,b ! ma9 po9t he br\ght out conc]n+ ! new /> 0 t x upset ! receiv$ ,ari/otelian doctr9e ( ! immutability ( ! heav5s4 ,accord+ to t doctr9e ! heav5s 7 un*angeable1 p]fect1 subject nei!r to gr[? nor to decay4 ,"h 0 a body1 n a meteor b a real di/ant />1 :i* _h n be5 visible & :i* w\ld %ortly fade away aga91 b :i* mean:ile 0 bright] ?an ,jupit]4 ,! /aff ( petrifi$ pr(essorial wisdom 7 annoy$ at ! appe>ance ( ! />1 /ill m at ,galileo's call+ public att5tion to x2 & controv]sy began at ,padua4 ,h[ev]1 he accept$ x2 & n[ boldly ?rew d[n ! gauntlet 9 fav\r ( ! ,cop]nican !ory1 utt]ly repudiat+ ! old ,ptolemaic sy/em :i* up to t "t he _h taught 9 ! s*ools accord+ to e/abli%$ cu/om4 ,! e>? no long] ! only _w to :i* all else 9 ! firmam5t 7 obsequi\s att5dants1 b a m]e insignificant speck among ! ho/ ( heav56 ,man no long] ! c5tre & cynosure ( creation1 b1 z x 71 an insect crawl+ on ! surface ( ?is little speck6 ,all ?is n set d[n 9 crabb$ ,lat9 9 dry folios = a few le>n$ monks1 z 9 ,cop]nicus's "t1 b promulgat$ & argu$ 9 ri* ,italian1 illu/rat$ by analogy1 by exp]im5t1 & ) cultur$ wit2 taught n to a few s*ol>s "h & !re 9 mu/y libr>ies1 b proclaim$ 9 ! v]nacul> to ! :ole populace ) all ! en]gy & en?usiasm ( a rec5t conv]t & a ma/] ( language6 ,_h a bomb%ell be5 explod$ among ! fossiliz$ pr(essors x _h be5 less di/urb+4 ,b !re 0 worse 9 /ore = !m4 ,a ,dut* optician1 ,hans ,lipp]%ey by "n1 ( ,middleburg1 _h 9 8 %op a curi\s toy1 rigg$ up1 x is said1 by an appr5tice1 & made out ( a c\ple ( spectacle l5ses1 :]eby1 if "o look$ ?r\gh x1 ! wea!r-cock ( a neighb\r+ *ur* spire 0 se5 ne>] & upside d[n4 ,! tale goes t ! ,m>quis ,sp9ola1 happ5+ to call at ! %op1 0 /ruck ) ! toy & b\ght x4 ,he %[$ x to ,pr9ce ,maurice ( ,nassau1 :o ?\ght ( us+ x = milit>y reconnoitr+4 ,all ?is is trivial4 ,:at is important is t "s fa9t & inaccurate e*o ( ?is news f\nd its way to ,padua1 & into ! e>s ( ,galileo4 ,! se$ fell on good soil4 ,all t night he sat up & pond]$4 ,he knew ab\t l5ses & magnify+ glasses4 ,he _h read ,kepl]'s !ory ( ! eye1 & _h himself lectur$ on optics4 ,c\ld he n hit on ! device & make an in/rum5t capable ( br++ ! heav5ly bodies ne>]8 ,:o knew :at m>vels he might n s p]ceive6 ,by morn+ he _h "s s*emes ready to try1 & "o ( !m 0 successful4 ,s+ul>ly en\gh x 0 n ! same plan z ! ,dut* optician's1 x 0 ano!r mode ( a*iev+ ! same end4 ,he took an old small organ pipe1 jamm$ a suitably *os5 spectacle glass into ei!r end1 "o convex ! o!r concave1 & behold1 he _h ! half ( a wret*$ly bad op]a glass capable ( magnify+ ?ree times4 ,x 0 bett] ?an ! ,dut*man's1 h[ev]2 x did n inv]t4 ,x is easy to und]/& ! g5]al pr9ciple ( a telescope4 ,a g5]al k ( ! common magnify+ glass may be assum$4 ,rog] ,bacon knew ab\t l5ses2 & ! anci5ts (t5 ref] to !m1 ?\gh usually z burn+ glasses4 ,! magnify+ p[] ( globes ( wat] mu/ h be5 notic$ soon aft] ! discov]y ( glass & ! art ( work+ x4 ,a magnify+ glass is mo/ simply ?\ght ( z an additional l5s to ! eye4 ,! eye has a l5s by :i* ord9>y vision is accompli%$1 an extra glass l5s /r5g!ns x & enables objects to be se5 ne>] & !re=e app>5tly bigg]4 ,b to apply a magnify+ glass to di/ant objects is impossible4 ,9 ord] to magnify di/ant objects1 ano!r function ( l5ses has also to be employ$1 viz41 _! p[] ( =m+ real images1 ! p[] on :i* _! use z burn+-glasses dep5ds3 = ! be/ focus is an image ( ! sun4 ,al?\gh ! object itself is inaccessible1 ! image ( x is by no means s1 & to ! image a magnifi] c be appli$4 ,?is is exactly :at is done 9 ! telescope2 ! object glass or l>ge l5s =ms an image1 :i* is !n look$ at ?r\gh a magnify+ glass or eye-piece4 ,( c\rse ! image is no?+ l s big z ! object4 ,= a/ronomical objects x is almo/ inf9itely less2 /ill x is an exact repres5tation at an accessible place1 & no "o expects a telescope to %[ di/ant bodies z big z !y really are4 ,all x does is to %[ !m bigg] ?an !y c\ld be se5 )\t x4 ,b if ! objects are n di/ant1 ! same pr9ciple may /ill be appli$1 & two l5ses may be us$1 "o to =m an image1 ! o!r to magnify x2 only if ! object c be put :]e we please1 we c easily place x s t its image is already mu* bigg] ?an ! object ev5 be=e magnification by ! eye l5s4 ,?is is ! comp\nd microscope1 ! inv5tion ( :i* soon foll[$ ! telescope4 ,9 fact ! two in/rum5ts %ade (f into "o ano!r1 s t ! read+ telescope or read+ microscope ( a laboratory 7= read+ !rmomet]s1 & small divisions g5]ally7 goes by ei!r "n at r&om4 ,! arrangem5t s f> describ$ depicts ?+s on ! ret9a ! unaccu/om$ way up4 ,by us+ a concave glass in/ead ( a convex1 & plac+ x s z to prev5t any image be+ =m$1 except on ! ret9a direct1 ?is inconv5i5ce is avoid$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ch4--,view ( ! half-moon 9 small telescope4 ,! d>k] regions1 or pla9s1 us$ to be call$ seas4 ,su* a ?+ z ,galileo made may n[ be b\ght at a toy-%op = ,i suppose half a cr[n1 & yet :at a pot5tiality lay 9 t glaz$ optic tube1 z ,milton call$ x4 ,away he w5t ) x to ,v5ice & %[$ x to ! ,signoria1 to _! great a/oni%m5t4 ,_m noblem5 & s5ators1 says ,galileo1 ?\gh ( advanc$ age1 m\nt$ to ! top ( "o ( ! highe/ t[]s to wat* ! %ips1 :i* 7 visible ?r\gh my glass two h\rs be=e !y 7 se5 ent]+ ! h>b\r1 = x makes a ?+ fifty miles (f z ne> & cle> z if x 7 only five4 ,among ! p too ! in/rum5t excit$ ! greate/ a/oni%m5t & int]e/1 s t he 0 ne>ly mobb$4 ,! ,s5ate h9t$ to him t a pres5t ( ! in/rum5t w\ld n be unacceptable1 s ,galileo took ! h9t & made ano!r = !m4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ci4--,portion ( ! lun> surface m highly magnifi$1 %[+ ! %ad[s ( a m\nta9 range1 deep pits1 & o!r details4 ,!y imm$iately d\bl$ 8 sal>y at ,padua1 mak+ x #ajjj flor9s1 & confirm$ him 9 ! enjoym5t ( x = life4 ,he n[ eag]ly began ! con/ruction ( a l>g] & bett] in/rum5t4 ,gr9d+ ! l5ses ) 8 own h&s ) consummate skill1 he succe$$ 9 mak+ a telescope magnify+ ?irty times4 ,?us equipp$ he 0 ready to beg9 a survey ( ! heav5s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dj4--;,ano!r portion ( ! lun> surface1 %[+ a s-call$ crat] or va/ lava pool & o!r evid5ces ( anci5t heat unmodifi$ by wat]4 ,! fir/ object he c>efully exam9$ 0 naturally ! moon4 ,he f\nd !re ev]y?+ at fir/ sight v l ! e>?1 m\nta9s & valleys1 crat]s & pla9s1 rocks1 & app>5tly seas4 ,y may imag9e ! ho/ility excit$ among ! ,ari/otelian philosoph]s1 especially no d\bt ^? he _h left beh9d at ,pisa1 on ! gr\nd ( 8 spoil+ ! pure1 smoo?1 cry/all9e1 cele/ial face ( ! moon z !y _h ?\ght x1 & mak+ x h>% & rugg$ & l s vile & ignoble a body z ! e>?4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #da4--,lun> l&scape %[+ e>?4 ,! e>? w\ld be a /ation>y object 9 ! moon's sky3 its only app>5t motion be+ a sl[ oscillation z ( a p5dulum 7! result ( ! moon's libration74 ,he w5t fur!r1 h[ev]1 into het]odoxy ?an ?is--he n only made ! moon l ! e>?1 b he made ! e>? %9e l ! moon4 ,! visibility ( ! old moon 9 ! new moon's arms he expla9$ by e>?-%9e4 ,leon>do _h giv5 ! same explanation a c5tury be=e4 ,n[ "o ( ! _m /ock argum5ts aga9/ ,cop]nican !ory ( ! e>? be+ a planet l ! re/ 0 t ! e>? 0 dull & d>k & did n %9e4 ,galileo argu$ t x %one j z mu* z ! moon does1 & 9 fact r m--especially if x be cov]$ ) cl\ds4 ,"o reason ( ! peculi> brilliancy ( ,v5us is t %e is a v cl\dy planet4#h ,se5 f ! moon ! e>? w\ld look exactly z ! moon does to u1 only a little bright] & sixte5 times z big 7f\r times ! diamet]74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #db4--;,galileo's me?od ( e/imat+ ! height ( lun> m\nta94 ,,ab',,bc is ! illum9at$ half ( ! moon4 ,,sa is a sol> ray j cat*+ ! peak ( ! m\nta9 ,m4 ,!n by geometry1 z ,,mn is to ,,ma1 s is ,,ma to ,,mb'2 :5ce ! height ( ! m\nta91 ,,mn1 c be det]m9$4 ,! e>? & spectator are suppos$ to be some:]e 9 ! direction ,,ba produc$1 i4e4 t[>ds ! top ( ! page4 ,galileo made a v good e/imate ( ! height ( lun> m\nta9s1 ( :i* _m are five miles high & "s z mu* z sev54 ,he did ?is simply by measur+ f ! half-moon's /raight edge ! di/ance at :i* _! peaks caught ! ris+ or sett+ sun4 ,! above simple diagram %[s t z ?is di/ance is to ! diamet] ( ! moon1 s is ! height ( ! sun-tipp$ m\nta9 to ! a=esaid di/ance4 ,:]ev] ,galileo turn$ 8 telescope new />s appe>$4 ,! ,milky ,way1 :i* _h s puzzl$ ! anci5ts1 0 f\nd to be compos$ ( />s4 ,/>s t appe>$ s+le to ! eye 7 "s ( !m f\nd to be d\ble2 & at int]vals 7 f\nd hazy nebul\s wisps1 "s ( :i* seem$ to be /> clu/]s1 :ile o!rs seem$ only a fleecy cl\d4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dc4--,"s clu/]s & nebul4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dd4--;,jupit]'s satellites1 %[+ ! /ages ( _! discov]y4 ,n[ we come to 8 mo/ brilliant1 at lea/ 8 mo/ s5sational1 discov]y4 ,exam9+ ,jupit] m9utely on ,janu>y #g1 #afaj1 he notic$ ?ree little />s ne> x1 :i* he not$ d[n z fix+ its !n position4 ,on ! foll[+ night ,jupit] _h mov$ to ! o!r side ( ! ?ree />s4 ,?is 0 natural en\gh1 b 0 x mov+ ! "r way8 ,on exam9ation x appe>$ n4 ,0 x possible ! tables 7 wrong8 ,! next ev5+ 0 cl\dy1 & he _h to curb 8 fev]i% impati5ce4 ,on ! #aj? !re 7 only two1 & ^? on ! o!r side4 ,on ! #aa? two aga91 b "o bigg] ?an ! o!r4 ,on ! #ab? ! ?ree re-appe>$1 & on ! #ac? !re 7 f\r4 ,no m appe>$4 ,jupit] !n _h moons l ! e>?1 f\r ( !m 9 fact1 & !y revolv$ r\nd him 9 p]iods :i* 7 soon det]m9$4 ,! reason :y !y 7 n all visible at fir/1 & :y _! visibility s rapidly *anges1 is because !y revolve r\nd him almo/ 9 ! plane ( our vision1 s t sometimes !y are 9 front & sometimes beh9d him1 :ile aga9 at o!r times !y plunge into 8 %ad[ & are ?us eclips$ f ! light ( ! sun :i* enables u to see !m4 ,a l>ge mod]n telescope w %[ ! moons :5 9 front ( ,jupit]1 b small telescopes w only %[ !m :5 cle> ( ! disk & %ad[4 ,(t5 all f\r c be ?us se51 b ?ree or two is a v common am\nt ( visibility4 ,q a small telescope1 su* z a %ip's telescope1 if held /eadily1 suffices to %[ ! satellites ( ,jupit]1 & v int]e/+ objects !y are4 ,!y are ( habitable size1 & may be important worlds = all we "k to ! contr>y4 ,! news ( ! discov]y soon spread & excit$ ! greate/ int]e/ & a/oni%m5t4 ,_m ( c\rse refus$ to believe x4 ,"s !re 7 :o hav+ be5 %[n !m refus$ to believe _! eyes1 & ass]t$ t al?\gh ! telescope act$ well en\gh = t]re/rial objects1 x 0 altoge!r false & illusory :5 appli$ to ! heav5s4 ,o!rs took ! saf] gr\nd ( refus+ to look ?r\gh ! glass4 ,"o ( ^! :o w\ld n look at ! satellites happ5$ to die soon aft]w>ds4 ,i hope1 says ,galileo1 t he saw !m on 8 way to heav54 ,! way 9 :i* ,kepl] receiv$ ! news is *>act]i/ic1 ?\gh by add+ f\r to ! suppos$ numb] ( planets x might h seem$ to upset 8 notions ab\t ! five regul> solids4 ,he says1#i ,i 0 sitt+ idle at home ?9k+ ( y1 mo/ excell5t ,galileo1 & y\r lett]s1 :5 ! news 0 br\ght me ( ! discov]y ( f\r planets by ! help ( ! d\ble eye-glass4 ,wa*5fels /opp$ 8 c>riage at my door to tell me1 :5 su* a fit ( wond] seiz$ me at a report :i* seem$ s v absurd1 & ,i 0 ?r[n into su* agitation at see+ an old dispute betwe5 u decid$ 9 ?is way1 t betwe5 8 joy1 my col\r+1 & ! laught] ( u bo?1 conf\nd$ z we 7 by su* a novelty1 we 7 h>dly capable1 he ( speak+1 or ,i ( li/5+4444 ,on our sep>at+1 ,i imm$iately fell to ?9k+ h[ !re c\ld be any addition to ! numb] ( planets )\t ov]turn+ my ,my/]ium ,cosmographicon1 publi%$ ?irte5 ye>s ago1 accord+ to :i* ,euclid's five regul> solids d n all[ m ?an six planets r\nd ! sun4 ,b ,i am s f> f disbeliev+ ! exi/5ce ( ! f\r circumjovial planets t ,i long = a telescope to anticipate y if possible 9 discov]+ two r\nd ,m>s 7z ! proportion seems to me to require7 six or eight r\nd ,saturn1 & "o ea* r\nd ,m]cury & ,v5us4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #de4--;,eclipses ( ,jupit]'s satellites4 ,! diagram %[s ! fir/ 7i4e4 ! ne>e/7 moon 9 ,jupit]'s %ad[1 ! second z pass+ betwe5 e>? & ,jupit]1 & appe>+ to transit 8 disk1 ! ?ird z on ! v]ge ( ent]+ 8 %ad[1 & ! f\r? q pla9ly & sep>ately visible4 ,z an illu/ration ( ! opposite s*ool1 ,i w take ! foll[+ extract f ,francesco ,sizzi1 a ,flor5t9e a/ronom]1 :o argues aga9/ ! discov]y ?us3-- ,!re are sev5 w9d[s 9 ! head1 two no/rils1 two eyes1 two e>s1 & a m\?2 s 9 ! heav5s !re are two fav\rable />s1 two unpropiti\s1 two lum9>ies1 & ,m]cury alone undecid$ & indiff]5t4 ,f :i* & _m o!r simil> ph5om5a ( nature1 su* z ! sev5 metals1 c41 :i* x 7 t$i\s to enum]ate1 we ga!r t ! numb] ( planets is necess>ily sev54 ,moreov]1 ! satellites are invisible to ! nak$ eye1 & !re=e c h no influ5ce on ! e>?1 & !re=e w\ld be useless1 & !re=e d n exi/4 ,besides1 ! ,jews & o!r anci5t nations z well z mod]n ,europeans h adopt$ ! division ( ! week into sev5 days1 & h nam$ !m f ! sev5 planets3 n[ if we increase ! numb] ( ! planets ?is :ole sy/em falls to ! gr\nd4 ,to ^! argum5ts ,galileo repli$ t :atev] _! =ce might be z a reason = believ+ be=eh& t no m ?an sev5 planets w\ld be discov]$1 !y h>dly seem$ ( suffici5t weight to de/roy ! new ones :5 actually se54 ,writ+ to ,kepl] at ?is "t1 ,galileo ejaculates3 ,oh1 my de> ,kepl]1 h[ ,i wi% t we c\ld h "o he>ty laugh toge!r6 ,"h1 at ,padua1 is ! pr9cipal pr(essor ( philosophy :om ,i h repeat$ly & urg5tly reque/$ to look at ! moon & planets ?r\gh my glass1 :i* he p]t9aci\sly refuses to d4 ,:y are y n "h8 ,:at %\ts ( laught] we %\ld h at ?is glori\s folly6 ,& to he> ! pr(essor ( philosophy at ,pisa lab\r+ be=e ! gr& duke ) logical argum5ts1 z if ) magical incantations1 to *>m ! new planets out ( ! sky4 ,a "y ,g]man protg ( ,kepl]1 ,m>t9 ,horkey1 0 travell+ 9 ,italy1 & meet+ ,galileo at ,bologna 0 fav\r$ ) a view ?r\gh 8 telescope4 ,b suppos+ t ,kepl] mu/ necess>ily be jeal\s ( su* great discov]ies1 & ?9k+ to please him1 he writes1 ,i _c tell :at to ?9k ab\t ^! obs]vations4 ,!y are /up5d\s1 !y are wond]ful1 b :e!r !y are true or false ,i _c tell4 ,he concludes1 ,i w nev] conc$e 8 f\r new planets to t ,italian f ,padua ?\gh ,i die = x4 ,s he publi%$ a pamphlet ass]t+ t reflect$ rays & optical illusions 7 ! sole cause ( ! appe>ance1 & t ! only use ( ! imag9>y planets 0 to gratify ,galileo's ?ir/ = gold & notoriety4 ,:5 aft] ?is p]=mance he paid a visit to 8 old in/ructor ,kepl]1 he got a reception :i* a/oni%$ him4 ,h[ev]1 he plead$ s h>d to be =giv5 t ,kepl] re/or$ him to p>tial fav\r1 on ?is condition1 t he 0 to look aga9 at ! satellites1 & ?is "t to see !m & own t !y 7 !re4 ,by degrees ! enemies ( ,galileo 7 compell$ to confess to ! tru? ( ! discov]y1 & ! next /ep 0 to outdo him4 ,s*e9] c\nt$ five1 ,rheit] n9e1 & o!rs w5t z high z twelve4 ,"s ( ^! 7 imag9>y1 "s 7 fix$ />s1 & f\r satellites only are kn[n to ?is day4#aj ,"h1 close to ! summit ( 8 greatness1 we mu/ leave him = a "t4 ,a few /eps m & he w be on ! br[ ( ! hill2 a %ort piece ( table-l&1 & !n ! desc5t beg9s4 ,,lecture ,v ,,galileo ,,& ,,! ,,inquisition ,"o s9i/] ev5t occurr$ :ile ,galileo 0 at ,padua1 "s "t be=e ! era we h n[ arriv$ at1 be=e ! inv5tion ( ! telescope--two ye>s inde$ aft] he _h fir/ gone to ,padua2 an ev5t n directly conc]n+ ,galileo1 b :i* ,i mu/ m5tion because x mu/ h %ad[$ 8 life bo? at ! "t & long aft]w>ds4 ,x 0 ! execution ( ,giordano ,bruno = h]esy4 ,?is em95t philosoph] _h travell$ l>gely1 _h liv$ "s "t 9 ,engl&1 _h acquir$ new & het]odox views on a v>iety ( subjects1 & did n hesitate to prop\nd !m ev5 aft] he _h return$ to ,italy4 ,! ,cop]nican doctr9e ( ! motion ( ! e>? 0 "o ( 8 obnoxi\s h]esies4 ,be+ p]secut$ to "s ext5t by ! ,*ur*1 ,bruno took refuge 9 ,v5ice--a free republic almo/ indep5d5t ( ! ,papacy--:]e he felt himself safe4 ,galileo 0 at ,padua h>d by3 ! ,univ]sity ( ,padua 0 "u ! gov]nm5t ( ! ,s5ate ( ,v5ice3 ! two m5 mu/ 9 all probability h met4 ,well1 ! ,inquisition at ,rome s5t mess5g]s to ,v5ice ) a dem& = ! extradition ( ,bruno--!y want$ him at ,rome to try him = h]esy4 ,9 a mom5t ( mis]able weakness ! ,v5etian republic gave him up1 & ,bruno 0 tak5 to ,rome4 ,!re he 0 tri$1 & ca/ into ! dungeons = six ye>s1 & because he entirely refus$ to recant1 0 at l5g? deliv]$ ov] to ! secul> arm & burn$ at ! /ake on #af? ,febru>y1 ,anno ,dom9i #afjj4 ,?is ev5t c\ld n b h ca/ a gloom ov] ! m9d ( lov]s & exp\nd]s ( tru?1 & ! lesson probably sank deep into ,galileo's s\l4 ,9 deal+ ) ^! hi/oric ev5ts w y all[ me to repudiate once = all ! slighte/ sect>ian bias or mean+4 ,i h no?+ to d ) ,ca?olic or ,prote/ant z su*4 ,i h no?+ to d ) ! ,*ur* ( ,rome z su*4 ,i am deal+ ) ! hi/ory ( sci5ce4 ,b hi/orically at "o p]iod sci5ce & ! ,*ur* came into conflict4 ,x 0 n specially "o ,*ur* r ?an ano!r--x 0 ! ,*ur* 9 g5]al1 ! only "o t !n exi/$ 9 ^? c\ntries4 ,hi/orically1 ,i say1 !y came into conflict1 & hi/orically ! ,*ur* 0 ! conqu]or4 ,x got its way2 & sci5ce1 9 ! p]sons ( ,bruno1 ,galileo1 & sev]al o!rs1 0 vanqui%$4 ,su* be+ ! facts1 !re is no help b to m5tion !m 9 deal+ ) ! hi/ory ( sci5ce4 ,d\btless n[ ! ,*ur* reg>ds x z an unhappy victory1 & gladly w\ld ignore ?is pa9ful /ruggle4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 is impossible4 ,) _! cre$ ! ,*ur*m5 ( t day c\ld act 9 no o!r way4 ,!y 7 b\nd to prosecute h]esy1 & !y 7 b\nd to conqu] 9 ! /ruggle or be !mselves %att]$4 ,b let me insi/ on ! fact t no "o accuses ! ecclesia/ical c\rts ( crime or evil motives4 ,!y attack$ h]esy aft] _! mann]1 z ! civil c\rts attack$ wit*craft aft] _! mann]4 ,bo? err$ griev\sly1 b bo? act$ ) ! be/ int5tions4 ,we mu/ rememb]1 moreov]1 t 8 doctr9es 7 sci5tifically het]odox1 & ! ,univ]sity ,pr(essors ( t day 7 probably q z ready to condemn !m z ! ,*ur* 04 ,to realise ! position we mu/ ?9k ( "s subjects :i* to-day are sci5tifically het]odox1 & ( ! cu/om>y attitude adopt$ t[>ds !m by p]sons ( widely diff]+ cre$s4 ,if x be cont5d$ n[1 z x is1 t ! ecclesia/ics treat$ ,galileo well1 ,i admit x freely3 !y treat$ him z well z !y possibly c\ld4 ,!y ov]came him1 & he recant$2 b if he _h n recant$1 if he _h p]si/$ 9 8 h]esy1 !y w\ld--well1 !y w\ld /ill h treat$ 8 s\l well1 b !y w\ld h set fire to 8 body4 ,_! mi/ake consi/$ n 9 cruelty1 b 9 suppos+ !mselves ! arbit]s ( et]nal tru?2 & by no am\nt ( slurr+ & gloss+ ov] facts c !y evade ! responsibility assum$ by !m on acc\nt ( ?is mi/ak5 attitude4 ,i am n "h attack+ ! dogma ( ,papal ,infallibility3 x is hi/orically1 ,i believe1 q unaffect$ by ! controv]sy respect+ ! motion ( ! e>?1 no ,papal edict ex ca!dr hav+ be5 promulgat$ on ! subject4 ,we left ,galileo /&+ at 8 telescope & beg9n+ 8 survey ( ! heav5s4 ,we foll[$ him inde$ ?r\gh a few ( 8 fir/ great discov]ies--! discov]y ( ! m\nta9s & o!r v>iety ( surface 9 ! moon1 ( ! nebul & a multitude ( fa9t />s1 & la/ly ( ! f\r satellites ( ,jupit]4 ,?is latt] discov]y made an imm5se s5sation1 & contribut$ its %>e to 8 removal f ,padua1 :i* quickly foll[$ x1 z ,i %all %ortly n>rate2 b fir/ ,i ?9k x w be be/ to cont9ue our survey ( 8 a/ronomical discov]ies )\t reg>d to ! place :5ce !y 7 made4 ,be=e ! end ( ! ye> ,galileo _h made ano!r discov]y--?is "t on ,saturn4 ,b to gu>d aga9/ ! ho/ ( plagi>i/s & impo/ors1 he publi%$ x 9 ! =m ( an anagram1 :i*1 at ! reque/ ( ! ,emp]or ,rudolph 7a reque/ probably inspir$ by ,kepl]71 he int]pret$2 x ran ?us3 ,! fur!/ planet is triple4 ,v soon aft] he f\nd t ,v5us 0 *ang+ f a full moon to a half moon appe>ance4 ,he ann\nc$ ?is also by an anagram1 & wait$ till x %\ld become a cresc5t1 :i* x did4 ,?is 0 a dreadful bl[ to ! anti-,cop]nicans1 = x remov$ ! la/ l+]+ difficulty to ! reception ( ! ,cop]nican doctr9e4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #df4--,old draw+s ( ,saturn by diff]5t obs]v]s1 ) ! imp]fect in/rum5ts ( t day4 ,! fir/ is ,galileo's idea ( :at he saw4 ,cop]nicus _h pr$ict$1 inde$1 a hundr$ ye>s be=e1 t1 if ev] our p[]s ( sight 7 suffici5tly enhanc$1 ,v5us & ,m]cury w\ld be se5 to h phases l ! moon4 ,& n[ ,galileo ) 8 telescope v]ifies ! pr$iction to ! lett]4 ,"h 0 a triumph = ! gr& old monk1 & a bitt] morsel = 8 oppon5ts4 ,ca/elli writes3 ,?is mu/ n[ conv9ce ! mo/ ob/9ate4 ,b ,galileo1 ) m exp]i5ce1 replies3--,y almo/ make me laugh by say+ t ^! cle> obs]vations are suffici5t to conv9ce ! mo/ ob/9ate2 x seems y h yet to le>n t long ago ! obs]vations 7 en\gh to conv9ce ^? :o are capable ( reason+1 & ^? :o wi% to le>n ! tru?2 b t to conv9ce ! ob/9ate1 & ^? :o c>e = no?+ beyond ! va9 applause ( ! s5seless vulg>1 n ev5 ! te/imony ( ! />s w\ld suffice1 7 !y to desc5d on e>? to speak = !mselves4 ,let u1 !n1 endeav\r to procure "s k = ourselves1 & re/ cont5t$ ) ?is sole satisfaction2 b ( advanc+ 9 popul> op9ion1 or ( ga9+ ! ass5t ( ! book-philosoph]s1 let u ab&on bo? ! hope & ! desire4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dg4--,phases ( ,v5us4 ,%[+ also its app>5t v>iations 9 size by reason ( its v>y+ di/ance f ! e>?4 ,:5 fully illum9at$ x is necess>ily mo/ di/ant4 ,x looks brighte/ to u :5 a broad cresc5t4 ,:at a ye>'s "w x _h be56 ,9 twelve mon?s obs]vational a/ronomy _h made su* a b\nd z x has nev] made be=e or s9ce4 ,:y did n o!rs make any ( ^! obs]vations8 ,because no "o c\ld make telescopes l ,galileo4 ,he ga!r$ pupils r\nd him h[ev]1 & taught !m h[ to "w ! l5ses1 s t gradually ^! in/rum5ts p5etrat$ ,europe1 & a/ronom]s ev]y:]e v]ifi$ 8 spl5did discov]ies4 ,b /ill he work$ on1 & by ,m>* 9 ! v next ye>1 he saw some?+ /ill m hateful to ! ,ari/otelian philosoph]s1 viz4 spots on ! sun4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dh4 ,if any?+ 0 pure & p]fect x 0 ! sun1 !y said4 ,0 ?is impo/or go+ to black5 its face too8 ,well1 !re !y 74 ,!y sl[ly =m$ & *ang$1 & by mov+ all toge!r %[$ him t ! sun rotat$ ab\t once a mon?4 ,be=e tak+ leave ( ,galileo's a/ronomical rese>*es1 ,i mu/ m5tion an obs]vation made at ! end ( #afab1 t ! app>5t triplicity ( ,saturn 7,fig4 #df7 _h vani%$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #di4--;,a portion ( ! sun's disk z se5 9 a p[]ful mod]n telescope4 ,look+ on ,saturn )9 ^! few days1 ,i f\nd x solit>y1 )\t ! assi/ance ( its accu/om$ />s1 & 9 %ort p]fectly r\nd & def9$1 l ,jupit]1 & su* x /ill rema9s4 ,n[ :at c be said ( s /range a metamorphosis8 ,are p]haps ! two small] />s consum$ l spots on ! sun8 ,h !y sudd5ly vani%$ & fl$8 ,or has ,saturn dev\r$ 8 own *ildr58 ,or 0 ! appe>ance inde$ fraud & illusion1 ) :i* ! glasses h s long "t mock$ me & s _m o!rs :o h s (t5 obs]v$ ) me8 ,n[ p]haps ! "t is come to revive ! )]+ hopes ( ^?1 :o1 guid$ by m pr(\nd contemplations1 h fa?om$ all ! fallacies ( ! new obs]vations & recogniz$ _! impossibility6 ,i _c resolve :at to say 9 a *ance s /range1 s new1 s unexpect$4 ,! %ortness ( "t1 ! unexampl$ occurr5ce1 ! weakness ( my intellect1 ! t]ror ( be+ mi/ak51 h greatly conf\nd$ me4 ,h[ev]1 he pluck$ up c\rage1 & conjectur$ t ! two att5dants w\ld reappe>1 by revolv+ r\nd ! planet4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ej4--,saturn & 8 r+s1 z se5 "u ! mo/ fav\rable circum/ances4 ,! real reason ( _! disappe>ance is well kn[n to u n[4 ,! plane ( ,saturn's r+s oscillates sl[ly ab\t our l9e ( sight1 & s we sometimes see !m edgeways & sometimes ) a mod]ate am\nt ( obliquity4 ,! r+s are s ?9 t1 :5 turn$ precisely edgeways1 !y become invisible4 ,! two imag9>y att5dants 7 ! mo/ conspicu\s portions ( ! r+1 subsequ5tly call$ ans4 ,i h ?\ght x bett] n to int]rupt ?is catalogue ( brilliant discov]ies by any biographical details2 b we mu/ n[ retrace our /eps to ! ye>s #afji & #afaj1 ! era ( ! inv5tion ( ! telescope4 ,by ?is "t ,galileo _h be5 eighte5 ye>s at ,padua1 & l _m ano!r man 9 l case1 0 gett+ r tir$ ( cont9ual lectur+4 ,moreov]1 he felt s full ( ideas t he long$ to h a bett] opportunity ( foll[+ !m up1 & m "t = ?9k+ !m out4 ,n[ 9 ! holidays he _h be5 accu/om$ to return to 8 family home at ,pisa1 & !re to come a good deal into contact ) ! ,gr&-,ducal ,h\se ( ,tuscany4 ,"y ,cosmo di ,m$ici became 9 fact 8 pupil1 & arriv$ at man's e/ate ) ! highe/ op9ion ( ! philosoph]4 ,?is "y man _h n[ come to ! ?rone z ,cosmo ,,ii41 & to him ,galileo wrote say+ h[ mu* he %\ld l m "t & leisure1 h[ full he 0 ( discov]ies if he only _h ! *ance ( a reasonable income )\t ! necessity ( consum+ s l>ge a portion ( 8 "t 9 elem5t>y tea*+1 & practically ask+ to be remov$ to "s position 9 ! ,c\rt4 ,no?+ 0 done = a "t1 b negotiations proce$$1 & soon aft] ! discov]y ( ,jupit]'s satellites ,cosmo wrote mak+ a g5]\s (f]1 :i* ,galileo gladly & en?usia/ically accept$1 & at once left ,padua = ,flor5ce4 ,all 8 subsequ5t discov]ies date f ,flor5ce4 ,?us clos$ 8 brilliant & happy c>e] z a pr(essor at ! ,univ]sity ( ,padua4 ,he _h be5 treat$ well3 8 pay _h become l>g] ?an t ( any ,pr(essor ( ,ma!matics up to t "t2 &1 z y "k1 imm$iately aft] 8 inv5tion ( ! telescope ! ,v5etian ,s5ate1 9 a fit ( en?usiasm1 _h d\bl$ x & secur$ x to him = life :]ev] he 04 ,to ?r[ up 8 *air & leave ! place ! v next ye> sc>cely seems a /rictly hon\rable proc$ure4 ,x 0 legal en\gh no d\bt1 & x is easy = small m5 to criticize a great "o1 b nev]!less ,i ?9k we mu/ admit t x is a /ep su* z a man ) a ke5 s5se ( hon\r w\ld h>dly h tak54 ,"o q feels & sympa?izes ) ! temptation4 ,n emolum5t1 b leisure2 fre$om f h>ass+ engagem5ts & con/ant tea*+1 & lib]ty to prosecute 8 /udies day & night )\t int]f]5ce3 ?is 0 ! gold5 prospect be=e him4 ,he yield$1 b "o _c help wi%+ he _h n4 ,z x turn$ out x 0 a false /ep--! fir/ false /ep ( 8 public c>e]4 ,:5 made x 0 irretrievable1 & x l$ to great mis]y4 ,at fir/ x seem$ brilliant en\gh4 ,! great philosoph] ( ! ,tuscan ,c\rt 0 c\rt$ & flatt]$ by pr9ces & nobles1 he enjoy$ a _w-wide reputation1 liv$ z luxuri\sly z he c>$ =1 _h 8 "t all to himself1 & lectur$ b v seldom1 on great occasions or to a few cr[n$ heads4 ,8 position 0 9 fact analog\s to t ( ,ty*o ,brah 9 8 isl& ( ,hu54 ,mis=tune ov]took bo?4 ,9 ,ty*o's case x arose ma9ly f ! dea? ( 8 patron4 ,9 ,galileo's x 0 due to a m insidi\s cause1 to und]/& :i* cause aright we mu/ rememb] ! political divisions ( ,italy at t date4 ,tuscany 0 a ,papal ,/ate1 & ?\ght !re 0 by no means free4 ,v5ice 0 a free republic1 & 0 ev5 ho/ile to ! ,papacy4 ,9 #afjf ! ,pope _h plac$ x "u an int]dict4 ,9 reply x _h eject$ e ,jesuit4 ,out ( ?is atmosph]e ( comp>ative enlight5m5t & fre$om into t hotb$ ( m$ivalism & sup]/ition w5t ,galileo ) 8 eyes op54 ,ke5 0 ! regret ( 8 ,paduan & ,v5etian fri5ds2 bitt] 7 _! remon/rances & exhortations4 ,b he 0 det]m9$ to g1 &1 n )\t turn+ "s ( 8 old fri5ds into enemies1 he w5t4 ,seldom has su* a man made s great a mi/ake3 nev]1 ,i suppose1 has "o be5 s cruelly puni%$ = x4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ea4--,map ( ,italy4 ,we mu/ rememb]1 h[ev]1 t ,galileo1 ?\gh by no means a sa9t1 0 yet a really religi\s man1 a dev\t ,ca?olic & ?or\gh adh]5t ( ! ,*ur*1 s t he w\ld h no dislike to place himself "u h] sway4 ,moreov]1 he _h be5 born a ,tuscan1 8 family _h liv$ at ,flor5ce or ,pisa1 & x felt l go+ home4 ,8 !ological attitude is wor?y ( notice1 = he 0 n 9 ! lea/ a sceptic4 ,he q acquiesces 9 ! au?ority ( ! ,bible1 especially 9 all matt]s conc]n+ fai? & conduct2 z to its /atem5ts 9 sci5tific matt]s1 he argues t we are s liable to mis9t]pret _! mean+ t x is really easi] to exam9e ,nature = tru? 9 sci5tific matt]s1 & t :5 direct obs]vation & ,scripture seem to cla%1 x is because ( our fallaci\s int]pretation ( "o or bo? ( !m4 ,he is1 9 fact1 :at "o n[ calls a reconcil]4 ,x is curi\s to f9d su* a man prosecut$ = h]esy1 :5 to-day 8 op9ions are ^? ( ! or?odox among ! or?odox4 ,b s x ev] is1 & ! h]esy ( "o g5]ation becomes ! commonplace ( ! next4 ,he accepts ,jo%ua's miracle1 = in/ance1 n z a /rik+ poem1 b z a lit]al fact2 & he po9ts out h[ mu* m simply x c\ld be done on ! ,cop]nican sy/em by /opp+ ! e>?'s rotation = a %ort "t1 ?an by /opp+ ! sun & moon & all ! ho/ ( heav5 z on ! old ,ptolemaic sy/em1 or aga9 by /opp+ only ! sun & n any ( ! o!r bodies1 & s ?r[+ a/ronomy all wrong4 ,?is reads to u l satire1 b no d\bt x 0 8 g5u9e op9ion4 ,^! ,scriptural reconciliations ( 81 h[ev]1 ang]$ ! religi\s au?orities /ill m4 ,!y said x 0 bad en\gh = ?is h]etic to try & upset old sci5tific beliefs1 & to spoil ! face ( ,nature ) 8 infidel discov]ies1 b at lea/ he might leave ! ,bible alone2 & !y address$ an indignant remon/rance to ,rome1 to protect x f ! h&s ( ignorant laym54 ,?us1 :]ev] he turn$ he enc\nt]$ ho/ility4 ,( c\rse he _h _m fri5ds--"s ( !m p[]ful l ,cosmo1 all ( !m fai?ful & s9c]e4 ,b aga9/ ! p[] ( ,rome :at c\ld !y d8 ,cosmo d>$ no m ?an remon/rate1 & ultimately 8 successor _h to refra9 f ev5 ?is1 s en*a9$ & b\nd 0 ! _s ( ! rul]s ( ^? days2 & s :5 8 day ( tribulation came he /ood alone & helpless 9 ! mid/ ( 8 enemies4 ,y may wond]1 p]haps1 :y ?is man %\ld excite s mu* m ho/ility ?an _m ano!r man :o 0 suff]$ to believe & tea* mu* ! same doctr9es unmole/$4 ,b no o!r man _h made su* brilliant & excit+ discov]ies4 ,no man /ood s prom95tly =w>d 9 ! eyes ( all ,*ri/5dom z ! *ampion ( ! new doctr9es4 ,no o!r man /at$ !m s cle>ly & =cibly1 nor drove !m home ) su* brilliant & tell+ illu/rations4 ,& aga91 !re 0 ! memory ( 8 e>ly conflict ) ! ,ari/otelians at ,pisa1 ( 8 scornful & successful refutation ( _! absurdities4 ,all ?is made him specially obnoxi\s to ! ,ari/otelian ,jesuits 9 _! d\ble capacity bo? ( prie/s & ( philosoph]s1 & !y s+l$ him out = rel5tless (ficial p]secution4 ,n yet1 h[ev]1 is he mu* tr\bl$ by !m4 ,! *ief m5 at ,rome h n yet mov$4 ,messages1 h[ev]1 keep go+ up f ,tuscany to ,rome respect+ ! tea*+s ( ?is man1 & ( ! h>m he is do+ by 8 p]t9aci\s prea*+ ( ! ,cop]nican doctr9e t ! e>? moves4 ,at l5g?1 9 #afae1 ,pope ,paul ,v4 wrote reque/+ him to come to ,rome to expla9 8 views4 ,he w5t1 0 well receiv$1 made a special fri5d ( ,c>d9al ,b>b]9o--an accompli%$ man 9 high position1 :o became 9 fact ! next ,pope4 ,galileo %[$ c>d9als & o!rs 8 telescope1 & to z _m z w\ld look ?r\gh x he %[$ ,jupit]'s satellites & 8 o!r discov]ies4 ,he _h a mo/ successful visit4 ,he talk$1 he h>angu$1 he held =? 9 ! mid/ ( fifte5 or tw5ty disputants at once1 conf\nd+ 8 oppon5ts & putt+ !m to %ame4 ,8 me?od 0 to let ! opposite argum5ts be /at$ z fully & completely z possible1 himself aid+1 & (t5 adduc+ ! mo/ =cible & plausible argum5ts aga9/ 8 own views2 & !n1 all hav+ be5 well /at$1 he w\ld proce$ to utt]ly und]m9e & demoli% ! :ole fabric1 & br+ out ! tru? 9 su* a way z to conv9ce all hone/ m9ds4 ,x 0 ?is habit t made him su* a =midable antagoni/4 ,he nev] %rank f meet+ an oppos+ argum5t1 nev] s\ght to ignore x1 or cloak x 9 a cl\d ( words4 ,e ho/ile argum5t he seem$ to delight 91 z a foe to be cru%$1 & ! bett] & /rong] !y s\nd$ ! m he lik$ !m4 ,he knew _m ( !m well1 he inv5t$ a numb] m1 & _h he *os5 c\ld h out-argu$ ! /\te/ ,ari/otelian on 8 own gr\nds4 ,?us did he lead 8 adv]s>ies on1 almo/ l ,socrates1 only to ultimately ov]:elm !m 9 a m hopeless r\t4 ,all ?is 9 ,rome too1 9 ! he>t ( ! ,ca?olic _w4 ,_h he be5 worldly-wise1 he w\ld c]ta9ly h kept sil5t & unobtrusive till he _h leave to g away aga94 ,b he felt l an apo/le ( ! new doctr9es1 ^: mission x 0 to proclaim !m ev5 9 ?is c5tre ( ! _w & ( ! ,*ur*4 ,well1 he _h an audi5ce ) ! ,pope--a *at an h\r long--& ! two p>t$ good fri5ds1 mutually pleas$ ) ea* o!r4 ,he writes t he is all "r n[1 & might return home :5 he lik$4 ,b ! "q began to be agitat$ :e!r ! :ole sy/em ( ,cop]nicus ought n to be condemn$ z impi\s & h]etical4 ,?is view 0 p]si/5tly urg$ ^u ! ,pope & ,college ( ,c>d9als1 & x 0 soon to be decid$ ^u4 ,_h ,galileo be5 unfai?ful to ! ,*ur* he c\ld h left !m to /ultify !mselves 9 any way !y ?\ght prop]1 & himself h gone2 b he felt supremely int]e/$ 9 ! result1 & he /ay$4 ,he writes3-- ,s f> z conc]ns ! cle>+ ( my own "*1 ,i might return home imm$iately2 b al?\gh ?is new "q reg>ds me no m ?an all ^? :o = ! la/ eighty ye>s h support$ ^? op9ions bo? 9 public & private1 yet1 z p]haps ,i may be ( "s assi/ance 9 t "p ( ! discussion :i* dep5ds on ! k ( tru?s asc]ta9$ by means ( ! sci5ces :i* ,i pr(ess1 ,i1 z a zeal\s & ,ca?olic ,*ri/ian1 nei!r c nor ought to )hold t assi/ance :i* my k af=ds1 & ?is bus9ess keeps me suffici5tly employ$4 ,x is possible t 8 /ay 0 ! wor/ ?+ = ! cause he _h at he>t4 ,anyh[1 ! result 0 t ! sy/em 0 condemn$1 & bo? ! book ( ,cop]nicus & ! epitome ( x by ,kepl] 7 plac$ on ! =bidd5 li/1#aa & ,galileo himself 0 =mally ord]$ nev] to tea* or to believe ! motion ( ! e>?4 ,he quitt$ ,rome 9 disgu/1 :i* be=e long broke out 9 satire4 ,! only way 9 :i* he c\ld safely speak ( ^! views n[ 0 z if !y 7 hypo!tical & unc]ta91 & s we f9d him writ+ to ! ,ar*duke ,leopold1 ) a pres5tation copy ( 8 book on ! tides1 ! foll[+3-- ,?is !ory occurr$ to me :5 9 ,rome :il/ ! !ologians 7 debat+ on ! prohibition ( ,cop]nicus's book1 & ( ! op9ion ma9ta9$ 9 x ( ! motion ( ! e>?1 :i* ,i at t "t believ$3 until x pleas$ ^? g5tlem5 to susp5d ! book1 & decl>e ! op9ion false & repugnant to ! ,holy ,scriptures4 ,n[1 z ,i "k h[ well x becomes me to obey & believe ! decisions ( my sup]iors1 :i* proce$ out ( m k ?an ! weakness ( my intellect c atta9 to1 ?is !ory :i* ,i s5d y1 :i* is f\nd$ on ! motion ( ! e>?1 ,i n[ look ^u z a fiction & a dream1 & beg y\r highness to receive x z su*4 ,b z poets (t5 le>n to prize ! creations ( _! fancy1 s 9 l mann] d ,i set "s value on ?is absurdity ( m9e4 ,x is true t :5 ,i sket*$ ?is little "w ,i did hope t ,cop]nicus w\ld n1 aft] eighty ye>s1 be convict$ ( error2 & ,i _h int5d$ to develop & amplify x fur!r1 b a voice f heav5 sudd5ly awak5$ me1 & at once annihilat$ all my confus$ & entangl$ fancies4 ,?is s>casm1 if x _h be5 9 pr9t1 w\ld probably h be5 dang]\s4 ,x 0 safe 9 a private lett]1 b x %[s u 8 real feel+s4 ,h[ev]1 he 0 left comp>atively quiet = a "t4 ,he 0 gett+ an old man n[1 & pass$ ! "t /udi\sly en\gh1 p>tly at 8 h\se 9 ,flor5ce1 p>tly at 8 villa 9 ,arcetri1 a mile or s out ( ! t[n4 ,"h 0 a conv5t1 & 9 x 8 two daught]s 7 nuns4 ,"o ( !m1 :o pass$ "u ! "n ( ,si/] ,m>ia ,cele/e1 seems to h be5 a woman ( consid]able capacity--c]ta9ly %e 0 ( a mo/ affectionate disposition--& lov$ & hon\r$ h] fa!r 9 ! mo/ dutiful way4 ,?is 0 a quiet p]iod ( 8 life1 spoil$ only by occasional fits ( illness & sev]e rheumatic pa9s1 to :i* ! old man 0 always liable4 ,_m little circum/ances are kn[n ( ?is peaceful "t4 ,= in/ance1 ! conv5t clock won't g1 & ,galileo m5ds x = !m4 ,he is always do+ little ?+s = !m1 & s5d+ pres5ts to ! ,lady ,sup]ior & 8 two daught]s4 ,he 0 occupi$ n[ ) problems 9 hydro/atics1 & on o!r matt]s unconnect$ ) a/ronomy3 a l>ge piece ( "w :i* ,i mu/ pass ov]4 ,mo/ int]e/+ & acute x is1 h[ev]4 ,9 #afbc1 :5 ! old ,pope di$1 !re 0 elect$ to ! ,papal ?rone1 z ,urban ,,viii41 ,c>d9al ,b>b]9o1 a man ( v consid]able enlight5m5t1 & a p]sonal fri5d ( ,galileo's1 s t bo? he & 8 daught]s rejoice greatly1 & hope t ?+s w come all "r1 & ! =bidd+ edict be )drawn4 ,! ye> aft] ?is election he manages to make ano!r j\rney to ,rome to complim5t 8 fri5d on 8 elevation to ! ,pontifical *air4 ,he _h _m talks ) ,urban1 & made himself v agreeable4 ,urban wrote to ! ,gr& ,duke ,f]d9&1 son ( ,cosmo3-- ,= ,we f9d 9 him n only lit]>y di/9ction b also love ( piety1 & he is /rong 9 ^? qualities by :i* ,pontifical good w is easily obta9able4 ,& n[1 :5 he has be5 br\ght to ?is city to congratulate ,u on ,our elevation1 ,we h v lov+ly embrac$ him2 nor c ,we suff] him to return to ! c\ntry :i!r y\r lib]ality recalls him )\t an ample provision ( ,pontifical love4 ,& t y may "k h[ de> he is to ,u1 ,we h will$ to give him ?is hon\rable te/imonial ( virtue & piety4 ,& ,we fur!r signify t e b5efit :i* y %all conf] ^u him1 imitat+ or ev5 surpass+ y\r fa!r's lib]ality1 w conduce to ,our gratification4 ,enc\rag$1 d\btless1 by ^! m>ks ( approbation1 & repos+ too mu* confid5ce 9 ! individual good w ( ! ,pope1 )\t he$+ ! cr[d ( half-decl>$ enemies :o 7 seek+ to und]m9e 8 reputation1 he set ab\t1 aft] 8 return to ,flor5ce1 8 greate/ lit]>y & mo/ popul> "w1 ,dialogues on ! ,ptolemaic & ,cop]nican ,sy/ems4 ,?is purports to be a s]ies ( f\r conv]sations betwe5 ?ree *>act]s3 ,salviati1 a ,cop]nican philosoph]2 ,sagr$o1 a wit & s*ol>1 n specially le>n$1 b ke5 & critical1 & :o light5s ! talk ) *aff2 ,simplicio1 an ,ari/otelian philosoph]1 :o prop\nds ! /ock absurdities :i* s]v$ in/ead ( argum5ts to ! majority ( m54 ,! conv]sations are some?+ betwe5 ,plato's ,dialogues & ,sir ,ar?ur ,helps's ,fri5ds 9 ,c\ncil4 ,! :ole is conduct$ ) great good temp] & fairness2 &1 discreetly en\gh1 no def9ite conclusion is arriv$ at1 ! :ole be+ left 9 abeyance z if = a fif? & decisive dialogue1 :i*1 h[ev]1 0 nev] writt51 & p]haps 0 only int5d$ 9 case ! reception 0 fav\rable4 ,! preface also sets =? t ! object ( ! writ] is to %[ t ! ,roman edict =bidd+ ! ,cop]nican doctr9e 0 n issu$ 9 ignorance ( ! facts ( ! case1 z _h be5 malici\sly report$1 & t he wi%es to %[ h[ well & cle>ly x 0 all kn[n be=eh&4 ,s he says ! dialogue on ! ,cop]nican side takes up ! "q purely z a ma!matical hypo!sis or speculative figm5t1 & gives x e artificial advantage ( :i* ! !ory is capable4 ,?is piece ( caution 0 insuffici5t to bl9d ! eyes ( ! ,c>d9als2 = 9 x ! argum5ts 9 fav\r ( ! e>?'s motion are s cog5t & unansw]able1 & are s popul>ly /at$1 z to d m 9 a few ye>s to und]m9e ! old sy/em ?an all t he _h writt5 & spok5 be=e4 ,he c\ld n get x pr9t$ = two ye>s aft] he _h writt5 x1 & !n only got cons5t ?r\gh a piece ( c>elessness or laz9ess on ! "p ( ! ecclesia/ical c5sor ?r\gh ^: h&s ! manuscript pass$--= :i* he 0 aft]w>ds dismiss$4 ,h[ev]1 x did appe>1 & 0 eag]ly read2 ! m1 p]haps1 z ! ,*ur* at once s\ght to suppress x4 ,! ,ari/otelians 7 furi\s1 & repres5t$ to ! ,pope t he himself 0 ! "* int5d$ by ,simplicio1 ! philosoph] ^: op9ions get alt]nately refut$ & ridicul$ by ! o!r two1 till he is r$uc$ to an abject /ate ( impot5ce4 ,! idea t ,galileo _h ?us ca/ ridicule ^u 8 fri5d & patron is no d\bt a gratuit\s & insult+ libel3 !re is no tell+ :e!r or n ,urban believ$ x1 b c]ta9ly 8 c\nt5ance *ang$ to ,galileo h5ce=w>d1 & :e!r ov]rul$ by 8 ,c>d9als1 or actuat$ by "s o!r motive1 8 fav\r 0 completely )drawn4 ,! infirm old man 0 in/antly summon$ to ,rome4 ,8 fri5ds plead$ 8 age--he 0 n[ sev5ty--8 ill-heal?1 ! "t ( ye>1 ! /ate ( ! roads1 ! qu>ant9e exi/+ on acc\nt ( ! plague4 ,x 0 all ( no avail1 to ,rome he mu/ g1 & on ! #ad? ( ,febru>y he arriv$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #eb4--,portrait ( ,galileo4 ,8 daught] at ,arcetri 0 9 despair2 & anxiety & fa/+s & p5ances self-inflict$ on 8 acc\nt1 dang]\sly r$uc$ h] heal?4 ,at ,rome he 0 n imprison$1 b he 0 told to keep indoors1 & %[ himself z little z possible4 ,he 0 all[$1 h[ev]1 to /ay at ! h\se ( ! ,tuscan ,ambassador in/ead ( 9 gaol4 ,by ,april he 0 remov$ to ! *amb]s ( ! ,inquisition1 & exam9$ sev]al times4 ,"h1 h[ev]1 ! anxiety 0 too mu*1 & 8 heal? began to give way s]i\sly2 s1 be=e long1 he 0 all[$ to return to ! ,ambassador's h\se2 &1 aft] application _h be5 made1 0 all[$ to drive 9 ! public g>d5 9 a half-clos$ c>riage4 ,?us 9 e way ! ,inquisition dealt ) him z l5i5tly z !y c\ld4 ,he 0 n[ _! prison]1 & !y might h ca/ him into _! dungeons1 z _m ano!r _h be5 ca/4 ,by :atev] !y 7 influ5c$--p]haps ! ,pope's old fri5d%ip1 p]haps 8 advanc$ age & infirmities--he 0 n s cruelly us$4 ,/ill1 !y _h _! rules2 he mu/ be made to recant & abjure 8 h]esy2 &1 if necess>y1 torture mu/ be appli$4 ,?is he knew well en\gh1 & 8 daught] knew x1 & h] di/ress may be imag9$4 ,moreov]1 x is n z if !y _h really be5 h]etics1 z if !y hat$ or despis$ ! ,*ur* ( ,rome4 ,on ! contr>y1 !y lov$ & hon\r$ ! ,*ur*4 ,!y 7 s9c]e & dev\t wor%ipp]s1 & only on a few sci5tific matt]s did ,galileo presume to diff] f 8 ecclesia/ical sup]iors3 8 disagreem5t ) !m occasion$ him real sorr[2 & 8 de>e/ hope 0 t !y c\ld be br\ght to 8 way ( ?9k+ & embrace ! tru?4 ,e "t he 0 s5t = by ! ,inquisition he 0 9 dang] ( torture unless he recant$4 ,all 8 fri5ds urg$ him repeat$ly to submit4 ,!y said resi/ance 0 hopeless & fatal4 ,)9 ! memory ( m5 /ill "y1 ,giordano ,bruno _h be5 burnt alive = a simil> h]esy4 ,?is _h happ5$ :ile ,galileo 0 at ,padua4 ,v5ice 0 full ( x4 ,& s9ce t1 only eight ye>s ago inde$1 ,antonio de ,dom9is1 ,ar*bi%op ( ,salpetria1 _h be5 s5t5c$ to ! same fate3 to be h&$ ov] to ! secul> arm to be dealt ) z m]cifully z possible )\t ! %$d+ ( blood4 ,s ran ! hide\s =mula condemn+ a man to ! /ake4 ,aft] 8 s5t5ce1 ?is un=tunate man di$ 9 ! dungeons 9 :i* he _h be5 inc>c]at$ six ye>s--di$ :at is call$ a natural dea?2 b ! s5t5ce 0 c>ri$ out1 not)/&+1 on 8 lifeless body & 8 writ+s4 ,8 writ+s = :i* he _h be5 will+ to die6 ,^! 7 ! t5d] m]cies ( ! ,inquisition2 & ?is 0 ! k9d ( mean+ lurk+ beh9d _m ( _! well-s\nd+ & m]ciful phrases4 ,= in/ance1 :at !y call rigor\s exam9ation1 we call torture4 ,let u1 h[ev]1 rememb] 9 our horror at ?is mode ( compell+ a prison] to say any?+ !y wi%$1 t !y 7 a legally con/itut$ tribunal2 t !y act$ ) well e/abli%$ rules1 & n 9 passion2 & t torture 0 a recogniz$ mode ( extract+ evid5ce1 n only 9 ecclesia/ical b 9 civil c\rts1 at t date4 ,all ?is1 h[ev]1 0 b poor solace to ! pitiable old philosoph]1 ?us ru?lessly hal$ up & d[n1 que/ion$ & ?reat5$1 ?reat5$ & que/ion$1 receiv+ agoniz+ lett]s f 8 daught] week by week1 & try+ to keep up a little _s to reply z happily & hopefully z he c\ld4 ,?is condition ( ?+s c\ld n g on4 ,f ,febru>y to ,june ! susp5se la/$4 ,on ! #bj? ( ,june he 0 summon$ aga91 & told he w\ld be want$ all next day = a rigor\s exam9ation4 ,e>ly 9 ! morn+ ( ! #ba/ he repair$ ?i!r1 & ! doors 7 %ut4 ,out ( ^? *amb]s ( horror he did n reappe> till ! #bd?4 ,:at w5t on all ^? ?ree days no "o kn[s4 ,he himself 0 b\nd to secrecy4 ,no outsid] 0 pres5t4 ,! records ( ! ,inquisition are jeal\sly gu>d$4 ,t he 0 te*nically tortur$ is c]ta92 t he actually und]w5t ! torm5t ( ! rack is d\btful4 ,mu* le>n+ has be5 exp5d$ ^u ! "q1 especially 9 ,g]many4 ,sev]al em95t s*ol>s h held ! fact ( actual torture to be indisputable 7geometrically c]ta91 "o says71 & !y confirm x by ! h]nia f :i* he aft]w>ds suff]$1 ?is be+ a well-kn[n & frequ5t consequ5ce4 ,o!r equally le>n$ comm5tators1 h[ev]1 d5y t ! la/ /age 0 rea*$4 ,= !re are five /ages all laid d[n 9 ! rules ( ! ,inquisition1 & /eadily adh]$ to 9 a rigor\s exam9ation1 at ea* /age an opportunity be+ giv5 = recantation1 e utt]ance1 groan1 or sigh be+ /rictly record$4 ,! recantation s giv5 has to be confirm$ a day or two lat]1 "u pa9 ( a precisely simil> ordeal4 ,! five /ages are3--#a/4 ,! (ficial ?reat 9 ! c\rt4 #bnd4 ,! tak+ to ! door ( ! torture *amb] & r5ew+ ! (ficial ?reat4 #crd4 ,! tak+ inside & %[+ ! in/rum5ts4 #d?4 ,undress+ & b9d+ ^u ! rack4 #e?4 ,t]ritio realis4 ,?r\gh h[ _m ( ^! gha/ly acts ,galileo pass$ ,i d n "k4 ,i hope & believe n ! la/4 ,!re are ^? :o lam5t t he did n hold out1 & accept ! cr[n ( m>tyrdom ?us (f]$ to him4 ,_h he done s we "k 8 fate--a few ye>s' langui%+ 9 ! dungeons1 & !n ! flames4 ,:atev] he ought to h done1 he did n hold out--he gave way4 ,at "o /age or ano!r ( ! dread ordeal he said3 ,i am 9 y\r h&s4 ,i w say :atev] y wi%4 ,!n 0 he remov$ to a cell :ile 8 special =m ( p]jury 0 drawn up4 ,! next day1 clo!d z a p5it5t1 ! v5]able old man 0 tak5 to ! ,conv5t ( ,m9]va1 :]e ! ,c>d9als & prelates 7 assembl$ = ! purpose ( pass+ judgm5t ^u him4 ,! text ( ! judgm5t ,i h "h1 b x is too long to read4 ,x s5t5ces him--#a/4 ,to ! abjuration4 #bnd4 ,to =mal imprisonm5t = life4 #crd4 ,to recite ! sev5 p5it5tial psalms e week4 ,t5 ,c>d9als 7 pres5t2 b1 to _! hon\r be x said1 ?ree refus$ to sign2 & ?is blasphem\s record ( intol]ance & bigot$ folly goes d[n ! ages ) ! names ( sev5 ,c>d9als immortaliz$ ^u x4 ,?is hav+ be5 read1 he next _h to read ^w = ^w ! abjuration :i* _h be5 drawn up = him1 & !n sign x4 ,,! ,,abjuration ,,( ,,galileo4 ,i1 ,galileo ,galilei1 son ( ! late ,v9c5zo ,galilei1 ( ,flor5ce1 ag$ sev5ty ye>s1 be+ br\ght p]sonally to judgm5t1 & kneel+ be=e y ,mo/ ,em95t & ,mo/ ,rev]5d ,lords ,c>d9als1 ,g5]al ,inquisitors ( ! univ]sal ,*ri/ian republic aga9/ h]etical depravity1 hav+ be=e my eyes ! ,holy ,gospels1 :i* ,i t\* ) my own h&s1 swe> t ,i h always believ$1 & n[ believe1 & ) ! help ( ,god w 9 future believe1 e article :i* ! ,holy ,ca?olic & ,apo/olic ,*ur* ( ,rome holds1 tea*es1 & prea*es4 ,b because ,i h be5 enjo9$ by ?is ,holy ,(fice altoge!r to ab&on ! false op9ion :i* ma9ta9s t ! sun is ! c5tre & immovable1 & =bidd5 to hold1 def5d1 or tea* ! said false doctr9e 9 any mann]1 & aft] x ha? be5 signifi$ to me t ! said doctr9e is repugnant ) ! ,holy ,scripture1 ,i h writt5 & pr9t$ a book1 9 :i* ,i treat ( ! same doctr9e n[ condemn$1 & adduce reasons ) great =ce 9 support ( ! same1 )\t giv+ any solution1 & !re=e h be5 judg$ griev\sly suspect$ ( h]esy2 t is to say1 t ,i held & believ$ t ! sun is ! c5tre ( ! univ]se & is immovable1 & t ! e>? is n ! c5tre & is movable2 will+1 !re=e1 to remove f ! m9ds ( y\r ,em95ces1 & ( e ,ca?olic ,*ri/ian1 ?is vehem5t suspicion rightfully ent]ta9$ t[>ds me1 ) a s9c]e he>t & unfeign$ fai?1 ,i abjure1 curse1 & dete/ ! said errors & h]esies1 & g5]ally e o!r error & sect contr>y to ,holy ,*ur*2 & ,i swe> t ,i w nev] m 9 future say or ass]t any?+ v]bally1 or 9 writ+1 :i* may give rise to a simil> suspicion ( me2 b if ,i %all "k any h]etic1 or any "o suspect$ ( h]esy1 t ,i w d5\nce him to ?is ,holy ,(fice1 or to ! ,inquisitor or ,ord9>y ( ! place :]e ,i may be2 ,i swe>1 moreov]1 & promise1 t ,i w fulfil & obs]ve fully1 all ! p5ances :i* h be5 or %all be laid on me by ?is ,holy ,(fice4 ,b if x %all happ5 t ,i violate any ( my said promises1 oa?s1 & prote/ations 7:i* ,god av]t671 ,i subject myself to all ! pa9s & puni%m5ts :i* h be5 decre$ & promulgat$ by ! sacr$ canons1 & o!r g5]al & p>ticul> con/itutions1 aga9/ del9qu5ts ( ?is description4 ,s may ,god help me1 & 8 ,holy ,gospels :i* ,i t\* ) my own h&s4 ,i1 ! above-nam$ ,galileo ,galilei1 h abjur$1 sworn1 promis$1 & b\nd myself z above1 & 9 witness !re( ) my own h& h subscrib$ ?is pres5t writ+ ( my abjuration1 :i* ,i h recit$ ^w = ^w4 ,at ,rome1 9 ! ,conv5t ( ,m9]va1 #bbnd ,june1 #afcc4 ,i1 ,galileo ,galilei1 h abjur$ z above ) my own h&4 ,^? :o believe ! /ory ab\t 8 mutt]+ to a fri5d1 z he rose f 8 knees1 e pur si muove1 d n realize ! sc5e4 #a/4 ,!re 0 no fri5d 9 ! place4 #bnd4 ,x w\ld h be5 fatally dang]\s to mutt] any?+ be=e su* an assemblage4 #crd4 ,he 0 by ?is "t an utt]ly brok5 & disgrac$ old man2 wi%ful1 ( all ?+s1 to get away & hide himself & 8 mis]ies f ! public gaze2 probably ) 8 s5ses dead5$ & /upefi$ by ! m5tal suff]+s he _h und]gone1 & no long] able to ?9k or c>e ab\t any?+--except p]haps 8 daught]1--c]ta9ly n ab\t any motion ( ?is wret*$ e>?4 ,f> & wide ! news ( ! recantation spread4 ,copies ( ! abjuration 7 imm$iately s5t to all ,univ]sities1 ) in/ructions to ! pr(essors to read x publicly4 ,at ,flor5ce1 8 home1 x 0 read out 9 ! ,ca!dral *ur*1 all 8 fri5ds & adh]5ts be+ specially summon$ to he> x4 ,= a %ort "t m he 0 imprison$ 9 ,rome2 b at l5g? 0 p]mitt$ to dep>t1 nev] m ( 8 own w to return4 ,he 0 all[$ to g to ,si5a4 ,"h 8 daught] wrote consol+ly1 rejoic+ at 8 escape1 & say+ h[ joyfully %e already recit$ ! p5it5tial psalms = him1 & s reliev$ him ( t "p ( 8 s5t5ce4 ,b ! poor girl 0 h]self1 by ?is "t1 ill--?or\ghly worn out ) anxiety & t]ror2 %e lay1 9 fact1 on :at prov$ to be h] dea?-b$4 ,h] "o wi% 0 to see h] de>e/ "l & fa!r1 s %e calls him1 once m4 ,! wi% 0 grant$4 ,8 prison 0 *ang$1 by ord]s f ,rome1 f ,si5a to ,arcetri1 & once m fa!r & daught] embrac$4 ,six days aft] ?is %e di$4 ,! brok5-he>t$ old man n[ asks = p]mission to g to live 9 ,flor5ce1 b is met ) ! /]n answ] t he is to /ay at ,arcetri1 is n to g out ( ! h\se1 is n to receive visitors1 & t if he asks = m fav\rs1 or transgresses ! comm&s laid ^u him1 he is liable to be hal$ back to ,rome & ca/ into a dungeon4 ,^! h>% measures 7 dictat$1 n by cruelty1 b by ! fe> ( 8 /ill spread+ h]esy by conv]sation1 & s he 0 to be kept isolat$4 ,idle1 h[ev]1 he 0 n & c\ld n be4 ,he (t5 compla9s t 8 head is too busy = 8 body4 ,9 ! en=c$ solitude ( ,arcetri he 0 compos+ ^? dialogues on motion :i* are n[ reckon$ 8 greate/ & mo/ solid a*ievem5t4 ,9 ^! ! true laws ( motion are set =? = ! fir/ "t 7see page #afg74 ,"o m a/ronomical discov]y also he 0 to make--t ( ! moon's libration4 ,& !n !re came "o m cru%+ bl[4 ,8 eyes became inflam$ & pa9ful--! sight ( "o ( !m fail$1 ! o!r soon w5t2 he became totally bl9d4 ,b ?is1 be+ a heav5-s5t infliction1 he c\ld be> ) resignation1 ?\gh x mu/ h be5 ke5ly pa9ful to a solit>y man ( 8 activity4 ,alas6 says he1 9 "o ( 8 lett]s1 y\r de> fri5d & s]vant is totally bl9d4 ,h5ce=? ?is heav51 ?is univ]se1 :i* by wond]ful obs]vations ,i _h enl>g$ a hundr$ & a ?\s& times beyond ! conception ( =m] ages1 is %runk = me into ! n>r[ space :i* ,i myself fill 9 x4 ,s x pleases ,god2 x %all !re=e please me also4 ,he 0 n[ all[$ an amanu5sis1 & ! help ( 8 pupils ,torricelli1 ,ca/elli1 & ,viviani1 all devot$ly atta*$ to him1 & ,torricelli v fam\s aft] him4 ,visitors also 7 p]mitt$1 aft] approval by a ,jesuit sup]visor2 & "u ^! circum/ances _m visit$ him1 among !m a man z immortal z himself--,john ,milton1 !n only tw5ty-n9e1 travell+ 9 ,italy4 ,surely a pa!tic incid5t1 ?is meet+ ( ^! two great m5--! "o already bl9d1 ! o!r de/9$ to become s4 ,no wond] t1 z 9 8 old age he dictat$ 8 ma/]piece1 ! ?\ghts ( ! ,engli% poet %\ld run on ! bl9d sage ( ,tuscany1 & ! rem9isc5ce ( _! conv]sation %\ld l5d col\r to ! poem4 ,well1 x 7 t$i\s to foll[ ! petty annoyances & tr\bles to :i* ,galileo 0 /ill subject--h[ 8 own son 0 set to see t no unau?oriz$ proc$ure took place1 & t no h]etic visitors 7 admitt$2 h[ x 0 impossible to get 8 new book pr9t$ till long aft]w>ds2 & h[ "o =m ( illness aft] ano!r took possession ( him4 ,! m]ciful end came at la/1 & at ! age ( sev5ty-eight he 0 releas$ f ! ,inquisition4 ,!y want$ to d5y him burial--!y did d5y him a monum5t2 !y ?reat5$ to c>t 8 bones away f ,flor5ce if 8 fri5ds attempt$ "o4 ,& s !y hop$ t he & 8 "w might be =gott54 ,poor s*em]s6 ,be=e ! ye> 0 out an infant 0 born 9 ,l9coln%ire1 ^: de/9y x 0 to r\nd & complete & c>ry =w>d ! "w ( _! victim1 s t1 until man %all cease f ! planet1 nei!r ! "w nor its au?or %all h ne$ ( a monum5t4 99 99 99 99 99 ,"h might ,i end1 7 x n t ! same k9d ( /ruggle z w5t on fi]cely 9 ! sev5te5? c5tury is /ill sm\ld]+ ev5 n[4 ,n 9 a/ronomy inde$1 z !n2 nor yet 9 geology1 z "s fifty ye>s ago2 b 9 biology ma9ly--p]haps 9 o!r subjects4 ,i myself h he>d ,*>les ,d>w9 spok5 ( z an a!i/ & an infidel1 ! !ory ( evolution assail$ z unscriptural1 & ! doctr9e ( ! asc5t ( man f a l[] /ate ( be+1 z oppos$ to ! fall ( man f "s high] condition1 d5i$ z impi\s & un-,*ri/ian4 ,m5 w n le>n by ! pa/2 /ill !y br&i% _! feeble weapons aga9/ ! tru?s ( ,nature1 z if ass]tions "o way or ano!r c\ld alt] fact1 or make ! ?+ o!r ?an x really is4 ,z ,galileo said be=e 8 _s 0 brok51 ,9 ^! & o!r positions c]ta9ly no man d\bts b ,8 ,hol9ess ! ,pope ha? always an absolute p[] ( admitt+ or condemn+ !m2 b x is n 9 ! p[] ( any creature to make !m to be true or false1 or o!rwise ?an ( _! own nature & 9 fact !y are4 ,i "k no?+ ( ! views ( any "h pres5t2 b ,i h met educat$ p]sons :o1 :ile !y might laugh at ! m5 :o refus$ to look ?r\gh a telescope le/ !y %\ld le>n some?+ !y did n l1 yet also !mselves commit ! v same folly4 ,i h met p]sons :o utt]ly refuse to li/5 to any view conc]n+ ! orig9 ( man o!r ?an t ( a p]fect primval pair 9 a g>d51 & ,i am con/ra9$ to say ?is mu*3 ,take he$ le/ "s prophet1 aft] hav+ excit$ y\r indignation at ! follies & bigotry ( a bygone g5]ation1 does n turn ^u y ) ! s5t5ce1 ,?\ art ! man4 ,,summ>y ,,( ,,facts ,,= ,,lecture ,,vi ,sci5ce be=e ,newton ,dr4 ,gilb]t1 ( ,col*e/]1 ,physician to ,que5 ,elizabe?1 0 an excell5t exp]im5t]1 & made _m discov]ies 9 magnetism & electricity4 ,he 0 contempor>y ) ,ty*o ,brah1 & liv$ f #aedj to #afjc4 ,francis ,bacon1 ,"l ,v]ulam1 #aefa-afbf1 ?\gh a brilliant writ]1 is n specially important z reg>ds sci5ce4 ,he 0 n a sci5tific man1 & 8 rules = mak+ discov]ies1 or me?ods ( induction1 h nev] be5 consci\sly1 nor (t5 inde$ unconsci\sly1 foll[$ by discov]]s4 ,!y are n 9 fact practical rules at all1 ?\gh !y 7 s int5d$4 ,8 really /rong doctr9es are t ph5om5a mu/ be /udi$ direct1 & t v>iations 9 ! ord9>y c\rse ( nature mu/ be induc$ by aid ( exp]im5t2 b he lack$ ! sci5tific in/9ct = pursu+ ^! great tru?s into detail & special cases4 ,he sne]$ at ! "w & me?ods ( bo? ,gilb]t & ,galileo1 & reject$ ! ,cop]nican !ory z absurd4 ,8 lit]>y gifts h conf]r$ on him an artificially high sci5tific reputation1 especially 9 ,engl&2 at ! same "t 8 writ+s und\bt$ly help$ to make popul> ! idea ( !re be+ new me?ods = inve/igat+ ,nature1 &1 by insi/+ on ! necessity = fre$om f preconceiv$ ideas & op9ions1 !y did mu* to release m5 f ! bondage ( ,ari/otelian au?ority & s*ola/ic tradition4 ,! greate/ "n betwe5 ,galileo & ,newton is t ( ,desc>tes4 ,r5 ,desc>tes 0 born at ,la ,haye 9 ,t\ra9e1 #aeif1 & di$ at ,/ockholm 9 #afej4 ,he did important "w 9 ma!matics1 physics1 anatomy1 & philosophy4 ,0 greate/ z a philosoph] & ma!matician4 ,at ! age ( tw5ty-"o he s]v$ z a volunte] "u ,pr9ce ,maurice ( ,nassau1 b sp5t mo/ ( 8 lat] life 9 ,holl&4 ,8 fam\s ,disc\rse on ,me?od appe>$ at ,leyd5 9 #afcg1 & 8 ,pr9cipia at ,am/]dam 9 #afdd2 great pa9s be+ tak5 to avoid ! condemnation ( ! ,*ur*4 ,desc>tes's ma9 sci5tific a*ievem5t 0 ! application ( algebra to geometry2 8 mo/ fam\s speculation 0 ! !ory ( vortices1 inv5t$ to acc\nt = ! motion ( planets4 ,he also made _m discov]ies 9 optics & physiology4 ,8 be/ kn[n imm$iate pupils 7 ! ,pr9cess ,elizabe? ( ,bohemia1 & ,*ri/9a1 ,que5 ( ,sw$54 ,he f\nd$ a di/9ct s*ool ( ?\ght 7! ,c>tesian71 & 0 ! precursor ( ! mod]n ma!matical me?od ( inve/igat+ sci5ce1 j z ,galileo & ,gilb]t 7 ! orig9ators ( ! mod]n exp]im5tal me?od4 ,,lecture ,,vi ,,desc>tes ,,& ,,8 ,,!ory ,,( ,,vortices ,aft] ! dramatic life we h be5 consid]+ 9 ! la/ two lectures1 x is well to h a brea?+ space1 to look r\nd on :at has be5 accompli%$1 & to review ! /ate ( sci5tific ?\ght1 be=e proce$+ to ! next great era4 ,= we are /ill 9 ! e>ly morn+ ( sci5tific discov]y3 ! dawn ( ! mod]n p]iod1 fa9tly h]ald$ by ,cop]nicus1 br\ght ne>] by ! "w ( ,ty*o & ,kepl]1 & introduc$ by ! discov]ies ( ,galileo--! dawn has occurr$1 b ! sun is n yet visible4 ,x is hidd5 by ! cl\ds & mi/s ( ! long night ( ignorance & prejudice4 ,! light is suffici5t1 inde$1 to r5d] ^! e>?-born vap\rs m visible3 x is n suffici5t to dispel !m4 ,a g5]ation ( sl[ & d\btful progress mu/ pass1 be=e ! fir/ ray ( sunlight c break ?r\gh ! ea/]n cl\ds & ! full orb ( day itself appe>4 ,x is ?is p]iod ( hesitat+ progress & sl[ leav5+ ( m5's ideas t we h to pass ?r\gh 9 ?is week's lecture4 ,x always happ5s ?us3 ! assimilation ( great & new ideas is always a sl[ & gradual process3 !re is no ha/e ei!r "h or 9 any o!r dep>tm5t ( ,nature4 ,die ,zeit i/ un5dli* lang4 ,/eadily ! =ces "w1 sometimes seem+ to accompli% no?+2 sometimes ev5 ! motion appe>s retrograde2 b 9 ! long run ! de/9$ end is rea*$1 & ! c\rse1 :e!r ( a planet or ( m5's ?\ghts ab\t ! univ]se1 is p]man5tly alt]$4 ,!n1 ! controv]sy 0 ab\t ! e>?'s place 9 ! univ]se2 n[1 if !re be any controv]sy ( ! same k9d1 x is ab\t man's place 9 ! univ]se2 b ! process is ! same3 a />tl+ /atem5t by a great g5ius or prophet1 g5]al disbelief1 &1 x may be1 an attitude ( ho/ility1 gradual acceptance by a few1 sl[ spread+ among ! _m1 end+ 9 univ]sal acceptance & fai? (t5 z unque/ion+ & unreason+ z ! old /ate ( unfai? _h be54 ,n[ ! process is comp>atively spe$y3 tw5ty ye>s accompli%es a great deal3 !n x 0 t$i\sly sl[1 & a c5tury seem$ to accompli% v little4 ,p]iodical lit]ature may be responsible = "s wa/e ( "t1 b x c]ta9ly assi/s ! rapid spread ( ideas4 ,! rate ) :i* ideas are assimilat$ by ! g5]al public _c ev5 n[ be consid]$ excessive1 b h[ mu* fa/] x is ?an x 0 a few c5turies ago may be illu/rat$ by ! attitude ( ! public to ,d>w9ism n[1 tw5ty-five ye>s aft] ,! ,orig9 ( ,species1 z comp>$ ) _! attitude to ! ,cop]nican sy/em a c5tury aft] ,de ,revolutionibus4 ,by ! way1 x is1 ,i "k1 presumptu\s = me to h an op9ion1 b ,i _c he> ,d>w9 comp>$ to or m5tion$ along ) ,newton )\t a %udd]4 ,! /age 9 :i* he f\nd biology seems to me f> m comp>able ) ! ,ptolemaic era 9 a/ronomy1 & he himself to be q fairly comp>able to ,cop]nicus4 ,let u proce$ to summ>ize ! /age at :i* ! human race _h arriv$ at ! epo* ) :i* we are n[ deal+4 ,! ,cop]nican view ( ! sol> sy/em _h be5 /at$1 re/at$1 f\ght1 & insi/$ on2 a *a9 ( brilliant telescopic discov]ies _h made x popul> & accessible to all m5 ( any intellig5ce3 h5ce=? x mu/ be left to sl[ly p]colate & s9k into ! m9ds ( ! p4 ,= ! nations 7 wak+ up n[1 & 7 accessible to new ideas4 ,engl& especially 01 9 "s sort1 at ! z5i? ( its glory2 or1 if n at ! z5i?1 0 9 t full flu% ( y\? & expectation & hope :i* is /rong] & m prolific ( great de$s & ?\ghts ?an a matur] p]iod4 ,a common cause aga9/ a common & dete/$ enemy _h r\s$ 9 ! he>ts ( ,engli%m5 a passion ( en?usiasm & patriotism2 s t ! mean elem5ts ( trade1 _! *eat+ y>d-w&s1 7 =gott5 = a "t2 ! ,armada 0 defeat$1 & ! nation's true & consci\s adult life began4 ,comm]ce 0 n[ no m]e /ruggle = pr(it & h>d b>ga9s2 x 0 full ( ! _s ( adv5ture & discov]y2 a new _w _h be5 op5$ up2 :o c\ld tell :at m rema9$ unexplor$8 ,m5 awoke to ! spl5d\r ( _! inh]itance1 & away sail$ ,drake & ,frobi%] & ,raleigh into ! l&s ( ! ,we/4 ,= lit]ature1 y "k :at a "t x 04 ,! au?or ( ,hamlet & ,o!llo 0 alive3 x is ne$less to say m4 ,& :at ab\t sci5ce8 ,! atmosph]e ( sci5ce is a m quiet & less /irr+ "o2 x ?rives be/ :5 ! fev] ( excitem5t is allay$2 x is necess>ily a lat] gr[? ?an lit]ature4 ,already1 h[ev]1 our second great man ( sci5ce 0 at "w 9 a quiet c\ntry t[n--second 9 po9t ( "t1 ,i mean1 ,rog] ,bacon be+ ! fir/4 ,dr4 ,gilb]t1 ( ,col*e/]1 0 ! second 9 po9t ( "t1 & ! age 0 rip5+ = ! "t :5 ,engl& 0 to be hon\r$ ) su* a galaxy ( sci5tific lum9>ies--,hooke & ,boyle & ,newton--z ! _w _h n yet kn[n4 ,yes1 ! nations 7 awake4 ,9 all directions1 z ,drap] says1 ,nature 0 inve/igat$3 9 all directions new me?ods ( exam9ation 7 yield+ unexpect$ & beautiful results4 ,on ! ru9s ( its ivy-gr[n ca!drals ,ecclesia/icism or ,s*ola/icism1 surpris$ & bl9d$ by ! break+ day1 sat solemnly bl9k+ at ! light & life ab\t x1 absorb$ 9 ! recollection ( ! night t _h pass$1 dream+ ( new phantoms & delusions 9 its wi%$-= return1 & v9dictively /rik+ its talons at any d]isive assailant :o incauti\sly approa*$ too ne>4 ,( ! "w ( ,gilb]t !re is mu* to say2 s !re is also ( ,rog] ,bacon1 ^: life ,i am by no means sure ,i did "r 9 omitt+4 ,b nei!r ( !m _h mu* to d ) a/ronomy1 & s9ce x is 9 a/ronomy t ! mo/ />tl+ progress 0 dur+ ^! c5turies be+ made1 ,i h judg$ x wis] to adh]e ma9ly to ! pione]s 9 ?is p>ticul> dep>tm5t4 ,only = ?is reason d ,i pass ,gilb]t ) b slight m5tion4 ,he knew ( ! ,cop]nican !ory & ?or\ghly accept$ x 7x is conv5i5t to speak ( x z ! ,cop]nican !ory1 ?\gh y "k t x _h be5 consid]ably improv$ 9 detail s9ce ! fir/ crude /atem5t by ,cop]nicus71 b he made 9 x no *anges4 ,he 0 a cultivat$ sci5tific man1 & an acute exp]im5tal philosoph]2 8 ma9 "w lay 9 ! doma9 ( magnetism & electricity4 ,! ph5om5a connect$ ) ! m>9]'s compass _h be5 /udi$ some:at by ,rog] ,bacon2 & !y 7 n[ exam9$ /ill m ?or\ghly by ,gilb]t1 ^: treatise ,de ,magnete1 m>ks ! beg9n+ ( ! sci5ce ( magnetism4 ,z an app5dix to t "w he /udi$ ! ph5om5on ( amb]1 :i* _h be5 m5tion$ by ,?ales4 ,he resuscitat$ ?is little fact aft] its burial ( #b1bjj ye>s1 & greatly ext5d$ x4 ,he x 0 :o inv5t$ ! "n electricity--,i wi% x _h be5 a %ort] "o4 ,mank9d inv5ts names mu* bett] ?an d philosoph]s4 ,:at c be bett] ?an heat1 light1 s\nd8 ,h[ fav\rably !y comp>e ) electricity1 magnetism1 galvanism1 electro-magnetism1 & magneto-electricity6 ,! only long-e/abli%$ monosyllabic "n ,i "k inv5t$ by a philosoph] is gas--an excell5t attempt1 :i* ought to be imitat$4#ab ,( ,"l ,bacon1 :o fl\ri%$ ab\t ! same "t 7a little lat]71 x is necess>y to say some?+1 because _m p]sons are "u ! impression t to him & 8 ,novum ,organon ! reawak5+ ( ! _w1 & ! ov]?r[ ( ,ari/otelian tradition1 are ma9ly due4 ,8 influ5ce1 h[ev]1 has be5 exagg]at$4 ,i am n go+ to ent] into a discussion ( ! ,novum ,organon1 & ! me*anical me?ods :i* he prop\nd$ z c]ta9 to evolve tru? if pati5tly pursu$2 = ?is is :at he ?\ght he 0 do+--giv+ to ! _w an infallible recipe = discov]+ tru?1 ) :i* any ord9>ily indu/ri\s man c\ld make discov]ies by means ( collection & discrim9ation ( in/ances4 ,y w take my /atem5t = :at x is wor?1 b ,i ass]t ?is3 t _m ( ! me?ods :i* ,bacon lays d[n are n ^? :i* ! exp]i5ce ( mank9d has f\nd to be s]viceable2 nor are !y su* z a sci5tific man w\ld h ?\ght ( devis+4 ,true x is t a real love & faculty = sci5ce are born 9 a man1 & t to ! man ( sci5tific capacity rules ( proc$ure are unnecess>y2 8 own intuition is suffici5t1 or he has mi/ak5 8 vocation1--b t is n my po9t4 ,x is n t ,bacon's me?ods are useless because ! be/ m5 d n ne$ !m2 if !y _h be5 f\nd$ on a c>eful /udy ( ! me?ods actually employ$1 ?\gh x might be unconsci\sly employ$1 by sci5tific m5--z ! me?ods ( induction1 /at$ long aft] by ,john ,/u>t ,mill1 7 f\nd$--!n1 no d\bt1 _! /atem5t w\ld h be5 a valuable s]vice & a great ?+ to accompli%4 ,b !y 7 n ?is4 ,!y are ! ideas ( a brilliant man ( lett]s1 writ+ 9 an age :5 sci5tific rese>* 0 almo/ unkn[n1 ab\t a subject 9 :i* he 0 an amateur4 ,i confess ,i d n see h[ he1 or ,john ,/u>t ,mill1 or any "o else1 writ+ 9 t age1 c\ld h =mulat$ ! true rules ( philosophiz+2 because ! mat]ials & in=mation 7 sc>cely to h&4 ,sci5ce & its me?ods 7 only beg9n+ to gr[4 ,no d\bt x 0 a brilliant attempt4 ,no d\bt also !re are _m good & true po9ts 9 ! /atem5t1 especially 9 8 insi/5ce on ! attitude ( free & op5 c&\r ) :i* ! inve/igation ( ,nature %\ld be approa*$4 ,no d\bt !re 0 mu* beauty 9 8 allegories ( ! errors into :i* m5 7 apt to fall--! idola ( ! m>ket-place1 ( ! tribe1 ( ! !atre1 & ( ! d52 b all ?is is lit]ature1 & on ! solid progress ( sci5ce may be said to h _h little or no effect4 ,desc>tes's ,disc\rse on ,me?od 0 a mu* m solid production4 ,y w und]/& t ,i speak ( ,bacon purely z a sci5tific man4 ,z a man ( lett]s1 z a lawy]1 a man ( ! _w1 & a /atesman1 he is beyond any criticism ( m9e4 ,i speak only ( ! purely sci5tific aspect ( ! ,novum ,organon4 ,! ,essays & ,! ,advancem5t ( ,le>n+ are ma/]ly productions2 & z a lit]>y man he takes high rank4 ,! ov]-praise :i*1 9 ! ,briti% ,isles1 has be5 lavi%$ ^u 8 sci5tific importance is be+ foll[$ abroad by :at may be an unnecess>y am\nt ( detraction4 ,?is is always ! wor/ ( sett+ up a man on too high a p9nacle2 "s "o has to und]take ! ungrateful task ( pull+ him d[n aga94 ,ju/us von ,liebig address$ himself to ?is task ) "s vig\r 9 8 ,r$5 und ,abh&lung 7,leipzig1 #ahgd71 :]e he quotes f ,bacon a numb] ( sugge/ions = absurd exp]im5tation4#ac ,! next p>agraph ,i read1 n because ,i endorse x1 b because x is always well to he> bo? sides ( a "q4 ,y h probably be5 long accu/om$ to read ov]-e/imates ( ,bacon's importance1 & extravagant laudation ( 8 writ+s z mak+ an epo* 9 sci5ce2 he> :at ,drap] says on ! opposite side3--#ad ,! m closely we exam9e ! writ+s ( ,"l ,bacon1 ! m unwor?y does he seem to h be5 ( ! great reputation :i* has be5 aw>d$ to him4 ,! popul> delusion to :i* he owes s mu* orig9at$ at a "t :5 ! hi/ory ( sci5ce 0 unkn[n4 ,!y :o fir/ br\ght him into notice knew no?+ ( ! old s*ool ( ,alex&ria4 ,?is boa/$ f\nd] ( a new philosophy c\ld n compreh5d1 & w\ld n accept1 ! greate/ ( all sci5tific doctr9es :5 x 0 pla9ly set be=e 8 eyes4 ,x has be5 repres5t$ t ! inv5tion ( ! true me?od ( physical sci5ce 0 an amusem5t ( ,bacon's h\rs ( relaxation f ! m labori\s /udies ( law1 & duties ( a ,c\rt4 ,8 *ief admir]s h be5 p]sons ( a lit]>y turn1 :o h an idea t sci5tific discov]ies are accompli%$ by a me*anico-m5tal op]ation4 ,bacon nev] produc$ any great practical result himself1 no great physici/ has ev] made any use ( 8 me?od4 ,he has _h ! same to d ) ! developm5t ( mod]n sci5ce t ! inv5tor ( ! orr]y has _h to d ) ! discov]y ( ! me*anism ( ! _w4 ,( all ! important physical discov]ies1 !re is n "o :i* %[s t its au?or made x by ! ,baconian in/rum5t4 ,newton nev] seems to h be5 aw>e t he 0 "u any obligation to ,bacon4 ,ar*im$es1 & ! ,alex&rians1 & ! ,arabians1 & ,leon>do da ,v9ci did v well be=e he 0 born2 ! discov]y ( ,am]ica by ,columbus & ! circumnavigation by ,magellan c h>dly be attribut$ to him1 yet !y 7 ! consequ5ces ( a truly philosophical reason+4 ,b ! inve/igation ( ,nature is an affair ( g5ius1 n ( rules4 ,no man c inv5t an organon = writ+ trag$ies & epic poems4 ,bacon's sy/em is1 9 its own t]ms1 an idol ( ! !atre4 ,x w\ld sc>cely guide a man to a solution ( ! riddle ( lia ,llia ,crispis1 or to t ( ! *>ade ( ,sir ,hil>y4 ,few sci5tific pret5d]s h made m mi/akes ?an ,"l ,bacon4 ,he reject$ ! ,cop]nican sy/em1 & spoke insol5tly ( its great au?or2 he und]took to criticize adv]sely ,gilb]t's treatise ,de ,magnete2 he 0 occupi$ 9 ! condemnation ( any inve/igation ( f9al causes1 :ile ,h>vey 0 d$uc+ ! circulation ( ! blood f ,aquap5d5te's discov]y ( ! valves 9 ! ve9s2 he 0 d\btful :e!r in/rum5ts 7 ( any advantage1 :ile ,galileo 0 inve/igat+ ! heav5s ) ! telescope4 ,ignorant himself ( e bran* ( ma!matics1 he presum$ t !y 7 useless 9 sci5ce b a few ye>s be=e ,newton a*iev$ by _! aid 8 immortal discov]ies4 ,x is "t t ! sacr$ "n ( philosophy %\ld be sev]$ f its long connection ) t ( "o :o 0 a pret5d] 9 sci5ce1 a "t-s]v+ politician1 an insidi\s lawy]1 a corrupt judge1 a trea*]\s fri5d1 a bad man4 ,?is seems to me a depreciation z excessive z are ! eulogies commonly curr5t4 ,! tru? probably lies some:]e betwe5 ! two extremes4 ,x is unfair to judge ,bacon's me?ods by ?9k+ ( physical sci5ce 9 its pres5t /age4 ,to realise 8 position we mu/ ?9k ( a subject /ill 9 its v e>ly infancy1 "o 9 :i* ! advisability ( apply+ exp]im5tal me?ods is /ill d\bt$2 "o :i* has be5 /udi$ by means ( books & words & discussion ( normal in/ances1 in/ead ( by collection & obs]vation ( ! unusual & irregul>1 & by exp]im5tal production ( v>iety4 ,if we ?9k ( a subject /ill 9 ?is infantile & almo/ pre-sci5tific /age1 ,bacon's words & =mul are f> f inapplicable2 !y are1 )9 _! limitations1 q necess>y & :olesome4 ,a subject 9 ?is /age1 /range to say1 exi/s1--psy*ology2 n[ hesitat+ly beg9n+ to assume its exp]im5tal weapons amid a /ifl+ atmosph]e ( di/ru/ & suspicion4 ,bacon's lack ( ! mod]n sci5tific in/9ct mu/ be admitt$1 b he r5d]$ humanity a p[]ful s]vice 9 direct+ x f books to nature h]self1 & 8 g5ius is indubitable4 ,a judici\s acc\nt ( 8 life & "w is giv5 by ,pr(4 ,adamson1 9 ! ,encyclopdia ,britannica1 & to ?is article ,i n[ ref] y4 99 99 99 99 99 ,:o1 !n1 0 ! man ( fir/ magnitude fill+ up ! gap 9 sci5tific hi/ory betwe5 ! dea? ( ,galileo & ! maturity ( ,newton8 ,unkn[n & my/]i\s are ! laws regulat+ ! appe>ance ( g5ius4 ,we h pass$ 9 review a ,pole1 a ,dane1 a ,g]man1 & an ,italian1--! great man is n[ a ,fr5*man1 ,r5 ,desc>tes1 born 9 ,t\ra9e1 on ! #ca/ ( ,m>*1 #aeif4 ,8 "m di$ at 8 bir?2 ! fa!r 0 ( no importance1 save z ! own] ( "s l&$ prop]ty4 ,! boy 0 re>$ luxuri\sly1 & inh]it$ a fair =tune4 ,ne>ly all ! m5 ( fir/ rank1 y notice1 7 born well (f4 ,g5ius born to pov]ty might1 inde$1 ev5 !n a*ieve "n & fame--z we see 9 ! case ( ,kepl]--b x 0 t]ribly h&icapp$4 ,h&icapp$ x is /ill1 b f> less ?an ( old2 & we may hope x w become gradually /ill less s z enlight5m5t proce$s1 & ! trem5d\s mom5t ( great m5 to a nation is m cle>ly & actively p]ceiv$4 ,x is possible = g5ius1 :5 comb9$ ) /rong "*1 to ov]come all ob/acles1 & rea* ! highe/ em95ce1 b ! /ruggle mu/ be sev]e2 & ! abs5ce ( e>ly tra9+ & ref9em5t dur+ ! receptive ye>s ( y\? mu/ be a lifelong drawback4 ,desc>tes _h none ( ^! drawbacks2 life came easily to him1 &1 z a consequ5ce p]haps1 he nev] seems to h tak5 x q s]i\sly4 ,great movem5ts & /irr+ ev5ts 7 to him opportunities = ! /udy ( m5 & mann]s2 he 0 n ! man to c\rt p]secution1 nor to %[ en?usiasm = a los+ or /ruggl+ cause4 ,9 ?is1 z 9 _m o!r ?+s1 he 0 imbu$ ) a v mod]n _s1 a cynical & sceptical _s1 :i*1 to an outside & sup]ficial obs]v] l myself1 seems r rife j n[4 ,he 0 also imbu$ ) a phase ( sci5tific _s :i* y sometimes /ill meet )1 ?\gh ,i believe x is pass+ away1 viz4 an uncultur$ absorption 9 8 own pursuits1 & "s feel+ ( contempt = classical & lit]>y & /hetic /udies4 ,9 politics1 art1 & hi/ory he seems to h _h no int]e/4 ,he 0 a spectator r ?an an actor on ! /age ( ! _w2 & ?\gh he jo9$ ! army ( t great milit>y comm&] ,pr9ce ,maurice ( ,nassau1 he did x n z a man ) a cause at he>t wor? fight+ =1 b precisely 9 ! _s 9 :i* "o ( our own gild$ y\?s w\ld volunte] 9 a simil> case1 z a good opportunity = frolic & = see+ life4 ,he soon tir$ ( x & )drew--at fir/ to gay society 9 ,p>is4 ,"h he might naturally h sunk into ! gutt] ) 8 companions1 b = a great m5tal %ock :i* became ! ma9 epo* & turn+-po9t ( 8 life1 ! crisis :i* div]t$ him f frivolity to s]i\sness4 ,x 0 a purely intellectual emotion1 n excit$ by any?+ 9 ! visible or tangible _w2 nor c\ld x be call$ conv]sion 9 ! common acceptation ( t t]m4 ,he tells u t on ! #aj? ( ,novemb]1 #afai1 at ! age ( tw5ty-f\r1 a brilliant idea fla%$ ^u him--! fir/ idea1 namely1 ( 8 great & p[]ful ma!matical me?od1 ( :i* ,i w speak directly2 & 9 ! flu% ( x he =esaw t j z geomet]s1 />t+ ) a few simple & evid5t propositions or axioms1 asc5d by a long & intricate ladd] ( reason+ to propositions m & m ab/ruse1 s x might be possible to asc5d f a few data1 to all ! secrets & facts ( ! univ]se1 by a process ( ma!matical reason+4 ,comp>+ ! my/]ies ( ,nature ) ! laws ( ma!matics1 he d>$ to hope t ! secrets ( bo? c\ld be unlock$ ) ! same key4 ,t night he laps$ gradually into a /ate ( en?usiasm1 9 :i* he saw ?ree dreams or visions1 :i* he int]pret$ at ! "t1 ev5 be=e wak+1 to be revelations f ! ,_s ( ,tru? to direct 8 future c\rse1 z well z to w>n him f ! s9s he _h already committ$4 ,8 acc\nt ( ! dreams is on record1 b is n v easy to foll[2 nor is x likely t a man %\ld be able to convey to o!rs any adequate idea ( ! deepe/ spiritual or m5tal agitation :i* has %ak5 him to 8 f\ndations4 ,8 associates 9 ,p>is 7 n[ ab&on$1 & he )drew1 aft] "s w&]+s1 to ,holl&1 :]e he abode ! be/ "p ( 8 life & did 8 real "w4 ,ev5 n[1 h[ev]1 he took life easily4 ,he recomm5ds idl5ess z necess>y to ! production ( good m5tal "w4 ,he work$ & m$itat$ b a few h\rs a day3 & mo/ ( ^? 9 b$4 ,he us$ to ?9k be/ 9 b$1 he said4 ,! aft]noon he devot$ to society & recreation4 ,aft] supp] he wrote lett]s to v>i\s p]sons1 all pla9ly int5d$ = publication1 & scrupul\sly pres]v$4 ,he kept himself free f c>e1 & 0 mo/ cauti\s ab\t 8 heal?1 reg>d+ himself1 no d\bt1 z a subject ( exp]im5t1 & wi%ful to see h[ long he c\ld prolong 8 life4 ,at "o "t he writes to a fri5d t he %all be s]i\sly disappo9t$ if he does n manage to see #ajj ye>s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ec4--;,desc>tes4 ,?is plan ( n ov]-work+ himself1 & limit+ ! h\rs devot$ to s]i\s ?\ght1 is "o t might p]haps advantage\sly be foll[$ by "s ov]-labori\s /ud5ts ( ! pres5t day4 ,at any rate x conveys a lesson2 = ! am\nt ( gr\nd cov]$ by ,desc>tes1 9 a life n v long1 is extraord9>y4 ,he mu/1 h[ev]1 h _h a s+ul> aptitude = sci5tific "w2 & ! judici\s leav5 ( selfi%ness :]eby he 0 able to keep himself free f c>e & emb>rassm5ts mu/ h be5 a great help to him4 ,& :at did 8 v]satile g5ius accompli% dur+ 8 fifty-f\r ye>s ( life8 ,9 philosophy1 us+ ! t]m z mean+ m5tal or moral philosophy & metaphysics1 z oppos$ to natural philosophy or physics1 he takes a v high rank1 & x is on ?is t p]haps 8 greate/ fame re/s4 7,he is ! au?or1 y may rememb]1 ( ! fam\s aphorism1 ,cogito1 ergo sum47 ,9 biology ,i believe he may be consid]$ almo/ equally great3 c]ta9ly he sp5t a great deal ( "t 9 dissect+1 & he made out a good deal ( :at is n[ kn[n ( ! /ructure ( ! body1 & ( ! !ory ( vision4 ,he eag]ly accept$ ! doctr9e ( ! circulation ( ! blood1 !n be+ taught by ,h>vey1 & 0 an excell5t anatomi/4 ,y d\btless "k ,pr(essor ,huxley's article on ,desc>tes 9 ! ,lay ,s]mons1 & y p]ceive 9 :at high e/imation he is !re held4 ,he orig9at$ ! hypo!sis t animals are automata1 = :i* inde$ !re is mu* to be said f "s po9ts ( view2 b he un=tunately believ$ t !y 7 unconsci\s & non-s5ti5t automata1 & ?is belief l$ 8 disciples into acts ( abom9able cruelty4 ,pr(essor ,huxley lectur$ on ?is hypo!sis & p>tially upheld x n _m ye>s s9ce4 ,! article is includ$ 9 8 volume call$ ,sci5ce & ,culture4 ,conc]n+ 8 "w 9 ma!matics & physics ,i c speak ) m confid5ce4 ,he is ! au?or ( ! ,c>tesian sy/em ( algebraic or analytic geometry1 :i* has be5 s p[]ful an eng9e ( rese>*1 f> easi] to wield ?an ! old syn!tic geometry4 ,)\t x ,newton c\ld nev] h writt5 ! ,pr9cipia1 or made 8 greate/ discov]ies4 ,he might inde$ h inv5t$ x = himself1 b x w\ld h consum$ "s ( 8 life to h br\ght x to ! necess>y p]fection4 ,! pr9ciple ( x is ! specification ( ! position ( a po9t 9 a plane by two numb]s1 indicat+ say its di/ance f two l9es ( ref]5ce 9 ! plane2 l ! latitude & longitude ( a place on ! globe4 ,= in/ance1 ! two l9es ( ref]5ce might be ! bottom edge & ! left-h& v]tical edge ( a wall2 !n a po9t on ! wall1 /at$ z be+ = in/ance #f feet along & #b feet up1 is precisely det]m9$4 ,^! two di/ances are call$ co-ord9ates2 horizontal ones are usually d5ot$ by x1 & v]tical ones by y4 ,if1 in/ead ( specify+ two ?+s1 only "o /atem5t is made1 su* z y #b1 x is satisfi$ by a :ole r[ ( po9ts1 all ! po9ts 9 a horizontal l9e #b feet above ! gr\nd4 ,h5ce y #b may be said to repres5t t /raight l9e1 & is call$ ! equation to t /raight l9e4 ,simil>ly x #f repres5ts a v]tical /raight l9e #f feet 7or in*es or "s o!r unit7 f ! left-h& edge4 ,if x is ass]t$ t x #f & y #b1 only "o po9t c be f\nd to satisfy bo? conditions1 viz4 ! cross+ po9t ( ! above two /raight l9es4 ,suppose an equation su* z x y to be giv54 ,?is also is satisfi$ by a r[ ( po9ts1 viz4 by all ^? t are equidi/ant f bottom & left-h& edges4 ,9 o!r words1 x y repres5ts a /raight l9e slant+ upw>ds at #de4 ,! equation x #by repres5ts ano!r /raight l9e ) a diff]5t angle ( slope1 & s on4 ,! equation x#b y#b #cf repres5ts a circle ( radius #f4 ,! equation #cx#b #dy#b #be repres5ts an ellipse2 & 9 g5]al e algebraic equation t c be writt5 d[n1 provid$ x involve only two v>iables1 x & y1 repres5ts "s curve 9 a plane2 a curve moreov] t c be drawn1 or its prop]ties completely inve/igat$ )\t draw+1 f ! equation4 ,?us algebra is w$d$ to geometry1 & ! inve/igation ( geometric relations by means ( algebraic equations is call$ analytical geometry1 z oppos$ to ! old ,euclidian or syn!tic mode ( treat+ ! subject by reason+ consci\sly direct$ to ! subject by help ( figures4 ,if !re be ?ree v>iables--x1 y1 & z1--in/ead ( only two1 an equation among !m repres5ts n a curve 9 a plane b a surface 9 space2 ! ?ree v>iables correspond+ to ! ?ree dim5sions ( space3 l5g?1 bread?1 & ?ickness4 ,an equation ) f\r v>iables usually requires space ( f\r dim5sions = its geometrical int]pretation1 & s on4 ,?us geometry c n only be reason$ ab\t 9 a m me*anical & !re=e mu* easi]1 mann]1 b x c be ext5d$ into regions ( :i* we h & c h no direct conception1 because we are defici5t 9 s5se organs = accumulat+ any k9d ( exp]i5ce 9 connexion ) su* ideas4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ed4--,! eye diagram4 ,f ,desc>tes' ,pr9cipia4 ,?ree ext]nal po9ts are %[n depict$ on ! ret9a3 ! image be+ appreciat$ by a repres5tation ( ! bra94 ,9 physics prop] ,desc>tes' tract on optics is ( consid]able hi/orical int]e/4 ,he treats all ! subjects he takes up 9 an able & orig9al mann]4 ,9 ,a/ronomy he is ! au?or ( t fam\s & long upheld !ory1 ! doctr9e ( vortices4 ,he reg>d$ space z a pl5um full ( an all-p]vad+ fluid4 ,c]ta9 portions ( ?is fluid 7 9 a /ate ( :irl+ motion1 z 9 a :irlpool or eddy ( wat]2 & ea* planet _h its own eddy1 9 :i* x 0 :irl$ r\nd & r\nd1 z a /raw is caught & :irl$ 9 a common :irlpool4 ,?is idea he works out & elaborates v fully1 apply+ x to ! sy/em ( ! _w1 & to ! explanation ( all ! motions ( ! planets4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ee4--;,desc>tes's diagram ( vortices1 f 8 ,pr9cipia4 ,?is sy/em evid5tly suppli$ a void 9 m5's m9ds1 left vacant by ! ov]?r[ ( ! ,ptolemaic sy/em1 & x 0 rapidly accept$4 ,9 ! ,engli% ,univ]sities x held = a long "t almo/ undisput$ sway2 x 0 9 ?is fai? t ,newton 0 br\ght up4 ,some?+ 0 felt to be necess>y to keep ! planets mov+ on _! endless r\nd2 ! primum mobile ( ,ptolemy _h be5 /opp$2 an angel 0 sometimes assign$ to ea* planet to c>ry x r\nd1 b ?\gh a widely diffus$ belief1 ?is 0 a fanta/ic & n a s]i\s sci5tific "o4 ,desc>tes's vortices seem$ to d exactly :at 0 want$4 ,x is true !y _h no connexion ) ! laws ( ,kepl]4 ,i d\bt :e!r he knew ab\t ! laws ( ,kepl]2 he _h n mu* op9ion ( o!r p's "w2 he read v little--f\nd x easi] to ?9k4 7,he travell$ ?r\gh ,flor5ce once :5 ,galileo 0 at ! height ( 8 r5[n )\t call+ ^u or see+ him47 ,9 s f> z ! motion ( a planet 0 n circul>1 x _h to be acc\nt$ = by ! jo/l+ & cr[d+ & di/ortion ( ! vortices4 ,gravitation he expla9$ by a settl+ d[n ( bodies t[>d ! c5tre ( ea* vortex2 & cohesion by an abs5ce ( relative motion t5d+ to sep>ate p>ticles ( matt]4 ,he c imag9e no /rong] cem5t4 ,! vortices1 z ,desc>tes imag9$ !m1 are n n[ believ$ 94 ,are we !n to reg>d ! sy/em z absurd & :olly false8 ,i d n see h[ we c d ?is1 :5 to ?is day philosoph]s are agre$ 9 believ+ space to be completely full ( fluid1 :i* fluid is c]ta9ly capable ( vortex motion1 & p]haps ev]y:]e does possess t motion4 ,true1 ! n[ imag9$ vortices are n ! l>ge :irls ( planet>y size1 !y are r inf9itesimal :irls ( less ?an atomic dim5sions2 /ill a :irl+ fluid is believ$ 9 to ?is day1 & _m are seek+ to d$uce all ! prop]ties ( matt] 7rigidity1 ela/icity1 cohesion gravitation1 & ! re/7 f x4 ,fur!r1 al?\gh we talk glibly ab\t gravitation & magnetism1 & s on1 we d n really "k :at !y are4 ,progress is be+ made1 b we d n yet prop]ly "k4 ,mu*1 ov]:elm+ly mu*1 rema9s to be discov]$1 & x ill-behoves u to reject any well-f\nd$ & long-held !ory z utt]ly & intr9sically false & absurd4 ,! m "o gets to "k1 ! m "o p]ceives a k]nel ( tru? ev5 9 ! mo/ s+ul> /atem5ts2 & sci5tific m5 h le>n$ by exp]i5ce to be v c>eful h[ !y lop (f any bran* ( ! tree ( k1 le/ z !y cut away ! dead wood !y lose also "s gre5 %oot1 "s heal?y bud ( unp]ceiv$ tru?4 ,h[ev]1 x may be admitt$ t ! idea ( a ,c>tesian vortex 9 connexion ) ! sol> sy/em applies1 if at all1 r to an e>li]--its nebul\s--/age1 :5 ! :ole ?+ 0 "o great :irl1 ready to split or %r9k (f planet>y r+s at _! appropriate di/ances4 ,soon aft] he _h writt5 8 great "w1 ! ,pr9cipia ,ma!matica1 & be=e he pr9t$ x1 news rea*$ him ( ! p]secution & recantation ( ,galileo4 ,he seems to h be5 q ?und]/ruck at ! tid+s1 says ,mr4 ,mahaffy1 9 8 ,life ( ,desc>tes4#ae ,he _h />t$ on 8 sci5tific j\rneys ) ! firm det]m9ation to ent] into no conflict ) ! ,*ur*1 & to c>ry out 8 sy/em ( pure ma!matics & physics )\t ev] m$dl+ ) matt]s ( fai?4 ,he 0 rudely disillusion$ z to ! possibility ( ?is sev]ance4 ,he wrote at once--app>5tly1 ,novemb] #bj?1 #afcc--to ,m]s5ne to say he w\ld on no acc\nt publi% 8 "w--nay1 t he _h at fir/ resolv$ to burn all 8 pap]s1 = t he w\ld nev] prosecute philosophy at ! risk ( be+ c5sur$ by 8 ,*ur*4 ',i c\ld h>dly h believ$1' he says1 't an ,italian1 & 9 fav\r ) ! ,pope z ,i he>1 c\ld be consid]$ crim9al = no?+ else ?an = seek+ to e/abli% ! e>?'s motion2 ?\gh ,i "k x has =m]ly be5 c5sur$ by "s ,c>d9als4 ,b ,i ?\ght ,i _h he>d t s9ce !n x 0 con/antly be+ taught1 ev5 at ,rome2 & ,i confess t if ! op9ion ( ! e>?'s movem5t is false1 all ! f\ndations ( my philosophy are s also1 because x is demon/rat$ cle>ly by !m4 ,x is s b\nd up ) e "p ( my treatise t ,i c\ld n sev] x )\t mak+ ! rema9d] faulty2 & al?\gh ,i consid] all my conclusions bas$ on v c]ta9 & cle> demon/rations1 ,i w\ld n = all ! _w su/a9 !m aga9/ ! au?ority ( ! ,*ur*4' ,t5 ye>s lat]1 h[ev]1 he did publi% ! book1 = he _h by ?is "t hit on an +5i\s compromise4 ,he =mally d5i$ t ! e>? mov$1 & only ass]t$ t x 0 c>ri$ along ) its wat] & air 9 "o ( ^? l>g] motions ( ! cele/ial e!r :i* produce ! diurnal & annual revolutions ( ! sol> sy/em4 ,s1 j z a pass5g] on ! deck ( a %ip might be call$ /ation>y1 s 0 ! e>?4 ,he gives himself out !re=e z a foll[] ( ,ty*o r ?an ( ,cop]nicus1 & says if ! ,*ur* won't accept ?is compromise he mu/ return to ! ,ptolemaic sy/em2 b he hopes !y won't compel him to d t1 see+ t x is manife/ly untrue4 ,?is elaborate def]5ce to ! p[]s t be did n inde$ save ! "w f be+ ultimately plac$ ^u ! =bidd5 li/ by ! ,*ur*1 b x sav$ himself1 at any rate1 f annoy+ p]secution4 ,he 0 n1 inde$1 at all will+ to be p]secut$1 & w\ld no d\bt h at once )drawn any?+ !y wi%$4 ,i %\ld be sorry to call him a "t-s]v]1 b he c]ta9ly _h pl5ty ( t worldly wisdom 9 :i* "s ( 8 pr$ecessors _h be5 s lam5tably defici5t4 ,moreov]1 he 0 really a sceptic1 & c>$ no?+ at all ab\t ! ,*ur* or its dogmas4 ,he knew ! ,*ur*'s p[]1 h[ev]1 & ! advisability ( /&+ well ) x3 he !re=e pr(ess$ himself a ,ca?olic1 & /udi\sly kept 8 sci5ce & 8 ,*ri/ianity di/9ct4 ,9 say+ t he 0 a sceptic y mu/ n und]/& t he 0 9 ! lea/ an a!i/4 ,v few m5 are2 c]ta9ly ,desc>tes nev] ?\ght ( be+ "o4 ,! t]m is inde$ ludicr\sly inapplicable to him1 = a great "p ( 8 philosophy is occupi$ ) :at he consid]s a rigor\s pro( ( ! exi/5ce ( ! ,deity4 ,at ! age ( fifty-?ree he 0 s5t = to ,/ockholm by ,*ri/9a1 ,que5 ( ,sw$51 a "y lady en?usia/ically devot$ to /udy ( all k9ds & det]m9$ to surr\nd h] ,c\rt ) all t 0 mo/ fam\s 9 lit]ature & sci5ce4 ,?i!r1 aft] hesitation1 ,desc>tes w5t4 ,he greatly lik$ royalty1 b he dread$ ! cold climate4 ,born 9 ,t\ra9e1 a ,sw$i% w9t] 0 peculi>ly try+ to him1 especially z ! en]getic ,que5 w\ld h lessons giv5 h] at five o'clock 9 ! morn+4 ,%e int5d$ to treat him well1 & 0 imm5sely tak5 ) him2 b ?is gett+ up at five o'clock on a ,novemb] morn+1 to a man accu/om$ all 8 life to lie 9 b$ till elev51 0 a cruel h>d%ip4 ,he 0 too mu* ( a c\rti]1 h[ev]1 to murmur1 & ! e>ly morn+ audi5ce cont9u$4 ,8 heal? began to break d[n3 he ?\ght ( retreat+1 b sudd5ly he gave way & became deliri\s4 ,! ,que5's physician att5d$ him1 & ( c\rse want$ to ble$ him4 ,?is1 kn[+ all he knew ( physiology1 s5t him furi\s1 & !y c\ld d no?+ ) him4 ,aft] "s days he became quiet1 0 bl$ twice1 & gradually sank1 disc\rs+ ) great calmness on 8 approa*+ dea?1 & duly =tifi$ ) all ! rites ( ! ,ca?olic ,*ur*4 ,8 g5]al me?od ( rese>* 0 z ne>ly z possible a purely d$uctive "o3--i4e41 aft] ! mann] ( ,euclid he />ts ) a few simple pr9ciples1 & !n1 by a *a9 ( reason+1 endeav\rs to d$uce f !m _! consequ5ces1 & s to build up bit by bit an edifice ( connect$ k4 ,9 ?is he 0 ! precursor ( ,newton4 ,?is me?od1 :5 rigor\sly pursu$1 is ! mo/ p[]ful & satisfactory ( all1 & results 9 an ord]$ prov9ce ( sci5ce f> sup]ior to ! fragm5t>y conque/s ( exp]im5t4 ,b few inde$ are ! m5 :o c h&le x safely & satisfactorily3 & none )\t cont9ual appeals to exp]im5t = v]ification4 ,x 0 ?r\gh n p]ceiv+ ! necessity = v]ification t he err$4 ,8 importance to sci5ce lies n s mu* 9 :at he actually discov]$ z 9 8 anticipation ( ! "r conditions = ! solution ( problems 9 physical sci5ce4 ,he 9 fact made ! discov]y t ,nature c\ld aft] all be int]rogat$ ma!matically--a fact t 0 9 great dang] ( rema9+ unkn[n4 ,=1 obs]ve1 t ! ma!matical /udy ( ,nature1 ! discov]y ( tru? ) a piece ( pap] & a p51 has a p]il\s simil>ity at fir/ sight to ! /raw-?ra%+ subtleties ( ! ,greeks1 ^: me?ods ( inve/igat+ nature by discuss+ ! mean+ ( words & ! usage ( language & ! necessities ( ?\ght1 _h prov$ to be s futile & unproductive4 ,a reaction _h set 91 l$ by ,galileo1 ,gilb]t1 & ! :ole mod]n s*ool ( exp]im5tal philosoph]s1 la/+ d[n to ! pres5t day3--m5 :o tea* t ! only "r way ( inve/igat+ ,nature is by exp]im5t & obs]vation4 ,x is inde$ a v "r & an absolutely necess>y way2 b x is n ! only way4 ,a f\ndation ( exp]im5tal fact !re mu/ be2 b ^u ?is a great /ructure ( !oretical d$uction c be bas$1 all rigidly connect$ toge!r by pure reason+1 & all necess>ily z true z ! premises1 provid$ no mi/ake is made4 ,to gu>d aga9/ ! possibility ( mi/ake & ov]sight1 especially ov]sight1 all conclusions mu/ soon] or lat] be br\ght to ! te/ ( exp]im5t2 & if disagree+ !re)1 ! !ory itself mu/ be re-exam9$1 & ! flaw discov]$1 or else ! !ory mu/ be ab&on$4 ,( ?is gr& me?od1 q diff]5t f ! grop+s 9 ! d>k ( ,kepl]--?is me?od1 :i*1 9 comb9ation ) exp]im5t1 has made sci5ce :at x n[ is--?is :i* 9 ! h&s ( ,newton 0 to lead to su* /up5d\s results1 we owe ! beg9n+ & e>ly /ages to ,r5 ,desc>tes4 ,,summ>y ,,( ,,facts ,,= ,,lectures ,,vii ,,& ,,viii ,otto ,gu]icke #afjb-afhf ,hon4 ,rob]t ,boyle #afbf-afia ,huygh5s #afbi-afie ,*ri/oph] ,wr5 #afcb-agbc ,rob]t ,hooke #afce-agjb ,,newton #afdb-agbg ,edmund ,halley #afef-agdb ,james ,bradley #afib-agfb ,*ronology ( ,newton's ,life4 ,isaac ,newton 0 born at ,wool/horpe1 ne> ,gran?am1 ,l9coln%ire1 on ,*ri/mas ,day1 #afdb4 ,8 fa!r1 a small freehold f>m]1 also nam$ ,isaac1 di$ be=e 8 bir?4 ,8 "m1 ne ,hannah ,aysc\gh1 9 two ye>s m>ri$ a ,mr4 ,smi?1 rector ( ,nor? ,)am1 b 0 aga9 left a wid[ 9 #afef4 ,8 uncle1 ,w4 ,aysc\gh1 0 rector ( a ne> p>i% & a graduate ( ,tr9ity ,college1 ,cambridge4 ,at ! age ( fifte5 ,isaac 0 remov$ f s*ool at ,gran?am to be made a f>m] (1 b z x seem$ he w\ld n make a good "o 8 uncle arrang$ = him to return to s*ool & !nce to ,cambridge1 :]e he ent]$ ,tr9ity ,college z a sub-siz> 9 #affa4 ,/udi$ ,desc>tes's geometry4 ,f\nd out a me?od ( inf9ite s]ies 9 #affe1 & began ! inv5tion ( ,fluxions4 ,9 ! same ye> & ! next he 0 driv5 f ,cambridge by ! plague4 ,9 #afff1 at ,wool/horpe1 ! apple fell4 ,9 #affg he 0 elect$ a fell[ ( 8 college1 & 9 #affi 0 specially not$ z possess+ an unp>allel$ g5ius by ,dr4 ,b>r[1 fir/ ,lucasian ,pr(essor ( ,ma!matics4 ,! same ye> ,dr4 ,b>r[ retir$ f 8 *air 9 fav\r ( ,newton1 :o 0 ?us elect$ at ! age ( tw5ty-six4 ,he lectur$ fir/ on optics ) great success4 ,e>ly 9 #afgb he 0 elect$ a ,fell[ ( ! ,royal ,society1 & communicat$ 8 rese>*es 9 optics1 8 reflect+ telescope1 & 8 discov]y ( ! comp\nd nature ( :ite light4 ,annoy+ controv]sies arose2 b he nev]!less contribut$ a good _m o!r mo/ important pap]s 9 optics1 includ+ obs]vations 9 diffraction1 & col\rs ( ?9 plates4 ,he also inv5t$ ! mod]n sextant4 ,9 #afgb a lett] f ,p>is 0 read at ! ,royal ,society conc]n+ a new & accurate det]m9ation ( ! size ( ! e>? by ,pic>d4 ,:5 ,newton he>d ( x he began ! ,pr9cipia1 work+ 9 sil5ce4 ,9 #afhd arose a discussion betwe5 ,wr51 ,hooke1 & ,halley conc]n+ ! law ( inv]se squ>e z appli$ to gravity & ! pa? x w\ld cause ! planets to describe4 ,hooke ass]t$ t he _h a solution1 b he w\ld n produce x4 ,aft] wait+ "s "t = x ,halley w5t to ,cambridge to consult ,newton on ! subject1 & ?us discov]$ ! exi/5ce ( ! fir/ "p ( ! ,pr9cipia1 :]e9 all ?is & mu* m 0 ?or\ghly work$ out4 ,on 8 repres5tations to ! ,royal ,society ! manuscript 0 ask$ =1 & :5 complete 0 pr9t$ & publi%$ 9 #afhg at ,halley's exp5se4 ,:ile x 0 be+ complet$ ,newton & sev5 o!rs 7 s5t to uphold ! dignity ( ! ,univ]sity1 be=e ! ,c\rt ( ,high ,commission & ,judge ,jeffreys1 aga9/ a high-h&$ action ( ,james ,,ii4 ,9 #afhb he 0 s5t to ,p>liam5t1 & 0 pres5t at ! coronation ( ,william & ,m>y4 ,made fri5ds ) ,locke4 ,9 #afid ,montague1 ,"l ,halifax1 made him ,w>d51 & 9 #afig ,ma/]1 ( ! ,m9t4 ,:i/on succe$$ him z ,lucasian ,pr(essor4 ,9 #afic ! me?od ( fluxions 0 publi%$4 ,9 #agjc ,newton 0 made ,presid5t ( ! ,royal ,society1 & held ! (fice to ! end ( 8 life4 ,9 #agje he 0 knight$ by ,anne4 ,9 #agac ,cotes help$ him to br+ out a new edition ( ! ,pr9cipia1 complet$ z we n[ h x4 ,on ! #bj? ( ,m>* #agbg1 he di$3 hav+ liv$ f ,*>les ,i4 to ,george ,,ii4 ,,! ,,laws ,,( ,,motion1 ,,discov]$ ,,by ,,galileo1 ,,/at$ ,,by ,,newton4 ,law #a4--;,if no =ce acts on a body 9 motion1 x cont9ues to move uni=mly 9 a /raight l9e4 ,law #b4--;,if =ce acts on a body1 x produces a *ange ( motion proportional to ! =ce & 9 ! same direction4 ,law #c4--,:5 "o body ex]ts =ce on ano!r1 t o!r reacts ) equal =ce ^u ! "o4 ,,lecture ,,vii ,,sir ,,isaac ,,newton ,! little hamlet ( ,wool/horpe lies close to ! village ( ,col/]wor?1 ab\t six miles s\? ( ,gran?am1 9 ! c\nty ( ,l9coln4 ,9 ! manor h\se ( ,wool/horpe1 on ,*ri/mas ,day1 #afdb1 0 born to a wid[$ "m a sickly infant :o seem$ n long = ?is _w4 ,two wom5 :o 7 s5t to ,nor? ,)am to get "s m$ic9e = him sc>cely expect$ to f9d him alive on _! return4 ,h[ev]1 ! *ild liv$1 became fairly robu/1 & 0 nam$ ,isaac1 aft] 8 fa!r4 ,:at sort ( a man ?is fa!r 0 we d n "k4 ,he 0 :at we may call a yeoman1 t mo/ :olesome & natural ( all classes4 ,he own$ ! soil he till$1 & 8 little e/ate _h already be5 9 ! family = "s hundr$ ye>s4 ,he 0 ?irty-six :5 he di$1 & _h only be5 m>ri$ a few mon?s4 ,( ! "m1 un=tunately1 we "k almo/ z little4 ,we he> t %e 0 recomm5d$ by a p>i%ion] to ! ,rev4 ,b>nabas ,smi?1 an old ba*elor 9 se>* ( a wife1 z ! wid[ ,newton--an extraord9>y good woman3 & s ,i expect %e 01 a ?or\ghly s5sible1 practical1 homely1 indu/ri\s1 middle-class1 ,mill-on-!-,floss sort ( woman4 ,h[ev]1 on h] second m>riage %e w5t to live at ,nor? ,)am1 & h] "m1 old ,mrs4 ,aysc\gh1 came to sup]9t5d ! f>m at ,wool/horpe1 & take c>e ( "y ,isaac4 ,by h] second m>riage 8 "m acquir$ ano!r piece ( l&1 :i* %e settl$ on h] fir/ son2 s ,isaac f\nd himself heir to two little prop]ties1 br++ 9 a r5tal ( ab\t #hj a ye>4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ef4--,manor-h\se ( ,wool/horpe4 ,he _h be5 s5t to a c\ple ( village s*ools to acquire ! ord9>y accompli%m5ts taught at ^? places1 & = ?ree ye>s to ! gramm> s*ool at ,gran?am1 !n conduct$ by an old g5tleman nam$ ,mr4 ,/okes4 ,he _h n be5 v indu/ri\s at s*ool1 nor did he feel ke5ly ! fasc9ations ( ! ,lat9 ,gramm>1 = he tells u t he 0 ! la/ boy 9 ! l[e/ class b "o4 ,he us$ to pay mu* m att5tion to ! con/ruction ( kites & w9dmills & wat]:eels1 all ( :i* he made to "w v well4 ,he also us$ to tie pap] lant]ns to ! tail ( 8 kite1 s z to make ! c\ntry folk fancy !y saw a comet1 & 9 g5]al to disport himself z a boy %\ld4 ,x s happ5$1 h[ev]1 t he succe$$ 9 ?ra%+1 9 fair fight1 a bigg] boy :o 0 high] 9 ! s*ool1 & :o _h giv5 him a kick4 ,8 success awak5$ a _s ( emulation 9 o!r ?+s ?an box+1 & "y ,newton spe$ily rose to be top ( ! s*ool4 ,"u ^! circum/ances1 at ! age ( fifte51 8 "m1 :o _h n[ return$ to ,wool/horpe1 :i* _h be5 rebuilt1 ?\ght x 0 "t to tra9 him = ! managem5t ( 8 l&1 & to make a f>m] & grazi] ( him4 ,! boy 0 d\btless glad to get away f s*ool1 b he did n take k9dly to ! f>m--especially n to ! m>ket+ at ,gran?am4 ,he & an old s]vant 7 s5t to ,gran?am e week to buy & sell produce1 b "y ,isaac us$ to leave 8 old m5tor to d all ! bus9ess1 & himself retire to an attic 9 ! h\se he _h lodg$ 9 :5 at s*ool1 & !re bury himself 9 books4 ,aft] a "t he didn't ev5 g ?r\gh ! f>ce ( visit+ ,gran?am at all2 b /opp$ on ! road & sat "u a h$ge1 read+ or mak+ "s model1 until 8 companion return$4 ,we he> ( him n[ 9 ! great /orm ( #afeh1 ! /orm on ! day ,cromwell di$1 measur+ ! =ce ( ! w9d by see+ h[ f> he c\ld jump ) x & aga9/ x4 ,he also made a wat]-clock & set x up 9 ! h\se at ,gran?am1 :]e x kept fairly good "t s long z he 0 9 ! neighb\rhood to look aft] x occasionally4 ,at 8 own home he made a c\ple ( sundials on ! side ( ! wall 7he began by m>k+ ! position ( ! sun by ! %ad[ ( a peg driv5 into ! wall1 b ?is gradually develop$ into a regul> dial7 "o ( :i* rema9$ ( use = "s "t2 & 0 /ill to be se5 9 ! same place dur+ ! fir/ half ( ! pres5t c5tury1 only ) ! gnomon gone4 ,9 #ahdd ! /one on :i* x 0 c>v$ 0 c>efully extract$ & pres5t$ to ! ,royal ,society1 :o pres]ve x 9 _! libr>y4 ,! lett]s ,,wton r\ghly c>v$ on x are b>ely visible4 ,all ^! pursuits mu/ h be5 r try+ to 8 poor "m1 & %e probably compla9$ to h] bro!r1 ! rector ( ,burton ,coggles3 at any rate ?is g5tleman f\nd ma/] ,newton "o morn+ "u a h$ge :5 he ought to h be5 f>m+4 ,b z he f\nd him work+ away at ma!matics1 l a wise man he p]suad$ 8 si/] to s5d ! boy back to s*ool = a %ort "t1 & !n to ,cambridge4 ,on ! day ( 8 f9ally leav+ s*ool old ,mr4 ,/okes assembl$ ! boys1 made !m a spee* 9 praise ( ,newton's "* & ability1 & !n dismiss$ him to ,cambridge4 ,at ,tr9ity ,college a new _w op5$ out be=e ! c\ntry-br$ lad4 ,he knew 8 classics passably1 b ( ma!matics & sci5ce he 0 ignorant1 except ?r\gh ! smatt]+s he _h pick$ up = himself4 ,he dev\r$ a book on logic1 & ano!r on ,kepl]'s ,optics1 s fa/ t 8 att5dance at lectures on ^! subjects became unnecess>y4 ,he also got hold ( a ,euclid & ( ,desc>tes's ,geometry4 ,! ,euclid seem$ *ildi%ly easy1 & 0 ?r[n aside1 b ! ,desc>tes baffl$ him = a "t4 ,h[ev]1 he set to x aga9 & aga9 & be=e long ma/]$ x4 ,he ?rew himself he>t & s\l into ma!matics1 & v soon made "s rem>kable discov]ies4 ,fir/ he discov]$ ! b9omial !orem3 famili> n[ to all :o h done any algebra1 un9telligible to o!rs1 & !re=e ,i say no?+ ab\t x4 ,by ! age ( tw5ty-"o or two he _h begun 8 great ma!matical discov]y ( inf9ite s]ies & fluxions--n[ kn[n by ! "n ( ! ,diff]5tial ,calculus4 ,he wrote ^! ?+s out & mu/ h be5 q absorb$ 9 !m1 b x nev] seems to h occurr$ to him to publi% !m or tell any "o ab\t !m4 ,9 #affd he notic$ "s halos r\nd ! moon1 &1 z 8 mann] 01 he measur$ _! angles--! small ones #c & #e degrees ea*1 ! l>g] "o #bbce4 ,lat] he gave _! !ory4 ,small col\r$ halos r\nd ! moon are (t5 se51 & are said to be a sign ( ra94 ,!y are produc$ by ! action ( m9ute globules ( wat] or cl\d p>ticles ^u light1 & are brighte/ :5 ! p>ticles are ne>ly equal 9 size4 ,!y are n l ! ra9b[1 e "p ( :i* is due to light t has ent]$ a ra9drop1 & be5 refract$ & reflect$ ) prismatic sep>ation ( col\rs2 a halo is caus$ by p>ticles s small z to be almo/ comp>able ) ! size ( waves ( light1 9 a way :i* is expla9$ 9 optics "u ! head diffraction4 ,x may be easily imitat$ by du/+ an ord9>y piece ( w9d[-glass ov] ) lycopodium1 plac+ a c&le ne> x1 & !n look+ at ! c&le-flame ?r\gh ! du/y glass f a fair di/ance4 ,or y may look at ! image ( a c&le 9 a du/$ look+-glass4 ,lycopodium du/ is specially suitable1 = its granules are rem>kably equal 9 size4 ,! l>ge halo1 m r>ely se51 ( angul> radius #bbce1 is due to ano!r cause aga91 & is a prismatic effect1 al?\gh x exhibits h>dly any col\r4 ,! angle #bb-a_/b is *>act]i/ic ( refraction 9 cry/als ) angles ( #fj & refractive index ab\t ! same z wat]2 9 o!r words ?is halo is caus$ by ice cry/als 9 ! high] regions ( ! atmosph]e4 ,he also ! same ye> obs]v$ a comet1 & sat up s late wat*+ x t he made himself ill4 ,by ! end ( ! ye> he 0 elect$ to a s*ol>%ip & took 8 ,b4,a4 degree4 ,! ord] ( m]it = t ye> nev] exi/$ or has n be5 kept4 ,x w\ld h be5 int]e/+1 n z a te/imony to ,newton1 b to ! s5se or non-s5se ( ! exam9]s4 ,! olde/ ,pr(essor%ip ( ,ma!matics at ! ,univ]sity ( ,cambridge1 ! ,lucasian1 _h n !n be5 long f\nd$1 & its fir/ occupant 0 ,dr4 ,isaac ,b>r[1 an em95t ma!matician1 & a k9d old man4 ,) him ,newton made good fri5ds1 & 0 helpful 9 prep>+ a treatise on optics = ! press4 ,8 help is ackn[l$g$ by ,dr4 ,b>r[ 9 ! preface1 :i* /ates t he _h correct$ sev]al errors & made "s capital additions ( 8 own4 ,?us we see t1 al?\gh ! *ief "p ( 8 "t 0 devot$ to ma!matics1 8 att5tion 0 already direct$ to bo? optics & a/ronomy4 7,kepl]1 ,desc>tes1 ,galileo1 all comb9$ "s optics ) a/ronomy4 ,ty*o & ! old ones comb9$ al*emy2 ,newton dabbl$ 9 ?is also47 ,newton rea*$ ! age ( tw5ty-?ree 9 #affe1 ! ye> ( ! ,great ,plague4 ,! plague broke out 9 ,cambridge z well z 9 ,london1 & ! :ole college 0 s5t d[n4 ,newton w5t back to ,wool/horpe1 8 m9d teem+ ) ideas1 & sp5t ! re/ ( ?is ye> & "p ( ! next 9 quiet pond]+4 ,someh[ or o!r he _h got hold ( ! notion ( c5trifugal =ce4 ,x 0 six ye>s be=e ,huygh5s discov]$ & publi%$ ! laws ( c5trifugal =ce1 b 9 "s quiet way ( 8 own ,newton knew ab\t x & appli$ ! idea to ! motion ( ! planets4 ,we c almo/ foll[ ! c\rse ( 8 ?\ghts z he brood$ & m$itat$ on ! great problem :i* _h tax$ s _m previ\s ?9k]s1--,:at makes ! planets move r\nd ! sun8 ,kepl] _h discov]$ h[ !y mov$1 b :y did !y s move1 :at urg$ !m8 ,ev5 ! h[ took a long "t--all ! "t ( ! ,greeks1 ?r\gh ,ptolemy1 ! ,arabs1 ,cop]nicus1 ,ty*o3 circul> motion1 epicycles1 & exc5trics _h be5 ! prevail+ !ory4 ,kepl]1 ) 8 m>vell\s indu/ry1 _h wre/$ f ,ty*o's obs]vations ! secret ( _! orbits4 ,!y mov$ 9 ellipses ) ! sun 9 "o focus4 ,_! rate ( description ( area1 n _! spe$1 0 uni=m & proportional to "t4 ,yes1 & a ?ird law1 a my/]i\s law ( un9telligible import1 _h also yield$ itself to 8 p5etrat+ indu/ry--a law ! discov]y ( :i* _h giv5 him ! ke5e/ delight1 & excit$ an outbur/ ( rapture--viz4 t !re 0 a relation betwe5 ! di/ances & ! p]iodic times ( ! sev]al planets4 ,! cubes ( ! di/ances 7 proportional to ! squ>es ( ! times = ! :ole sy/em4 ,?is law1 fir/ f\nd true = ! six prim>y planets1 he _h also ext5d$1 aft] ,galileo's discov]y1 to ! f\r second>y planets1 or satellites ( ,jupit] 7p4 #ha74 ,b all ?is 0 work+ 9 ! d>k--x 0 only ! fir/ /ep--?is empirical discov]y ( facts2 ! facts 7 s1 b h[ came !y s8 ,:at made ! planets move 9 ?is p>ticul> way8 ,desc>tes's vortices 0 an attempt1 a poor & imp]fect attempt1 at an explanation4 ,x _h be5 hail$ & adopt$ ?r\gh\t ,europe = want ( a bett]1 b x did n satisfy ,newton4 ,no1 x proce$$ on a wrong tack1 & ,kepl] _h proce$$ on a wrong tack 9 imag9+ spokes or rays /ick+ out f ! sun & driv+ ! planets r\nd l a piece ( me*anism or mill "w4 ,=1 note t all ^! !ories are bas$ on a wrong idea--! idea1 viz41 t "s =ce is necess>y to ma9ta9 a body 9 motion4 ,b ?is 0 contr>y to ! laws ( motion z discov]$ by ,galileo4 ,y "k t dur+ 8 la/ ye>s ( bl9d helplessness at ,arcetri1 ,galileo _h pond]$ & writt5 mu* on ! laws ( motion1 ! f\ndation ( me*anics4 ,9 8 e>ly y\?1 at ,pisa1 he _h be5 simil>ly occupi$2 he _h discov]$ ! p5dulum1 he _h refut$ ! ,ari/otelians by dropp+ weights f ! lean+ t[] 7:i* we mu/ rejoice t no e>?quake has yet injur$71 & he _h return$ to me*anics at int]vals all 8 life2 & n[1 :5 8 eyes 7 useless = a/ronomy1 :5 ! out] _w has become to him only a prison to be brok5 by dea?1 he returns once m to ! laws ( motion1 & produces ! mo/ solid & sub/antial "w ( 8 life4 ,= ?is is ,galileo's ma9 glory--n 8 brilliant exposition ( ! ,cop]nican sy/em1 n 8 fla%es ( wit at ! exp5se ( a moribund philosophy1 n 8 exp]im5ts on float+ bodies1 n ev5 8 telescope & a/ronomical discov]ies--?\gh ^! are ! mo/ tak+ & dazzl+ at fir/ sight4 ,no2 8 ma9 glory & title to immortality consi/s 9 ?is1 t he fir/ laid ! f\ndation ( me*anics on a firm & secure basis ( exp]im5t1 reason+1 & obs]vation4 ,he fir/ discov]$ ! true ,laws ( ,motion4 ,i said little ( ?is a*ievem5t 9 my lecture on him2 = ! "w 0 writt5 t[>ds ! end ( 8 life1 & ,i _h no "t !n4 ,b ,i knew ,i %\ld h to return to x be=e we came to ,newton1 & "h we are4 ,y may wond] h[ ! "w got publi%$ :5 s _m ( 8 manuscripts 7 de/roy$4 ,horrible to say1 ,galileo's own son de/roy$ a great bundle ( 8 fa!r's manuscripts1 ?9k+1 no d\bt1 !reby to save 8 own s\l4 ,?is book on me*anics 0 n burnt1 h[ev]4 ,! fact is x 0 rescu$ by "o or o!r ( 8 pupils1 ,toricelli or ,viviani1 :o 7 all[$ to visit him 9 8 la/ two or ?ree ye>s2 x 0 kept by !m = "s "t1 & !n publi%$ surreptiti\sly 9 ,holl&4 ,n t !re is any?+ 9 x be>+ 9 any visible way on any !ological controv]sy2 b x is unlikely t ! ,inquisition w\ld h suff]$ x to pass not)/&+4 ,i h app5d$ to ! summ>y prec$+ ?is lecture 7p4 #afj7 ! ?ree axioms or laws ( motion discov]$ by ,galileo4 ,!y are /at$ by ,newton ) unexampl$ cle>ness & accuracy1 & are h5ce kn[n z ,newton's laws1 b !y are bas$ on ,galileo's "w4 ,! fir/ is ! simple/2 ?\gh ignorance ( x gave ! anci5ts a deal ( tr\ble4 ,x is simply a /atem5t t =ce is ne$$ to *ange ! motion ( a body2 i4e4 t if no =ce act on a body x w cont9ue to move uni=mly bo? 9 spe$ & direction--9 o!r words1 /eadily1 9 a /raight l9e4 ,! old idea _h be5 t "s =ce 0 ne$$ to ma9ta9 motion4 ,on ! contr>y1 ! fir/ law ass]ts1 "s =ce is ne$$ to de/roy x4 ,leave a body alone1 free f all friction or o!r ret>d+ =ces1 & x w g on = ev]4 ,! planet>y motion ?r\gh empty space !re=e wants no keep+ up2 x is n ! motion t dem&s a =ce to ma9ta9 x1 x is ! curvature ( ! pa? t ne$s a =ce to produce x cont9ually4 ,! motion ( a planet is approximately uni=m s f> z spe$ is conc]n$1 b x is n con/ant 9 direction2 x is ne>ly a circle4 ,! real =ce ne$$ is n a propell+ b a deflect+ =ce4 ,! second law ass]ts t :5 a =ce acts1 ! motion *anges1 ei!r 9 spe$ or 9 direction1 or bo?1 at a pace proportional to ! magnitude ( ! =ce1 & 9 ! same direction z t 9 :i* ! =ce acts4 ,n[ s9ce x is almo/ solely 9 direction t planet>y motion alt]s1 a deflect+ =ce only is ne$$2 a =ce at "r angles to ! direction ( motion1 a =ce normal to ! pa?4 ,consid]+ ! motion z circul>1 a =ce along ! radius1 a radial or c5tripetal =ce1 mu/ be act+ cont9ually4 ,:irl a weight r\nd & r\nd by a bit ( ela/ic1 ! ela/ic is /ret*$2 :irl x fa/]1 x is /ret*$ m4 ,! mov+ mass pulls at ! ela/ic--t is its c5trifugal =ce2 ! h& at ! c5tre pulls also--t is c5tripetal =ce4 ,! ?ird law ass]ts t ^! two =ces are equal1 & toge!r con/itute ! t5sion 9 ! ela/ic4 ,x is impossible to h "o =ce alone1 !re mu/ be a pair4 ,y c't pu% h>d aga9/ a body t (f]s no resi/ance4 ,:atev] =ce y ex]t ^u a body1 ) t same =ce ! body mu/ react ^u y4 ,action & reaction are always equal & opposite4 ,sometimes an absurd difficulty is felt ) respect to ?is1 ev5 by eng9e]s4 ,!y say1 ,if ! c>t pulls aga9/ ! horse ) precisely ! same =ce z ! horse pulls ! c>t1 :y %\ld ! c>t move8 ,:y on e>? n8 ,! c>t moves because ! horse pulls x1 & because no?+ else is pull+ x back4 ,yes1 !y say1 ! c>t is pull+ back4 ,b :at is x pull+ back8 ,n itself1 surely8 ,no1 ! horse4 ,yes1 c]ta9ly ! c>t is pull+ at ! horse2 if ! c>t (f]$ no resi/ance :at w\ld be ! good ( ! horse8 ,t is :at he is =1 to ov]come ! pull-back ( ! c>t2 b no?+ is pull+ ! c>t back 7except1 ( c\rse1 a little friction71 & ! horse is pull+ x =w>d1 h5ce x goes =w>d4 ,!re is no puzzle at all :5 once y realise t !re are two bodies & two =ces act+1 & t "o =ce acts on ea* body4#af ,if1 inde$1 two balanc$ =ces act$ on "o body t w\ld be 9 equilibrium1 b ! two equal =ces contemplat$ 9 ! ?ird law act on two diff]5t bodies1 & nei!r is 9 equilibrium4 ,s mu* = ! ?ird law1 :i* is extremely simple1 ?\gh x has extraord9>ily f>-rea*+ consequ5ces1 & :5 comb9$ ) a d5ial ( action at a di/ance1 is precisely ! pr9ciple ( ! ,cons]vation ( ,en]gy4 ,attempts at p]petual motion may all be reg>d$ z attempts to get r\nd ?is ?ird law4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #eg4 ,on ! subject ( ! second law a great deal m has to be said be=e x c be 9 any prop] s5se ev5 p>tially appreciat$1 b a complete discussion ( x w\ld involve a treatise on me*anics4 ,x is ! law ( me*anics4 ,"o aspect ( x we mu/ att5d to n[ 9 ord] to deal ) ! motion ( ! planets1 & t is ! fact t ! *ange ( motion ( a body dep5ds solely & simply on ! =ce act+1 & n at all ^u :at ! body happ5s to be do+ at ! "t x acts4 ,x may be /ation>y1 or x may be mov+ 9 any direction2 t makes no diff]5ce4 ,?us1 ref]r+ back to ! summ>y prec$+ ,lecture ,,iv1 x is !re /at$ t a dropp$ body falls #af feet 9 ! fir/ second1 t 9 two seconds x falls #fd feet1 & s on1 9 proportion to ! squ>e ( ! "t4 ,s also w x be ! case ) a ?r[n body1 b ! drop mu/ be reckon$ f its l9e ( motion--! /raight l9e :i*1 b = gravity1 x w\ld describe4 ,?us a /one ?r[n f ,o ) ! velocity ,,oa w\ld 9 "o second f9d itself at ,a1 9 two seconds at ,b1 9 ?ree seconds at ,c1 & s on1 9 accordance ) ! fir/ law ( motion1 if no =ce act$4 ,b if gravity acts x w h fall5 #af feet by ! "t x w\ld h got to ,a1 & s w f9d itself at ,p4 ,9 two seconds x w be at ,q1 hav+ fall5 a v]tical height ( #fd feet2 9 ?ree seconds x w be at ,r1 #add feet bel[ ,c2 & s on4 ,its actual pa? w be a curve1 :i* 9 ?is case is a p>abola4 7,fig4 #eg47 ,if a cannon is po9t$ horizontally ov] a level pla91 ! cannon ball w be j z mu* affect$ by gravity z if x 7 dropp$1 & s w /rike ! pla9 at ! same in/ant z ano!r :i* 0 simply dropp$ :]e x />t$4 ,"o ball may h gone a mile & ! o!r only dropp$ a hundr$ feet or s1 b ! "t ne$$ by bo? = ! v]tical drop w be ! same4 ,! horizontal motion ( "o is an extra1 & is due to ! p[d]4 ,z a matt] ( fact ! pa? ( a projectile 9 vacuo is only approximately a p>abola4 ,x is in/ructive to rememb] t x is really an ellipse ) "o focus v di/ant1 b n at inf9ity4 ,"o ( its foci is ! c5tre ( ! e>?4 ,a projectile is really a m9ute satellite ( ! e>?'s1 & 9 vacuo x accurately obeys all ,kepl]'s laws4 ,x happ5s n to be able to complete its orbit1 because x 0 />t$ inconv5i5tly close to ! e>?1 ^: bulk gets 9 its way2 b 9 t respect ! e>? is to be reckon$ z a gratuit\s ob/ruction1 l a t>get1 b a t>get t diff]s f mo/ t>gets 9 be+ h>d to miss4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #eh4 ,n[ consid] circul> motion 9 ! same way1 say a ball :irl$ r\nd by a /r+4 7,fig4 #eh47 ,att5d+ to ! body at ,o1 x is = an in/ant mov+ t[>ds ,a1 & if no =ce act$ x w\ld get to ,a 9 a "t :i* = brevity we may call a second4 ,b a =ce1 ! pull ( ! /r+1 is cont9ually draw+ x t[>ds ,s1 & s x really f9ds itself at ,p1 hav+ describ$ ! circul> arc ,,op1 :i* may be consid]$ to be comp\nd$ (1 & analyzable into ! rectil9e> motion ,,oa & ! drop ,,ap4 ,at ,p x is = an in/ant mov+ t[>ds ,b1 & ! same process !re=e c>ries x to ,q2 9 ! ?ird second x gets to ,r2 & s on3 always fall+1 s to speak1 f its natural rectil9e> pa?1 t[>ds ! c5tre1 b nev] gett+ any ne>] to ! c5tre4 ,! =ce ) :i* x has ?us to be con/antly pull$ 9 t[>ds ! c5tre1 or1 :i* is ! same ?+1 ! =ce ) :i* x is tugg+ at :atev] con/ra9t x is t holds x 91 is mv#b_/r2 :]e m is ! mass ( ! p>ticle1 v its velocity1 & r ! radius ( its circle ( movem5t4 ,?is is ! =mula fir/ giv5 by ,huygh5s = c5trifugal =ce4 ,we %all f9d x conv5i5t to express x 9 t]ms ( ! "t ( "o revolution1 say ,t4 ,x is easily done1 s9ce pla9ly ,t circumf]5ce_/spe$ #bpir_/v2 s ! above expression = c5trifugal =ce becomes #dpi#bmr_/,t#b4 ,z to ! fall ( ! body t[>ds ! c5tre e microscopic unit ( "t1 x is easily reckon$4 ,= by ,euclid ,,iii4 #cf1 & ,fig4 #eh1 ,,ap4,,aa' ,,ao#b4 ,take ,a v ne> ,o1 !n ,,oa vt1 & ,,aa' #br2 s ,,ap v#bt#b_/br #bpi#br t#b_/,t#b2 or ! fall p] second is #bpi#br_/,t#b1 r be+ its di/ance f ! c5tre1 & ,t its "t ( go+ once r\nd4 ,9 ! case ( ! moon = in/ance1 r is #fj e>? radii2 m exactly #fjb2 & ,t is a lun> mon?1 or m precisely #bg days1 #g h\rs1 #dc m9utes1 & #aa-a_/b seconds4 ,h5ce ! moon's deflection f ! tang5tial or rectil9e> pa? e m9ute comes out z v closely #af feet 7! true size ( ! e>? be+ us$74 ,return+ n[ to ! case ( a small body revolv+ r\nd a big "o1 & assum+ a =ce directly proportional to ! mass ( bo? bodies1 & inv]sely proportional to ! squ>e ( ! di/ance betwe5 !m3 i4e4 assum+ ! kn[n =ce ( gravity1 x is ,v ,mm_/r#b :]e ,v is a con/ant1 call$ ! gravitation con/ant1 to be det]m9$ by exp]im5t4 ,if ?is is ! c5tripetal =ce pull+ a planet or satellite 91 x mu/ be equal to ! c5trifugal =ce ( ?is latt]1 viz4 7see above74 #dpi#bmr_/,t#b ,equate ! two toge!r1 & at once we get r#c_/,t#b ,v_/#dpi#b,m2 or1 9 words1 ! cube ( ! di/ance divid$ by ! squ>e ( ! p]iodic "t = e planet or satellite ( ! sy/em "u consid]ation1 w be con/ant & proportional to ! mass ( ! c5tral body4 ,?is is ,kepl]'s ?ird law1 ) a notable addition4 ,x is /at$ above = circul> motion only1 s z to avoid geometrical difficulties1 b ev5 s x is v in/ructive4 ,! reason ( ! proportion betwe5 r#c & ,t#b is at once manife/2 & z soon z ! con/ant ,v became kn[n1 ! mass ( ! c5tral body1 ! sun 9 ! case ( a planet1 ! e>? 9 ! case ( ! moon1 ,jupit] 9 ! case ( 8 satellites1 0 at once det]m9$4 ,newton's reason+ at ?is "t might1 h[ev]1 be bett] display$ p]haps by alt]+ ! ord] ( ! /eps a little1 z ?us3-- ,! c5trifugal =ce ( a body is proportional to r#c_/,t#b1 b by ,kepl]'s ?ird law r#c_/,t#b is con/ant = all ! planets1 reckon+ r f ! sun4 ,h5ce ! c5tripetal =ce ne$$ to hold 9 all ! planets w be a s+le =ce emanat+ f ! sun & v>y+ inv]sely ) ! squ>e ( ! di/ance f t body4 ,su* a =ce is at once necess>y & suffici5t4 ,su* a =ce w\ld expla9 ! motion ( ! planets4 ,b !n all ?is proce$s on a wrong assumption--t ! planet>y motion is circul>4 ,w x hold = elliptic orbits8 ,w an inv]se squ>e law ( =ce keep a body mov+ 9 an elliptic orbit ab\t ! sun 9 "o focus8 ,?is is a f> m difficult "q4 ,newton solv$ x1 b ,i d n believe t ev5 he c\ld h solv$ x1 except t he _h at 8 disposal two ma!matical eng9es ( great p[]--! ,c>tesian me?od ( treat+ geometry1 & 8 own me?od ( ,fluxions4 ,"o c expla9 ! elliptic motion n[ ma!matically1 b h>dly o!rwise2 & ,i mu/ be cont5t to /ate t ! d\ble fact is true--viz41 t an inv]se squ>e law w move ! body 9 an ellipse or o!r conic section ) ! sun 9 "o focus1 & t if a body s moves x mu/ be act$ on by an inv]se squ>e law4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ei4 ,?is !n is ! mean+ ( ! fir/ & ?ird laws ( ,kepl]4 ,:at ab\t ! second8 ,:at is ! mean+ ( ! equable description ( areas8 ,well1 t rigor\sly proves t a planet is act$ on by a =ce direct$ to ! c5tre ab\t :i* ! rate ( description ( areas is equable4 ,x proves1 9 fact1 t ! sun is ! attract+ body1 & t no o!r =ce acts4 ,= fir/ ( all if ! fir/ law ( motion is obey$1 i4e4 if no =ce acts1 & if ! pa? be equally subdivid$ to repres5t equal times1 & /raight l9es be drawn f ! divisions to any po9t :atev]1 all ^! areas ?us enclos$ w be equal1 because !y are triangles on equal base & ( ! same height 7,euclid1 ,i74 ,see ,fig4 #ei2 ,s be+ any po9t :atev]1 & ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 successive positions ( a body4 ,n[ at ea* ( ! successive in/ants let ! body receive a sudd5 bl[ 9 ! direction ( t same po9t ,s1 suffici5t to c>ry x f ,a to ,d 9 ! same "t z x w\ld h got to ,b if left alone4 ,! result w be t !re w be a compromise1 & x w really arrive at ,p1 travell+ along ! diagonal ( ! p>allelogram ,,ap4 ,! area its radius vector sweeps out is !re=e ,,sap1 in/ead ( :at x w\ld h be51 ,,sab4 ,b !n ^! two areas are equal1 because !y are triangles on ! same base ,,z1 & betwe5 ! same p>allels ,,bp1 ,,z2 = by ! p>allelogram law ,,bp is p>allel to ,,ad4 ,h5ce ! area t w\ld h be5 describ$ is describ$1 & z all ! areas 7 equal 9 ! case ( no =ce1 !y rema9 equal :5 ! body receives a bl[ at ! end ( e equal int]val ( "t1 provid$ t e bl[ is actually direct$ to ,s1 ! po9t to :i* radii vectores are drawn4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fj4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fa4 ,x is in/ructive to see t x does n hold if ! bl[ is any o!rwise direct$2 = in/ance1 z 9 ,fig4 #fa1 :5 ! bl[ is along ,,ae1 ! body f9ds itself at ,p at ! end ( ! second int]val1 b ! area ,,sap is by no means equal to ,,sab1 & !re=e n equal to ,,soa1 ! area swept out 9 ! fir/ int]val4 ,9 ord] to modify ,fig4 #fj s z to repres5t cont9u\s motion & /eady =ces1 we h to take ! sides ( ! polygon ,,oapq1 c41 v num]\s & v small2 9 ! limit1 inf9itely num]\s & inf9itely small4 ,! pa? !n becomes a curve1 & ! s]ies ( bl[s becomes a /eady =ce direct$ t[>ds ,s4 ,ab\t :atev] po9t !re=e ! rate ( description ( areas is uni=m1 t po9t & no o!r mu/ be ! c5tre ( all ! =ce !re is4 ,if !re be no =ce1 z 9 ,fig4 #ei1 well & good1 b if !re be any =ce h[ev] small n direct$ t[>ds ,s1 !n ! rate ( description ( areas ab\t ,s _c be uni=m4 ,kepl]1 h[ev]1 says t ! rate ( description ( areas ( ea* planet ab\t ! sun is1 by ,ty*o's obs]vations1 uni=m2 h5ce ! sun is ! c5tre ( all ! =ce t acts on !m1 & !re is no o!r =ce1 n ev5 friction4 ,t is ! moral ( ,kepl]'s second law4 ,we may also see f x t gravity does n travel l light1 s z to take "t on its j\rney f sun to planet2 =1 if x did1 !re w\ld be a sort ( ab]ration1 & ! =ce on its arrival c\ld no long] be accurately direct$ to ! c5tre ( ! sun4 7,see ,nature1 vol4 xlvi41 p4 #dig47 ,x is a matt] = accuracy ( obs]vation1 !re=e1 to decide :e!r ! m9ute/ trace ( su* deviation c be detect$1 i4e4 )9 :at limits ( accuracy ,kepl]'s second law is n[ kn[n to be obey$4 ,i w cont5t myself by say+ t ! limits are extremely n>r[4 ,ref]5ce may be made also to p4 #bjh4 ,?us !n x became cle> to ,newton t ! :ole sol> sy/em dep5d$ on a c5tral =ce emanat+ f ! sun1 & v>y+ inv]sely ) ! squ>e ( ! di/ance f him3 = by t hypo!sis all ! laws ( ,kepl] conc]n+ ^! motions 7 completely acc\nt$ =2 &1 9 fact1 ! laws necessitat$ ! hypo!sis & e/abli%$ x z a !ory4 ,simil>ly ! satellites ( ,jupit] 7 controll$ by a =ce emanat+ f ,jupit] & v>y+ accord+ to ! same law4 ,& aga9 our moon mu/ be controll$ by a =ce f ! e>?1 decreas+ ) ! di/ance accord+ to ! same law4 ,grant ?is hypo!tical attract+ =ce pull+ ! planets t[>ds ! sun1 pull+ ! moon t[>ds ! e>?1 & ! :ole me*anism ( ! sol> sy/em is beautifully expla9$4 ,if only "o c\ld be sure !re 0 su* a =ce6 ,x 0 "o ?+ to calculate out :at ! effects ( su* a =ce w\ld be3 x 0 ano!r to be able to put "o's f+] ^u x & say1 ?is is ! =ce t actually exi/s & is kn[n to exi/4 ,we mu/ picture him m$itat+ 9 8 g>d5 on ?is want--an attractive =ce t[>ds ! e>?4 ,if only su* an attractive =ce pull+ d[n bodies to ! e>? exi/$4 ,an apple falls f a tree4 ,:y1 x does exi/6 ,!re is gravitation1 common gravity t makes bodies fall & gives !m _! weight4 ,want$1 a =ce t5d+ t[>ds ! c5tre ( ! e>?4 ,x is to h&6 ,x is common old gravity t _h be5 kn[n s long1 t 0 p]fectly famili> to ,galileo1 & probably to ,ar*im$es4 ,gravity t regulates ! motion ( projectiles4 ,:y %\ld x only pull /ones & apples8 ,:y %\ld x n rea* z high z ! moon8 ,:y %\ld x n be ! gravitation ( ! sun t is ! c5tral =ce act+ on all ! planets8 ,surely ! secret ( ! univ]se is discov]$6 ,b1 wait a bit2 is x discov]$8 ,is ?is =ce ( gravity suffici5t = ! purpose8 ,x mu/ v>y inv]sely ) ! squ>e ( ! di/ance f ! c5tre ( ! e>?4 ,h[ f> is ! moon away8 ,sixty e>?'s radii4 ,h5ce ! =ce ( gravity at ! moon's di/ance c only be #a_/cfjj ( :at x is on ! e>?'s surface4 ,s1 in/ead ( pull+ x #af ft4 p] second1 x %\ld pull x #af_/cfjj ft4 p] second1 or #af ft4 a m9ute4#ag ,h[ c "o decide :e!r su* a =ce is able to pull ! moon ! actual am\nt requir$8 ,to ,newton ?is w\ld seem only l a sum 9 ari?metic4 ,out ) a p5cil & pap] & reckon h[ mu* ! moon falls t[>d ! e>? 9 e second ( its motion4 ,is x #af_/cfjj8 ,t is :at x ought to be3 b is x8 ,! size ( ! e>? comes into ! calculation4 ,sixty miles make a degree1 #cfj degrees a circumf]5ce4 ,?is gives z ! e>?'s diamet] #f1hgc miles2 "w x out4 ,! answ] is n #af feet a m9ute1 x is #aci feet4 ,surely a mi/ake ( calculation8 ,no1 x is no mi/ake3 !re is some?+ wrong 9 ! !ory1 gravity is too /rong4 ,in/ead ( fall+ t[>d ! e>? #e-a_/c hundr$?s ( an in* e second1 z x w\ld "u gravity1 ! moon only falls #d-b_/c hundr$?s ( an in* p] second4 ,) su* a discov]y 9 8 grasp at ! age ( tw5ty-?ree he is disappo9t$--! figures d n agree1 & he _c make !m agree4 ,ei!r gravity is n ! =ce 9 action1 or else some?+ int]f]es ) x4 ,possibly1 gravity does "p ( ! "w1 & ! vortices ( ,desc>tes int]f]e ) x4 ,he mu/ ab&on ! fasc9at+ idea = ! "t4 ,9 8 own words1 he laid aside at t "t any fur!r ?\ght ( ! matt]4 ,s f> z is kn[n1 he nev] m5tion$ 8 disappo9tm5t to a s\l4 ,he might1 p]haps1 if he _h be5 at ,cambridge1 b he 0 a %y & solit>y y\?1 & j z likely he might n4 ,up 9 ,l9coln%ire1 9 ! sev5te5? c5tury1 :o 0 !re = him to consult8 ,true1 he might h ru%$ into premature publication1 aft] our n9ete5? c5tury fa%ion1 b t 0 n 8 me?od4 ,publication nev] seem$ to h occurr$ to him4 ,8 retic5ce n[ is notewor?y1 b lat] on x is p]fectly a/oni%+4 ,he is s absorb$ 9 mak+ discov]ies t he actually has to be rem9d$ to tell any "o ab\t !m1 & "s "o else always has to see to ! pr9t+ & publi%+ = him4 ,i h ent]$ ?us fully into :at ,i conjecture to be ! /ages ( ?is e>ly discov]y ( ! law ( gravitation1 z applicable to ! heav5ly bodies1 because x is frequ5tly & commonly misund]/ood4 ,x is sometimes ?\ght t he discov]$ ! =ce ( gravity2 ,i hope ,i h made x cle> t he did no su* ?+4 ,e educat$ man long be=e 8 "t1 if ask$ :y bodies fell1 w\ld reply j z glibly z !y d n[1 ,because ! e>? attracts !m1 or because ( ! =ce ( gravity4 ,8 discov]y 0 t ! motions ( ! sol> sy/em 7 due to ! action ( a c5tral =ce1 direct$ to ! body at ! c5tre ( ! sy/em1 & v>y+ inv]sely ) ! squ>e ( ! di/ance f x4 ,?is discov]y 0 bas$ ^u ,kepl]'s laws1 & 0 cle> & c]ta94 ,x might h be5 publi%$ _h he s *os54 ,b he did n l hypo!tical & unkn[n =ces2 he tri$ to see :e!r ! kn[n =ce ( gravity w\ld s]ve4 ,?is discov]y at t "t he fail$ to make1 ow+ to a wrong num]ical datum4 ,! size ( ! e>? he only knew f ! common doctr9e ( sailors t #fj miles make a degree2 & t ?rew him out4 ,in/ead ( fall+ #af feet a m9ute1 z x ought "u gravity1 x only fell #aci feet1 s he ab&on$ ! idea4 ,we d n f9d t he return$ to x = sixte5 ye>s4 ,,lecture ,,viii ,,newton ,,& ,,! ,,law ,,( ,,gravitation ,we left ,newton at ! age ( tw5ty-?ree on ! v]ge ( discov]+ ! me*anism ( ! sol> sy/em1 det]r$ !refrom only by an error 9 ! !n imag9$ size ( ! e>?4 ,he _h prov$ f ,kepl]'s laws t a c5tripetal =ce direct$ to ! sun1 & v>y+ z ! inv]se squ>e ( ! di/ance f t body1 w\ld acc\nt = ! obs]v$ planet>y motions1 & t a simil> =ce direct$ to ! e>? w\ld acc\nt = ! lun> motion2 & x _h /ruck him t ?is =ce might be ! v same z ! famili> =ce ( gravitation :i* gave to bodies _! weight3 b 9 attempt+ a num]ical v]ification ( ?is idea 9 ! case ( ! moon he 0 l$ by ! !n receiv$ notion t sixty miles made a degree on ! e>?'s surface into an errone\s e/imate ( ! size ( ! moon's orbit4 ,be+ ?us baffl$ 9 obta9+ su* v]ification1 he laid ! matt] aside = a "t4 ,! anecdote ( ! apple we le>n f ,voltaire1 :o _h x f ,newton's fav\rite niece1 :o ) h] husb& liv$ & kept h\se = him all 8 lat] life4 ,x is v l "o ( ^? anecdotes :i* are easily inv5t$ & believ$ 91 & v (t5 turn out on scrut9y to h no f\ndation4 ,=tunately ?is anecdote is well au!nticat$1 & moreov] is intr9sically probable2 ,i say =tunately1 because x is always pa9ful to h to give up ^! *ild-le>nt anecdotes1 l ,alfr$ & ! cakes & s on4 ,?is anecdote ( ! apple we ne$ n resign4 ,! tree 0 bl[n d[n 9 #ahbj & "p ( its wood is pres]v$4 ,i h m5tion$ ,voltaire 9 connection ) ,newton's philosophy4 ,?is acute critic at a lat] /age did a good deal to popul>ise x ?r\gh\t ,europe & to ov]turn t ( 8 own c\ntryman ,desc>tes4 ,cambridge rapidly became ,newtonian1 b ,ox=d rema9$ ,c>tesian = fifty ye>s or m4 ,x is curi\s :at little hold sci5ce & ma!matics h ev] secur$ 9 ! old] & m ecclesia/ical ,univ]sity4 ,! pride ( possess+ ,newton has h[ev] no d\bt be5 ! ma9 /imulus to ! special pursuits ( ,cambridge4 ,he n[ began to turn 8 att5tion to optics1 &1 z 0 usual ) him1 8 :ole m9d became absorb$ 9 ?is subject z if no?+ else _h ev] occupi$ him4 ,8 ca%-book = ?is "t has be5 discov]$1 & ! entries %[ t he is buy+ prisms & l5ses & poli%+ p[d] at ! beg9n+ ( #affg4 ,he 0 anxi\s to improve telescopes by mak+ m p]fect l5ses ?an _h ev] be5 us$ be=e4 ,accord+ly he calculat$ out _! prop] curves1 j z ,desc>tes _h also done1 & !n proce$$ to gr9d !m z ne> z he c\ld to ^? figures4 ,b ! images did n please him2 !y 7 always blurr$ & r indi/9ct4 ,at l5g?1 x /ruck him t p]haps x 0 n ! l5ses b ! light :i* 0 at fault4 ,p]haps light 0 s compos$ t x c\ld n be focus$ accurately to a %>p & def9ite po9t4 ,p]haps ! law ( refraction 0 n q accurate1 b only an approximation4 ,s he b\ght a prism to try ! law4 ,he let 9 sunlight ?r\gh a small r\nd hole 9 a w9d[ %utt]1 ins]t$ ! prism 9 ! light1 & receiv$ ! deflect$ beam on a :ite scre52 turn+ ! prism ab\t till x 0 deviat$ z little z possible4 ,! pat* on ! scre5 0 n a r\nd disk1 z x w\ld h be5 )\t ! prism1 b 0 an elongat$ oval & 0 col\r$ at its extremities4 ,evid5tly refraction 0 n a simple geometrical deflection ( a ray1 !re 0 a spread+ out z well4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fc4--;,a prism n only deviates a beam ( sunlight1 b also spreads x out or disp]ses x4 ,:y did ! image ?us spread out8 ,if x 7 due to irregul>ities 9 ! glass a second prism %\ld r increase !m1 b a second prism :5 held 9 appropriate position 0 able to neutralise ! disp]sion & to reproduce ! simple r\nd :ite spot )\t deviation4 ,evid5tly ! spread+ out ( ! beam 0 connect$ 9 "s def9ite way ) its refraction4 ,c\ld x be t ! light p>ticles aft] pass+ ?r\gh ! prism travell$ 9 v>i\sly curv$ l9es1 z sp9n+ racquet balls d8 ,to exam9e ?is he measur$ ! l5g? ( ! oval pat* :5 ! scre5 0 at diff]5t di/ances f ! prism1 & f\nd t ! two ?+s 7 directly proportional to ea* o!r4 ,d\bl+ ! di/ance ( ! scre5 d\bl$ ! l5g? ( ! pat*4 ,h5ce ! rays travell$ 9 /raight l9es f ! prism1 & ! spread+ out 0 due to some?+ t occurr$ )9 its sub/ance4 ,c\ld x be t :ite light 0 comp\nd1 0 a mixture ( sev]al con/itu5ts1 & t its diff]5t con/itu5ts 7 diff]5tly b5t8 ,no soon] ?\ght ?an tri$4 ,pi]ce ! scre5 to let "o ( ! con/itu5ts ?r\gh & int]pose a second prism 9 its pa?4 ,if ! spread+ out dep5d$ on ! prism only x %\ld spread out j z mu* z be=e1 b if x dep5d$ on ! complex "* ( :ite light1 ?is isolat$ simple con/itu5t %\ld be able to spread out no m4 ,x did n spread out any m3 a prism _h no m disp]sive p[] ov] x2 x 0 deflect$ by ! appropriate am\nt1 b x 0 n analys$ into con/itu5ts4 ,x diff]$ f sunlight 9 be+ simple4 ,) _m +5i\s & beautifully simple exp]im5ts1 :i* are quot$ 9 full 9 sev]al books on optics1 he cl9*$ ! argum5t & e/abli%$ 8 discov]y4 ,:ite light 0 n simple b comp\nd4 ,x c\ld be sort$ out by a prism into an inf9ite numb] ( con/itu5t p>ts :i* 7 diff]5tly refract$1 & ! mo/ /rik+ ( :i* ,newton nam$ violet1 indigo1 blue1 gre51 yell[1 orange1 & r$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fd4--;,a s+le con/itu5t ( :ite light1 obta9$ by ! use ( p]=at$ scre5s is capable ( no m disp]sion4 ,at once ! true nature ( col\r became manife/4 ,col\r resid$ n 9 ! col\r$ object z _h till n[ be5 ?\ght1 b 9 ! light :i* illum9at$ x4 ,r$ glass = in/ance adds no?+ to sunlight4 ,! light does n get dy$ r$ by pass+ ?r\gh ! glass2 all t ! r$ glass does is to /op & absorb a l>ge "p ( ! sunlight2 x is opaque to ! l>g] portion1 b x is transp>5t to t p>ticul> portion :i* affects our eyes ) ! s5sation ( r$4 ,! prism acts l a sieve sort+ out ! diff]5t k9ds ( light4 ,col\r$ m$ia act l filt]s1 /opp+ c]ta9 k9ds b all[+ ! re/ to g ?r\gh4 ,leon>do's & all ! anci5t doctr9es ( col\r _h be5 s+ul>ly wrong2 col\r is n 9 ! object b 9 ! light4 ,goe!1 9 8 ,f>b5lehre1 endeav\r$ to controv]t ,newton1 & to re9/ate some?+ m l ! old views2 b 8 failure 0 complete4 ,refraction analys$ out ! v>i\s con/itu5ts ( :ite light & display$ !m 9 ! =m ( a s]ies ( ov]lapp+ images ( ! ap]ture1 ea* ( a diff]5t col\r2 ?is s]ies ( images we call a spectrum1 & ! op]ation we n[ call spectrum analysis4 ,! reason ( ! defect ( l5ses 0 n[ pla93 x 0 n s mu* a defect ( ! l5s z a defect ( light4 ,a l5s acts by refraction & br+s rays to a focus4 ,if light be simple x acts well1 b if ord9>y :ite light fall ^u a l5s1 its diff]5t con/itu5ts h diff]5t foci2 e bright object is fr+$ ) col\r1 & no?+ l a cle> image c be obta9$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fe4--,%[+ ! b\nd>y rays ( a p>allel beam pass+ ?r\gh a l5s4 ,a p>allel beam pass+ ?r\gh a l5s becomes conical2 b in/ead ( a s+le cone x is a %eaf or ne/ ( cones1 all hav+ ! edge ( ! l5s z base1 b ea* hav+ a diff]5t v]tex4 ,! violet cone is inn]mo/1 ne> ! l5s1 ! r$ cone out]mo/1 :ile ! o!rs lie betwe54 ,beyond ! cross+ po9t or focus ! ord] ( cones is rev]s$1 z ! above figure %[s4 ,only ! two m>g9al rays ( ! beam are depict$4 ,if a scre5 be held any:]e ne>] ! l5s ?an ! place m>k$ #a !re w be a :iti% c5tre to ! pat* ( light & a r$ & orange fr+e or bord]4 ,held any:]e beyond ! region #b1 ! bord] ( ! pat* w be blue & violet4 ,held ab\t #c ! col\r w be less m>k$ ?an else:]e1 b n[h]e c x be got rid (4 ,ea* po9t ( an object w be repres5t$ 9 ! image n by a po9t b by a col\r$ pat*3 a fact :i* amply expla9s ! obs]v$ blurr+ & indi/9ctness4 ,newton measur$ & calculat$ ! di/ance betwe5 ! violet & r$ foci--,,vr 9 ! diagram--& %[$ t x 0 #a_/ej? ! diamet] ( ! l5s4 ,to ov]come ?is difficulty 7call$ *romatic ab]ration7 telescope glasses 7 made small & ( v long focus3 "s ( !m s long t !y _h no tube1 all ( !m egregi\sly cumbr\s4 ,yet x 0 ) su* in/rum5ts t all ! e>ly discov]ies 7 made4 ,) su* an in/rum5t1 = in/ance1 ,huygh5s discov]$ ! real %ape ( ,saturn's r+4 ,! defects ( refractors seem$ irrem$iable1 be+ f\nd$ 9 ! nature ( light itself4 ,s he gave up 8 glass works2 & proce$$ to ?9k ( reflexion f metal specula4 ,a concave mirror =ms an image j z a l5s does1 b s9ce x does s )\t refraction or transmission ?r\gh any sub/ance1 !re is no accompany+ disp]sion or *romatic ab]ration4 ,! fir/ reflect+ telescope he made 0 #a 94 diamet] & #f 94 long1 & magnifi$ =ty times4 ,x act$ z well z a ?ree or f\r feet refractor ( t day1 & %[$ ,jupit]'s moons4 ,s he made a l>g] "o1 n[ 9 ! libr>y ( ! ,royal ,society1 ,london1 ) an inscription3 ,! fir/ reflect+ telescope1 inv5t$ by ,sir ,isaac ,newton1 & made ) 8 own h&s4 ,?is has be5 ! p>5t ( mo/ ( ! gigantic telescopes ( ! pres5t day4 ,fifty ye>s elaps$ be=e x 0 mu* improv$ on1 & !n1 fir/ by ,hadley & aft]w>ds by ,h]s*el & o!rs1 l>ge & good reflectors 7 con/ruct$4 ,! l>ge/ telescope ev] made1 t ( ,"l ,rosse1 is a ,newtonian reflector1 fifty feet long1 six feet diamet]1 ) a mirror weigh+ f\r tons4 ,! sextant1 z us$ by navigators1 0 also inv5t$ by ,newton4 ,! ye> aft] ! plague1 9 #affg1 ,newton return$ to ,tr9ity ,college1 & !re cont9u$ 8 exp]im5ts on optics4 ,x is specially to be not$ t at ?is "t1 at ! age ( tw5ty-f\r1 ,newton _h laid ! f\ndations ( all 8 greate/ discov]ies3-- ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ff4--,newton's telescope4 ,! ,!ory ( ,fluxions2 or1 ! ,diff]5tial ,calculus4 ,! ,law ( ,gravitation2 or1 ! complete !ory ( a/ronomy4 ,! comp\nd nature ( :ite light2 or1 ! beg9n+ ( ,spectrum ,analysis4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fg4--,! sextant1 z n[ made4 ,8 lat] life 0 to be occupi$ 9 work+ ^! incipi5t discov]ies out4 ,b ! mo/ rem>kable ?+ is t no "o knew ab\t any "o ( !m4 ,h[ev]1 he 0 kn[n z an accompli%$ "y ma!matician1 & 0 made a fell[ ( 8 college4 ,y rememb] t he _h a fri5d !re 9 ! p]son ( ,dr4 ,isaac ,b>r[1 fir/ ,lucasian ,pr(essor ( ,ma!matics 9 ! ,univ]sity4 ,x happ5$1 ab\t #affi1 t a ma!matical discov]y ( "s int]e/ 0 be+ mu* discuss$1 & ,dr4 ,b>r[ happ5$ to m5tion x to ,newton1 :o said yes1 he _h work$ out t & a few o!r simil> ?+s "s "t ago4 ,he accord+ly w5t & fet*$ "s pap]s to ,dr4 ,b>r[1 :o =w>d$ !m to o!r di/+ui%$ ma!maticians1 & x ?us appe>$ t ,newton _h discov]$ !orems mu* m g5]al ?an ?is special case t 0 excit+ s mu* int]e/4 ,dr4 ,b>r[1 be+ anxi\s to devote 8 "t m p>ticul>ly to !ology1 resign$ 8 *air ! same ye> 9 fav\r ( ,newton1 :o 0 accord+ly elect$ to ! ,lucasian ,pr(essor%ip1 :i* he held = ?irty ye>s4 ,?is *air is n[ ! mo/ fam\s 9 ! ,univ]sity1 & x is commonly ref]r$ to z ! *air ( ,newton4 ,/ill1 h[ev]1 8 me?od ( fluxions 0 unkn[n1 & /ill he did n publi% x4 ,he lectur$ fir/ on optics1 giv+ an acc\nt ( 8 exp]im5ts4 ,8 lectures 7 aft]w>ds publi%$ bo? 9 ,lat9 & ,engli%1 & are highly valu$ to ?is day4 ,! fame ( 8 ma!matical g5ius came to ! e>s ( ! ,royal ,society1 & a motion 0 made to get him elect$ a fell[ ( t body4 ,! ,royal ,society1 ! olde/ & mo/ fam\s ( all sci5tific societies ) a cont9u\s exi/5ce1 took its orig9 9 "s private meet+s1 got up 9 ,london by ! ,hon4 ,rob]t ,boyle & a few sci5tific fri5ds1 dur+ all ! tr\ble ( ! ,commonweal?4 ,aft] ! re/oration1 ,*>les ,,ii4 9 #affb incorporat$ x "u ,royal ,*>t]2 among ! orig9al memb]s be+ ,boyle1 ,hooke1 ,*ri/oph] ,wr51 & o!r less fam\s names4 ,boyle 0 a great exp]im5t]1 a wor?y foll[] ( ,dr4 ,gilb]t4 ,hooke began z 8 assi/ant1 b be+ ( a mo/ extraord9>y +5uity he rapidly rose s z to exce$ 8 ma/] 9 importance4 ,fate has be5 a little unk9d to ,hooke 9 plac+ him s ne> to ,newton2 _h he liv$ 9 an ord9>y age he w\ld und\bt$ly h %one z a /> ( ! fir/ magnitude4 ,) great +5uity1 rem>kable sci5tific insight1 & consummate exp]im5tal skill1 he /&s 9 _m respects almo/ on a level ) ,galileo4 ,b x is difficult to see />s ev5 ( ! fir/ magnitude :5 ! sun is up1 & ?us x happ5s t ! "n & fame ( ?is brilliant man are almo/ lo/ 9 ! blaze ( ,newton4 ,( ,*ri/oph] ,wr5 ,i ne$ n say mu*4 ,he is well kn[n z an ar*itect1 b he 0 a mo/ accompli%$ all-r\nd man1 & _h a consid]able ta/e & faculty = sci5ce4 ,^! !n 7 ! lum9>ies ( ! ,royal ,society at ! "t we are speak+ (1 & to !m ,newton's fir/ sci5tific publication 0 submitt$4 ,he communicat$ to !m an acc\nt ( 8 reflect+ telescope1 & pres5t$ !m ) ! in/rum5t4 ,_! reception ( x surpris$ him2 !y 7 greatly delight$ ) x1 & wrote specially ?ank+ him = ! communication1 & assur+ him t all "r %\ld be done him 9 ! matt] ( ! inv5tion4 ,! ,bi%op ( ,salisbury 7,bi%op ,burnet7 propos$ him = election z a fell[1 & elect$ he 04 ,9 reply1 he express$ 8 surprise at ! value !y set on ! telescope1 & (f]$1 if !y c>$ = x1 to s5d !m an acc\nt ( a discov]y :i* he d\bts n w prove mu* m grateful ?an ! communication ( t in/rum5t1 be+ 9 my judgm5t ! odde/1 if n ! mo/ consid]able detection t has rec5tly be5 made into ! op]ations ( ,nature4 ,s he tells !m ab\t 8 optical rese>*es & 8 discov]y ( ! nature ( :ite light1 writ+ !m a s]ies ( pap]s :i* 7 long aft]w>ds incorporat$ & publi%$ z 8 ,optics4 ,a magnific5t "w1 :i* ( itself suffices to place its au?or 9 ! fir/ rank ( ! _w's m5 ( sci5ce4 ,! nature ( :ite light1 ! true doctr9e ( col\r1 & ! diff]5tial calculus6 besides a good numb] ( m9or results--b9omial !orem1 reflect+ telescope1 sextant1 & ! l2 "o w\ld ?9k x en\gh = "o man's life-"w1 b ! ma/]piece rema9s /ill to be m5tion$4 ,x is z :5 "o is consid]+ ,%akspe>e3 ,k+ ,le>1 ,macbe?1 ,o!llo1--surely a suffici5t a*ievem5t1--b ! ma/]piece rema9s4 ,comp>isons 9 diff]5t dep>tm5ts are b little help p]haps1 nev]!less x seems to me t 9 8 own dep>tm5t1 & consid]$ simply z a man ( sci5ce1 ,newton t[]s head & %\ld]s ov]1 n only 8 contempor>ies--t is a small matt]--b ov] e o!r sci5tific man :o has ev] liv$1 9 a way t we c f9d no p>allel = 9 o!r dep>tm5ts4 ,o!r nations admit 8 sci5tific pre-em95ce ) z mu* alacrity z we d4 ,well1 we h arriv$ at ! ye> #afgb & 8 election to ! ,royal ,society4 ,dur+ ! fir/ ye> ( 8 memb]%ip !re 0 read at "o ( ! meet+s a pap] giv+ an acc\nt ( a v c>eful det]m9ation ( ! l5g? ( a degree 7i4e4 ( ! size ( ! e>?71 :i* _h be5 made by ,pic>d ne> ,p>is4 ,! l5g? ( ! degree turn$ out to be n sixty miles1 b ne>ly sev5ty miles4 ,h[ soon ,newton he>d ( ?is we d n le>n--probably n = "s ye>s1--,cambridge 0 n s ne> ,london !n z x is n[1 b ultimately x 0 br\ght to 8 notice4 ,arm$ ) ?is new datum1 8 old speculation conc]n+ gravity occurr$ to him4 ,he _h work$ out ! me*anics ( ! sol> sy/em on a c]ta9 hypo!sis1 b x _h rema9$ a hypo!sis some:at out ( h>mony ) app>5t fact4 ,:at if x %\ld turn out to be true aft] all6 ,he took out 8 old pap]s & began aga9 ! calculation4 ,if gravity 7 ! =ce keep+ ! moon 9 its orbit1 x w\ld fall t[>d ! e>? sixte5 feet e m9ute4 ,h[ f> did x fall8 ,! newly kn[n size ( ! e>? w\ld modify ! figures3 ) int5se excitem5t he runs ?r\gh ! work+1 8 m9d leaps be=e 8 h&1 & z he p]ceives ! answ] to be com+ out "r1 all ! inf9ite mean+ & scope ( 8 mighty discov]y fla%es ^u him1 & he c no long] see ! pap]4 ,he ?r[s d[n ! p52 & ! secret ( ! univ]se is1 to "o man1 kn[n4 ,b ( c\rse x _h to be work$ out4 ,! mean+ might fla% ^u him1 b its full detail requir$ ye>s ( elaboration2 & deep] & deep] consequ5ces reveal$ !mselves to him z he proce$$4 ,= two ye>s he devot$ himself solely to ?is "o object4 ,dur+ ^? ye>s he liv$ b to calculate & ?9k1 & ! mo/ ludicr\s /ories are told conc]n+ 8 entire absorption & inatt5tion to ord9>y affairs ( life4 ,?us1 = in/ance1 :5 gett+ up 9 a morn+ he w\ld sit on ! side ( ! b$ half-dress$1 & rema9 l t till d9n] "t4 ,(t5 he w\ld /ay at home = days toge!r1 eat+ :at 0 tak5 to him1 b )\t app>5tly notic+ :at he 0 do+4 ,"o day an intimate fri5d1 ,dr4 ,/ukely1 call$ on him & f\nd on ! table a cov] laid = 8 solit>y d9n]4 ,aft] wait+ a long "t1 ,dr4 ,/ukely remov$ ! cov] & ate ! *ick5 und]nea? x1 replac+ & cov]+ up ! bones aga94 ,at l5g? ,newton appe>$1 & aft] greet+ 8 fri5d1 sat d[n to d9n]1 b on lift+ ! cov] he said 9 surprise1 ,de> me1 ,i ?\ght ,i _h n d9$1 b ,i see ,i h4 ,x 0 by ?is cont9u\s application t ! ,pr9cipia 0 accompli%$4 ,probably no?+ ( ! fir/ magnitude c be accompli%$ )\t some?+ ( ! same absorb$ unconsci\sness & fre$om f int]ruption4 ,b ?\gh desirable & ess5tial = ! "w1 x 0 a sev]e tax ^u ! p[]s ( ! man4 ,!re is1 9 fact1 no d\bt t ,newton's bra9 suff]$ tempor>y ab]ration aft] ?is ef=t = a %ort "t4 ,! attack 0 slight1 & x has be5 d5i$2 b !re are lett]s extant :i* are inexplicable o!rwise1 & moreov] aft] a ye> or two he writes to 8 fri5ds apologiz+ = /range & disjo9t$ epi/les1 :i* he believ$ he _h writt5 )\t und]/&+ cle>ly :at he wrote4 ,! d]angem5t 01 h[ev]1 bo? slight & tempor>y3 & x is only in/ructive to u z %[+ at :at co/ su* a "w z ! ,pr9cipia mu/ be produc$1 ev5 by s mighty a m9d z t ( ,newton4 ,! fir/ "p ( ! "w hav+ be5 done1 any ord9>y mortal w\ld h proce$$ to publi% x2 b ! fact is t aft] he _h s5t to ! ,royal ,society 8 pap]s on optics1 !re _h aris5 controv]sies & objections2 mo/ ( !m r paltry1 to :i* he felt compell$ to f9d answ]s4 ,_m m5 w\ld h enjoy$ ?is "p ( ! "w1 & tak5 x z evid5ce ( int]e/ & success4 ,b to ,newton's %y & retir+ disposition ^! discussions 7 m]ely pa9ful4 ,he writes1 inde$1 8 answ]s ) great pati5ce & ability1 & ultimately conv]ts ! m reasonable ( 8 oppon5ts1 b he relieves 8 m9d 9 ! foll[+ lett] to ! secret>y ( ! ,royal ,society3 ,i see ,i h made myself a slave to philosophy1 b if ,i get free ( ?is pres5t bus9ess ,i w resolutely bid adieu to x et]nally1 except :at ,i d = my private satisfaction or leave to come out aft] me2 = ,i see a man mu/ ei!r resolve to put out no?+ new1 or to become a slave to def5d x4 ,& aga9 9 a lett] to ,leibnitz3 ,i h be5 s p]secut$ ) discussions aris+ out ( my !ory ( light t ,i blam$ my own imprud5ce = p>t+ ) s sub/antial a bless+ z my quiet to run aft] a %ad[4 ,?is %[s h[ mu* he c>$ = contempor>y fame4 ,s he lock$ up ! fir/ "p ( ! ,pr9cipia 9 8 desk1 d\btless int5d+ x to be publi%$ aft] 8 dea?4 ,b =tunately ?is 0 n s to be4 ,9 #afhc1 among ! lead+ lights ( ! ,royal ,society1 ! same sort ( notions ab\t gravity & ! sol> sy/em began indep5d5tly to be bruit$4 ,! !ory ( gravitation seem$ to be 9 ! air1 & ,wr51 ,hooke1 & ,halley _h _m a talk ab\t x4 ,hooke %[$ an exp]im5t ) a p5dulum1 :i* he lik5$ to a planet go+ r\nd ! sun4 ,! analogy is m sup]ficial ?an real4 ,x does n obey ,kepl]'s laws2 /ill x 0 a /rik+ exp]im5t4 ,!y _h guess$ at a law ( inv]se squ>es1 & _! difficulty 0 to prove :at curve a body subject to x w\ld describe4 ,!y knew x ought to be an ellipse if x 0 to s]ve to expla9 ! planet>y motion1 & ,hooke said he c\ld prove t an ellipse x 02 b he 0 no?+ ( a ma!matician1 & ! o!rs sc>cely believ$ him4 ,und\bt$ly he _h %rewd inkl+s ( ! tru?1 ?\gh 8 guesses 7 bas$ on little else ?an a mo/ sagaci\s intuition4 ,he surmis$ also t gravity 0 ! =ce conc]n$1 & ass]t$ t ! pa? ( an ord9>y projectile 0 an ellipse1 l ! pa? ( a planet--:i* is q "r4 ,9 fact ! beg9n+s ( ! discov]y 7 beg9n+ to dawn ^u him 9 ! well-kn[n way 9 :i* ?+s d dawn ^u ord9>y m5 ( g5ius3 & _h ,newton n liv$ we %\ld d\btless1 by ! lab\rs ( a long *a9 ( di/+ui%$ m51 beg9n+ ) ,hooke1 ,wr51 & ,halley1 h be5 n[ 9 possession ( all ! tru?s reveal$ by ! ,pr9cipia4 ,we %\ld nev] h _h !m /at$ 9 ! same =m1 nor prov$ ) ! same m>vell\s lucidity & simplicity1 b ! facts !mselves we %\ld by ?is "t h arriv$ at4 ,_! developm5ts & completions1 due to su* m5 z ,clairaut1 ,eul]1 ,d',alemb]t1 ,lagrange1 ,laplace1 ,airy1 ,lev]ri]1 ,adams1 we %\ld ( c\rse n h _h to ! same ext5t2 because ! lives & en]gies ( ^! great m5 w\ld h be5 p>tially consum$ 9 obta9+ ! ma9 facts !mselves4 ,! y\nge/ ( ! ?ree que/ion]s at ! "t we are speak+ ( 0 ,edmund ,halley1 an able & rem>kable man4 ,he _h be5 at ,cambridge1 d\btless _h he>d ,newton lecture1 & _h acquir$ a great v5]ation = him4 ,9 ,janu>y1 #afhd1 we f9d ,wr5 (f]+ ,hooke & ,halley a prize1 9 ! %ape ( a book wor? =ty %ill+s1 if !y w\ld ei!r ( !m br+ him )9 two mon?s a demon/ration t ! pa? ( a planet subject to an inv]se squ>e law w\ld be an ellipse4 ,n 9 two mon?s1 nor yet 9 sev51 0 !re any pro( =?com+4 ,s at la/1 9 ,augu/1 ,halley w5t ov] to ,cambridge to speak to ,newton ab\t ! difficult problem & secure 8 aid4 ,arriv+ at 8 rooms he w5t /raight to ! po9t4 ,he said1 ,:at pa? w a body describe if x be attract$ by a c5tre ) a =ce v>y+ z ! inv]se squ>e ( ! di/ance4 ,to :i* ,newton at once repli$1 ,an ellipse4 ,h[ on e>? d y "k8 said ,halley 9 amazem5t4 ,:y1 ,i h calculat$ x1 & began hunt+ ab\t = ! pap]4 ,he actually c\ldn't f9d x j !n1 b s5t x him %ortly by po/1 & ) x mu* m--9 fact1 :at appe>$ to be a complete treatise on motion 9 g5]al4 ,) 8 valuable burd5 ,halley ha/5$ to ! ,royal ,society & told !m :at he _h discov]$4 ,! ,society at 8 repres5tation wrote to ,mr4 ,newton ask+ leave t x might be pr9t$4 ,to ?is he cons5t$2 b ! ,royal ,society wisely appo9t$ ,mr4 ,halley to see aft] him & jog 8 memory1 9 case he =got ab\t x4 ,h[ev]1 he set to "w to poli% x up & f9i% x1 & add$ to x a great numb] ( lat] developm5ts & embelli%m5ts1 especially ! "p conc]n+ ! lun> !ory1 :i* gave him a deal ( tr\ble--& no wond]2 = 9 ! way he has put x !re nev] 0 a man yet liv+ :o c\ld h done ! same ?+4 ,ma!maticians reg>d ! a*ievem5t n[ z m5 might />e at ! "w ( "s demigod ( a bygone age1 wond]+ :at mann] ( man ?is 01 able to wield su* pond]\s implem5ts ) su* app>5t ease4 ,to ,halley ! _w owes a great debt ( gratitude--fir/1 = discov]+ ! ,pr9cipia2 second1 = see+ x ?r\gh ! press2 & ?ird1 = defray+ ! co/ ( its publication out ( 8 own scanty purse4 ,= ?\gh he ultimately suff]$ no pecuni>y loss1 r ! contr>y1 yet !re 0 consid]able risk 9 br++ out a book :i* n a doz5 m5 liv+ c\ld at ! "t compreh5d4 ,x is no small "p ( ! m]it ( ,halley t he recogniz$ ! transc5d5t value ( ! yet unf9i%$ "w1 t he br\ght x to light1 & assi/$ 9 its becom+ und]/ood to ! be/ ( 8 ability4 ,?\gh ,halley aft]w>ds became ,a/ronom]-,royal1 liv$ to ! ripe old age ( eighty-six1 & made _m /rik+ obs]vations1 yet he w\ld be ! fir/ to admit t no?+ he ev] did 0 at all comp>able 9 importance ) 8 discov]y ( ! ,pr9cipia2 & he always us$ to reg>d 8 "p 9 x ) peculi> pride & pleasure4 ,& h[ 0 ! ,pr9cipia receiv$8 ,consid]+ ! ab/ruse nature ( its subject1 x 0 receiv$ ) great int]e/ & en?usiasm4 ,9 less ?an tw5ty ye>s ! edition 0 sold out1 & copies fet*$ l>ge sums4 ,we he> ( poor /ud5ts copy+ out ! :ole 9 manuscript 9 ord] to possess a copy--n by any means a bad ?+ to d1 h[ev] _m copies "o may possess4 ,! only useful way really to read a book l t is to pore ov] e s5t5ce3 x is no book to be skimm$4 ,:ile ! ,pr9cipia 0 prep>+ = ! press a curi\s incid5t ( contact betwe5 ,engli% hi/ory & ! ,univ]sity occurr$4 ,x seems t ,james ,,ii41 9 8 policy ( ,ca?olicis+ ! c\ntry1 ord]$ bo? ,univ]sities to elect c]ta9 prie/s to degrees )\t ! ord9>y oa?s4 ,ox=d _h giv5 way1 & ! ,dean ( ,*ri/ ,*ur* 0 a creature ( ,james's *oos+4 ,cambridge rebell$1 & s5t eight ( its memb]s1 among !m ,mr4 ,newton1 to plead _! cause be=e ! ,c\rt ( ,high ,commission4 ,judge ,jeffreys presid$ ov] ! ,c\rt1 & ?reat5$ & bulli$ ) 8 usual insol5ce4 ,! ,vice-,*ancellor ( ,cambridge 0 depriv$ ( (fice1 ! o!r deputies 7 sil5c$ & ord]$ away4 ,f ! prec9cts ( ?is c\rt ( ju/ice ,newton return$ to ,tr9ity ,college to complete ! ,pr9cipia4 ,by ?is "t ,newton 0 only =ty-five ye>s old1 b 8 ma9 "w 0 done4 ,8 me?od ( fluxions 0 /ill unpubli%$2 8 optics 0 publi%$ only imp]fectly2 a second edition ( ! ,pr9cipia1 ) additions & improvem5ts1 _h yet to appe>2 b fame _h n[ come ^u him1 & ) fame worries ( all k9ds4 ,by "s fatality1 pr9cipally no d\bt because ( ! int]e/ !y excit$1 e discov]y he publi%$ 0 ! signal = an outbur/ ( criticism & sometimes ( attack4 ,i %all n g into ^! matt]s3 !y are n[ trivial en\gh1 b x is necess>y to m5tion !m1 because to ,newton !y evid5tly loom$ l>ge & t]rible1 & occasion$ him acute torm5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fh4--,newton :5 "y4 7,f an engrav+ by ,b4 ,read+ aft] ,sir ,pet] ,lely47 ,no soon] 0 ! ,pr9cipia put ?an ,hooke put 9 8 claims = priority4 ,& inde$ 8 claims 7 n altoge!r negligible2 = vague ideas ( ! same sort _h be5 float+ 9 8 compreh5sive m9d1 & he d\btless felt indi/9ctly consci\s ( a great deal m ?an he c\ld really /ate or prove4 ,by indiscreet fri5ds ^! two great m5 7 set some:at at logg]heads1 & worse might h happ5$ _h !y n manag$ to come to close qu>t]s1 & correspond privately 9 a q fri5dly mann]1 in/ead ( act+ ?r\gh ! mis*iev\s m$ium ( ?ird p>ties4 ,9 ! next edition ,newton lib]ally recognizes ! claims ( bo? ,hooke & ,wr54 ,h[ev]1 he takes w>n+ betimes ( :at he has to expect1 & writes to ,halley t he w only publi% ! fir/ two books1 ^? conta9+ g5]al !orems on motion4 ,! ?ird book--conc]n+ ! sy/em ( ! _w1 i4e4 ! application to ! sol> sy/em--he says ,i n[ design to suppress4 ,philosophy is su* an imp]t95tly litigi\s lady t a man _h z good be engag$ 9 law-suits z h to d ) h]4 ,i f\nd x s =m]ly1 & n[ ,i am no soon] come ne> h] aga9 b %e gives me w>n+4 ,! two books )\t ! ?ird w n s well be> ! title ',ma!matical ,pr9ciples ( ,natural ,philosophy1' & !re=e ,i _h alt]$ x to ?is1 ',on ! ,free ,motion ( ,two ,bodies'2 b on second ?\ghts ,i reta9 ! =m] title3 'twill help ! sale ( ! book--:i* ,i ought n to dim9i% n[ 'tis y\rs4 ,h[ev]1 =tunately1 ,halley 0 able to prevail ^u him to publi% ! ?ird book also4 ,x is1 inde$1 ! mo/ int]e/+ & popul> ( ! ?ree1 z x conta9s all ! direct applications to a/ronomy ( ! tru?s e/abli%$ 9 ! o!r two4 ,"s ye>s lat]1 :5 8 me?od ( fluxions 0 publi%$1 ano!r & a worse controv]sy arose--?is "t ) ,leibnitz1 :o _h also indep5d5tly inv5t$ ! diff]5tial calculus4 ,x 0 n s well recogniz$ !n h[ frequ5tly x happ5s t two m5 indep5d5tly & unkn[+ly "w at ! v same ?+ at ! same "t4 ,! hi/ory ( sci5ce is n[ full ( su* in/ances2 b !n ! fri5ds ( ea* accus$ ! o!r ( plagi>ism4 ,i w n g into ! controv]sy3 x is pa9ful & useless4 ,x only s]v$ to embitt] ! lat] ye>s ( two great m51 & x cont9u$ long aft] ,newton's dea?--long aft] bo? _! dea?s4 ,x c h>dly be call$ anci5t hi/ory ev5 n[4 ,b fame br\ght o!r & less unpleasant di/ractions ?an controv]sies4 ,we are a curi\s1 practical1 & r /upid p1 & our "o idea ( hon\r+ a man is to vote = him 9 "s way or o!r2 s !y s5t ,newton to ,p>liam5t4 ,he w5t1 ,i believe1 z a ,:ig1 b x is n record$ t he spoke4 ,x is1 9 fact1 record$ t he 0 once expect$ to speak :5 on a ,royal ,commission ab\t "s "q ( *ronomet]s1 b t he w\ld n4 ,h[ev]1 ,i d>e say he made a good av]age memb]4 ,!n a little lat] x 0 realiz$ t ,newton 0 poor1 t he /ill _h to tea* = 8 livelihood1 & t ?\gh ! ,cr[n _h cont9u$ 8 fell[%ip to him z ,lucasian ,pr(essor )\t ! necessity ( tak+ ord]s1 yet x 0 r disgraceful t he %\ld n be bett] (f4 ,s an appeal 0 made to ! ,gov]nm5t on 8 behalf1 & ,"l ,halifax1 :o ex]t$ himself /rongly 9 ! matt]1 succe$+ to (fice on ! accession ( ,william ,,iii41 0 able to make him ultimately ,ma/] ( ! ,m9t1 ) a sal>y ( "s #a1bjj a ye>4 ,i believe he made r a good ,ma/]1 & turn$ out excell5t co9s3 c]ta9ly he devot$ 8 att5tion to 8 "w !re 9 a mo/ exempl>y mann]4 ,b :at a pitiful bus9ess x all is6 ,"h is a man s5t by ,heav5 to d c]ta9 ?+s :i* no man else c\ld d1 & s long z he is comp>atively unkn[n he does !m2 b s soon z he is f\nd out1 he is clapp$ into a r\t9e (fice ) a big sal>y3 & !re is1 comp>atively speak+1 an end ( him4 ,x is n to be suppos$ t he _h lo/ 8 p[]1 = he frequ5tly solv$ problems v quickly :i* _h be5 giv5 out by great ,cont95tal ma!maticians z a *all5ge to ! _w4 ,we may ask :y ,newton all[$ himself to be ?us b&i$ ab\t in/ead ( settl+ himself d[n to ! "w 9 :i* he 0 s pre-em95tly great4 ,well1 ,i expect y\r truly great man nev] realizes h[ great he is1 & seldom kn[s :]e 8 real /r5g? lies4 ,c]ta9ly ,newton did n "k x4 ,he sev]al times talks ( giv+ up philosophy altoge!r2 & ?\gh he nev] really does x1 & p]haps ! feel+ is "o only born ( "s tempor>y ov]work1 yet he does n sacrifice ev]y?+ else to x z he surely mu/ _h he be5 consci\s ( 8 own greatness4 ,no2 self-consci\sness 0 ! la/ ?+ t affect$ him4 ,x is = a great man's contempor>ies to discov] him1 to make mu* ( him1 & to put him 9 surr\nd+s :]e he may fl\ri% luxuriantly 9 8 own heav5-int5d$ way4 ,h[ev]1 x is difficult = u to judge ( ^! ?+s4 ,p]haps if he _h be5 ma9ta9$ at ! national exp5se to d t = :i* he 0 pret]naturally fitt$1 he might h worn himself out prematurely2 :]eas by giv+ him r\t9e "w ! sci5tific _w got ! b5efit ( 8 matur$ wisdom & exp]i5ce4 ,x 0 no small matt] to ! "y ,royal ,society to be able to h him z _! ,presid5t = tw5ty-f\r ye>s4 ,8 portrait has hung ov] ! ,presid5t's *air ev] s9ce1 & !re ,i suppose x w cont9ue to hang until ! ,royal ,society becomes ext9ct4 ,! ev5ts ( 8 lat] life ,i %all pass ov] lightly4 ,he liv$ a calm1 b5evol5t life1 univ]sally respect$ & belov$4 ,8 silv]-:ite hair :5 he remov$ 8 p]uke 0 a v5]able spectacle4 ,a lock ( x is /ill pres]v$1 ) _m o!r relics1 9 ! libr>y ( ,tr9ity ,college4 ,he di$ quietly1 aft] a pa9ful illness1 at ! ripe age ( eighty-five4 ,8 body lay 9 /ate 9 ! ,j]usalem ,*amb]1 & he 0 buri$ 9 ,we/m9/] ,abbey1 six pe]s be>+ ! pall4 ,^! ?+s are to be m5tion$ to ! cr$it ( ! "t & ! c\ntry2 = aft] we h se5 ! calamit\s spectacle ( ! way ,ty*o & ,kepl] & ,galileo 7 treat$ by _! ungrateful & unwor?y c\ntries1 x is pleasant to reflect t ,engl&1 ) all its mi/akes1 yet recogniz$ h] great man :5 %e receiv$ him1 & hon\r$ him ) ! be/ %e knew h[ to give4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fi4--,sir ,isaac ,newton4 ,conc]n+ 8 "*1 "o ne$ only say t x 0 :at "o w\ld expect & wi%4 ,x 0 *>act]iz$ by a mode/1 calm1 dignifi$ simplicity4 ,he liv$ frugally ) 8 niece & h] husb&1 ,mr4 ,conduit1 :o succe$$ him z ,ma/] ( ! ,m9t4 ,he nev] m>ri$1 nor app>5tly did he ev] ?9k ( s do+4 ,! idea1 p]haps1 did n naturally occur to him1 any m ?an ! idea ( publi%+ 8 "w did4 ,he 0 always a deeply religi\s man & a s9c]e ,*ri/ian1 ?\gh some:at ( ! ,arian or ,unit>ian p]suasion--s1 at lea/1 x is ass]t$ by or?odox div9es :o und]/& ^! matt]s4 ,he /udi$ !ology m or less all 8 life1 & t[>ds ! end 0 greatly int]e/$ 9 que/ions ( ,biblical criticism & *ronology4 ,by "s anci5t eclipse or o!r he alt]$ ! recogniz$ sy/em ( dates a few hundr$ ye>s2 & 8 book on ! prophecies ( ,daniel & ! ,revelation ( ,/4 ,john1 :]e9 he id5tifies ! bea/ ) ! ,*ur* ( ,rome 9 q ! or?odox way1 is /ill by "s admir$4 ,b 9 all ^! matt]s x is probable t he 0 a m]ely ord9>y man1 ) natural acum5 & ability d\btless1 b no?+ 9 ! lea/ sup]human4 ,9 sci5ce1 ! impression he makes ^u me is only expressible by ! words inspir$1 sup]human4 ,& yet if "o realizes 8 me?od ( "w1 & ! calm1 un9t]rupt$ fl[ ( all 8 e>li] life1 p]haps 8 a*ievem5ts become m intelligible4 ,:5 ask$ h[ he made 8 discov]ies1 he repli$3 ,by always ?9k+ unto !m4 ,i keep ! subject con/antly be=e me1 & wait till ! fir/ dawn+s op5 sl[ly by little & little into a full & cle> light4 ,t is ! way--quiet1 /eady1 cont9u\s ?9k+1 un9t]rupt$ & unh>ass$ brood+4 ,mu* may be done "u ^? conditions4 ,mu* ought to be sacrific$ to obta9 ^? conditions4 ,all ! be/ ?9k+ "w ( ! _w has be5 ?us done4#ah ,buffon said3 ,g5ius is pati5ce4 ,s says ,newton3 ,if ,i h done ! public any s]vice ?is way1 x is due to no?+ b indu/ry & pati5t ?\ght4 ,g5ius pati5ce8 ,no1 x is n q t1 or1 r1 x is mu* m ?an t2 b g5ius )\t pati5ce is l fire )\t fuel--x w soon burn itself out4 ,,notes ,,= ,,lecture ,,ix ,! ,pr9cipia publi%$ #afhg4 ,newton di$ #agbg4 ,,! ,,law ,,( ,,gravitation4--,e p>ticle ( matt] attracts e o!r p>ticle ( matt] ) a =ce proportional to ! mass ( ea* & to ! inv]se squ>e ( ! di/ance betwe5 !m4 ,,"s ,,( ,,newton',s ,,d$uctions4 #a4 ,kepl]'s second law 7equable description ( areas7 proves t ea* planet is act$ on by a =ce direct$ t[>ds ! sun z a c5tre ( =ce4 #b4 ,kepl]'s fir/ law proves t ?is c5tral =ce dim9i%es 9 ! same proportion z ! squ>e ( ! di/ance increases4 #c4 ,kepl]'s ?ird law proves t all ! planets are act$ on by ! same k9d ( =ce2 ( an int5sity dep5d+ on ! mass ( ! sun4#ai #d4 ,s by kn[+ ! l5g? ( ye> & di/ance ( any planet f ! sun1 ! sun's mass c be calculat$1 9 t]ms ( t ( ! e>?4 #e4 ,= ! satellites1 ! =ce act+ dep5ds on ! mass ( _! c5tral body1 a planet4 ,h5ce ! mass ( any planet possess+ a satellite becomes kn[n4 #f4 ,! =ce con/ra9+ ! moon 9 h] orbit is ! same gravity z gives t]re/rial bodies _! weight & regulates ! motion ( projectiles4 ,because1 :ile a /one drops #af feet 9 a second1 ! moon1 :i* is #fj times z f> f ! c5tre ( ! e>?1 drops #af feet 9 a m9ute4 99 99 99 99 99 #g4 ,! moon is attract$ n only by ! e>?1 b by ! sun also2 h5ce its orbit is p]turb$1 & ,newton calculat$ out ! *ief ( ^! p]turbations1 viz43-- 7,! equation ( ! c5tre1 discov]$ by ,hipp>*us47 7a7 ,! evection1 discov]$ by ,hipp>*us & ,ptolemy4 7b7 ,! v>iation1 discov]$ by ,ty*o ,brah4 7c7 ,! annual equation1 discov]$ by ,ty*o ,brah4 7d7 ,! retrogression ( ! nodes1 !n be+ obs]v$ at ,gre5wi* by ,flam/e$4 7e7 ,! v>iation ( incl9ation1 !n be+ obs]v$ at ,gre5wi* by ,flam/e$4 7f7 ,! progression ( ! apses 7) an error ( "o-half74 7g7 ,! inequality ( apogee1 previ\sly unkn[n4 7h7 ,! inequality ( nodes1 previ\sly unkn[n4 #h4 ,ea* planet is attract$ n only by ! sun b by ! o!r planets1 h5ce _! orbits are slightly affect$ by ea* o!r4 ,newton began ! !ory ( planet>y p]turbations4 #i4 ,he recogniz$ ! comets z memb]s ( ! sol> sy/em1 ob$i5t to ! same law ( gravity & mov+ 9 v elongat$ ellipses2 s _! return c\ld be pr$ict$ 7e4g4 ,halley's comet74 #aj4 ,apply+ ! idea ( c5trifugal =ce to ! e>? consid]$ z a rotat+ body1 he p]ceiv$ t x c\ld n be a true sph]e1 & calculat$ its oblat5ess1 obta9+ #bh miles great] equatorial ?an pol> diamet]4 #aa4 ,conv]sely1 f ! obs]v$ %ape ( ,jupit]1 or any planet1 ! l5g? ( its day c\ld be e/imat$4 #ab4 ,! s-calculat$ %ape ( ! e>?1 9 comb9ation ) c5trifugal =ce1 causes ! weight ( bodies to v>y ) latitude2 & ,newton calculat$ ! am\nt ( ?is v>iation4 #aid lbs4 at pole balance #aie lbs4 at equator4 #ac4 ,a homog5e\s sph]e attracts z if its mass 7 conc5trat$ at its c5tre4 ,= any o!r figure1 su* z an oblate sph]oid1 ?is is n exactly true4 ,a holl[ conc5tric sph]ical %ell ex]ts no =ce on small bodies inside x4 #ad4 ,! e>?'s equatorial protub]ance1 be+ act$ on by ! attraction ( ! sun & moon1 mu/ di/urb its axis ( rotation 9 a calculat$ mann]2 & ?us is produc$ ! precession ( ! equ9oxes4 ,! attraction ( ! planets on ! same protub]ance causes a small] & r diff]5t k9d ( precession4 #ae4 ,! wat]s ( ! ocean are attract$ t[>ds ! sun & moon on "o side1 & :irl$ a little fur!r away ?an ! solid e>? on ! o!r side3 h5ce ,newton expla9$ all ! ma9 ph5om5a ( ! tides4 #af4 ,! sun's mass be+ kn[n1 he calculat$ ! height ( ! sol> tide4 #ag4 ,f ! obs]v$ heights ( spr+ & neap tides he det]m9$ ! lun> tide1 & !nce made an e/imate ( ! mass ( ! moon4 ,,ref]5ce ,,table ,,( ,,num]ical ,,data4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,masses 9 ,sol> ,height dropp$ by a ,l5g? ( ,day or ,sy/em4 /one 9 fir/ second4"t ( rotation4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,m]cury #jfe #gj feet #bd h\rs ,v5us #hhe #aeh #bc-a_/b ,e>? #ajjj #afa #bd ,m>s #ajh #fb #bd-a_/b ,jupit] #cjjh #dej #aj ,saturn #hig #ahd #aj-a_/b ,! ,sun #cafjjj #dcfj #fjh ,! ,moon ab\t #jab #cg #gjb ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,! mass ( ! e>?1 tak5 above z unity1 is #f1jjj trillion tons4 ,obs]vatories4--,uraniburg fl\ri%$ f #aegf to #aeig2 ! ,obs]vatory ( ,p>is 0 f\nd$ 9 #affg2 ,gre5wi* ,obs]vatory 9 #afge4 ,a/ronom]s-,royal4--,flam/e$1 ,halley1 ,bradley1 ,bliss1 ,maskelyne1 ,pond1 ,airy1 ,*ri/ie4 ,,lecture ,,ix ,,newton',s ,,pr9cipia ,! law ( gravitation1 above enunciat$1 9 conjunction ) ! laws ( motion rehe>s$ at ! end ( ! prelim9>y notes ( ,lecture ,,vii41 n[ sup]s$es ! laws ( ,kepl] & includes !m z special cases4 ,! m compreh5sive law enables u to criticize ,kepl]'s laws f a high] /&po9t1 to see h[ f> !y are exact & h[ f> !y are only approximations4 ,!y are1 9 fact1 n precisely accurate1 b ! reason = e discrepancy n[ becomes abundantly cle>1 & c be work$ out by ! !ory ( gravitation4 ,we may treat ,kepl]'s laws ei!r z imm$iate consequ5ces ( ! law ( gravitation1 or z ! kn[n facts ^u :i* t law 0 f\nd$4 ,hi/orically1 ! latt] is ! m natural plan1 & x is ?us t !y are treat$ 9 ! fir/ ?ree /atem5ts ( ! above notes2 b ea* proposition may be work$ inv]sely1 & we might /ate !m ?us3-- #a4 ,! fact t ! =ce act+ on ea* planet is direct$ to ! sun1 necessitates ! equable description ( areas4 #b4 ,! fact t ! =ce v>ies z ! inv]se squ>e ( ! di/ance1 necessitates motion 9 an ellipse1 or "s o!r conic section1 ) ! sun 9 "o focus4 #c4 ,! fact t "o attract+ body acts on all ! planets ) an inv]se squ>e law1 causes ! cubes ( _! mean di/ances to be proportional to ! squ>es ( _! p]iodic times4 ,n only ^! b a multitude ( o!r d$uctions foll[ rigor\sly f ! simple datum t e p>ticle ( matt] attracts e o!r p>ticle ) a =ce directly proportional to ! mass ( ea* & to ! inv]se squ>e ( _! mutual di/ance4 ,^? dealt ) 9 ! ,pr9cipia are summ>iz$ above1 & x w be conv5i5t to run ov] !m 9 ord]1 ) ! object ( giv+ "s idea ( ! g5]al mean+ ( ea*1 )\t attempt+ any?+ too intricate to be readily intelligible4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gj4 ,no4 #a4 ,kepl]'s second law 7equable description ( areas7 proves t ea* planet is act$ on by a =ce direct$ t[>ds ! sun z a c5tre ( =ce4 ,! equable description ( areas ab\t a c5tre ( =ce has already be5 fully1 ?\gh briefly1 e/abli%$4 7p4 #age47 ,x is und\bt$ly ( fundam5tal importance1 & is ! e>lie/ in/ance ( ! s]i\s discussion ( c5tral =ces1 i4e4 ( =ces direct$ always to a fix$ c5tre4 ,we may put x afre% ?us3--,,oa has be5 ! motion ( a p>ticle 9 a unit ( "t2 at ,a x receives a knock t[>ds ,c1 :]eby 9 ! next unit x travels along ,,ad in/ead ( ,,ab4 ,n[ ! area ( ! triangle ,,cad1 swept out by ! radius vector 9 unit "t1 is #a_/b;bh2 h be+ ! p]p5dicul> height ( ! triangle f ! base ,,ac4 7,fig4 #gj47 ,n[ ! bl[ at ,a1 be+ along ! base1 has no effect ^u h2 & consequ5tly ! area rema9s j :at x w\ld h be5 )\t ! bl[4 ,a bl[ direct$ to any po9t o!r ?an ,c w\ld at once alt] ! area ( ! triangle4 ,"o int]e/+ d$uction may at once be drawn4 ,if gravity 7 a radiant =ce emitt$ f ! sun ) a velocity l t ( light1 ! mov+ planet w\ld enc\nt] x at a c]ta9 app>5t angle 7ab]ration71 & ! =ce exp]i5c$ w\ld come f a po9t a little 9 advance ( ! sun4 ,! rate ( description ( areas w\ld ?us t5d to increase2 :]eas 9 reality x is con/ant4 ,h5ce ! =ce ( gravity1 if x travel at all1 does s ) a spe$ f> great] ?an t ( light4 ,x appe>s to be practically in/antane\s4 7,cf4 ,mod]n ,views ( ,electricity1 #abf1 end ( *ap4 xii47 ,aga91 any?+ l a ret>d+ effect ( ! m$ium ?r\gh :i* ! planets move w\ld con/itute a tang5tial =ce1 entirely un-direct$ t[>ds ! sun4 ,h5ce no su* frictional or ret>d+ =ce c appreciably exi/4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 conceivable t bo? ^! effects might occur & j neutralize ea* o!r4 ,! neutralization is unlikely to be exact = all ! planets2 & ! fact is1 t no trace ( ei!r effect has z yet be5 discov]$4 7,see also p4 #agf47 ,! planets are1 h[ev]1 subject to =ces n direct$ t[>ds ! sun1 viz4 _! attractions = ea* o!r2 & ^! p]turb+ =ces d produce a slight discrepancy f ,kepl]'s second law1 b a discrepancy :i* is completely subject to calculation4 ,no4 #b4 ,kepl]'s fir/ law proves t ?is c5tral =ce dim9i%es 9 ! same proportion z ! squ>e ( ! di/ance increases4 ,to prove ! connection betwe5 ! inv]se-squ>e law ( di/ance1 & ! travell+ 9 a conic section ) ! c5tre ( =ce 9 "o focus 7! o!r focus be+ empty71 is n s simple4 ,x obvi\sly involves "s geometry1 & mu/ !re=e be left to prop]ly arm$ /ud5ts4 ,b x may be useful to /ate t ! inv]se-squ>e law ( di/ance1 al?\gh ! simple/ possible law = =ce emanat+ f a po9t or sph]e1 is n to be reg>d$ z self-evid5t or z ne$+ no demon/ration4 ,! =ce ( a magnetic pole on a magnetiz$ /eel scrap1 = in/ance1 v>ies z ! inv]se cube ( ! di/ance2 & ! curve describ$ by su* a p>ticle w\ld be q diff]5t f a conic section--x w\ld be a def9ite class ( spiral 7call$ ,cotes's spiral74 ,aga91 on an iron fil+ ! =ce ( a s+le pole might v>y m ne>ly z ! inv]se fif? p[]2 & s on4 ,ev5 :5 ! ?+ conc]n$ is radiant 9 /raight l9es1 l light1 ! law ( inv]se squ>es is n univ]sally true4 ,its tru? assumes1 fir/1 t ! s\rce is a po9t or sph]e2 next1 t !re is no reflection or refraction ( any k9d2 & la/ly1 t ! m$ium is p]fectly transp>5t4 ,! law ( inv]se squ>es by no means holds f a prairie fire = in/ance1 or f a ligh?\se1 or f a /reet lamp 9 a fog4 ,mutual p]turbations1 especially ! pull ( ,jupit]1 prev5t ! pa? ( a planet f be+ really & truly an ellipse1 or inde$ f be+ any simple re-entrant curve4 ,moreov]1 :5 a planet possesses a satellite1 x is n ! c5tre ( ! planet :i* ev] attempts to describe ! ,kepl]ian ellipse1 b x is ! common c5tre ( gravity ( ! two bodies4 ,?us1 9 ! case ( ! e>? & moon1 ! po9t :i* really does describe a close attempt at an ellipse is a po9t displac$ ab\t #cjjj miles f ! c5tre ( ! e>? t[>ds ! moon1 & is !re=e only #ajjj miles b5ea? ! surface4 ,no4 #c4 ,kepl]'s ?ird law proves t all ! planets are act$ on by ! same k9d ( =ce2 ( an int5sity dep5d+ on ! mass ( ! sun4 ,! ?ird law ( ,kepl]1 al?\gh x requires geometry to /ate & e/abli% x = elliptic motion 7= :i* x holds j z well z x does = circul> motion71 is v easy to e/abli% = circul> motion1 by any "o :o kn[s ab\t c5trifugal =ce4 ,if m is ! mass ( a planet1 v its velocity1 r ! radius ( its orbit1 & ,t ! "t ( describ+ x2 #bpir v,t1 & ! c5tripetal =ce ne$$ to hold x 9 its orbit is mv#b #dpi#bmr -------- or ----------- r ,t#b ,n[ ! =ce ( gravitative attraction betwe5 ! planet & ! sun is ,vm,s -----1 r#b :]e v is a fix$ quantity call$ ! gravitation-con/ant1 to be det]m9$ if possible by exp]im5t once = all4 ,n[1 express+ ! fact t ! =ce ( gravitation is ! =ce hold+ ! planet 91 we write1 #dpi#bmr ,vm,s ----------- ---------1 ,t#b r#b :5ce1 by ! simple/ algebra1 r#c ,,vs ------ ---------4 ,t#b #dpi#b ,! mass ( ! planet has be5 cancell$ out2 ! mass ( ! sun rema9s1 multipli$ by ! gravitation-con/ant1 & is se5 to be proportional to ! cube ( ! di/ance divid$ by ! squ>e ( ! p]iodic "t3 a ratio1 :i* is !re=e ! same = all planets controll$ by ! sun4 ,h5ce1 kn[+ r & ,t = any s+le planet1 ! value ( ,,vs is kn[n4 ,no4 #d4 ,s by kn[+ ! l5g? ( ye> & di/ance ( any planet f ! sun1 ! sun's mass c be calculat$1 9 t]ms ( t ( ! e>?4 ,no4 #e4 ,= ! satellites1 ! =ce act+ dep5ds on ! mass ( _! c5tral body1 a planet4 ,h5ce ! mass ( any planet possess+ a satellite becomes kn[n4 ,! same argum5t holds = any o!r sy/em controll$ by a c5tral body--= in/ance1 = ! satellites ( ,jupit]2 only in/ead ( ,s x w be natural to write ,j1 z mean+ ! mass ( ,jupit]4 ,h5ce1 kn[+ r & ,t = any "o satellite ( ,jupit]1 ! value ( ,,vj is kn[n4 ,apply ! argum5t also to ! case ( moon & e>?4 ,kn[+ ! di/ance & "t ( revolution ( our moon1 ! value ( ,,ve is at once det]m9$2 ,e be+ ! mass ( ! e>?4 ,h5ce1 ,s & ,j1 & 9 fact ! mass ( any c5tral body possess+ a visible satellite1 are n[ kn[n 9 t]ms ( ,e1 ! mass ( ! e>? 7or1 :at is practically ! same ?+1 9 t]ms ( ,v1 ! gravitation-con/ant74 ,obs]ve t s f> none ( ^! quantities are kn[n absolutely4 ,_! relative values are kn[n1 & are tabulat$ at ! end ( ! ,notes above1 b ! f9d+ ( _! absolute values is ano!r matt]1 :i* we mu/ def]4 ,b1 x may be ask$1 if ,kepl]'s ?ird law only gives u ! mass ( a c5tral body1 h[ is ! mass ( a satellite to be kn[n8 ,well1 x is n easy2 ! mass ( no satellite is kn[n ) mu* accuracy4 ,_! mutual p]turbations give u "s data 9 ! case ( ! satellites ( ,jupit]2 b to our own moon ?is me?od is ( c\rse inapplicable4 ,our moon p]turbs at fir/ sight no?+1 & accord+ly its mass is n ev5 yet kn[n ) exactness4 ,! mass ( comets1 aga91 is q unkn[n4 ,all t we c be sure ( is t !y are small] ?an a c]ta9 limit1 else !y w\ld p]turb ! planets !y pass ne>4 ,no?+ ( ?is sort has ev] be5 detect$4 ,!y are !mselves p]turb$ pl5tifully1 b !y p]turb no?+2 h5ce we le>n t _! mass is small4 ,! mass ( a comet may1 inde$1 be a few million or ev5 billion tons2 b t is q small 9 a/ronomy4 ,b n[ x may be ask$1 surely ! moon p]turbs ! e>?1 sw++ x r\nd _! common c5tre ( gravity1 & really describ+ its own orbit ab\t ?is po9t in/ead ( ab\t ! e>?'s c5tre8 ,yes1 t is s2 & a m precise consid]ation ( ,kepl]'s ?ird law enables u to make a fair approximation to ! position ( ?is common c5tre ( gravity1 & ?us practically to weigh ! moon1 i4e4 to comp>e its mass ) t ( ! e>?2 = _! masses w be inv]sely z _! respective di/ances f ! common c5tre ( gravity or balanc+ po9t--on ! simple /eel-y>d pr9ciple4 ,hi!rto we h n tr\bl$ ourselves ab\t ! precise po9t ab\t :i* ! revolution occurs1 b ,kepl]'s ?ird law is n precisely accurate unless x is att5d$ to4 ,! bigg] ! revolv+ body ! great] is ! discrepancy3 & we see 9 ! table prec$+ ,lecture ,,iii41 on page #eg1 t ,jupit] exhibits an error :i*1 ?\gh v slight1 is great] ?an t ( any ( ! o!r planets1 :5 ! sun is consid]$ ! fix$ c5tre4 ,let ! common c5tre ( gravity ( e>? & moon be displac$ a di/ance x f ! c5tre ( ! e>?1 !n ! moon's di/ance f ! real c5tre ( revolution is n r1 b r-x2 & ! equation ( c5trifugal =ce to gravitative-attraction is /rictly #dpi#b ,,ve --------- 7r-x7 ------1 ,t#b r#b in/ead ( :at is 9 ! text above2 & ?is gives a slightly modifi$ ?ird law4 ,f ?is equation1 if we h any di/9ct me?od ( det]m9+ ,,ve 7& ! next section gives su* a me?od71 we c calculate x & ?us r\ghly weigh ! moon1 s9ce r-x ,e ----- -----1 r ,e,m b to get any?+ l a reasonable result ! data mu/ be v precise4 ,no4 #f4 ,! =ce con/ra9+ ! moon 9 h] orbit is ! same gravity z gives t]re/rial bodies _! weight & regulates ! motion ( projectiles4 ,"h we come to ! ,newtonian v]ification already sev]al times m5tion$2 b because ( its importance ,i w repeat x 9 o!r words4 ,! hypo!sis to be v]ifi$ is t ! =ce act+ on ! moon is ! same k9d ( =ce z acts on bodies we c h&le & weigh1 & :i* gives !m _! weight4 ,n[ ! weight ( a mass m is commonly writt5 mg1 :]e g is ! int5sity ( t]re/rial gravity1 a ?+ easily measur$2 be+1 inde$1 num]ically equal to twice ! di/ance a /one drops 9 ! fir/ second ( free fall4 ,see table p4 #bje4 ,h5ce1 express+ t ! weight ( a body is due to gravity1 & rememb]+ t ! c5tre ( ! e>?'s attraction is di/ant f u by "o e>?'s radius 7,r71 we c write ,vm,e mg ------1 ,r#b or ,v,e g,r#b #ie1ebb cubic miles-p]-second p] second4 ,b we already "k v,e1 9 t]ms ( ! moon's motion1 z #dpi#br#c ----------- ,t#b approximately1 m accurately1 see prec$+ note1 ?is quantity is ,v7,e ,m72 h5ce we c easily see if ! two det]m9ations ( ?is quantity agree4#bj ,all ^! d$uctions are fundam5tal1 & may be consid]$ z ! f\ndation ( ! ,pr9cipia4 ,x 0 ^! t fla%$ ^u ,newton dur+ t mom5t ( excitem5t :5 he le>n$ ! real size ( ! e>?1 & discov]$ 8 speculations to be true4 ,! next are elaborations & amplifications ( ! !ory1 su* z 9 ord9>y times are left = subsequ5t g5]ations ( !ori/s to discov] & "w out4 ,newton did n "w out ^! remot] consequ5ces ( 8 !ory completely by any means3 ! a/ronomical & ma!matical _w has be5 work+ !m out ev] s9ce2 b he c>ri$ ! !ory a great way1 & "h x is t 8 m>vell\s p[] is mo/ conspicu\s4 ,x is 8 treatm5t ( ,no4 #g1 ! p]turbations ( ! moon1 t p]haps mo/ especially has /ruck all future ma!maticians ) amazem5t4 ,no4 #g1 ,no4 #ad1 ,no4 #ae1 ^! are ! mo/ inspir$ ( ! :ole4 ,no4 #g4 ,! moon is attract$ n only by ! e>?1 b by ! sun also2 h5ce its orbit is p]turb$1 & ,newton calculat$ out ! *ief ( ^! p]turbations4 ,n[ runn+ ?r\gh ! p]turbations 7p4 #bjc7 9 ord]3--,! fir/ is 9 p>5!sis1 because x is m]e exc5tricity4 ,x is n a true p]turbation at all1 & m prop]ly belongs to ,kepl]4 7a7 ,! fir/ true p]turbation is :at ,ptolemy call$ ! evection1 ! pr9cipal "p ( :i* is a p]iodic *ange 9 ! ellipticity or exc5tricity ( ! moon's orbit1 ow+ to ! pull ( ! sun4 ,x is a complicat$ matt]1 & ,newton only p>tially solv$ x4 ,i %all n attempt to give an acc\nt ( x4 7b7 ,! next1 ! v>iation1 is a mu* simpl] affair4 ,x is caus$ by ! fact t z ! moon revolves r\nd ! e>? x is half ! "t ne>] to ! sun ?an ! e>? is1 & s gets pull$ m ?an ! av]age1 :ile = ! o!r =tnight x is fur!r f ! sun ?an ! e>? is1 & s gets pull$ less4 ,= ! week dur+ :i* x is *ang+ f a decreas+ half to a new moon x is mov+ 9 ! direction ( ! extra pull1 & h5ce becomes new soon] ?an w\ld h be5 expect$4 ,all next week x is mov+ aga9/ ! same extra pull1 & s arrives at quadrature 7half moon7 some:at late4 ,= ! next =tnight x is 9 ! region ( too little pull1 ! e>? gets pull$ m ?an x does2 ! effect ( ?is is to hurry x up = ! ?ird week1 s t ! full moon occurs a little e>ly1 & to ret>d x = ! f\r? week1 s t ! decreas+ half moon l ! increas+ half occurs beh9d "t aga94 ,?us ea* syzygy 7z new & full are te*nically call$7 is too e>ly2 ea* quadrature is too late2 ! maximum hurry+ & slack5+ =ce be+ felt at ! octants1 or int]m$iate #de po9ts4 7c7 ,! annual equation is a fluctuation introduc$ into ! o!r p]turbations by reason ( ! v>y+ di/ance ( ! di/urb+ body1 ! sun1 at diff]5t seasons ( ! ye>4 ,its magnitude pla9ly dep5ds simply on ! exc5tricity ( ! e>?'s orbit4 ,bo? ^! p]turbations1 7b7 & 7c71 ,newton work$ out completely4 7d7 & 7e7 ,next come ! retrogression ( ! nodes & ! v>iation ( ! incl9ation1 :i* at ! "t 7 be+ obs]v$ at ,gre5wi* by ,flam/e$1 f :om ,newton frequ5tly1 b va9ly1 begg$ = data t he might complete _! !ory :ile he _h 8 m9d ^u x4 ,=tunately1 ,halley succe$$ ,flam/e$ z ,a/ronom]-,royal see li/ at end ( notes above1 & !n ,newton w\ld h no difficulty 9 ga9+ su* in=mation z ! national ,obs]vatory c\ld give4 ,! incl9ation meant is ! angle betwe5 ! plane ( ! moon's orbit & t ( ! e>?4 ,! plane ( ! e>?'s orbit r\nd ! sun is call$ ! ecliptic2 ! plane ( ! moon's orbit r\nd ! e>? is incl9$ to x at a c]ta9 angle1 :i* is sl[ly *ang+1 ?\gh 9 a p]iodic mann]4 ,imag9e a curta9 r+ bisect$ by a %eet ( pap]1 & tilt$ to a c]ta9 angle2 x may be lik5$ to ! moon's orbit1 cutt+ ! plane ( ! ecliptic4 ,! two po9ts at :i* ! plane is cut by ! r+ are call$ nodes2 & ^! nodes are n /ation>y1 b are sl[ly regress+1 i4e4 travell+ 9 a direction opposite to t ( ! moon itself4 ,also ! angle ( tilt is v>y+ sl[ly1 oscillat+ up & d[n 9 ! c\rse ( c5turies4 7f7 ,! two po9ts 9 ! moon's elliptic orbit :]e x comes ne>e/ to or f>!/ f ! e>?1 i4e4 ! po9ts at ! extremity ( ! long axis ( ! ellipse1 are call$ sep>ately p]igee & apogee1 or toge!r ! apses4 ,n[ ! pull ( ! sun causes ! :ole orbit to sl[ly revolve 9 its own plane1 & consequ5tly ^! apses progress1 s t ! true pa? is n q a clos$ curve1 b a sort ( spiral ) elliptic loops4 ,b "h comes 9 a /rik+ circum/ance4 ,newton /ates ) ref]5ce to ?is p]turbation t !ory only acc\nts = #a-a_/b p] annum1 :]eas obs]vation gives #c1 or j twice z mu*4 ,?is is publi%$ 9 ! ,pr9cipia z a fact1 )\t comm5t4 ,x 0 = long reg>d$ z a v curi\s ?+1 & _m great ma!maticians aft]w>ds tri$ to f9d an error 9 ! work+4 ,d',alemb]t1 ,clairaut1 & o!rs attack$ ! problem1 b 7 l$ to j ! same result4 ,x con/itut$ ! great out/&+ difficulty 9 ! way ( accept+ ! !ory ( gravitation4 ,x 0 sugge/$ t p]haps ! inv]se squ>e law 0 only a fir/ approximation2 t p]haps a m complete expression1 su* z ,a ,b ---- -----1 r#b r#d mu/ be giv5 = x2 & s on4 ,ultimately1 ,clairaut took into acc\nt a :ole s]ies ( neglect$ t]ms1 & x came out correct2 ?us v]ify+ ! !ory4 ,b ! /range/ "p ( ?is tale is to come4 ,= only a few ye>s ago1 ,pr(4 ,adams1 ( ,cambridge 7,neptune ,adams1 z he is call$71 0 edit+ v>i\s old pap]s ( ,newton's1 n[ 9 ! possession ( ! ,duke ( ,portl&1 & he f\nd manuscripts be>+ on ?is v po9t1 & discov]$ t ,newton _h rework$ out ! calculations himself1 _h f\nd ! cause ( ! error1 _h tak5 into acc\nt ! t]ms hi!rto neglect$1 & s1 fifty ye>s be=e ,clairaut1 _h completely1 ?\gh n publicly1 solv$ ?is long out/&+ problem ( ! progression ( ! apses4 7g7 & 7h7 ,two o!r inequalities he calculat$ out & pr$ict$1 viz4 v>iation 9 ! motions ( ! apses & ! nodes4 ,nei!r ( ^! _h !n be5 obs]v$1 b !y 7 aft]w>ds detect$ & v]ifi$4 ,a good _m o!r m9or irregul>ities are n[ kn[n--"s ?irty1 ,i believe2 & altoge!r ! lun> !ory1 or problem ( ! moon's exact motion1 is "o ( ! mo/ complicat$ & difficult 9 a/ronomy2 ! p]turbations be+ s num]\s & l>ge1 because ( ! enorm\s mass ( ! p]turb+ body4 ,! di/urbances exp]i5c$ by ! planets are mu* small]1 because !y are controll$ by ! sun & p]turb$ by ea* o!r4 ,! moon is controll$ only by ! e>?1 & p]turb$ by ! sun4 ,planet>y p]turbations c be treat$ z a s]ies ( di/urbances ) "s satisfaction3 n s ^? ( ! moon4 ,& yet x is ! only way at pres5t kn[n ( deal+ ) ! lun> !ory4 ,to deal ) x satisfactorily w\ld dem& ! solution ( su* a problem z ?is3--,giv5 ?ree rigid sph]ical masses ?r[n into empty space ) any initial motions :atev]1 & ab&on$ to gravity3 to det]m9e _! subsequ5t motions4 ,) two masses ! problem is simple en\gh1 be+ pretty well summ$ up 9 ,kepl]'s laws2 b ) ?ree masses1 /range to say1 x is s complicat$ z to be beyond ! rea* ( ev5 mod]n ma!matics4 ,x is a fam\s problem1 kn[n z t ( ! ?ree bodies1 b x has n yet be5 solv$4 ,ev5 :5 x is solv$ x w be only a close approximation to ! case ( e>?1 moon1 & sun1 = ^! bodies are n sph]ical1 & are n rigid4 ,"o may imag9e h[ absurdly & hopelessly complicat$ a complete treatm5t ( ! motions ( ! entire sol> sy/em w\ld be4 ,no4 #h4 ,ea* planet is attract$ n only by ! sun b by ! o!r planets1 h5ce _! orbits are slightly affect$ by ea* o!r4 ,! subject ( planet>y p]turbation 0 only j begun by ,newton4 ,gradually 7by ,laplace & o!rs7 ! !ory became highly develop$2 &1 z ev]ybody kn[s1 9 #ahdf ,neptune 0 discov]$ by means ( x4 ,no4 #i4 ,he recogniz$ ! comets z memb]s ( ! sol> sy/em1 ob$i5t to ! same law ( gravity & mov+ 9 v elongat$ ellipses2 s _! return c\ld be pr$ict$4 ,x 0 a long "t be=e ,newton recogniz$ ! comets z real memb]s ( ! sol> sy/em1 & subject to gravity l ! re/4 ,he at fir/ ?\ght !y mov$ 9 /raight l9es4 ,x 0 only 9 ! second edition ( ! ,pr9cipia t ! !ory ( comets 0 introduc$4 ,halley obs]v$ a f9e comet 9 #afhb1 & calculat$ its orbit on ,newtonian pr9ciples4 ,he also calculat$ :5 x ought to h be5 se5 9 pa/ times2 & he f\nd ! ye> #afjg1 :5 "o 0 se5 by ,kepl]2 also ! ye> #aeca1 :5 "o 0 se5 by ,appian2 aga91 he reckon$ #adef1 #achj1 #acje4 ,all ^! appe>ances 7 ! same comet1 9 all probability1 return+ e sev5ty-five or sev5ty-six ye>s4 ,! p]iod 0 easily all[$ to be n exact1 because ( p]turb+ planets4 ,he !n pr$ict$ its return = #ageh1 or p]haps #agei1 a date he c\ld n himself hope to see4 ,he liv$ to a great age1 b he di$ sixte5 ye>s be=e ?is date4 ,z ! "t drew nigh1 ?ree-qu>t]s ( a c5tury aft]w>ds1 a/ronom]s 7 greatly int]e/$ 9 ?is fir/ comet>y pr$iction1 & kept an eag] look-out = ,halley's comet4 ,clairaut1 a mo/ em95t ma!matician & /ud5t ( ,newton1 proce$$ to calculate out m exactly ! p]turb+ influ5ce ( ,jupit]1 ne> :i* x _h pass$4 ,aft] imm5se lab\r 7= ! difficulty ( ! calculation 0 extreme1 & ! mass ( m]e figures some?+ port5t\s71 he pr$ict$ its return on ! #ac? ( ,april1 #agei1 b he consid]$ t he might h made a possible error ( a mon?4 ,x return$ on ! #ac? ( ,m>*1 #agei1 & e/abli%$ beyond all d\bt ! rule ( ! ,newtonian !ory ov] comets4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ga4--,well-kn[n model exhibit+ ! oblate sph]oidal =m z a consequ5ce ( sp9n+ ab\t a c5tral axis4 ,! brass /rip a looks l a transp>5t globe :5 :irl$1 & bulges out equatorially4 ,no4 #aj4 ,apply+ ! idea ( c5trifugal =ce to ! e>? consid]$ z a rotat+ body1 he p]ceiv$ t x c\ld n be a true sph]e1 & calculat$ its oblat5ess1 obta9+ #bh miles great] equatorial ?an pol> diamet]4 ,"h we return to "o ( ! m simple d$uctions4 ,a sp9n+ body ( any k9d t5ds to swell at its circumf]5ce 7or equator71 & %r9k along its axis 7or poles74 ,if ! body is ( yield+ mat]ial1 its %ape mu/ alt] "u ! influ5ce ( c5trifugal =ce2 & if a globe ( yield+ sub/ance subject to kn[n =ces rotates at a def9ite pace1 its %ape c be calculat$4 ,?us a pla/ic sph]e ! size ( ! e>?1 held toge!r by its own gravity1 & rotat+ once a day1 c be %[n to h its equatorial diamet] tw5ty-eight miles great] ?an its pol> diamet]3 ! two diamet]s be+ #h1jjj & #h1jbh respectively4 ,n[ we h no gu>antee t ! e>? is ( yield+ mat]ial3 = all ,newton c\ld tell x might be extremely rigid4 ,z a matt] ( fact x is n[ v ne>ly rigid4 ,b he argu$ ?us4 ,! wat] on x is c]ta9ly yield+1 & al?\gh ! solid e>? might decl9e to bulge at ! equator 9 def]5ce to ! diurnal rotation1 t w\ld n prev5t ! ocean f fl[+ f ! poles to ! equator & pil+ itself up z an equatorial ocean f\rte5 miles deep1 leav+ dry l& ev]y:]e ne> ei!r pole4 ,no?+ ( ?is sort is obs]v$3 ! di/ribution ( l& & wat] is n ?us regulat$4 ,h5ce1 :atev] ! e>? may be n[1 x mu/ once h be5 pla/ic en\gh to accommodate itself p]fectly to ! c5trifugal =ces1 & to take ! %ape appropriate to a p]fectly pla/ic body4 ,9 all probability x 0 once molt51 & = long aft]w>ds pa/y4 ,?us1 !n1 ! %ape ( ! e>? c be calculat$ f ! l5g? ( its day & ! int5sity ( its gravity4 ,! calculation is n difficult3 x consi/s 9 imag9+ a c\ple ( holes bor$ to ! c5tre ( ! e>?1 "o f a pole & "o f ! equator2 fill+ ^! bo? ) wat]1 & calculat+ h[ mu* high] ! wat] w /& 9 "o leg ( ! gigantic ,v tube s =m$ ?an 9 ! o!r4 ,! answ] comes out ab\t f\rte5 miles4 ,! %ape ( ! e>? c n[ be obs]v$ geodetically1 & x accords ) calculation1 b ! obs]vations are extremely delicate2 9 ,newton's "t ! size 0 only b>ely kn[n1 ! %ape 0 n obs]v$ till long aft]2 b on ! pr9ciples ( me*anics1 comb9$ ) a little common-s5se reason+1 x c\ld be calculat$ ) c]ta9ty & accuracy4 ,no4 #aa4 ,f ! obs]v$ %ape ( ,jupit] or any planet ! l5g? ( its day c\ld be e/imat$4 ,jupit] is mu* m oblate ?an ! e>?4 ,its two diamet]s are to "o ano!r z #ag is to #af2 ! ellipticity ( its disk is manife/ to simple inspection4 ,h5ce we p]ceive t its :irl+ action mu/ be m viol5t--x mu/ rotate quick]4 ,z a matt] ( fact its day is t5 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gb4--;,jupit]4 h\rs long--five h\rs daylight & five h\rs night4 ,! times ( rotation ( o!r bodies 9 ! sol> sy/em are record$ 9 a table above4 ,no4 #ab4 ,! s-calculat$ %ape ( ! e>?1 9 comb9ation ) c5trifugal =ce1 causes ! weight ( bodies to v>y ) latitude2 & ,newton calculat$ ! am\nt ( ?is v>iation4 #aid lbs4 at pole balance #aie lbs4 at equator4 ,b foll[+ f ! calculat$ %ape ( ! e>? foll[ sev]al int]e/+ consequ5ces4 ,fir/ ( all1 ! int5sity ( gravity w n be ! same ev]y:]e2 = at ! equator a /one is fur!r f ! av]age bulk ( ! e>? 7say ! c5tre7 ?an x is at ! poles1 & ow+ to ?is fact a mass ( #eij p\nds at ! pole2 w\ld suffice to balance #eia p\nds at ! equator1 if ! two c\ld be plac$ 9 ! pans ( a gigantic balance ^: beam /raddl$ along an e>?'s quadrant4 ,?is is a true v>iation ( gravity due to ! %ape ( ! e>?4 ,b besides ?is !re is a /ill l>g] app>5t v>iation due to c5trifugal =ce1 :i* affects all bodies at ! equator b n ^? at ! poles4 ,f ?is cause1 ev5 if ! e>? 7 a true sph]e1 yet if x 7 sp9n+ at its actual pace1 #bhh p\nds at ! pole c\ld balance #bhi p\nds at ! equator2 because at ! equator ! true weight ( ! mass w\ld n be fully appreciat$1 c5trifugal =ce w\ld virtually dim9i% x by #a_/bhi? ( its am\nt4 ,9 actual fact bo? causes co-exi/1 & accord+ly ! total v>iation ( gravity obs]v$ is comp\nd$ ( ! real & ! app>5t effects2 ! result is t #aid p\nds at a pole weighs z mu* z #aie p\nds at ! equator4 ,no4 #ac4 ,a homog5e\s sph]e attracts z if its mass 7 conc5trat$ at its c5tre4 ,= any o!r figure1 su* z an oblate sph]oid1 ?is is n exactly true4 ,a holl[ conc5tric sph]ical %ell ex]ts no =ce on small bodies inside x4 ,a sph]e compos$ ( uni=m mat]ial1 or ( mat]ials arrang$ 9 conc5tric /rata1 c be %[n to attract ext]nal bodies z if its mass 7 conc5trat$ at its c5tre4 ,a holl[ sph]e1 simil>ly compos$1 does ! same1 b on int]nal bodies x ex]ts no =ce at all4 ,h5ce1 at all di/ances above ! surface ( ! e>?1 gravity decreases 9 inv]se proportion z ! squ>e ( ! di/ance f ! c5tre ( ! e>? increases2 b1 if y desc5d a m9e1 gravity decreases 9 ?is case also z y leave ! surface1 ?\gh n at ! same rate z :5 y w5t up4 ,= z y p5etrate ! cru/ y get inside a conc5tric %ell1 :i* is ?us p[]less to act ^u y1 & ! e>? y are n[ outside is a small] "o4 ,at :at rate ! =ce decreases dep5ds on ! di/ribution ( d5sity2 if ! d5sity 7 uni=m all ?r\gh1 ! law ( v>iation w\ld be ! direct di/ance1 o!rwise x w\ld be m complicat$4 ,anyh[1 ! int5sity ( gravity is a maximum at ! surface ( ! e>?1 & decreases z y travel f ! surface ei!r up or d[n4 ,no4 #ad4 ,! e>?'s equatorial protub]ance1 be+ act$ on by ! attraction ( ! sun & moon1 mu/ di/urb its axis ( rotation 9 a calculat$ mann]2 & ?us is produc$ ! precession ( ! equ9oxes4 ,"h we come to a truly awful piece ( reason+4 ,a sph]e attracts z if its mass 7 conc5trat$ at its c5tre 7,no4 #ab71 b a sph]oid does n4 ,! e>? is a sph]oid1 & h5ce x pulls & is pull$ by ! moon ) a slightly unc5tric attraction4 ,9 o!r words1 ! l9e ( pull does n pass ?r\gh its precise c5tre4 ,n[ :5 we h a sp9n+ body1 say a top1 ov]load$ on "o side s t gravity acts on x unsymmetrically1 :at happ5s8 ,! axis ( rotation beg9s to rotate cone-wise1 at a pace :i* dep5ds on ! rate ( sp91 & on ! %ape & mass ( ! top1 z well z on ! am\nt & lev]age ( ! ov]load+4 ,newton calculat$ out ! rapidity ( ?is conical motion ( ! axis ( ! e>?1 produc$ by ! slightly unsymmetrical pull ( ! moon1 & f\nd t x w\ld complete a revolution 9 #bf1jjj ye>s--precisely :at 0 want$ to expla9 ! precession ( ! equ9oxes4 ,9 fact he _h discov]$ ! physical cause ( t precession4 ,obs]ve t !re 7 ?ree /ages 9 ?is discov]y ( precession3-- ,fir/1 ! obs]vation by ,hipp>*us1 t ! nodes1 or int]sections ( ! e>?'s orbit 7! sun's app>5t orbit7 ) ! plane ( ! equator1 7 n /ation>y1 b sl[ly mov$4 ,second1 ! description ( ?is motion by ,cop]nicus1 by ! /atem5t t x 0 due to a conical motion ( ! e>?'s axis ( rotation ab\t its c5tre z a fix$ po9t4 ,?ird1 ! explanation ( ?is motion by ,newton z due to ! pull ( ! moon on ! equatorial protub]ance ( ! e>?4 ,! explanation c\ld n h be5 previ\sly suspect$1 = ! %ape ( ! e>?1 on :i* ! :ole !ory dep5ds1 0 entirely unkn[n till ,newton calculat$ x4 ,ano!r & small] motion ( a some:at simil> k9d has be5 work$ out s9ce3 x is due to ! unsymmetrical attraction ( ! o!r planets = ?is same equatorial protub]ance4 ,x %[s itself z a p]iodic *ange 9 ! obliquity ( ! ecliptic1 or s-call$ recession ( ! apses1 r ?an z a motion ( ! nodes4#ba ,no4 #ae4 ,! wat]s ( ! ocean are attract$ t[>ds ! sun & moon on "o side1 & :irl$ a little f>!r away ?an ! solid e>? on ! o!r side3 h5ce ,newton expla9$ all ! ma9 ph5om5a ( ! tides4 ,& n[ comes ano!r trem5d\s g5]alization4 ,! tides _h long be5 an utt] my/]y4 ,kepl] lik5s ! e>? to an animal1 & ! tides to 8 brea?+s & inbrea?+s1 & says !y foll[ ! moon4 ,galileo *affs him = ?is1 & says t x is m]e sup]/ition to connect ! moon ) ! tides4 ,desc>tes said ! moon press$ d[n ^u ! wat]s by ! c5trifugal =ce ( its vortex1 & s produc$ a l[ tide "u x4 ,ev]y?+ 0 fog & d>kness on ! subject4 ,! leg5d goes t an a/ronom] ?rew himself into ! sea 9 despair ( ev] be+ able to expla9 ! flux & reflux ( its wat]s4 ,newton n[ ) consummate skill appli$ 8 !ory to ! effect ( ! moon ^u ! ocean1 & all ! ma9 details ( tidal action gradually reveal$ !mselves to him4 ,he treat$ ! wat]1 rotat+ ) ! e>? once a day1 some:at z if x 7 a satellite act$ on by p]turb+ =ces4 ,! moon z x revolves r\nd ! e>? is p]turb$ by ! sun4 ,! ocean z x revolves r\nd ! e>? 7be+ held on by gravitation j z ! moon is7 is p]turb$ by bo? sun & moon4 ,! p]turb+ effect ( a body v>ies directly z its mass1 & inv]sely z ! cube ( its di/ance4 7,! simple law ( inv]se squ>e does n apply1 because a p]turbation is a diff]5tial effect3 ! satellite or ocean :5 ne>] to ! p]turb+ body ?an ! re/ ( ! e>?1 is attract$ m1 & :5 fur!r (f x is attract$ less ?an is ! ma9 body ( ! e>?2 & x is ^! diff]5ces alone :i* con/itute ! p]turbation47 ,! moon is ! m p[]ful ( ! two p]turb+ bodies1 h5ce ! ma9 tides are due to ! moon2 & its *ief action is to cause a pair ( l[ waves or oceanic humps1 ( gigantic area1 to travel r\nd ! e>? once 9 a lun> day1 i4e4 9 ab\t #bd h\rs & #ej m9utes4 ,! sun makes a simil> b /ill l[] pair ( l[ elevations to travel r\nd once 9 a sol> day ( #bd h\rs4 ,& ! comb9ation ( ! two pairs ( humps1 ?us p]iodically ov]tak+ ea* o!r1 acc\nts = ! well-kn[n spr+ & neap tides1--spr+ tides :5 _! maxima agree1 neap tides :5 ! maximum ( "o co9cides ) ! m9imum ( ! o!r3 ea* ( :i* ev5ts happ5s regul>ly once a =tnight4 ,^! are ! ma9 effects1 b besides ^! !re are ! effects ( v>y+ di/ances & obliquity to be tak5 into acc\nt2 & s we h a :ole s]ies ( m9or di/urbances1 v l ^? discuss$ 9 ,no4 #g1 "u ! lun> !ory1 b m complex /ill1 because !re are two p]turb+ bodies in/ead ( only "o4 ,! subject ( ! tides is1 !re=e1 v recondite2 & ?\gh "o may give "s elem5t>y acc\nt ( its ma9 features1 x w be be/ to def] ?is to a sep>ate lecture 7,lecture ,,xvii74 ,i _h bett]1 h[ev]1 "h say t ,newton did n limit himself to ! consid]ation ( ! prim>y oceanic humps3 he pursu$ ! subject into geographical detail4 ,he po9t$ out t1 al?\gh ! rise & fall ( ! tide at mid-ocean isl&s w\ld be b small1 yet on /ret*es ( coa/ ! wave w\ld fl+ itself1 & by its mom5tum w\ld propel ! wat]s1 to a mu* great] height--= in/ance1 #bj or #cj feet2 especially 9 "s funnel-%ap$ op5+s l ! ,bri/ol ,*annel & ! ,bay ( ,fundy1 :]e ! conc5trat$ impetus ( ! wat] is enorm\s4 ,he also %[$ h[ ! tidal waves rea*$ diff]5t /ations 9 successive regul> ord] ea* day2 & h[ "s places might be f$ ) tide by two di/9ct *annels2 & t if ! "t ( ^! *annels happ5$ to diff] by six h\rs1 a high tide might be arriv+ by "o *annel & a l[ tide by ! o!r1 s t ! place w\ld only feel ! diff]5ce1 & s h a v small obs]v$ rise & fall2 in/anc+ a port 9 ,*9a 79 ! ,gulf ( ,tonqu97 :]e t approximately occurs4 ,9 fact1 al?\gh 8 !ory 0 n1 z we n[ "k1 complete or f9al1 yet x satisfactorily expla9$ a mass ( intricate detail z well z ! ma9 features ( ! tides4 ,no4 #af4 ,! sun's mass be+ kn[n1 he calculat$ ! height ( ! sol> tide4 ,no4 #ag4 ,f ! obs]v$ heights ( spr+ & neap tides he det]m9$ ! lun> tide1 & !nce made an e/imate ( ! mass ( ! moon4 ,kn[+ ! sun's mass & di/ance1 x 0 n difficult = ,newton to calculate ! height ( ! protub]ance caus$ by x 9 a pa/y ocean cov]+ ! :ole e>?4 ,i say pa/y1 because1 if !re 0 any t5d5cy = impulses to accumulate1 z timely pu%es giv5 to a p5dulum accumulate1 ! am\nt ( di/urbance might become excessive1 & its calculation w\ld involve a multitude ( data4 ,! ,newtonian tide ignor$ ?is1 ?us practically treat+ ! motion z ei!r dead-beat1 or else ! impulses z v inadequately tim$4 ,) ?is res]vation ! mid-ocean tide due to ! action ( ! sun alone comes out ab\t "o foot1 or let u say "o foot = simplicity4 ,n[ ! actual tide obs]v$ 9 mid-,atlantic is at ! spr+s ab\t f\r feet1 at ! neaps ab\t two4 ,! spr+ tide is lun> plus sol>2 ! neap tide is lun> m9us sol>4 ,h5ce x appe>s t ! tide caus$ by ! moon alone mu/ be ab\t ?ree feet1 :5 unaffect$ by mom5tum4 ,f ?is datum ,newton made ! fir/ attempt to approximately e/imate ! mass ( ! moon4 ,i said t ! masses ( satellites mu/ be e/imat$1 if at all1 by ! p]turbation !y are able to cause4 ,! lun> tide is a p]turbation 9 ! diurnal motion ( ! sea1 & its am\nt is !re=e a legitimate mode ( calculat+ ! moon's mass4 ,! available data 7 n at all good1 h[ev]2 nor are !y ev5 n[ v p]fect2 & s ! e/imate 0 a good way out4 ,x is n[ consid]$ t ! mass ( ! moon is ab\t "o-eightie? t ( ! e>?4 99 99 99 99 99 ,su* are "s ( ! gems extract$ f _! sett+ 9 ! ,pr9cipia1 & pres5t$ z cle>ly z ,i am able be=e y4 ,d y realize ! trem5d\s /ride 9 k--n a /ride1 z ,:ewell says1 nor yet a leap1 b a flight--:i* has occurr$ betwe5 ! dim grop+s ( ,kepl]1 ! elem5t>y tru?s ( ,galileo1 ! fasc9at+ b wild speculations ( ,desc>tes1 & ?is magnific5t & compreh5sive sy/em ( ord]$ k4 ,to "s 8 g5ius seem$ almo/ div9e4 ,does ,mr4 ,newton eat1 dr9k1 sleep1 l o!r m58 said ! ,m>quis de l',hpital1 a ,fr5* ma!matician ( no mean em95ce2 ,i picture him to myself z a cele/ial g5ius1 entirely remov$ f ! re/rictions ( ord9>y matt]4 ,to _m x seem$ z if !re 0 no?+ m to be discov]$1 z if ! univ]se 7 n[ explor$1 & only a few fragm5ts ( tru? rema9$ = ! glean]4 ,?is is ! attitude ( m9d express$ 9 ,pope's fam\s epigram3-- ,nature & ,nature's laws lay hid 9 ,night1 ,god said1 ,let ,newton be1 & all 0 light4 ,?is feel+ ( hopelessness & impot5ce 0 v natural aft] ! adv5t ( s ov]p[]+ a g5ius1 & x prevail$ 9 ,engl& = fully a c5tury4 ,x 0 v natural1 b x 0 v mis*iev\s2 =1 z a consequ5ce1 no?+ ( great mom5t 0 done by ,engl& 9 sci5ce1 & no ,engli%man ( ! fir/ magnitude appe>$1 till "s :o are ei!r liv+ n[ or :o h liv$ )9 ! pres5t c5tury4 ,x appe>$ to 8 contempor>ies z if he _h almo/ exhau/$ ! possibility ( discov]y2 b did x s appe> to ,newton8 ,did x seem to him z if he _h se5 f> & deep into ! tru?s ( ?is great & inf9ite univ]se8 ,x did n4 ,:5 q an old man1 full ( hon\r & r5[n1 v5]at$1 almo/ wor%ipp$1 by 8 contempor>ies1 ^! 7 8 words3-- ,i "k n :at ! _w w ?9k ( my lab\rs1 b to myself x seems t ,i h be5 b z a *ild play+ on ! sea-%ore2 n[ f9d+ "s pebble r m poli%$1 & n[ "s %ell r m agreeably v>iegat$ ?an ano!r1 :ile ! imm5se ocean ( tru? ext5d$ itself unexplor$ be=e me4 ,& s x mu/ ev] seem to ! wise/ & greate/ ( m5 :5 br\ght into contact ) ! great ?+s ( ,god--t :i* !y "k is z no?+1 & less ?an no?+1 to ! inf9itude ( :i* !y are ignorant4 ,newton's words s\nd l a simple & pleas+ e*o ( ! words ( t great unkn[n poet1 ! writ] ( ! book ( ,job3-- ,lo1 ^! are p>ts ( ,8 ways1 ,b h[ little a portion is he>d ( ,him2 ,! ?und] ( ,8 p[]1 :o c und]/&8 ,,end ,,( ,,"p ,i4 ,,"p ,,ii ,a ,,c\ple ,,( ,,c5turies' ,,progress4 ,,notes ,,to ,,lecture ,x ,sci5ce dur+ ! c5tury aft] ,newton ,! ,pr9cipia publi%$1 #afhg ,roem] #afdd-agaj ,james ,bradley #afib-agfb ,clairaut #agac-agfe ,eul] #agjg-aghc ,d',alemb]t #agag-aghc ,lagrange #agcf-ahac ,laplace #agdi-ahbg ,william ,h]s*el #agch-ahbb ,olaus ,roem] 0 born 9 ,jutl&1 & /udi$ at ,cop5hag54 ,assi/$ ,pic>d 9 #afga to det]m9e ! exact position ( ,ty*o's obs]vatory on ,hu54 ,accompani$ ,pic>d to ,p>is1 & 9 #afge read be=e ! ,academy 8 pap] ,on ,successive ,propagation ( ,light z reveal$ by a c]ta9 inequality 9 ! motion ( ,jupit]'s ,fir/ ,satellite4 ,9 #afha he return$ to ,cop5hag5 z ,pr(essor ( ,ma!matics & ,a/ronomy1 & di$ 9 #agaj4 ,he inv5t$ ! transit in/rum5t1 mural circle1 equatorial m\nt+ = telescopes1 & mo/ ( ! o!r pr9cipal in/rum5ts n[ 9 use 9 obs]vatories4 ,he made z _m obs]vations z ,ty*o ,brah1 b ! records ( all b ! "w ( ?ree days 7 de/roy$ by a great fire 9 #agbh4 ,bradley1 ,pr(essor ( ,a/ronomy at ,ox=d1 discov]$ ! ab]ration ( light 9 #agbi1 :ile exam9+ />s = p>allax1 & ! nutation ( ! e>?'s axis 9 #agdh4 ,0 appo9t$ ,a/ronom]-,royal 9 #agdb4 ,,lecture ,x ,,roem] ,,& ,,bradley ,,& ,,! ,,velocity ,,( ,,light ,at ,newton's dea? ,engl& /ood pre-em95t among ! nations ( ,europe 9 ! sph]e ( sci5ce4 ,b ! pre-em95ce did n la/ long4 ,two great discov]ies 7 made v soon aft] 8 decease1 bo? by ,pr(essor ,bradley1 ( ,ox=d1 & !n !re came a gap4 ,a mod]ately great man (t5 leaves beh9d him a s*ool ( disciples able to "w accord+ to _! ma/]'s me?ods1 & ) a heal?y _s ( rivalry :i* /imulates & enc\rages !m4 ,newton left1 inde$1 a s*ool ( disciples1 b 8 me?ods ( "w 7 l>gely unkn[n to !m1 & su* z 7 kn[n 7 too pond]\s to be us$ by ord9>y m54 ,only "o fre% result1 & t a small "o1 has ev] be5 atta9$ by o!r m5 work+ accord+ to ! me?ods ( ! ,pr9cipia4 ,! me?ods 7 /udi$ & comm5t$ on 9 ,engl& to ! exclusion ( all o!rs = nigh a c5tury1 & z a consequ5ce no really important "w 0 done4 ,on ! ,cont95t1 h[ev]1 no su* sy/em ( slavi% imitation prevail$4 ,^? me?ods ( ,newton's :i* _h be5 simultane\sly discov]$ by ,leibnitz 7 m ?or\ghly grasp$1 modifi$1 ext5d$1 & improv$4 ,!re arose a great s*ool ( ,fr5* & ,g]man ma!maticians1 & ! laurels ( sci5tific discov]y pass$ to ,france & ,g]many--m especially1 p]haps1 at ?is "t to ,france4 ,engl& has nev] :olly recov]$ !m4 ,dur+ ! pres5t c5tury ?is c\ntry has be5 fav\r$ ) "s giants :o1 z !y become di/ant en\gh = _! true magnitude to be p]ceiv$1 may possibly /& out z great z any :o h ev] liv$2 b = ! mass & bulk ( sci5tific "w at ! pres5t day we h to look to ,g]many1 ) its enlight5$ ,gov]nm5t & ext5sive intellectual developm5t4 ,engl&1 h[ev]1 is wak+ up1 & :at its ,gov]nm5t does n d1 private ent]prise is beg9n+ to accompli%4 ,! e/abli%m5t ( c5tres ( sci5tific & lit]>y activity 9 ! great t[ns ( ,engl&1 ?\gh at pres5t !y are p>tially encumb]$ ) ! supply ( education ( an exce$+ly rudim5t>y type1 is a movem5t t 9 ! c\rse ( ano!r c5tury or s w be se5 to be "o ( ! mo/ important & fruitful /eps ev] tak5 by ?is c\ntry4 ,on ! ,cont95t su* c5tres h long exi/$2 almo/ e l>ge t[n is ! seat ( a ,univ]sity1 & !y are n[ lib]ally end[$4 ,! ,univ]sity ( ,bologna 7:]e1 y may rememb]1 ,cop]nicus le>nt ma!matics7 has rec5tly celebrat$ its #hjj? anniv]s>y4 ,! sci5tific hi/ory ( ! c5tury aft] ,newton1 summ>iz$ 9 ! above table ( dates1 embraces ! lab\rs ( ! great ma!maticians ,clairaut1 ,eul]1 ,d',alemb]t1 & especially ( ,lagrange & ,laplace4 ,b ! ma9 "w ( all ^! m5 0 h>dly pione]+ "w4 ,x 0 r ! survey+1 & mapp+ out1 & br++ into cultivation1 ( l&s already discov]$4 ,probably ,h]s*el may be ju/ly reg>d$ z ! next true pione]4 ,we %all n1 h[ev]1 prop]ly appreciate ! /ages ?r\gh :i* a/ronomy has pass$1 nor %all we be prep>$ adequately to welcome ! discov]ies ( mod]n times unless we pay "s att5tion to ! int]v5+ age4 ,moreov]1 dur+ ?is era sev]al facts ( great mom5t gradually came into recognition2 & ! importance ( ! discov]y we h n[ to speak ( c h>dly be ov]-e/imat$4 ,our :ole direct k ( ! planet>y & /ell> univ]se1 f ! e>ly obs]vations ( ! anci5ts d[n to ! magnific5t discov]ies ( a ,h]s*el1 dep5ds entirely ^u our happ5+ to possess a s5se ( sight4 ,to no o!r ( our s5ses d any o!r worlds ?an our own 9 ! slighte/ degree appeal4 ,we t\* !m or he> !m nev]4 ,consequ5tly1 if ! human race _h happ5$ to be bl9d1 no o!r _w b ! "o x grop$ its way ^u c\ld ev] h be5 kn[n or imag9$ by x4 ,! outside univ]se w\ld h exi/$1 b man w\ld h be5 entirely & hopelessly ignorant ( x4 ,! b>e idea ( an outside univ]se beyond ! _w w\ld h be5 inconceivable1 & might h be5 sc\t$ z absurd4 ,we d possess ! s5se ( sight2 b is x to be suppos$ t we possess e s5se t c be possess$ by f9ite be+s8 ,!re is n ! lea/ gr\nd = su* an assumption4 ,x is easy to imag9e a deaf race or a bl9d race3 x is n s easy to imag9e a race m highly end[$ ) s5ses ?an our own2 & yet ! s5se ( smell 9 animals may give u "s aid 9 ?9k+ ( p[]s ( p]ception :i* transc5d our own 9 p>ticul> directions4 ,if !re 7 a race ) high] or o!r s5ses ?an our own1 or if ! human race %\ld ev] 9 ! process ( developm5t acquire su* extra s5se-organs1 a :ole univ]se ( exi/5t fact might become = ! fir/ "t p]ceiv$ by u1 & we %\ld look back ^u our pa/ /ate z ^u a bl9d *rysalid =m ( exi/5ce 9 :i* we _h be5 unconsci\s ( all ?is new weal? ( p]ception4 ,x _c be too cle>ly & /rongly insi/$ on & br\ght home to e m9d1 t ! mode 9 :i* ! univ]se /rikes u1 our view ( ! univ]se1 our :ole idea ( matt]1 & =ce1 & o!r worlds1 & ev5 ( consci\sness1 dep5ds ^u ! p>ticul> set ( s5se-organs ) :i* we1 z m51 happ5 to be end[$4 ,! s5ses ( =ce1 ( motion1 ( s\nd1 ( light1 ( t\*1 ( heat1 ( ta/e1 & ( smell--^! we h1 & ^! are ! ?+s we prim>ily "k4 ,all else is inf]5ce f\nd$ ^u ^! s5sations4 ,s ! _w appe>s to u4 ,b giv5 o!r s5se-organs1 & x might appe> q o!rwise4 ,:at x is actually & truly l1 !re=e1 is q & = ev] beyond u--s long z we are f9ite be+s4 ,)\t eyes1 a/ronomy w\ld be non-exi/5t4 ,light x is :i* conveys all ! in=mation we possess1 or1 z x w\ld seem1 ev] c possess1 conc]n+ ! out] & great] univ]se 9 :i* ?is small _w =ms a speck4 ,light is ! *annel1 ! mess5g] ( in=mation2 our eyes1 aid$ by telescopes1 spectroscopes1 & _m o!r scopes t may yet be inv5t$1 are ! means by :i* we read ! in=mation t light br+s4 ,light travels f ! />s to our eyes3 does x come in/antane\sly8 or does x loit] by ! way8 = if x l+]s x is n br++ u in=mation prop]ly up to date--x is only tell+ u :at ! /ate ( affairs 0 :5 x />t$ on its long j\rney4 ,n[1 x is evid5tly a matt] ( int]e/ to u :e!r we see ! sun z he is n[1 or only z he 0 "s ?ree hundr$ ye>s ago4 ,if ! in=mation came by express tra9 x w\ld be ?ree hundr$ ye>s beh9d date1 & ! sun might h gone out 9 ! reign ( ,que5 ,anne )\t our be+ z yet any ! wis]4 ,! "q1 !re=e1 ,at :at rate does our mess5g] travel8 is evid5tly "o ( great int]e/ = a/ronom]s1 & _m h be5 ! attempts made to solve x4 ,v likely ! anci5t ,greeks pond]$ ov] ?is "q1 b ! e>lie/ writ] kn[n to me :o s]i\sly discuss$ ! "q is ,galileo4 ,he sugge/s a r\gh exp]im5tal means ( attack+ x4 ,fir/ ( all1 x pla9ly comes quick] ?an s\nd4 ,?is c be p]ceiv$ by m]ely wat*+ di/ant hamm]+1 or by notic+ t ! fla% ( a pi/ol is se5 be=e its report is he>d1 or by li/5+ to ! noise ( a fla% ( lightn+4 ,s\nd takes five seconds to travel a mile--x has ab\t ! same spe$ z a rifle bullet2 b light is mu* quick] ?an t4 ,! rude exp]im5t sugge/$ by ,galileo 0 to s5d two m5 ) lant]ns & scre5s to two di/ant wat*-t[]s or neighb\r+ m\nta9 tops1 & to arrange t ea* 0 to wat* alt]nate displays & obscurations ( ! light made by ! o!r1 & to imitate !m z promptly z possible4 ,ei!r man1 !re=e1 on obscur+ or %[+ 8 own light w\ld see ! di/ant glimm] d ! same1 & w\ld be able to judge if !re 0 any appreciable int]val betwe5 8 own action & ! response ( ! di/ant light4 ,! exp]im5t 0 actually tri$ by ! ,flor5t9e ,academicians1#bb ) ! result t1 z practice improv$1 ! int]val became %ort] & %ort]1 s t !re 0 no reason to suppose t !re 0 any real int]val at all4 ,light1 9 fact1 seem$ to travel in/antane\sly4 ,well might !y h arriv$ at ?is result4 ,ev5 if !y _h made f> m p]fect arrangem5ts--= in/ance1 by arrang+ a look+-glass at "o ( ! /ations 9 :i* a di/ant obs]v] might see ! reflection ( 8 own lant]n1 & wat* ! obscurations & fla%+s made by himself1 )\t hav+ to dep5d on ! response ( human me*anism--ev5 !n no int]val :atev] c\ld h be5 detect$4 ,if1 by "s impossibly p]fect optical arrangem5t1 a ligh?\se "h 7 made visible to u aft] reflection 9 a mirror erect$ at ,new ,york1 s t ! light w\ld h to travel across ! ,atlantic & back be=e x c\ld be se51 ev5 !n ! appe>ance ( ! light on remov+ a %utt]1 or ! eclipse on int]pos+ x1 w\ld seem to happ5 q in/antane\sly4 ,!re w\ld c]ta9ly be an int]val3 ! int]val w\ld be ! fiftie? "p ( a second 7! "t a /one takes to drop #a_/ac? ( an in*71 b t is too %ort to be securely detect$ )\t me*anism4 ,) me*anism ! ?+ might be manag$1 = a s]ies ( %utt]s might be arrang$ l ! tee? ( a l>ge :eel2 s t1 :5 ! :eel rotates1 eclipses foll[ "o ano!r v rapidly2 if !n an eye look$ ?r\gh ! same op5+ z t by :i* ! light goes on its way to ! di/ant mirror1 a too? might h mov$ suffici5tly to cov] up ?is space by ! "t ! light return$2 9 :i* case ! :ole w\ld appe> d>k1 = ! light w\ld be /opp$ by a too?1 ei!r at />t+ or at return+1 cont9ually4 ,at high] spe$s ( rotation "s light w\ld reappe>1 & at l[] spe$s x w\ld also reappe>2 by notic+1 !re=e1 ! precise spe$ at :i* !re 0 con/ant eclipse ! velocity ( light c\ld be det]m9$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gc4--;,diagram ( eye look+ at a light reflect$ 9 a di/ant mirror ?r\gh ! tee? ( a revolv+ :eel4 ,?is exp]im5t has n[ be5 made 9 a highly ref9$ =m by ,fizeau1 & repeat$ by ,m4 ,cornu ) prodigi\s c>e & accuracy4 ,b ) ^! rec5t matt]s we h no conc]n at pres5t4 ,x may be in/ructive to say1 h[ev]1 t if ! light _h to travel two miles altoge!r1 ! :eel w\ld h to possess #dej tee? & to sp9 #ajj times a second 7at ! risk ( fly+ to pieces7 9 ord] t ! ray />t+ ?r\gh any "o ( ! gaps might be /opp$ on return+ by ! adjac5t too?4 ,well might ! velocity ( light be call$ in/antane\s by ! e>ly obs]v]s4 ,an ord9>y exp]im5t seem$ 7& 07 hopeless1 & light 0 suppos$ to travel at an inf9ite spe$4 ,b a ph5om5on 0 notic$ 9 ! heav5s by a quick-witt$ & +5i\s ,dani% a/ronom]1 :i* 0 n susceptible ( any ord9>y explanation1 & :i* he p]ceiv$ c\ld at once be expla9$ if light _h a c]ta9 rate ( travel--great1 inde$1 b some?+ %ort ( inf9ite4 ,?is ph5om5on 0 connect$ ) ! satellites ( ,jupit]1 & ! a/ronom]'s "n 0 ,roem]4 ,i w speak fir/ ( ! obs]vation & !n ( ! man4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gd4--;,fizeau's :eel1 %ew+ ! appe>ance ( di/ant image se5 ?r\gh its tee?4 #a/1 :5 /ation>y1 next :5 revolv+ at a mod]ate spe$1 la/ :5 revolv+ at ! high spe$ j suffici5t to cause eclipse4 ,jupit]'s satellites are visible1 precisely z our own moon is1 by reason ( ! %imm] ( sunlight :i* !y reflect4 ,b z !y revolve r\nd _! great planet !y plunge into 8 %ad[ at "o "p ( _! c\rse1 & s become eclips$ f sun%9e & invisible to u4 ,! mom5t ( disappe>ance c be %>ply obs]v$4 ,take ! fir/ satellite z an example4 ,! int]val betwe5 successive eclipses ought to be its p]iod ( revolution r\nd ,jupit]4 ,obs]ve ?is p]iod4 ,x 0 n uni=m4 ,on ! av]age x 0 #db h\rs #dg m9utes1 b x seem$ to dep5d on ! "t ( ye>4 ,:5 ,roem] obs]v$ 9 spr+ x 0 less1 & 9 autumn x 0 m ?an usual4 ,?is 0 evid5tly a puzzl+ fact3 :at on e>? c our ye> h to d ) ! motion ( a moon ( ,jupit]'s8 ,x 0 probably1 !re=e1 only an app>5t *ange1 caus$ ei!r by our great] or less di/ance f ,jupit]1 or else by our great] or less spe$ ( travell+ to or f him4 ,consid]+ x ?us1 he 0 l$ to see t1 :5 ! "t ( revolution seem$ longe/1 we 7 rec$+ fa/e/ f ,jupit]1 & :5 %orte/1 approa*+ fa/e/4 ,if1 !n1 light took "t on its j\rney1 if x travell$ progressively1 ! :ole anomaly w\ld be expla9$4 ,9 a second ! e>? goes n9ete5 miles2 !re=e 9 #db-c_/d h\rs 7! "t ( revolution ( ,jupit]'s fir/ satellite7 x goes #bi million 7say ?ree million7 miles4 ,! eclipse happ5s punctually1 b we d n see x till ! light convey+ ! in=mation has travell$ ! extra ?ree million miles & caught up ! e>?4 ,evid5tly1 !re=e1 by obs]v+ h[ mu* ! app>5t "t ( revolution is l5g!n$ 9 "o "p ( ! e>?'s orbit & %ort5$ 9 ano!r1 gett+ all ! data accurately1 & assum+ ! tru? ( our hypo!tical explanation1 we c calculate ! velocity ( light4 ,?is is :at ,roem] did4 ,n[ ! maximum am\nt ( ret>dation is j ab\t fifte5 seconds4 ,h5ce light takes ?is "t to travel ?ree million miles2 !re=e its velocity is ?ree million divid$ by fifte51 say #bjj1jjj1 or1 z we n[ "k m exactly1 #ahf1jjj miles e second4 ,note t ! delay does n dep5d on our di/ance1 b on our spe$4 ,"o c tell ?is by common-s5se z soon z we grasp ! g5]al idea ( ! explanation4 ,a velocity _c possibly dep5d on a di/ance only4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ge4--;,eclipses ( "o ( ,jupit]'s satellites4 ,a diagram int5d$ to illu/rate ! dep5d5ce ( its app>5t "t ( revolution 7f eclipse to eclipse7 on ! motion ( ! e>?2 b n illu/rat+ ! matt] at all well4 ,,tt' ,t'' are successive positions ( ! e>?1 :ile ,,jj' ,j'' are correspond+ positions ( ,jupit]4 ,roem]'s explanation ( ! anomaly 0 n accept$ by a/ronom]s4 ,x excit$ "s att5tion1 & 0 discuss$1 b x 0 f\nd n obvi\sly applicable to any ( ! satellites except ! fir/1 & n v simply & satisfactorily ev5 to t4 ,i h1 ( c\rse1 giv5 y ! !ory 9 its mo/ elem5t>y & simple =m4 ,9 actual fact a ho/ ( di/urb+ & complicat$ consid]ations come 9--n s viol5tly di/urb+ = ! fir/ satellite z = ! o!rs1 because x moves s quickly1 b /ill complicat$ en\gh4 ,! fact is1 ! real motion ( ,jupit]'s satellites is a mo/ difficult problem4 ,! motion ev5 ( our own moon 7! lun> !ory7 is difficult en\gh3 p]turb$ z its motion is by ! sun4 ,y "k t ,newton said x co/ him m lab\r ?an all ! re/ ( ! ,pr9cipia4 ,b ! motion ( ,jupit]'s satellites is f> worse4 ,no "o1 9 fact1 has yet work$ _! !ory completely out4 ,!y are p]turb$ by ! sun1 ( c\rse1 b !y also p]turb ea* o!r1 & ,jupit] is f> f sph]ical4 ,! %ape ( ,jupit]1 & _! mutual attractions1 comb9e to make _! motions mo/ peculi> & di/ract+4 ,h5ce an error 9 ! "t ( revolution ( a satellite 0 n c]ta9ly due to ! cause ,roem] sugge/$1 unless "o c\ld be sure t ! inequality 0 n a real "o1 unless x c\ld be %[n t ! !ory ( gravitation 0 insuffici5t to acc\nt = x4 ,?is _h n !n be5 done2 s ! half-made discov]y 0 %elv$1 & prop]ly %elv$1 z a brilliant b unv]ifi$ speculation4 ,x rema9$ on ! %elf = half a c5tury1 & 0 no d\bt almo/ =gott54 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gf4--;,a ,transit-in/rum5t = ! ,briti% a/ronomical exp$ition1 #ahgd4 ,%ew+ 9 its ess5tial features ! simple/ =m ( su* an in/rum5t4 ,n[ a ^w or two ab\t ! man4 ,he 0 a ,dane1 educat$ at ,cop5hag51 & le>n$ 9 ! ma!matics4 ,we fir/ he> ( him z appo9t$ to assi/ ,pic>d1 ! em95t ,fr5* geodetic surveyor 7^: admirable "w 9 det]m9+ ! l5g? ( a degree y rememb] 9 connection ) ,newton71 :o _h come ov] to ,d5m>k ) ! object ( fix+ ! exact site ( ! old & ext9ct ,ty*onic obs]vatory 9 ! isl& ( ,hu54 ,= ( c\rse ! k ( ! exact latitude & longitude ( e place :5ce num]\s obs]vations h be5 tak5 mu/ be an ess5tial to ! full int]pretation ( ^? obs]vations4 ,! measurem5ts be+ f9i%$1 "y ,roem] accompani$ ,pic>d to ,p>is1 & "h x 01 a few ye>s aft]1 t he read 8 fam\s pap] conc]n+ ,an ,inequality 9 ! ,motion ( ,jupit]'s ,fir/ ,satellite1 & its explanation by means ( an hypo!sis ( ! successive propagation ( light4 ,! lat] ye>s ( 8 life he sp5t 9 ,cop5hag5 z a pr(essor 9 ! ,univ]sity & an en?usia/ic obs]v] ( ! heav5s1--n a descriptive obs]v] l ,h]s*el1 b a measur+ obs]v] l ,sir ,george ,airy or ,ty*o ,brah4 ,he 01 9 fact1 a wor?y foll[] ( ,ty*o1 & ! ma9 "w ( 8 life is ! developm5t & devis+ ( new & m accurate a/ronomical in/rum5ts4 ,_m ( ! l>ge & accurate in/rum5ts ) :i* a mod]n obs]vatory is furni%$ are ! inv5tion ( ?is ,dane4 ,"o ( ! f9e/ obs]vatories 9 ! _w is ! ,russian "o at ,pulk[a1 & a li/ ( ! in/rum5ts !re reads l an ext5d$ catalogue ( ,roem]'s inv5tions4 ,he n only inv5t$ ! in/rum5ts1 he _h !m made1 be+ all[$ money = ! purpose2 & he us$ !m vigor\sly1 s t at 8 dea? he left great piles ( manuscript /or$ 9 ! national obs]vatory4 ,un=tunately ?is obs]vatory 0 9 ! he>t ( ! city1 & 0 ?us expos$ to a dang] f :i* su* places ought to be z f> z possible exempt4 ,"s eighte5 ye>s aft] ,roem]'s dea? a great conflagration broke out 9 ,cop5hag51 & ru9$ l>ge portions ( ! city4 ,! successor to ,roem]1 ,horreb[ by "n1 fl$ f 8 h\se1 ) su* valuables z he possess$1 to ! obs]vatory1 & !re w5t on ) 8 "w4 ,b be=e long ! w9d %ift$1 & to 8 horror he saw ! flames com+ 8 way4 ,he pack$ up 8 own & 8 pr$ecessor's manuscript obs]vations 9 two cases1 & prep>$ to escape ) !m1 b ! neighb\rs _h resort$ to ! obs]vatory z a place ( safety1 & s *ok$ up ! /aircase ) _! prop]ty t he 0 b>ely able to escape himself1 let alone ! luggage1 & ev]y?+ 0 lo/4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gg4--;,diagram ( equatorially m\nt$ telescope2 ,,ce is ! pol> axis p>allel to ! axis ( ! e>?2 ,,ab ! decl9ation axis4 ,! diurnal motion is comp5sat$ by motion ab\t ! pol> axis only1 ! o!r be+ clamp$4 ,( all ! obs]vations1 only ?ree days' "w rema9s1 & ^! 7 c>efully discuss$ by ,dr4 ,galle1 ( ,b]l91 9 #ahde1 & _! nutrim5t extract$4 ,^! anci5t obs]vations are ( great use = purposes ( comp>ison ) ! pres5t /ate ( ! heav5s1 & ?r[ light ^u possible *anges t are go+ on4 ,( c\rse n[adays su* a s]ies ( obs]vations w\ld be pr9t$ & di/ribut$ 9 _m libr>ies1 & s made practically inde/ructible4 ,sad z ! disa/] 0 to ! po/hum\s fame ( ! great obs]v]1 a consid]able comp5sation 0 prep>+4 ,! v ye> t ! fire occurr$ 9 ,d5m>k a quiet philosoph] 9 ,engl& 0 speculat+ & brood+ on a rem>kable obs]vation t he _h made conc]n+ ! app>5t motion ( c]ta9 />s1 & he 0 l$ !reby to a discov]y ( ! fir/ magnitude conc]n+ ! spe$ ( light--a discov]y :i* resuscitat$ ! old !ory ( ,roem] ab\t ,jupit]'s satellites1 & made bo? x & him immortal4 ,james ,bradley liv$ a quiet1 unev5tful1 /udi\s life1 ma9ly at ,ox=d b aft]w>ds at ! ,national ,obs]vatory at ,gre5wi*1 ( :i* he 0 ?ird ,a/ronom]-,royal1 ,flam/e$ & ,halley hav+ prec$$ him 9 t (fice4 ,he _h tak5 ord]s1 & lectur$ at ,ox=d z ,savilian ,pr(essor4 ,x is said t he pond]$ 8 great discov]y :ile pac+ ! ,long ,walk at ,magdal5 ,college--& a beautiful place x is to m$itate 94 ,bradley 0 engag$ 9 mak+ obs]vations to det]m9e if possible ! p>allax ( "s ( ! fix$ />s4 ,p>allax means ! app>5t relative %ift ( bodies due to a *ange 9 ! obs]v]'s position4 ,x is p>allax :i* we obs]ve :5 travell+ by rail & look+ out ( w9d[ at ! di/ant l&scape4 ,?+s at diff]5t di/ances are left beh9d at diff]5t app>5t rates1 & accord+ly !y seem to move relatively to ea* o!r4 ,! mo/ di/ant objects are lea/ affect$2 & any?+ enorm\sly di/ant1 l ! moon1 is n subject to ?is effect1 b w\ld reta9 its position h[ev] f> we travell$1 unless we _h "s extraord9>ily precise means ( obs]vation4 ,s ) ! fix$ />s3 !y 7 be+ obs]v$ f a mov+ c>riage--viz4 ! e>?--& "o mov+ at ! rate ( n9ete5 miles a second4 ,unless !y 7 inf9itely di/ant1 or unless !y 7 all at ! same di/ance1 !y mu/ %[ relative app>5t motions among !mselves4 ,se5 f "o po9t ( ! e>?'s orbit1 & !n 9 six mon?s f an opposite po9t1 ne>ly #ahd million miles away1 surely !y mu/ %[ "s diff]5ce ( aspect4 ,rememb] t ! old ,cop]nican difficulty _h nev] be5 remov$4 ,if ! e>? revolv$ r\nd ! sun1 h[ came x t ! fix$ />s %[$ no p>allax8 ,! fact /ill rema9$ a surprise1 & ! "q a *all5ge4 ,pic>d1 l o!r a/ronom]s1 suppos$ t x 0 only because ! me?ods ( obs]vation _h n be5 delicate en\gh2 b n[ t1 s9ce ! inv5tion ( ! telescope & ! f\nd+ ( ,national ,obs]vatories1 accuracy hi!rto undreamt ( 0 possible1 :y n attack ! problem anew8 ,?is1 !n1 he did1 wat*+ ! />s ) great c>e to see if 9 six mon?s !y %[$ any *ange 9 absolute position ) ref]5ce to ! pole ( ! heav5s2 any kn[n secul> motion ( ! pole1 su* z precession1 be+ all[$ =4 ,already he ?\ght he detect$ a slight p>allax = sev]al />s ne> ! pole1 & ! subject 0 excit+ mu* int]e/4 ,bradley det]m9$ to attempt ! same inve/igation4 ,he 0 n de/9$ to succe$ 9 x4 ,n till ! pres5t c5tury 0 success 9 t mo/ difficult obs]vation a*iev$2 & ev5 n[ x _c be done by ! absolute me?ods !n attempt$2 b1 z s (t5 happ5s1 ,bradley1 9 attempt+ "o ?+1 hit ^u ano!r1 &1 z x happ5$1 "o ( /ill great] brilliance & importance4 ,let u trace ! /ages ( 8 discov]y4 ,atmosph]ic refraction made horizon obs]vations useless = ! delicacy ( 8 purpose1 s he *ose />s ne> ! z5i?1 p>ticul>ly "o--gamma ,draconis4 ,?is he obs]v$ v c>efully at diff]5t seasons ( ! ye> by means ( an in/rum5t specially adapt$ = z5i? obs]vations1 viz4 a z5i? sector4 ,! obs]vations 7 made 9 conjunction ) a fri5d ( 81 an amateur a/ronom] nam$ ,molyneux1 & !y 7 made at ,kew4 ,molyneux 0 %ortly made ,fir/ ,"l ( ! ,admiralty1 or some?+ important ( t sort1 & gave up frivol\s pursuits4 ,s ,bradley obs]v$ alone4 ,!y obs]v$ ! /> accurately e>ly 9 ! mon? ( ,decemb]1 & !n int5d$ to wait six mon?s4 ,b f curiosity ,bradley obs]v$ x aga9 only ab\t a week lat]4 ,to 8 surprise1 he f\nd t x _h already *ang$ its position4 ,he record$ 8 obs]vation on ! back ( an old envelope3 x 0 8 wont ?us to use up odd scraps ( pap]--he 0 n1 ,i regret to say1 a tidy or me?odical p]son--& ?is odd piece ( pap] turn$ up long aft]w>ds among 8 manuscripts4 ,x has be5 photograph$ & pres]v$ z an hi/orical relic4 ,aga9 & aga9 he repeat$ ! obs]vation ( ! />1 & cont9ually f\nd x mov+ /ill a little fur!r & fur!r s\?1 an excessively small motion1 b /ill an appreciable "o--n to be set d[n to errors ( obs]vation4 ,s x w5t on till ,m>*4 ,x !n wait$1 & aft] a bit long] began to return1 until ,june4 ,by ,septemb] x 0 displac$ z mu* to ! nor? z x _h be5 to ! s\?1 & by ,decemb] x _h got back to its orig9al position4 ,x _h describ$1 9 fact1 a small oscillation 9 ! c\rse ( ! ye>4 ,! motion affect$ neighb\r+ />s 9 a simil> way1 & 0 call$ an ab]ration1 or w&]+ f _! true place4 ,= a long "t ,bradley pond]$ ov] ?is obs]vation1 & ov] o!rs l !m :i* he also made4 ,he f\nd "o gr\p ( />s describ+ small circles1 :ile o!rs at a di/ance f !m 7 oscillat+ 9 /raight l9es1 & all ! o!rs 7 describ+ ellipses4 ,unless ?is /ate ( ?+s 7 cle>$ up1 accurate a/ronomy 0 impossible4 ,! fix$ />s6--!y 7 n fix$ a bit4 ,to ref9$ & accurate obs]vation1 su* z 0 n[ possible1 !y 7 all c>e]+ ab\t 9 little orbits hav+ a ref]5ce to ! e>?'s ye>1 besides any prop] motion :i* !y might really h ( _! own1 ?\gh no su* motion 0 at pres5t kn[n4 ,n till ,h]s*el 0 t discov]$2 n till ?is extraord9>y ab]ration 0 all[$ = c\ld x be discov]$4 ,! effect obs]v$ by ,bradley & ,molyneux mu/ manife/ly be only an app>5t motion3 x 0 absurd to suppose a real /ell> motion regulat+ itself accord+ to ! position ( ! e>?4 ,p>allax c\ld n d x1 = t w\ld displace />s relatively among ea* o!r--x w\ld n move simil>ly a set ( neighb\r+ />s4 ,at l5g?1 f\r ye>s aft] ! obs]vation1 ! explanation /ruck him1 :ile 9 a boat ^u ! ,?ames4 ,he notic$ ! app>5t direction ( ! w9d *ang$ :5ev] ! boat />t$4 ,! w9d ve]$ :5 ! boat's motion *ang$4 ,( c\rse ! cause ( ?is 0 obvi\s en\gh--! spe$ ( ! w9d & ! spe$ ( ! boat 7 comp\nd$1 & gave an app>5t direction ( ! w9d o!r ?an ! true direction4 ,b ?is imm$iately sugge/$ a cause = :at he _h obs]v$ 9 ! heav5s4 ,he _h be5 obs]v+ an app>5t direction ( ! />s o!r ?an ! true direction1 because he 0 obs]v+ f a mov+ vehicle4 ,! real direction 0 d\btless fix$3 ! app>5t direction ve]$ ab\t ) ! motion ( ! e>?4 ,x mu/ be t light did n travel in/antane\sly1 b gradually1 z ,roem] _h surmis$ fifty ye>s ago2 & t ! motion ( ! light 0 comp\nd$ ) ! motion ( ! e>?4 ,?9k ( a /ream ( light or any?+ else fall+ on a mov+ c>riage4 ,! c>riage w run a?w>t ! /ream1 ! occupants ( ! c>riage w mi/ake its true direction4 ,a rifle fir$ ?r\gh ! w9d[s ( a railway c>riage by a man at re/ outside w\ld make its p]=ations n 9 ! true l9e ( fire unless ! tra9 is /ation>y4 ,if ! tra9 is mov+1 ! l9e jo9+ ! holes w po9t to a place 9 advance ( :]e ! rifle is really locat$4 ,s x is ) ! two glasses ( a telescope1 ! object-glass & eye-piece1 :i* are pi]c$ by ! light2 an a/ronom]1 apply+ 8 eye to ! tube & look+ = ! orig9 ( ! di/urbance1 sees x app>5tly1 b n 9 its real position--its app>5t direction is displac$ 9 ! direction ( ! telescope's motion2 by an am\nt dep5d+ on ! ratio ( ! velocity ( ! e>? to ! velocity ( light1 & on ! angle betwe5 ^? two directions4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gh4--;,ab]ration diagram4 ,! light-ray ,l p5etrates ! object-glass ( ! mov+ telescope at ,o1 b does n rea* ! eye-piece until ! telescope has travell$ to ! second position4 ,consequ5tly a mov+ telescope does n po9t out ! true direction ( ! light1 b aims at a po9t a little 9 advance4 ,b h[ m9ute is ! displacem5t6 ,! greate/ effect is obta9$ :5 ! two motions are at "r angles to ea* o!r1 i4e4 :5 ! /> se5 is at "r angles to ! direction ( ! e>?'s motion1 b ev5 !n x is only #bj1 or #a_/ahj? "p ( a degree2 "o-n9etie? ( ! moon's app>5t diamet]4 ,x c\ld n be detect$ )\t a cross-wire 9 ! telescope1 & w\ld only appe> z a slight displacem5t f ! c5tre ( ! field1 suppos+ ! telescope accurately po9t$ to ! true direction4 ,b if ?is explanation be true1 x at once gives a me?od ( det]m9+ ! velocity ( light4 ,! maximum angle ( deviation1 repres5t$ z a ratio ( arc radius1 am\nts to #a #a ------------ - #jjja ------ #ahj #eg-a_/c #aj1jjj 7a gradi5t ( #a foot 9 two miles74 ,9 o!r words1 ! velocity ( light mu/ be #aj1jjj times z great z ! velocity ( ! e>? 9 its orbit4 ,?is am\nts to a spe$ ( #aij1jjj miles a second--n s v diff]5t f :at ,roem] _h reckon$ x 9 ord] to expla9 ! anomalies ( ,jupit]'s fir/ satellite4 ,/>s 9 ! direction 9 :i* ! e>? 0 mov+ w\ld n be ?us affect$2 !re w\ld be no?+ 9 m]e approa* or recession to alt] direction or to make itself 9 any way visible4 ,/>s at "r angles to ! e>?'s l9e ( motion w\ld be mo/ affect$1 & ^! w\ld be all displac$ by ! full am\nt ( #bj seconds ( arc4 ,/>s 9 int]m$iate directions w\ld be displac$ by int]m$iate am\nts4 ,b ! l9e ( ! e>?'s motion is approximately a circle r\nd ! sun1 h5ce ! direction ( its advance is con/antly ?\gh sl[ly *ang+1 & 9 "o ye> x goes ?r\gh all ! po9ts ( ! compass4 ,! />s1 be+ displac$ always 9 ! l9e ( advance1 mu/ simil>ly appe> to describe little clos$ curves1 always a quadrant 9 advance ( ! e>?1 complet+ _! orbits once a ye>4 ,^? ne> ! pole ( ! ecliptic w describe circles1 be+ always at "r angles to ! motion4 ,^? 9 ! plane ( ! ecliptic 7ne> ! zodiac7 w be sometimes at "r angles to ! motion1 b at o!r times w be approa*$ or rec$$ f2 h5ce ^! w oscillate l p5dulums once a ye>2 & int]m$iate />s w h int]m$iate motions--t is to say1 w describe ellipses ( v>y+ exc5tricity1 b all complet$ 9 a ye>1 & all ) ! major axis #bj4 ,?is agre$ v closely ) :at 0 obs]v$4 ,! ma9 details 7 ?us cle>ly & simply expla9$ by ! hypo!sis ( a f9ite velocity = light1 ! successive propagation ( light 9 "t4 ,?is "t !re 0 no room = hesitation1 & a/ronom]s hail$ ! discov]y ) en?usiasm4 ,n yet1 h[ev]1 did ,bradley re/4 ,! f9ite velocity ( light expla9$ ! major "p ( ! irregul>ities he _h obs]v$1 b n ! :ole4 ,! m c>efully he measur$ ! am\nt ( ! deviation1 ! less completely accurate became its explanation4 ,!re cle>ly 0 a small out/&+ error or discrepancy2 ! />s 7 /ill subject to an unexpla9$ displacem5t--n1 inde$1 a displacem5t t repeat$ itself e ye>1 b "o t w5t ?r\gh a cycle ( *anges 9 a long] p]iod4 ,! displacem5t 0 only ab\t half t ( ab]ration1 & hav+ a long] p]iod 0 r m difficult to detect securely4 ,b ! major difficulty 0 ! fact t ! two sorts ( di/urbances 7 co-exi/5t1 & ! skill ( dis5tangl+ !m1 & exhibit+ ! true & complete cause ( ea* inequality1 0 v brilliant4 ,= n9ete5 ye>s did ,bradley obs]ve ?is m9or displacem5t1 & 9 t "t he saw x g ?r\gh a complete cycle4 ,its cause 0 n[ cle> to him2 ! n9ete5-ye> p]iod sugge/$ ! explanation4 ,x is ! p]iod 9 :i* ! moon goes ?r\gh all h] *anges--a p]iod kn[n to ! anci5ts z ! lun> cycle1 or ,metonic cycle1 & us$ by !m to pr$ict eclipses4 ,x is /ill us$ = ! fir/ r\gh approximation to ! pr$iction ( eclipses1 & to calculate ,ea/]4 ,! ,gold5 ,numb] ( ! ,pray]-book is ! numb] ( ! ye> 9 ?is cycle4 ,! cause ( ! second inequality1 or app>5t p]iodic motion ( ! />s1 ,bradley made out to be a nodd+ motion ( ! e>?'s axis4 ,! axis ( ! e>? describes its precessional orbit or conical motion e #bf1jjj ye>s1 z _h long be5 kn[n2 b sup]pos$ ^u ?is great movem5t h n[ be5 detect$ m9ute nods1 ea* ) a p]iod ( n9ete5 ye>s4 ,! cause ( ! nodd+ is completely acc\nt$ = by ! !ory ( gravitation1 j z ! precession ( ! equ9oxes 04 ,bo? di/urbances result f ! attraction ( ! moon on ! non-sph]ical e>?--on its protub]ant equator4 ,nutation is1 9 fact1 a small p]turbation ( precession4 ,! motion may be obs]v$ 9 a non-sleep+ top4 ,! sl[ conical motion ( ! top's slant+ axis repres5ts ! c\rse ( precession4 ,sometimes ?is pa? is loopy1 & its little nods correspond to nutation4 ,! probable exi/5ce ( "s su* p]turbation _h n escap$ ! sagacity ( ,newton1 & he m5tions some?+ ab\t x 9 ! ,pr9cipia1 b ?9ks x too small to be detect$ by obs]vation4 ,he 0 ?9k+1 h[ev]1 ( a sol> di/urbance r ?an a lun> "o1 & ?is is c]ta9ly v small1 ?\gh x1 too1 has n[ be5 obs]v$4 ,newton 0 dead be=e ,bradley made ^! great discov]ies1 else he w\ld h be5 greatly pleas$ to he> ( !m4 ,^! discov]ies ( ab]ration & nutation1 says ,delambre1 ! great ,fr5* hi/orian ( sci5ce1 secure to _! au?or a di/+ui%$ place aft] ,hipp>*us & ,kepl] among ! a/ronom]s ( all ages & all c\ntries4 ,,notes ,,to ,,lecture ,,xi ,lagrange & ,laplace1 bo? trem5d\s ma!maticians1 work$ v mu* 9 alliance1 & complet$ ,newton's "w4 ,! ,mcanique ,cle/e conta9s ! high] intricacies ( a/ronomy ma!matically work$ out accord+ to ! !ory ( gravitation4 ,!y prov$ ! sol> sy/em to be /able2 all its inequalities be+ p]iodic1 n cumulative4 ,& ,laplace sugge/$ ! nebul> hypo!sis conc]n+ ! orig9 ( sun & planets3 a hypo!sis previ\sly sugge/$1 & to "s ext5t1 elaborat$1 by ,kant4 ,a li/ ( "s ( ! pr9cipal a/ronomical rese>*es ( ,lagrange & ,laplace3--,libration ( ! moon4 ,long inequality ( ,jupit] & ,saturn4 ,p]turbations ( ,jupit]'s satellites4 ,p]turbations ( comets4 ,accel]ation ( ! moon's mean motion4 ,improv$ lun> !ory4 ,improvem5ts 9 ! !ory ( ! tides4 ,p]iodic *anges 9 ! =m & obliquity ( ! e>?'s orbit4 ,/ability ( ! sol> sy/em consid]$ z an assemblage ( rigid bodies subject to gravity4 ,! two equations :i* e/abli% ! /ability ( ! sol> sy/em are3-- ,sum 7me#bsqu>e rootd7 con/ant1 & ,sum 7m tan#b!tasqu>e rootd7 con/ant2 :]e m is ! mass ( ea* planet1 d its mean di/ance f ! sun1 e ! exc5tricity ( its orbit1 & !ta ! incl9ation ( its plane4 ,h[ev] ! expressions above =mulat$ may *ange = individual planets1 ! sum ( !m = all ! planets rema9s inv>iable4 ,! p]iod ( ! v>iations 9 exc5tricity ( ! e>?'s orbit is #hf1jjj ye>s2 ! p]iod ( conical revolution ( ! e>?'s axis is #be1hjj ye>s4 ,ab\t #ah1jjj ye>s ago ! exc5tricity 0 at a maximum4 ,,lecture ,,xi ,,lagrange ,,& ,,laplace--,,! ,,/ability ,,( ,,! ,,sol> ,,sy/em1 ,,& ,,! ,,nebul> ,,hypo!sis ,laplace 0 ! son ( a small f>m] or peasant ( ,norm&y4 ,8 extraord9>y ability 0 notic$ by "s weal?y neighb\rs1 & by !m he 0 s5t to a good s*ool4 ,f t "t 8 c>e] 0 "o brilliant success1 until 9 ! lat] ye>s ( 8 life 8 prom95ce br\ght him tangibly into contact ) ! det]iorat+ influ5ce ( politics4 ,p]haps "o ought r to say try+ ?an det]iorat+2 = !y seem try+ to a /rong "*1 det]iorat+ to a weak "o--& un=tunately1 ,laplace mu/ be class$ 9 ?is latt] category4 ,x has always be5 ! cu/om 9 ,france = its high sci5tific m5 to be conspicu\s also 9 politics4 ,x seems to be n[ becom+ ! fa%ion 9 ?is c\ntry also1 ,i regret to say4 ,! life ( ,laplace is n specially int]e/+1 & ,i %all n g into x4 ,8 brilliant ma!matical g5ius is unque/ionable1 & almo/ unrivall$4 ,he is1 9 fact1 g5]ally consid]$ to come 9 ?is respect next aft] ,newton4 ,8 tal5ts 7 ( a m popul> ord] ?an ^? ( ,lagrange1 & accord+ly he acquir$ fame & rank1 & rose to ! highe/ dignities4 ,nev]!less1 z a man & a politician he h>dly comm&s our respect1 & 9 "t-s]v+ adju/ability he is comp>able to ! r$\btable ,vic> ( ,bray4 ,8 sci5tific insight & g5ius 7 h[ev] unque/ionably ( ! v highe/ ord]1 & 8 "w has be5 invaluable to a/ronomy4 ,i w give a %ort sket* ( "s ( 8 inve/igations1 s f> z !y c be made intelligible )\t ov]mu* lab\r4 ,he work$ v mu* 9 conjunction ) ,lagrange1 a m solid ?\gh a less brilliant man1 & x is bo? impossible & unnecess>y = u to attempt to apportion respective %>es ( cr$it betwe5 ^! two sci5tific giants1 ! greate/ sci5tific m5 t ,france ev] produc$4 ,fir/ comes a rese>* into ! libration ( ! moon4 ,?is 0 discov]$ by ,galileo 9 8 old age at ,arcetri1 j be=e 8 bl9dness4 ,! moon1 z e "o kn[s1 keeps ! same face to ! e>? z x revolves r\nd x4 ,9 o!r words1 x does n rotate ) ref]5ce to ! e>?1 ?\gh x does rotate ) respect to outside bodies4 ,its libration consi/s 9 a sort ( oscillation1 :]eby x %[s u n[ a little m on "o side1 n[ a little m on ! o!r1 s t altoge!r we are cognizant ( m ?an "o-half ( its surface--9 fact1 altoge!r ( ab\t ?ree-fif?s4 ,x is a simple & unimportant matt]1 easily expla9$4 ,! motion ( ! moon may be analyz$ into a rotation ab\t its own axis comb9$ ) a revolution ab\t ! e>?4 ,! spe$ ( ! rotation is q uni=m1 ! spe$ ( ! revolution is n q uni=m1 because ! orbit is n circul> b elliptical1 & ! moon has to travel fa/] 9 p]igee ?an 9 apogee 79 accordance ) ,kepl]'s second law74 ,! consequ5ce ( ?is is t we see a little too f> r\nd ! body ( ! moon1 fir/ on "o side1 !n on ! o!r4 ,h5ce x appe>s to oscillate slightly1 l a lop-sid$ fly-:eel ^: revolutions h be5 all[$ to die away s t !y end 9 oscillations ( small amplitude4#bc ,its axis ( rotation1 too1 is n precisely p]p5dicul> to its plane ( revolution1 & !re=e we sometimes see a few hundr$ miles beyond its nor? pole1 sometimes a simil> am\nt beyond its s\?4 ,la/ly1 !re is a sort ( p>allax effect1 ow+ to ! fact t we see ! ris+ moon f "o po9t ( view1 & ! sett+ moon f a po9t #h1jjj miles di/ant2 & ?is base-l9e ( ! e>?'s diamet] gives u aga9 "s extra glimpses4 ,?is diurnal or p>allactic libration is really m effective ?an ! o!r two 9 ext5d+ our vision into ! space-fac+ hemisph]e ( ! moon4 ,^! simple matt]s may z well be und]/ood1 b !re is no?+ 9 !m to dwell ^u4 ,! f> side ( ! moon is probably b little wor? see+4 ,its features are likely to be m blurr$ ) accumulations ( meteoric du/ ?an are ^? ( our side1 b o!rwise !y are likely to be ( ! same g5]al "*4 ,! ?+ ( real int]e/ is ! fact t ! moon does turn ! same face t[>ds u2 i4e4 has ceas$ to rotate ) respect to ! e>? 7if ev] x did s74 ,! /ability ( ?is /ate ( ?+s 0 %[n by ,lagrange to dep5d on ! %ape ( ! moon4 ,x mu/ be slightly egg-%ape1 or prolate--ext5d$ 9 ! direction ( ! e>?2 its e>?-po9t+ diamet] be+ a few hundr$ feet long] ?an its visible diamet]2 a cause slight en\gh1 b nev]!less suffici5t to ma9ta9 /ability1 except "u ! action ( a di/9ct di/urb+ cause4 ,! prolate or lemon-l %ape is caus$ by ! gravitative pull ( ! e>?1 balanc$ by ! c5trifugal :irl4 ,! two =ces balance ea* o!r z reg>ds motion1 b betwe5 !m !y h /ra9$ ! moon a trifle out ( %ape4 ,! moon has yield$ z if x 7 p]fectly pla/ic2 9 all probability x once 0 s4 ,x may be int]e/+ to note = a mom5t ! correlative effect ( ?is aspect ( ! moon1 if we transf] ourselves to its surface 9 imag9ation1 & look at ! e>? 7cf4 ,fig4 #da74 ,! e>? w\ld be l a gigantic moon ( f\r times our moon's diamet]1 & w\ld g ?r\gh its phases 9 regul> ord]4 ,b x w\ld n rise or set3 x w\ld be fix$ 9 ! sky1 & subject only to a m9ute oscillation to & fro once a mon?1 by reason ( ! libration we h be5 speak+ (4 ,its aspect1 z se5 by m>k+s on its surface1 w\ld rapidly *ange1 go+ ?r\gh a cycle 9 tw5ty-f\r h\rs2 b its p]man5t features w\ld be usually mask$ by lawless accumulations ( cl\d1 ma9ly aggregat$ 9 rude belts p>allel to ! equator4 ,& ^! cl\dy pat*es w\ld be ! mo/ lum9\s1 ! :ite/ portions2 = ( c\rse x w\ld be _! silv] l9+ t we w\ld !n be look+ on4#bd ,next among ! inve/igations ( ,lagrange & ,laplace we w m5tion ! long inequality ( ,jupit] & ,saturn4 ,halley _h f\nd t ,jupit] 0 cont9ually lagg+ beh9d its true place z giv5 by ! !ory ( gravitation2 &1 on ! o!r h&1 t ,saturn 0 be+ accel]at$4 ,! lag on ! "p ( ,jupit] am\nt$ to ab\t #cd-a_/b m9utes 9 a c5tury4 ,ov]haul+ anci5t obs]vations1 h[ev]1 ,halley f\nd signs ( ! opposite /ate ( ?+s1 = :5 he got f> en\gh back ,jupit] 0 accel]at$ & ,saturn 0 be+ ret>d$4 ,"h 0 evid5tly a case ( planet>y p]turbation1 & ,laplace & ,lagrange und]took ! work+ ( x out4 ,!y attack$ x z a case ( ! problem ( ?ree bodies1 viz4 ! sun1 ,jupit]1 & ,saturn2 :i* are s enorm\sly ! bigge/ ( ! kn[n bodies 9 ! sy/em t insignificant masses l ! ,e>?1 ,m>s1 & ! re/1 may be :olly neglect$4 ,!y succe$$ brilliantly1 aft] a long & complex inve/igation3 succe$$1 n 9 solv+ ! problem ( ! ?ree bodies1 b1 by consid]+ _! mutual action z p]turbations sup]pos$ on ea* o!r1 9 expla9+ ! mo/ conspicu\s ( ! obs]v$ anomalies ( _! motion1 & 9 lay+ ! f\ndation ( a g5]al planet>y !ory4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gi4--,%ew+ ! ?ree conjunction places 9 ! orbits ( ,jupit] & ,saturn4 ,! two planets are repres5t$ z leav+ "o ( ! conjunctions :]e ,jupit] 0 be+ pull$ back & ,saturn be+ pull$ =w>d by _! mutual attraction4 ,"o ( ! facts t plays a l>ge "p 9 ! result 0 kn[n to ! old a/rolog]s1 viz4 t ,jupit] & ,saturn come into conjunction ) a c]ta9 triangul> symmetry2 ! :ole s*eme be+ call$ a trigon1 & be+ m5tion$ sev]al times by ,kepl]4 ,x happ5s t five ( ,jupit]'s ye>s v ne>ly equal two ( ,saturn's1#be s t !y get v ne>ly into conjunction ?ree times 9 e five ,jupit] ye>s1 b n exactly4 ,! result ( ?is close approa* is t p]iodically "o pulls ! o!r on & is itself pull$ back2 b s9ce ! ?ree po9ts progress1 x is n always ! same planet :i* gets pull$ back4 ,! complete !ory %[s t 9 ! ye> #aefj !re 0 no m>k$ p]turbation3 be=e t x 0 9 "o direction1 :ile aft]w>ds x 0 9 ! o!r direction1 & ! p]iod ( ! :ole cycle ( di/urbances is #ibi ( our ye>s4 ,! solution ( ?is long out/&+ puzzle by ! !ory ( gravitation 0 hail$ ) ! greate/ en?usiasm by a/ronom]s1 & x e/abli%$ ! fame ( ! two ,fr5* ma!maticians4 ,next !y attack$ ! complicat$ problem ( ! motions ( ,jupit]'s satellites4 ,!y succe$$ 9 obta9+ a !ory ( _! motions :i* repres5t$ fact v ne>ly inde$1 & !y detect$ ! foll[+ curi\s relation%ip betwe5 ! satellites3--,! spe$ ( ! fir/ satellite twice ! spe$ ( ! second is equal to ! spe$ ( ! ?ird4 ,!y f\nd ?is1 n empirically1 aft] ! mann] ( ,kepl]1 b z a d$uction f ! law ( gravitation2 = !y g on to %[ t ev5 if ! satellites _h n />t$ ) ?is relation !y w\ld soon] or lat]1 by mutual p]turbation1 get !mselves into x4 ,"o s+ul> consequ5ce ( ?is1 & ( ano!r q simil> connection betwe5 _! positions1 is t all ?ree satellites c nev] be eclips$ at once4 ,! motion ( ! f\r? satellite is less tractable2 x does n s readily =m an easy sy/em ) ! o!rs4 ,aft] ^! great successes ! two a/ronom]s naturally proce$$ to /udy ! mutual p]turbations ( all o!r bodies 9 ! sol> sy/em4 ,& "o v rem>kable discov]y !y made conc]n+ ! e>? & moon1 an acc\nt ( :i* w be int]e/+1 ?\gh ! details & processes ( calculation are q beyond u 9 a c\rse l ?is4 ,a/ronomical !ory _h become s ne>ly p]fect by ?is "t1 & obs]vations s accurate1 t x 0 possible to calculate _m a/ronomical ev5ts =w>ds or backw>ds1 ov] ev5 a ?\s& ye>s or m1 ) admirable precision4 ,n[1 ,halley _h /udi$ "s records ( anci5t eclipses1 & _h calculat$ back by means ( ! lun> !ory to see :e!r ! calculation ( ! "t !y ought to occur w\ld agree ) ! record ( ! "t !y did occur4 ,to 8 surprise he f\nd a discrepancy1 n a l>ge "o1 b /ill "o q noticeable4 ,to /ate x z we "k x n[3--,an eclipse a c5tury ago happ5$ twelve seconds lat] ?an x ought to h happ5$ by !ory2 two c5turies back ! error am\nt$ to =ty-eight seconds1 9 ?ree c5turies x w\ld be #ajh seconds1 & s on2 ! lag dep5d+ on ! squ>e ( ! "t4 ,by rese>*1 & help f s*ol>s1 he succe$$ 9 obta9+ ! records ( "s v anci5t eclipses inde$4 ,"o 9 ,egypt t[>ds ! end ( ! t5? c5tury ,a4,d42 ano!r 9 #bja ,a4,d42 ano!r a little be=e ,*ri/2 & "o1 ! olde/ ( all ( :i* any au!ntic record has be5 pres]v$1 obs]v$ by ! ,*aldan a/ronom]s 9 ,babylon 9 ! reign ( ,hezekiah4 ,calculat+ back to ?is spl5did old record ( a sol> eclipse1 ov] ! int]v5+ #b1djj ye>s1 ! calculat$ & ! obs]v$ times 7 f\nd to disagree by ne>ly two h\rs4 ,pond]+ ov] an explanation ( ! discrepancy1 ,halley guess$ t x mu/ be because ! moon's motion 0 n uni=m1 x mu/ be go+ quick] & quick]1 ga9+ twelve seconds ea* c5tury on its previ\s ga9--a discov]y ann\nc$ by him z ! accel]ation ( ! moon's mean motion4 ,! mon? 0 con/antly gett+ %ort]4 ,:at 0 ! physical cause ( ?is accel]ation accord+ to ! !ory ( gravitation8 ,_m attack$ ! "q1 b all fail$4 ,?is 0 ! problem ,laplace set himself to "w out4 ,a s+ul> & beautiful result rew>d$ 8 ef=ts4 ,y "k t ! e>? describes an elliptic orbit r\nd ! sun3 & t an ellipse is a circle ) a c]ta9 am\nt ( flatt5+ or exc5tricity4#bf ,well1 ,laplace f\nd t ! exc5tricity ( ! e>?'s orbit mu/ be *ang+1 gett+ slightly less2 & t ?is *ange ( exc5tricity w\ld h an effect ^u ! l5g? ( ! mon?4 ,x w\ld make ! moon g quick]4 ,"o c almo/ see h[ x comes ab\t4 ,a decrease 9 exc5tricity means an increase 9 mean di/ance ( ! e>? f ! sun4 ,?is means to ! moon a less sol> p]turbation4 ,n[ "o effect ( ! sol> p]turbation is to keep ! moon's orbit extra l>ge3 if ! size ( its orbit dim9i%es1 its velocity mu/ increase1 accord+ to ,kepl]'s ?ird law4 ,laplace calculat$ ! am\nt ( accel]ation s result+1 & f\nd x t5 seconds a c5tury2 v ne>ly :at obs]vation requir$2 =1 ?\gh ,i h quot$ obs]vation z dem&+ twelve seconds p] c5tury1 ! facts 7 n !n s di/9ctly & def9itely asc]ta9$4 ,?is calculation = a long "t seem$ ?or\ghly satisfactory1 b x is n ! la/ ^w on ! subject4 ,q lately an error has be5 f\nd 9 ! work+1 :i* dim9i%es ! !oretical gravitation-accel]ation to six seconds a c5tury in/ead ( t51 ?us mak+ x insuffici5t to agree exactly ) fact4 ,! !ory ( gravitation leaves an out/&+ error4 7,! po9t is n[ almo/ ?or\ghly und]/ood1 & we %all return to x 9 ,lecture ,,xviii74 ,b ano!r "q arises out ( ?is discussion4 ,i h spok5 ( ! exc5tricity ( ! e>?'s orbit z decreas+4 ,0 x always decreas+8 & if s1 h[ f> back 0 x s exc5tric t at p]ihelion ! e>? pass$ q ne> ! sun8 ,if x ev] did ?us pass ne> ! sun1 ! inf]5ce is manife/--! e>? mu/ at "o "t h be5 ?r[n (f1 or be5 sep>at$ (f1 f ! sun4 ,if a projectile c\ld be fir$ s fa/ t x describ$ an orbit r\nd ! e>?--& ! spe$ ( fire to atta9 ?is lies betwe5 five & sev5 miles a second 7n less ?an ! "o1 nor m ?an ! o!r7--x w\ld ev] aft]w>ds pass ?r\gh its po9t ( projection z "o po9t ( its elliptic orbit2 & its p]iodic return ?r\gh t po9t w\ld be ! sign ( its orig94 ,simil>ly1 if a satellite does n come ne> its c5tral orb1 & c be %[n nev] to h be5 ne> x1 ! natural inf]5ce is t x has n be5 born f x1 b has orig9at$ 9 "s o!r way4 ,! "q :i* pres5t$ itself 9 connexion ) ! v>iable ellipticity ( ! e>?'s orbit 0 ! foll[+3--,_h x always be5 decreas+1 s t once x 0 exc5tric en\gh j to graze ! sun at p]ihelion z a project$ body w\ld d8 ,into ! problem ?us pres5t$ ,lagrange ?rew himself1 & he succe$$ 9 %[+ t no su* explanation ( ! orig9 ( ! e>? is possible4 ,! exc5tricity ( ! orbit1 ?\gh n[ decreas+1 0 n always decreas+2 ages ago x 0 increas+3 x passes ?r\gh p]iodic *anges4 ,eighte5 ?\s& ye>s ago its exc5tricity 0 a maximum2 s9ce !n x has be5 dim9i%+1 & w cont9ue to dim9i% = #be1jjj ye>s m1 :5 x w be an almo/ p]fect circle2 x w !n beg9 to increase aga91 & s on4 ,! obliquity ( ! ecliptic is also *ang+ p]iodically1 b n greatly3 ! *ange is less ?an ?ree degrees4 ,?is rese>* has1 or ought to h1 ! mo/ transc5d5t int]e/ = geologi/s & geograph]s4 ,y "k t geologi/s f9d traces ( extraord9>y v>iations ( temp]ature on ! surface ( ! e>?4 ,engl& 0 at "o "t tropical1 at ano!r "t glacial4 ,f> away nor?1 9 ,spitzb]g51 evid5ce ( ! luxuriant vegetation ( pa/ ages has be5 f\nd2 & ! explanation ( ^! great climatic *anges has long be5 a puzzle4 ,does n ! secul> v>iation 9 exc5tricity ( ! e>?'s orbit1 comb9$ ) ! precession ( ! equ9oxes1 af=d a key8 ,& if a key at all1 x w be an accurate key1 & enable u to calculate back ) "s precision to ! date ( ! glacial epo*2 & aga9 to ! "t :5 a tropical flora fl\ri%$ 9 :at is n[ nor!rn ,europe1 i4e4 to ! date ( ! ,c>bonif]\s era4 ,?is aspect ( ! subject has rec5tly be5 taught ) vig\r & success by ,dr4 ,croll 9 8 book ,climate & ,"t4 ,a brief & p>tial explanation ( ! matt] may be giv51 because x is a po9t ( "s int]e/ & is also "o ( fair simplicity4 ,e "o kn[s t ! climatic conditions ( w9t] & summ] are inv]t$ 9 ! two hemisph]es1 & t at pres5t ! sun is ne>e/ to u 9 our 7nor!rn7 w9t]4 ,9 o!r words1 ! e>?'s axis is incl9$ s z to tilt its nor? pole away f ! sun at p]ihelion1 or :5 ! e>? is at ! "p ( its elliptic orbit ne>e/ ! sun's focus2 & to tilt x t[>ds ! sun at aphelion4 ,! result ( ?is pres5t /ate ( ?+s is to dim9i% ! int5sity ( ! av]age nor!rn w9t] & ( ! av]age nor!rn summ]1 & on ! o!r h& to aggravate ! extremes ( temp]ature 9 ! s\!rn hemisph]e2 all o!r ?+s be+ equal4 ,( c\rse o!r ?+s are n equal1 & ! di/ribution ( l& & sea is a /ill m p[]ful climatic ag5t ?an is ! ?ree million miles or s extra ne>ness ( ! sun4 ,b x is suppos$ t ! ,ant>ctic ice-cap is l>g] ?an ! nor!rn1 & increas$ summ] radiation ) increas$ w9t] cold w\ld acc\nt = ?is4 ,b ! pres5t /ate ( ?+s did n always obta94 ,! conical movem5t ( ! e>?'s axis 7n[ kn[n by a curi\s p]v]sion ( phrase z precession7 w 9 ! c\rse ( #ac1jjj ye>s or s cause ! tilt to be precisely opposite1 & !n we %all h ! m extreme w9t]s & summ]s in/ead ( ! s\!rn hemisph]e4 ,if ! *ange 7 to occur n[1 x might n be ov]p[]+1 because n[ ! exc5tricity is mod]ate4 ,b if x happ5$ "s "t back1 :5 ! exc5tricity 0 mu* great]1 a decid$ly diff]5t arrangem5t ( climate may h result$4 ,!re is no ne$ to say if x happ5$ "s "t back3 x did happ51 & accord+ly an ag5t = affect+ ! di/ribution ( mean temp]ature on ! e>? is to h&2 ?\gh :e!r x is suffici5t to a*ieve all t has be5 obs]v$ by geologi/s is a matt] ( op9ion4 ,once m1 ! :ole div]sity ( ! seasons dep5ds on ! tilt ( ! e>?'s axis1 ! #bc by :i* x is incl9$ to a p]p5dicul> to ! orbital plane2 & ?is obliquity or tilt is subject to sl[ fluctuations4 ,h5ce !re w come eras :5 all causes comb9e to produce a maximum extremity ( seasons 9 ! nor!rn hemisph]e1 & o!r eras :5 x is ! s\!rn hemisph]e :i* is subject to extremes4 ,b a gr&] problem /ill await$ solution--no?+ less ?an ! fate ( ! :ole sol> sy/em4 ,"h are a numb] ( bodies ( v>i\s sizes circulat+ at v>i\s rates r\nd "o c5tral body1 all attract$ by x1 & all attract+ ea* o!r1 ! :ole ab&on$ to ! free play ( ! =ce ( gravitation3 :at w be ! end ( x all8 ,w !y ultimately approa* & fall into ! sun1 or w !y rec$e fur!r & fur!r f him1 into ! cold ( space8 ,!re is a ?ird possible alt]native3 may !y n alt]nately approa* & rec$e f him1 s z on ! :ole to ma9ta9 a fair approximation to _! pres5t di/ances1 )\t great & viol5t extremes ( temp]ature ei!r way8 ,if any "o planet ( ! sy/em 7 to fall into ! sun1 m especially if x 7 a big "o l ,jupit] or ,saturn1 ! heat produc$ w\ld be s t]rific t life on ?is e>? w\ld be de/roy$1 ev5 at its pres5t di/ance2 s t we are p]sonally int]e/$ 9 ! behavi\r ( ! o!r planets z well z 9 ! behavi\r ( our own4 ,! result ( ! port5t\sly difficult & pr(\ndly int]e/+ inve/igation1 "h sket*$ 9 b>e/ outl9e1 is t ! sol> sy/em is /able3 t is to say1 t if di/urb$ a little x w oscillate & return to its old /ate2 :]eas if x 7 un/able ! slighte/ di/urbance w\ld t5d to accumulate1 & w\ld soon] or lat] br+ ab\t a cata/rophe4 ,a hang+ p5dulum is /able1 & oscillates ab\t a mean position2 its motion is p]iodic4 ,a top-heavy load balanc$ on a po9t is un/able4 ,all ! *anges ( ! sol> sy/em are p]iodic1 i4e4 !y repeat !mselves at regul> int]vals1 & !y nev] exce$ a c]ta9 mod]ate am\nt4 ,! p]iod is some?+ enorm\s4 ,!y w n h gone ?r\gh all _! *anges until a p]iod ( #b1jjj1jjj ye>s has elaps$4 ,?is is ! p]iod ( ! planet>y oscillation3 a great p5dulum ( et]nity :i* beats ages z our p5dulums beat seconds4 ,enorm\s x seems2 & yet we h reason to believe t ! e>? has exi/$ ?r\gh _m su* p]iods4 ,! two laws ( /ability discov]$ & /at$ by ,lagrange & ,laplace ,i c /ate1 ?\gh !y may be difficult to und]/&3-- ,repres5t ! masses ( ! sev]al planets by m#a1 m#b1 c42 _! mean di/ances f ! sun 7or radii vectores7 by r#a1 r#b1 c42 ! exc5tricities ( _! orbits by e#a1 e#b1 c42 & ! obliquity ( ! planes ( ^! orbits1 reckon$ f a s+le plane ( ref]5ce or inv>iable plane1 by !ta#a1 !ta#b1 c42 !n all ^! quantities 7except m7 are liable to fluctuate2 b1 h[ev] mu* !y *ange1 an increase = "o planet w be accompani$ by a decrease = "s o!rs2 s t1 tak+ all ! planets into acc\nt1 ! sum ( a set ( t]ms l ^!1 m#a;e#ab squ>e rootr#a m#b;e#bb squ>e rootr#b c41 w rema9 always ! same4 ,?is is summ$ up briefly 9 ! foll[+ /atem5t3 ,sigma7me#b squ>e rootr7 con/ant4 ,t is "o law1 & ! o!r is l x1 b ) incl9ation ( orbit in/ead ( exc5tricity1 viz43 ,sigma7m!ta#b squ>e rootr7 con/ant4 ,! value ( ea* ( ^! two con/ants c at any "t be calculat$4 ,at pres5t _! values are small4 ,h5ce !y always 7 & always w be small2 be+1 9 fact1 inv>iable4 ,h5ce nei!r e nor r nor !ta c ev] become inf9ite1 nor c _! av]age value = ! sy/em ev] become z]o4 ,! planets may %>e ! giv5 am\nt ( total exc5tricity & obliquity 9 v>i\s proportions betwe5 !mselves2 b ev5 if x 7 all pil$ on to "o planet x w\ld n be v excessive1 unless ! planet 7 s small a "o z ,m]cury2 & x w\ld be mo/ improbable t "o planet %\ld ev] h all ! exc5tricity ( ! sol> sy/em heap$ ^u itself4 ,! e>?1 !re=e1 nev] has be51 nor ev] w be1 enorm\sly ne>] ! sun ?an x is at pres5t3 nor c x ev] get v mu* fur!r (f4 ,its *anges are small & are p]iodic--an increase is foll[$ by a decrease1 l ! sw+ ( a p5dulum4 ,! above two laws h be5 call$ ! ,magna ,*>ta ( ! sol> sy/em1 & 7 long suppos$ to gu>antee its absolute p]man5ce4 ,s f> z ! !ory ( gravitation c>ries u1 !y d gu>antee its p]man5ce2 b some?+ m rema9s to be said on ! subject 9 a future lecture 7,,xviii74 ,& n[1 f9ally1 we come to a sublime speculation1 ?r[n out by ,laplace1 n z ! result ( pr(\nd calculation1 l ! results hi!rto m5tion$1 n foll[+ c]ta9ly f ! !ory ( gravitation1 or f any o!r kn[n !ory1 & !re=e n to be accept$ z m ?an a brilliant hypo!sis1 to be confirm$ or reject$ z our k ext5ds4 ,?is speculation is ! ,nebul> hypo!sis4 ,s9ce ! "t ( ,laplace ! nebul> hypo!sis has _h ups & d[ns ( cr$5ce1 sometimes be+ l>gely believ$ 91 sometimes be+ almo/ ignor$4 ,at ! pres5t "t x holds ! field ) p]haps great] probability ( ultimate triumph ?an has ev] be=e seem$ to belong to x--f> great] ?an belong$ to x :5 fir/ prop\nd$4 ,x _h be5 previ\sly /at$ cle>ly & well by ! philosoph] ,kant1 :o 0 int5sely int]e/$ 9 ! />ry heav5s z well z 9 ! m9d ( man1 & :o %ew$ 9 connexion ) a/ronomy also a mo/ surpris+ g5ius4 ,! hypo!sis ought by rights p]haps to be kn[n r by 8 "n ?an by t ( ,laplace4 ,! data on :i* x 0 f\nd$ are ^!3--,e motion 9 ! sol> sy/em kn[n at t "t took place 9 "o direction1 & 9 "o direction only4 ,?us ! planets revolve r\nd ! sun1 all go+ ! same way r\nd2 moons revolve r\nd ! planets1 /ill ma9ta9+ ! same direction ( rotation1 & all ! bodies t 7 kn[n to rotate on _! own axis did s ) /ill ! same k9d ( sp94 ,moreov]1 all ^! motions take place 9 or ne> a s+le plane4 ,! anci5ts knew t sun moon & planets all keep ne> to ! ecliptic1 )9 a belt kn[n z ! zodiac3 none /rays away into o!r p>ts ( ! sky4 ,satellites also1 & r+s1 are arrang$ 9 or ne> ! same plane2 & ! plane ( diurnal sp91 or equator ( ! diff]5t bodies1 is b slightly tilt$4 ,n[ all ?is c\ld n be ! result ( *ance4 ,:at c\ld h caus$ x8 ,is !re any connection or common ance/ry possible1 to acc\nt = ?is /range family lik5ess8 ,!re is no connection n[1 b !re may h be5 once4 ,mu/ h be51 we may almo/ say4 ,x is z ?\gh !y _h once be5 p>ts ( "o great mass rotat+ z a :ole2 = if su* a rotat+ mass broke up1 its p>ts w\ld reta9 its direction ( rotation4 ,b su* a mass1 fill+ all space z f> z or beyond ,saturn1 al?\gh conta9+ ! mat]ials ( ! :ole sol> sy/em 9 itself1 mu/ h be5 ( v r>e consi/5cy4 ,occupy+ s mu* bulk x c\ld n h be5 solid1 nor yet liquid1 b x might h be5 gase\s4 ,are !re any su* gigantic rotat+ masses ( gas 9 ! heav5 n[8 ,c]ta9ly !re are2 !re are ! nebul4 ,"s ( ! nebul are n[ kn[n to be gase\s1 & "s ( !m at lea/ are 9 a /ate ( rotation4 ,laplace c\ld n h kn[n ?is = c]ta91 b he suspect$ x4 ,! fir/ di/9ctly spiral nebula 0 discov]$ by ! telescope ( ,"l ,rosse2 & q rec5tly a spl5did photograph ( ! great ,&rom$a nebula1 by our t[nsman1 ,mr4 ,isaac ,rob]ts1 reveals :at 0 q unsuspect$--& makes x cle> t ?is prodigi\s mass also is 9 a /ate ( ext5sive & maje/ic :irl4 ,v well1 !n1 put ?is problem3--,a va/ mass ( rotat+ gas is left to itself to cool = ages & to cond5se z x cools3 h[ w x behave8 ,a difficult ma!matical problem1 wor?y ( be+ attack$ to-day2 n yet at all adequately treat$4 ,!re are ^? :o believe t by ! complete treatm5t ( su* a problem all ! hi/ory ( ! sol> sy/em c\ld be evolv$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hj4--,"l ,rosse's draw+ ( ! spiral nebula 9 ,canes ,v5atici1 ) ! /ub m>ks ( ! draughtsman unduly emphasis$ into features by ! engrav]4 ,laplace pictur$ to himself ?is mass %r9k+ & !reby :irl+ m & m rapidly4 ,a sp9n+ body %r9k+ 9 size & reta9+ its orig9al am\nt ( rotation1 z x w unless a brake is appli$1 mu/ sp9 m & m rapidly z x %r9ks4 ,x has :at ma!maticians call a con/ant mom5t ( mom5tum2 & :at x loses 9 lev]age1 z x %r9ks1 x ga9s 9 spe$4 ,! mass is held toge!r by gravitation1 e p>ticle attract+ e o!r p>ticle2 b s9ce all ! p>ticles are describ+ curv$ pa?s1 !y w t5d to fly (f tang5tially1 & only a small excess ( ! gravitation =ce ov] ! c5trifugal is left to pull ! p>ticles 91 & sl[ly to conc5trate ! nebula4 ,! mutual gravitation ( ! p>ts is oppos$ by ! c5trifugal =ce ( ! :irl4 ,at l5g? a po9t is rea*$ :]e ! two =ces balance4 ,a portion outside a c]ta9 l9e w be 9 equilibrium2 x w be left beh9d1 & ! re/ mu/ contract )\t x4 ,a r+ is =m$1 & away goes ! inn] nucleus contract+ fur!r & fur!r t[>ds a c5tre4 ,aft] a "t ano!r r+ w be left beh9d 9 ! same way1 & s on4 ,:at happ5s to ^! r+s8 ,!y rotate ) ! motion !y possess :5 ?r[n or %runk (f2 b w !y rema9 r+s8 ,if p]fectly regul> !y may2 if !re be any irregul>ity !y are liable to break up4 ,!y w break into "o or two or m l>ge masses1 :i* are ultimately v likely to collide & become "o4 ,! revolv+ body s =m$ is /ill a rotat+ gase\s mass2 & x w g on %r9k+ & cool+ & ?r[+ (f r+s1 l ! l>g] nucleus by :i* x has be5 ab&on$4 ,z any nucleus gets small]1 its rate ( rotation increases1 & s ! r+s la/ ?r[n (f w be sp9n+ fa/] ?an ^? ?r[n (f e>lie/4 ,! f9al nucleus or residual c5tral body w be rotat+ fa/e/ ( all4 ,! nucleus ( ! :ole orig9al mass we n[ see %runk up into :at we call ! sun1 :i* is sp9n+ on its axis once e tw5ty-five days4 ,! r+s successively ?r[n (f by x are n[ ! planets--"s l>ge1 "s small--^? la/ ?r[n (f rotat+ r\nd him comp>atively quickly1 ^? outside mu* m sl[ly4 ,! r+s ?r[n (f by ! planet>y gase\s masses z !y contract$ h n[ become satellites2 except "o r+ :i* has rema9$ )\t break+ up1 & is to be se5 rotat+ r\nd ,saturn /ill4 ,"o o!r simil> r+1 an abortive attempt at a planet1 is also left r\nd ! sun 7! zone ( a/]oids74 ,su*1 crudely & baldly1 is ! fam\s nebul> hypo!sis ( ,laplace4 ,x 0 fir/ /at$1 z has be5 said above1 by ! philosoph] ,kant1 b x 0 elaborat$ into mu* full] detail by ! greate/ ( ,fr5* ma!maticians & a/ronom]s4 ,! contract+ masses w cond5se & g5]ate great quantities ( heat by _! own %r9kage2 !y w at a c]ta9 /age cond5se to liquid1 & aft] a "t w beg9 to cool & congeal ) a sup]ficial cru/1 :i* w get ?ick] & ?ick]2 b = ages !y w rema9 hot1 ev5 aft] !y h become ?or\ghly solid4 ,! small ones w cool fa/e/2 ! big ones w reta9 _! heat = an imm5se "t4 ,bullets cool quickly1 cannon-balls take h\rs or days to cool1 planets take millions ( ye>s4 ,our moon may be ne>ly cold1 b ! e>? is /ill w>m--inde$1 v hot inside4 ,jupit] is believ$ by "s obs]v]s /ill to gl[ ) a dull r$ heat2 & ! high temp]ature ( ! mu* l>g] & /ill liquid mass ( ! sun is app>5t to ev]ybody4 ,n till x beg9s to scum ov] w x be p]ceptibly cool]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ha4--,saturn4 ,_m ?+s are n[ kn[n conc]n+ heat :i* 7 n kn[n to ,laplace 79 ! above p>agraph !y are only h9t$ at71 & ^! confirm & /r5g!n ! g5]al features ( 8 hypo!sis 9 a /rik+ way2 s d ! mo/ rec5t telescopic discov]ies4 ,b fre% possibilities h n[ occurr$ to u1 tidal ph5om5a are se5 to h an influ5ce !n :olly unsuspect$1 & x w be 9 a modifi$ & amplifi$ =m t ! philosoph] ( next c5tury w /ill hold to ! ma9 features ( ?is fam\s old ,nebul> ,hypo!sis respect+ ! orig9 ( ! sun & planets--! ,evolution ( ! sol> sy/em4 ,,notes ,,to ,,lecture ,,xii ,! subject ( /ell> a/ronomy 0 fir/ op5$ up by ,sir ,william ,h]s*el1 ! greate/ obs]v+ a/ronom]4 ,fr$]ick ,william ,h]s*el 0 born 9 ,hanov] 9 #agch1 & br\ght up z a musician4 ,came to ,engl& 9 #agef4 ,fir/ saw a telescope 9 #aggc4 ,made a great _m himself1 & began a survey ( ! heav5s4 ,8 si/] ,c>ol9e1 born 9 #agej1 came to ,engl& 9 #aggb1 & became 8 devot$ assi/ant to ! end ( 8 life4 ,uranus discov]$ 9 #agha4 ,music f9ally ab&on$ next ye>1 & ! #dj-;foot telescope begun4 ,discov]$ two moons ( ,saturn & two ( ,uranus4 ,review$1 describ$1 & gaug$ all ! visible heav5s4 ,discov]$ & catalogu$ #b1ejj nebul & #hjf d\ble />s4 ,speculat$ conc]n+ ! ,milky ,way1 ! nebulosity ( />s1 ! orig9 & gr[? ( sol> sy/ems4 ,discov]$ t ! />s 7 9 motion1 n fix$1 & t ! sun z "o ( !m 0 j\rney+ t[>ds a po9t 9 ! con/ellation ,h]cules4 ,di$ 9 #ahbb1 eighty-f\r ye>s old4 ,c>ol9e ,h]s*el discov]$ eight comets1 & liv$ on to ! age ( n9ety-eight4 ,,lecture ,,xii ,,h]s*el ,,& ,,! ,,motion ,,( ,,! ,,fix$ ,,/>s ,we may admit1 ,i ?9k1 t1 ) a few notable exceptions1 ! "w ( ! great m5 we h be5 rec5tly consid]+ 0 r to complete & r\nd (f ! "w ( ,newton1 ?an to /rike out new & orig9al l9es4 ,?is 0 ! :ole t5d5cy ( eighte5? c5tury a/ronomy4 ,x appe>$ to be gett+ into an adult & un9t]e/+ /age1 :]e9 ev]y?+ c\ld be calculat$ & pr$ict$4 ,lab\r & +5uity1 & a sev]e ma!matical tra9+1 7 necess>y to "w out ! remote consequ5ces ( kn[n laws1 b no?+ fre% seem$ likely to turn up4 ,consequ5tly m5's m9ds began turn+ 9 o!r directions1 & we f9d *emi/ry & optics l>gely /udi$ by "s ( ! greate/ m9ds1 in/ead ( a/ronomy4 ,b be=e ! c5tury clos$ !re 0 de/9$ to arise "o rem>kable exception--a man :o 0 comp>atively ignorant ( t :i* _h be5 done be=e--a man unv]s$ 9 ma!matics & ! intricacies ( sci5ce1 b :o possess$ su* a real & g5u9e en?usiasm & love ( ,nature t he ov]came ! =ce ( adv]se circum/ances1 & ent]+ ! t]ritory ( a/ronomy by a by-pa?1 /ruck out a new l9e = himself1 & infus$ into ! sci5ce a heal?y _s ( fre% life & activity4 ,?is man 0 ,william ,h]s*el4 ,! rise ( ,h]s*el1 says ,miss ,cl]ke1 is ! "o conspicu\s anomaly 9 ! o!rwise some:at quiet & prosy eighte5? c5tury4 ,x prov$ decisive ( ! c\rse ( ev5ts 9 ! n9ete5?4 ,x 0 unexpla9$ by any?+ t _h gone be=e1 yet all t came aft] h+$ ^u x4 ,x gave a new direction to ef=t2 x l5t a fre% impulse to ?\ght4 ,x op5$ a *annel = ! widespread public int]e/ :i* 0 ga!r+ t[>ds a/ronomical subjects to fl[ 94 ,h]s*el 0 born at ,hanov] 9 #agch1 ! son ( an oboe play] 9 a milit>y regim5t4 ,! fa!r 0 a good musician1 & a cultivat$ man4 ,! "m 0 a ,g]man ,frau ( ! p]iod1 a /rong1 active1 bus9ess-l woman1 ( /rong "* & pr(\nd ignorance4 ,h]self unable to write1 %e set h] face aga9/ le>n+ & all new-fangl$ notions4 ,! education ( ! sons %e c\ld n altoge!r control1 ?\gh %e lam5t$ ov] x1 b ! education ( h] two daught]s %e /rictly limit$ to cook+1 sew+1 & h\sehold managem5t4 ,^!1 h[ev]1 %e taught !m well4 ,x 0 a l>ge family1 & ,william 0 ! f\r? *ild4 ,we ne$ only rememb] ! names ( 8 y\ng] bro!r ,alex&]1 & ( 8 mu* y\ng] si/] ,c>ol9e4 ,!y 7 all v musical--! y\nge/ boy 0 once rais$ ^u a table to play ! viol9 at a public p]=mance4 ,! girls 7 =bidd5 to le>n music by _! "m1 b _! fa!r sometimes taught !m a little on ! sly4 ,alex&] 0 besides an +5i\s me*anician4 ,at ! age ( sev5te51 ,william became oboi/ to ! ,hanov]ian ,gu>ds1 %ortly be=e ! regim5t 0 ord]$ to ,engl&4 ,two ye>s lat] he remov$ himself f ! regim5t1 ) ! approval ( 8 p>5ts1 ?\gh probably )\t ! approbation or cons5t ( ! comm&+ (fic]1 by :om su* removal w\ld be reg>d$ z simple des]tion1 :i* inde$ x 02 & ,george ,,iii4 long aft]w>ds h&$ him an (ficial p>don = x4 ,at ! age ( n9ete51 he 0 ?us laun*$ 9 ,engl& ) an outfit ( "s ,fr5*1 ,lat91 & ,engli%1 pick$ up by himself2 "s skill 9 play+ ! hautboy1 ! viol91 & ! organ1 z taught by 8 fa!r2 & "s good l95 & clo?+1 & an imm5se /ock ( en]gy1 provid$ by 8 "m4 ,he liv$ z musical in/ructor to "o or two militia b&s 9 ,york%ire1 & = ?ree ye>s we he> no m ?an ?is ( him4 ,b1 at ! end ( t "t1 a not$ organi/1 ,dr4 ,mill]1 ( ,durham1 :o _h he>d 8 play+1 propos$ t he %\ld come & live ) him & play at conc]ts1 :i* he 0 v glad to d4 ,he next obta9$ ! po/ ( organi/ at ,halifax2 & "s f\r or five ye>s lat] he 0 invit$ to become organi/ at ! ,octagon ,*apel 9 ,ba?1 & soon l$ ! musical life ( t !n v fa%ionable place4 ,ab\t ?is "t he w5t on a %ort visit to 8 family at ,hanov]1 by all ( :om he 0 v mu* belov$1 especially by 8 "y si/] ,c>ol9e1 :o always reg>d$ him z specially h] own bro!r4 ,x is r pitiful1 h[ev]1 to f9d t h] dome/ic occupations /ill unfairly repress$ & blight$ h] life4 ,%e says3-- ,( ! joys & pleasures :i* all felt at ?is long-wi%$-= meet+ ) my--let me say my de>e/--bro!r1 b a small portion c\ld fall to my %>e2 = ) my con/ant att5dance at *ur* & s*ool1 besides ! "t ,i 0 employ$ 9 do+ ! drudg]y ( ! scull]y1 x 0 b seldom ,i c\ld make "o 9 ! gr\p :5 ! family 7 assembl$ toge!r4 ,:ile at ,ba? he wrote _m musical pieces--glees1 an!ms1 *ants1 pieces = ! h>p1 & an or*e/ral symphony4 ,he taught a l>ge numb] ( pupils1 & liv$ a h>d & successful life4 ,aft] f\rte5 h\rs or s sp5t 9 tea*+ & play+1 he w\ld retire at night to in/ruct 8 m9d ) a /udy ( ma!matics1 optics1 ,italian1 or ,greek1 9 all ( :i* he manag$ to make "s progress4 ,he also ab\t ?is "t fell 9 ) "s book on a/ronomy4 ,9 #agfc 8 fa!r 0 /ruck ) p>alysis1 & two ye>s lat] he di$4 ,william !n propos$ t ,alex&] %\ld come ov] f ,hanov] & jo9 him at ,ba?1 :i* 0 done4 ,next !y want$ to rescue _! si/] ,c>ol9e f h] humdrum exi/5ce1 b ?is 0 a m difficult matt]4 ,c>ol9e's j\rnal gives an acc\nt ( h] life at ?is "t t is in/ructive4 ,"h are a few extracts f x3-- ,my fa!r wi%$ to give me some?+ l a poli%$ education1 b my "m 0 p>ticul>ly det]m9$ t x %\ld be a r\gh1 b at ! same "t a useful "o2 & no?+ fur!r %e ?\ght 0 necess>y b to s5d me two or ?ree mon?s to a semp/ress to be taught to make h\sehold l954444 ,my "m w\ld n cons5t to my be+ taught ,fr5*1 444 s all my fa!r c\ld d = me 0 to indulge me 7& please himself7 sometimes ) a %ort lesson on ! viol91 :5 my "m 0 ei!r 9 good hum\r or out ( ! way4444 ,%e _h cause = wi%+ me n to "k m ?an 0 necess>y = be+ useful 9 ! family2 = x 0 h] c]ta9 belief t my bro!r ,william w\ld h return$ to 8 c\ntry1 & my elde/ bro!r n h look$ s high1 if !y _h _h a little less le>n+4 ,h[ev]1 sev5 ye>s aft] ! dea? ( _! fa!r1 ,william w5t ov] to ,g]many & return$ to ,engl& 9 triumph1 br++ ,c>ol9e ) him3 %e be+ !n tw5ty-two4 ,s n[ began a busy life 9 ,ba?4 ,= ,c>ol9e ! "w mu/ h be5 trem5d\s4 ,=1 besides hav+ to le>n s++1 %e _h to le>n ,engli%4 ,%e _h1 moreov]1 to keep acc\nts & d ! m>ket+4 ,:5 ! season at ,ba? 0 ov]1 %e hop$ to get r m ( h] bro!r ,william's society2 b he 0 deep 9 optics & a/ronomy1 us$ to sleep ) ! books "u 8 pill[1 read !m dur+ meals1 & sc>cely ev] ?\ght ( any?+ else4 ,he 0 det]m9$ to see = himself all ! a/ronomical wond]s2 & !re be+ a small ,gregorian reflector 9 "o ( ! %ops1 he hir$ x4 ,b he 0 n satisfi$ ) ?is1 & contemplat$ mak+ a telescope #bj feet long4 ,he wrote to opticians inquir+ ! price ( a mirror suitable1 b f\nd !re 7 none s l>ge1 & t ev5 ! small] ones 7 beyond 8 means4 ,no?+ daunt$1 he det]m9$ to make "s = himself4 ,alex&] ent]$ into 8 plans3 tools1 hones1 poli%]s1 & all sorts ( rubbi% 7 import$ into ! h\se1 to ! si/]'s dismay1 :o says3-- ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hb4--,pr9ciple ( ,newtonian reflector4 ,& !n1 to my sorr[1 ,i saw almo/ e room turn$ into a work%op4 ,a cab9et-mak] mak+ a tube & /&s ( all descriptions 9 a h&somely furni%$ draw+-room2 ,alex4 putt+ up a huge turn+-ma*9e 7:i* he _h br\ght 9 ! autumn f ,bri/ol1 :]e he us$ to sp5d ! summ]7 9 a b$-room1 = turn+ patt]ns1 gr9d+ glasses1 & turn+ eye-pieces1 c4 ,at ! same "t music dur/ n lie entirely dormant dur+ ! summ]1 & my bro!r _h frequ5t rehe>sals at home4 ,f9ally1 9 #aggd1 at ! age ( ?irty-six1 he _h made himself a #e-a_/b-;foot telescope1 & began to view ! heav5s4 ,s atta*$ 0 he to ! in/rum5t t he w\ld run f ! conc]t-room betwe5 ! p>ts1 & take a look at ! />s4 ,he soon began ano!r telescope1 & !n ano!r4 ,he mu/ h made "s doz5 diff]5t telescopes1 always try+ to get !m bigg] & bigg]2 at la/ he got a #g-;foot & !n a #aj-;foot in/rum5t1 & began a sy/ematic survey ( ! heav5s2 he also began to communicate 8 results to ! ,royal ,society4 ,he n[ took a l>g] h\se1 ) m room = work%ops1 & a grass plot = a #bj-;foot telescope1 & /ill he w5t on gr9d+ mirrors--lit]ally hundr$s ( !m4 ,i read ano!r extract f ! di>y ( 8 si/]1 :o wait$ on him & obey$ him l a spaniel3-- ,my "t 0 tak5 up ) copy+ music & practis+1 besides att5dance on my bro!r :5 poli%+1 s9ce by way ( keep+ him alive ,i 0 con/antly oblig$ to fe$ him by putt+ ! victuals by bits into 8 m\?4 ,?is 0 once ! case :51 9 ord] to f9i% a #g-;foot mirror1 he _h n tak5 8 h&s f x = sixte5 h\rs toge!r4 ,9 g5]al he 0 nev] unemploy$ at meals1 b 0 always at ^? times contriv+ or mak+ draw+s ( :atev] came 9 8 m9d4 ,g5]ally ,i 0 oblig$ to read to him :il/ he 0 at ! turn+-la!1 or poli%+ mirrors--,don ,quixote1 ,arabian ,nights' ,ent]ta9m5ts1 ! novels ( ,/]ne1 ,field+1 c42 s]v+ tea & supp] )\t int]rupt+ ! "w ) :i* he 0 engag$1 444 & sometimes l5d+ a h&4 ,i became1 9 "t1 z useful a memb] ( ! work%op z a boy might be to 8 ma/] 9 ! fir/ ye> ( 8 appr5tice%ip4444 ,b z ,i 0 to take a "p ! next ye> 9 ! oratorios1 ,i _h1 = a :ole twelvemon?1 two lessons p] week f ,miss ,flem+1 ! celebrat$ danc+-mi/ress1 to drill me = a g5tlewoman 7,god kn[s h[ %e succe$$74 ,s we liv$ on )\t int]ruption4 ,my bro!r ,alex4 0 abs5t f ,ba? = "s mon?s e summ]1 b :5 at home he took mu* pleasure 9 execut+ "s turn+ or clockmak]'s "w = 8 bro!r4 ,! music1 & ! a/ronomy1 & ! mak+ ( telescopes1 all w5t on toge!r1 ea* at high pressure1 & en\gh done 9 ea* to satisfy any ord9>y activity4 ,b ! ,h]s*els knew no re/4 ,gr9d+ mirrors by day1 conc]ts & oratorios 9 ! ev5+1 />-gaz+ at night4 ,x is /range 8 heal? c\ld /& x4 ,! />-gaz+1 moreov]1 0 no dilettante "w2 x 0 bas$ on a s]i\s sy/em--a well ?\ght out plan ( obs]vation4 ,x 0 no?+ less ?an ?is--to pass ! :ole heav5s /eadily & 9 ord] ?r\gh ! telescope1 not+ & describ+ & record+ e object t %\ld be visible1 :e!r previ\sly kn[n or unkn[n4 ,! op]ation is call$ sweep+2 b x is n a rapid passage f "o object to ano!r1 z ! t]m might sugge/2 x is a mo/ t$i\s bus9ess1 & consi/s 9 foll[+ ) ! telescope a c]ta9 field ( view = "s m9utes1 s z to be sure t no?+ is miss$1 !n %ift+ x to ! next ov]lapp+ field1 & wat*+ aga94 ,& :atev] object appe>s mu/ be scrut9iz$ anxi\sly to see :at !re is peculi> ab\t x4 ,if a />1 x may be d\ble1 or x may be col\r$1 or x may be nebul\s2 or aga9 x may be v>iable1 & s its brightness mu/ be e/imat$ 9 ord] to comp>e ) a subsequ5t obs]vation4 ,f\r di/9ct times 9 8 life did ,h]s*el ?us pass ! :ole visible heav5s "u review2 & ea* survey occupi$ him sev]al ye>s4 ,he discov]$ d\ble />s1 v>iable />s1 nebul1 & comets2 & ,mr4 ,william ,h]s*el1 ( ,ba?1 ! amateur a/ronom]1 0 gradually em]g+ f 8 obscurity1 & becom+ a kn[n man4 ,tuesday1 ! #ac? ( ,m>*1 #agha1 is a date memorable 9 ! annals ( a/ronomy4 ,on ?is night1 he writes to ! ,royal ,society1 9 exam9+ ! small />s ne> eta ,gem9orum1 ,i p]ceiv$ "o visibly l>g] ?an ! re/4 ,/ruck ) its uncommon appe>ance1 ,i comp>$ x to eta ,gem9orum & ano!r />1 & f9d+ x s mu* l>g] ?an ei!r1 ,i suspect$ x to be a comet4 ,! comet 0 imm$iately obs]v$ by pr(essional a/ronom]s1 & its orbit 0 comput$ by "s ( !m4 ,x 0 ?us f\nd to move 9 ne>ly a circle in/ead ( an elongat$ ellipse1 & to be ne>ly twice z f> f ! sun z ,saturn4 ,x 0 no comet1 x 0 a new planet2 m ?an #ajj times z big z ! e>?1 & ne>ly twice z f> away z ,saturn4 ,x 0 pres5tly *ri/5$ ,uranus4 ,?is 0 a mo/ /rik+ discov]y1 & ! news sp$ ov] ,europe4 ,to und]/& ! int]e/ x excit$ we mu/ rememb] t su* a discov]y 0 unique4 ,s9ce ! mo/ anci5t times ( :i* m5 _h any k1 ! planets ,m]cury1 ,v5us1 ,m>s1 ,jupit]1 ,saturn1 _h be5 kn[n1 & !re _h be5 no addition to _! numb]4 ,galileo & o!rs _h discov]$ satellites inde$1 b a new prim>y planet 0 an entire & utt]ly unsuspect$ novelty4 ,"o ( ! mo/ imm$iate consequ5ces ( ! ev5t 0 ! discov]y ( ,h]s*el himself4 ,! ,royal ,society made him a ,fell[ ! same ye>4 ,! ,univ]sity ( ,ox=d dubb$ him a doctor2 & ! ,k+ s5t = him to br+ 8 telescope & %[ x at ,c\rt4 ,s to ,london & ,w9dsor he w5t1 tak+ ) him 8 be/ telescope4 ,maskelyne1 ! !n ,a/ronom]-,royal1 comp>$ x ) ! ,national "o at ,gre5wi*1 & f\nd ,h]s*el's home-made in/rum5t f> ! bett] ( ! two4 ,he _h a /& made aft] ,h]s*el's patt]n1 b 0 s disgu/$ ) 8 own in/rum5t n[ t he sc>cely ?\ght x wor?y ( ! /& :5 x 0 made4 ,at ,w9dsor1 ,george ,,iii4 0 v civil1 & ,mr4 ,h]s*el 0 9 great reque/ to %[ ! ladies ( ! ,c\rt ,saturn & o!r objects ( int]e/4 ,mr4 ,h]s*el exhibit$ a piece ( worldly wisdom "u ^! circum/ances1 t recalls fa9tly ! behavi\r ( ,ty*o ,brah "u simil> circum/ances4 ,! ev5+ :5 ! exhibition 0 to take place ?reat5$ to become cl\dy & wet1 s ,h]s*el rigg$ up an artificial ,saturn1 con/ruct$ ( c>d & tissue pap]1 ) a lamp beh9d x1 9 ! di/ant wall ( a g>d52 &1 :5 ! "t came1 8 new titl$ fri5ds 7 regal$ ) a view ( ?is imitation ,saturn ?r\gh ! telescope--! real "o n be+ visible4 ,!y w5t away mu* pleas$4 ,he /ay$ hov]+ betwe5 ,w9dsor & ,gre5wi*1 & unc]ta9 :at 0 to be ! outcome ( all ?is regal patroniz+4 ,he writes to 8 si/] t he w\ld mu* r be back gr9d+ mirrors at ,ba?4 ,& %e writes begg+ him to come1 = 8 musical pupils 7 gett+ impati5t4 ,!y _h to get ! bett] ( _! impati5ce1 h[ev]1 = ! ,k+ ultimately appo9t$ him a/ronom] or r telescope-mak] to himself1 & s ,c>ol9e & ! :ole h\sehold 7 s5t =1 & e/abli%$ 9 a small h\se at ,dat*et4 ,f be+ a />-gaz+ musician1 ,h]s*el ?us became a practical a/ronom]4 ,h5ce=? he liv$ 9 8 obs]vatory2 only on wet & moonlight nights c\ld he be torn away f x4 ,! day-"t he devot$ to mak+ 8 long-contemplat$ #bj-;foot telescope4 ,n yet1 h[ev]1 7 all _! difficulties remov$4 ,! h\se at ,dat*et 0 a tumble-d[n b>n ( a place1 *os5 r z a work%op & obs]vatory ?an z a dwell+-h\se4 ,& ! sal>y all[$ him by ,george ,,iii4 0 sc>cely a pr9cely "o4 ,x 01 z a matt] ( fact1 #bjj a ye>4 ,! idea 0 t he w\ld e>n 8 liv+ by mak+ telescopes1 & s inde$ he did4 ,he made altoge!r "s hundr$s4 ,among o!rs1 f\r = ! ,k+4 ,b ?is et]nal mak+ ( telescopes = o!r p to use or play ) 0 a we>9ess to ! fle%4 ,:at he want$ 0 to obs]ve1 obs]ve1 obs]ve4 ,sir ,william ,watson1 an old fri5d ( 81 & ( "s influ5ce at ,c\rt1 express$ 8 m9d pretty pla9ly conc]n+ ,h]s*el's position2 & z soon z ! ,k+ got to und]/& t !re 0 any?+ ! matt]1 he imm$iately (f]$ #b1jjj = a gigantic telescope to be made = ,h]s*el's own use4 ,no?+ bett] did he want 9 life4 ,! :ole army ( c>p5t]s & craftsm5 resid5t 9 ,dat*et 7 press$ into ! s]vice4 ,furnaces = ! speculum metal 7 built1 /&s erect$1 & ! #dj-;foot telescope fairly begun4 ,x co/ #d1jjj be=e x 0 f9i%$1 b ! ,k+ paid ! :ole4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hc4--;,h]s*el's #dj-;foot telescope4 ,) x he discov]$ two m satellites to ,saturn 7five hi!rto _h be5 kn[n71 & two moons to 8 own planet ,uranus4 ,^! two are n[ kn[n z ,ob]on & ,titania4 ,!y 7 n se5 aga9 till "s =ty ye>s aft]1 :5 8 son1 ,sir ,john ,h]s*el1 reobs]v$ !m4 ,& 9 #ahdg1 ,mr4 ,lassell1 at 8 h\se1 ,/>field1 ne> ,liv]pool1 discov]$ two m1 call$ ,ariel & ,umbriel1 mak+ ! numb] f\r1 z n[ kn[n4 ,mr4 ,lassell also discov]$1 ) a telescope ( 8 own mak+1 an eigh? satellite ( ,saturn--,hyp]ion--& a satellite to ,neptune4 ,a lett] f a =eign a/ronom] ab\t ?is p]iod describes ,h]s*el & 8 si/]'s me?od ( "w3-- ,i sp5t ! night ( ! #f? ( ,janu>y at ,h]s*el's1 9 ,dat*et1 ne> ,w9dsor1 & _h ! good luck to hit on a f9e ev5+4 ,he has 8 #bj-;foot ,newtonian telescope 9 ! op5 air1 & m\nt$ 9 8 g>d5 v simply & conv5i5tly4 ,x is mov$ by an assi/ant1 :o /&s bel[ x4444 ,ne> ! in/rum5t is a clock regulat$ to sid]eal "t4444 ,9 ! room ne> x sits ,h]s*el's si/]1 & %e has ,flam/e$'s atlas op5 be=e h]4 ,z he gives h] ! ^w1 %e writes d[n ! decl9ation & "r asc5sion1 & ! o!r circum/ances ( ! obs]vation4 ,9 ?is way ,h]s*el exam9es ! :ole sky )\t omitt+ ! lea/ "p4 ,he commonly obs]ves ) a magnify+ p[] ( "o hundr$ & fifty1 & is sure t aft] f\r or five ye>s he w h pass$ 9 review e object above our horizon4 ,he %[$ me ! book 9 :i* 8 obs]vations up to ?is "t are writt51 & ,i am a/oni%$ at ! great numb] ( !m4 ,ea* sweep cov]s #b #ae' 9 decl9ation1 & he lets ea* /> pass at lea/ ?ree times ?r\gh ! field ( 8 telescope1 s t x is impossible t any?+ c escape him4 ,he has already f\nd ab\t #ijj d\ble />s1 & almo/ z _m nebul4 ,i w5t to b$ ab\t "o o'clock1 & up to t "t he _h f\nd t night f\r or five new nebul4 ,! !rmomet] 9 ! g>d5 /ood at #ac ,fahr5heit2 b1 9 spite ( ?is1 ,h]s*el obs]ves ! :ole night ?r\gh1 except t he /ops e ?ree or f\r h\rs & goes into ! room = a few mom5ts4 ,= "s ye>s ,h]s*el has obs]v$ ! heav5s e h\r :5 ! wea!r is cle>1 & ?is always 9 ! op5 air1 because he says t ! telescope only p]=ms well :5 x is at ! same temp]ature z ! air4 ,he protects himself aga9/ ! wea!r by putt+ on m clo?+4 ,he has an excell5t con/itution1 & ?9ks ab\t no?+ else 9 ! _w b ! cele/ial bodies4 ,he has promis$ me 9 ! mo/ cordial way1 entirely 9 ! s]vice ( a/ronomy1 & )\t ?9k+ ( 8 own int]e/1 to see to ! telescopes ,i h ord]$ = ,european obs]vatories1 & he w himself att5d to ! prep>ation ( ! mirrors4 ,illu/ration3 ,pa9t$ by ,abbott4 ,engrav$ by ,ryd]4 ,,fig4 #hd4--,,william ,,h]s*el4 ,f an ,orig9al ,picture 9 ! ,possession ( ,,wm4 ,,watson1 ,m4,d41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,9 #aghc1 ,h]s*el m>ri$ an e/imable lady :o sympa?iz$ ) 8 pursuits4 ,%e 0 ! only daught] ( a ,city magnate1 s 8 pecuni>y difficulties1 su* z !y 7 7!y 7 nev] v tr\blesome to him71 came to an end4 ,!y mov$ n[ into a m commodi\s h\se at ,sl\gh4 ,_! "o son1 aft]w>ds ! fam\s ,sir ,john ,h]s*el1 0 born "s n9e ye>s lat]4 ,b ! m>riage 0 r a bl[ to 8 devot$ si/]3 h5ce=? %e liv$ 9 lodg+s1 & w5t ov] at night-"t to help him obs]ve4 ,= x mu/ be rem>k$ t ?is family lit]ally turn$ night into day4 ,:atev] sleep !y got 0 9 ! day-"t4 ,e f9e night )\t exception 0 sp5t 9 obs]v+3 & ! q incr$ible fi]c5ess ( ! pursuit is illu/rat$1 z /rongly z x c be1 by ! foll[+ s5t5ce out ( ,c>ol9e's di>y1 at ! "t ( ! move f ,dat*et to ,sl\gh3 ,! la/ night at ,dat*et 0 sp5t 9 sweep+ till daylight1 & by ! next ev5+ ! telescope /ood ready = obs]vation at ,sl\gh4 ,c>ol9e 0 n[ (t5 all[$ to sweep ) a small telescope on h] own acc\nt4 ,9 ?is way %e pick$ up a good _m nebul 9 ! c\rse ( h] life1 & eight comets1 f\r ( :i* 7 q new1 & "o ( :i*1 kn[n s9ce z ,encke's comet1 has become v fam\s4 ,! "w !y got ?r\gh betwe5 !m is some?+ a/oni%+4 ,he made ) 8 own h&s #dcj p>abolic mirrors = reflect+ telescopes1 besides a great numb] ( complete in/rum5ts4 ,he 0 =ty-two :5 he began contribut+ to ! ,royal ,society2 yet be=e he di$ he _h s5t !m sixty-n9e long & elaborate treatises4 ,"o ( ^! memoirs is a catalogue ( #ajjj nebul4 ,fifte5 ye>s aft] he s5ds 9 ano!r #ajjj2 & "s ye>s lat] ano!r #ejj4 ,he also discov]$ #hjf d\ble />s1 :i* he prov$ 7 really correct$ f ! fact t !y revolv$ r\nd ea* o!r 7p4 #cji74 ,he liv$ to see "s ( !m p]=m half a revolution4 ,= him ! />s 7 n fix$3 !y mov$ sl[ly among !mselves4 ,he detect$ _! prop] motions4 ,he pass$ ! :ole nor!rn firmam5t 9 review f\r di/9ct times2 c\nt$ ! />s 9 #c1djj gauge-fields1 & e/imat$ ! brightness ( hundr$s ( />s4 ,he also measur$ z accurately z he c\ld _! prop] motions1 devis+ = ?is purpose ! me?od :i* /ill to ?is day rema9s 9 use4 ,& :at is ! outcome ( x all8 ,x is n ,uranus1 nor ! satellites1 nor ev5 ! d\ble />s & ! nebul consid]$ z m]e objects3 x is ! beg9n+ ( a sci5ce ( ! />s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #he4--;,,c>ol9e ,,h]s*el4 ,f a ,draw+ f ,life1 by ,,george ,m,,ll]1 #ahdg4 ,hi!rto ! />s _h only be5 obs]v$ = nautical & practical purposes4 ,_! times ( ris+ & s\?+ & sett+ _h be5 not$2 !y _h be5 treat$ z a clock or piece ( dead me*anism1 & z fix$ po9ts ( ref]5ce4 ,all ! en]gies ( a/ronom]s _h gone out t[>ds ! sol> sy/em4 ,x 0 ! planets t _h be5 obs]v$4 ,ty*o _h obs]v$ & tabulat$ _! positions4 ,kepl] _h f\nd out "s laws ( _! motion4 ,galileo _h discov]$ _! peculi>ities & att5dants4 ,newton & ,laplace _h p]ceiv$ e detail ( _! laws4 ,b = ! />s--! old ,ptolemaic sy/em might /ill h be5 true4 ,!y might /ill be m]e dots 9 a va/ cry/all9e sph]e1 all set at ab\t "o di/ance1 & subs]vi5t to ! uses ( ! e>?4 ,h]s*el *ang$ all ?is4 ,in/ead ( sam5ess1 he f\nd v>iety2 in/ead ( uni=mity ( di/ance1 limitless & utt]ly limitless fields & b\ndless di/ances2 in/ead ( re/ & quiesc5ce1 motion & activity2 in/ead ( /agnation1 life4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hf4--,! d\ble-d\ble /> epsilon ,lyr z se5 "u ?ree diff]5t p[]s4 ,yes1 t is :at ,h]s*el discov]$--! life & activity ( ! :ole visible univ]se4 ,no long] 0 our little sol> sy/em to be ! "o object ( reg>d1 no long] 7 its ph5om5a to be alone int]e/+ to man4 ,) ,h]s*el e /> 0 a sol> sy/em4 ,& m ?an t3 he f\nd suns revolv+ r\nd suns1 at di/ances su* z ! m9d reels at1 /ill obey+ ! same law ( gravitation z pulls an apple f a tree4 ,he tri$ h>d to e/imate ! di/ance ( ! />s f ! e>?1 b !re he fail$3 x 0 too hopeless a problem4 ,x 0 solv$ "s "t aft] 8 dea? by ,bessel1 & ! di/ances ( _m />s are n[ kn[n b ^! di/ances are awful & unspeakable4 ,our di/ance f ! sun %r9ks up into a m]e speck--! :ole sol> sy/em into a m]e unit ( measurem5t1 to be repeat$ hundr$s ( ?\s&s ( times be=e we rea* ! />s4 ,yet _! motion is visible--yes1 to v accurate measurem5t q pla94 ,"o />1 kn[n z #fa ,cygni1 0 !n & is n[ ru%+ along at ! rate ( #ajj miles e second4 ,n t y mu/ imag9e t ?is makes any obvi\s & app>5t *ange 9 its position4 ,no1 = all ord9>y & practical purposes !y are /ill fix$ />s2 ?\s&s ( ye>s w %[ u no obvi\s *ange2 ,adam saw precisely ! same con/ellations z we d3 x is only by ref9$ micrometric measurem5t ) high magnify+ p[] t _! flight c be detect$4 ,b ! sun is "o ( ! />s--n by any means a specially l>ge or bright "o2 ,sirius we n[ "k to be tw5ty times z big z ! sun4 ,! sun is "o ( ! />s3 !n is x at re/8 ,h]s*el ask$ ?is "q & endeav\r$ to answ] x4 ,he succe$$ 9 ! mo/ a/oni%+ mann]4 ,x is1 p]haps1 8 mo/ rem>kable discov]y1 & sav\rs ( intuition4 ,?is is h[ x happ5$4 ,) imp]fect optical means & 8 own eyesight to guide him1 he consid]$ & pond]$ ov] ! prop] motion ( ! />s z he _h obs]v$ x1 till he discov]$ a k9d ( uni=mity runn+ ?r\gh x all4 ,mix$ up ) irregul>ities & individualities1 he f\nd t 9 a c]ta9 "p ( ! heav5s ! />s 7 on ! :ole op5+ out--sep>at+ sl[ly f ea* o!r2 on ! opposite side ( ! heav5s !y 7 on ! av]age clos+ up--gett+ slightly ne>] to ea* o!r2 :ile 9 directions at "r angles to ?is !y 7 fairly pres]v+ _! cu/om>y di/ances asund]4 ,n[1 :at is ! moral to be drawn f su* uni=mity ( behavi\r among unconnect$ bodies8 ,surely t ?is "p ( _! motion is only app>5t--t x is we :o are mov+4 ,travell+ ov] a prairie b\nd$ by a belt ( trees1 we %\ld see ! trees 9 our l9e ( advance op5+ out1 & ^? beh9d clos+ up2 we %\ld see 9 fact ! same k9d ( app>5t motion z ,h]s*el 0 able to detect among ! />s3 ! op5+ out be+ mo/ m>k$ ne> ! con/ellation ,h]cules4 ,! conclusion is obvi\s3 ! sun1 ) all its planets1 mu/ be /eadily mov+ t[>ds a po9t 9 ! con/ellation ,h]cules4 ,! mo/ accurate mod]n rese>* has be5 h>dly able to improve ^u ?is /atem5t ( ,h]s*el's4 ,possibly ! sol> sy/em may ultimately be f\nd to revolve r\nd "s o!r body1 b :at t is no "o kn[s4 ,all "o c tell is ! pres5t direction ( ! maje/ic motion3 s9ce x 0 discov]$ x has cont9u$ un*ang$1 & w probably s cont9ue = ?\s&s ( ye>s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hg4--,old draw+ ( ! clu/] 9 ,h]cules4 ,&1 f9ally1 conc]n+ ! nebul4 ,^! my/]i\s objects ex]cis$ a /rong fasc9ation = ,h]s*el1 & _m are ! speculations he indulges 9 conc]n+ !m4 ,at "o "t he reg>ds !m all z clu/]s ( />s1 & ! ,milky ,way z our clu/]2 ! o!rs he reg>ds z o!r univ]ses almo/ inf9itely di/ant2 & he proce$s to gauge & e/imate ! %ape ( our own univ]se or galaxy ( suns1 ! ,milky ,way4 ,lat] on1 h[ev]1 he pictures to himself ! nebul z nasc5t suns3 sol> sy/ems be=e !y are =m$4 ,"s he ?9ks h begun to aggregate1 :ile "s are /ill gl[+ gas4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hh4--,old draw+ ( ! ,&rom$a nebula4 ,he lik5s ! heav5s to a g>d5 9 :i* !re are plants gr[+ 9 all mann] ( diff]5t /ages3 "s %oot+1 "s 9 leaf1 "s 9 fl[]1 "s be>+ se$1 "s decay+2 & ?us at "o inspection we h be=e u ! :ole life-hi/ory ( ! plant4 ,j s he ?9ks ! heav5s conta9 worlds1 "s old1 "s dead1 "s "y & vigor\s1 & "s 9 ! act ( be+ =m$4 ,! nebul are ^! latt]1 & ! nebul\s />s are a fur!r /age 9 ! cond5sation t[>ds a sun4 ,& ?us1 by simple obs]vation1 he is l$ t[>ds some?+ v l ! nebul> hypo!sis ( ,laplace2 & 8 position1 :e!r x be true or false1 is sub/antially ! same z is held to-day4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hi4--,! great nebula 9 ,orion4 ,we "k n[ t _m ( ! nebul consi/ ( innum]able isolat$ p>ticles & may be spok5 ( z gas4 ,we "k t "s are 9 a /ate ( :irl+ motion4 ,we "k also t su* gas left to itself w sl[ly z x cools cond5se & %r9k1 s z to =m a c5tral solid nucleus2 & also1 if x 7 9 :irl+ motion1 t x w\ld s5d (f r+s f itself1 & t ^! r+s c\ld break up into planets4 ,9 two famili> cases ! r+ has n yet ?us aggregat$ into planet or satellite--! zone ( a/]oids1 & ,saturn's r+4 ,! :ole ( ?is c\ld n h be5 ass]t$ 9 ,h]s*el's "t3 = fur!r in=mation ! _w _h to wait4 ,^! are ! problems ( mod]n a/ronomy--^! & _m o!rs1 :i* are ! gr[? ( ?is c5tury1 aye1 & ! gr[? ( ! la/ ?irty or =ty1 & inde$ ( ! la/ t5 ye>s4 ,ev5 z ,i write1 new & v confirmatory discov]ies are be+ ann\nc$4 ,! ,milky ,way does seem to h "s aff9ity ) our sun4 ,& ! *ief />s ( ! con/ellation ( ,orion con/itute ano!r family1 & are envelop$ 9 ! great nebula1 n[ by photography p]ceiv$ to be f> great] ?an _h ev] be5 imag9$4 ,:at is to be ! outcome ( x all ,i "k n2 b sure ,i am ( ?is1 t ! l>ge/ views ( ! univ]se t we are able to frame1 & ! gr&e/ mann] ( its con/ruction t we c conceive1 are c]ta9 to pale & %r9k & become inadequate :5 confront$ ) ! tru?4 ,,notes ,,to ,,lecture ,,xiii ,,bode',s ,,law4--,write d[n ! s]ies #j1 #c1 #f1 #ab1 #bd1 #dh1 c42 add #d to ea*1 & divide by #aj2 y get ! s]ies3 #d #g #aj #af #bh #eb #ajj #aif #chh ,m]cury ,v5us ,e>? ,m>s ---- ,jupit] ,saturn ,uranus ---- numb]s :i* v fairly repres5t ! di/ances ( ! !n kn[n planets f ! sun 9 ! ord] specifi$4 ,c]es 0 discov]$ on ! #a/ ( ,janu>y1 #ahja1 by ,piazzi2 ,pallas 9 ,m>*1 #ahjb1 by ,olb]s2 ,juno 9 #ahjd1 by ,h>d+2 & ,ve/a 9 #ahjg1 by ,olb]s4 ,no m a/]oids 7 discov]$ till #ahde1 b !re are n[ sev]al hundr$s kn[n4 ,_! diamet]s range f #ejj to #bj miles4 ,neptune 0 discov]$ f ! p]turbations ( ,uranus by %e] calculation1 c>ri$ on simultane\sly & indep5d5tly by ,lev]ri] 9 ,p>is1 & ,adams 9 ,cambridge4 ,x 0 fir/ kn[+ly se5 by ,galle1 ( ,b]l91 on ! #bcrd ( ,septemb]1 #ahdf4 ,,lecture ,,xiii ,,! ,,discov]y ,,( ,,! ,,a/]oids ,up to ! "t ( ,h]s*el1 a/ronomical int]e/ c5tr$ on ! sol> sy/em4 ,s9ce t "t x has be5 divid$1 & a great "p ( our att5tion has be5 giv5 to ! m di/ant cele/ial bodies4 ,! sol> sy/em has by no means lo/ its int]e/--x has inde$ ga9$ 9 int]e/ cont9ually1 z we ga9 9 k conc]n+ x2 b 9 ord] to foll[ ! c\rse ( sci5ce x w be necess>y = u to oscillate to & fro1 sometimes att5d+ to ! sol> sy/em--! planets & _! satellites--sometimes ext5d+ our vision to ! enorm\sly m di/ant /ell> spaces4 ,^? :o h read ! ?ird lecture 9 ,"p ,i4 w rememb] ! speculation 9 :i* ,kepl] indulg$ respect+ ! arrangem5ts ( ! planets1 ! ord] 9 :i* !y succe$$ "o ano!r 9 space1 & ! law ( _! respective di/ances f ! sun2 & 8 fanciful guess ab\t ! five regul> solids inscrib$ & circumscrib$ ab\t _! orbits4 ,! rude co9cid5ces 71 h[ev]1 accid5tal1 & he fail$ to discov] any true law4 ,no ?or\ghly satisfactory law is kn[n at ! pres5t day4 ,& yet1 if ! nebul> hypo!sis or any?+ l x be true1 !re mu/ be "s law to be discov]$ h]eaft]1 ?\gh x may be a v complicat$ "o4 ,an empirical relation is1 h[ev]1 kn[n3 x 0 sugge/$ by ,tatius1 & publi%$ by ,bode1 ( ,b]l91 9 #aggb4 ,x is always kn[n z ,bode's law4 ,bode's law ass]ts t ! di/ance ( ea* planet is approximately d\ble ! di/ance ( ! inn] adjac5t planet f ! sun1 b t ! rate ( increase is di/9ctly sl[] ?an ?is = ! inn] ones2 consequ5tly a bett] approximation w be obta9$ by add+ a con/ant to ea* t]m ( an appropriate geometrical progression4 ,?us1 =m a d\bl+ s]ies l ?is1 #a-a_/b1 #c1 #f1 #ab1 #bd1 c4 d\bl+ ea* "t2 !n add #d to ea*1 & y get a s]ies :i* expresses v fairly ! relative di/ances ( ! successive planets f ! sun1 except t ! numb] = ,m]cury is r errone\s1 & we n[ "k t at ! o!r extreme ! numb] = ,neptune is errone\s too4 ,i h /at$ x 9 ! notes above 9 a =m calculat$ to give ! law e *ance1 & a =m t 0 probably fa%ionable aft] ! discov]y ( ,uranus2 b to call ! fir/ t]m ( ! d\bl+ s]ies #j is evid5tly n q fair1 ?\gh x puts ,m]cury's di/ance "r4 ,neptune's di/ance1 h[ev]1 turns out to be m ne>ly #cj times ! e>?'s di/ance ?an #chh4 ,! o!rs are v ne>ly "r3 comp>e column ,d ( ! table prec$+ ,lecture ,,iii4 on p4 #eg1 ) ! numb]s 9 ! notes on p4 #bid4 ,! discov]y ( ,uranus a few ye>s aft]w>ds1 9 #agha1 at #aib times ! e>?'s di/ance f ! sun1 l5t great clt to ! law1 & seem$ to e/abli% its "r to be reg>d$ z at lea/ a close approximation to ! tru?4 ,! gap betwe5 ,m>s & ,jupit]1 :i* _h (t5 be5 notic$1 & :i* ,kepl] fill$ ) a hypo!tical planet too small to see1 comes into great prom95ce by ?is law ( ,bode4 ,s mu* s1 t t[>ds ! end ( la/ c5tury an en?usia/ic ,g]man1 von ,za*1 aft] "s se>* himself = ! expect$ planet1 arrang$ a committee ( obs]v+ a/ronom]s1 or1 z he t]m$ x1 a body ( a/ronomical detective police1 to beg9 a sy/ematic se>* = ?is miss+ subject ( ! sun4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ij4--,planet>y orbits to scale2 %[+ ! ,a/]oidal region betwe5 ,jupit] & ,m>s4 7,! orbits ( satellites are exagg]at$47 ,9 #ahjj ! prelim9>ies 7 settl$3 ! heav5s ne> ! zodiac 7 divid$ into tw5ty-f\r regions1 ea* ( :i* 0 intru/$ to "o obs]v] to be swept4 ,mean:ile1 h[ev]1 q indep5d5tly ( ^! arrangem5ts 9 ,g]many1 & entirely unkn[n to ?is committee1 a quiet a/ronom] 9 ,sicily1 ,piazzi1 0 engag$ 9 mak+ a catalogue ( ! />s4 ,8 att5tion 0 direct$ to a c]ta9 region 9 ,taurus by an error 9 a previ\s catalogue1 :i* conta9$ a /> really non-exi/5t4 ,9 ! c\rse ( 8 scrut9y1 on ! #a/ ( ,janu>y1 #ahja1 he notic$ a small /> :i* next ev5+ appe>$ to h %ift$4 ,he wat*$ x anxi\sly = successive ev5+s1 & by ! #bd? ( ,janu>y he 0 q sure he _h got hold ( "s mov+ body1 n a />3 probably1 he ?\ght1 a comet4 ,x 0 v small1 only ( ! eigh? magnitude2 & he wrote to two a/ronom]s 7"o ( !m ,bode himself7 say+ :at he _h obs]v$4 ,he cont9u$ to obs]ve till ! #aa? ( ,febru>y1 :5 he 0 attack$ by illness & compell$ to cease4 ,8 lett]s did n rea* _! de/9ation till ! end ( ,m>*4 ,directly ,bode op5$ 8 lett] he jump$ to ! conclusion t ?is mu/ be ! miss+ planet4 ,b un=tunately he 0 unable to v]ify ! guess1 = ! object1 :atev] x 01 _h n[ got too ne> ! sun to be se54 ,x w\ld n be likely to be out aga9 be=e ,septemb]1 & by t "t x w\ld be hopelessly lo/ aga91 & h j z mu* to be r$iscov]$ z if x _h nev] be5 se54 ,ma!matical a/ronom]s tri$ to calculate a possible orbit = ! body f ! obs]vations ( ,piazzi1 b ! obs]v$ places 7 s desp]ately few & close toge!r4 ,x 0 l hav+ to det]m9e a curve f ?ree po9ts close toge!r4 ,?ree obs]vations ought to s]ve1#bg b if !y are tak5 ) insuffici5t int]val betwe5 !m x is extremely difficult to con/ruct ! :ole circum/ances ( ! orbit f !m4 ,all ! calculations gave diff]5t results1 & none 7 ( ! slighte/ use4 ,! difficulty z x turn$ out 0 mo/ =tunate4 ,x result$ 9 ! discov]y ( "o ( ! greate/ ma!maticians1 p]haps ! greate/1 t ,g]many has ev] produc$--,gauss4 ,he 0 !n a "y man ( tw5ty-five1 ek+ out a liv+ by tuition4 ,he _h inv5t$ b n publi%$ sev]al p[]ful ma!matical me?ods 7"o ( !m n[ kn[n z ! me?od ( lea/ squ>es71 & he appli$ !m to ,piazzi's obs]vations4 ,he 0 ?us able to calculate an orbit1 & to pr$ict a place :]e1 by ! end ( ! ye>1 ! planet %\ld be visible4 ,on ! #ca/ ( ,decemb] ( t same ye>1 v ne> ! place pr$ict$ by ,gauss1 von ,za* r$iscov]$ x1 & ,olb]s discov]$ x also ! next ev5+4 ,piazzi call$ x ,c]es1 aft] ! tutel>y goddess ( ,sicily4 ,its di/ance f ! sun z det]m9$ by ,gauss 0 #bgfg times ! e>?'s di/ance4 ,bode's law made x #bh4 ,x 0 und\bt$ly ! miss+ planet4 ,b x 0 only "o hundr$ & fifty or two hundr$ miles 9 diamet]--! smalle/ heav5ly body kn[n at ! "t ( its discov]y4 ,x revolves ! same way z o!r planets1 b ! plane ( its orbit is tilt$ #aj to ! plane ( ! ecliptic1 :i* 0 an exceptionally l>ge am\nt4 ,v soon1 a m surpris+ discov]y foll[$4 ,olb]s1 :ile se>*+ = ,c]es1 _h c>efully mapp$ ! "p ( ! heav5s :]e x 0 expect$2 & 9 ,m>*1 #ahjb1 he saw 9 ?is place a /> he _h n previ\sly notic$4 ,9 two h\rs he detect$ its motion1 & 9 a mon? he s5t 8 obs]vations to ,gauss1 :o return$ z answ] ! calculat$ orbit4 ,x 0 di/ant #bfg1 l ,c]es1 & 0 a little small]1 b x _h a v exc5tric orbit3 its plane be+ tilt$ #cd-a_/b1 an extraord9>y incl9ation4 ,?is 0 call$ ,pallas4 ,olb]s at once surmis$ t ^! two planets 7 fragm5ts ( a l>g] "o1 & kept an eag] look out = o!r fragm5ts4 ,9 two ye>s ano!r 0 se51 9 ! c\rse ( *>t+ ! region ( ! heav5s trav]s$ by ,c]es & ,pallas4 ,x 0 small] ?an ei!r1 & 0 call$ ,juno4 ,9 #ahjg ! p]sev]+ se>* ( ,olb]s result$ 9 ! discov]y ( ano!r1 ) a v oblique orbit1 :i* ,gauss nam$ ,ve/a4 ,ve/a is bigg] ?an any ( ! o!rs1 be+ five hundr$ miles 9 diamet]1 & %9es l a /> ( ! six? magnitude4 ,gauss by ?is "t _h become s practis$ 9 ! difficult computations t he work$ out ! complete orbit ( ,ve/a )9 t5 h\rs ( receiv+ ! obs]vational data f ,olb]s4 ,= _m we>y ye>s ,olb]s kept up a pati5t & unremitt+ se>* = m ( ^! small bodies1 or fragm5ts ( ! l>ge planet z he ?\ght !m2 b 8 pati5ce w5t unrew>d$1 & he di$ 9 #ahdj )\t see+ or kn[+ ( any m4 ,9 #ahde ano!r 0 f\nd1 h[ev]1 9 ,g]many1 & a few weeks lat] two o!rs by ,mr4 ,h9d 9 ,engl&4 ,s9ce !n !re seems no end to !m2 numb]s h be5 discov]$ 9 ,am]ica1 :]e ,pr(essors ,pet]s & ,watson h made a specialty ( !m1 & h !mselves f\nd some?+ l a hundr$4 ,ve/a is ! l>ge/--its area be+ ab\t ! same z t ( ,c5tral ,europe1 )\t ,russia or ,spa9--& ! smalle/ kn[n is ab\t tw5ty miles 9 diamet]1 or ) a surface ab\t ! size ( ,k5t4 ,! :ole ( !m toge!r d n ne>ly equal ! e>? 9 bulk4 ,! ma9 int]e/ ( ^! bodies to u lies 9 ! "q1 ,:at is _! hi/ory8 ,c !y h be5 once a s+le planet brok5 up8 or are !y r an abortive attempt at a planet nev] yet =m$ into "o8 ,! "q is n entirely settl$1 b ,i c tell y :i* way op9ion /rongly t5ds at ! pres5t "t4 ,imag9e a %ell travell+ 9 an elliptic orbit r\nd ! e>? to sudd5ly explode3 ! c5tre ( gravity ( all its fragm5ts w\ld cont9ue mov+ along precisely ! same pa? z _h be5 trav]s$ by ! c5tre ( ! %ell be=e explosion1 & w\ld complete its orbit q undi/urb$4 ,ea* fragm5t w\ld describe an orbit ( its own1 because x w\ld be affect$ by a diff]5t initial velocity2 b e orbit w\ld be a simple ellipse1 & consequ5tly e piece w\ld 9 "t return ?r\gh its />t+-po9t--viz4 ! place at :i* ! explosion occurr$4 ,if ! zone ( a/]oids _h a common po9t ?r\gh :i* !y all successively pass$1 !y c\ld be unhesitat+ly ass]t$ to be ! rema9s ( an explod$ planet4 ,b !y h no?+ ( ! k9d2 _! orbits are scatt]$ )9 a c]ta9 broad zone--a zone ev]y:]e z broad z ! e>?'s di/ance f ! sun1 #ib1jjj1jjj miles--) no sort ( law indicat+ an orig9 ( ?is k9d4 ,x mu/ be admitt$1 h[ev]1 t ! fragm5ts ( our suppos$ %ell might 9 ! c\rse ( ages1 if left to !mselves1 mutually p]turb ea* o!r into a diff]5t arrangem5t ( orbits f t ) :i* !y began4 ,b _! p]turbations w\ld be v m9ute1 & moreov]1 on ,laplace's !ory1 w\ld only result 9 p]iodic *anges1 provid$ ea* mass 7 rigid4 ,x is probable t ! a/]oids 7 at "o "t n rigid1 & h5ce x is difficult to say :at may h happ5$ to !m2 b !re is n ! lea/ reason to believe t _! pres5t arrangem5t is d]ivable 9 any way f an explosion1 & x is c]ta9 t an enorm\s "t mu/ h elaps$ s9ce su* an ev5t if x ev] occurr$4 ,x is f> m probable t !y nev] con/itut$ "o body at all1 b are ! rema9s ( a cl\dy r+ ?r[n (f by ! sol> sy/em 9 %r9k+ pa/ t po9t3 a small r+ aft] ! imm5se ef=t :i* produc$ ,jupit] & 8 satellites3 a r+ :i* has aggregat$ into a multitude ( little lumps in/ead ( a few big ones4 ,su* an ev5t is n unique 9 ! sol> sy/em2 !re is a simil> r+ r\nd ,saturn4 ,at fir/ sight1 & to ord9>y c>eful inspection1 ?is diff]s f ! zone ( a/]oids 9 be+ a solid lump ( matt]1 l a quoit4 ,b x is easy to %[ f ! !ory ( gravitation1 t a solid r+ c\ld n possibly be /able1 b w\ld be=e long get precipitat$ exc5trically ^u ! body ( ! planet4 ,devices h be5 inv5t$1 su* z artfully di/ribut$ irregul>ities calculat$ to act z satellites & ma9ta9 /ability2 b none ( ^! ?+s really "w4 ,nor w x d to imag9e ! r+s fluid2 !y too w\ld de/roy ea* o!r4 ,! me*anical behavi\r ( a sy/em ( r+s1 on diff]5t hypo!ses z to _! con/itution1 has be5 work$ out ) consummate skill by ,cl]k ,maxwell2 :o f9ds t ! only possible con/itution = ,saturn's assemblage ( r+s is a multitude ( discrete p>ticles ea* pursu+ its indep5d5t orbit4 ,saturn's r+ is1 9 fact1 a v conc5trat$ zone ( m9or a/]oids1 & !re is e reason to conclude t ! orig9 ( ! sol> a/]oids _c be v unlike ! orig9 ( ! ,saturnian ones4 ,! nebul> hypo!sis l5ds itself readily to bo?4 ,! int]lock+s & motions ( ! p>ticles 9 ,saturn's r+s are mo/ beautiful1 & h be5 work$ out & /at$ by ,maxwell ) m>vell\s complet5ess4 ,8 pap] con/itut$ :at is call$ ,! ,adams ,prize ,essay = #ahef4 ,sir ,george ,airy1 "o ( ! adjudicators 7rec5tly ,a/ronom]-,royal71 *>act]iz$ x z "o ( ! mo/ rem>kable applications ( ma!matics to physics t ,i h ev] se54 ,!re are sev]al di/9ct con/itu5t r+s 9 ! entire ,saturnian zone1 & ea* p]turbs ! o!r1 ) ! result t !y ripple & pulse 9 concord4 ,! waves ?us =m$ absorb ! effect ( ! mutual p]turbations1 & prev5t an accumulation :i* w\ld be dang]\s to ! p]si/5ce ( ! :ole4 ,! only effect ( gravitational p]turbation & ( collisions is gradually to broad5 out ! :ole r+1 enl>g+ its out] & dim9i%+ its inn] diamet]4 ,b if !re 7 any frictional resi/ance 9 ! m$ium ?r\gh :i* ! r+s sp91 !n o!r effects w\ld sl[ly occur1 :i* ought to be look$ = ) int]e/4 ,s complete & intimate is ! way ,maxwell works out & describes ! :ole circum/ances ( ! motion ( su* an assemblage ( p>ticles1 & s cog5t 8 argum5t z to ! necessity t !y mu/ move precisely s1 & no o!rwise1 else ! r+s w\ld n be /able1 t x 0 a ,cambridge joke conc]n+ him t he paid a visit to ,saturn "o ev5+1 & made 8 obs]vations on ! spot4 ,,notes ,,to ,,lecture ,,xiv ,! total numb] ( />s 9 ! heav5s visible to a good eye is ab\t #e1jjj4 ,! total numb] at pres5t se5 by telescope is ab\t #ej1jjj1jjj4 ,! numb] able to impress a photographic plate has n yet be5 e/imat$2 b x is enorm\sly great] /ill4 ,( ^? :i* we c see 9 ^! latitudes1 ab\t #ad are ( ! fir/ magnitude1 #dh ( ! second1 #aeb ( ! ?ird1 #cac ( ! f\r?1 #hed ( ! fif?1 & #b1jaj ( ! six?2 total1 #c1cia4 ,! quicke/-mov+ />s kn[n are a d\ble /> ( ! six? magnitude1 call$ #fa ,cygni1 & "o ( ! sev5? magnitude1 call$ ,groombridge #ahcj4 ,! velocity ( ! latt] is #bjj miles a second4 ,! ne>e/ kn[n />s are #fa ,cygni & alpha ,c5tauri4 ,! di/ance ( ^! f u is ab\t #djj1jjj times ! di/ance ( ! sun4 ,_! p>allax is accord+ly half a second ( arc4 ,sirius is m ?an a million times fur!r f u ?an our sun is1 & tw5ty times z big2 _m ( ! brighte/ />s are at m ?an d\ble ?is di/ance4 ,! di/ance ( ,arcturus is too great to measure ev5 n[4 ,/ell> p>allax 0 fir/ securely detect$ 9 #ahch1 by ,bessel1 = #fa ,cygni4 ,bessel 0 born 9 #aghd1 & di$ 9 #ahdf1 %ortly be=e ! discov]y ( ,neptune4 ,! />s are suns1 & are mo/ likely surr\nd$ by planets4 ,"o planet belong+ to ,sirius has be5 discov]$4 ,x 0 pr$ict$ by ,bessel1 its position calculat$ by ,pet]s1 & se5 by ,alvan ,cl>k 9 #ahfb4 ,ano!r pr$ict$ "o1 belong+ to ,procyon1 has n yet be5 se54 ,a velocity ( #e miles a second c\ld c>ry a projectile "r r\nd ! e>?4 ,a velocity ( #g miles a second w\ld c>ry x away f ! e>?1 & r\nd ! sun4 ,a velocity ( #bg miles a second w\ld c>ry a projectile "r out ( ! sol> sy/em nev] to return4 ,,lecture ,,xiv ,,bessel--,,! ,,di/ances ,,( ,,! ,,/>s1 ,,& ,,! ,,discov]y ,,( ,,/ell> ,,planets ,we w n[ leave ! sol> sy/em = a "t1 & ha/ily sket* ! hi/ory ( /ell> a/ronomy f ! "t ( ,sir ,william ,h]s*el4 ,y rememb] h[ greatly ,h]s*el _h *ang$ ! aspect ( ! heav5s = man1--h[ he _h f\nd t none ( ! />s 7 really fix$1 b 7 mov+ 9 all mann] ( ways3 "s ( ?is motion only app>5t1 mu* ( x real4 ,nev]!less1 s enorm\sly di/ant are !y1 t if we c\ld be transport$ back to ! days ( ! old ,*aldan a/ronom]s1 or to ! days ( ,noah1 we %\ld /ill see ! heav5s ) precisely ! same aspect z !y we> n[4 ,only by ref9$ app>atus c\ld any *ange be discov]able 9 all ^? c5turies4 ,= all practical purposes1 !re=e1 ! />s may /ill be well call$ fix$4 ,ano!r ?+ "o may notice1 z %[+ _! enorm\s di/ances1 is t f e planet ( ! sol> sy/em ! aspect ( ! heav5s w be precisely ! same4 ,inhabitants ( ,m>s1 or ,jupit]1 or ,saturn1 or ,uranus1 w see exactly ! same con/ellations z we d4 ,! :ole dim5sions ( ! sol> sy/em %r9k up into a speck :5 s contemplat$4 ,& f ! />s none ( ! planet>y orbs ( our sy/em are visible at all2 no?+ b ! sun is visible1 & t m]ely z a tw9kl+ />1 bright] ?an "s1 b fa9t] ?an _m o!rs4 ,! sun & ! />s are "o4 ,try to realize ?is di/9ctly1 & keep x 9 m9d4 ,i f9d x (t5 difficult to drive ?is idea home4 ,aft] "s talk on ! subject a fri5dly auditor w report1 ! lectur] !n describ$ ! />s1 includ+ t greate/ & mo/ magnific5t ( all />s1 ! sun4 ,x w\ld be difficult m completely to misappreh5d ! entire /atem5t4 ,:5 ,i say ! sun is "o ( ! />s1 ,i mean "o among ! o!rs2 we are a long way f !m1 !y are a long way f ea* o!r4 ,!y ne$ be no m closely pack$ among ea* o!r ?an we are closely pack$ among !m2 except t "s ( !m are d\ble or multiple1 & we are n d\ble4 ,x is highly desirable to acquire an intimate k ( ! con/ellations & a nodd+ acqua9tance ) _! pr9cipal />s4 ,a description ( _! peculi>ities is dull & un9t]e/+ unless !y are at lea/ famili> by "n4 ,a little viv voce help to beg9 )1 supplem5t$ by pati5t night scrut9y ) a cele/ial globe or /> maps "u a t5t or %$1 is p]haps ! easie/ way3 a v conv5i5t in/rum5t = ! purpose ( le>n+ ! con/ellations is ! =m ( map call$ a planisph]e1 because x c be made to %[ all ! con/ellations visible at a giv5 "t at a giv5 date1 & no o!rs4 ,! ,greek alphabet also is a ?+ t %\ld be le>nt by ev]ybody4 ,! increas$ difficulty 9 tea*+ sci5ce ow+ to ! mod]n ignorance ( ev5 a smatt]+ ( ,greek is becom+ grotesque4 ,! />s are nam$ f _! anci5t gr\p+ into con/ellations1 & by ! prefix ( a ,greek lett] to ! l>g] ones1 & ( num]als to ! small] ones4 ,! bigge/ ( all h special ,arabic names z well4 ,! brighte/ />s are call$ ( ! fir/ magnitude1 ! next are ( ! second magnitude1 & s on4 ,b ?is arrangem5t into magnitudes has become te*nical & precise1 & int]m$iate or fractional magnitudes are ins]t$4 ,^? bright] ?an ! ord9>y fir/ magnitude are !re=e n[ spok5 ( z ( magnitude #a_/b1 = in/ance1 or #f1 :i* is r confus+4 ,small telescopic />s are (t5 only nam$ by _! numb]s 9 "s specifi$ catalogue--a dull b suffici5t me?od4 ,"h is a li/ ( ! />s visible f ^! latitudes1 :i* are popul>ly consid]$ z ( ! fir/ magnitude4 ,all ( !m %\ld be famili>ly recogniz$ 9 ! heav5s1 :5ev] se54 ,/>4 ,con/ellation4 ,sirius ,canis major ,procyon ,canis m9or ,rigel ,orion ,betelgeux ,orion ,ca/or ,gem9i ,pollux ,gem9i ,aldeb>an ,taurus ,arcturus ,botes ,vega ,lyra ,capella ,auriga ,regulus ,leo ,altair ,aquila ,fomalhaut ,s\!rn ,fi% ,spica ,virgo alpha ,cygni is a little bel[ ! fir/ magnitude4 ,s1 p]haps1 is ,ca/or4 ,9 ! s\!rn heav5s1 ,canopus & alpha ,c5tauri rank next aft] ,sirius 9 brightness4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ia4--;,diagram illu/rat+ ,p>allax4 ,! di/ances ( ! fix$ />s _h1 we "k1 be5 a p]5nial problem1 & _m _h be5 ! attempts to solve x4 ,all ! me?ods ( any precision h dep5d$ on ! ,cop]nican fact t ! e>? 9 ,june 0 #ahd million miles away f its position 9 ,decemb]1 & t accord+ly ! gr\p+ & aspect ( ! heav5s %\ld be some:at diff]5t :5 se5 f s diff]5t a po9t ( view4 ,an app>5t *ange ( ?is sort is call$ g5]ally p>allax2 ! p>allax ( a /> be+ te*nically def9$ z ! angle subt5d$ at ! /> by ! radius ( ! e>?'s orbit3 t is to say1 ! angle ,esigma,s2 :]e ,e is ! e>?1 ,s ! sun1 & sigma a /> 7,fig4 #ia74 ,pla9ly1 ! fur!r (f sigma is1 ! m ne>ly p>allel w ! two l9es to x become4 ,& ! difficulty ( det]m9+ ! p>allax 0 j ?is1 t ! m accurately ! obs]vations 7 made1 ! m ne>ly p>allel did ^? l9es become4 ,! angle 01 9 fact1 j z likely to turn out negative z positive--an absurd result1 ( c\rse1 to be attribut$ to unavoidable v m9ute inaccuracies4 ,= a long "t absolute me?ods ( det]m9+ p>allax 7 attempt$2 = in/ance1 by obs]v+ ! position ( ! /> ) respect to ! z5i? at diff]5t seasons ( ! ye>4 ,& _m ( ^! det]m9ations appe>$ to result 9 success4 ,hooke fanci$ he _h measur$ a p>allax = ,vega 9 ?is way1 am\nt+ to #cj ( arc4 ,flam/e$ obta9$ #dj = gamma ,draconis4 ,roem] made a s]i\s attempt by comp>+ obs]vations ( ,vega & ,sirius1 />s almo/ ! antipodes ( ea* o!r 9 ! cele/ial vault2 hop+ to detect "s effect due to ! size ( ! e>?'s orbit1 :i* %\ld app>5tly displace !m ) ! season ( ! ye>4 ,all ^! fanci$ results h[ev]1 7 %[n to be spuri\s1 & _! real cause assign$1 by ! great discov]y ( ! ab]ration ( light by ,bradley4 ,aft] ?is discov]y x 0 possible to wat* = /ill out/&+ v m9ute discrepancies2 & s ! problem ( /ell> p>allax 0 attack$ ) fre% vig\r by ,piazzi1 by ,br9kley1 & by ,/ruve4 ,b :5 results 7 obta9$1 !y 7 trac$ aft] long discussion to age & gradual we> ( ! in/rum5t1 or to "s o!r m9ute inaccuracy4 ,! m c>efully ! obs]vation 0 made1 ! m ne>ly z]o became ! p>allax--! m ne>ly inf9ite ! di/ance ( ! />s4 ,! brighte/ />s 7 ! ones commonly *os5 = ! inve/igation1 & ,vega 0 a fav\rite1 because1 go+ ne> ! z5i?1 x 0 f> remov$ f ! fluctuat+ & tiresome di/urbances ( atmosph]ic refraction4 ,! reason bright />s 7 *os5 0 because !y 7 presumably ne>] ?an ! o!rs2 & inde$ a r\gh guess at _! probable di/ance 0 made by suppos+ !m to be ( ! same size z ! sun1 & e/imat+ _! light 9 comp>ison ) sunlight4 ,by ?is confess$ly unsatisfactory me?od x _h be5 e/imat$ t ,sirius mu/ be #adj1jjj times fur!r away ?an ! sun is1 if he be equally big4 ,we n[ "k t ,sirius is mu* fur!r (f ?an ?is2 & accord+ly t he is mu* bright]1 p]haps sixty times z bright1 ?\gh n necess>ily sixty times z big1 z our sun4 ,b ev5 suppos+ him ( ! same light-giv+ p[] z ! sun1 8 p>allax 0 e/imat$ z #ah1 a quantity v difficult to be sure ( 9 any absolute det]m9ation4 ,relative me?ods 71 h[ev]1 also employ$1 & ! advantages ( "o ( ^! 7:i* seems to h be5 sugge/$ by ,galileo7 s impress$ !mselves ^u ,william ,h]s*el t he made a s]i\s attempt to compass ! problem by its means4 ,! me?od 0 to take two />s 9 ! same telescopic field & c>efully to e/imate _! app>5t angul> di/ance f ea* o!r at diff]5t seasons ( ! ye>4 ,all su* di/urbances z precession1 ab]ration1 nutation1 refraction1 & ! l1 w\ld affect !m bo? equally1 & c\ld ?us be elim9at$4 ,if !y 7 at ! same di/ance f ! sol> sy/em1 relative p>allax w\ld1 inde$1 also be elim9at$2 b if1 z 0 probable1 !y 7 at diff]5t di/ances1 !n !y w\ld app>5tly %ift relatively to "o ano!r1 & ! am\nt ( %ift1 if x c\ld be obs]v$1 w\ld measure1 n inde$ ! di/ance ( ei!r f ! e>?1 b _! di/ance f ea* o!r4 ,& ?is at any rate w\ld be a /ep4 ,x might be complet$ by simil>ly treat+ o!r />s 9 ! same field1 tak+ !m 9 pairs toge!r4 ,a bright & a fa9t /> w\ld naturally be suitable1 because _! di/ances 7 likely to be unequal2 & s ,h]s*el fix$ ^u a numb] ( d\blets :i* he knew (1 conta9+ "o bright & "o fa9t compon5t4 ,= up to t "t x _h be5 suppos$ t su* gr\p+ 9 occasional pairs or triplets 0 *ance co9cid5ce1 ! two be+ optically =e%ort5$ toge!r1 b hav+ no real connection or proximity4 ,h]s*el fail$ 9 :at he 0 look+ =1 b in/ead ( t he discov]$ ! real connection ( a numb] ( ^! d\blets1 = he f\nd t !y 7 sl[ly revolv+ r\nd ea* o!r4 ,!re are a c]ta9 numb] ( m]ely optical or accid5tal d\blets1 b ! majority ( !m are real pairs ( suns revolv+ r\nd ea* o!r4 ,?is relative me?od ( mapp+ micrometrically a field ( neighb\r+ />s1 & comp>+ _! configuration n[ & six mon?s h5ce1 01 h[ev]1 ! me?od ultimately de/9$ to succe$2 & x is1 ,i believe1 ! only me?od :i* has succe$$ d[n to ! pres5t day4 ,c]ta9ly x is ! me?od regul>ly employ$1 at ,duns9k1 at ! ,cape ( ,good ,hope1 & ev]y:]e else :]e /ell> p>allax is "p ( ! "w4 ,betwe5 #ahcj & #ahdj ! "q 0 ripe = settlem5t1 &1 z frequ5tly happ5s ) a long-matur$ difficulty1 x gave way 9 ?ree places at once4 ,bessel1 ,h5d]son1 & ,/ruve almo/ simultane\sly ann\nc$ a /ell> p>allax :i* c\ld reasonably be accept$4 ,bessel 0 a little ! e>lie/1 & by f> ! mo/ accurate4 ,81 inde$1 0 ! result :i* comm&$ confid5ce1 & to him ! palm mu/ be aw>d$4 ,he 0 l>gely a self-taught /ud5t1 hav+ begun life 9 a c\nt+-h\se1 & hav+ ab&on$ bus9ess = a/ronomy4 ,b not)/&+ ^! disadvantages1 he became a highly compet5t ma!matician z well z a skilful practical a/ronom]4 ,he 0 appo9t$ to sup]9t5d ! con/ruction ( ,g]many's fir/ great a/ronomical obs]vatory1 t ( ,knigsb]g1 :i*1 by 8 sy/em1 zeal1 & g5ius1 he rapidly made a place ( ! fir/ importance4 ,/ruve at ,dorpat1 ,bessel at ,knigsb]g1 & ,h5d]son at ! ,cape ( ,good ,hope--all ( !m at newly-equipp$ obs]vatories--7 sev]ally engag$ at ! same problem4 ,b ! ,russian & ,g]man obs]v]s _h ! advantage ( ! "w ( "o ( ! mo/ brilliant opticians--,i suppose ! mo/ brilliant--t has yet appe>$3 ,fraunh(]1 ( ,muni*4 ,an orphan lad1 appr5tic$ to a mak] ( look+-glasses1 & subject to h>d /ruggles & privations 9 e>ly life1 he /ruggl$ upw>ds1 & ultimately became head ( ! optical dep>tm5t ( a ,muni* firm ( telescope-mak]s4 ,"h he con/ruct$ ! fam\s ,dorpat refractor = ,/ruve1 :i* is /ill at "w2 & design$ ! ,knigsb]g heliomet] = ,bessel4 ,he also made a long & mo/ skilful rese>* into ! sol> spectrum1 :i* has immortaliz$ 8 "n4 ,b 8 heal? 0 brok5 by e>ly trials1 & he di$ at ! age ( ?irty-n9e1 :ile plann+ new & /ill m important optical a*ievem5ts4 ,a heliomet] is ! mo/ accurate a/ronomical in/rum5t = relative measurem5ts ( position1 z a transit circle is ! mo/ accurate = absolute det]m9ations4 ,x consi/s ( an equatorial telescope ) object-glass cut "r across1 & ea* half movable by a slid+ movem5t "o pa/ ! o!r1 ! am\nt by :i* ! two halves are dislocat$ be+ read (f by a ref9$ me?od1 & ! :ole in/rum5t hav+ a multitude ( app5dages conducive to conv5i5ce & accuracy4 ,its use is to act z a micromet] or measur] ( small di/ances4#bh ,ea* half ( ! object-glass gives a di/9ct image1 :i* may be all[$ to co9cide or may be sep>at$ z occasion requires4 ,if x be ! compon5ts ( a d\ble /> t are be+ exam9$1 ea* compon5t w 9 g5]al be se5 d\ble1 s t f\r images w be se5 altoge!r2 b by c>eful adju/m5t x w be possible to arrange t "o image ( ea* pair %all be sup]pos$ on or co9cide ) ea* o!r1 9 :i* case only ?ree images are visible2 ! am\nt ( dislocation ( ! halves ( ! object-glass necess>y to accompli% ?is is :at is read (f4 ,! adju/m5t is "o t c be p]=m$ ) extreme accuracy1 & by p]=m+ x aga9 & aga9 ) all possible modifications1 an extremely accurate det]m9ation ( ! angul> di/ance betwe5 ! two compon5ts is obta9$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ib4--;,heliomet]4 ,bessel det]m9$ to apply ?is beautiful in/rum5t to ! problem ( /ell> p>allax2 & he began by consid]+ c>efully ! k9d ( /> = :i* success 0 mo/ likely4 ,hi!rto ! brighte/ _h be5 mo/ att5d$ to1 b ,bessel ?\ght t quickness ( prop] motion w\ld be a /ill bett] te/ ( ne>ness4 ,n t ei!r crit]ion is conclusive z to di/ance1 b !re 0 a presumption 9 fav\r ( ei!r a v bright or an obvi\sly mov+ /> be+ ne>] ?an a fa9t or a /ation>y "o2 & z ! bright crit]ion _h already be5 (t5 appli$ )\t result1 he decid$ to try ! o!r4 ,he _h already call$ att5tion to a record by ,piazzi 9 #agib ( a d\ble /> 9 ,cygnus ^: prop] motion 0 five seconds ( arc e ye>--a motion :i* caus$ ?is telescopic object1 #fa ,cygni1 to be kn[n z ! fly+ />4 ,its motion is n really v p]ceptible1 = x w only h trav]s$ "o-?ird ( a lun> diamet] 9 ! c\rse ( a c5tury2 /ill x 0 ! quicke/ mov+ /> !n kn[n4 ,! position ( ?is int]e/+ d\ble he comp>$ ) two o!r />s :i* 7 se5 simultane\sly 9 ! field ( ! heliomet]1 by ! me?od ,i h describ$1 ?r\gh\t ! :ole ye> #ahch2 & 9 ! la/ mon? ( t ye> he 0 able to ann\nce ) confid5ce a di/9ct ?\gh v small p>allax2 sub/antiat+ x ) a mass ( detail$ evid5ce :i* comm&$ ! ass5t ( a/ronom]s4 ,! am\nt ( x he gave z "o-?ird ( a second4 ,we "k n[ t he 0 v ne>ly "r1 ?\gh mod]n rese>* makes x m l half a second4#bi ,soon aft]w>ds1 ,/ruve ann\nc$ a qu>t] ( a second z ! p>allax ( ,vega1 b t is di/9ctly too great2 & ,h5d]son ann\nc$ = alpha ,c5tauri 7!n ?\ght to be a d\ble7 a p>allax ( "o second1 :i*1 if correct1 w\ld make x q ! ne>e/ ( all ! />s1 b ! result is n[ believ$ to be ab\t twice too big4 ,kn[+ ! di/ance ( #fa ,cygni1 we c at once tell its real rate ( travel--at lea/1 its rate across our l9e ( sight3 x is r ov] ?ree million miles a day4 ,n[ j consid] ! smallness ( ! half second ( arc1 ?us triumphantly ?\gh only approximately measur$4 ,x is ! angle subt5d$ by tw5ty-six feet at a di/ance ( #b1jjj miles4 ,if a telescope plant$ at ,new ,york c\ld be direct$ to a h\se 9 ,engl&1 & be !n turn$ s z to set its cross-wire fir/ on "o end ( an ord9>y room & !n on ! o!r end ( ! same room1 x w\ld h turn$ ?r\gh half a second1 ! angle ( greate/ /ell> p>allax4 ,or1 putt+ x ano!r way4 ,if ! /> 7 z ne> u z ,new ,york is1 ! sun1 on ! same scale1 w\ld be n9e paces (f4 ,z tw5ty-six feet is to ! di/ance ( ,new ,york1 s is n9ety-two million miles to ! di/ance ( ! ne>e/ fix$ />4 ,suppose y c\ld arrange "s sort ( telegraphic vehicle able to c>ry y f "h to ,new ,york 9 ! t5? "p ( a second--i4e4 9 ! "t requir$ to drop two in*es--su* a vehicle w\ld c>ry y to ! moon 9 twelve seconds1 to ! sun 9 an h\r & a qu>t]4 ,travell+ ?us cont9ually1 9 tw5ty-f\r h\rs y w\ld leave ! la/ memb] ( ! sol> sy/em beh9d y1 & beg9 y\r plunge into ! dep?s ( space4 ,h[ long w\ld x be be=e y enc\nt]$ ano!r object8 ,a mon?1 %\ld y guess8 ,tw5ty ye>s y mu/ j\rney ) t prodigi\s spe$ be=e y rea* ! ne>e/ />1 & !n ano!r tw5ty ye>s be=e y rea* ano!r4 ,at ^! awful di/ances f "o ano!r ! />s are scatt]$ 9 space1 & 7 !y n brilliantly self-lum9\s & gl[+ l our sun1 !y w\ld be hopelessly invisible4 ,i h spok5 ( #fa ,cygni z a fly+ />1 b !re is ano!r :i* goes /ill quick]1 a fa9t />1 #ahcj 9 ,groombridge's ,catalogue4 ,its di/ance is f> great] ?an t ( #fa ,cygni1 & yet x is se5 to move almo/ z quickly4 ,its actual spe$ is ab\t #bjj miles a second--great] ?an ! :ole visible firmam5t ( fifty million />s c control2 & unless ! univ]se is imm5sely l>g] ?an any?+ we c see ) ! mo/ p[]ful telescopes1 or unless !re are cr[ds ( invisible non-lum9\s />s mix$ up ) ! o!rs1 x c only be a tempor>y visitor to ?is frame ( ?+s2 x is ru%+ f an inf9ite di/ance to an inf9ite di/ance2 x is pass+ ?r\gh our visible univ]se = ! fir/ & only "t--x w nev] return4 ,b s gigantic is ! ext5t ( visible space1 t ev5 ) its amaz+ spe$ ( #bjj miles e second1 ?is /> w take two or ?ree million ye>s to get out ( sight ( our pres5t telescopes1 & sev]al ?\s& ye>s be=e x gets p]ceptibly fa9t] ?an x is n[4 ,h we any reason = suppos+ t ! />s we see are all !re are8 ,9 o!r words1 h we any reason = suppos+ all cele/ial objects to be suffici5tly lum9\s to be visible8 ,we h e gr\nd = believ+ ! contr>y4 ,e body 9 ! sol> sy/em is dull & d>k except ! sun1 ?\gh probably ,jupit] is /ill r$-hot4 ,:y may n "s ( ! />s be d>k too8 ,! g5ius ( ,bessel surmis$ ?is1 & consi/5tly upheld ! doctr9e t ! a/ronomy ( ! future w\ld h to conc]n itself ) d>k & invisible bodies2 he prea*$ an a/ronomy ( ! invisible4 ,moreov] he pr$ict$ ! pres5ce ( two su* d>k bodies--"o a companion ( ,sirius1 ! o!r ( ,procyon4 ,he notic$ c]ta9 irregul>ities 9 ! motions ( ^! />s :i* he ass]t$ mu/ be caus$ by _! revolv+ r\nd o!r bodies 9 a p]iod ( half a c5tury4 ,he ann\nc$ 9 #ahdd t bo? ,sirius & ,procyon 7 d\ble />s1 b t _! companions1 ?\gh l>ge1 7 d>k1 & !re=e invisible4 ,no "o accept$ ?is view1 till ,pet]s1 9 ,am]ica1 f\nd 9 #ahea t ! hypo!sis accurately expla9$ ! anomal\s motion ( ,sirius1 &1 9 fact1 indicat$ an exact place :]e ! companion ought to be4 ,! obscure companion ( ,sirius became n[ a recogniz$ cele/ial object1 al?\gh x _h nev] be5 se51 & x 0 held to revolve r\nd ,sirius 9 fifty ye>s1 & to be ab\t half z big4 ,9 #ahfb1 ! firm ( ,alvan ,cl>k & ,sons1 ( ,new ,york1 7 complet+ a magnific5t #ah-;in* refractor1 & ! y\ng] ,cl>k 0 try+ x on ,sirius1 :5 he said3 ,:y1 fa!r1 ! /> has a companion6 ,! eld] ,cl>k also look$1 & sure en\gh !re 0 a fa9t companion due ea/ ( ! bright />1 & 9 j ! position requir$ by !ory4 ,n t ! ,cl>ks knew any?+ ab\t ! !ory4 ,!y 7 ke5-sight$ & mo/ skilful in/rum5t-mak]s1 & !y made ! discov]y by accid5t4 ,aft] x _h once be5 se51 x 0 f\nd t sev]al ( ! l>ge telescopes ( ! _w 7 able to %[ x4 ,x is half z big1 b x only gives #a_/ajjjj? "p ( ! light t ,sirius gives4 ,no d\bt x %9es p>tly ) a borr[$ light & p>tly ) a dull heat ( its own4 ,x is a real planet1 b z yet too hot to live on4 ,x w cool d[n 9 "t1 z our e>? has cool$ & z ,jupit] is cool+1 & no d\bt become habitable en\gh4 ,x does revolve r\nd ,sirius 9 a p]iod ( #did ye>s--almo/ exactly :at ,bessel assign$ to x4 ,b ,bessel also assign$ a d>k companion to ,procyon4 ,x & its lum9\s neighb\r are consid]$ to revolve r\nd ea* o!r 9 a p]iod ( =ty ye>s1 & a/ronom]s feel p]fectly assur$ ( its exi/5ce1 ?\gh at pres5t x has n be5 se5 by man4 ,,lecture ,,xv ,,! ,,discov]y ,,( ,,neptune ,we approa* to-night p]haps ! greate/1 c]ta9ly ! mo/ conspicu\s1 triumphs ( ! !ory ( gravitation4 ,! explanation by ,newton ( ! obs]v$ facts ( ! motion ( ! moon1 ! way he acc\nt$ = precession & nutation & = ! tides1 ! way 9 :i* ,laplace expla9$ e detail ( ! planet>y motions--^! a*ievem5ts may seem to ! pr(essional a/ronom] equally1 if n m1 /rik+ & wond]ful2 b ( ! facts to be expla9$ 9 ^! cases ! g5]al public are necess>ily m or less ignorant1 & s no beauty or ?or\ghness ( treatm5t appeals to !m1 nor c excite _! imag9ations4 ,b to pr$ict 9 ! solitude ( ! /udy1 ) no weapons o!r ?an p51 ink1 & pap]1 an unkn[n & enorm\sly di/ant _w1 to calculate its orbit :5 z yet x _h nev] be5 se51 & to be able to say to a practical a/ronom]1 ,po9t y\r telescope 9 su* a direction at su* a "t1 & y w see a new planet hi!rto unkn[n to man--?is mu/ always appeal to ! imag9ation ) dramatic int5sity1 & mu/ awak5 "s int]e/ 9 almo/ ! dulle/4 ,pr$iction is no novelty 9 sci5ce2 & 9 a/ronomy lea/ ( all is x a novelty4 ,?\s&s ( ye>s ago1 ,?ales1 & o!rs ^: v names we h =gott51 c\ld pr$ict eclipses ) "s c]ta9ty1 ?\gh ) only r\gh accuracy4 ,& _m o!r ph5om5a 7 capable ( pr$iction by accumulat$ exp]i5ce4 ,we h se51 = in/ance 7com+ to lat] times71 h[ a gap betwe5 ,m>s & ,jupit] caus$ a miss+ planet to be suspect$ & look$ =1 & to be f\nd 9 a hundr$ pieces4 ,we h se51 also1 h[ ! abnormal prop]-motion ( ,sirius sugge/$ to ,bessel ! exi/5ce ( an unse5 companion4 ,& ^! la/ in/ances seem to approa* v ne> ! same class ( pr$iction z t ( ! discov]y ( ,neptune4 ,:]e91 !n1 lies ! diff]5ce8 ,h[ comes x t "s classes ( pr$iction--su* z t if y put y\r f+] 9 fire x w get burnt--are *ildi%ly easy & commonplace1 :ile o!rs excite 9 ! ke5e/ intellects ! highe/ feel+s ( admiration8 ,ma9ly1 ! diff]5ce lies1 fir/1 9 ! gr\nds on :i* ! pr$iction is bas$2 second1 on ! difficulty ( ! inve/igation :]eby x is accompli%$2 ?ird1 9 ! complet5ess & ! accuracy ) :i* x c be v]ifi$4 ,9 all ^! po9ts1 ! discov]y ( ,neptune /&s out pre-em95tly among ! v]ifi$ pr$ictions ( sci5ce1 & ! circum/ances surr\nd+ x are ( s+ul> int]e/4 99 99 99 99 99 ,9 #agha1 ,sir ,william ,h]s*el discov]$ ! planet ,uranus4 ,n[ y "k t ?ree di/9ct obs]vations suffice to det]m9e ! orbit ( a planet completely1 & t x is well to h ! ?ree obs]vations z f> ap>t z possible s z to m9imize ! effects ( m9ute b necess>y errors ( obs]vation4 7,see p4 #bih47 ,directly ,uranus 0 f\nd1 !re=e1 old records ( /ell> obs]vations 7 ransack$1 ) ! object ( discov]+ :e!r x _h ev] be5 unwitt+ly se5 be=e4 ,if se51 x _h be5 ?\ght ( c\rse to be a /> 7= x %9es l a /> ( ! six? magnitude1 & c !re=e be j se5 )\t a telescope if "o kn[s precisely :]e to look = x1 & if "o has good sight71 b if x _h be5 se5 & catalogu$ z a /> x w\ld h mov$ f its place1 & ! catalogue w\ld by t entry be wrong4 ,! ?+ to detect1 !re=e1 0 errors 9 ! catalogues3 to exam9e all entries1 & see if ! />s ent]$ actually exi/$1 or 7 any ( !m miss+4 ,if a wrong entry 7 discov]$1 x might ( c\rse h be5 due to "s cl]ical error1 ?\gh t is h>dly probable consid]+ ! c>e tak5 ov] ^! ?+s1 or x might h be5 "s tailless comet or o!r1 or x might h be5 ! newly f\nd planet4 ,s ! next ?+ 0 to calculate backw>ds1 & see if by any possibility ! planet c\ld h be5 9 t place at t "t4 ,exam9$ 9 ?is way ! tabulat$ obs]vations ( ,flam/e$ %[$ t he _h unwitt+ly obs]v$ ,uranus five di/9ct times1 ! fir/ "t 9 #afij1 ne>ly a c5tury be=e ,h]s*el discov]$ its true nature4 ,b m rem>kable /ill1 ,le ,monni]1 ( ,p>is1 _h obs]v$ x eight times 9 "o mon?1 catalogu+ x ea* "t z a diff]5t />4 ,if only he _h r$uc$ & comp>$ 8 obs]vations1 he w\ld h anticipat$ ,h]s*el by twelve ye>s4 ,z x 01 he miss$ x altoge!r4 ,x 0 se5 once by ,bradley also4 ,altoge!r x _h be5 se5 tw5ty times4 ,^! old obs]vations ( ,flam/e$ & ^? ( ,le ,monni]1 comb9$ ) ^? made aft] ,h]s*el's discov]y1 7 v useful 9 det]m9+ an exact orbit = ! new planet1 & its motion 0 consid]$ ?or\ghly kn[n4 ,x 0 n an exact ellipse1 ( c\rse3 none ( ! planets describe exact ellipses--ea* p]turbs all ! re/1 & ^! small p]turbations mu/ be tak5 into acc\nt1 ^? ( ,jupit] & ,saturn be+ by f> ! mo/ important4 ,= a "t ,uranus seem$ to travel regul>ly & z expect$1 9 ! orbit :i* _h be5 calculat$ = x2 b e>ly 9 ! pres5t c5tury x began to be slightly refractory1 & by #ahbj its actual place %[$ q a di/9ct discrepancy f its position z calculat$ ) ! aid ( ! old obs]vations4 ,x 0 at fir/ ?\ght t ?is discrepancy mu/ be due to inaccuracies 9 ! old] obs]vations1 & !y 7 accord+ly reject$1 & tables prep>$ = ! planet bas$ on ! new] & m accurate obs]vations only4 ,b by #ahcj x became app>5t t x w\ld n accurately obey ev5 ^!4 ,! error am\nt$ to "s #bj4 ,by #ahdj x 0 z mu* z #ij'1 or a m9ute & a half4 ,?is discrepancy is q di/9ct1 b /ill x is v small1 & _h two objects be5 9 ! heav5s at once1 ! actual ,uranus & ! !oretical ,uranus1 no unaid$ eye c\ld possibly h di/+ui%$ !m or detect$ t !y 7 o!r ?an a s+le />4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ic4--,p]turbations ( ,uranus4 ,! *ance obs]vations by ,flam/e$1 by ,le ,monni]1 & o!rs1 are plott$ 9 ?is diagram1 z well z ! mod]n det]m9ations made aft] ,h]s*el _h discov]$ ! nature ( ! planet4 ,! decades are laid (f horizontally4 ,v]tical di/ance repres5ts ! diff]5ce betwe5 obs]v$ & subsequ5tly calculat$ longitudes--9 o!r words1 ! pr9cipal p]turbations caus$ by ,neptune4 ,to %[ ! scale1 a numb] ( /&>d ?+s are repres5t$ too by l5g?s measur$ upw>ds f ! l9e ( "t1 viz3 ! smalle/ quantity p]ceptible to ! nak$ eye1--! maximum angle ( ab]ration1 ( nutation1 & ( /ell> p>allax2 ?\gh ?is la/ is too small to be prop]ly indicat$4 ,! p]turbations are mu* bigg] ?an ^!2 b comp>$ ) :at c be se5 )\t a telescope !y are small--! di/ance betwe5 ! compon5t pairs ( epsilon ,lyr 7#baj7 7see fig4 #hf1 page #bhh71 :i* a few ke5-ey$ p]sons c see z a simple d\ble />1 be+ ab\t twice ! greate/ p]turbation4 ,! diagram %[s all ! irregul>ities plott$ 9 ! light ( our pres5t k2 &1 to comp>e ) _! am\nts1 a few /&>d ?+s are plac$ on ! same scale1 su* z ! smalle/ int]val capable ( be+ detect$ ) ! unaid$ eye1 ! di/ance ( ! compon5t />s 9 epsilon ,lyr1 ! con/ants ( ab]ration1 ( nutation1 & ( /ell> p>allax4 ,! errors ( ,uranus !re=e1 ?\gh small1 7 enorm\sly great] ?an ?+s :i* _h c]ta9ly be5 obs]v$2 !re 0 an unmi/akable discrepancy betwe5 !ory & obs]vation4 ,"s cause 0 evid5tly at "w on ?is di/ant planet1 caus+ x to disagree ) its motion z calculat$ accord+ to ! law ( gravitation4 ,"s ?\ght t ! exact law ( gravitation did n apply to s di/ant a body4 ,o!rs surmis$ ! pres5ce ( "s =eign & unkn[n body1 "s comet1 or "s /ill m di/ant planet p]haps1 ^: gravitative attraction = ,uranus 0 ! cause ( ! :ole difficulty--"s p]turbations1 9 fact1 :i* _h n be5 tak5 into acc\nt because ( our ignorance ( ! exi/5ce ( ! body :i* caus$ !m4 ,b ?\gh su* an idea 0 m5tion$ among a/ronom]s1 x 0 n reg>d$ ) any special fav\r1 & 0 consid]$ m]ely z "o among a numb] ( hypo!ses :i* c\ld be sugge/$ z fairly probable4 ,x is p]fectly "r n to atta* mu* importance to unelaborat$ guesses4 ,n until ! consequ5ces ( an hypo!sis h be5 labori\sly work$ out--n until x c be %[n capable ( produc+ ! effect quantitatively z well z qualitatively--does its /atem5t rise above ! level ( a guess1 & atta9 ! dignity ( a !ory4 ,a lat] /age /ill occurs :5 ! !ory has be5 actually & completely v]ifi$ by agreem5t ) obs]vation4 ,n[ ! errors 9 ! motion ( ,uranus1 i4e4 ! discrepancy betwe5 its obs]v$ & calculat$ longitudes--all kn[n di/urb+ causes1 su* z ,jupit] & ,saturn1 be+ all[$ =--are z foll[s 7z quot$ by ,dr4 ,haughton7 9 seconds ( arc3-- ,,anci5t ,,obs]vations 7casually made1 z ( a />74 ,flam/e$ #afij #fab #agab #ibg #agae #gch ,le ,monni] #agej -#dgf ,bradley #agec -#cie ,may] #agef -#deg ,le ,monni] #agfd -#cdi #agfi -#aic #agga -#bc ,,mod]n ,,obs]vations4 #aghj #cdf #aghc #hde #aghf #abcf #aghi #aijb #ahja #bbba #ahaj #bcaf #ahbb #bjig #ahbe #ahaf #ahbh #ajhb #ahca -#cih #ahcd -#bjhj #ahcg -#dbff #ahdj -#fffd ,^! are ! numb]s plott$ 9 ! above diagram 7,fig4 #ib71 :]e ,h m>ks ! discov]y ( ! planet & ! beg9n+ ( its regul> obs]vation4 ,some?+ 0 evid5tly ! matt] ) ! planet4 ,if ! law ( gravitation held exactly at s great a di/ance f ! sun1 !re mu/ be "s p]turb+ =ce act+ on x besides all ^? kn[n ones :i* _h be5 fully tak5 into acc\nt4 ,c\ld x be an out] planet8 ,! "q occurr$ to sev]al1 & "o or two tri$ if !y c\ld solve ! problem1 b 7 soon /opp$ by ! trem5d\s difficulties ( calculation4 ,! ord9>y problem ( p]turbation is difficult en\gh3 ,giv5 a di/urb+ planet 9 su* & su* a position1 to f9d ! p]turbations x produces4 ,?is problem x 0 t ,laplace work$ out 9 ! ,mcanique ,cle/e4 ,b ! inv]se problem3 ,giv5 ! p]turbations1 to f9d ! planet :i* causes !m--su* a problem _h nev] yet be5 attack$1 & by only a few _h its possibility be5 conceiv$4 ,bessel made prep>ations = try+ :at he c\ld d at x 9 #ahdj1 b he 0 prev5t$ by fatal illness4 ,9 #ahda ! difficulties ( ! problem pres5t$ by ^! residual p]turbations ( ,uranus excit$ ! imag9ation ( a "y /ud5t1 an und]graduate ( ,/4 ,john's ,college1 ,cambridge--,john ,c\* ,adams by "n--& he det]m9$ to h a try at x z soon z he 0 ?r\gh 8 ,tripos4 ,9 ,janu>y1 #ahdc1 he graduat$ z ,s5ior ,wrangl]1 & %ortly aft]w>ds he set to "w4 ,9 less ?an two ye>s he rea*$ a def9ite conclusion2 & 9 ,octob]1 #ahde1 he wrote to ! ,a/ronom]-,royal1 at ,gre5wi*1 ,pr(essor ,airy1 say+ t ! p]turbations ( ,uranus w\ld be expla9$ by assum+ ! exi/5ce ( an out] planet1 :i* he reckon$ 0 n[ situat$ 9 a specifi$ latitude & longitude4 ,we "k n[ t _h ! ,a/ronom]-,royal put suffici5t fai? 9 ?is result to po9t 8 big telescope to ! spot indicat$ & comm5ce sweep+ = a planet1 he w\ld h detect$ x )9 #a-c_/d ( ! place assign$ to x by ,mr4 ,adams4 ,b any "o 9 ! position ( ! ,a/ronom]-,royal kn[s t almo/ e po/ br+s an absurd lett] f "s ambiti\s correspond5t or o!r1 "s ( !m hav+ j discov]$ p]petual motion1 or squ>$ ! circle1 or prov$ ! e>? flat1 or discov]$ ! con/itution ( ! moon1 or ( e!r1 or ( electricity2 & out ( ?is mass ( rubbi% x requires great skill & pati5ce to detect su* gems ( value z !re may be4 ,n[ ?is lett] ( ,mr4 ,adams's 0 inde$ a jewel ( ! fir/ wat]1 & no d\bt bore on its face a v diff]5t appe>ance f ! *aff ( :i* ,i h spok52 b /ill ,mr4 ,adams 0 an unkn[n man3 he _h graduat$ z ,s5ior ,wrangl] x is true1 b somebody mu/ graduate z ,s5ior ,wrangl] e ye>1 & e ye> by no means produces a fir/-rate ma!matician4 ,^? beh9d ! sc5es1 z ,pr(essor ,airy ( c\rse 01 hav+ be5 a ,s5ior ,wrangl] himself1 knew p]fectly well t ! labell+ ( a "y man on tak+ 8 degree is mu* m wor?less z a te/imony to 8 g5ius & ability ?an ! g5]al public are apt to suppose4 ,0 x likely t a "y & unkn[n man %\ld h successfully solv$ s extremely difficult a problem8 ,x 0 altoge!r unlikely4 ,/ill1 he w\ld te/ him3 he w\ld ask = fur!r explanations conc]n+ "s ( ! p]turbations :i* he himself _h specially notic$1 & see if ,mr4 ,adams c\ld expla9 ^! also by 8 hypo!sis4 ,if he c\ld1 !re might be some?+ 9 8 !ory4 ,if he fail$--well1 !re 0 an end ( x4 ,! que/ions 7 n difficult4 ,!y conc]n$ ! error ( ! radius vector4 ,mr4 ,adams c\ld h answ]$ !m ) p]fect ease2 b sad to say1 ?\gh a brilliant ma!matician1 he 0 n a man ( bus9ess4 ,he did n answ] ,pr(essor ,airy's lett]4 ,x may to _m seem a pity t ! ,gre5wi* ,equatoreal 0 n po9t$ to ! place1 j to see :e!r any =eign object did happ5 to be 9 t neighb\rhood2 b x is no light matt] to d]ange ! "w ( an ,obs]vatory1 & alt] ! "w mapp$ out = ! /aff into a sudd5 sweep = a new planet1 on ! /r5g? ( a ma!matical inve/igation j receiv$ by po/4 ,if obs]vatories 7 conduct$ on ^! unsy/ematic & spasmodic pr9ciples1 !y w\ld n be ! calm1 accurate1 satisfactory places !y are4 ,( c\rse1 if any "o c\ld h kn[n t a new planet 0 to be _h = ! look+1 any c\rse w\ld h be5 ju/ifi$2 b no "o c\ld "k ?is4 ,i d n suppose t ,mr4 ,adams himself c\ld feel all t confid5ce 9 8 attempt$ pr$iction4 ,s !re ! matt] dropp$4 ,mr4 ,adams's communication 0 pigeon-hol$1 & rema9$ 9 seclusion = eight or n9e mon?s4 ,mean:ile1 & q indep5d5tly1 some?+ ( ! same sort 0 go+ on 9 ,france4 ,a brilliant "y ma!matician1 born 9 ,norm&y 9 #ahaa1 _h accept$ ! po/ ( ,a/ronomical ,pr(essor at ! cole ,polyte*nique1 !n rec5tly f\nd$ by ,napoleon4 ,8 fir/ publi%$ pap]s direct$ att5tion to 8 wond]ful p[]s2 & ! (ficial head ( a/ronomy 9 ,france1 ! fam\s ,arago1 sugge/$ to him ! unexpla9$ p]turbations ( ,uranus z a wor?y object = 8 fre% & well-arm$ vig\r4 ,at once he set to "w 9 a ?or\gh & sy/ematic way4 ,he fir/ consid]$ :e!r ! discrepancies c\ld be due to errors 9 ! tables or errors 9 ! old obs]vations4 ,he discuss$ !m ) m9ute c>e1 & came to ! conclusion t !y 7 n ?us to be expla9$ away4 ,?is "p ( ! "w he publi%$ 9 ,novemb]1 #ahde4 ,he !n set to "w to consid] ! p]turbations produc$ by ,jupit] & ,saturn1 to see if !y _h be5 ) p]fect accuracy all[$ =1 or :e!r "s m9ute improvem5ts c\ld be made suffici5t to de/roy ! irregul>ities4 ,he introduc$ sev]al fre% t]ms into ^! p]turbations1 b none ( !m ( suffici5t magnitude to d m ?an slightly less5 ! unexpla9$ p]turbations4 ,he next exam9$ ! v>i\s hypo!ses t _h be5 sugge/$ to acc\nt = !m3--,0 x a failure 9 ! law ( gravitation8 ,0 x due to ! pres5ce ( a resi/+ m$ium8 ,0 x due to "s unse5 b l>ge satellite8 ,or 0 x due to a collision ) "s comet8 ,all ^! he exam9$ & dismiss$ = v>i\s reasons "o aft] ! o!r4 ,x 0 due to "s /eady cont9u\s cause--= in/ance1 "s unkn[n planet4 ,c\ld ?is planet be inside ! orbit ( ,uranus8 ,no1 = !n x w\ld p]turb ,saturn & ,jupit] also1 & !y 7 n p]turb$ by x4 ,x mu/1 !re=e1 be "s planet outside ! orbit ( ,uranus1 & 9 all probability1 accord+ to ,bode's empirical law1 at ne>ly d\ble ! di/ance f ! sun t ,uranus is4 ,la/ly he proce$$ to exam9e :]e ?is planet 01 & :at its orbit mu/ be to produce ! obs]v$ di/urbances4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #id4--,uranus's & ,neptune's relative positions4 ,! above diagram1 drawn to scale by ,dr4 ,haughton1 %[s ! pa?s ( ,uranus & ,neptune1 & _! positions f #agha to #ahdj1 & illu/rates ! direction ( _! mutual p]turb+ =ce4 ,9 #ahbb ! planets 7 9 conjunction1 & ! =ce w\ld !n p]turb ! radius vector 7or di/ance f ! sun71 b n ! longitude 7or place 9 orbit74 ,be=e t date ,uranus _h be5 hurri$ along1 & aft] t date x _h be5 ret>d$1 by ! pull ( ,neptune1 & ?us ! obs]v$ discrepancies f its comput$ place 7 produc$4 ,! problem 0 fir/ to dis5tangle ! out/&+ p]turbations f ^? :i* w\ld be caus$ by ,jupit] & ,saturn & all o!r kn[n causes1 & !n to assign ! place ( an out] planet able to produce precisely ^? p]turbations 9 ,uranus4 ,n )\t failures & di%e>t5+ complications 0 ?is "p ( ! process complet$4 ,?is 01 aft] all1 ! real tug ( w>4 ,s _m unkn[n quantities3 its mass1 its di/ance1 its exc5tricity1 ! obliquity ( its orbit1 its position at any "t--no?+ kn[n1 9 fact1 ab\t ! planet except ! microscopic di/urbance x caus$ 9 ,uranus1 "s ?\s& million miles away f x4 ,)\t go+ into fur!r detail1 suffice x to say t 9 ,june1 #ahdf1 he publi%$ 8 la/ pap]1 & 9 x ann\nc$ to ! _w 8 !oretical position = ! planet4 ,pr(essor ,airy receiv$ a copy ( ?is pap] be=e ! end ( ! mon?1 & 0 a/oni%$ to f9d t ,lev]ri]'s !oretical place = ! planet 0 )9 #a ( ! place ,mr4 ,adams _h assign$ to x eight mon?s be=e4 ,s /rik+ a co9cid5ce seem$ suffici5t to ju/ify a ,h]s*elian sweep = a week or two4 ,b a sweep = s di/ant a planet w\ld be no easy matt]4 ,:5 se5 9 a l>ge telescope x w\ld /ill only look l a />1 & x w\ld require consid]able lab\r & wat*+ to sift x out f ! o!r />s surr\nd+ x4 ,we "k t ,uranus _h be5 se5 tw5ty times1 & ?\ght to be a />1 be=e its true nature 0 by ,h]s*el discov]$2 & ,uranus is only ab\t half z f> away z ,neptune is4 ,nei!r 9 ,p>is nor yet at ,gre5wi* 0 any optical se>* und]tak52 b ,pr(essor ,airy wrote to ask ,m4 ,lev]ri] ! same old "q z he _h fruitlessly put to ,mr4 ,adams3 ,did ! new !ory expla9 ! errors ( ! radius vector or n8 ,! reply ( ,lev]ri] 0 bo? prompt & satisfactory--^! errors 7 expla9$1 z well z all ! o!rs4 ,! exi/5ce ( ! object 0 !n = ! fir/ "t (ficially believ$ 94 ,! ,briti% ,association met t ye> at ,s\?ampton1 & ,sir ,john ,h]s*el 0 "o ( its ,sectional ,presid5ts4 ,9 8 inaugural address1 on ,septemb] #aj?1 #ahdf1 he call$ att5tion to ! rese>*es ( ,lev]ri] & ,adams 9 ^! memorable words3-- ,! pa/ ye> has giv5 to u ! new m9or planet ,a/ra2 x has done m--x has giv5 u ! probable prospect ( ano!r4 ,we see x z ,columbus saw ,am]ica f ! %ores ( ,spa94 ,its movem5ts h be5 felt trembl+ along ! f>-rea*+ l9e ( our analysis ) a c]ta9ty h>dly inf]ior to ocul> demon/ration4 ,x 0 ab\t "t to beg9 to look = x4 ,s ! ,a/ronom]-,royal ?\ght on read+ ,lev]ri]'s pap]4 ,b z ! national telescope at ,gre5wi* 0 o!rwise occupi$1 he wrote to ,pr(essor ,*allis1 at ,cambridge1 to "k if he w\ld p]mit a se>* to be made = x ) ! ,nor?umb]l& ,equatoreal1 ! l>ge telescope ( ,cambridge ,univ]sity1 pres5t$ to x by "o ( ! ,dukes ( ,nor?umb]l&4 ,pr(essor ,*allis said he w\ld conduct ! se>* himself2 & %ortly comm5c$ a leisurely & dignifi$ s]ies ( sweeps r\nd ab\t ! place assign$ by !ory1 catalogu+ all ! />s :i* he obs]v$1 int5d+ aft]w>ds to sort out 8 obs]vations1 comp>e "o ) ano!r1 & f9d out :e!r any "o /> _h *ang$ its position2 because if x _h x mu/ be ! planet4 ,he ?us1 )\t giv+ an excessive "t to ! bus9ess1 accumulat$ a ho/ ( obs]vations1 :i* he int5d$ aft]w>ds to r$uce & sift at 8 leisure4 ,! wret*$ man ?us actually saw ! planet twice--on ,augu/ #d? & ,augu/ #ab?1 #ahdf--)\t kn[+ x4 ,if only he _h _h a map ( ! heav5s conta9+ telescopic />s d[n to ! t5? magnitude1 & if he _h comp>$ 8 obs]vations ) ?is map z !y 7 made1 ! process w\ld h be5 easy1 & ! discov]y quick4 ,b he _h no su* map4 ,nev]!less "o 0 9 exi/5ce3 x _h j be5 complet$ 9 t c\ntry ( enlight5$ me?od & indu/ry--,g]many4 ,dr4 ,bremik] _h n1 inde$1 complet$ 8 great "w--a *>t ( ! :ole zodiac d[n to />s ( ! t5? magnitude--b portions ( x 7 complet$1 & ! special region :]e ! new planet 0 expect$ happ5$ to be among ! portions already j done4 ,b 9 ,engl& ?is 0 n kn[n4 ,mean:ile1 ,mr4 ,adams wrote to ! ,a/ronom]-,royal sev]al additional communications1 mak+ improvem5ts 9 8 !ory1 & giv+ :at he consid]$ ne>] & ne>] approximations = ! place ( ! planet4 ,he also n[ answ]$ q satisfactorily1 b too late1 ! "q ab\t ! radius vector s5t to him mon?s be=e4 ,let u return to ,lev]ri]4 ,?is great man 0 likewise engag$ 9 improv+ 8 !ory & 9 consid]+ h[ be/ ! optical se>* c\ld be conduct$4 ,actuat$1 probably1 by ! k t 9 su* matt]s z catalogu+ & mapp+ ,g]many 0 !n1 z n[1 f> ahead ( all ! o!r nations ( ! _w1 he wrote 9 ,septemb] 7! same ,septemb] z ,sir ,john ,h]s*el deliv]$ 8 eloqu5t address at ,s\?ampton7 to ,b]l94 ,lev]ri] wrote1 ,i say1 to ,dr4 ,galle1 head ( ! ,obs]vatory at ,b]l91 say+ to him1 cle>ly & decid$ly1 t ! new planet 0 n[ 9 or close to su* & su* a position1 & t if he w\ld po9t 8 telescope to t "p ( ! heav5s he w\ld see x2 &1 moreov]1 t he w\ld be able to tell x f a /> by its hav+ a s5sible magnitude1 or disk1 in/ead ( be+ a m]e po9t4 ,galle got ! lett] on ! #bcrd ( ,septemb]1 #ahdf4 ,t same ev5+ he did po9t 8 telescope to ! place ,lev]ri] told him1 & he saw ! planet t v night4 ,he recogniz$ x fir/ by its appe>ance4 ,to 8 practis$ eye x did seem to h a small disk1 & n q ! same aspect z an ord9>y />4 ,he !n consult$ ,bremik]'s great /> *>t1 ! "p j engrav$ & f9i%$1 & sure en\gh on t *>t !re 0 no su* /> !re4 ,und\bt$ly x 0 ! planet4 ,! news fla%$ ov] ,europe at ! maximum spe$ ) :i* news c\ld travel at t date 7:i* 0 n v fa/72 & by ! #a/ ( ,octob] ,pr(essor ,*allis & ,mr4 ,adams he>d x at ,cambridge1 & _h ! pleasure ( kn[+ t !y 7 =e/all$1 & t ,engl& 0 out ( ! race4 ,x 0 an unconsci\s race to all conc]n$1 h[ev]4 ,^? 9 ,france knew no?+ ( ! se>* go+ on 9 ,engl&4 ,mr4 ,adams's pap]s _h nev] be5 publi%$2 & v annoy$ ! ,fr5* 7 :5 a claim 0 set up on 8 behalf to a %>e 9 ?is magnific5t discov]y4 ,controv]sies & recrim9ations1 excuses & ju/ifications1 foll[$2 b ! discussion has n[ settl$ d[n4 ,all ! _w hon\rs ! bright g5ius & ma!matical skill ( ,mr4 ,adams1 & recognizes t he fir/ solv$ ! problem by calculation4 ,all ! _w1 too1 p]ceives cle>ly ! no less em95t ma!matical tal5ts ( ,m4 ,lev]ri]1 b x recognizes 9 him some?+ m ?an ! m]e ma!matician--! man ( en]gy1 decision1 & "*4 ,,lecture ,,xvi ,,comets ,,& ,,meteors ,we h n[ consid]$ ! sol> sy/em 9 sev]al aspects1 & we h pass$ 9 review some?+ ( :at is kn[n ab\t ! />s4 ,we h se5 h[ ea* /> is itself1 9 all probability1 ! c5tre ( ano!r & di/9ct sol> sy/em1 ! con/itu5ts ( :i* are too d>k & f> (f to be visible to u2 no?+ visible "h b ! c5tral sun alone1 & t only z a tw9kl+ speck4 ,b betwe5 our sol> sy/em & ^! o!r suns--betwe5 ea* ( ^! suns & all ! re/--!re exi/ va/ empty spaces1 app>5tly devoid ( matt]4 ,we h n[ to ask1 ,are ^! spaces really empty8 ,is !re really no?+ 9 space b ! nebul1 ! suns1 _! planets1 & _! satellites8 ,are all ! bodies 9 space ( ?is gigantic size8 ,may !re n be an inf9itude ( small bodies z well8 ,! answ] to ?is "q is 9 ! affirmative4 ,!re appe>s to be no special size suit$ to ! va/ness ( space2 we f9d1 z a matt] ( fact1 bodies ( all mann] ( sizes1 rang+ by gradations f ! mo/ trem5d\s suns1 l ,sirius1 d[n ?r\gh ord9>y suns to small] ones1 !n to planets ( all sizes1 satellites /ill small]1 !n ! a/]oids1 till we come to ! smalle/ satellite ( ,m>s1 only ab\t t5 miles 9 diamet]1 & weigh+ only "s billion tons--! smalle/ ( ! regul> bodies belong+ to ! sol> sy/em kn[n4 ,b1 besides all ^!1 !re are f\nd to occur o!r masses1 n mu* bigg] & "s probably small]1 & ^! we call comets :5 we see !m4 ,bel[ ^!1 aga91 we f9d masses v>y+ f a few tons 9 weight d[n to only a few p\nds or ounces1 & ^! :5 we see !m1 :i* is n (t51 we call meteors or %oot+-/>s2 & to ! size ( ^! meteorites !re w\ld appe> to be no limit3 "s may be lit]al gra9s ( du/4 ,!re seems to be a regul> gradation ( size1 !re=e1 rang+ f ,sirius to du/2 & app>5tly we mu/ reg>d all space z full ( ^! cosmic p>ticles--/ray fragm5ts1 z x 71 p]haps ( "s old] _w1 p]haps go+ to help to =m a new "o "s day4 ,z ,kepl] said1 !re are m comets 9 ! sky ?an fi% 9 ! sea4 ,n t !y are at all cr[d$ toge!r1 else !y w\ld make a cosmic haze4 ,! transp>5cy ( space %[s t !re mu/ be an enorm\s proportion ( cle> space betwe5 ea*1 & !y are probably mu* m conc5trat$ ne> "o ( ! big bodies ?an !y are 9 int]/ell> space4#cj ,ev5 dur+ ! furi\s hail ( meteors 9 ,novemb] #ahff x 0 e/imat$ t _! av]age di/ance ap>t 9 ! ?icke/ ( ! %[] 0 #ce miles4 ,consid] ! nature ( a meteor or %oot+-/>4 ,we ord9>ily see !m z a m]e /reak ( light2 sometimes !y leave a lum9\s tail beh9d !m2 occasionally !y appe> z an actual fire-ball1 accompani$ by an explosion2 sometimes1 b v seldom1 !y are se5 to drop1 & may subsequ5tly be dug up z a lump ( iron or rock1 %[+ signs ( r\gh treatm5t by excoriation & heat4 ,^! la/ are ! meteorites1 or sid]ites1 or arolites1 or bolides1 ( our museums4 ,!y are popul>ly spok5 ( z ?und]bolts1 ?\gh !y h no?+ :atev] to d ) atmosph]ic electricity4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ie4--,meteorite4 ,!y appe> to be travell+ rocky or metallic fragm5ts :i* 9 _! j\rney ?r\gh space are caught 9 ! e>?'s atmosph]e & in/antane\sly ignit$ by ! friction4 ,f> away 9 ! dep?s ( space "o ( ^! bodies felt ! attract+ p[] ( ! sun1 & began mov+ t[>ds him4 ,z x approa*$1 its spe$ grew gradually quick] & quick] cont9ually1 until by ! "t x has approa*$ to )9 ! di/ance ( ! e>?1 x :izzes pa/ ) ! velocity ( tw5ty-six miles a second4 ,! e>? is mov+ on its own acc\nt n9ete5 miles e second4 ,if ! two bodies happ5$ to be mov+ 9 opposite directions1 ! comb9$ spe$ w\ld be t]rific2 & ! fa9te/ trace ( atmosph]e1 miles above ! e>?'s surface1 w\ld ex]t a furi\s gr9d+ action on ! /one4 ,a /ream ( p>ticles w\ld be torn (f2 if ( iron1 !y w\ld burn l a %[] ( fil+s f a firework1 ?us =m+ a trail2 & ! mass itself w\ld be dissipat$1 %att]$ to fragm5ts 9 an in/ant4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #if4--,meteor /ream cross+ field ( telescope4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ig4--;,diagram ( direction ( e>?'s orbital motion1 %[+ t aft] midnight1 i4e4 betwe5 midnight & noon1 m a/]oids are likely to be swept up by any locality ?an betwe5 noon & midnight4 ,f ,sir ,r4,s4 ,ball4 ,ev5 if ! e>? 7 mov+ lat]ally1 ! same ?+ w\ld occur4 ,b if e>? & /one happ5$ to be mov+ 9 ! same direction1 !re w\ld be only ! diff]5tial velocity ( sev5 miles a second2 & ?\gh ?is is 9 all consci5ce great en\gh1 yet !re might be a *ance = a residue ( ! nucleus to escape entire de/ruction1 ?\gh x w\ld be scrap$1 heat$1 & sup]ficially molt5 by ! friction2 b s mu* ( its spe$ w\ld be rubb$ out ( x1 t on /rik+ ! e>? x might bury itself only a few feet or y>ds 9 ! soil1 s t x c\ld be dug out4 ,! numb] ( ^? :i* ?us rea* ! e>? is comp>atively inf9itesimal4 ,ne>ly all get gr\nd up & dissipat$ by ! atmosph]e2 & =tunate x is = u t !y are s4 ,?is bomb>dm5t ( ! expos$ face ( ! moon mu/ be some?+ t]rible4#ca ,?us1 !n1 e %oot+-/> we see1 & all ! myriads t we d n & _c see because !y occur 9 ! day-"t1 all ^! bright fla%es or /reaks1 repres5t ! dea? & burial ( "o ( ^! fly+ /ones4 ,x _h be5 c>e]+ on its own acc\nt ?r\gh space = untold ages1 till x meets a planet4 ,x _c /rike ! actual body ( ! planet--! atmosph]e is a suffici5t scre52 ! trem5d\s friction r$uces x to du/ 9 an in/ant1 & ?is du/ !n quietly & leisurely settles d[n on to ! surface4 ,evid5ce ( ! settlem5t ( meteoric du/ is n easy to obta9 9 su* a place z ,engl&1 :]e ! du/ :i* accumulates is seldom ( a cele/ial "*2 b on ! sn[-fields ( ,gre5l& or ! ,himalayas du/ c be f\nd2 & by a ,committee ( ! ,briti% ,association di/9ct evid5ce ( molt5 globules ( iron & o!r mat]ials appropriate to arolites has be5 obta9$1 by ! simple process ( collect+1 melt+1 & filt]+ long expos$ sn[4 ,volcanic a% may be m+l$ ) x1 b "u ! microscope ! volcanic & ! meteoric con/itu5ts h ea* a di/9ctive "*4 ,! quantity ( meteoric mat]ial :i* rea*es ! e>? z du/ mu/ be imm5sely 9 excess ( ! m9ute quantity :i* arrives 9 ! =m ( lumps4 ,hundr$s or ?\s&s ( tons p] annum mu/ be receiv$2 & ! accretion mu/1 "o w\ld ?9k1 9 ! c\rse ( ages be able to ex]t "s influ5ce on ! p]iod ( ! e>?'s rotation--! l5g? ( ! day4 ,x is too small1 h[ev]1 to h be5 yet c]ta9ly detect$4 ,possibly1 x is altoge!r negligible4 ,x has be5 sugge/$ t ^? /ones :i* actually fall are n ! true cosmic w&]]s1 b are m]ely fragm5ts ( our own e>?1 ca/ up by p[]ful volcanoes long ago :5 ! igne\s p[] ( ! e>? 0 m vigor\s ?an n[--ca/ up ) a spe$ ( close ^u sev5 miles a second2 & n[ 9 ^! quiet times gradually be+ swept up by ! e>?1 & s return+ :5ce !y came4 ,i confess ,i am unable to draw a cle> di/9ction betwe5 "o set & ! o!r4 ,"s fall+ />s may h _h an orig9 ( ?is sort1 b c]ta9ly o!rs h n2 & x w\ld seem v unlikely t "o set only %\ld fall bodily ^u ! e>?1 :ile ! o!rs %\ld always be rubb$ to p[d]4 ,/ill1 x is a possibility to be borne 9 m9d4 ,we h spok5 ( ^! cosmic visitors z w&]+ masses ( /one or iron2 b we %\ld be wrong if we associat$ ) ! t]m w&]+ any ideas ( lawlessness & irregul>ity ( pa?4 ,^! small lumps ( matt] are z ob$i5t to ! law ( gravity z any l>ge ones c be4 ,!y mu/ all1 !re=e1 h def9ite orbits1 & ^! orbits w h ref]5ce to ! ma9 attract+ p[] ( our sy/em--!y w1 9 fact1 be ne>ly all c>e]+ r\nd ! sun4 ,ea* planet may1 9 tru?1 h a c]ta9 foll[+ ( its own4 ,)9 ! limit$ sph]e ( ! e>?'s pr$om9ant attraction1 = in/ance1 ext5d+ "s way beyond ! moon1 we may h a numb] ( satellites t we nev] see1 all revolv+ regul>ly 9 elliptic orbits r\nd ! e>?4 ,b1 comp>atively speak+1 ^! satellite meteorites are few4 ,! great bulk ( !m w be ( a planet>y "*--!y w be att5dant ^u ! sun4 ,x may seem /range t su* m9ute bodies %\ld h regul> orbits & obey ,kepl]'s laws1 b !y mu/4 ,all ?ree laws mu/ be z rigor\sly obey$ by !m z by ! planets !mselves4 ,!re is no?+ 9 ! smallness ( a p>ticle to excuse x f implicit ob$i5ce to law4 ,! only consequ5ce ( _! smallness is _! inability to p]turb o!rs4 ,!y _c appreciably p]turb ei!r ! planets !y approa* or ea* o!r4 ,! attract+ p[] ( a lump "o million tons 9 weight is v m9ute4 ,a p\nd1 on ! surface ( su* a body ( ! same d5sity z ! e>?1 w\ld be only pull$ to x ) a =ce equal to t ) :i* ! e>? pulls a gra94 ,s ! p]turb+ p[] ( su* a mass on di/ant bodies is imp]ceptible4 ,x is a good ?+ x is s3 accurate a/ronomy w\ld be impossible if we _h to take into acc\nt ! p]turbations caus$ by a cr[d ( invisible bodies4 ,a/ronomy w\ld !n approa* 9 complexity "s ( ! problems ( physics4 ,b ?\gh we may be conv9c$ f ! facts ( gravitation t ^! meteoric /ones1 & all o!r bodies fly+ ?r\gh space ne> our sol> sy/em1 mu/ be con/ra9$ by ! sun to obey ,kepl]'s laws1 & fly r\nd x 9 "s regul> elliptic or hyp]bolic orbit1 :at *ance h we ( det]m9+ t orbit8 ,at fir/ sight1 a v poor *ance1 = we nev] see !m except = ! in/ant :5 !y spla% into our atmosph]e2 & = !m t in/ant is in/ant dea?4 ,x is unlikely t any escape t ordeal1 & ev5 if !y d1 _! c>e] & orbit are effectually *ang$4 ,h5ce=w>d !y mu/ become att5dants on ! e>?4 ,!y may drop on to its surface1 or !y may duck out ( our atmosph]e aga91 & revolve r\nd u unse5 9 ! cle> space betwe5 e>? & moon4 ,nev]!less1 al?\gh ! problem ( det]m9+ ! orig9al orbit ( any giv5 set ( %oot+-/>s be=e x /ruck u w\ld seem ne>ly insoluble1 x has be5 solv$1 & solv$ ) "s approa* to accuracy2 be+ done by ! help ( obs]vations ( c]ta9 o!r bodies4 ,! bodies by ^: help ?is difficult problem has be5 attack$ & resolv$ are comets4 ,:at are comets8 ,i mu/ tell y t ! sci5tific _w is n entirely & completely decid$ on ! /ructure ( comets4 ,!re are _m float+ ideas on ! subject1 & "s c]ta9 k4 ,b ! subject is /ill1 9 _m respects1 an op5 "o1 & ! ideas ,i propose to advocate y w accept = no m ?an !y are wor?1 viz4 z wor?y to be comp>$ ) o!r & diff]5t views4 ,up to ! "t ( ,newton1 ! nature ( comets 0 entirely unkn[n4 ,!y 7 reg>d$ ) sup]/iti\s awe z fi]y port5ts1 & 7 suppos$ to be connect$ ) ! dea? ( "s k+1 or ) "s national cata/rophe4 ,ev5 s late z ! fir/ edition ( ! ,pr9cipia ! problem ( comets 0 unsolv$1 & _! !ory is n giv52 b betwe5 ! fir/ & ! second editions a l>ge comet appe>$1 9 #afhj1 & ,newton speculat$ on its appe>ance & behavi\r4 ,x ru%$ d[n v close to ! sun1 spun half r\nd him v quickly1 & !n rec$$ f him aga94 ,if x 7 a mat]ial sub/ance1 to :i* ! law ( gravitation appli$1 x mu/ be mov+ 9 a conic section ) ! sun 9 "o focus1 & its radius vector mu/ sweep out equal areas 9 equal times4 ,exam9+ ! record ( its positions made at obs]vatories1 he f\nd its obs]v$ pa? q accordant ) !ory2 & ! motion ( comets 0 f t "t und]/ood4 ,up to t "t no "o _h attempt$ to calculate an orbit = a comet4 ,!y _h be5 ?\ght irregul> & lawless bodies4 ,n[ !y 7 recogniz$ z p]fectly ob$i5t to ! law ( gravitation1 & revolv+ r\nd ! sun l ev]y?+ else--z memb]s1 9 fact1 ( our sol> sy/em1 ?\gh n necess>ily p]man5t memb]s4 ,b ! orbit ( a comet is v diff]5t f a planet>y "o4 ,! exc5tricity ( its orbit is enorm\s--9 o!r words1 x is ei!r a v elongat$ ellipse or a p>abola4 ,! comet ( #afhj1 ,newton f\nd to move 9 an orbit s ne>ly a p>abola t ! "t ( describ+ x mu/ be reckon$ 9 hundr$s ( ye>s at ! lea/4 ,x is n[ ?\ght possible t x may n be q a p>abola1 b an ellipse s elongat$ t x w n return till #bbee4 ,until t date arrives1 h[ev]1 unc]ta9ty w prevail z to :e!r x is a p]iodic comet1 or "o ( ^? t only visit our sy/em once4 ,if x be p]iodic1 z suspect$1 x is ! same z appe>$ :5 ,julius ,cs> 0 kill$1 & :i* likewise appe>$ 9 ! ye>s #eca & #aajf ,a4,d4 ,%\ld x appe> 9 #bbee1 our po/]ity w probably reg>d x z a memorial ( ,newton4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ih4--,p>abolic & elliptic orbits4 ,! a b 7visible7 portions are indi/+ui%able4 ,! next comet discuss$ 9 ! light ( ! !ory ( gravitation 0 ! fam\s "o ( ,halley4 ,y "k some?+ ( ! hi/ory ( ?is4 ,its p]iod is #ge-a_/b ye>s4 ,halley saw x 9 #afhb1 & pr$ict$ its return 9 #ageh or #agei--! fir/ comet>y pr$iction4 ,clairaut calculat$ its return "r )9 a mon? 7p4 #bai74 ,x has be5 back once m1 9 #ahce2 & ?is "t its date 0 correctly pr$ict$ )9 ?ree days1 because ,uranus 0 n[ kn[n4 ,x 0 away at its fur!/ po9t 9 #ahgc4 ,x w be back aga9 9 #aiaa4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ii4--,orbit ( ,halley's comet4 ,com+ to rec5t times1 we h ! great comets ( #ahdc & ( #aheh1 ! hi/ory ( nei!r be+ kn[n4 ,q possibly !y arriv$ !n = ! fir/ "t4 ,possibly ! second w appe> aga9 9 #chjh4 ,b besides ^! great comets1 !re are a multitude ( telescopic ones1 :i* d n %[ ^! /rik+ features1 & h no gigantic tail4 ,"s h no tail at all1 o!rs h at be/ a few insignificant /ream]s1 & o!rs %[ a fa9t haze look+ l a microscopic nebula4 ,all ^! comets are ( consid]able ext5t--"s millions ( miles ?ick usually1 & yet />s are cle>ly visible ?r\gh !m4 ,h5ce !y mu/ be matt] ( v small d5sity2 _! tails c be no?+ m d5se ?an a filmy mi/1 b _! nucleus mu/ be some?+ m solid & sub/antial4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ajj4--,v>i\s appe>ances ( ,halley's comet :5 la/ se54 ,i h said t comets arrive f ! dep?s ( space1 ru% t[>ds & r\nd ! sun1 :izz+ pa/ ! e>? ) a spe$ ( tw5ty-six miles a second1 on r\nd ! sun ) a f> great] velocity ?an t1 & !n ru% (f aga94 ,n[1 all ! "t !y are away f ! sun !y are invisible4 ,x is only z !y get ne> him t !y beg9 to exp& & ?r[ (f tails & o!r app5dages4 ,! sun's heat is evid5tly evaporat+ !m1 & driv+ away a cl\d ( mi/ & volatile matt]4 ,?is is :5 !y c be se54 ,! comet is mo/ gorge\s :5 x is ne> ! sun1 & z soon z x gets a reasonable di/ance away f him x is p]fectly invisible4 ,! matt] evaporat$ f ! comet by ! sun's heat does n return--x is lo/ to ! comet2 & h5ce1 aft] a few su* j\rneys1 its volatile matt] gets appreciably dim9i%$1 & s old-e/abli%$ p]iodic comets h no tails to speak (4 ,b ! new visitants1 com+ f ! dep?s ( space = ! fir/ "t--^! h great supplies ( volatile matt]1 & ^! are !y :i* %[ ! mo/ magnific5t tails4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aja4--;,head ( ,donati's comet ( #aheh4 ,! tail ( a comet is always direct$ away f ! sun z if x 7 repell$4 ,to ?is rule !re is no exception4 ,x is sugge/$1 & held z mo/ probable1 t ! tail & sun are simil>ly electrifi$1 & t ! repulsion ( ! tail is electrical repulsion4 ,"s great =ce is obvi\sly at "w to acc\nt = ! enorm\s di/ance to :i* ! tail is %ot 9 a few h\rs4 ,! pressure ( ! sun's light c d some?+1 & is a =ce t mu/ n be ignor$ :5 small p>ticles are be+ dealt )4 7,cf4 ,mod]n ,views ( ,electricity1 #bnd edition1 p4 #cfc47 ,n[ j ?9k :at analogies !re are betwe5 comets & meteors4 ,bo? are bodies travell+ 9 orbits r\nd ! sun1 & bo? are mo/ly invisible1 b bo? become visible to u "u c]ta9 circum/ances4 ,meteors become visible :5 !y plunge into ! extreme limits ( our atmosph]e4 ,comets become visible :5 !y approa* ! sun4 ,is x possible t comets are l>ge meteors :i* dip into ! sol> atmosph]e1 & are ?us r5d]$ conspicu\sly lum9\s8 ,c]ta9ly !y d n dip into ! actual ma9 atmosph]e ( ! sun1 else !y w\ld be utt]ly de/roy$2 b x is possible t ! sun has a fa9t trace ( atmosph]e ext5d+ f> beyond ?is1 & into ?is p]haps ^! meteors dip1 & gl[ ) ! friction4 ,! p>ticles ?r[n (f might be1 also by friction1 electrifi$2 & ! vapor\s tail might be ?us acc\nt$ =4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ajb4--;,halley's ,comet4 ,let u make ?is hypo!sis provisionally--t comets are l>ge meteors1 or a compact sw>m ( meteors1 :i*1 com+ ne> ! sun1 f9d a highly r>efi$ sort ( atmosph]e1 9 :i* !y get heat$ & p>tly vaporiz$1 j z ord9>y meteorites d :5 !y dip into ! atmosph]e ( ! e>?4 ,& let u see :e!r any facts be> out ! analogy & ju/ify ! hypo!sis4 ,i mu/ tell y n[ ! hi/ory ( ?ree bodies1 & y w see t "s intimate connection betwe5 comets & meteors is prov$4 ,! ?ree bodies are kn[n z1 fir/1 ,encke's comet2 second1 ,biela's comet2 ?ird1 ! ,novemb] sw>m ( meteors4 ,encke's comet 7"o ( ^? discov]$ by ,miss ,h]s*el7 is an insignificant-look+ telescopic comet ( small p]iod1 ! orbit ( :i* 0 well kn[n1 & :i* 0 c>efully obs]v$ at ea* reappe>ance aft] ,encke _h calculat$ its orbit4 ,x 0 ! quicke/ ( ! comets1 return+ e #c-a_/b ye>s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ajc4--;,encke's comet4 ,x 0 f\nd1 h[ev]1 t its p]iod 0 n q con/ant2 x kept on gett+ slightly %ort]4 ,! comet1 9 fact1 return$ to ! sun slightly be=e its "t4 ,n[ ?is effect is exactly :at friction aga9/ a sol> atmosph]e w\ld br+ ab\t4 ,e "t x pass$ ne> ! sun a little velocity w\ld be rubb$ out ( x4 ,b ! velocity is t :i* c>ries x away1 h5ce x w\ld n g q s f>1 & !re=e w\ld return a little soon]4 ,any revolv+ body subject to friction mu/ revolve quick] & quick]1 & get ne>] & ne>] its c5tral body1 until1 if ! process goes on long en\gh1 x mu/ drop ^u its surface4 ,?is seems ! k9d ( ?+ happ5+ to ,encke's comet4 ,! effect is v small1 & n ?or\ghly prov$2 b1 s f> z x goes1 ! evid5ce po9ts to a greatly ext5d$ r>e sol> atmosph]e1 :i* rubs "s en]gy out ( x at e p]ihelion passage4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ajd4--;,biela's comet z la/ se51 9 two portions4 ,next1 ,biela's comet4 ,?is also 0 a well kn[n & c>efully obs]v$ telescopic comet1 ) a p]iod ( six ye>s4 ,9 "o ( its di/ant excursions1 x 0 calculat$ t x mu/ pass v ne> ,jupit]1 & mu* curiosity 0 excit$ z to :at w\ld happ5 to x 9 consequ5ce ( ! p]turbation x mu/ exp]i5ce4 ,z ,i h said1 comets are only visible z !y approa* ! sun1 & a wat* 0 kept = x ab\t its appo9t$ "t4 ,x 0 late1 b x did ultimately arrive4 ,! s+ul> ?+ ab\t x1 h[ev]1 0 t x 0 n[ d\ble4 ,x _h app>5tly sep>at$ into two4 ,?is 0 9 #ahdf4 ,x 0 look$ = aga9 9 #aheb1 & ?is "t ! compon5ts 7 fur!r sep>at$4 ,sometimes "o 0 bright]1 sometimes ! o!r4 ,next "t x ought to h come r\nd no "o c\ld f9d ei!r portion4 ,! comet seem$ to h :olly disappe>$4 ,x has nev] be5 se5 s9ce4 ,x 0 !n record$ & adv]tis$ z ! miss+ comet4 ,b n[ comes ! int]e/+ "p ( ! /ory4 ,! orbit ( ?is ,biela comet 0 well kn[n1 & x 0 f\nd t on a c]ta9 night 9 #ahgb ! e>? w\ld cross ! orbit1 & _h "s *ance ( enc\nt]+ ! comet4 ,n a v likely *ance1 because x ne$ n be 9 t "p ( its orbit at ! "t2 b x 0 suspect$ n to be f> (f--if /ill exi/5t4 ,well1 ! night arriv$1 ! e>? did cross ! orbit1 & !re 0 se51 n ! comet1 b a numb] ( %oot+-/>s4 ,n "o body1 nor yet two1 b a multitude ( bodies--9 fact1 a sw>m ( meteors4 ,n a v great sw>m1 su* z sometimes occurs1 b /ill a q noticeable "o2 & ?is %[] ( meteors is def9itely recogniz$ z fly+ along ! track ( ,biela's comet4 ,!y are kn[n z ! ,&rom$es4 ,?is obs]vation has be5 g5]aliz$4 ,e comet>y orbit is m>k$ by a r+ ( meteoric /ones travell+ r\nd x1 & :5ev] a numb] ( %oot+-/>s are se5 quickly "o aft] ! o!r1 x is an evid5ce t we are cross+ ! track ( "s comet4 ,b suppose in/ead ( only cross+ ! track ( a comet we 7 to pass close to ! comet itself1 we %\ld !n expect to see an extraord9>y sw>m--a multitude ( %oot+-/>s4 ,su* ph5om5a h occurr$4 ,! mo/ fam\s are ^? kn[n z ! ,novemb] meteors1 or ,leonids4 ,?is is ! ?ird ( ^? bodies ^: hi/ory ,i _h to tell y4 ,pr(essor ,h4,a4 ,newton1 ( ,am]ica1 by exam9+ anci5t records arriv$ at ! conclusion t ! e>? pass$ ?r\gh a c]ta9 def9ite meteor %oal e ?irty-?ree ye>s4 ,he f\nd1 9 fact1 t e ?irty-?ree ye>s an unusual flight ( %oot+-/>s 0 witness$ 9 ,novemb]1 ! e>lie/ record be+ #eii ,a4,d4 ,_! la/ appe>ance _h be5 9 #ahcc1 & he !re=e pr$ict$ _! return 9 #ahff or #ahfg4 ,sure en\gh1 9 ,novemb]1 #ahff1 !y appe>$2 & _m mu/ rememb] see+ t glori\s display4 ,al?\gh _! hail 0 almo/ cont9u\s1 x is e/imat$ t _! av]age di/ance ap>t 0 ?irty-five miles6 ,_! radiant po9t 0 & always is 9 ! con/ellation ,leo1 & h5ce _! "n ,leonids4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aje4--,radiant po9t p]spective4 ,! arr[s repres5t a numb] ( approximately p>allel meteor-/reaks =e%ort5$ f a common vani%+-po9t4 ,a p>allel /ream fix$ 9 space necess>ily exhibits a def9ite aspect ) ref]5ce to ! fix$ />s4 ,its aspect ) respect to ! e>? w be v *angeable1 because ( ! rotation & revolution ( t body1 b its position ) respect to con/ellations w be /eady4 ,h5ce ea* meteor sw>m1 be+ a /eady p>allel /ream ( ru%+ masses1 always /rikes u f ! same po9t 9 /ell> space1 & by ?is po9t 7or radiant7 x is id5tifi$ & nam$4 ,! pa?s d n appe> to u to be p>allel1 because ( p]spective3 !y seem to radiate & spread 9 all directions f a fix$ c5tre l spokes1 b all ^! div]g+ /reaks are really p>allel l9es optically =e%ort5$ by diff]5t am\nts s z to produce ! radiant impression4 ,! annex$ diagram 7,fig4 #aje7 cle>ly illu/rates ! fact t ! radiant is ! vani%+ po9t ( a numb] ( p>allel l9es4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ajf4--,orbit ( ,novemb] meteors4 ,?is sw>m is specially int]e/+ to u f ! fact t we cross its orbit e ye>4 ,its orbit & ! e>?'s int]sect4 ,e ,novemb] we g ?r\gh x1 & h5ce e ,novemb] we see a few /raggl]s ( ?is imm5se sw>m4 ,! sw>m itself takes ?irty-?ree ye>s on its revolution r\nd ! sun1 & h5ce we only enc\nt] x e ?irty-?ree ye>s4 ,! sw>m is ( imm5se size4 ,9 bread? x is su* t ! e>?1 fly+ n9ete5 miles a second1 takes f\r or five h\rs to cross x1 & ?is is !re=e ! "t ! display la/s4 ,b 9 l5g? x is f> m enorm\s4 ,! spe$ ) :i* x travels is tw5ty-five miles a second1 7= its orbit ext5ds z f> z ,uranus1 al?\gh by no means p>abolic71 & yet x takes m ?an a ye> to pass4 ,imag9e a procession #bjj1jjj miles broad1 e individual ru%+ along at ! rate ( tw5ty-five miles e second1 & ! :ole procession s long t x takes m ?an a ye> to pass4 ,x is l a gigantic %oal ( h]r+s swimm+ r\nd & r\nd ! sun e ?irty-?ree ye>s1 & travell+ pa/ ! e>? ) t trem5d\s velocity ( tw5ty-five miles a second4 ,! e>? da%es ?r\gh ! sw>m & sweeps up myriads4 ,?9k ( ! c\ntless numb]s swept up by ! :ole e>? 9 cross+ su* a %oal z t6 ,b heaps m rema91 & probably ! millions :i* are de/roy$ e ?irty-?ree ye>s h n yet made any v important diff]5ce to ! numb]s /ill rema9+4 ,! e>? nev] misses ?is sw>m4 ,e ?irty-?ree ye>s x is b\nd to pass ?r\gh "s "p ( !m1 = ! %oal is s long t if ! head is j miss$ "o ,novemb] ! tail w be enc\nt]$ next ,novemb]4 ,?is is a pla9 & obvi\s result ( its enorm\s l5g?4 ,x may be lik5$ to a two-foot l5g? ( sew+ silk swimm+ r\nd & r\nd an oval sixty feet 9 circumf]5ce4 ,b1 y w say1 al?\gh ! numb]s are s great t de/roy+ a few millions or s e ?irty-?ree ye>s makes b little diff]5ce to !m1 yet1 if ?is process has be5 go+ on f all et]nity1 !y ought to be all swept up4 ,grant$2 & no d\bt ! mo/ anci5t sw>ms h already all or ne>ly all be5 swept up4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ajg4--,orbit ( ,novemb] meteors2 %[+ _! probable p>abolic orbit previ\s to #abf ,a4,d41 & its sudd5 conv]sion into an elliptic orbit by ! viol5t p]turbation caus$ by ,uranus1 :i* at t date occupi$ ! position %[n4 ,! ,augu/ meteors1 or ,p]seids1 are an example4 ,e ,augu/ we cross _! pa?1 & we h a small meteoric display radiat+ f ! sword-h& ( ,p]seus1 b nev] specially m 9 "o ,augu/ ?an ano!r4 ,x w\ld seem z if ! ma9 %oal has disappe>$1 & no?+ is n[ left b ! /raggl]s2 or p]haps x is t ! %oal has gradually become uni=mly di/ribut$ all along ! pa?4 ,anyh[1 ^! ,augu/ meteors are reckon$ mu* m anci5t memb]s ( ! sol> sy/em ?an are ! ,novemb] meteors4 ,! ,novemb] meteors are believ$ to h ent]$ ! sol> sy/em 9 ! ye> #abf ,a4,d4 ,?is may seem an extraord9>y /atem5t4 ,x is n f9al1 b x is bas$ on ! calculations ( ,lev]ri]--confirm$ rec5tly by ,mr4 ,adams4 ,a few mom5ts w suffice to make ! gr\nds ( x cle>4 ,lev]ri] calculat$ ! orbit ( ! ,novemb] meteors1 & f\nd !m to be an oval ext5d+ beyond ,uranus4 ,x 0 p]turb$ by ! out] planets ne> :i* x w5t1 s t 9 pa/ times x mu/ h mov$ 9 a slightly diff]5t orbit4 ,calculat+ back to _! pa/ positions1 x 0 f\nd t 9 a c]ta9 ye> x mu/ h gone v ne> to ,uranus1 & t by ! p]turbation ( ?is planet its pa? _h be5 completely *ang$4 ,orig9ally x _h 9 all probability be5 a comet1 fly+ 9 a p>abolic orbit t[>ds ! sun l _m o!rs4 ,?is "o1 enc\nt]+ ,uranus1 0 pull$ to pieces z x 71 & its orbit made elliptical z %[n 9 ,fig4 #ajg4 ,x 0 no long] free to escape & g away into ! dep?s ( space3 x 0 en*a9$ & made a memb] ( ! sol> sy/em4 ,x also ceas$ to be a comet2 x 0 degrad$ into a %oal ( meteors4 ,?is is believ$ to be ! pa/ hi/ory ( ?is spl5did sw>m4 ,s9ce its introduction to ! sol> sy/em x has made #eb revolutions3 its next return is due 9 ,novemb]1 #ahii1 & ,i hope t x may occur 9 ! ,engli% dusk1 & 7see ,fig4 #ig7 9 a cl\dless aft]-midnight sky1 z x did 9 #ahff4 ,,notes ,,= ,,lecture ,,xvii ,! tide-g5]at+ =ce ( "o body on ano!r is directly z ! mass ( ! "o body & inv]sely z ! cube ( ! di/ance betwe5 !m4 ,h5ce ! moon is m effective 9 produc+ t]re/rial tides ?an ! sun4 ,! tidal wave directly produc$ by ! moon 9 ! op5 ocean is ab\t #e feet high1 t produc$ by ! sun is ab\t #b feet4 ,h5ce ! av]age spr+ tide is to ! av]age neap z ab\t #g to #c4 ,! lun> tide v>ies betwe5 apogee & p]igee f #dc to #ei4 ,! sol> tide v>ies betwe5 aphelion & p]ihelion f #ai to #ba4 ,h5ce ! highe/ spr+ tide is to ! l[e/ neap z #ei #ba is to #dc -#ba1 or z #h to #bb4 ,! semi-syn*ron\s oscillation ( ! ,s\!rn ,ocean raises ! magnitude ( oceanic tides some:at above ^! directly g5]at$ values4 ,oceanic tides are true waves1 n curr5ts4 ,coa/ tides are curr5ts4 ,! mom5tum ( ! wat]1 :5 ! tidal wave breaks ^u a cont95t & ru%es up *annels1 raises coa/ tides to a mu* great] height--9 "s places up to #ej or #fj feet1 or ev5 m4 ,e>ly obs]v$ connections betwe5 moon & tides w\ld be ^!3-- #a/4 ,spr+ tides at new & full moon4 #bnd4 ,av]age int]val betwe5 tide & tide is half a lun>1 n a sol>1 day--a lun> day be+ ! int]val betwe5 two successive returns ( ! moon to ! m]idian3 #bd h\rs & #ej m9utes4 #crd4 ,! tides ( a giv5 place at new & full moon occur always at ! same "t ( day :atev] ! season ( ! ye>4 ,,lecture ,,xvii ,,! ,,tides ,p]sons accu/om$ to make use ( ! ,m]sey l&+-/ages c h>dly fail to h be5 /ruck ) two obvi\s ph5om5a4 ,"o is t ! gangways !reto are sometimes almo/ level1 & at o!r times v /eep2 ano!r is t ! wat] (t5 ru%es pa/ ! /age r viol5tly1 sometimes s\? t[>ds ,g>/on1 sometimes nor? t[>ds ! sea4 ,!y obs]ve1 9 fact1 t ! wat] has two p]iodic motions--"o up & d[n1 ! o!r to & fro--a v]tical & a horizontal motion4 ,!y may fur!r obs]ve1 if !y take ! tr\ble1 t a complete sw+ ( ! wat]1 up & d[n1 or to & fro1 takes place ab\t e twelve & a half h\rs2 moreov]1 t soon aft] high & l[ wat] !re is no curr5t--! wat] is /ation>y1 :]eas ab\t half-way betwe5 high & l[ x is ru%+ ) maximum spe$ ei!r up or d[n ! riv]4 ,to bo? ^! motions ( ! wat] ! "n tide is giv51 & bo? are extremely important4 ,sailors usually pay mo/ att5tion to ! horizontal motion1 & on *>ts y f9d ! tide-races m>k$2 & ! places :]e !re is b a small horizontal ru% ( ! wat] are labell$ v little tide "h4 ,l&sm51 or1 at any rate1 su* ( ! m philosophic sort z pay any att5tion to ! matt] at all1 ?9k mo/ ( ! v]tical motion ( ! wat]--its am\nt ( rise & fall4 ,dwell]s 9 "s l[-ly+ di/ricts 9 ,london are compell$ to pay att5tion to ! extra high tides ( ! ,?ames1 because x is1 or 01 v liable to ov]fl[ its banks & inundate _! basem5ts4 ,sailors1 h[ev]1 on ne>+ a port are also greatly affect$ by ! "t & am\nt ( high wat] !re1 especially :5 !y are 9 a big %ip2 & we "k well en\gh h[ frequ5tly ,atlantic l9]s1 aft] hav+ accompli%$ _! voyage ) good spe$1 h to hang ar\nd = h\rs wait+ till !re is en\gh wat] to lift !m ov] ! ,b>--t /&+ ob/ruction1 "o feels incl9$ to say disgrace1 to ! ,liv]pool h>b\r4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ajh4--,! ,m]sey ,to u 9 ,liv]pool ! tides are ( supreme importance--^u !m ! v exi/5ce ( ! city dep5ds--= )\t !m ,liv]pool w\ld n be a port4 ,x may be famili> to _m ( y h[ ?is is1 & yet x is a matt] t _c be pass$ ov] 9 sil5ce4 ,i w !re=e call y\r att5tion to ! ,ordnance ,survey ( ! e/u>ies ( ! ,m]sey & ! ,dee4 ,y see fir/ t !re is a great t5d5cy = s&-banks to accumulate all ab\t ?is coa/1 f ,nor? ,wales "r away r\nd to ,s\?port4 ,y see next t ! port ( ,*e/] has be5 practically silt$ up by ! deposits ( s& 9 ! wide-m\!d ,dee1 :ile ! port ( ,liv]pool rema9s op5 ow+ to ! sc\r+ action ( ! tide 9 its peculi>ly %ap$ *annel4 ,)\t ! tides ! ,m]sey w\ld be a wret*$ dribble n mu* bigg] ?an x is at ,w>r+ton4 ,) !m1 ?is spl5did bas9 is kept op51 & a *annel is cut ( su* dep? t ! ,great ,ea/]n easily rode 9 x 9 all /ates ( ! wat]4 ,! bas9 is fill$ ) wat] e twelve h\rs ?r\gh its n>r[ neck4 ,! am\nt ( wat] /or$ up 9 ?is bas9 at high tide ,i e/imate z #fjj million tons4 ,all ?is quantity fl[s ?r\gh ! neck 9 six h\rs1 & fl[s out aga9 9 ! next six1 sc\r+ & cleans+ & c>ry+ mud & s& f> out to sea4 ,j at pres5t ! curr5ts set /ronge/ on ! ,birk5head side ( ! riv]1 & accord+ly a ,pluck+ton bank un=tunately gr[s "u ! ,liv]pool /age4 ,%\ld ?is t5d5cy to silt up ! gates ( our docks increase1 l& c be reclaim$ on ! o!r side ( ! riv] betwe5 ,tranm]e & ,rock ,f]ry1 & an embankm5t made s z to deflect ! wat] ov] ,liv]pool way1 & give u a fair] proportion ( ! curr5t4 ,aft] pass+ ,new ,brighton ! wat] spreads out aga9 to ! left2 its velocity =w>d dim9i%es2 & aft] a few miles x has no p[] to cut away t s&bank kn[n z ! ,b>4 ,%\ld x be ?\ght desirable to make x accompli% ?is1 & sweep ! ,b> fur!r out to sea into deep] wat]1 x is probable t a rude tra9+ wall 7say ( old hulks1 or o!r removable p>tial ob/ruction7 on ! we/ ( ,que5's ,*annel1 arrang$ s z to *eck ! spread+ out ov] all ?is useless area1 may be q suffici5t to reta9 ! ne$$ extra impetus 9 ! wat]1 p]haps ev5 )\t *ok+ up ! useful old ,rock ,*annel1 ?r\gh :i* small] %ips /ill f9d conv5i5t exit4 ,n[1 al?\gh ! horizontal ru% ( ! tide is necess>y to our exi/5ce z a port1 x does n foll[ t ! accompany+ rise & fall ( ! wat] is an unmix$ bless+4 ,to x is due ! ne$ = all ! exp5sive arrangem5ts ( docks & gates :]e) to /ore up ! high-level wat]4 ,quebec & ,new ,york are cities on su* magnific5t riv]s t ! curr5t requir$ to keep op5 *annel is suppli$ )\t any tidal action1 al?\gh ,quebec is ne>ly #a1jjj miles f ! op5 ocean2 & accord+ly1 ,atlantic l9]s d n hov] 9 mid-riv] & dis*>ge pass5g]s by t5d]1 b !y proce$ /raight to ! side ( ! quays l9+ ! riv]1 or1 z at ,new ,york1 !y dive into "o ( ! pockets belong+ to ! company runn+ ! %ip1 & !re dis*>ge pass5g]s & c>go )\t fur!r tr\ble1 & ) no ne$ = docks or gates4 ,h[ev]1 riv]s l ! ,/4 ,lawr5ce & ! ,hudson are ! natural prop]ty ( a gigantic cont95t2 & we 9 ,engl& may be well cont5t$ ) ! possession ( su* tidal e/u>ies z ! ,m]sey1 ! ,?ames1 & ! ,humb]4 ,t by p]t9aci\s dr$g+ ! citiz5s ( ,glasg[ manage to get l>ge %ips "r up _! small riv]1 ! ,clyde1 to ! quays ( ! t[n1 is a rem>kable fact1 & r$\nds v highly to _! cr$it4 ,we w n[ proce$ to consid] ! connection exi/+ betwe5 ! horizontal ru% ( wat] & its v]tical elevation1 & ask1 ,:i* is cause & :i* is effect8 ,does ! elevation ( ! ocean cause ! tidal fl[1 or does ! tidal fl[ cause ! elevation8 ,! answ] is tw(old3 bo? /atem5ts are 9 "s s5se true4 ,! prime cause ( ! tide is und\bt$ly a v]tical elevation ( ! ocean1 a tidal wave or hump produc$ by ! attraction ( ! moon4 ,?is hump z x passes ! v>i\s *annels op5+ into ! ocean raises _! level1 & causes wat] to fl[ up !m4 ,b ?is simple oceanic tide1 al?\gh ! cause ( all tide1 is itself b a small affair4 ,x seldom rises above six or sev5 feet1 & tides on isl&s 9 mid-ocean h ab\t ?is value or less4 ,b ! tides on our coa/s are f> great] ?an ?is--!y rise tw5ty or ?irty feet1 or ev5 fifty feet occasionally1 at "s places1 z at ,bri/ol4 ,:y is ?is8 ,! horizontal motion ( ! wat] gives x su* an impetus or mom5tum t its motion f> transc5ds t ( ! orig9al impulse giv5 to x1 j z a pu% giv5 to a p5dulum may cause x to sw+ ov] a mu* great] arc ?an t ?r\gh :i* ! =ce acts4 ,! inru%+ wat] fl[+ up ! ,engli% ,*annel or ! ,bri/ol ,*annel or ,/4 ,george's ,*annel has su* an impetus t x propels itself "s tw5ty or ?irty feet high be=e x has exhau/$ its mom5tum & beg9s to desc5d4 ,9 ! ,bri/ol ,*annel ! gradual n>r[+ ( ! op5+ s mu* assi/s ?is action t ! tides (t5 rise =ty feet1 occasionally fifty feet1 & ru% /ill fur!r up ! ,sev]n 9 a precipit\s & extraord9>y hill ( wat] call$ ! bore4 ,"s places are subject to consid]able rise & fall ( wat] ) v little horizontal fl[2 o!rs possess /rong tidal races1 b v little elevation & depression4 ,! effect obs]v$ at any giv5 place entirely dep5ds on :e!r ! place has ! g5]al "* ( a t]m9us1 or :e!r x lies en r\te to "s great bas94 ,y mu/ und]/&1 !n1 t all tide takes its rise 9 ! free & op5 ocean "u ! action ( ! moon4 ,no ord9>y-siz$ sea l ! ,nor? ,sea1 or ev5 ! ,m$it]ranean1 is big en\gh = m ?an a j appreciable tide to be g5]at$ 9 x4 ,! ,pacific1 ! ,atlantic1 & ! ,s\!rn ,oceans are ! great tidal res]voirs1 & 9 !m ! tides ( ! e>? are g5]at$ z l[ flat humps ( gigantic area1 ?\gh only a few feet high1 oscillat+ up & d[n 9 ! p]iod ( approximately twelve h\rs4 ,! tides we1 & o!r coa/-possess+ nations1 exp]i5ce are ! ov]fl[ or back-wa% ( ^! oceanic humps1 & ,i w n[ %[ y 9 :at mann] ! great ,atlantic tide-wave rea*es ! ,briti% ,isles twice a day4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aji4--;,co-tidal l9es4 ,fig4 #aji %[s ! cont\r l9es ( ! great wave z x rolls 9 ea/ f ! ,atlantic1 gett+ split by ! ,l&'s ,end & by ,irel& into ?ree portions2 "o ( :i* ru%es up ! ,engli% ,*annel & ?r\gh ! ,/raits ( ,dov]4 ,ano!r rolls up ! ,iri% ,sea1 ) a m9or (f%oot up ! ,bri/ol ,*annel1 &1 curl+ r\nd ,anglesey1 fl[s along ! ,nor? ,wales coa/ & fills ,liv]pool ,bay & ! ,m]sey4 ,! ?ird bran* /reams r\nd ! nor? coa/ ( ,irel&1 pa/ ! ,mull ( ,cantyre & ,ra?l9 ,isl&2 "p fills up ! ,fir? ( ,clyde1 :ile ! re/ fl[s s\?1 &1 swirl+ r\nd ! we/ side ( ! ,isle ( ,man1 helps ! s\!rn curr5t to fill ! ,bay ( ,liv]pool4 ,! re/ ( ! great wave imp+es on ! coa/ ( ,scotl&1 &1 curl+ r\nd x1 fills up ! ,nor? ,sea "r away to ! ,norway coa/1 & !n fl[s d[n bel[ ,d5m>k1 jo9+ ! s\!rn & e>li] arriv+ /ream4 ,! diagram ,i %[ y is a r\gh *>t ( cotidal l9es1 :i* ,i made out ( ! in=mation conta9$ 9 ,:itak]'s ,almanac4 ,a place may ?us be f$ ) tide by two di/9ct *annels1 & _m curi\s ph5om5a occur 9 c]ta9 places f ?is cause4 ,?us x may happ5 t "o *annel is six h\rs long] ?an ! o!r1 9 :i* case a fl[ w arrive by "o at ! same "t z an ebb arrives by ! o!r2 & ! result w be t ! place w h h>dly any tide at all1 "o tide int]f]+ ) & neutraliz+ ! o!r4 ,?is is m m>k$ly obs]v$ at o!r p>ts ( ! _w ?an 9 ! ,briti% ,isles4 ,:5ev] a place is rea*$ by two *annels ( diff]5t l5g?1 its tides are sure to be peculi>1 & probably small4 ,ano!r cause ( small tide is ! way ! wave surges to & fro 9 a *annel4 ,! tidal wave surg+ up ! ,engli% ,*annel1 = in/ance1 gets l>gely reflect$ by ! con/riction at ,dov]1 & s a cre/ surges back aga91 z we may see waves reflect$ 9 a long tr\gh or tilt$ ba?4 ,! result is t ,s\?ampton has two high tides rapidly succe$+ "o ano!r1 & = ?ree h\rs ! high-wat] level v>ies b slightly--a fact ( evid5t conv5i5ce to ! port4 ,places on a nodal l9e1 s to speak1 ab\t ! middle ( ! l5g? ( ! *annel1 h a m9imum ( rise & fall1 ?\gh ! wat] ru%es pa/ !m fir/ viol5tly up t[>ds ,dov]1 :]e ! rise is consid]able1 & !n back aga9 t[>ds ! ocean4 ,at ,portl&1 = in/ance1 ! total rise & fall is v small3 x is practically on a node4 ,y>m\?1 aga91 is ne> a less m>k$ node 9 ! ,nor? ,sea1 :]e /ation>y waves likewise surge to & fro1 & accord+ly ! tidal rise & fall at ,y>m\? is only ab\t five feet 7v>y+ f f\r & a half to six71 :]eas at ,london x is tw5ty or ?irty feet1 & at ,flambor\gh ,head or ,lei? x is f twelve to sixte5 feet4 ,x is g5]ally suppos$ t wat] nev] fl[s up-hill1 b 9 ^! cases ( oscillation x fl[s up-hill = ?ree h\rs toge!r4 ,! wat] is ru%+ up ! ,engli% ,*annel t[>ds ,dov] long aft] x is highe/ at ! ,dov] end2 x goes on pil+ itself up1 until its mom5tum is *eck$ by ! pressure1 & !n x surges back4 ,x behaves1 9 fact1 v l ! bob ( a p5dulum1 :i* rises aga9/ gravity at e qu>t] sw+4 ,to get a v l>ge tide1 ! place ought to be directly accessible by a long sweep ( a *annel to ! op5 ocean1 & if x is situate on a gradually conv]g+ op5+1 ! ebb & fl[ may be enorm\s4 ,! ,sev]n is ! be/ example ( ?is on ! ,briti% ,isles2 b ! l>ge/ tides 9 ! _w are f\nd1 ,i believe1 9 ! ,bay ( ,fundy1 on ! coa/ ( ,nor? ,am]ica1 :]e !y sometimes rise "o hundr$ & tw5ty feet4 ,excessive or extra tides may be produc$ occasionally 9 any place by ! propell+ =ce ( a high w9d driv+ ! wat] t[>ds ! %ore2 also by a l[ b>omet]1 i4e4 by a local decrease 9 ! pressure ( ! air4 ,well1 n[1 leav+ ^! topographical details conc]n+ tides1 :i* we see to be due to great oceanic humps 7great 9 area t is1 ?\gh small 9 height71 let u proce$ to ask :at causes ^! humps2 & if x be ! moon t does x1 h[ does x d x8 ,! /atem5t t ! moon causes ! tides s\nds at fir/ r an absurdity1 & a m]e popul> sup]/ition4 ,galileo *aff$ ,kepl] = believ+ x4 ,:o x 0 t discov]$ ! connection betwe5 moon & tides we "k n--probably x is a ?+ :i* has be5 sev]al times r$iscov]$ by obs]vant sailors or coa/-dwell]s--& x is c]ta9ly a v anci5t piece ( in=mation4 ,probably ! fir/ connection obs]v$ 0 t ab\t full moon & ab\t new moon ! tides are extra high1 be+ call$ spr+ tides1 :]eas ab\t half-moon ! tides are mu* less1 & are call$ neap tides4 ,! ^w spr+ 9 ?is connection has no ref]5ce to ! season ( ! ye>2 except t bo? words probably repres5t ! same idea ( en]getic upris+ or upspr++1 :ile ! ^w neap comes f nip1 & means p9*$1 scanty1 nipp$ tide4 ,! next connection likely to be obs]v$ w\ld be t ! int]val betwe5 two day tides 0 n exactly a sol> day ( tw5ty-f\r h\rs1 b a lun> day ( fifty m9utes long]4 ,= by reason ( ! moon's mon?ly motion x lags beh9d ! sun ab\t fifty m9utes a day1 & ! tides d ! same1 & s p]petually occur lat] & lat]1 ab\t fifty m9utes a day lat]1 or #ab h\rs & #be m9utes on ! av]age betwe5 tide & tide4 ,a ?ird & /ill m /rik+ connection 0 also discov]$ by "s ( ! anci5t great navigators & philosoph]s--viz4 t ! "t ( high wat] at a giv5 place at full moon is always ! same1 or v ne>ly s4 ,9 o!r words1 ! highe/ or spr+ tides always occur ne>ly at ! same "t ( day at a giv5 place4 ,= in/ance1 at ,liv]pool ?is "t is noon & midnight4 ,london is ab\t two h\rs & a half lat]4 ,ea* port has its own "t = receiv+ a giv5 tide1 & ! "t is call$ ! e/abli%m5t ( ! port4 ,look out a day :5 ! moon is full1 & y w f9d ! ,liv]pool high tide occurs at half-pa/ elev51 or close ^u x4 ,! same happ5s :5 ! moon is new4 ,a day aft] full or new moon ! spr+ tides rise to _! highe/1 & ^! extra high tides always occur 9 ,liv]pool at noon & at midnight1 :atev] ! season ( ! ye>4 ,ab\t ! equ9oxes !y are liable to be extraord9>ily high4 ,! extra l[ tides "h are !re=e at #f a4m4 & #f p4m41 & ! #f p4m4 l[ tide is a nuisance to ! riv] /eam]s4 ,! spr+ tides at ,london are highe/ ab\t half-pa/ two4 99 99 99 99 99 ,x is1 !re=e1 q cle> t ! moon has to d ) ! tides4 ,x & ! sun toge!r are1 9 fact1 ! :ole cause ( !m2 & ! mode 9 :i* ^! bodies act by gravitative attraction 0 fir/ made out & expla9$ 9 rem>kably full detail by ,sir ,isaac ,newton4 ,y w f9d 8 acc\nt ( ! tides 9 ! second & ?ird books ( ! ,pr9cipia2 & ?\gh ! !ory does n occupy m ?an a few pages ( t immortal "w1 he succe$s n only 9 expla9+ ! local tidal peculi>ities1 mu* z ,i h done to-night1 b also 9 calculat+ ! approximate height ( mid-ocean sol> tide2 & f ! obs]v$ lun> tide he %[s h[ to det]m9e ! !n q unkn[n mass ( ! moon4 ,?is 0 a q extraord9>y a*ievem5t1 ! difficulty ( :i* x is n easy = a p]son unus$ to simil> discussions fully to appreciate4 ,x is1 inde$1 b a small "p ( :at ,newton accompli%$1 b by itself x is suffici5t to conf] immortality ^u any ord9>y philosoph]1 & to place him 9 a front rank4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aaj4--,:irl+ e>? model4 ,to make intelligible ,newton's !ory ( ! tides1 ,i mu/ n attempt to g into too great detail4 ,i w consid] only ! sali5t po9ts4 ,fir/1 y "k t e mass ( matt] attracts e o!r piece ( matt]2 second1 t ! moon revolves r\nd ! e>?1 or r t ! e>? & moon revolve r\nd _! common c5tre ( gravity once a mon?2 ?ird1 t ! e>? sp9s on its own axis once a day2 f\r?1 t :5 a ?+ is :irl$ r\nd1 x t5ds to fly out f ! c5tre & requires a =ce to hold x 94 ,^! are ! pr9ciples involv$4 ,y c :irl a bucket full ( wat] v]tically r\nd )\t spill+ x4 ,make an ela/ic globe rotate1 & x bulges out into an oblate or orange %ape2 z illu/rat$ by ! model %[n 9 ,fig4 #aaj4 ,?is is exactly :at ! e>? does1 & ,newton calculat$ ! bulg+ ( x z f\rte5 miles all r\nd ! equator4 ,make an ela/ic globe revolve r\nd a fix$ c5tre outside itself1 & x gets pull$ into a prolate or lemon %ape2 ! simple/ illu/rative exp]im5t is to atta* a /r+ to an ela/ic bag or football full ( wat]1 & :irl x r\nd & r\nd4 ,its prolat5ess is readily visible4 ,n[ consid] ! e>? & moon revolv+ r\nd ea* o!r l a man :irl+ a *ild r\nd4 ,! *ild travels fur!/1 b ! man _c m]ely rotate1 he leans back & ?us also describes a small circle3 s does ! e>?2 x revolves r\nd ! common c5tre ( gravity ( e>? & moon 7cf4 p4 #bab74 ,?is is a vital po9t 9 ! compreh5sion ( ! tides3 ! e>?'s c5tre is n at re/1 b is be+ :irl$ r\nd by ! moon1 9 a circle ab\t #a_/hj z big z ! circle :i* ! moon describes1 because ! e>? weighs eighty times z mu* z ! moon4 ,! effect ( ! revolution is to make bo? bodies slightly protrude 9 ! direction ( ! l9e jo9+ !m2 !y become slightly prolate z x is call$--t is1 lemon-%ap$4 ,illu/rat+ /ill by ! man & *ild1 ! *ild's legs fly outw>ds s t he is elongat$ 9 ! direction ( a radius2 ! man's coat-tails fly out too1 s t he too is simil>ly ?\gh less elongat$4 ,^! elongations or protub]ances con/itute ! tides4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aaa4--;,e>? & moon model1 illu/rat+ ! production ( /atical or equilibrium tides :5 ! :ole is :irl$ ab\t ! po9t ,g4 ,fig4 #aaa %[s a model to illu/rate ! me*anism4 ,a c\ple ( c>dbo>d disks 7to repres5t globes ( c\rse71 "o f\r times ! diamet] ( ! o!r1 & ea* load$ s z to h ab\t ! correct e>?-moon ratio ( weights1 are fix$ at ei!r end ( a long /ick1 & !y balance ab\t a c]ta9 po9t1 :i* is _! common c5tre ( gravity4 ,= conv5i5ce ?is po9t is tak5 a trifle too f> out f ! c5tre ( ! e>?--t is1 j beyond its surface4 ,?r\gh ! balanc+ po9t ,g a bradawl is /uck1 & on t z pivot ! :ole readily revolves4 ,n[1 beh9d ! circul> disks1 y see1 are f\r pieces ( c>d ( appropriate %ape1 :i* are able to slide out "u prop] =ces4 ,!y are %[n dott$ 9 ! figure1 & are lett]$ ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 ,d4 ,! inn] pair1 ,b & ,c1 are atta*$ to ea* o!r by a bit ( /r+1 :i* has to typify ! attraction ( gravitation2 ! out] pair1 ,a & ,d1 are n atta*$ to any?+1 b h a c]ta9 am\nt ( play aga9/ friction 9 slots p>allel to ! l5g? ( ! /ick4 ,! moon-disk is also slott$1 s a small am\nt ( motion is possible to x along ! /ick or b>4 ,^! ?+s be+ s arrang$1 & ! protub]ant pieces ( c>d be+ all pu%$ home1 s t !y are hidd5 beh9d _! respective disks1 ! :ole is spun rapidly r\nd ! c5tre ( gravity1 ,g4 ,! result ( a brief sp9 is to make ,a & ,d fly out by c5trifugal =ce & %[1 z 9 ! figure2 :ile ! moon1 fly+ out too 9 its slot1 tight5s up ! /r+1 :i* causes ,b & ,c to be pull$ out too4 ,?us all f\r high tides are produc$1 two on ! e>? & two on ! moon1 ,a & ,d be+ caus$ by c5trifugal =ce1 ,b & ,c by ! attraction ( gravitation4 ,ea* disk has become prolate 9 ! same sort ( fa%ion z yield+ globes d4 ,( c\rse ! fluid ocean takes ?is %ape m easily & m completely ?an ! solid e>? c1 & s "h are ! v oceanic humps we h be5 talk+ ab\t1 & ab\t ?ree feet high 7,fig4 #aab74 ,if !re 7 a sea on ! moon1 its humps w\ld be a good deal bigg]2 b !re probably is no sea !re1 & if !re 71 ! e>?'s tides are m int]e/+ to u1 at any rate to beg9 )4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aab4--;,e>? & moon 7e>?'s rotation neglect$74 ,! humps z s f> treat$ are always protrud+ 9 ! e>?-moon l9e1 & are /ation>y4 ,b n[ we h to rememb] t ! e>? is sp9n+ inside !m4 ,x is n easy to see :at precise effect ?is sp9 w h ^u ! humps1 ev5 if ! _w 7 cov]$ ) a uni=m ocean2 b we c see at any rate t h[ev] mu* !y may get displac$1 & !y d get displac$ a good deal1 !y _c possibly be c>ri$ r\nd & r\nd4 ,! :ole explanation we h giv5 ( _! causes %[s t !y mu/ ma9ta9 "s /eady aspect ) respect to ! moon--9 o!r words1 !y mu/ rema9 /ation>y z ! e>? sp9s r\nd4 ,n t ! same id5tical wat] rema9s /ation>y1 = 9 t case x w\ld h to be dragg$ ov] ! e>?'s equator at ! rate ( #a1jjj miles an h\r1 b ! hump or wave-cre/ rema9s /ation>y4 ,x is a true wave1 or =m only1 & consi/s ( cont9u\sly *ang+ individual p>ticles4 ,! same is true ( all waves1 except break+ ones4 ,giv51 !n1 ^! /ation>y humps & ! e>? sp9n+ on its axis1 we see t a giv5 place on ! e>? w be c>ri$ r\nd & r\nd1 n[ pa/ a hump1 & six h\rs lat] pa/ a depression3 ano!r six h\rs & x w be at ! antipodal hump1 & s on4 ,?us e six h\rs we %all travel f ! region 9 space :]e ! wat] is high to ! region :]e x is l[2 & ignor+ our own motion we %all say t ! sea fir/ rises & !n falls2 & s1 ) respect to ! place1 x does4 ,?us ! succession ( high & l[ wat]1 & ! two high tides e tw5ty-f\r h\rs1 are easily und]/ood 9 _! easie/ & mo/ elem5t>y aspect4 ,a m complete acc\nt ( ! matt] x w be wise/ n to attempt3 suffice x to say t ! difficulties soon become =midable :5 ! in]tia ( ! wat]1 its natural "t ( oscillation1 ! v>y+ obliquity ( ! moon to ! ecliptic1 its v>y+ di/ance1 & ! di/urb+ action ( ! sun are tak5 into consid]ation4 ,:5 all ^! ?+s are includ$1 ! problem becomes to ord9>y m9ds ov]:elm+4 ,a great _m ( ^! difficulties 7 successfully attack$ by ,laplace4 ,o!rs rema9$ = mod]n philosoph]s1 among :om are ,sir ,george ,airy1 ,sir ,william ,?omson1 & ,pr(essor ,george ,d>w94 ,i may j m5tion t ! ma9 & simple/ effect ( includ+ ! in]tia or mom5tum ( ! wat] is to dislocate ! obvi\s & simple connexion betwe5 high wat] & high moon2 in]tia always t5ds to make an effect diff] 9 phase by a qu>t] p]iod f ! cause produc+ x1 z may be illu/rat$ by a sw++ p5dulum4 ,h5ce high wat] is n to be expect$ :5 ! tide-rais+ =ce is a maximum1 b six h\rs lat]2 s t1 consid]+ in]tia & neglect+ friction1 !re w\ld be l[ wat] "u ! moon4 ,includ+ friction1 some?+ ne>] ! equilibrium /ate ( ?+s occurs4 ,) suffici5t friction ! motion becomes dead-beat aga91 i4e4 foll[s closely ! =ce t causes x4 ,return+ to ! elem5t>y discussion1 we see t ! rotation ( ! e>? ) respect to ! humps w n be p]=m$ 9 exactly tw5ty-f\r h\rs1 because ! humps are travell+ sl[ly aft] ! moon1 & w complete a revolution 9 a mon? 9 ! same direction z ! e>? is rotat+4 ,h5ce a place on ! e>? has to cat* !m up1 & s ea* high tide arrives lat] & lat] ea* day--r\ghly speak+1 an h\r lat] = ea* day tide2 n by any means a con/ant int]val1 because ( sup]pos$ di/urbances n "h m5tion$1 b on ! av]age ab\t fifty m9utes4 ,we see1 !n1 t z a result ( all ?is we get a pair ( humps travell+ all ov] ! surface ( ! e>?1 ab\t once a day4 ,if ! e>? 7 all ocean 7& 9 ! s\!rn hemisph]e x is ne>ly all ocean71 !n !y w\ld g travell+ across ! e>?1 tidal waves ?ree feet high1 & con/itut+ ! mid-ocean tides4 ,b 9 ! nor!rn hemisph]e !y c only ?us j\rney a little way )\t /rik+ l&4 ,z ! moon rises at a place on ! ea/ %ores ( ! ,atlantic1 = in/ance1 ! wat]s beg9 to fl[ 9 t[>ds ?is place1 or ! tide beg9s to rise4 ,?is goes on till ! moon is ov]head & = "s "t aft]w>ds1 :5 ! tide is at its highe/4 ,! hump !n foll[s ! moon 9 its app>5t j\rney across to ,am]ica1 & !re precipitates itself ^u ! coa/1 ru%+ up all ! *annels1 & con/itut+ ! l& tide4 ,at ! same "t1 ! wat] is dragg$ away f ! ea/ %ores1 & s our tide is at its l[e/4 ,! same ?+ repeats itself 9 a little m ?an twelve h\rs aga91 :5 ! o!r hump passes ov] ! ,atlantic1 z ! moon j\rneys b5ea? ! e>?1 & s on e day4 ,9 ! free ,s\!rn ,ocean1 :]e l& ob/ruction is comp>atively abs5t1 ! wat] gets up a consid]able sw+ by reason ( its accumulat$ mom5tum1 & ?is modifies & increases ! op5 ocean tides !re4 ,also = "s reason1 ,i suppose because ( ! natural "t ( sw+ ( ! wat]1 "o ( ! humps is !re usually mu* l>g] ?an ! o!r2 & s places 9 ! ,indian & o!r (f%oots ( ! ,s\!rn ,ocean get _! really high tide only once e tw5ty-f\r h\rs4 ,^! s\!rn tides are 9 fact mu* m complicat$ ?an ^? ! ,briti% ,isles receive4 ,ours are s+ul>ly simple4 ,no d\bt "s trace ( ! influ5ce ( ! ,s\!rn ,ocean is felt 9 ! ,nor? ,atlantic1 b any ocean ext5d+ ov] #ij ( longitude is big en\gh to h its own tides g5]at$2 & ,i imag9e t ! ma9 tides we feel are ?us produc$ on ! spot1 & t !y are simple because ! damp+-out be+ vigor\s1 & accumulat$ effects small1 we feel ! tide-produc+ =ces m directly4 ,b = au?oritative /atem5ts on tides1 o!r books mu/ be read4 ,i h ?\ght1 & /ill ?9k1 x be/ 9 an elem5t>y exposition to beg9 by a consid]ation ( ! tide-g5]at+ =ces z if !y act$ on a non-rotat+ e>?4 ,x is ! tide g5]at+ =ces1 & n ! tides !mselves1 t are really repres5t$ 9 ,figs4 #aab & #aad4 ,! rotation ( ! e>? !n comes 9 z a di/urb+ cause4 ,a m complete exposition w\ld beg9 ) ! rotat+ e>?1 & w\ld sup]pose ! attraction ( ! moon z a di/urb+ cause1 treat+ x z a problem 9 planet>y p]turbation1 ! ocean be+ a sort ( satellite ( ! e>?4 ,?is treatm5t1 introduc+ in]tia b ignor+ friction & l& ob/ruction1 gives l[ wat] 9 ! l9e ( pull1 & high wat] at "r angles1 or :]e ! pull is z]o2 9 ! same sort ( way z a p5dulum bob is highe/ :]e mo/ =ce is pull+ x d[n1 & l[e/ :]e no =ce is act+ on x4 ,= a cle> treatm5t ( ! tides z due to ! p]turb+ =ces ( sun & moon1 see a little book by ,mr4 ,t4,k4 ,abbott ( ,tr9ity ,college1 ,dubl94 7,longman47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aac4--,maps %[+ h[ comp>atively free f l& ob/ruction ! ocean 9 ! ,s\!rn ,hemisph]e is4 ,if ! moon 7 ! only body t swung ! e>? r\nd1 ?is is all t ne$ be said 9 an elem5t>y treatm5t2 b x is n ! only "o4 ,! moon sw+s ! e>? r\nd once a mon?1 ! sun sw+s x r\nd once a ye>4 ,! circle ( sw+ is bigg]1 b ! spe$ is s mu* sl[] t ! protub]ance produc$ is only "o-?ird ( t caus$ by ! mon?ly :irl2 i4e4 ! simple sol> tide 9 ! op5 sea1 )\t tak+ mom5tum into acc\nt1 is b a little m ?an a foot high1 :ile ! simple lun> tide is ab\t ?ree feet4 ,:5 ! two agree1 we get a spr+ tide ( f\r feet2 :5 !y oppose ea* o!r1 we get a neap tide ( only two feet4 ,!y assi/ ea* o!r at full moon & at new moon4 ,at half-moon !y oppose ea* o!r4 ,s we h spr+ tides regul>ly once a =tnight1 ) neap tides 9 betwe54 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aad4--,spr+ & neap tides4 ,fig4 #aad gives ! cu/om>y diagrams to illu/rate ^! simple ?+s4 ,y see t :5 ! moon & sun act at "r angles 7i4e4 at e half-moon71 ! high tides ( "o co9cide ) ! l[ tides ( ! o!r2 & s1 z a place is c>ri$ r\nd by ! e>?'s rotation1 x always f9ds ei!r sol> or else lun> high wat]1 & only exp]i5ces ! diff]5ce ( _! two effects4 ,:]eas1 :5 ! sun & moon act 9 ! same l9e 7z !y d at new & full moon71 _! high & l[ tides co9cide1 & a place feels _! effects add$ toge!r4 ,! tide !n rises extra high & falls extra l[4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aae4--,tidal clock4 ,! position ( ! disk ,b %[s ! height ( ! tide4 ,! tide repres5t$ is a ne>ly high tide eight feet above mean level4 ,utiliz+ ^! pr9ciples1 a v elem5t>y =m ( tidal-clock1 or tide-pr$ict]1 c be made1 & = an op5 coa/ /ation x really w\ld n give ! tides s v badly4 ,x consi/s ( a sort ( clock face ) two h&s1 "o ne>ly ?ree times z long z ! o!r4 ,! %ort h&1 ,,ca1 %\ld revolve r\nd ,c once 9 twelve h\rs1 & ! v]tical height ( its end ,a repres5ts ! height ( ! sol> tide on ! scale ( horizontal l9es rul$ across ! face ( ! clock4 ,! long h&1 ,,ab1 %\ld revolve r\nd ,a once 9 twelve h\rs & tw5ty-five m9utes1 & ! height ( its end ,b 7if ,a 7 fix$ on ! z]o l9e7 w\ld repres5t ! lun> tide4 ,! two revolutions are made to occur toge!r1 ei!r by means ( a l9k-"w p>allelogram1 or1 :at is bett] 9 practice1 by a /r+ & pulleys1 z %[n2 & ! height ( ! end po9t1 ,b1 ( ! ?ird side or resultant1 ,,cb1 read (f on a scale ( horizontal p>allel l9es beh9d1 repres5ts ! comb9ation or actual tide at ! place4 ,e =tnight ! two w agree1 & y w get spr+ tides ( maximum height ,,ca ,,ab2 e o!r =tnight ! two w oppose1 & y w get neap tides ( maximum height ,,ca-,,ab4 ,su* a clock1 if set prop]ly & driv5 9 ! ord9>y way1 w\ld !n r\ghly indicate ! /ate ( ! tide :5ev] y *ose to look at x & read ! height ( its indicat+ po9t4 ,x w\ld n inde$ be v accurate1 especially = su* an inclos$ /ation z ,liv]pool is1 & t is probably :y !y are n made4 ,a great numb] ( di/urbances1 "s a/ronomical1 "s t]re/rial1 h to be tak5 into acc\nt 9 ! complete !ory4 ,x is n an easy matt] to d ?is1 b x c be1 & has be51 done2 & a tide-pr$ict] has n only be5 con/ruct$1 b two ( !m are 9 regul> "w1 pr$ict+ ! tides = ye>s h5ce--"o1 ! prop]ty ( ! ,indian ,gov]nm5t1 = coa/ /ations ( ,india2 ! o!r = v>i\s ,briti% & =eign /ations1 :]ev] ! necess>y prelim9>y obs]vations h be5 made4 ,^! ma*9es are ! inv5tion ( ,sir ,william ,?omson4 ,! tide-tables = ,indian ports are n[ always made by means ( !m4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aaf4--,sir ,william ,?omson 7,"l ,kelv974 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aag4--,tide-gauge = record+ local tides1 a p5cil mov$ up & d[n by a float writes on a drum driv5 by clockwork4 ,! fir/ ?+ to be done by any port :i* wi%es its tides to be pr$ict$ is to set up a tide-gauge1 or automatic record]1 & keep x work+ = a ye> or two4 ,! tide-gauge is easy en\gh to und]/&3 x m>ks ! height ( ! tide at e in/ant by an irregul> curv$ l9e l a b>omet] *>t 7,fig4 #aag74 ,^! obs]vational curves s obta9$ h next to be f$ into a fe>fully complex ma*9e1 :i* x w\ld take a :ole lecture to make ev5 p>tially intelligible1 b ,fig4 #aah %[s its aspect4 ,x consi/s ( t5 integrat+ ma*9es 9 a r[1 c\pl$ up & work+ toge!r4 ,?is is ! h>monic analyz]1 & ! result ( pass+ ! curve ?r\gh ?is ma*9e is to give y all ! con/itu5ts ( :i* x is built up1 viz4 ! lun> tide1 ! sol> tide1 & eight ( ! sub-tides or di/urbances4 ,^! t5 values are !n set (f into a ?ird ma*9e1 ! tide-pr$ict] prop]4 ,! g5]al mode ( action ( ?is ma*9e is n difficult to und]/&4 ,x consi/s ( a /r+ w\nd ov] & "u a set ( pulleys1 :i* are ea* set on an exc5tric1 s z to h an up-&-d[n motion4 ,^! up-&-d[n motions are all diff]5t1 & !re are t5 ( ^! movable pulleys1 :i* by _! respective excursions repres5t ! lun> tide1 ! sol> tide1 & ! eight di/urbances already analyz$ out ( ! tide-gauge curve by ! h>monic analyz]4 ,"o end ( ! /r+ is fix$1 ! o!r c>ries a p5cil :i* writes a trace on a revolv+ drum ( pap]--a trace :i* repres5ts ! comb9$ motion ( all ! pulleys1 & s pr$icts ! exact height ( ! tide at ! place1 at any future "t y l4 ,! ma*9e c be turn$ q quickly1 s t a ye>'s tides c be run (f ) e detail 9 ab\t half-an-h\r4 ,?is is ! easie/ "p ( ! op]ation4 ,no?+ has to be done b to keep x suppli$ ) pap] & p5cil1 & turn a h&le z if x 7 a c(fee-mill in/ead ( a tide-mill4 7,figs4 #aai & #abj47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aah4--;,h>monic analyz]2 = analyz+ out ! con/itu5ts f a set ( obs]vational curves4 ,my subject is n half exhau/$4 ,i might g on to discuss ! "q ( tidal en]gy--:e!r x c be ev] utiliz$ = indu/rial purposes2 & also ! v int]e/+ "q :5ce x comes4 ,tidal en]gy is almo/ ! only t]re/rial =m ( en]gy t does n directly or indirectly come f ! sun4 ,! en]gy ( tides is n[ kn[n to be obta9$ at ! exp5se ( ! e>?'s rotation2 & accord+ly our day mu/ be sl[ly1 v sl[ly1 l5g!n+4 ,! tides ( pa/ ages h de/roy$ ! moon's rotation1 & s x always turns ! same face to u4 ,!re is e reason to believe t 9 geologic ages ! moon 0 ne>] to u ?an x is n[1 & t accord+ly our tides 7 !n f> m viol5t1 ris+ "s hundr$s ( feet in/ead ( tw5ty or ?irty1 & sweep+ e six h\rs "r ov] ! face ( a c\ntry1 pl\gh+ d[n hills1 d5ud+ rocks1 & produc+ a copi\s s$im5t>y deposit4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aai4--,tide-pr$ict]1 = comb9+ ! asc]ta9$ con/itu5ts into a tidal curve = ! future4 ,9 ?us discov]+ ! probable viol5t tides ( pa/ ages1 a/ronomy has1 )9 ! la/ few ye>s1 pres5t$ geology ) ! mo/ p[]ful d5ud+ ag5t kn[n2 & ! /udy ( ! e>?'s pa/ hi/ory _c fail to be greatly affect$ by ! mod]n /udy ( ! intricate & ref9$ conditions att5d+ prolong$ tidal action on incompletely rigid bodies4 ,read on ?is po9t ! la/ *apt] ( ,sir ,r4 ,ball's ,/ory ( ! ,heav5s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #abj4--,weekly %eet ( curves4 ,tides = successive days are pr$ict$ on ! same %eet ( pap]1 to economise space4 ,i might also po9t out t ! magnitude ( our t]re/rial tides enables u to answ] ! "q z to ! int]nal fluidity ( ! e>?4 ,x us$ to be ?\ght t ! e>?'s cru/ 0 comp>atively ?91 & t x conta9$ a molt5 int]ior4 ,we n[ "k t ?is is n ! case4 ,! int]ior ( ! e>? is hot inde$1 b x is n fluid4 ,or at lea/1 if x be fluid1 ! am\nt ( fluid is b v small comp>$ ) ! ?ickness ( ! unyield+ cru/4 ,all ^!1 & a numb] ( o!r mo/ int]e/+ que/ions1 fr+e ! subject ( ! tides2 ! !oretical /udy ( :i*1 />t$ by ,newton1 has develop$1 & is de/9$ 9 ! future to fur!r develop1 into "o ( ! mo/ gigantic & absorb+ inve/igations--hav+ to d ) ! /ability or in/ability ( sol> sy/ems1 & ) ! con/ruction & decay ( univ]ses4 ,^! !ories are ! "w ( pione]s n[ liv+1 ^: biographies x is !re=e unsuitable = u to discuss1 nor %all ,i con/antly m5tion _! names4 ,b ,helmholtz1 & ,?omson1 are h\sehold words1 & y well "k t 9 !m & _! disciples ! race ( ,pione]s ma9ta9s its anci5t glory4 ,,notes ,,= ,,lecture ,,xviii ,tides are due to incomplete rigidity ( bodies revolv+ r\nd ea* o!r "u ! action ( gravitation1 & at ! same "t sp9n+ on _! axes4 ,two sph]es revolv+ r\nd ea* o!r c only rema9 sph]ical if rigid2 if at all pla/ic !y become prolate4 ,if ei!r rotate on its axis1 9 ! same or ne>ly ! same plane z x revolves1 t "o is necess>ily subject to tides4 ,! axial rotation t5ds to c>ry ! humps ) x1 b ! pull ( ! o!r body keeps !m f mov+ mu*4 ,h5ce ! rotation takes place aga9/ a pull1 & is !re=e m or less *eck$ & ret>d$4 ,?is is ! !ory ( ,von ,helmholtz4 ,! attract+ =ce betwe5 two su* bodies is no long] exactly t[>ds ! c5tre ( revolution1 & !re=e ,kepl]'s second law is no long] precisely obey$3 ! rate ( description ( areas is subject to slight accel]ation4 ,! effect ( ?is tang5tial =ce act+ on ! tide-compell+ body is gradually to increase its di/ance f ! o!r body4 ,apply+ ^! /atem5ts to ! e>? & moon1 we see t tidal en]gy is produc$ at ! exp5se ( ! e>?'s rotation1 & t ! l5g? ( ! day is !reby sl[ly increas+4 ,also t ! moon's rotation relative to ! e>? has be5 de/roy$ by pa/ tidal action 9 x 7! only residue ( anci5t lun> rotation n[ be+ a sc>cely p]ceptible libration71 s t x turns always ! same face t[>ds u4 ,moreov]1 t its di/ance f ! e>? is /eadily increas+4 ,?is la/ is ! !ory ( ,pr(essor ,g4,h4 ,d>w94 ,long ago ! moon mu/ !re=e h be5 mu* ne>] ! e>?1 & ! day 0 mu* %ort]4 ,! tides 7 !n f> m viol5t4 ,halv+ ! di/ance w\ld make !m eight times z high2 qu>t]+ x w\ld increase !m sixty-f\r-fold4 ,a mo/ p[]ful geological d5ud+ ag5t4 ,trade w9ds & /orms 7 also m viol5t4 ,if ev] ! moon 7 close to ! e>?1 x w\ld h to revolve r\nd x 9 ab\t ?ree h\rs4 ,if ! e>? rotat$ on its axis 9 ?ree h\rs1 :5 fluid or pa/y1 x w\ld be un/able1 & beg9 to sep>ate a portion ( itself z a k9d ( bud1 :i* might !n get deta*$ & gradually pu%$ away by ! viol5t tidal action4 ,h5ce x is possible t ?is is ! hi/ory ( ! moon4 ,if s1 x is probably an exceptional hi/ory4 ,! planets 7 n =m$ f ! sun 9 ?is way4 ,m>s' moons revolve r\nd him m quickly ?an ! planet rotates3 h5ce ) !m ! process is inv]t$1 & !y mu/ be approa*+ him & may "s day cra% along 8 surface4 ,! inn] moon is n[ ab\t #d1jjj miles away1 & revolves 9 #g-a_/b h\rs4 ,x appe>s to be ab\t #bj miles 9 diamet]1 & weighs !re=e1 if compos$ ( rock1 #dj billion tons4 ,m>s rotates 9 #bd-a_/b h\rs4 ,a simil> fate may possibly await our moon ages h5ce--by reason ( ! action ( t]re/rial tides produc$ by ! sun4 ,,lecture ,,xviii ,,! ,,tides1 ,,& ,,planet>y ,,evolution ,9 ! la/ lecture we consid]$ ! local peculi>ities ( ! tides1 ! way 9 :i* !y 7 =m$ 9 op5 ocean "u ! action ( ! moon & ! sun1 & also ! means by :i* _! heights & times c\ld be calculat$ & pr$ict$ ye>s be=eh&4 ,t[>ds ! end ,i /at$ t ! subject 0 v f> f be+ exhau/$1 & enum]at$ "s ( ! l>ge & int]e/+ que/ions :i* _h be5 left unt\*$4 ,x is ) "s ( ^! que/ions t ,i propose n[ to deal4 ,i mu/ beg9 by rem9d+ y ( c]ta9 well-kn[n facts1 a k ( :i* ,i may safely assume4 ,& fir/ we mu/ rem9d ourselves ( ! fact t almo/ all ! rocks :i* =m ! accessible cru/ ( ! e>? 7 deposit$ by ! ag5cy ( wat]4 ,ne>ly all are arrang$ 9 regul> /rata1 & are compos$ ( pulv]iz$ mat]ials--mat]ials gr\nd d[n f pre-exi/+ rocks by "s d5ud+ & gr9d+ action4 ,!y ne>ly all conta9 ve/iges ( anci5t life emb$d$ 9 !m1 & ^! ve/iges are ma9ly ( m>9e orig94 ,! /rata :i* 7 once horizontal are n[ s no long]--!y h be5 tilt$ & upheav$1 b5t & di/ort$1 9 _m places4 ,"s ( !m aga9 h be5 metamorphos$ by fire1 s t _! organic rema9s h be5 de/roy$1 & ! traces ( _! aque\s orig9 almo/ oblit]at$4 ,b /ill1 to ! eye ( ! geologi/1 all are ( aque\s or s$im5t>y orig93 r\ghly speak+1 "o may say !y 7 all deposit$ at ! bottom ( "s anci5t sea4 ,! date ( _! =mation no man yet c tell1 b t x 0 va/ly di/ant is c]ta94 ,= ! geological era is n ov]4 ,aque\s action /ill goes on3 /ill does fro/ *ip ! rocks into fragm5ts2 /ill d m\nta9 torr5ts sweep /one & mud & dbris d[n ! gulleys & wat]c\rses2 /ill d riv]s erode _! *annels1 & c>ry mud & silt f> out to sea4 ,&1 m p[]ful ?an any ( ^! ag5ts ( d5udation1 ! waves & ! tides are /ill at "w along e coa/-l9e1 eat+ away into ! cliffs1 und]m9+ gradually & subm]g+ acre aft] acre1 & mak+ ) ! refuse a %+ly1 or a s&y1 or a muddy bea*--! nucleus ( a new geological =mation4 ,( all d5ud+ ag5ts1 !re c be no d\bt t1 to ! l& expos$ to !m1 ! waves ( ! sea are by f> ! mo/ p[]ful4 ,?9k h[ !y beat & te>1 & drive & drag1 until ev5 ! h>de/ rock1 l basalt1 becomes honeycomb$ into /range gall]ies & passages--,f+al's ,cave1 = in/ance--& ! s(t] p>ts are crumbl$ away4 ,b ! area n[ expos$ to ! tee? ( ! waves is n great4 ,! fury ( a w9t] /orm may da% !m a little high] ?an usual1 b !y _c rea* cliffs #ajj feet high4 ,!y c und]m9e su* cliffs inde$1 & !n gr9d ! fragm5ts to p[d]1 b _! direct action is limit$4 ,n s limit$1 h[ev]1 z !y w\ld be )\t ! tides4 ,consid] = a mom5t ! d5udation import ( ! tides3 h[ does ! exi/5ce ( tidal rise & fall affect ! geological problem8 ,! sc\r+ action ( ! tidal curr5ts !mselves is n to be despis$4 ,x is ! tidal ebb & fl[ :i* keeps op5 *annel 9 ! ,m]sey1 = in/ance4 ,b few places are s fav\rably situat$ z ,liv]pool 9 ?is respect1 & ! direct sc\r+ action ( ! tides 9 g5]al is n v great4 ,_! geological import ma9ly consi/s 9 ?is--t !y raise & l[] ! surface waves at regul> int]vals1 s z to apply !m to a consid]able /ret* ( coa/4 ,! waves are a great plan+ ma*9e attack+ ! l&1 & ! tides raise & l[] ?is plan+ ma*9e1 s t its d5ud+ too? is appli$1 n[ tw5ty feet v]tically above mean level1 n[ tw5ty feet bel[4 ,mak+ all all[ance = ! p[] ( w9ds & waves1 curr5ts1 tides1 & wat]c\rses1 assi/$ by glacial ice & fro/1 x mu/ be app>5t h[ sl[ly ! "w ( =m+ ! rocks is be+ c>ri$ on4 ,x goes on /eadily1 b s sl[ly t x is e/imat$ to take #fjjj ye>s to we> away "o foot ( ! ,am]ican cont95t by all ! d5ud+ causes comb9$4 ,to erode a /ratum #ejjj feet ?ick w require at ?is rate ?irty million ye>s4 ,! age ( ! e>? is n at all accurately kn[n1 b !re are _m gr\nds = believ+ x n to be mu* old] ?an "s ?irty million ye>s4 ,t is to say1 n greatly m ?an ?is p]iod ( "t has elaps$ s9ce x 0 9 a molt5 condition4 ,x may be z old z a hundr$ million ye>s1 b its age is believ$ by ^? mo/ compet5t to judge to be m likely )9 ?is limit ?an beyond x4 ,b if we ask :at is ! ?ickness ( ! rocks :i* 9 pa/ times h be5 =m$1 & d5ud$1 & re-=m$1 ov] & ov] aga91 we get an answ]1 n 9 feet1 b 9 miles4 ,! ,laur5tian & ,huronian rocks ( ,canada con/itute a /ratum t5 miles ?ick2 & ev]y:]e ! rocks at ! base ( our /ratifi$ sy/em are ( ! mo/ /up5d\s volume & ?ickness4 ,x has always be5 a puzzle h[ kn[n ag5ts c\ld h =m$ ^! mighty masses1 & ! only solution (f]$ by geologi/s 01 unlimit$ "t4 ,giv5 unlimit$ "t1 !y c\ld1 ( c\rse1 be =m$1 no matt] h[ sl[ly ! process w5t on4 ,b inasmu* z ! "t all[able s9ce ! e>? 0 cool en\gh = wat] to exi/ on x except z /eam is n by any means unlimit$1 x becomes necess>y to look = a f> m p[]ful eng9e ?an any n[ exi/+2 !re mu/ h be5 "s d5ud+ ag5t 9 ^? remote ages--ages f> m di/ant f u ?an ! ,c>bonif]\s p]iod1 f> old] ?an any =ms ( life1 fossil or o!rwise1 ages among ! olde/ kn[n to geology--a d5ud+ ag5t mu/ h !n exi/$1 f> m p[]ful ?an any we n[ "k4 ,su* an ag5t x has be5 ! privilege ( a/ronomy & physics1 )9 ! la/ t5 ye>s1 to discov]4 ,to ?is discov]y ,i n[ proce$ to lead up4 ,our fundam5tal /&>d ( "t is ! p]iod ( ! e>?'s rotation--! l5g? ( ! day4 ,! e>? is our "o /&>d clock3 all "t is express$ 9 t]ms ( x1 & if x began to g wrong1 or if x did n g ) p]fect uni=mity1 x w\ld seem a mo/ difficult ?+ to discov] its error1 & a mo/ puzzl+ piece ( k to utilize :5 f\nd4 ,t x does n g mu* wrong is prov$ by ! fact t we c calculate back to pa/ a/ronomical ev5ts--anci5t eclipses & ! l--& we f9d t ! record ( _! occurr5ce1 z made by ! old magi ( ,*alda1 is 9 v close accordance ) ! result ( calculation4 ,"o ( ^! fam\s old eclipses 0 obs]v$ 9 ,babylon ab\t ?irty-six c5turies ago1 & ! ,*aldan a/ronom]s h put on record ! "t ( its occurr5ce4 ,mod]n a/ronom]s h calculat$ back :5 x %\ld h occurr$1 & ! obs]v$ "t agrees v closely ) ! actual1 b n exactly4 ,:y n exactly8 ,p>tly because ( ! accel]ation ( ! moon's mean motion1 z expla9$ 9 ! lecture on ,laplace 7p4 #bfb74 ,! orbit ( ! e>? 0 at t "t gett+ r\nd]1 & s1 z a second>y result1 ! spe$ ( ! moon 0 slightly increas+4 ,x is ( ! nature ( a p]turbation1 & is !re=e a p]iodic n a progressive or cont9u\s *ange1 & 9 a suffici5tly long "t x w be rev]s$4 ,/ill1 = ! la/ few ?\s& ye>s ! moon's motion has be51 on ! :ole1 accel]at$ 7?\gh !re seems to be a v slight ret>d+ =ce 9 action too74 ,laplace ?\ght t ?is fact acc\nt$ = ! :ole ( ! discrepancy2 b rec5tly1 9 #ahec1 ,pr(essor ,adams re-exam9$ ! matt]1 & made a correction 9 ! details ( ! !ory :i* dim9i%es its effect by ab\t "o-half1 leav+ ! o!r half to be acc\nt$ = 9 "s o!r way4 ,8 calculations h be5 confirm$ by ,pr(essor ,cayley4 ,?is residual discrepancy1 :5 e kn[n cause has be5 all[$ =1 am\nts to ab\t "o h\r4 ,! eclipse occurr$ lat] ?an calculation w>rants4 ,n[ ?is w\ld h happ5$ f ei!r ( two causes1 ei!r an accel]ation ( ! moon 9 h] orbit1 or a ret>dation ( ! e>? 9 h] diurnal rotation--a %ort5+ ( ! mon? or a l5g!n+ ( ! day1 or bo?4 ,! total discrepancy be+1 say1 two h\rs1 an accel]ation ( six seconds-p]-c5tury p] c5tury w 9 ?irty-six c5turies am\nt to "o h\r2 & ?is1 accord+ to ! correct$ ,laplacian !ory1 is :at has occurr$4 ,b to acc\nt = ! o!r h\r "s o!r cause mu/ be s\ght1 & at pres5t x is consid]$ mo/ probably due to a /eady ret>dation ( ! e>?'s rotation--a sl[1 v sl[1 l5g!n+ ( ! day4 ,! /atem5t t a sol> eclipse ?irty-six c5turies ago 0 an h\r late1 means t a place on ! e>?'s surface came into ! %ad[ "o h\r beh9d "t--t is1 _h lagg$ "o tw5ty-f\r? "p ( a revolution4 ,! e>?1 !re=e1 _h lo/ ?is am\nt 9 ! c\rse ( #cfjj #cfe-a_/d revolutions4 ,! loss p] revolution is exce$+ly small1 b x accumulates1 & at any era ! total loss is ! sum ( all ! losses prec$+ x4 ,x may be wor? :ile j to expla9 ?is po9t fur!r4 ,suppose ! e>? loses a small piece ( "t1 :i* ,i w call an in/ant1 p] day2 a locality on ! e>? w come up to a giv5 position "o in/ant late on ! fir/ day aft] an ev5t4 ,on ! next day x w\ld come up two in/ants late by reason ( ! previ\s loss2 b x also loses ano!r in/ant dur+ ! c\rse ( ! second day1 & s ! total lat5ess by ! end ( t day am\nts to ?ree in/ants4 ,! day aft]1 x w be go+ sl[] f ! beg9n+ at ! rate ( two in/ants a day1 x w lose ano!r in/ant on ! fre% day's own acc\nt1 & x />t$ ?ree in/ants late2 h5ce ! aggregate loss by ! end ( ! ?ird day is #a #b #c #f4 ,by ! end ( ! f\r? day ! :ole loss w be #a #b #c #d1 & s on4 ,:]e=e by m]ely los+ "o in/ant e day ! total loss 9 n days is 7#a #b #c 444 n7 in/ants1 :i* am\nts to #a_/bn 7n #a7 in/ants2 or practically1 :5 n is big1 to #a_/bn#b4 ,n[ 9 ?irty-six c5turies !re h be5 #cfjj #cfe-a_/d days1 & ! total loss has am\nt$ to an h\r2 h5ce ! l5g? ( an in/ant1 ! loss p] diem1 c be f\nd f ! equation #a_/b7cfjj #cfe7b in/ants #a h\r2 :5ce "o in/ant equals ! #bdj million? "p ( a second4 ,?is m9ute quantity repres5ts ! ret>dation ( ! e>? p] day4 ,9 a ye> ! aggregate loss m\nts up to #a_/cfjj? "p ( a second1 9 a c5tury to ab\t ?ree seconds1 & 9 ?irty-six c5turies to an h\r4 ,b ev5 at ! end ( ! ?irty-six c5turies ! day is b>ely any long]2 x is only #cfjj #cfe in/ants1 t is #a_/ahj? ( a second1 long] ?an x 0 at ! beg9n+4 ,& ev5 a million ye>s ago1 unless ! rate ( loss 0 diff]5t 7z x probably 071 ! day w\ld only be ?irty-five m9utes %ort]1 ?\gh by t "t ! aggregate loss1 z measur$ by ! app>5t lat5ess ( any p]fectly punctual ev5t reckon$ n[1 w\ld h am\nt$ to n9e ye>s4 7,^! numb]s are to be tak5 z illu/rative1 n z precisely repres5t+ t]re/rial fact47 ,:at c h caus$ ! sl[+ d[n8 ,swell+ ( ! e>? by reason ( accumulation ( meteoric du/ might d some?+1 b probably v little4 ,contraction ( ! e>? z x goes on cool+ w\ld act 9 ! opposite direction1 & probably m ?an c\nt]balance ! du/ effect4 ,! problem is ?us n a simple "o1 = !re are sev]al di/urb+ causes1 & = none ( !m are ! data en\gh to base a quantitative e/imate ^u2 b "o c]ta9 ag5t 9 l5g!n+ ! day1 & almo/ c]ta9ly ! ma9 ag5t1 is to be f\nd 9 ! tides4 ,rememb] t ! tidal humps 7 produc$ z ! prolat5ess ( a sph]e :irl$ r\nd & r\nd a fix$ c5tre1 l a football :irl$ by a /r+4 ,^! humps are pull$ at by ! moon1 & ! e>? rotates on its axis aga9/ ?is pull4 ,h5ce x t5ds to be con/antly1 ?\gh v slightly1 dragg$ back4 ,9 s f> z ! tidal wave is all[$ to oscillate freely1 x w sw+ ) b>ely any ma9ta9+ =ce1 giv+ back at "o qu>t]-sw+ :at x has receiv$ at ! previ\s qu>t]2 b 9 s f> z x enc\nt]s friction1 :i* x does 9 all *annels :]e !re is an actual ebb & fl[ ( ! wat]1 x has to receive m ?an x gives back1 & ! balance ( en]gy has to be made up to x1 or ! tides w\ld cease4 ,! en]gy ( ! tides is1 9 fact1 cont9ually be+ dissipat$ by friction1 & all ! en]gy s dissipat$ is tak5 f ! rotation ( ! e>?4 ,if tidal en]gy 7 utiliz$ by eng9e]s1 ! ma*9es driv5 w\ld be really driv5 at ! exp5se ( ! e>?'s rotation3 x w\ld be a mode ( h>ness+ ! e>? & us+ ! moon z fix$ po9t or fulcrum2 ! moon pull+ at ! tidal protub]ance1 & hold+ x /ill z ! e>? rotates1 is ! me*anism :]eby ! en]gy is extract$1 ! h&le :]eby ! friction brake is appli$4 ,w9ds & ocean curr5ts h no su* effect 7z ,mr4 ,fronde 9 ,oceania supposes !y h71 because !y are all accompani$ by a precisely equal c\nt]-curr5t some:]e else1 & no int]nal re>rangem5t ( fluid c affect ! motion ( a mass z a :ole2 b ! tides are 9 diff]5t case1 be+ produc$1 n by int]nal inequalities ( temp]ature1 b by a /raight=w>d pull f an ext]nal body4 ,! ultimate effect ( tidal friction & dissipation ( en]gy w1 !re=e1 be to gradually ret>d ! e>? till x does n rotate ) ref]5ce to ! moon1 i4e4 till x rotates once :ile ! moon revolves once2 9 o!r words1 to make ! day & ! mon? equal4 ,! same cause mu/ h be5 9 op]ation1 b ) eighty-fold great] int5sity1 on ! moon4 ,x has ceas$ n[1 because ! rotation has /opp$1 b if ev] ! moon rotat$ on its axis ) respect to ! e>?1 & if x 7 ei!r fluid itself or possess$ any liquid ocean1 !n ! tides caus$ by ! pull ( ! e>? mu/ h be5 prodigi\s1 & w\ld t5d to /op its rotation4 ,h !y n succe$$8 ,is x n probable t ?is is :y ! moon always n[ turns ! same face t[>ds u8 ,x is believ$ to be almo/ c]ta9ly ! cause4 ,if s1 !re 0 a "t :5 ! moon behav$ diff]5tly--:5 x rotat$ m quickly ?an x revolv$1 & exhibit$ to u its :ole surface4 ,& at ?is era1 too1 ! e>? itself mu/ h rotat$ a little fa/]1 = x has be5 los+ spe$ ev] s9ce4 ,we h ?us arriv$ at ?is fact1 t a ?\s& ye>s ago ! day 0 a trifle %ort] ?an x is n[4 ,a million ye>s ago x 01 p]haps1 an h\r %ort]4 ,tw5ty million ye>s ago x mu/ h be5 mu* %ort]4 ,fifty million ye>s ago x may h be5 only a few h\rs long4 ,! e>? may h spun r\nd !n q quickly4 ,b !re is a limit4 ,if x spun too fa/ x w\ld fly to pieces4 ,atta* %ot by means ( wax to ! :irl+ e>? model1 ,fig4 #aaj1 & at a c]ta9 spe$ ! cohesion ( ! wax _c hold !m1 s !y fly (f4 ,! e>? is held toge!r n by cohesion b by gravitation2 x is n difficult to reckon h[ fa/ ! e>? mu/ sp9 = gravity at its surface to be annull$1 & = portions to fly (f4 ,we f9d x ab\t "o revolution 9 ?ree h\rs4 ,?is is a critical spe$4 ,if ev] ! day 0 ?ree h\rs long1 some?+ mu/ h happ5$4 ,! day c nev] h be5 %ort] ?an t2 = if x 71 ! e>? w\ld h a t5d5cy to fly 9 pieces1 or1 at lea/1 to sep>ate into two pieces4 ,rememb] ?is1 z a natural result ( a ?ree-h\r day1 :i* corresponds to an un/able /ate ( ?+s2 rememb] also t 9 "s pa/ epo* a ?ree-h\r day is a probability4 ,if we ?9k ( ! /ate ( ?+s go+ on 9 ! e>?'s atmosph]e1 if x _h an atmosph]e at t remote date1 we %all recognize ! exi/5ce ( ! mo/ fe>ful tornadoes4 ,! trade w9ds1 :i* are n[ peaceful ag5ts ( comm]ce1 w\ld !n be p]petual hurricanes1 & all ! d5udation ag5ts ( ! geologi/ w\ld be 9 a /ate ( fev]i% activity4 ,s1 too1 w\ld ! tides3 in/ead ( wait+ six h\rs betwe5 l[ & high tide1 we %\ld h to wait only ?ree-qu>t]s ( an h\r4 ,e h\r-&-a-half ! wat] w\ld execute a complete sw+ f high tide to high aga94 ,v well1 n[ leave ! e>?1 & ?9k :at has be5 happ5+ to ! moon all ?is :ile4 ,we h se5 t ! moon pulls ! tidal hump ne>e/ to x back2 b action & reaction are always equal & opposite--x _c d t )\t itself gett+ pull$ =w>d4 ,! pull ( ! e>? on ! moon w !re=e n be q c5tral1 b w be a little 9 advance ( its c5tre2 h5ce1 by ,kepl]'s second law1 ! rate ( description ( areas by its radius vector _c be con/ant1 b mu/ increase 7p4 #bjh74 ,& ! way x increases w be = ! radius vector to l5g!n1 s z to sweep out a bigg] area4 ,or1 to put x ano!r way1 ! extra spe$ t5d+ to be ga9$ by ! moon w fl+ x fur!r away by extra c5trifugal =ce4 ,?is la/ is n s good a way ( reg>d+ ! matt]2 ?\gh x s]ves well en\gh = ! case ( a ball :irl$ at ! end ( an ela/ic /r+4 ,aft] hav+ got up ! :irl1 ! h& hold+ ! /r+ may rema9 almo/ fix$ at ! c5tre ( ! circle1 & ! motion w cont9ue /eadily2 b if ! h& be mov$ s z always to pull ! /r+ a little 9 advance ( ! c5tre1 ! spe$ ( :irl w increase1 ! ela/ic w be m & m /ret*$1 until ! :irl+ ball is describ+ a mu* l>g] circle4 ,b 9 ?is case x w likewise be go+ fa/]--di/ance & spe$ increase toge!r4 ,?is is because x obeys a diff]5t law f gravitation--! =ce is n inv]sely z ! squ>e1 or any o!r s+le p[]1 ( ! di/ance4 ,x does n obey any ( ,kepl]'s laws1 & s x does n obey ! "o :i* n[ conc]ns u1 viz4 ! ?ird2 :i* practically /ates t ! fur!r a planet is f ! c5tre ! sl[] x goes2 its velocity v>ies inv]sely ) ! squ>e root ( its di/ance 7p4 #gd74 ,if1 in/ead ( a ball held by ela/ic1 x 7 a satellite held by gravity1 an increase 9 di/ance mu/ be accompani$ by a dim9ution 9 spe$4 ,! "t ( revolution v>ies z ! squ>e ( ! cube root ( ! di/ance 7,kepl]'s ?ird law74 ,h5ce1 ! tidal reaction on ! moon1 hav+ z its prim>y effect1 z we h se51 ! pull+ ! moon a little =w>d1 has also ! second>y or indirect effect ( mak+ x move sl[] & g fur!r (f4 ,x may seem /range t an accel]at+ pull1 direct$ 9 front ( ! c5tre1 & !re=e always pull+ ! moon ! way x is go+1 %\ld ret>d x2 & t a ret>d+ =ce l friction1 if su* a =ce act$1 %\ld ha/5 x1 & make x complete its orbit soon]2 b s x precisely is4 ,gradually1 b v sl[ly1 ! moon is rec$+ f u1 & ! mon? is becom+ long]4 ,! tides ( ! e>? are pu%+ x away4 ,?is is n a p]iodic di/urbance1 l ! tempor>y accel]ation ( its motion discov]$ by ,laplace1 :i* 9 a few c5turies1 m or less1 w be rev]s$2 x is a di/urbance :i* always acts "o way1 & :i* is !re=e cumulative4 ,x is sup]pos$ ^u all p]iodic *anges1 &1 ?\gh x seems small] ?an !y1 x is m inexorable4 ,9 a ?\s& ye>s x makes sc>cely an appreciable *ange1 b 9 a million ye>s its p]si/5ce tells v di/9ctly2 & s1 9 ! long run1 ! mon? is gett+ long] & ! moon fur!r (f4 ,work+ backw>ds also1 we see t 9 pa/ ages ! moon mu/ h be5 ne>] to u ?an x is n[1 & ! mon? %ort]4 ,n[ j note :at ! effect ( ! increas$ ne>ness ( ! moon 0 ^u our tides4 ,rememb] t ! tide-g5]at+ =ce v>ies inv]sely z ! cube ( di/ance1 :]e=e a small *ange ( di/ance w produce a great diff]5ce 9 ! tide-=ce4 ,! moon's pres5t di/ance is #bdj ?\s& miles4 ,at a "t :5 x 0 only #aij ?\s& miles1 ! e>?'s tides w\ld h be5 twice z high z !y are n[4 ,! pu%+ away action 0 !n a good deal m viol5t1 & s ! process w5t on quick]4 ,! moon mu/ at "s "t h be5 j half its pres5t di/ance1 & ! tides w\ld !n h ris51 n #bj or #cj feet1 b #afj or #bjj feet4 ,a little fur!r back /ill1 we h ! moon at "o-?ird ( its pres5t di/ance f ! e>?1 & ! tides #fjj feet high4 ,n[ j contemplate ! effect ( a #fjj-;foot tide4 ,we are "h only ab\t #aej feet above ! level ( ! sea2 h5ce1 ! tide w\ld sweep "r ov] u & ru% f> away inl&4 ,at high tide we %\ld h "s #bjj feet ( blue wat] ov] our heads4 ,!re w\ld be no?+ to /op su* a tide z t 9 ?is neighb\rhood till x rea*$ ! high l&s ( ,d]by%ire4 ,man*e/] w\ld be a seaport !n ) a v5geance6 ,! day 0 %ort] !n1 & s ! int]val betwe5 tide & tide 0 m l t5 ?an twelve h\rs4 ,accord+ly1 9 ab\t five h\rs1 all t mass ( wat] w\ld h swept back aga91 & great tracts ( s& betwe5 "h & ,irel& w\ld be left dry4 ,ano!r five h\rs1 & ! wat] w\ld come te>+ & driv+ ov] ! c\ntry1 apply+ its furi\s waves & curr5ts to ! "w ( d5udation1 :i* w\ld proce$ apace4 ,^! high tides ( enorm\sly di/ant pa/ ages con/itute ! d5ud+ ag5t :i* ! geologi/ requir$4 ,!y are v anci5t--m anci5t ?an ! ,c>bonif]\s p]iod1 = in/ance1 = no trees c\ld /& ! furi\s /orms t mu/ h be5 preval5t at ?is "t4 ,x is d\btful :e!r any b ! v l[e/ =ms ( life !n exi/$4 ,x is ! /rata at ! bottom ( ! geological scale t are ( ! mo/ port5t\s ?ickness1 & ! only organism suspect$ 9 !m is ! d\btful ,eozoon ,canad5se4 ,sir ,rob]t ,ball believes1 & sev]al geologi/s agree ) him1 t ! mighty tides we are contemplat+ may h be5 coval ) ?is anci5t ,laur5tian =mation1 & o!rs ( l nature ) x4 ,b let u leave geology n[1 & trace ! inv]t$ progress ( ev5ts z we rec$e 9 imag9ation back ?r\gh ! geological era1 beyond1 into ! dim vi/a ( ! pa/1 :5 ! moon 0 /ill clos] & clos] to ! e>?1 & 0 revolv+ r\nd x quick] & quick]1 be=e life or wat] exi/$ on x1 & :5 ! rocks 7 /ill molt54 ,suppose ! moon once t\*$ ! e>?'s surface1 x is easy to calculate1 accord+ to ! pr9ciples ( gravitation1 & ) a reasonable e/imate ( its size z !n exp&$ by heat1 h[ fa/ x mu/ !n h revolv$ r\nd ! e>?1 s z j to save itself f fall+ 94 ,x mu/ h gone r\nd once e ?ree h\rs4 ,! mon? 0 only ?ree h\rs long at ?is initial epo*4 ,rememb]1 h[ev]1 ! initial l5g? ( ! day4 ,we f\nd t x 0 j possible = ! e>? to rotate on its axis 9 ?ree h\rs1 & t :5 x did s1 some?+ 0 liable to sep>ate f x4 ,"h we f9d ! moon 9 contact ) x1 & go+ r\nd x 9 ?is same ?ree-h\r p]iod4 ,surely ! two are connect$4 ,surely ! moon 0 a "p ( ! e>?1 & 0 sep>at+ f x4 ,t is ! great discov]y--! orig9 ( ! moon4 ,once1 long ages back1 at date unkn[n1 b believ$ to be c]ta9ly z mu* z fifty million ye>s ago1 & q possibly "o hundr$ million1 !re 0 no moon1 only ! e>? z a molt5 globe1 rapidly sp9n+ on its axis--sp9n+ 9 ab\t ?ree h\rs4 ,gradually1 by reason ( "s di/urb+ causes1 a protub]ance1 a sort ( bud1 =ms at "o side1 & ! great in*oate mass sep>ates into two--"o ab\t eighty times z big z ! o!r4 ,! bigg] "o we n[ call e>?1 ! small] we n[ call moon4 ,r\nd & r\nd ! two bodies w5t1 pull+ ea* o!r into trem5d\sly elongat$ or prolate %apes1 & s !y might h gone on = a long "t4 ,b !y are un/able1 & _c g on ?us3 !y mu/ ei!r sep>ate or collapse4 ,"s di/urb+ cause acts aga91 & ! small] mass beg9s to revolve less rapidly4 ,tides at once beg9--gigantic tides ( molt5 lava hundr$s ( miles high2 tides n 9 free ocean1 = !re 0 none !n1 b 9 ! pa/y mass ( ! entire e>?4 ,imm$iately ! s]ies ( *anges ,i h describ$ beg9s1 ! spe$ ( rotation gets slack5$1 ! moon's mass gets pu%$ fur!r & fur!r away1 & its "t ( revolution gr[s rapidly long]4 ,! *anges w5t on rapidly at fir/1 because ! tides 7 s gigantic2 b gradually1 & by sl[ degrees1 ! bodies get m di/ant1 & ! rate ( *ange m mod]ate4 ,until1 aft] ! lapse ( ages1 we f9d ! day tw5ty-f\r h\rs long1 ! moon #bdj1jjj miles di/ant1 revolv+ 9 #bg-a_/c days1 & ! tides only exi/+ 9 ! wat] ( ! ocean1 & only a few feet high4 ,?is is ! era we call to-day4 ,! process does n /op "h3 /ill ! /ately m>* ( ev5ts goes on2 & ! eye ( ,sci5ce /rives to p5etrate into ! ev5ts ( ! future ) ! same cle>ness z x has be5 able to descry ! ev5ts ( ! pa/4 ,& :at does x see8 ,x w take too long to g into full detail3 b ,i w %ortly summ>ize ! results4 ,x sees ?is fir/--! day & ! mon? bo? aga9 equal1 b bo? n[ ab\t #a1djj h\rs long4 ,nei!r ( ^! bodies rotat+ ) respect to ea* o!r--! two z if jo9$ by a b>--& total cessation ( tide-g5]at+ action betwe5 !m4 ,! date ( ?is p]iod is "o hundr$ & fifty millions ( ye>s h5ce1 b unless "s un=ese5 cata/rophe int]v5es1 x mu/ assur$ly come4 ,yet nei!r w ev5 ?is be ! f9al /age2 = ! sy/em is di/urb$ by ! tide-g5]at+ =ce ( ! sun4 ,x is a small effect1 b x is cumulative2 & gradually1 by mu* sl[] degrees ?an any?+ we h yet contemplat$1 we are pres5t$ ) a picture ( ! mon? gett+ gradually %ort] ?an ! day1 ! moon gradually approa*+ in/ead ( rec$+1 & s1 incalculable myriads ( ages h5ce1 precipitat+ itself ^u ! surface ( ! e>? :5ce x arose4 ,su* a cata/rophe is already imm95t 9 a neighb\r+ planet--,m>s4 ,m>s' pr9cipal moon circulates r\nd him at an absurd pace1 complet+ a revolution 9 #g-a_/b h\rs1 & x is n[ only #d1jjj miles f 8 surface4 ,! planet rotates 9 tw5ty-f\r h\rs z we d2 b its tides are foll[+ its moon m quickly ?an x rotates aft] !m2 !y are !re=e t5d+ to increase its rate ( sp91 & to ret>d ! revolution ( ! moon4 ,m>s is !re=e sl[ly b surely pull+ its moon d[n on to itself1 by a rev]se action to t :i* sep>at$ our moon4 ,! day %ort] ?an ! mon? =ces a moon fur!r away2 ! mon? %ort] ?an ! day t5ds to draw a satellite ne>]4 ,?is moon ( ,m>s is n a l>ge body3 x is only tw5ty or ?irty miles 9 diamet]1 b x weighs "s =ty billion tons1 & w ultimately cra% along ! surface ) a velocity ( #h1jjj miles an h\r4 ,su* a bl[ mu/ produce ! mo/ a/\nd+ effects :5 x occurs1 b ,i am unable to tell y its probable date4 ,s f> we h dealt ma9ly ) ! e>? & its moon2 b is ! exi/5ce ( tides limit$ to ^! bodies8 ,by no means4 ,no body 9 ! sol> sy/em is rigid1 no body 9 ! /ell> univ]se is rigid4 ,all mu/ be susceptible ( "s tidal de=mation1 & h5ce1 9 all ( !m1 ag5ts l ^? we h trac$ 9 ! hi/ory ( ! e>? & moon mu/ be at "w3 ! motion ( all mu/ be complicat$ by ! ph5om5a ( tides4 ,x is ,pr(4 ,george ,d>w9 :o has work$ out ! a/ronomical influ5ce ( ! tides1 on ! pr9ciples ( ,sir ,william ,?omson3 x is ,sir ,rob]t ,ball :o has ext5d$ ,mr4 ,d>w9's results to ! pa/ hi/ory ( our own & o!r worlds4#cb ,tides are ( c\rse produc$ 9 ! sun by ! action ( ! planets1 = ! sun rotates 9 tw5ty-five days or !reab\ts1 :ile ! planets revolve 9 mu* long] p]iods ?an t4 ,! pr9cipal tide-g5]at+ bodies w be ,v5us & ,jupit]2 ! great] ne>ness ( "o r m ?an comp5sat+ = ! great] mass ( ! o!r4 ,x may be int]e/+ to tabulate ! relative tide-produc+ p[]s ( ! planets on ! sun4 ,!y are z foll[s1 call+ t ( ! e>? #a1jjj3-- ,,relative ,,tide-,,produc+ ,,p[]s ,,( ,,! ,,planets ,,on ,,! ,,sun4 ,m]cury #a1aba ,v5us #b1cci ,e>? #a1jjj ,m>s #cjd ,jupit] #b1acf ,saturn #a1jcc ,uranus #ba ,neptune #i ,! p[] ( all ( !m is v feeble1 & by act+ on diff]5t sides !y usually p>tly neutralize ea* o!r's action2 b occasionally !y get all on "o side1 & 9 t case "s p]ceptible effect may be produc$2 ! probable effect seems likely to be a g5tle heav+ tide 9 ! sol> surface1 ) break+ up ( any incipi5t cru/2 & su* an effect may be consid]$ z evid5c$ p]iodically by ! great increase 9 ! numb] ( sol> spots :i* !n break out4 ,! sol> tides are1 h[ev]1 mu* too small to appreciably pu% any planet away1 h5ce we are n to suppose t ! planets orig9at$ by budd+ f ! sun1 9 contradiction ( ! nebul> hypo!sis4 ,nor is x necess>y to assume t ! satellites1 z a class1 orig9at$ 9 ! way ours did2 ?\gh !y may h done s4 ,!y 7 m probably second>y r+s4 ,our moon diff]s f o!r satellites 9 be+ exceptionally l>ge comp>$ ) ! size ( its prim>y2 x is z big z "s ( ! moons ( ,jupit] & ,saturn4 ,! e>? is ! only "o ( ! small planets t has an appreciable moon1 & h5ce !re is no?+ =c$ or unnatural 9 suppos+ t x may h _h an exceptional hi/ory4 ,evid5tly1 h[ev]1 tidal ph5om5a mu/ be tak5 into consid]ation 9 any treatm5t ( ! sol> sy/em ?r\gh enorm\s l5g? ( "t1 & x w probably play a l>ge "p 9 det]m9+ its future4 ,:5 ,laplace & ,lagrange inve/igat$ ! "q ( ! /ability or in/ability ( ! sol> sy/em1 !y did s on ! hypo!sis t ! bodies compos+ x 7 rigid4 ,!y rea*$ a gr& conclusion--t all ! mutual p]turbations ( ! sol> sy/em 7 p]iodic--t :atev] *anges 7 go+ on w\ld rea* a maximum & !n beg9 to dim9i%2 !n increase aga91 !n dim9i%1 & s on4 ,! sy/em 0 /able1 & its *anges 7 m]ely l ^? ( a sw++ p5dulum4 ,b ?is conclusion is n f9al4 ,! hypo!sis t ! bodies are rigid is n /rictly true3 & directly tidal de=mation is tak5 into consid]ation x is p]ceiv$ to be a pot5t factor1 able 9 ! long run to upset all _! calculations4 ,b x is s utt]ly & inconceivably m9ute--x only produces an appreciable effect aft] millions ( ye>s--:]eas ! ord9>y p]turbations g ?r\gh _! sw+s 9 "s hundr$ ?\s& ye>s or s at ! mo/4 ,grant$ x is small1 b x is t]ribly p]si/5t2 & x always acts 9 "o direction4 ,nev] does x cease3 nev] does x beg9 to act oppositely & undo :at x has done4 ,x is l ! p]petual dropp+ ( wat]4 ,!re may be only "o drop 9 a twelvemon?1 b leave x long en\gh1 & ! h>de/ /one mu/ be worn away at la/4 99 99 99 99 99 ,we h be5 speak+ ( millions ( ye>s some:at famili>ly2 b :at1 aft] all1 is a million ye>s t we %\ld n speak famili>ly ( x8 ,x is long] ?an our lifetime1 x is true4 ,to ! ephem]al insects ^: lifetime is an h\r1 a ye> might seem an awful p]iod1 ! mid-day sun might seem an almo/ /ation>y body1 ! *anges ( ! seasons w\ld be unkn[n1 ev]y?+ b ! mo/ fleet+ & rapid *anges w\ld appe> p]man5t & at re/4 ,conv]sely1 if our life-p]iod embrac$ myriads ( ons1 ?+s :i* n[ seem p]man5t w\ld !n appe> z 9 a p]petual /ate ( flux4 ,a cont95t w\ld be sometimes dry1 sometimes cov]$ ) ocean2 ! />s we n[ call fix$ w\ld be mov+ visibly be=e our eyes2 ! e>? w\ld be humm+ on its axis l a top1 & ! :ole ( human hi/ory might seem z fleet+ z a cl\d ( brea? on a mirror4 ,evolution is always a sl[ process4 ,to evolve su* an animal z a greyh\nd f its remote ance/ors1 accord+ to ,mr4 ,d>w91 ne$s imm5se tracts ( "t2 & if ! evolution ( "s feeble animal crawl+ on ! surface ( ?is planet is sl[1 %all ! /ately evolution ( ! planet>y orbs !mselves be hurri$8 ,x may be t we are able to trace ! hi/ory ( ! sol> sy/em = "s ?\s& million ye>s or s2 b = h[ mu* long] "t mu/ x n h a hi/ory--a hi/ory1 & also a future--entirely beyond our k58 ,^? :o /udy ! />s h impress$ ^u !m ! exi/5ce ( ! mo/ immeasurable di/ances1 :i* yet are swall[$ up z no?+ 9 ! inf9itude ( space4 ,no less are we compell$ to recognize ! exi/5ce ( incalculable ons ( "t1 & yet to p]ceive t ^! are b z drops 9 ! ocean ( et]nity4 ,,footnotes3 #a ,! foll[+ acc\nt ( ,m>s's motion is f ! excell5t small manual ( a/ronomy by ,dr4 ,haughton ( ,tr9ity ,college1 ,dubl93--7,p4 #aea7 ,m>s's motion is v unequal2 :5 he fir/ appe>s 9 ! morn+ em]g+ f ! rays ( ! sun1 8 motion is direct & rapid2 x aft]w>ds becomes sl[]1 & he becomes /ation>y :5 at an elongation ( #acg f ! sun2 !n 8 motion becomes retrograde1 & its velocity increases until he is 9 opposition to ! sun at #ahj2 at ?is "t ! retrograde motion is mo/ rapid1 & aft]w>ds dim9i%es until he is #acg di/ant f ! sun on ! o!r side1 :5 ,m>s aga9 becomes /ation>y2 8 motion !n becomes direct1 & increases 9 velocity until x rea*es a maximum1 :5 ! planet is aga9 9 conjunction ) ! sun4 ,! retrograde motion ( ?is planet la/s = #gc days3 & its arc ( retrogradation is #af4 #b ,x is n s easy to plot ! pa? ( ! sun among ! />s by direct obs]vation1 z x is to plot ! pa? ( a planet2 because sun & />s are n visible toge!r4 ,hipp>*us us$ ! moon z an int]m$i>y2 s9ce sun & moon are visible toge!r1 & also moon & />s4 #c ,?is is1 h[ev]1 by no means ! :ole ( ! matt]4 ,! motion is n a simple circle nor has x a readily specifiable p]iod4 ,!re are sev]al di/urb+ causes4 ,all t is giv5 "h is a fir/ r\gh approximation4 #d ,! pro( is easy1 & ought to occur 9 books on solid geometry4 ,by a regul> solid is meant "o ) all its faces1 edges1 angles1 c41 absolutely alike3 x is ( ^! p]fectly symmetrical bodies t !re are only five4 ,cry/all9e =ms are practically inf9ite 9 numb]4 #e ,be/ kn[n to u by 8 ,*ri/ian "n1 z s _m o!rs ( t "t are kn[n1 e4g4 ,raphael ,sanzio1 ,dante ,alighi]i1 ,mi*ael ,angelo ,buon>otti4 ,! rule is n univ]sal4 ,tasso & ,ario/o are surnames4 #f ,x w\ld seem t ! fact t all bodies ( e mat]ial t5d to fall at ! same rate is /ill n cle>ly kn[n4 ,confusion is introduc$ by ! resi/ance ( ! air4 ,b a little ?\ght %\ld make x cle> t ! effect ( ! air is a m]e di/urbance1 to be elim9at$ z f> z possible1 s9ce ! atmosph]e has no?+ to d ) gravitation4 ,! old fa%ion$ gu9ea & fea!r exp]im5t illu/rates t 9 a vacuum ?+s entirely diff]5t 9 specific gravity or surface drop at ! same pace4 #g ,k>l von ,gebl] 7,galileo71 p4 #ac4 #h ,x is ( c\rse ! silv] l9+ ( cl\ds t outside obs]v]s see4 #i ,l4,u4,k41 ,life ( ,galileo1 p4 #bf4 #aj ,note add$ ,septemb]1 #ahib4 ,news f ! ,lick ,obs]vatory makes a v small fif? satellite n improbable4 #aa ,!y rema9$ !re till ?is c5tury4 ,9 #ahce !y 7 quietly dropp$4 #ab ,x 0 inv5t$ by van ,helmont1 a ,belgian *emi/1 :o di$ 9 #afdd4 ,he sugge/$ two names gas & blas1 & ! fir/ has surviv$4 ,blas 01 ,i suppose1 f blas51 to bl[1 & gas seems to be an attempt to get at ! ,sanskrit root und]ly+ all su* words z gei/4 #ac ,su* z ?is1 among _m o!rs3--,! duration ( a flame "u diff]5t conditions is well wor? det]m9+4 ,a spoonful ( w>m spirits ( w9e burnt #aaf pulsations4 ,! same spoonful ( spirits ( w9e ) addition ( "o-six? saltpetre burnt #id pulsations4 ,) "o-six? common salt1 #hc2 ) "o-six? gunp[d]1 #aaj2 a piece ( wax 9 ! middle ( ! _s1 #hg2 a piece ( ,kiesel/e91 #id2 "o-six? wat]1 #hf2 & ) equal p>ts wat]1 only #d pulse-beats4 ,?is1 says ,liebig1 is giv5 z an example ( a li*t-br+5de ,v]su*4 #ad ,drap]1 ,hi/ory ( ,civilization 9 ,europe1 vol4 ii4 p4 #bei4 #ae ,pr(essor ,knight's s]ies ( ,philosophical ,classics4 #af ,to expla9 :y ! entire sy/em1 horse & c>t toge!r1 move =w>d1 ! =ces act+ on ! gr\nd mu/ be att5d$ to4 #ag ,! di/ance be+ proportional to ! squ>e ( ! "t1 see p4 #hb4 #ah ,! foll[+ lett]1 rec5tly une>!d & publi%$ 9 ,nature1 ,may #ab1 #ahha1 seems to me well wor? pres]v+4 ,! feel+ ( a respiratory int]val :i* x describes is famili> to /ud5ts dur+ ! too few p]iods ( really satisfactory occupation4 ,! e>ly guess conc]n+ atmosph]ic electricity is typical ( 8 extraord9>y in/9ct = guess+ "r4 ,,london1 ,dec4 #ae1 #agaf4 ,,de> ,,doctor1--,he t 9 ye m9e ( k deepe/ digge?1 ha?1 l e o!r m9]1 ye lea/ brea?+ "t1 & mu/ sometimes at lea/ come to t]r4 alt4 = air4 ,9 "o ( ^! respiratory int]vals ,i n[ sit d[n to write to y1 my fri5d4 ,y ask me h[1 ) s mu* /udy1 ,i manage to ret5e my heal?4 ,ah1 my de> doctor1 y h a bett] op9ion ( y\r lazy fri5d ?an he ha? ( himself4 ,morphe\s is my la/ companion2 )\t #h or #i h\rs ( him yr correspond5t is n wor? "o scav5g]'s p]uke4 ,my practices did at ye fir/ hurt my /oma*1 b n[ ,i eat he>tily en\' z y' w see :5 ,i come d[n beside y4 ,i h be5 mu* amus$ at ye s+ul> ,greek3 ph5om5a result+ f br++ ( a ne$le into contact ) a piece ( amb] or res9 fricat$ on silke clo!4 ,ye flame putte? me 9 m9d ( %eet lightn+ on a small--h[ v small--scale4 ,b ,i %all 9 my epi/les abjure ,philosophy :]e( :5 ,i come d[n to ,sakly ,i'll give y en\'4 ,i began to scrawl at #e m9s4 f #i ( ye clk4 & h 9 writ+ consmd4 #aj m9s4 ,my ,ld4 ,som]set is ann\nc$4 ,f>ewell1 ,gd4 bless y & help yr s9c]e fri5d4 ,,isaac ,,newton4 ,to ,,dr4 ,,law1 ,suffolk4 #ai ,kepl]'s laws may be call$ respectively1 ! law ( pa?1 ! law ( spe$1 & ! relation%ip law4 ,by ! mass ( a body is meant ! numb] ( p\nds or tons 9 x3 ! am\nt ( matt] x conta9s4 ,! idea is involv$ 9 ! popul> ^w massive4 #bj ,! equation we h to v]ify is #dpi#br#c g,r#b -----------1 ,t#b ) ! data t r1 ! moon's di/ance1 is #fj times ,r1 ! e>?'s radius1 :i* is #c1ifc miles2 :ile ,t1 ! "t tak5 to complete ! moon's orbit1 is #bg days1 #ac h\rs1 #ah m9utes1 #cg seconds4 ,h5ce1 suppose we calculate out g1 ! int5sity ( t]re/rial gravity1 f ! above equation1 we get #dpi#b #ciib #bafjjj #cifc miles g ---------- 7#fj7c,r ----------------------------- ,t 7#bg days1 #ac h\rs1 c47#b #cbeg feet-p]-second p] second1 :i* is n f> wrong4 #ba ,! two motions may be r\ghly comp\nd$ into a s+le motion1 :i* = a few c5turies may )\t mu* error be reg>d$ z a conical revolution ab\t a diff]5t axis ) a diff]5t p]iod2 & ,lieut5ant-,colonel ,drayson writes books emphasiz+ ?is simple fact1 "u ! impression t x is a discov]y4 #bb ,memb]s ( ! ,accademia dei ,lyncei1 ! fam\s old sci5tific ,society e/abli%$ 9 ! "t ( ,cosmo de ,m$ici--old] ?an our own ,royal ,society4 #bc ,newton suspect$ t ! moon really did s oscillate1 & s x may h done once2 b any real or physical libration1 if exi/+ at all1 is n[ extremely m9ute4 #bd ,an int]e/+ picture 9 ! ,new ,gall]y ?is ye> 7#ahia71 attempt+ to depict ,e>?-rise 9 ,moon-l&1 un=tunately errs 9 sev]al p>ticul>s4 ,fir/ ( all1 ! e>? does n rise1 b is fix$ relatively to ea* place on ! moon2 & two-fif?s ( ! moon nev] sees x4 ,next1 ! e>? w\ld n look l a map ( ! _w ) a haze on its edge4 ,la/ly1 :atev] animal rema9s ! moon may conta9 w\ld probably be r 9 ! =m ( fossils ?an ( skeletons4 ,! skeleton is ( c\rse int5d$ z an image ( dea? & desolation4 ,x is a matt] ( ta/e3 b a skeleton1 x seems to me1 speaks too rec5tly ( life to be z appall+ly weird & desolate z a blank /one or ice l&scape1 un%ad$ by atmosph]e or by any trace ( animal or plant life1 c\ld be made4 #be ,five ( ,jupit]'s revolutions occupy #ba1ffc days2 two ( ,saturn's revolutions occupy #ba1ebf days4 #bf ,excircul>ity is :at is meant by ?is t]m4 ,x is call$ exc5tricity because ! foci 7n ! c5tre7 ( an ellipse are reg>d$ z ! repres5tatives ( ! c5tre ( a circle4 ,_! di/ance f ! c5tre1 comp>$ ) ! radius ( ! unflatt5$ circle1 is call$ ! exc5tricity4 #bg ,a curve ( ! n? degree has #a_/bn7n#c7 arbitr>y con/ants 9 its equation1 h5ce ?is numb] ( po9ts specifically det]m9e x4 ,b special po9ts1 l focus or v]tex1 c\nt z two ord9>y ones4 ,h5ce ?ree po9ts plus ! focus act z five po9ts1 & det]m9e a conic or curve ( ! second degree4 ,?ree obs]vations !re=e fix an orbit r\nd ! sun4 #bh ,its "n sugge/s a measure ( ! diamet] ( ! sun's disk1 & ?is is "o ( its functions2 b x c likewise measure planet>y & o!r disks2 & 9 g5]al behaves z ! mo/ elaborate & exp5sive =m ( micromet]4 ,! ,knigsb]g in/rum5t is %ewn 9 fig4 #ib4 #bi ,x may be suppos$ t ! t]ms m9ute & second h "s necess>y connection ) "t1 b !y are m]e abbreviations = p>tes m9ut & p>tes m9ut secund1 & consequ5tly may be appli$ to ! subdivision ( degrees j z prop]ly z to ! subdivision ( h\rs4 ,a second ( arc means ! #cfjj? "p ( a degree1 j z a second ( "t means ! #cfjj? "p ( an h\r4 #cj ,a gr\p ( fly+ p>ticles1 ea* "o invisible1 ob/ructs light s+ul>ly little1 ev5 :5 !y are close toge!r1 z "o c tell by ! transp>5cy ( %[]s & sn[/orms4 ,! opacity ( haze may be due n m]ely to du/ p>ticles1 b to little eddies set up by radiation above ea* p>ticle1 s t ! air becomes turbul5t & ( v>y+ d5sity4 7,see a simil> sugge/ion by ,mr4 ,poynt+ 9 ,nature1 vol4 #ci1 p4 #cbc47 #ca ,! moon ought to be wat*$ dur+ ! next great %[]1 if ! l9e ( fire happ5s to take effect on a visible "p ( ! d>k portion4 #cb ,address to ,birm+ham ,midl& ,in/itute1 ,a ,glimpse ?r\gh ! ,corridors ( ,"t4 ,,index ,,index ,a ,abbott1 ,t4,k41 on tides1 #cfi ,adams1 ,john ,c\*1 #aic1 #bag1 #cjb1 #cbc1 #cbd1 #cbe1 #cbg1 #cbi1 #ccj1 #ceb1 #che ,airy1 ,sir ,george1 #aic1 #bdd1 #cjb1 #cbc1 #cbd1 #cbg1 #cfg ,anaxagoras1 #ae ,appian1 #bah ,arabs1 !1 =m a l9k betwe5 ! old & new sci5ce1 #i ,ar*im$es1 #g1 #h1 #hd1 #hg1 #add1 #agg ,ari/>*us1 #cd ,ari/otle1 #ff1 #fi1 #hh1 #id1 #ii1 #afg4 ,he taught t ! e>? 0 a sph]e1 #af2 8 !ories did n all[ ( ! e>?'s motion1 #cd2 he 0 reg>d$ z inspir$1 #hi ,b ,bacon1 ,francis1 #adb1 #adc1 #add1 #ade4 ,8 ,novum ,organum1 #ada ,bacon1 ,rog]1 #if1 #aci1 #adj4 ,! h]ald ( ! dawn ( sci5ce1 #i ,brah1 ,george1 uncle ( ,ty*o ,brah1 #ci ,brah1 ,/5o1 bro!r ( ,ty*o ,brah1 #ci ,brah1 ,ty*o1 #cg1 #ci1 #dj1 #dd1 #de1 #di1 #ea1 #ec1 #ed1 #ee1 #eh1 #fc1 #fd1 #fe1 #ff1 #fh1 #ga1 #gb1 #gd1 #ge1 #gg1 #gh1 #hf1 #id1 #aag1 #acg1 #aee1 #afe1 #aff1 #bjj1 #bdd1 #bha1 #bhh4 ,he tri$ to adopt ! ma9 features ( ! ,cop]nican !ory )\t admitt+ ! motion ( ! e>?1 #cg2 he 0 a poor !ori/ b a great obs]v]1 #ch2 8 m$ic9e1 #dd2 8 p]sonal hi/ory1 #ci1 seq42 8 obs]vatory1 ,uraniburg1 #dg2 8 greate/ inv5tion1 #ej1 note2 8 maniac ,lep1 #eb2 8 k9dness to ,kepl]1 #fc ,ball1 ,sir ,r41 #cia1 #cid2 8 ,/ory ( ! ,heav5s1 #cgg ,b>r[1 ,dr41 #afe1 #ahg ,bessel1 #bhh1 #caj1 #caa1 #cac1 #cae1 #caf1 #cah1 #cbc ,biela1 #cde1 #cdf1 #cdg ,bode's ,law1 #fj1 #bif1 #bih1 #bii1 #cbf ,boyle1 #aci1 #ahh ,bradley1 ,pr(4 ,james1 #bcc1 #bdf1 #bdg1 #bdi1 #beb1 #bec1 #cjh1 #cai ,bremik]1 #cbh1 #cbi ,brew/]1 on ,kepl]1 #gh ,br9kley1 #cjh ,bruno1 ,giordano1 #ajh1 #abg ,c ,ca/elli1 #aab1 #acc ,cayley1 ,pr(41 #che ,*allis1 ,pr(41 #cbh1 #cbi ,clairut1 #aic1 #baf1 #bag1 #bai1 #bcd1 #cda ,cl>k1 ,alvan & ,sons1 #caf ,columbus1 #i1 #add ,cop]nicus1 #g1 #aj1 seq41 #ad1 #bf1 #bg1 #bi1 #cj1 #ca1 #cc1 #cd1 #ce1 #cg1 #ch1 #fb1 #ff1 #fh1 #gj1 #gh1 #ic1 #ie1 #ajj1 #ajh1 #aaa1 #aba1 #abb1 #acg1 #aee1 #aff1 #bbc1 #bcd1 #bdg1 #cjg2 8 ,de ,revolutionibus ,orbium ,coele/ium1 #aa1 #ge1 #ach2 he prov$ t ! e>? w5t r\nd ! sun1 #ac2 ! influ5ce ( 8 !ory on ! ,*ur*1 #ac1 seq42 8 life-"w summ>is$1 #cj2 8 ,life by ,mr4 ,e4,j4,c4 ,morton1 #ca ,cop]nican tables1 #dj2 ,cop]nican !ory1 #ei1 #fj1 #abe1 #add1 #afg ,cop]nik1 ,nicolas2 see ,cop]nicus ,cornu1 #bch ,croll1 ,dr41 8 ,climate & ,"t1 #bfd ,d ,d',alemb]t1 #aic1 #bcd ,d>w91 ,*>les1 #acd1 #ach1 #cig ,d>w91 ,pr(4 ,george1 #cfg1 #cid ,delambre1 #bec ,desc>tes1 #ade1 #adf1 #adh1 #aea1 #aec1 #aef1 #aeh1 #afd1 #afe1 #afg1 #agh1 #aha1 #bbd1 #bbg2 8 ,disc\rse on ,me?od1 #adb2 8 dream1 #adg2 8 sy/em ( algebraic geometry1 #adi1 seq42 8 doctr9e ( vortices1 #aea1 seq42 8 ,pr9cipia ,ma!matica1 #aed2 8 ,life by ,mr4 ,mahaffy1 #aed ,e ,e>?1 ! difficulties 9 ! way ( believ+ t x mov$1 #cd1 seq4 ,e>?-rise 9 ,moon-l&1 #beh1 note ,encke1 #cde1 #cdf ,epicyclic orbits expla9$1 #bc1 seq4 ,equ9oxes1 _! precession discov]$ by ,hipp>*us1 #bg ,eudoxus1 #ai ,eul]1 #aic1 #bcd ,f ,f>aday1 #hd ,fizeau1 #bch1 #bci ,flam/e$1 #bae1 #bdf1 #bhd1 #cjh1 #cai ,fraunh(]1 #caa ,fr\de1 ,pr(42 8 ,oceania1 #chg ,g ,gal51 #hg ,galileo1 ,galilei1 #fc1 #ge1 #hd1 #hh1 #ij1 #ib1 #ic1 #ig1 #ih1 #aja1 #ajd1 #ajf1 #ajg1 #ajh1 #aji1 #aaj1 #aab1 #aad1 #aaf1 #aag1 #aah1 #abj1 #aba1 #abb1 #abc1 #abe1 #abg1 #acc1 #acd1 #acg1 #add1 #ade1 #aec1 #aed1 #aeg1 #afe1 #aff1 #afg1 #afh1 #agg1 #ahh1 #bjj1 #bbd1 #bbg1 #bef1 #bha1 #bhh1 #cji1 #cfa2 8 y\?1 #he2 8 discov]y ( ! p5dulum1 #hf2 8 fir/ obs]vations ab\t fall+ bodies1 #hh1 seq42 he inv5ts a telescope1 #ie2 he adopts ! ,cop]nican !ory1 #id2 he conceives e>?-%9e1 #ajj2 he discov]s ,jupit]'s moons1 #ajc2 he /udies ,saturn1 #aad1 seq42 8 ,dialogues on ! ,ptolemaic & ,cop]nican ,sy/ems1 #abd2 8 abjuration1 #acj2 he becomes bl9d1 #acb2 he discov]$ ! ,laws ( ,motion1 #afg1 seq42 he guess$ t sight 0 n in/antane\s1 #bcf1 #bcg ,galle1 ,dr41 #bde1 #cbi ,gauss1 #bii1 #cjj ,gilb]t1 ,dr41 #aci1 #adj1 #aeg1 #ahh2 8 ,de ,magnete1 #adj1 #add ,greeks1 _! sci5tific me?ods1 #g ,groombridge's ,catalogue1 #cae ,h ,hadley1 #ahe ,halley1 #aib1 #aic1 #aid1 #aie1 #aig1 #bae1 #bah1 #bai1 #bdf1 #beh1 #bfj1 #bfa1 #cdj1 #cda2 he discov]$ ! ,pr9cipia1 #aid ,h>vey1 #add1 #adi ,haughton1 ,dr41 #cba2 8 manual on ,a/ronomy1 #ba1 note ,heliomet]1 describ$1 #caa ,helmholtz1 #cgh ,helmont1 ,van1 inv5t$ ! ^w gas1 #ada ,h5d]son1 #caj1 #cad ,h]s*el1 ,alex&]1 #bge1 #bgg1 #bgh1 #bgi ,h]s*el1 ,c>ol9e1 #bge1 #bgf1 #bgi1 #bhf1 #cde2 h] j\rnal quot$1 #bgg1 seq42 h] "w ) ,william ,h4 describ$1 #bhd ,h]s*el1 ,sir ,john1 #bhc1 #bhe1 #cbg1 #cbi ,h]s*el1 ,william1 #ahe1 #bcd1 #bce1 #bdd1 #bdi1 #bgd1 #bge1 #bhj1 #bha1 #bhb1 #bhd1 #bhh1 #bhi1 #bij1 #bic1 #bie1 #cje1 #cji1 #caj1 #cah1 #cai1 #cbg2 he sweeps ! heav5s1 #bhj2 8 discov]y ( ,uranus1 #bha1 #bhg2 8 artificial ,saturn1 #bha1 #bhb2 8 me?ods ( "w ) 8 si/]1 describ$1 #bhd2 he f\nd$ ! sci5ce ( ,a/ronomy1 #bhg ,h9d1 #cjj ,hipp>*us1 #g1 #ah1 #bj1 #bg1 #bh1 & note1 #cj1 #dj1 #ff1 #bbc1 #bec2 an explanation ( 8 discov]y ( ! precession ( ! equ9oxes1 #bg1 seq4 ,hippocrates1 #hg ,hom]ic ,cosmogony1 #ae1 seq4 ,hooke1 #aci1 #ahh1 #aib1 #aic1 #aif1 #aig1 #cjh ,hpital1 ,m>quis de l'1 #bbh ,horkey1 ,m>t91 #ajf ,horreb[1 #bdd ,huxley1 ,pr(41 #adi ,huygh5s1 #hf1 #aff1 #ahe ,k ,kant1 #bfg1 #bgj ,kelv91 ,"l1 see ,?omson1 ,sir ,w4 ,kepl]1 ,john1 #ei1 #fj1 #fc1 #fd1 #fe1 #ff1 #gj1 #gb1 #gc1 #ge1 #gg1 #gi1 #hd1 #ic1 #id1 #ie1 #ajd1 #ajf1 #ajg1 #aaj1 #abb1 #acg1 #ade1 #aec1 #aeh1 #afd1 #afe1 #aff1 #afg1 #aib1 #bjj1 #bjh1 #bji1 #baj1 #baa1 #bab1 #bad1 #bah1 #bbd1 #bbg1 #bec1 #bef1 #bei1 #bfj1 #bfb1 #bhh1 #bie1 #bif1 #ccb1 #cch1 #cfa1 #chi2 he replac$ epicycles by an ellipse1 #bg2 he 0 a pupil ( ,ty*o ,brah1 #ed2 he 0 a speculator m ?an an obs]v]1 #eh2 8 p]sonal life1 #eh1 seq42 8 !ories ab\t ! numb]s & di/ances ( ! planets1 #fj1 #fb2 he 0 help$ by ,ty*o1 #fc2 8 ma9 "w1 #fe1 seq42 he gave up circul> motion1 #fi2 8 ,my/]ium ,cosmographicon1 #aje2 8 ,laws1 #ga1 #gd1 #agc1 #agd1 #agf1 #agi1 #ahj1 #bjf1 seq4 ,l ,lagrange1 #aic1 #bcd1 #bee1 #bef1 #beg1 #beh1 #bfc ,lagrange & ,laplace1 #beh1 #bff1 #cie2 !y laid ! f\ndations ( ! planet>y !ory1 #bei ,laplace1 #fh1 #aic1 #bah1 #bcd1 #bee1 #bfa1 #bfb1 #bfg1 #bfh1 #bfi1 #bgj1 #bgb1 #bhh1 #cja1 #cag1 #chd1 #che1 #cij2 8 nebul> hypo!sis1 #bfg1 #bib2 8 ,mcanique ,cle/e1 #cbc ,lassell1 ,mr41 #bhc1 #bhd ,leibnitz1 #aib1 #aig1 #bcc ,le ,monni]1 #cai ,leon>do1 see ,v9ci1 ,leon>do da ,lev]ri]1 #aic1 #cbg1 #cbh1 #cbi1 #ccj1 #ceb ,lipp]%ey1 ,hans1 #ie ,m ,maskelyne1 #bha ,maxwell1 ,cl]k1 #cjb1 #cjc ,molyneux1 #bdh1 #bdi ,morton1 ,mr4 ,e4,j4 ,c1 8 ,life ( ,cop]nicus1 #ca ,n ,newton1 ,pr(4 ,h4,a41 #cdg ,newton1 ,sir ,isaac1 #g1 #cj1 #gi1 #ach1 #aci1 #add1 #ade1 #adi1 #aec1 #aeg1 #aeh1 #afe1 #aff1 #afg1 #agd1 #agf1 #ahd1 #ahg1 #ahh1 #ahi1 #aia1 #aib1 #aid1 #aif1 #aih1 #aii1 #bja1 #bac1 #baf1 #bai1 #bbj1 #bba1 #bbd1 #bbf1 #bbg1 #bbh1 #bcc1 #bdb1 #bec1 #bee1 #bef1 #bgd1 #bhh1 #cag1 #cdj1 #cgh2 8 ,pr9cipia1 #aia1 #aib1 #aic1 #aid1 #aie1 #aif1 #aig1 #bjg1 #bad1 #baf1 #bah1 #bbh1 #bcc1 #bdb1 #bec2 8 e>ly life1 #afa1 seq42 8 fir/ exp]im5ts1 #afc2 8 "w at ,cambridge1 #afd2 8 ,laws1 #afh2 8 application ( ! ,laws ( ,gravity to ,a/ronomy1 #agg1 #agh1 #agi1 #ahe1 #aij2 8 retic5ce1 #agh2 8 discov]ies 9 ,optics1 #aha1 seq42 8 "w summ>is$1 #ahf2 8 ,optics1 #ahi2 anecdotes ( him1 #aia2 8 appe>ance 9 a ,c\rt ( ,ju/ice1 #aie2 "s ( 8 manuscripts v rec5tly discov]$1 #bag2 8 !ories ( ! ,equ9oxes & tides1 #bbc1 seq41 #bbe1 #cfc1 seq4 ,o ,olb]s1 #bii1 #cjj ,p ,pet]s1 ,pr(41 #cjj1 #caf ,piazzi1 #bih1 #bii1 #cjh1 #cac ,pic>d1 #aij1 #bdb1 #bdd1 #bdg ,pione]s1 g5u9e1 #g ,planets & days ( ! week1 #ah ,poynt+1 #ccb ,pr9t+1 #i ,ptolemy1 #ah1 #bj1 #bg1 #ch1 #aec1 #aee1 #aff1 #bad2 8 sy/em ( ! ,heav5s simplifi$ by ,cop]nicus1 #aa1 #cj2 8 sy/em describ$1 #ai1 seq42 8 sy/em taught1 #cd2 8 h>monies1 #gd ,py?agoras1 #ai1 #bj1 #cd ,q ,quadrant1 an e>ly1 #db1 #dc ,r ,rheit]1 #ajg ,ricci1 ,o/illio1 #hf1 #hg ,rob]ts1 ,isaac1 #bfh ,roem]1 #bci1 #bdj1 #bdb1 #bdd1 #bdi1 #bea1 #cjh ,rosse1 ,"l1 8 telescope1 #ahf1 #bfh ,rudolph9e tables1 #fe ,s ,s*e9]1 #ajg ,sizzi1 ,francesca1 an or?odox a/ronom]1 #ajf ,snell1 ,willebrod1 & ! law ( refraction1 #fe ,sol> sy/em1 its fate1 #bfe ,/>s1 a li/ (1 #cjg ,/ruve1 #cjh1 #caj1 #caa1 #cac ,/u>t1 ,pr(41 quot$1 #eb ,t ,tatius1 #bif ,telescopes1 e>ly1 #if ,?ales1 #g1 #adj1 #cag ,?omson1 ,sir ,william1 #cfg1 #cgb1 #cgc1 #cgh1 #cid ,tide-gauge1 describ$1 #cgc1 seq4 ,tides1 #ced1 seq4 ,"t1 is n exactly uni=m1 #chd ,torricelli1 #acc1 #afh ,ty*o1 see ,brah1 ,ty*o ,v ,v9ci1 ,leon>do da1 #i1 #ajj1 #add1 #ahd ,viviani1 #acc1 #afh ,voltaire1 #aha ,w ,watson1 ,pr(41 #cjj ,:ewell1 #bbg ,wr51 ,sir ,*ri/oph]1 #ahh1 #aib1 #aic1 #aig ,z ,za*1 ,von1 #bif1 #bii ,zone ( ,a/]oids1 #cjj1 seq4 ,,! ,,end4 ,,ri*>d ,,clay ,,& ,,sons1 ,,limit$1 ,,london ,,& ,,bungay4