,religion in ,japan3 ,shintoism--,buddhism--,christianity4 ,by ,george ,a4 ,cobbold1 ,b4,a4 ,pembroke ,college1 ,oxford ,with ,illustrations4 ,printed ,under ,the ,direction of the ,tract ,committee4 ,london3 ,society ,for ,promoting ,christian ,knowledge1 ,northumberland ,avenue1 ,w4,c42 #dc1 ,queen ,victoria ,street1 ,e4,c4 ,brighton3 #abi1 ,north ,street ,new ,york3 ,e4 ,s4 ,gorham #aije ,,contents ,introductory4 ,i4 ,shintoism4 ,,ii4 ,buddhism4 ,,iii4 ,buddhism ,in ,japan4 ,,iv4 ,buddhism ,and ,christianity4 ,v4 ,christianity ,in ,japan4 ,publications ,of ,the ,society for ,promoting ,christian ,knowledge4 ,footnotes ,,introductory4 ,it may well be questioned whether1 in the course of a like period of time1 any country has ever undergone greater transitions1 or made more rapid strides along the path of civilization than has ,japan during the last quarter of a century4 ,a group of numerous islands1 situated on the high-road and thoroughfare of maritime traffic across the ,pacific1 between the ,eastern and ,western hemispheres1 and in area considerably exceeding ,great ,britain and ,ireland1--,japan1 until thirty years ago1 was a terra incognita to the rest of the world2 exceeding even ,china in its conservatism and exclusiveness4 ,and now1 within a space of some five-and-twenty years1 such changes have come about as to have given birth to the expression1--8the transformation of ,japan40 ,the more conspicuous of these changes are summed up by a recent writer in the following words3--8,new and enlightened criminal codes have been enacted2 the methods of judicial procedure have been entirely changed2 thoroughly efficient systems of police1 of posts1 of telegraphs1 and of national education have been organized2 an army and a navy modelled after ,western patterns have been formed2 the finances of the ,empire have been placed on a sound basis2 railways1 roads1 and harbours have been constructed2 an efficient mercantile marine has sprung into existence2 the jail system has been radically improved2 an extensive scheme of local government has been put into operation2 a competitive civil service has been organized2 the whole fiscal system has been revised2 an influential and widely-read newspaper press has grown up with extraordinary rapidity2 and government by parliament has been substituted for monarchical absolutism407#a7 ,at the present day1 an ,englishman travelling in ,japan is constantly meeting numbers of his countrymen1 intent on either business or pleasure2 while at all the principal cities and places of resort1 handsome new hotels1 fitted in ,western style1 are to be found4 ,the ,mikado may be seen driving through his ,capital in a carriage that would not be out of place in the ,parks of ,london or ,paris2 and at ,court ceremonies ,european dress is de rigueur4 ,english is taught in all the better-class schools1 and at the ,universities the works of such authors as ,bacon1 ,locke1 ,macaulay1 ,darwin1 ,john ,stuart ,mill1 ,herbert ,spencer1 are in constant request with the students4 ,in short1 on every side evidence is afforded1 that be it for better or for worse1 the old order is fast changing and giving place to new4 ,the circumstances which have brought about these wonderful changes can only be very briefly indicated here4 ,it was towards the middle of the sixteenth century that ,japan first came into contact with the ,western world2 the first traders to arrive being the ,portuguese1 who were followed some sixty years later by the ,dutch1 and in #afac by a few ,english ships4 ,to all of these alike a hospitable reception appears to have been accorded2 nor is there any doubt that ,japanese exclusiveness was a thing of subsequent growth1 and that it was based only on a sincere conviction that the nation's well-being and happiness would be best consulted by refusing to have dealings with the outer world4 ,and indeed1 that the ,japanese should have arrived at this decision is by no means to be wondered at2 their first experience of foreign intercourse having been singularly unfortunate4 ,the unhappy breach1 which eventually led to ,japan entirely closing her ports to foreign traffic1 was1 it would seem1 due partly to the attitude of harsh intolerance and general interference adopted by certain of the ,roman ,catholic missionaries1 who by this time had arrived in the country3 and partly to the insinuations made by the ,dutch that the ,portuguese were aiming at territorial aggrandizement4 ,anyhow1 in #afbd1 ,japan was entirely closed to foreign trade1 save for some concessions1--accompanied by the severest restrictions1--permitted to the ,dutch2 no foreigners were allowed to enter1 and no natives to leave1 the empire2 the missionaries were expelled1 and ,christianity was prohibited under pain of death4 ,the ,japanese1 as has been said1 8suspected everybody and shut out the world40 ,previous to this crisis the ,english had retired2 but when1 in #afgc1 our country sought to resume friendly relations1 the connexion existing between the ,english and ,portuguese courts proved an insuperable obstacle47#b7 ,subsequent overtures made in #ahdi1 were courteously but firmly rejected2 though the period of ,japan's isolation was1 as later events proved1 almost at an end4 ,in #ahec1 the ,government of the ,united ,states despatched a fleet across the ,pacific1 under the command of ,commodore ,perry1 to insist upon the surrender of a policy which1 it was urged1 no one nation of the world had a right to adopt towards the rest4 ,whether the arguments with which this position was advanced would of themselves have prevailed1 is impossible to say2 but since it was evident that should words fail1 sterner measures would be resorted to1 ,japan had no choice but to submit4 ,treaties were accordingly concluded1 first with the ,united ,states1 and subsequently with ,england and other ,european powers2 by virtue of which a few ports were grudgingly opened1 and ,japanese subjects permitted to engage in commercial transactions with the outside world4 ,for the first few years1 it is certain that a strong feeling of suspicion and dislike towards foreigners was rife2 but in #ahfh events occurred which brought about a complete change in the whole situation4 ,for some six hundred years a dual system of government had existed in ,japan4 ,on the one hand1 was the ,mikado1 supposed to trace a lineage of unbroken descent from the gods1 and accorded a veneration semi-divine1 but living in seclusion at the city of ,kyoto1 with such powers of administration as he still retained confined to matters of religion and education4 ,on the other hand1 was the ,shogun1 or ,tycoon1 the acknowledged head of a feudalism1 which1 while nominally recognizing the ,mikado's authority1 had usurped the sovereign power1 and really governed the country4 ,but in #ahfh1 the altered circumstances in which ,japan found herself brought about a revolution4 ,the ancient nobility were filled with indignation and disgust at the ,tycoon so far violating ,japanese tradition as to enter into treaties with foreign countries2 and1 as a consequence of this rupture1 the ,shogunate1 whose power had for some time been waning1 completely collapsed4 ,the ,mikado was restored to imperial power1 and at once entered upon a policy which has been consistently adhered to1 and received with favour by the people generally1 who had grown impatient of the restraint which environed them4 ,that policy may be termed the ,europeanization of the ,empire2 and in it we have the explanation of the ,japan of to-day4 ,it is not surprising that the interest excited in ,england1 with regard to a country which has experienced such remarkable changes1 should be of the greatest--especially when it is remembered in how large a degree ,english influence has contributed to produce them4 ,we may be certain1 also1 that the still further developments the future has in store1 will be followed in our own country with a close attention4 ,equally natural is it that1 in these days of so great fashion and facility for travelling1 increasing numbers of ,english people should avail themselves of the opportunity of exploring a country so entirely unique1 and so rich in its attractions of nature and of art4 ,these circumstances have combined to call into existence a large number of books on ,japan1 from which any1 who are unable to visit it in person1 may obtain as good an idea as is possible by reading of the country1 its people1 and its customs4 ,indeed it is by no means easy for any writer now to fasten upon an aspect of the subject1 in which he does not find himself forestalled4 ,that1 however1 on which1 so far as ,i understand1 least has been written1 is precisely that towards which my own main attention was directed from the time of my leaving ,england1 and throughout the period of my visit to the country1--namely1 the religious aspect4 ,that the following pages must be very imperfect in the statement they supply1 ,i am well aware2 and that1 despite my efforts to obtain trustworthy information1 they will not prove free from inaccuracy or mistake is extremely probable4 ,but ,i was induced to enter upon their preparation by a series of circumstances that appeared to favour such a task1 and need not be specified here4 ,for the material supplied to me1 however1 by one kind friend in particular1 without whose assistance these articles would never have been attempted1 ,i must express my special obligation4 ,i would gladly refer to him by name1 did ,i feel at liberty to do so without obtaining his permission1 which ,i have not1 at the time of writing1 the opportunity of asking4 ,also1 among the books ,i have consulted on the subject1 ,i must acknowledge my great indebtedness to ,messrs4 ,chamberlain and ,mason's excellent ,handbook for ,japan 7,murray1 #ahia72 and to a copy of ,dr4 ,e4 ,j4 ,eitel's ,lectures on ,buddhism 7,trbner1 #ahga71 given me by the author1 at the close of a most interesting day spent under his guidance4 ,the sketch ,map of ,japan is inserted by the kind permission of the 8,guild of ,st4 ,paul40 ,november1 #ahic4 ,i4 ,,shintoism4 ,when1 in the sixth century of the ,christian era1 ,buddhism was introduced into ,japan from ,china1 by way of ,korea1 the need was felt of some term by which the ancient indigenous religion of the country might be distinguished from the new importation4 ,the term thus adopted was ,shinto1 or ,kami-no-michi2 the former being a ,chinese word1 and the latter its ,japanese equivalent4 ,the meaning of either1 in ,english1 is the 8,way of the ,genii1 or ,spirits407#c7 ,it will1 accordingly1 be seen that the word 8,shinto0 has only been in use for some thirteen centuries1 while the creed it designates claims to trace its origin from the remotest antiquity4 ,indeed1 the investigation of ,shintoism takes us back not merely to the earliest annals of ,japanese history1 but to the fabulous legends of a mythological period4 ,the history of ,japan is commonly reckoned to commence with the accession of the ,emperor ,jimmu ,tenno1 the date of which is given as ,february #aa1 #ffj ,b4,c42 and when1 in #ahhi1 the new ,constitution was promulgated1 the anniversary of this event was the day selected--the idea evidently being to confirm the popular belief in the continuity of the country's history4 ,this ,jimmu ,tenno--accounted by the ,japanese their first human sovereign--is supposed to have been descended from ,ama-terasu1 the sun-goddess1 who was born from the left eye of ,izanagi1 the creator of ,japan2 and this it is that accounts for the semi-deification in which the ,emperors of ,japan have ever been held4 ,it is1 then1 the countless heroes and demi-gods of the mythological age referred to--the children of ,izanagi reigning over ,japan1 generation after generation1 for many thousands of years--that are the chief objects of ,shinto veneration2 for while it is usual to speak of ,shintoism as being a combination of ancestor-worship and nature-worship1 it would seem that the latter of these elements was largely due to the contact of ,japan with the ,taouism of ,china1 and with metaphysical ,buddhism4 ,thus the essential principle of ,shintoism1 it will be seen1 is closely akin to that filial piety1 which forms so conspicuous a feature in the religious1 political1 and social life of ,china1 and which--deserving as it is1 in many ways1 of respect and admiration--presents1 when carried to excess1 so vast a hindrance to development and progress4 8,shintoism10 in the words of ,diayoro ,goh1 ,chancellor of the ,japanese ,consulate ,general in ,london1 8originated in the worship offered by a barbarous people to the mythological persons of its own invention40 ,to speak accurately1 it is not so much a religion as patriotism exalted to the rank of a creed4 ,it is a veneration of the country's heroes and benefactors of every age1 legendary and historical1 ancient and more recent2 the spirits of these being appealed to for protection4 ,interwoven with this1 its fundamental characteristic1 and to a great extent obscuring it1 is a worship of the personified forces of nature2 expressing itself often in the most abject superstition1 and1 until lately1 also in that grosser symbolism with which the religion of ,ancient ,egypt abounded4 ,this latter feature was widely prevalent in ,japan at the time that the country was first opened to foreigners2 but after the ,revolution in #ahfh1 it was everywhere suppressed4 ,it would appear that the personal cleanliness for which the ,japanese1 as a nation1 are celebrated1 had its origin in the idea of the purification of the body symbolizing the cleansing of the soul2 and in a vague and hazy sort of way1 ,shintoism would seem to recognize a future state of bliss or misery1 for which the present life is a period of probation4 ,practically1 however1 this is the only world with which ,shintoism concerns itself2 nor does it inculcate any laws of morality or conduct1 conscience and the heart being accounted sufficient guides4 ,it provides neither public worship1 nor sermons2 while its application is limited to subjects of the ,mikado4 8,it is the least exacting of all religions40 ,when this is once understood1 there ceases to be anything surprising in the fact of two religions--of which ,shintoism was one1 and the other a creed so accommodating as ,buddhism--running1 side by side1 for centuries in the same country1 and being professed simultaneously by the same people1 until the two were so closely interwoven that it became scarcely possible to distinguish their respective elements4 ,in the eighteenth century an attempt was made to restore ,shintoism to its primitive simplicity1 and to mould it into a philosophical system which might minister to the higher aspirations of humanity4 ,but the movement was a failure1 and the ,ryobu-,shinto1 or 8double religion10--the combination1 that is to say1 of ,shintoism and ,buddhism--continued as before4 ,it was only so lately as the year #ahfh that any important change took place in the religious history of ,japan4 ,in that year1 ,shintoism--for reasons wholly political--was adopted as the ,state1 or 8established0 religion2 ,buddhism having always been the religion favoured by the ,shogunate1 and the ancient nobility whom the ,shogun represented4 ,upon this1 every temple was required to declare itself either ,shinto or ,buddhist1 and to remove the emblems and ornaments peculiar to the discarded cult1 whichever that might be4 ,that no little excitement and dispute followed upon this proclamation1 will be readily understood2 especially when we bear in mind that1 for several hundred years1 ,buddhist and ,shinto clergy had taken their turns of officiating in the same buildings and at the same altars47#d7 ,a grant of some #fj1jjj a year was made by the ,government for the maintenance of the ,shinto temples and shrines1 which are said to number in all about #ih1jjj1 and to be dedicated to no less than #c1gjj different ,genii1 or ,kami4 ,already1 however1 ,shintoism has lost the greater part of the importance into which it was brought at the time of the ,revolution2 and1 apart from the fact that it is supported out of the imperial revenues1 and that the presence of its principal officials is required at certain of the state functions1 its general position has in no way improved4 ,the people still practise the observances of both religions alike2 the only difference being that1 to effect this1 they have now to visit two temples instead of one4 ,a new-born child1 for instance1 is taken by its parents to both ,shinto and ,buddhist temples1 for the purpose of solemn dedication4 ,another of the changes brought about is that1 instead of all funerals being conducted by ,buddhist priests1 as was the case until #ahfh1 the dead are now buried by either ,shinto or ,buddhist clergy1 as the relatives may prefer4 ,of the many signs which indicate that ,shintoism has well nigh run its course1 not the least remarkable was the announcement made last year 7#ahib7 by the ,government itself1 to the effect that its rites were to be regarded as simply traditional and commemorative1 and devoid of any real religious significance4 ,the relief thus afforded to the minds and consciences of ,christians in ,japan was1 as might be supposed1 very great4 ,of the various sects the ,zhikko1--founded #aeda ,a4,d41--is1 perhaps1 the most influential4 ,this sect--as indeed do ,shintoists generally--recognizes one eternal absolute ,deity1 a being of infinite benevolence2 and here--as in other heathen religions--we find vague references to a ,trinity engaged in the work of ,creation4 ,illustration4 ,group of ,shinto ,priests ,with ,torii4 ,despite the dissociation of the two religions1 many of the ,shinto temples still retain traces of the ,buddhist influence4 ,of ,shintoism proper the prevailing characteristic is a marked simplicity1 which1 however1 is often found combined with great artistic beauty4 ,sometimes the shrine consists only of a rude altar1 situated amid a grove of trees2 but1 even in the case of large temples with a complete group of buildings1 the architecture is extremely plain1 the material employed being unornamented white wood with a thatch of chamaecyparis4 ,the entrance to the temple grounds is always through gateways1 called ,torii2 these are made sometimes of stone1 but more properly of wood1 and consist of two unpainted tree-trunks1 with another on the top and a horizontal beam beneath4 ,near the entrance are commonly found stone figures of dogs or lions1 which are supposed to act as guardians4 ,the principal shrine1 or ,honsha1 is situated at the further end of the sacred enclosure1 and is divided by a railing into an ante-room and an inner sanctuary4 ,within the sanctuary an altar is erected1 on which1 however1 no images or adornments are seen1 but simply offerings of rice1 fruit1 wine1 c4 ,above the altar1 in a conspicuous position1 a large mirror is generally placed2 and in a box beneath are usually kept a sword1 and a stone4 ,these three1--the mirror1 the sword1 and the stone1--constitute the ,japanese regalia1 and they are all connected with the early legends4 ,one of the traditions respecting the sacred mirror deserves quotation4 8,when the time was come that ,izanagi and his consort should return together to the celestial regions1 he called his children together1 bidding them dry their tears1 and listen attentively to his last wishes4 ,he then committed to them a disc of polished silver1 bidding them each morning place themselves on their knees before it1 and there see reflected on their countenances the impress of any evil passions deliberately indulged2 and again each night carefully to examine themselves1 that their last thoughts might be after the happiness of that higher world whither their parents had preceded them40 ,the legend goes on to relate with what faithfulness 8the children of ,izanagi1 and afterwards their descendants1 carried out these injunctions2 erecting an altar of wood to receive the sacred mirror1 and placing upon it vases and flowers1--and how1 as a reward for their obedience and devotion1 they became in their turn1 the spirits of good1 the undying ,kami407#e7 ,another of the most common of the ,shinto emblems is a slim wand of unpainted wood1 called ,gohei1 to which strips of white paper--originally they were of cloth--are attached4 ,these are thought to attract the deities1 and are held in great veneration4 ,leaving the principal shrine1 and proceeding to make the tour of the grounds1 the visitor comes1 in turn1 to the buildings where the business arrangements of the temple are transacted1 and where the priests1 in some cases1 reside2 to smaller shrines and oratories2 to cisterns for the purpose of ceremonial ablution1 c4 ,sometimes1 also1 at the more important temples is found a long covered platform1 called the ,kagura-do1 where1 on festivals and special occasions1 a number of girls--those ,i saw at ,nara were still quite children--perform the ,kagura1 or sacred dance4 ,the dancing is in honour of the divinity to whom the temple is dedicated2 and commemorates a supposed incident of the mythological period4 ,in the grounds of ,shinto and ,buddhist temples alike are frequently found numerous stone-lanterns1 erected by way of votive offerings1 and lighted on any great occasions4 ,it has already been remarked that ,shintoism has nothing corresponding to our public worship2 but every morning and evening the priests--whose office seems held in no particular sanctity1 and who are at liberty1 at any time1 to adopt a more secular calling--perform a service before the altar1 vested in white dresses1 somewhat resembling albs and confined at the waist by a girdle4 ,the service consists of the presentation of offerings and of the recital of various invocations1 chiefly laudatory4 ,the devotions of the people are remarkable for their brevity and simplicity4 ,the worshipper1 on arriving at the shrine1 rings a bell1 or sounds a gong1 to engage the attention of the deity he desires to invoke2 throws a coin of the smallest possible value on to the matting within the sanctuary rails2 makes one or two prostrations2 and then1 clapping his hands1 to intimate to his patron that his business with him is over1 retires--it not being considered necessary to give to the petition any verbal expression4 ,the making of pilgrimages1 however1 still occupies a prominent place in the ,shinto system1 and though of late years the number of pilgrims has considerably decreased1 long journeys are still undertaken to the great temple of the sun-goddess at ,ise--the 8,mecca of ,japan10--and other celebrated shrines4 ,the chief object of the pilgrimage is the purchase of ,o-harai1 or sacred charms1 which can only be obtained on the spot4 ,these1 when brought home1 are placed on the ,kamidana1 or god-shelf--a miniature temple of wood1 found in every ,shinto house1 to which are attached the names of various patron deities1 and the monumental tablets of the family4 ,his purchase of the ,o-harai completed1 the pilgrim betakes himself to the enjoyment of the various shows and other amusements provided for him in the neighbourhood of the temple4 ,to conclude this brief sketch of ,shintoism4 ,such influence as the cult still possesses may be attributed to the superstition of the poor and illiterate2 and to a reluctance1 on the part of the more educated1 to break with so venerable a past4 ,the latter1 however1 though they continue to conform to them1 do not regard its observances seriously2 while the importance attached to them by the ,state is1 as we have seen1 wholly political4 ,in the words of ,diayoro ,goh1 spoken in the course of a lecture delivered in ,london two or three years since3 8,shintoism1 being so restricted in its sphere1 offers little obstacle to the introduction of another religion10--provided1 as he added1 that the veneration of the ,mikado1 which has always formed the fundamental feature of ,japanese government1 is not interfered with4 ,the truth of this statement has already been abundantly exemplified in the position which ,buddhism for so many centuries held in the religious life of ,japan4 ,in the same way1 when1 three hundred years ago1 ,christianity was introduced into the country by the ,portuguese1 it was largely owing to the attitude which some of the missionaries adopted towards these national rites1 that the complications arose1 which eventually led to the expulsion of foreigners1 and the persecution of ,christians4 ,and surely1 when we think of it1 it is not strange that an intense jealousy should be exhibited on behalf of observances and ceremonies1 traceable back to such remote antiquity1 and so intimately bound up with the whole political and social life of the nation4 ,it is1 indeed1 highly probable that1 in the great changes ,japan is undergoing1 she will find other methods of cherishing the continuity of her1 in many ways1 illustrious past4 ,but meanwhile1 ,christians in ,japan may rejoice that they are permitted1 with a quiet conscience1 to manifest a respectful regard for a system that is by no means destitute of praiseworthy features4 ,,ii4 ,,buddhism4 ,it is quite possible that to some of the readers of these pages the very name of ,shintoism was unknown2 whereas all will have heard and read at least something of ,buddhism1 one of the four most prevalent religions of the world1 and claiming at the present day considerably more than four hundred millions of adherents47#f7 ,at the same time1 our inquiry into ,buddhism cannot be comprised within such narrow limits as sufficed for our examination of the indigenous religion of ,japan2 the subject being one of the vastest dimensions4 ,perhaps1 then1 it may be better if1 at the outset1 ,i allude to some of the literature1 published within the last few years1 which has been most instrumental in attracting attention1 both in ,england and ,america1 to the subject4 ,nor1 in this connexion1 can all reference be omitted to the writings of the late ,madame ,blavatsky1 ,mr4 ,sinnett1 and their school2 though ,i refer to them only in order to caution my readers against forming from them any estimate of ,buddhism4 ,the only literature1 as far as ,i know1 that has appeared in ,england from what claims to be an enthusiastic ,buddhist stand-point1 these writings are1 ,i believe1 calculated to convey a curiously erroneous idea of the great system with which we are now concerned1 to any who would turn for information to them exclusively4 ,this1 indeed1 becomes obvious when it is understood that the ,buddhism1 of which these books profess to treat1 is not the ,buddhism of history and the sacred books1 not the ,buddhism which forms the popular religion of hundreds of millions of ,asiatics at the present day1 but an 8esoteric0 ,buddhism1 a knowledge of which1 it is admitted1 is confined to a comparative few1 even in the country where it is said to be most prevalent47#g7 ,in short1 the 8esoteric ,buddhism0 of ,mr4 ,sinnett and his friends would seem to be scarcely1 if at all1 distinguishable from the movement which has recently acquired a brief notoriety in ,england under the name of ,theosophy2 and with this1 ,buddhism proper--i4e4 the historical1 popular ,buddhism with which we have to do--can hardly be said to have anything in common4 ,with the book1 however1 which probably more than any other work of the day has been the means of drawing the attention of ,english-speaking people to ,buddhism1 we cannot deal in so summary a fashion4 ,for in ,sir ,edwin ,arnold's poem1 ,the ,light of ,asia1 we have a work which is simply a rendering of the life of ,buddha1 in general accordance with the received traditions1 and one1 moreover1 which has met with a cordial welcome at the hands of ,buddhists4 ,nor can it be questioned that the book is a production of great power1 or that it appeals altogether to a very different class of readers from that likely to be influenced by the ,occult ,world1 or ,isis ,unveiled4 ,it is indeed1 the great beauty of its poetry1 and the book's consequent popularity1 that only make the more necessary a reference which must to some extent take the form of a protest4 ,to put it briefly1 the case is this3--,men and women have risen from a perusal of the ,light of ,asia with a sense of damage done to their ,christian faith1 and with a feeling--confused1 perhaps1 but not the less real--that in ,gautama ,buddha they have been confronted with a formidable rival to ,jesus ,christ4 ,how far the poem is responsible for this result we will not attempt to determine2 and that such was no part of the author's intention we may readily believe4 ,but that the minds of not a few have been perplexed and disturbed by the reading of this book is a certain fact2 making it neither surprising nor regrettable that its publication should have been followed by works on the subject1 written from an emphatically ,christian point of view4 ,to the fullest and ablest of these1--the ,rev4 ,s4 ,h4 ,kellogg's ,the ,light of ,asia and the ,light of the ,world3 a ,comparison of the ,legend1 the ,doctrine and the ,ethics of the ,buddha1 with the ,story1 the ,doctrine and the ,ethics of ,christ 7,macmillan1 #ahhe71--;,i would refer those desirous of investigating fully the points at issue2 contenting myself now with a few brief observations4 ,it is1 then1 important to bear in mind that ,sir ,e4 ,arnold's poem is written in the person1 and from the stand-point of an imaginary ,buddhist4 ,this is indicated plainly on the title-page1 in the preface1 and in the course of the poem itself2 and when the book comes to be read by the light of this explanation1 a limitation is cast about much of its more startling language4 ,to take1 for instance1 such expressions as 8,our ,lord10 8,saviour10 8come to save the world10 constantly assigned to ,buddha in the course of the poem4 ,however accustomed ,christians may be to associate such terms with ,one only1 and however pained they may feel at their being referred1 under any circumstances and with any restrictions1 to another1 still it is obvious that their use becomes less open to objection1 when placed in the mouth of a disciple1 singing the praise of his ,master1--and that ,master1 one who1 it can hardly be disputed1 wrought no mean work of deliverance on the earth4 ,far less admitting of satisfactory explanation are passages in the book in which we find transferred to ,buddha and ,buddhism ideas and language distinctively ,christian2 the solemn saying of ,simeon to the ,holy ,mother1 8,a sword shall pierce through thine own soul also10 and the still more solemn1 8,it is finished0 of the ,cross1 being made to supply particularly distressing instances of such treatment47#h7 ,or once again3 but what ,i would say now has already been urged by ,dr4 ,eitel1 in words which ,i cannot do better than quote4 8,i believe10 he says1 8it would be unjust to pick out any of those queer and childish sayings with which the ,buddhist ,scriptures and especially popular ,buddhist books abound1 and to lead people to imagine that ,buddhism is little better than a string of nonsense4 ,it is even doubtful whether the earliest ,buddhist texts contained such statements at all2 for1 unlike our ,bible1 the ,buddhist canon has undergone wholesale textual alterations4444 ,as to the popular literature of ,buddhism1 and its absurdities1 we might as well collect those little pamphlets on dreams1 on sorcery1 on lucky and unlucky days1 on the lives and miracles of saints1 which circulate among ,roman ,catholic peasants1--but would that give us a true picture of ,roman ,catholicism8 ,thus it is with ,buddhism407#i7 ,in other words1 ,dr4 ,eitel would urge that in order to deal fairly with such a subject1 we must try to distinguish the essence of the thing itself from the abuses and follies that may1 from time to time1 have gathered round it2 and this1 it is to be feared1 has not always been done by ,english writers1 in treating of ,buddhism4 ,for the sake of clearness1 we may next proceed to trace a brief outline of the life of ,buddha1 according to the belief of ,buddhists generally1 and stripped of such legends and superstitions as find no credence with the more educated and intellectual4 ,it is true that a doubt has sometimes been expressed as to the existence of ,gautama ,buddha at all2 while even so eminent an authority as ,mr4 ,spence ,hardy declares his conviction that1 owing to the lack of really authentic information1 8it is impossible to rely implicitly on any single statement made in relation to him407#aj7 ,but even supposing the ,buddha of the commonly-received traditions to be1 whether in part or in entirety1 a mere creation of ,indian thought1 the case undergoes no vital alteration2 seeing that it is with the religion of ,buddhism that we are mainly concerned1 and only in quite a subordinate degree with the person of its supposed founder4 ,the point is one that deserves careful attention1 suggesting as it does at once the essential difference between ,buddhism and ,christianity1 and the immeasurable distance which divides the two4 ,for of ,christianity it is no exaggeration to say that upon the truth of the received accounts of its ,founder's ,life and ,person its whole position absolutely depends2 whereas1 could it be proved that ,gautama never even lived1 the system associated with his name would suffer no material loss1--and this1 because in ,buddha we are invited to contemplate only a teacher and a guide1 one who would have men seek purification and deliverance by the same means as he himself needed to employ1 and one who never claimed to be more than human4 ,most persons1 however1 will prefer to accept as1 in the main1 historically correct the commonly accepted outline of the life of ,buddha which may thus be given-- ,the reputed founder of ,buddhism was one ,siddhartha1 known in later life as ,gautama1 and later still1 by the title of ,buddha1 or the 8,enlightened ,one40 ,siddhartha was a prince of the ,sakya tribe1 whose territories were situated some hundred miles north-east of the city of ,benares4 ,hence he is often spoken of under the name of ,sakya-muni1 or the 8,sakya sage40 ,as regards his date1 widely different opinions are held2 sometimes it is placed as early as the tenth1 and sometimes as late as the third century ,b4,c4 ,the most competent authorities1 however1 agree in following the ,buddhists of ,ceylon1 and take #edc ,b4,c4 as the date of his death47#aa7 ,his father's name was ,suddhodana2 his mother was called ,maia4 ,of the earlier years of ,siddhartha's life we have little information that is at all to be relied on2 but his early manhood appears to have been spent amid the luxury and self-indulgence customary with ,oriental princes4 ,gautama1 however1 was a man of great benevolence1 and we are told that1 while still quite young1 he pondered deeply on the mystery of the pain and suffering which held the human race in bondage4 ,presently1 becoming dissatisfied with his own life of ease and pleasure1 he made the 8,great ,renunciation20 turning his back1 at the age of thirty1 on wife and parents1 home and wealth4 ,after spending some years in travel1 he retired to the forest1 where he attached himself to a little band of ascetics1 and practised severe forms of discipline and self-mortification2 hoping thus to discover the secret of release from suffering4 ,but meeting with no success1 and still fast bound by the trammels of ignorance1 he betook himself to contemplation2 until one day1 as he was seated beneath the ,bo-tree1--henceforth to be accounted sacred7#ab7--the struggles of his soul prevailed1 and he passed out of darkness into light4 ,he was now ,buddha1 ,he who ,knew1 the ,enlightened4 ,the four truths to the knowledge of which ,gautama thus attained1 and which form the very foundation of the ,buddhist doctrine1 are these--7i7 ,that man is born to suffering1 both mental and physical3 he experiences it himself1 he inflicts it upon others2 7ii7 that this suffering is occasioned by desire2 7iii7 that the condition of suffering in which man finds himself admits of amelioration and relief2 7iv7 the way of release1 and the attainment to ,nirvana4 ,here we must pause to make the inquiry1 ,what is meant by ,nirvana1--the goal of the ,buddhist's hope and aim8 ,literally1 the word means 8extinction02 and hence it has often come to be regarded as a mere synonym for annihilation4 ,the variety of opinions held by ,european scholars as to its meaning is1 there is little doubt1 due to the fact that ,buddhists themselves are by no means agreed as to its precise significance4 ,is ,nirvana a state of consciousness or unconsciousness8 ,is the personality perpetuated1 or is the ego absorbed1--i4e4 into ,buddha8 ,such questions are differently answered by the different schools4 ,concerning the nature of ,nirvana1 ,buddha himself1 in his agnosticism1 would seem to have been almost wholly silent4 ,he appears to have simply taught that by the suppression and 8extinction0 of the natural passions and desires--anger1 avarice1 sorrow1 and the like7#ac7--;it was possible even here to enter upon a state of tranquillity1 rest1 and peace1 which should attain hereafter to more perfect fulfilment4 ,of the various meanings attached to ,nirvana by the different ,buddhist sects1 one extreme makes it scarcely distinguishable from complete annihilation1 while the opposite extreme introduces us to the doctrine of the ,paradise of the ,west1 the ,pure ,land presided over by ,amitabha ,buddha1 the abode of perfect happiness and delight4 ,this remarkable development of ,buddhism will claim our attention later47#ad7 ,illustration4 ,daibatsu ,at ,kamakura4 ,to return4 ,after his enlightenment1 it is said that ,gautama was seized by the temptation to enter at once into ,nirvana1 without proclaiming his doctrine to the world4 ,but putting the temptation from him1 he began his ministry by announcing the tidings of release to the companions of his ascetic life1 who1 after scoffing for awhile1 were at length convinced4 ,in the course of this1 his first sermon1 ,buddha proceeded to enunciate the eight steps on the path which leads to ,nirvana--7i7 ,right faith1 7ii7 right resolution1 7iii7 right speech1 7iv7 right action1 7v7 right living1 7vi7 right effort1 7vii7 right thought1 7viii7 right self-concentration4 ,as time went on1 ,gautama began to gather round him a number of disciples1 who became his constant companions4 ,part of each year he spent in rest and retirement2 teaching and training his disciples1 and receiving such as1 attracted by his growing reputation1 sought him out4 ,the remaining months he occupied in travelling from place to place1 proclaiming the good news of deliverance in the towns and villages through which he passed4 ,soon we find him establishing a ,society or ,brotherhood2 the members of which severed their connexion with all worldly things1 handed over their property to the ,order1 adopted the tonsure and a distinctive dress1 and1 following the ,master's doctrine with strictness themselves1 devoted their lives to its propagation4 ,any member1 however1 was at liberty to leave the ,brotherhood1 should he wish to do so4 ,it is noticeable that ,buddha's earliest followers were chiefly drawn--not1 as in the case of a ,greater than he1 from the ranks of the poor and simple--but from the upper classes4 ,indeed1 ,gautama seems to have regarded the weak and ignorant as incapable of receiving his teaching4 ,children are hardly mentioned in the early ,buddhist writings2 and with regard to women1 it was only with great reluctance that ,sakya-muni eventually consented to the formation of a ,sisterhood1 the members of which were1 as far as possible1 to observe the same rules as the men--together with several additional ones1 chiefly concerned with their subjection to the ,brethren4 ,in the same way1 it is still the teaching of ,buddhism that it should be a woman's highest aspiration to be reborn as a man1 in a future state of existence4 ,when1 however1 the two ,orders--for men and for women--had been formed1 there still remained a large number of either sex1 who1 without leaving their places in the world1 were desirous of being reckoned among ,buddha's followers4 ,these were admitted as lay-adherents1 one of their chief obligations being to contribute to the maintenance of the ,brethren4 ,having exercised his public ministry for forty years--without1 as would appear1 encountering any great opposition--and having committed his work to the ,brotherhood1 to carry on after his decease1 ,buddha died1 aged about eighty1 and was buried with great pomp4 ,it is recorded that1 as the time of his departure drew nigh1 he replied to his disciples' expressions of apprehension and sorrow1 by saying that when he should no longer be with them in person1 he would still be present with them in his sayings1 in his doctrine4 ,another point on which he laid great stress before his death was that the ,brotherhood should regularly assemble in convocation4 ,hence it came about that from very early times1 the declaration1 8,i seek refuge in ,buddha1 ,dharma 7the ,law71 ,samgha 7the ,brotherhood710 was adopted as the formula which any one1 desirous of becoming a ,buddhist1 was required to profess4 ,and it is the ,trinity thus formed1 which1 represented to-day by the three great images above the altar of many a ,buddhist temple1 has its multitude of ignorant worshippers1 who doubt not that three several divinities are the objects of their adoration and their prayer4 ,such1 then1 as would appear1 was the origin of ,buddhism4 ,strictly speaking1 and apart from its later developments1 ,buddhism is a religion which knows no ,god1 which attaches no value to prayer1 which has no place for a priesthood4 ,nowhere1 perhaps1 is its agnosticism more conspicuous than in the five main prohibitions1 which are addressed alike to clergy and laity4 ,the first of these forbids the taking of life1--human life chiefly1 but other life as well2 the second is against theft1 whether by force or fraud2 the third is against falsehood2 the fourth forbids impurity1 in act1 word1 or thought2 the fifth requires abstinence from all intoxicants4 ,the whole idea of ,,god1 it will be noticed1 is entirely absent from the ,buddhist ,commandments4 ,infinitely removed above that other agnosticism1 which cries1 8,let us eat and drink1 for to-morrow we die10 ,buddhism starts with the idea of the entire abnegation of self4 ,but a self-denial that is undertaken1 not for ,god1 and in ,god for man1 but merely to secure one's own peace and well-being--what is this but selfishness after all8 ,enjoining a rule of life that is essentially negative--the natural product of that blank despair of the world and of human nature which led to the ,great ,renunciation--,buddhism1 as a religious system1 has yielded but scanty fruits of positive holiness1 of active benevolence4 ,and yet1--wholly inadequate as such a system as this1 even at its purest and best1 must be to meet the needs of humanity1--false and even debased as are sometimes its teachings1--the one great message that ,buddhism proclaims is a message of undeniable1 if most imperfect1 truth3 the truth that would have man cultivate self-reliance1 and attain to self-deliverance by means of self-control4 8,work out your own salvation0 is the injunction of ,christianity4 8,by one's self10 taught ,sakya-muni1 8the evil is one2 by one's self must come remedy and release40 ,so far the two systems are at one2 the difference between them lies in the fact that the one places in our hands those supernatural weapons which alone make real victory possible1 and that these the other knows not how to supply4 ,hitherto1 we have made no reference to the relation of ,buddhism to ,brahmanism4 ,and yet we can no more hope to understand the work of ,sakya-muni1 without observing its connexion with ,brahmanism1 than we could afford to omit all mention of the ,jewish ,law and of ,jewish ,pharisaism1 in speaking of the liberation wrought by our ,lord ,jesus ,christ4 ,the work and doctrine of ,gautama ,buddha1--with their mean between an ascetic severity1 on the one hand1 and a licentious self-indulgence on the other--their disregard of caste distinctions--their rejection of burdensome and profitless traditions--may be said to bear to the heavy yoke of ,brahmanism a relation not dissimilar to that which freedom has to bondage4 ,laying hold of that which was ready to his hand1 if so be he might mould and purify it1 ,buddha was a liberator and reformer in respect to what had gone before4 ,let us take1 for example1 the doctrine of metempsychosis1 or1 as it is commonly called1 the 8transmigration of souls40 ,no doubt1 there is a great deal connected with this doctrine in the ,buddhist books that cannot but appear to us puerile and shocking2 but still1 we do not well1 we do not justly1 if1 as do so many1 we fasten such strange fancies on ,buddha1 or on ,buddhism1 as though it were from these that they sprang4 ,so far from ,sakya-muni being the originator of the theory of transmigration1 a belief in it had1 for centuries previously1 been almost universal throughout the ,east2 and his doctrine of ,nirvana supplied an antidote to the belief in a practically interminable series of metempsychoses current at the time4 ,with the theory of transmigration accepted on all sides1 ,buddha seems to have made use of it to the extent that he did1 as affording a convenient solution of the difficulty presented by the unequal distribution of happiness in this life1 and the absence of any satisfactory exercise of justice in the way of reward or punishment4 ,that the doctrine of metempsychosis should have been applied by ,buddhists to their great ,master himself1 is only what we should expect to find4 ,gautama is accredited by ,buddhists with some five hundred previous existences1 in the course of which he passed through numerous stages of vegetable1 animal and human life1 until at length he attained to the highest degree of manhood4 ,throughout the changing circumstances of his being1 he is said to have exhibited a transcendent and ever-increasing unselfishness and charity1 which culminated in his freely giving himself to be re-born as ,buddha for the world's deliverance4 ,and it is this belief1 probably1 which has been the most potent factor in exalting the ,philosopher and the ,guide to a height1 which is scarcely1 if at all1 distinguishable from the ,throne of ,god4 ,i may conclude this chapter by quoting a passage from the late ,dean ,stanley's ,history of the ,jewish ,church1 where he is referring to ,gautama ,buddha3 8,it is difficult for those who believe the permanent elements of the ,jewish and ,christian religion to be universal and ,divine not to hail these corresponding forms of truth and goodness elsewhere1 or to recognize that the mere appearance of such saint-like and god-like characters in other parts of the earth1 if not directly preparing the way for a greater manifestation1 illustrates that manifestation by showing how mighty has been the witness borne to it even under circumstances of such discouragement1 and even with effects inadequate to their grandeur407#ae7 ,,iii4 ,,buddhism ,,in ,,japan4 ,in the last ,chapter we sketched in outline the life and teaching of ,gautama ,buddha2 omitting the many fanciful legends that have gathered round his name1 and confining ourselves to what would be accepted by ,buddhists generally4 ,of the long period that divides the death of ,sakya-muni from the introduction of ,buddhism into ,japan about #eej ,a4,d41 it is no part of our purpose to treat in detail4 ,but enough must be said to connect in some intelligible way these two events4 ,after the death of ,gautama1 his disciples are said to have gathered together1 and recited all that they remembered of his teaching1 arranging it in three divisions4 ,this was the origin of the sacred books known as the ,tripitaca1 i4e4 the 8three baskets10 the 8three receptacles40 ,the first of these--consisting of sayings1 aphorisms1 parables1 c41 attributed to ,buddha1 together with his first sermon addressed to the ascetics1 7the 8,wheel of the ,law107--is known as the ,sutra or 8,canon20 the second is called the ,vinaya or 8,book of ,discipline20 and the third1 the ,abhidharma1 i4e4 the 8,book of ,metaphysics10 the 8,further ,doctrine40 ,of the three books1 the ,sutra1 being mainly ethical1 would have a more general application than the other two2 while the ,vinaya would be chiefly applicable to the ,brotherhood1 and the ,abhidharma concerned with abstruse philosophical dissertations4 ,the ,tripitaca1 of which the ,buddhists of ,ceylon are the custodians1 are written in ,pali1 an early modification of ,sanskrit1 and the sacred language of ,buddhism2 and they are1 undoubtedly1 the oldest and purest of the numerous ,buddhist scriptures4 ,the ,sutra1 in particular1 is believed to be a faithful record of the actual teaching of ,gautama4 ,at the same time1 it must be remembered that for some centuries after ,sakya-muni's death1 there is no proof of the existence of any written ,canon2 the probability being that his teaching was1 for the most part1 transmitted orally from generation to generation1 and that it underwent in the process considerable alteration and addition4 ,with regard to the history of ,buddhism1 from the time of its founder's death until the middle of the third century ,b4,c41 we are practically without information4 ,it appears1 however1 that parties and schools were already beginning to be formed4 ,but about #bfj ,b4,c41 ,india1 from being divided into a number of petty kingdoms1 became almost wholly united under the rule of one ,asoka4 ,asoka's grandfather--the founder of the empire that was soon to assume such vast proportions--had revenged himself for the contempt in which1 for his low birth1 he was held by the ,brahmans1 by patronizing ,buddhism2 and ,asoka1 in turn1 bestowed upon it all possible support4 ,he made ,buddhism the state religion1 founded an immense number of monasteries1 and sent forth missionaries in all directions4 ,china was one of the countries visited2 while a mission to ,ceylon1 in which ,mahendra1 ,asoka's own son1 took a prominent part1 resulted in the conversion of the whole island4 ,shortly1 however1 after ,asoka's death1 his empire collapsed1 and ,buddhism never afterwards exerted the same influence in ,india2 though it remained widely prevalent until the eighth century ,a4,d41 and it was not until four centuries later that it became practically extinct4 ,the ,brahmans now regained their former ascendency2 declared ,gautama to be an 8avatar0--or incarnation--of their god ,vishnu2 proceeded to incorporate into their own creed some of the most popular features of the ,buddhist system2 and then entered upon a destruction of the monasteries1 and a severe persecution of all ,buddhists living in ,india4 ,but1 as in the history of the ,christian ,church1 persecution only resulted in the ,gospel being afforded a wider area1 so was it now with ,buddhism4 8,they that were scattered abroad went everywhere1 preaching the word40 ,among other countries to which the doctrine of ,sakya-muni penetrated was ,cashmere1 whose king1 ,kanishka1 a contemporary of ,christ1 extended to it his enthusiastic support4 ,at this point was reached an important crisis in the history of ,buddhism4 ,already controversies about discipline and various minor questions had called into existence several different schools2 but now a breach occurred1 of such magnitude and destined to prove so lasting in its results1 as to often have suggested comparison with the schism between ,western and ,eastern ,christendom4 ,a council was held under king ,kanishka1 which the ,ceylon ,buddhists refused to recognize2 and from that time ,buddhism has been divided into two main branches1 known as the ,mahayana and ,hinayana1--the 8,greater and ,lesser ,vehicles40 ,the division thus brought about became1 to a great extent1 a geographical one2 the ,hinayana having its home in ,ceylon1 and1 somewhat less exclusively1 in ,burmah and ,siam1 while the schools of the ,mahayana predominate in ,cashmere1 ,thibet1 ,china and ,japan4 ,let us glance1 for a moment1 at their respective characteristics4 ,the ,hinayana and the ,mahayana1 then1 are the names given to two great systems1 or 8schools of thought10 which offer to 8carry0 or 8convey0 their followers to the rest of ,nirvana4 ,of the two1 the ,hinayana1 or ,lesser ,conveyance1 presents a much closer resemblance to early ,buddhism4 ,the distinguishing features of the ,hinayana may be declared to be its adherence to the strict morality of primitive ,buddhism1 its greater simplicity of worship1 its smaller ,canon of scripture1 and the fact that it appeals rather to the comparatively few1 to those1 that is to say1 who are able and willing to make the surrender it requires4 ,whereas1 in the ,mahayana1 or ,greater ,vehicle1 we see a system characterized by that increased ease and laxity1 which too often accompany a season of repose and the cessation of the enthusiasm that attends the establishment of a new movement4 ,the chief features of the ,mahayana may be pronounced to be its less exacting standard of practical morality1 its willingness to descend to the level of the multitude1 its subtle metaphysical distinctions1 its meditative inactivity1 its elaborate ceremonial1 and its more extensive ,canon of scripture4 ,we are now1 at last1 in a position to examine the history of ,japanese ,buddhism4 ,if an apology seems needed for the length of our digression1 ,i can only say that it appeared to me necessary for any profitable treatment of our subject4 ,we have already seen how1 as early as #bej ,b4,c41 ,china was visited by ,buddhist missionaries from ,india4 ,these are said to have been eighteen in number2 and their effigies may be seen in many a ,chinese temple1 where they are held in great veneration4 ,in the first century ,a4,d41 ,buddhism in ,china began to receive imperial patronage2 some of its books being about the same time translated into the language of the country4 ,the spirit of accommodation and adaptation1 which has always formed so conspicuous a feature of ,buddhism1 manifested itself now in an association with ,taouism which has continued ever since4 #eeb ,a4,d4 is the date assigned to the introduction of ,buddhism into ,japan1 by way of ,korea4 ,at first1 it appears to have made little progress1 until the diplomatic action of one of its clergy brought it into favour with the ,court4 ,prostrating himself one day1 before the little son of the ,mikado1 the priest declared that he recognized in him the re-incarnation of one of the disciples of ,buddha1 and one who was destined to effect a great spiritual work in ,japan4 ,the ,mikado was prevailed upon to confide the boy's education to the ,buddhist priests2 with the result that1 when he grew up1 he supported their cause with such zeal as to cause him to be sometimes spoken of as the 8,constantine of ,japanese ,buddhism40 ,shotoku ,taishi--for such was his name--acted for some time as regent1 but never himself ascended the throne4 ,there is no doubt that the progress of ,buddhism in ,japan was largely facilitated by the adoption of tactics1 which had been successfully employed in dealing with the barbarous tribes of ,india1 and--as we have just noticed1--with ,china also4 ,indeed1 its readiness to adapt itself to the circumstances1 instincts1 and prejudices of the people1 with whom it has to do1 is1 as has already been implied1 one of the most powerful and most striking peculiarities of ,buddhism4 ,in ,japan1 the ,shinto demi-gods were ,buddhaized1 and declared to be manifestations of ,gautama2 while practices borrowed from the ancient national creed were introduced into the ,buddhist ceremonial4 ,in the eighth century1 we find orders issued for the erection of two temples and a pagoda in every province2 until1 about the twelfth century1 the two religions became associated in the manner indicated in our first chapter1--,buddhist and ,shinto clergy officiating by turns in the same buildings1 and the ,shinto temples becoming filled with images1 alike of their own demi-gods1 and of ,buddha and his companions4 ,this state of things continued until #ahfh1 when the ,shinto cult was chosen to receive the exclusive recognition of the ,state1 many of the ,buddhist monasteries at the same time suffering spoliation4 ,within the last few years1 however1 ,buddhism has been making strenuous efforts to recover its former power and position1 and there is little doubt that it still exerts a real influence in ,japan2 while the collapse of ,shintoism is1 as certainly1 a matter of no distant time4 ,at ,tokio1 the capital1 where the number of temples is enormous1 the proportion of ,buddhist to ,shinto is in the ratio of ten to one2 and on several occasions during my stay in ,japan ,i noticed handsome new ,buddhist temples in course of erection1 or old ones being redecorated and restored4 ,on the other hand1 numbers are closed1 or falling to pieces1 for want of funds to maintain them4 ,at the present time1 there are some twelve or more principal ,buddhist sects in ,japan1 several of these being subdivided4 ,the distinction between the various schools is much more closely preserved than in ,china2 and1 at least in the larger cities1 each sect will be found represented by a temple of its own4 ,the difference between the schools consists not only in the varied attitudes adopted towards some controverted question1 but frequently also in the degrees of importance attached to some point which is held by all in common4 ,for1 as cannot be too emphatically stated1 ,buddhism is a many-sided religion47#af7 ,the following extract from ,sir ,monier ,williams' ,buddhism1 for instance1 draws attention to the variety of aspects1 from which it may1 and indeed needs to be regarded by the student4 8,in different places and at different times1 its teaching has become both negative and positive1 agnostic and gnostic4 ,it passes from apparent atheism and materialism to theism1 polytheism1 and spiritualism4 ,it is1 under one aspect1 mere pessimism2 under another1 pure philanthropy2 under another1 monastic communion2 under another1 high morality2 under another1 a variety of materialistic philosophy2 under another1 simple demonology2 under another1 a mere farrago of superstitions1 including necromancy1 witchcraft1 idolatry1 and fetishism4 ,in some form or other it may be held with almost any religion1 and embraces something from almost every creed40 ,to the same effect writes ,dr4 ,eitel in his ,lectures on ,buddhism 7pp4 #a-b73 8,buddhism is a system of vast magnitude1 for it comprises the earliest gropings after science throughout those various branches of knowledge which our ,western nations have long been accustomed to divide for separate study4 ,it embodies in one living structure grand and peculiar views of physical science1 refined and subtle theorems on abstract metaphysics1 an edifice of fanciful mysticism1 a most elaborate and far-reaching system of practical morality1 and finally a church organization as broad in its principles and as finely wrought in its most intricate network as any in the world40 ,it would hardly be worth while to attempt any detailed description of the many ,buddhist sects represented in ,japan4 ,to observe the main characteristics of the principal ones1 and their points of difference from one another1 will be amply sufficient for our purpose4 ,the greater number of the schools were introduced from ,china1 but a few are ,japanese developments4 ,let us take1 first of all1 the schools of the ,hinayana1 or ,minor ,vehicle1 which1 as we should expect1 is not extensively represented in ,japan4 ,the ,hinayana is represented by four philosophical schools1 in two of which the materialistic element predominates1 and in the two other the idealistic2 while eschatological questions afford further ground for difference4 ,the points in dispute between these philosophical schools of ,buddhism are altogether so subtle and abstruse as to be extremely difficult of comprehension to any not thoroughly versed in such distinctions4 ,of the four sects referred to1 one1 called the ,kusha1 has for its characteristic the fact that it bases its teaching on the ,abhidharma ,pitaca4 ,to the ,minor ,vehicle belongs the curious system known as the 8,holy ,path40 ,this has been described as a 8debtor and creditor account kept with divine justice40 ,much less common than in ,china1 the system of the 8,holy ,path0 is yet widely practised in ,japan4 ,elaborate tables are drawn up1 containing a list of all good and bad actions it is possible to perform1 with the numbers added which each counts on the side of merit or demerit4 ,the numbers range from one to a hundred1 or even more2 and the tables afford an insight into the relative importance in which all kinds of actions present themselves to the ,oriental mind4 ,he who would tread life's journey along the ,holy ,path must1 at least1 aim at setting off his bad deeds by a corresponding number of good acts of equal value4 ,at the end of each year1 the account is balanced1 and the overplus or deficit is transferred to the succeeding one4 ,that such a system is liable to the gravest abuse1 especially in the case of the more ignorant1 is obvious2 though1 when conscientiously practised1 it need not be supposed to be unproductive of good47#ag7 ,at present we have made no mention of the ,madhyameka1 or ,middle ,vehicle1 which1 as its name implies1 occupies an intermediate place between the ,greater and ,lesser ,conveyances4 ,a compromise between these two great systems1 the ,madhyameka may be said to be characterized by a marked moderation1 i4e4 between an excessive strictness1 on the one hand1 and a too great liberty on the other4 ,but though it is thus a faithful exponent of ,sakya-muni's original doctrine1 the ,madhyameka has never attracted any extensive following4 ,it is represented in ,japan by the sect called the ,sanron4 ,we pass on to examine the schools of the ,greater ,vehicle4 ,in the same way that the ,kusha sect regards as its chief authority the ,abhidharma ,pitaca1 there are two schools belonging to the ,greater ,vehicle1 which base their teaching on the ,sutra and ,vinaya ,pitacas respectively4 ,the ,kagon make the parables and sayings of ,buddha contained in the ,sutra their especial study2 while the ,ritzu1 as adhering to the more ascetic side of ,buddhism1 have for their favourite book the ,vinaya1 or 8,discipline40 ,the ,dhyana or ,zen sect is a ,chinese school with numerous sub-divisions4 ,its distinguishing feature is the prominence it assigns to the life of contemplation4 ,mysticism is represented by the ,shingon1 the ,mantra school of ,india transferred through ,china to ,japan2 and also by the ,tendai1 so called from a mountain in ,china1 where the head-quarters of the sect are situated4 ,the temples of the ,shingon may usually be recognized by the two guardian figures at the entrance1 with open and shut mouths1 suggesting the mystic syllable ,a-,,um4 ,a peculiarity of both of these sects is the use of the prayer-wheels and cylinders so common in ,thibet4 ,an element of mysticism also pervades the influential ,hokkai sect1 a ,japanese offshoot of the ,tendai1 founded in the thirteenth century by a priest named ,nichiren1 who is said to have been born supernaturally of a virgin mother4 ,the ,hokkai are most jealously attached to their own ritual1 and to other observances peculiar to themselves2 and1 inheriting the disposition attributed to their founder1 exhibit a narrowness and intolerance rarely met with in ,japan4 ,their characteristic may be said to consist in an emotional fanaticism2 and a visitor to one of their temples will generally find a number of devotees1--who thus remain engaged for hours at a time1--chanting the invocation of the sect1 8,adoration to the ,lotus of the ,law10 to a deafening accompaniment of drums4 ,two sects only now remain1 but these by no means the least interesting or least popular3 the ,jodo and the ,shin-,jodo 7i4e4 the ,new-,jodo74 ,the distinguishing features of these sects1--which also find a place in the system of the ,hokkai1--are their acknowledgement of the need of external aid1 and their doctrine of the ,western ,paradise1 presided over by ,amitabha ,buddha4 ,how marked a departure from the original teaching of ,sakya-muni1 as observed by us1 these schools present is sufficiently obvious2 nevertheless1 it is alleged that the revelation of the ,paradise in the ,west was first made by ,buddha himself to one of his principal disciples4 ,in the distant ,west is said to dwell one named ,amida1 or ,amitabha1 that is to say 8,illimitable ,light40 ,immortal himself1 immortal also and freed from all the trammels of transmigration are the vast multitudes of men7#ah7 who inhabit the boundless regions which he rules4 ,in that 8,pure ,land107#ai7 that 8,undefiled ,ground10 everything beautiful and enchanting has a place1 neither is pain or sorrow known2 and thither nought that is evil or that defileth can come4 ,whosoever would attain to this heavenly country must rely1 most of all1 on faithful invocation of the name of ,amida2 he having1 as is recorded1 made a vow that he would only accept ,buddhahood on condition that salvation should be placed within reach of all sincerely desirous of achieving it4 ,such is the doctrine of the ,western ,paradise1 some of the descriptions of which read almost like echoes of the last chapters of the ,bible4 ,unknown to the ,buddhism of ,ceylon1 ,siam1 and ,burmah1 it can be traced back as far as the second century ,a4,d41 when it was certainly known in ,cashmere1 though it was not until three centuries later that it began to spread widely over ,northern ,buddhism4 ,but the whole question of its origin remains wrapped in obscurity4 ,at the present day1 the devotion to ,amida is very widely practised in ,japan1 and it is extremely popular4 ,no doubt1 the more educated and intellectual ,buddhist1--and the distinction thus suggested needs constantly to be insisted on1--would explain the ,paradise of the ,west as being a mere allegory1 and regard ,amitabha1 as he was originally conceived to be1 as merely an ideal personification of boundless light4 ,but to the people generally the ,undefiled ,ground and its presiding deity are actual1 literal1 realities4 ,illustration4 ,kiyomizu-,dera1 ,kyoto4 ,we have said that the two sects in which the doctrine of the ,western ,paradise appears in greatest prominence are called the ,jodo and ,shin-,jodo4 ,the former of these is ,chinese in origin1 but was established in ,japan about #abjj ,a4,d4 by a priest1 ,enko ,daishi by name1 who was also a member of the imperial family4 ,the head-quarters of this sect are at ,kyoto1 where the magnificent monastery of ,chion-in forms one of the principal sights of that most interesting of ,japanese cities4 ,but of all the temples of ,japan1 those of the ,new-,jodo 7or ,monto7 sect are at once the most handsome1 the most frequented1 and the most attractive to the ,european traveller4 ,everything here1 too1 is of a dignified and stately character2 there is a striking absence of the tawdry and the puerile4 ,founded in the year #abfb1 this sect is1 at the present day1 foremost in learning1 influence1 and activity4 ,another purely ,japanese development1 it is--owing to differences about 8church government0--composed of two sub-divisions1 the ,nishi-,hongwanji and the ,higashi-,hongwanji1 or the ,eastern and ,western ,divisions of the ,true ,petition1--the reference being to the vow of ,amida4 ,in most of the larger towns1 handsome temples of either branch are to be found1 situated usually in the poorer districts4 ,it is in the temples of the ,shin-,jodo that the remarkable similarity1 of which every one has heard1 between the ,buddhist ceremonial and that of the ,roman ,church is most conspicuous4 ,nowhere1 perhaps1 did the resemblance in question1--to which ,i shall have occasion to refer again1--impress me more forcibly than it did in the ,new-,jodo temple at ,nagasaki1 at the first ,buddhist service at which ,i was ever present4 ,the day of our visit chanced to be the founder's anniversary1 and from a raised lectern in the chancel1 a venerable priest1 of benign countenance1--wearing a rich vestment not unlike a dalmatic1 and a cap resembling a biretta1--was recounting to a congregation1 composed chiefly of women1 old men1 and children1 the virtues of their deceased benefactor4 ,presently1 the sermon came to an end1 and the colloquial delivery of the discourse was changed for the monotone of a litany recitation3 the people answering with ready response1 and many of them employing the aid of their rosaries4 ,the fragrance of incense filled the air2 tapers and flowers adorned the altar1 above which was the statue1 not--as one entering by chance might almost have expected to see--of a ,christian saint1 but of some manifestation of ,gautama ,buddha4 ,despite1 however1 its elaborate ritual1 the ,shin-,jodo sect has been called the 8,protestantism of ,japan20 the reason being that it sanctions the marriage of its clergy1 approves the reading of the scriptures in the 8vulgar tongue10 permits a wider freedom in respect to food and drink1 and affords other indications of a 8reforming spirit40 ,the priesthood in this sect is1 practically1 a hereditary office4 ,in the ,great ,indian ,religions of the late ,mr4 ,bettany1 there is given a summary of the ,shin-,jodo ,belief1 in the words of one of its principal teachers4 ,i will take the liberty of re-quoting it here4 8,rejecting all religious austerities and other action1 giving up all idea of self-power1 we rely upon ,amida ,buddha with the whole heart for our salvation in the future life1 which is the most important thing3 believing that at the moment of putting our faith in ,amida ,buddha our salvation is settled4 ,from that moment invocation of his name is observed as an expression of gratitude and thankfulness for ,buddha's mercy4 ,moreover1 being thankful for the reception of this doctrine from the founder and succeeding chief priests whose teachings were so benevolent1 and as welcome as light in a dark night1 we must also keep the laws which are fixed for our duty during our whole life40 ,the mutual relation of faith and works is especially to be noticed2 and indeed the strikingly evangelical character of the whole ,confession4 ,illustration4 ,statues of ,kwannon1 ,san-,ju-,san-,gen-,do4 ,vast1 however1 as is the power attributed to ,amitabha1 and great as is the merit to be acquired by the invocation of his name1 there is found in the temples in which he is worshipped an image which receives even more veneration than his4 ,that colossal female effigy1 with the many heads and countless hands1 before which a number of votaries1 composed largely of women1 are kneeling in prayer1 is meant to represent the mighty ,avalokitesvara1 or--to substitute for the ,sanskrit the less formidable titles by which she is known in ,china and ,japan1--the all-powerful ,kwanyin or ,kwannon4 ,here1 again1 we are confronted with a devotion the origin of which is wrapped in uncertainty1 but which1 closely connected with the doctrine of the ,western ,paradise1 seems to have arisen some three centuries after the commencement of our era4 ,at the present day1 it is spread extensively over ,thibet1 ,mongolia1 ,china1 and ,japan2 but it is unknown to the countries of ,southern ,buddhism4 ,with regard to the meaning of this great image before us1 ,kwannon is commonly explained to be the reflex or spiritual son of ,amitabha ,buddha1 sent by him to earth to preside on earth over the ,buddhist faith1 and appearing1 at first in male and subsequently in female shape4 ,but the probability is that the various personages1 with whom ,kwannon is supposed to be identified1 had merely a fictitious existence2 and that in her statues1 we see simply an apotheosis of ,mercy1 an allegorical ,mater ,misericordiae1 whose many eyes and hands are intended to signify the unremitting vigilance and the untiring energy with which she ministers to all sorrow and distress47#bj7 ,the island of ,pootau1 off ,ning-po1 in the ,chusan ,archipelago1 is the great centre of ,kwannon worship2 the most popular of the many legends concerning her associating her with this locality1 and offering an explanation of her thousand heads and hands more clumsy even than is the manner of such myths4 ,the island belongs to the ,buddhist priesthood1 and is a great resort of pilgrims4 ,in ,japan1 the shrines and statues of ,kwannon are to be met with everywhere3 many of her images being of enormous size1 richly gilt and beautifully wrought4 ,sometimes the statues are kept concealed from view1 either on account of alleged miraculous properties1 or for some other reason of special sanctity4 ,the highly-venerated image1 for instance1 at the ,asakusa temple1 ,tokio1 is never shown2 it is only two inches high1 and is accredited with supernatural qualities4 ,but of all the shrines of ,kwannon1 it may be doubted whether the impression created by any is greater than by her temple of ,san-ju-san-gen-do at ,kyoto1 where no less than #cc1ccc images of the goddess may be seen4 ,of these a thousand are gilded statues1 five feet in height1 and ranged in tiers along a vast gallery4 ,the remaining effigies are depicted on the foreheads1 hands and nimbi of the larger ones4 ,the temple and its contents originated in the votive offering of a ,mikado of the twelfth century for recovery from sickness4 ,illustration4 ,the ,altar of ,san-,ju-,san-,gen-,do4 ,,iv4 ,,buddhism ,,and ,,christianity4 ,illustration4 ,guardian ,nio4 ,the ,buddhist temples in ,japan are for the most part built on a much grander and more elaborate scale than those belonging to the ,shinto worship4 ,the roofing is not of thatch1 but of tiles2 and instead of the torii1 the entrance is through a ,sammon1 or two-storied gateway1 in the recesses of which stand two huge figures of ferocious appearance4 ,these are called ,nio1 and their office is to guard the sacred precincts from the approach of evil spirits4 ,these images are commonly seen spotted all over with pellets of paper4 8,a worshipper writes his petition on paper1 or better still1 has it written for him by the priest1 chews it to a pulp1 and spits it at the divinity4 ,if1 having been well aimed1 the paper sticks1 it is a good omen40 ,passing through the ,sammon1 and proceeding in a straight direction--often between rows of votive stone-lanterns--the visitor soon arrives at the two largest buildings of the temple group4 ,one of these is the ,hondo1 or main shrine2 while the other may be either the ,hall of the ,founder of the particular sect to which the ,temple belongs1 or it may contain a colossal image of ,amida1 and be specially dedicated to his worship4 ,sometimes1 again1 this second building is known as the ,refectory1 from the spiritual nourishment supplied there in the form of sermons1 for which the preacher takes as his text some passage of the ,sutra1 or1 it may be1 some saying of ,confucius47#ba7 ,removing our boots1 which we leave at the foot of the wooden steps1 we ascend to the ,hondo1 and1 if need be1 push aside the sliding-doors of paper-covered woodwork1 which afford access to the building4 ,should no service chance to be in progress1 a little company of priests1 acolytes1 c41 will probably be found1 seated on the matting with which the floor is covered1--engaged in the perusal of book or newspaper1 or chatting together over miniature cups of tea1 and1 if it be winter-time1 spreading their hands to receive the grateful warmth of the hibachi47#bb7 ,beside them1 on the floor1 is arranged a miscellaneous assortment of sacred pictures1 leaflets1 candles1 incense-sticks1 charms1 and other articles2 any of which may be purchased by a very modest expenditure4 ,as we enter1 we observe that several pairs of eyes are fastened on us in undisguised curiosity2 but our low salutation is promptly responded to1 if indeed it has not been anticipated1 and one of the group will courteously come forward to supply us with any assistance or information we require4 ,before the railing1 which encloses the sanctuary1 two or three worshippers are kneeling in prayer2 and these also examine us for a while with close attention4 ,or1 it may be that at the time of our visit some religious function is proceeding4 ,if so1 the clergy with their servers are found within the chancel1 clad in gorgeous yellow robes1 and genuflecting now and again before the images which stand above the richly-vested altar4 ,outside the sanctuary rails1 the congregation is assembled in greater or less numbers1 according to the importance of the day4 ,around is a profusion of lights and flowers2 while the air is fragrant with the fumes of incense4 ,the prayers1 which the officiating priest recites in monotone1 are in ,pali1 a form of ,sanskrit2 and if an air of perfunctoriness pervades his devotions1 let it be remembered that every day1 month after month1 and year after year1 he may be found chanting these same litanies1 of the significance of which he has but the vaguest idea4 ,not1 however1 that he is without belief in their efficacy2 nay1 it may be that his very ignorance of their meaning causes the words he utters to have1 in his eyes1 a transcendent value4 ,above the high altar1 in seated posture on lotus-blossoms17#bc7 are three colossal images1 cunningly wrought and richly gilded1 and bearing on their countenances an expression of placid repose4 ,perhaps1 it is the ,triratna1 or ,three ,jewels1 that these represent1 the ,trinity of ,buddha1 the ,law1 and the ,order4 ,or1 possibly1 this is ,buddha1 in his triple forms of existence3--as ,sakya-muni1 the form under which he lived as man among men2 as ,amitabha1 his metaphysical existence in ,nirvana2 as ,avalokitesvara1 his reflex in the world of forms1 his spiritual son1 generated to propagate the religion established by him during his earthly career4 ,or once again1 these three images may portray the ,buddhas of the ,past1 ,present1 and ,future3--,gautama who was1 the historic founder of ,buddhism2 ,kwannon1 or ,avalokitesvara1 the head of the present ,buddhist hierarchy1 the ,buddha who is2 and ,maitreya1 or ,meroku1 the deliverer yet to come1 the rehabilitation of past ,buddhas foretold by ,sakya-muni4 ,now and again one may meet with a ,buddhist of superior intellectual attainments1 who would explain the acts of worship he offers to these images1 as signifying merely reverence for ,gautama's teaching2 but to the multitude1 as has been seen already1 the images represent distinct and all-powerful deities4 ,indeed1 the people are encouraged thus to regard them by their ecclesiastical superiors2 it being one of the methods of ,buddhism thus to adapt its teaching to the capacity of dense and ignorant minds4 ,and thus it comes about that a religion1 commencing with agnosticism1 meets the 8craving for divinity10 so deeply implanted in the nature of our race1 by passing into what is1 practically1 a deification of humanity4 ,illustration4 ,pagoda at ,nikko4 ,leaving the ,hondo1 we next proceed to explore the grounds and remaining buildings connected with the temple4 ,this lofty ,pagoda1 for instance1 several stories high1 is erected over some holy relic1--perhaps the vitrified remains of the founder1 after cremation4 ,a little further on1 we come to the ,rinzo1 or ,revolving ,library1 containing an entire set of the ,buddhist scriptures4 ,as these consist altogether of some #f1gjj or #f1hjj large volumes1 it is clearly impossible for any one person to read them all4 ,this1 however1 need not be regretted seeing that whatever merit might be obtained by a complete perusal1 is freely extended to all1 who will take the trouble to make this huge stand revolve2 the structure being so arranged that a single push is sufficient for the purpose6 ,the ,rinzo was an invention of a ,chinese priest1 and is said to date from the sixth century4 ,owing to their costliness they are rarely met with2 and the only two ,i remember seeing were at ,asakusa1 ,tokio1 and at ,ikegami1 the head-quarters of the ,hokkai sect4 ,elsewhere in the grounds we come upon the ,shoro1 or ,great ,bell1--used not for summoning the faithful1 but for the purpose of invocation and worship2--the ,koro1 or ,drum-tower2 the ,emado1 or 8,ex-voto0 ,shed1 the walls of which are covered with pictures1 charms1 and other offerings2 cisterns for the purpose of ceremonial purification2 a printing and publishing department2 and1 perhaps1 a grotto with ghastly representations of the sufferings endured in the ,buddhist hells4 ,usually1 too1 to be found in the sacred precincts1 is a specimen of the ,ficus religiosa1 or sacred tree1 under which ,sakya-muni attained his enlightenment4 ,at the rear of the temple buildings are situated the priests' apartments1--often a quadrangle enclosed by a colonnade1--the reception-rooms of which are beautifully decorated with kakemonos4 ,here the visitor is sometimes invited to a light repast of tea1 cake1 and fruit2 the priests waiting on him the while with the most courteous attention4 ,and here may ,i be permitted to say a word about the ,buddhist priests of ,japan as ,i found them8 ,they are commonly spoken of as lazy and ignorant1 mercenary and corrupt2 and it is to be feared that with regard to many1 especially of the lower orders of the clergy1 this witness is true4 ,but speaking of those with whom ,i came into direct contact--the priests1 for the most part1 attached to the more important temples--,i feel bound to say1 that the impression ,i formed of them was1 on the whole1 a distinctly favourable one4 ,with countenances often indicating close spiritual application1 they appeared to perform their sacred duties with reverence and attention2 while of the disinterested kindness and hospitality ,i received at their hands1 as well as of the courtesy and patience with which they replied to my numerous questions1 ,i would speak in terms of grateful appreciation4 ,illustration4 ,plan ,of ,buddhist ,temple ,at ,ikegami1 ,near ,tokio4 7,head-quarters of the ,hokkai or ,nichiren sect47 ,the path to the left from the ,entrance ,gate leads to the ,main ,temple2 that to the right to the ,founder's ,hall4 ,to the right of the plan are the ,drum-tower and ,pagoda4 ,behind the ,main ,temple is the ,rinzo or ,revolving ,library2 and in the lower left-hand corner of the picture is the ,reliquary4 ,the two small buildings in the foreground are the ,belfry and the ,emado4 ,in the background are the ,priests' ,apartments and ,reception-rooms4 ,a visit to a ,buddhist temple1 however1 can hardly fail to suggest to any1 who are at all familiar with the observances of the ,roman ritual1 a comparison to which we have already referred1--,i mean the striking resemblance between the ,buddhist ceremonies and such as have found place in the ,christian ,church4 ,the high-altar with its haloed statues1 flowers1 candelabra1 and ever-burning lamps2 the side-altars1 similarly adorned1 above one of which1 it may be1 is seen the image of ,maia1 the mother of ,gautama1 bearing her infant-son in her arms2 the priests1 tonsured1 mitred1 arrayed in their rich vestments1 and attended by their acolytes2 the people1 bending low in adoration1 or telling their rosaries as they pray2 the tinkling of bells and the perfume of incense2 the dim light of the sanctuary1 and the monotonous chant1 in the unknown tongue1 of the litanies uplifted for living and for dead3--these are only some of the points of correspondence with ,roman ,catholic observances which meet us in almost every ,buddhist temple4 ,indeed1 to attempt to specify such resemblances in detail would prove a laborious task4 ,but while the similarity to which ,i refer is far too close and remarkable to be accounted for by mere coincidence1 its explanation is by no means easy4 ,some would solve the difficulty by referring to the unquestionable fact that many of the ceremonies practised in the ,christian ,church are adaptations of ancient heathen rites3 a leading captive of captivity of which1 as it seems to me1 ,christianity has far more reason to be proud than ashamed4 ,but though the ,buddhist observances are1 without doubt1 of considerable antiquity1 this explanation cannot be said to be adequate to the requirements of the case4 ,far more satisfactory is the theory that ascribes the phenomenon to an early contact of ,china with some form of ,christianity--probably ,nestorianism--and to the readiness which ,buddhism has ever exhibited to extend its influence by a conformity to other faiths4 ,the problem1 however1 is one which we must1 to a great extent1 be satisfied to leave unsolved2 the most eminent authorities in ,orientalism having confessed themselves baffled4 ,it is only the fact of the resemblance that admits of no dispute4 ,illustration4 ,a ,buddhist ,priest4 ,it is curious to notice the different effects produced by an observation of the ,buddhist ceremonial on the minds of ,roman ,catholic missionaries upon their first arrival in the ,east4 ,by some its likeness to their own ritual has been regarded as a manuvre of ,satan1 designed for the hindrance of ,christian truth2 while others have regarded the resemblance with satisfaction1 as calculated to diminish the difficulties of their work4 ,without entering further into this question1 ,i may be allowed to express the conviction that an elaborate ceremonial forms at any rate no necessary factor of ,christian work in ,japan4 ,so far from this being the case1 ,i was informed1 on no prejudiced authority1 that1 the breach once made with the old associations1 converts are disposed to regard anything tending even remotely to suggest them as more of a hindrance than a help2 and this view finds support in the large number of adherents gained by several of the ,protestant ,missions1 with whom anything in the way of ceremonial is reduced to a minimum4 ,on the other hand1 must be remembered the very successful work accomplished in ,japan1 alike by the ,roman and ,orthodox ,churches1 whose combined total of some #fe1jjj adherents is more than double that of the various ,protestant sects1--the ,churches of ,england and ,america1 with #d1jjj members1 not being included in this computation4 ,hitherto1 ,i have referred only to the resemblance outwardly existing between the ceremonies and observances of ,christianity and ,buddhism4 ,but an extension of the comparison results in what is1 at first sight1 an even more startling similarity between incidents recorded of ,gautama ,buddha1 and events in the life of ,jesus ,christ1 as narrated in the ,gospels4 ,thus1 we are told that ,gautama was born of a virgin mother2 that angels appeared at his nativity2 that an ancient seer prostrated himself before him1 and saluted him as one come down from heaven2 that1 as a child1 he confounded his teachers by the understanding he displayed1 and the questions which he asked2 that1 assailed by the ,evil ,one7#bd7 with the keenest temptations1--including the offer of ,sovereignty over all the world1 if he would renounce his mission1--he yet emerged victorious from all2 that once1 being on a mountain1 he was enveloped in a cloud of heavenly light2 that he went down into hell2 and that he ascended into heaven4 ,indeed1 the ,christian may be pardoned if1 for the moment1 he feels completely staggered at all that he finds advanced on behalf of ,sakya-muni2 and if his perplexity only begins to give place to relief1 when he discovers that there is absolutely no trace of such extraordinary coincidence in the early ,buddhist writings1 and that there is no reason for supposing that these alleged events in the life of ,gautama were ever heard of until the ,christian era was already several centuries old4 ,we have now1 as far as our limits permit1 made an examination of ,buddhism with especial reference to ,japan4 ,but before leaving this part of our subject1 ,i would humbly1 but very earnestly1 submit the question1 ,is there in ,buddhism generally1--is there in ,buddhism as it exists in ,japan at the present day1--nothing upon which ,christianity may profitably fasten1 nothing to which ,christianity may properly appeal8 ,is that great proclamation of ,christian tact1 which1 eighteen centuries ago1 the ,apostle ,paul delivered on the ,areopagus at ,athens1 8,whom ye ignorantly worship1 ,him declare ,i unto you10 one that cannot1 more often than it does1 find a place on the lips of our missionaries of to-day8 ,is the position a useless one to take1 that both the faiths of ,jesus ,christ and of ,buddha agree in this1 that either has for its object the amelioration of man's lot1 here and hereafter1 and his release from the curse of suffering2 only1 as we believe1 with this great difference1 that the founder of ,christianity was possessed of resources to which ,sakya-muni laid no claim8 ,these are questions which were constantly presenting themselves to my mind during my visit to ,japan2 but they are questions also which ,i heard asked more than once by men who had closely studied the whole subject and were deeply interested in mission work4 ,but whatever the true answer to these questions be1 of this we may be certain3 that by no reckless denunciation of a creed1 of the very elements of which the denouncer is content to be in ignorance1 will any victory of ,christ's ,cross be achieved4 ,be the errors and shortcomings of ,buddhism what they may1--and we must1 to be honest1 pronounce them in our judgment to be many and great1--it is1 at least1 a system of very great antiquity1 in whose strength thousands of millions of our fellow-creatures have lived and died1 both better and happier4 ,men cannot be expected lightly to abandon their allegiance to such a faith as this1 nor would it be to their credit if they did2 while in ,christianity1 even when faithfully represented1 there is very much calculated to perplex and estrange one who has been trained in the tenets of ,buddhism4 ,moreover1 however little he may agree with them1 the ,buddhist holds that the religious convictions of others are entitled to respect1 and that their feelings should never be wounded1 if this can be avoided2 it is only natural that he1 in his turn1 should be quickly alienated by unsympathetic treatment4 ,i was told by an ,english resident of long standing that infidelity is largely on the increase in ,japan1 especially among the men of the upper and middle classes2 and that among the causes of this was certainly to be reckoned the contemptuous and merely destructive attitude towards ,buddhism1 with which some--let us hope they are the very few--would think to serve the cause of ,jesus ,christ4 8,depend upon it10 it was said to me1 8it is irreligion that commonly succeeds to the vacant place1 not ,christianity4 ,carlyle was right when he said1 #8,better even to believe a lie than to believe nothing4' 0 ,and ,buddhism is not all a lie6 8,the perishing heathen40 ,many of us have been revolted by such expressions when heard at home4 ,but it is only when one is living in the midst of the people of whom they are spoken1 that it is possible to realize the full horror of their meaning4 ,that men1 women1 and little children1 who are distinguished by so many good qualities17#be7 and who--with1 as we believe1 such immeasurably inferior opportunities--present1 in many points1 so favourable a contrast to ourselves1 should be condemned to a future of hopeless and unending misery1 for not believing that of which1 it may be1 they have not even heard1 or heard only in crude1 distorted statement--can any man really think this1 who recognizes the providence of a ,father of ,love2 nay1 ,i will dare to say1 of a ,deity of bare ,justice8 ,and yet language thus fearfully misrepresenting the ,faith of ,christ is still used by some who are called by ,his name2 and that it is used is known by the people of ,japan47#bf7 ,but again4 ,there is1 ,i have observed1 much in the scheme of ,christianity calculated to prove a stumbling-block to those who have been educated in the doctrines of ,buddhism4 ,let me proceed to state some of the difficulties that would be experienced1 some of the objections that would be raised1 by a ,buddhist of a certain amount of intellectual capacity1 when confronted with the claims of the ,christian ,faith4 ,thus1 7a7 the ,bible4 8,we are unable10 the ,buddhist would say1 8to recognize in your ,old and ,new ,testaments an inspired revelation4 ,why should we accept your ,scriptures1 with all their alleged miracles and supernatural occurrences1 when you reject ours8 ,besides1 you are not agreed among yourselves as to inspiration1 authenticity1 translation1 interpretation4 ,some of you1 again1 are for diffusing the ,bible broadcast1 others would keep it in the background4 ,again1 the ,christian doctrine of immortality appears to us entirely absent from the pages of the ,old ,testament2 while even the ,jews1 #8,god's chosen people1' refuse to see in the ,new ,testament the fulfilment of the ,old40 7b7 ,the ,old ,testament4 8,we cannot regard the story of ,creation1 as given in the ,book of ,genesis1 as anything more than a myth1 containing a germ of truth4 ,neither can we accept1 as historically true1 the story of the temptation in the ,garden of ,eden4 ,and yet1 upon this is made to rest your whole theory of the ,fall1 of ,original ,sin1 and of ,christian ,redemption4 ,as for the history of the ,jewish people1 we can see in it nothing but one long story of cruelty and bloodshed2 how can a ,creator1 a ,god of ,love1 be supposed to have permitted and approved such things80 7c7 ,the ,incarnation4 ,the whole doctrine of the ,incarnation is full of difficulty to the mind of an ,oriental2 not because of its strangeness and novelty1 but owing to his very familiarity with stories of miraculous birth in his own legends4 7d7 ,the ,atonement4 8,why should ,jehovah require the sacrifice of ,his own ,son80 ,this is a difficulty that would present itself with especial force to the ,buddhist2 by whom all life is held sacred1 and whom such texts as 8,without shedding of blood there is no remission10 fill with repugnance4 ,the explanation offered by ,buddhists themselves of the ,christian doctrine of ,atonement is1 that its origin must be sought in the fact that1 from the most ancient times1 the idea of sacrifice1 and of human sacrifice1 has existed2 and this explanation they go on to apply to the ,holy ,eucharist4 7e7 ,eternal ,punishment4 8,how10 it is asked1 8is your doctrine of ,everlasting ,punishment consistent with that of the ,remission of ,sins8 ,and how1 on the other hand1 is not your scheme of salvation ethically wrong1 if it allows people1 after sinning all their lives1 to be forgiven on their death-beds1 that so they may enter a ,paradise1 wherein good and bad alike have a place80 7f7 ,faith and ,belief4 8,what right have you to ask us to believe anything that does not accord with science and experience1 when you have no better opportunities of knowing than we80 7g7 ,christian ,ethics4 8,some of these--e4g4 the doctrine of the ,sermon on the ,mount--we admit to be good2 but they are not peculiar to ,christianity--our own teaching is very similar4 ,in other of your ethics1 we see only an ignoble and selfish storing of treasure2 it appears to us that a good action1 done for the sake of reward or gain1 must entirely lose its merit40 7h7 ,missionary ,work4 8,we do not claim that our religion is the only way of salvation1 but readily recognize the good points in other systems as well4 ,you1 on the contrary1 appear to hold that there is no other way but your own2 and indeed it is only on this supposition that we can understand the strenuous efforts which you make to bring us to abandon our religion for yours407#bg7 ,it forms no part of my purpose to discuss these objections2 which1 let me add1 are merely representative1 and by no means exhaustive4 ,with many of them we are already familiar at home2 and the ,japanese1 ,i would mention1 are fully aware of the unbelief prevalent in ,england1 and well acquainted with its arguments4 ,indeed1 few ,english people1 it is probable1 have any idea how closely their history and their literature are studied by nations living at the other side of the globe1 who are to them simply 8the heathen40 ,some1 again1 of the above objections would seem to have been suggested by imperfect and distorted statements of ,christian truth4 ,i have thought it worth while to refer to them1 in the hope that the fact of such questions being raised may serve to impress upon us these two important points3--7i7 the need of missionaries1 at the present day1 being not only men of holy and devoted lives1 but also fully equal in intellectual equipment and culture to our home clergy2 and 7ii7 the fallacy of trusting to the circulation of the ,bible1 as an instrument of mission work1 unless it be accompanied--or rather preceded--by the teaching of the living agent4 ,it must not1 however1 be imagined that the obstacles to the progress of the ,gospel in ,japan are wholly1 or even mainly1 of the character ,i have referred to4 ,another great hindrance is most unquestionably presented in the large number of competing sects and organizations1 which1 here as in other countries where mission work is being carried on1 address the people in the name of ,christianity4 ,it is true that ,buddhists themselves are divided into numerous sects and schools2 but between these there can scarcely be said to be anything of party animosity and strife4 ,it will1 indeed1 be heard with satisfaction that the feeling towards one another of the various ,christian bodies in ,japan is1 speaking generally1 free from bitterness2 and that each would appear desirous of doing its own work1 in the wide field before it1 without interference with the efforts of others4 8,the feeling here10 it was observed to me1 8is nothing like so bad as it is at home407#bh7 ,and as in ,england bigotry and suspicion are steadily giving place to mutual toleration and respect1 so may we hope that1 both in our colonies and abroad1 counsels of charity may more and more prevail4 ,still1 at the best1 so long as ,romanists1 ,orthodox1 ,anglicans1 and ,sectarians adhere to the positions they at present occupy1 so long must any real unity of action be impossible2 neither can peace be sought by surrender or compromise of principle4 ,but meanwhile there is1 of course1 a lamentable want of compactness among the converts--as a recent writer in the ,japan ,mail1 remarked 8they are more like scattered groups of soldiers than an army02--while the perplexity occasioned to those we are seeking to convince is terrible and great4 ,the following extract from ,miss ,bickersteth's recently-published ,japan as we saw it 7,sampson ,low1 #ahic71 draws an able contrast between the religious condition of ,japan at the present day and the position of ,christianity in the time of ,st4 ,francis ,xavier4 8,it was impossible not to be struck with the present complication of religious matters in the country as compared with the days of ,xavier4 ,then1 on the one side1 there was the ,buddhist-,shinto creed1 undermined by no ,western science1 still powerful in its attraction for the popular mind1 and presenting a more or less solid resistance to the foreign missionary2 and1 on the other1 ,christianity as represented by ,roman ,catholicism1 imperfect truly1 but without a rival in dogma or in ritual4 ,now the ranks of ,buddhist-,shintoism are hopelessly broken2 the superstition of its votaries is exposed by the strong light of modern science1 and their enthusiasm too often quenched in the deeper darkness of atheism4 ,christianity1 though present in much greater force than in the days of ,xavier1 is1 alas1 not proportionately stronger4 ,the divisions of ,christendom are nowhere more evident than in its foreign missions to an intellectual people like the ,japanese4 ,the ,greek1 the ,roman1 the ,anglican churches1 the endless #8splits' of ,nonconformity1 must and do present to the ,japanese mind a bewildering selection of possibilities in religious truth40 ,to refer to but one other hindrance to ,christian progress in ,japan--which1 although the last mentioned1 is by no means the least serious--,i mean the estimate formed by the natives of the practical influence of the ,christian religion upon ,english people and upon other nations professing it4 ,applying to ,christianity the test of its results1 they urge that it has1 at any rate1 only very partially succeeded4 ,for instance1 the ,japanese comment upon the fact that numbers of ,englishmen in ,japan never attend the services of their ,church2 and that the lives of many of them display a flagrant disregard for the principles which should regulate the conduct of ,christians4 ,without1 however1 denying either the justice of these charges1 or the reasonableness of the mood which advances them1 ,i think it may be urged with fairness that the influence of ,christianity on us as a nation cannot rightly be estimated in this particular way4 ,as a rule1 the ,englishman can scarcely be said to appear to advantage abroad4 ,too often he assumes an attitude of insolent superiority to the people whose guest he is2 while the position in which our countrymen are placed in a country like ,japan--coupled with the freedom from restraint1 so much greater than at home--has1 for reasons which we need not now enter into1 its peculiar difficulties4 ,neither is it by any means certain that a ,japanese1 paying a short visit to ,england1 will gather any just impression of what hold ,christianity has on us as a people4 ,in all probability the range of his observations will be very limited and superficial2 his wanderings will be chiefly confined to the great thoroughfares of the principal cities2 while the circle of his acquaintance will1 it is likely1 be equally restricted1 and equally unrepresentative of ,english life4 ,not that1 in saying this1 we would seek to excuse ourselves1 or deny that there is far more truth than we could wish1 and than there ought to be1 in the charges brought against us4 ,we would merely submit that there is another side to the picture which ought not1 in fairness1 to be overlooked4 ,admitting as we must1 for instance1 the great prevalence of infidelity in our ,england of to-day1 there is yet to be placed over against it1--and may ,i not add1 drawing it out into the light8--the increased activity of the ,church during this last half-century1 the remarkable power she has exhibited of adapting herself to meet the needs of her times1 the influence for good that she has not only been in the past1 but remains at the present day1 in the nation at large1 and in thousands and thousands of ,english homes4 8,by their fruits ye shall know them03 and ,christianity must not and need not deprecate the application of that test to herself4 ,only1 we would urge1 that is not a fair judgment1 which takes account only of what the ,church of ,jesus ,christ has failed to do1 without recognizing also all that1 in the strength of her ,divine ,head1 she has been permitted to accomplish4 ,v4 ,,christianity ,,in ,,japan4 ,i propose now to place before my readers some account of the various ,missions at work in ,japan4 ,i am enabled to do this the better from having obtained1 in the course of my visit1 a useful table1 compiled by the ,rev4 ,h4 ,loomis1 of the ,american ,bible ,society1 ,yokohama1 giving statistics of the different organizations up to the beginning of the year #ahic4 ,the plan adopted by ,mr4 ,loomis is to arrange his statistics into three classes3 7#a7 8,protestant ,missions10 7#b7 8,catholic ,missions10 and 7#c7 8,the ,greek ,church in ,japan40 ,under the head of 8,protestant ,missions10 are included the ,church of ,england1 the ,episcopal ,church of ,america1 a large number of other ,american denominations1 the ,presbyterian ,church of ,scotland1 the ,swiss ,evangelical ,protestant ,mission1 the ,society of ,friends1 ,u4,s4,a41 ,universalists1 ,unitarians and others2 while under the head of 8,catholic ,missions0 we find particulars of only one branch of the ,holy ,catholic ,church--the ,church of ,rome4 ,this is not the arrangement ,i should have made myself2 but1 as a matter of convenience1 we will follow it more or less closely47#bi7 ,it is right to add that of the thirty 8,protestant ,missions0 seven are grouped together under the title of the 8,church of ,christ in ,japan10 and work1 it would appear1 in general harmony on ,presbyterian principles4 ,in the same way1 the ,american ,episcopal ,church1 the ,church of ,england--represented by both the ,church ,missionary ,society and the ,society for the ,propagation of the ,gospel--and the ,mission of ,wyckliffe ,college1 ,canada1 are associated together2 leaving some twenty sects working independently47#cj7 ,before1 however1 proceeding to an examination of ,mr4 ,loomis' table1 we must briefly observe the past history of ,christianity in ,japan4 ,this dates from the arrival of ,st4 ,francis ,xavier in #aedi1 seven years after the country was discovered by the ,portuguese4 ,for some while the missionaries were permitted to prosecute their work without molestation1 and considerable progress was being effected4 ,a deputation of native priests appealed to the ,tycoon1 but their remonstrances were unheeded4 ,with thirty-five religious sects already represented in ,japan1 the country1 he answered1 might very well find room for a thirty-sixth religion1 viz4 ,christianity4 ,presently1 however1 the ,jesuits being followed by the ,dominicans and ,franciscans1 mutual factions broke out2 while1 elated by their success1 some of the missionaries began to adopt an attitude of high-handed intolerance and interference4 ,for the first time in their history1 the ,japanese found themselves entangled in all the turmoil and animosity of religious strife4 ,in #aehg the first persecution of the ,christians took place1 but apparently soon subsided4 ,the warning1 however1 was disregarded2 and the fatal policy of arrogance and oppression was still persisted in4 ,native priests were put to death2 ,buddhist monasteries were destroyed2 the ,inquisition was set up4 ,in #afad we find a ,japanese embassy despatched to ,rome1 in order1 so it is said1 to make an act of submission to the spiritual supremacy of the ,pope4 ,meanwhile the ,dutch1 jealous of the position that was being gained by the ,portuguese traders1 accused the ,roman propagandists to the ,japanese authorities of aiming at a territorial ascendency2 and that intrigues were actually being carried on by the ,jesuits for the overthrow of the ,shogun there seems little doubt4 ,in the massacre which ensued several thousand ,christians were put to death4 8,their unflinching devotion compels our admiration4 ,one may search the grim history of early ,christian martyrology without finding anything to surpass the heroism of the ,roman ,catholic ,martyrs of ,japan4 ,burnt on stakes made of crosses1 torn limb from limb1 buried alive1 they yet refused to recant4 ,we are told of one ,jesuit priest1 ,christopher ,ferreya1 who1 after enduring horrible tortures1 was at length hung by his feet in such a way that his head was buried in a hole in the ground from which air and light were excluded4 ,his right-hand was left loose that he might make the sign of recantation4 ,he hung for four hours1 and then made the sign2 whereupon1 with a rare refinement of cruelty1 he was appointed the president of the tribunal before which ,christians were brought for condemnation4 ,then1 after a lull1 in #afcg thousands of ,christians rose in armed rebellion4 ,after two months they were forced to surrender1 and #cg1jjj were slaughtered4 ,stern decrees were then issued1 forbidding the admission of any foreign vessel2 an exception being made in favour of the ,chinese and ,dutch4 ,for more than two hundred years1 notice-boards stood beside highways1 ferries1 and mountain-passes1 containing1 among other prohibitions1 the following3--#8,so long as the sun shall warm the earth1 let no ,christian be so bold as to come to ,japan2 and let all know that the ,king of ,spain himself1 or the ,christians' ,god1 or the great ,god of all1 if he violate this commandment1 shall pay for it with his head4' ,for centuries the name #8,christian' would blanch the cheek and pale the lip4 ,christianity was remembered only as an awful scar on the national annals4 ,but in the ,southern ,island the smouldering fire was never quite extinguished2 while1 as recently as #ahbi1 six men and an old woman were crucified at ,osaka407#ca7 ,at the time of the closing of the country to foreigners1 an exception was made of the one port of ,nagasaki1 the scene of the final great massacre1 when thousands of native ,christians were hurled from a rocky islet into the sea4 ,here1 however1 as has been already mentioned1 the ,dutch were the only ,europeans permitted to trade2 they being closely confined to the small island of ,deshima4 ,in addition to having pay a heavy rental1 they were subjected to the closest espionage1 not being suffered1 under any circumstances1 to pass beyond the narrow limits assigned to them4 ,several times in each year they were summoned before the authorities1 and required to tread under foot the ,crucifix1 and other symbols of the ,catholic ,faith4 ,several of the trampling-boards employed on these occasions are still to be seen at the ,ueno ,museum1 ,tokio4 ,the ,dutch1 it would appear1 quieted any qualms of conscience by regarding their action as amounting to an abnegation1 not of ,christianity1 but of ,romanism4 ,it was not until thirty years ago that intercourse between ,japan and other nations began to be resumed2 and that1 after a short period of ill-feeling and suspicion1 circumstances were brought about which enabled both ,roman ,catholics and other ,christians to work without hindrance4 ,in #ahgb the interdict against ,christianity was formally removed2 and the release from imprisonment and return from banishment of hundreds of ,christians took place4 ,such is the past history of ,christianity in ,japan4 ,it has1 indeed1 its elements of glorious and heroic martyrdom1 but it has elements1 also1 on which few of us can look back without a deep sense of shame4 ,let us trust that by this time the people of ,japan have come to understand that the conflict of their forefathers was not with ,christianity1 but rather with ,christians who had forgotten 8what spirit they were of40 ,turning now to the condition of ,christian ,missions at the present day1 it seems right to commence with those of the ,roman ,church4 ,not only has the ,roman ,church in ,japan a history which extends over three hundred years1 but it reckons at the present time considerably more than double the number of adherents claimed by any other ,christian body4 ,the ,roman influence has been particularly successful in the ,goto ,islands1 in the neighbourhood of ,nagasaki1 where the devoted labours of the missionaries have won over a considerable portion of the population4 ,to come to the statistics4 ,these give one ,archbishop1 three ,bishops1 seventy-eight missionary1 and fifteen native priests1 with over #cjj 7native7 minor clergy and catechists2 #ahe churches and chapels1 with #bdd congregations4 ,seventy-six sisters of the ,order of ,st4 ,paul de ,chartres are stationed in ,japan1 and there are further nineteen native novices4 ,other statistics include seventeen orphanages1 with an average of over #ajj children2 twenty ,industrial ,schools2 eight ,nursing establishments2 a ,hospital for the ,aged2 and a ,hospital for ,lepers1 with sixty-two inmates1 situated at ,gotemba1 at the foot of ,fuji-san4 ,the number of infant baptisms for #ahib is given as1 children of ,christian parents #a1ccg1 and ,heathen parents #a1aff2 these1 with #b1hjf adult baptisms1 and forty-five 8conversions of heretics10 bringing the total of baptisms and conversions for the year to #e1ced4 ,the work that is being done by the ,roman missionaries is commended on all sides2 a prominent feature in their methods being a consideration for1 and adaptation to1 the habits and prejudices of the people1 that greatly facilitate their progress1 especially among the poor of the country districts4 ,the whole number of ,roman ,catholics in ,japan amounts1 as has been said already1 to about #de1jjj4 ,i pass on to speak of the condition of the ,greek1 or ,orthodox ,russian1 ,church in ,japan2 whose relations with the ,church of ,england are here1 as elsewhere1 of a friendly though not1 of course1 of a very intimate character4 ,its head-quarters are at ,tokio1 where an imposing ,cathedral1 situated on high ground and in a central position1 has recently been erected4 ,unfortunately our information in this case is very incomplete2 but assuming the correctness of the numbers before us1 one is struck by the paucity of missionary clergy1 viz4 one bishop and three priests4 ,to these must be added eighteen native clergy1 and #abh unordained teachers and workers4 ,there are in all #bai congregations4 ,the number of adult baptisms in #ahib is given as #ieb2 and the total membership at the present time exceeds #bj1jjj4 ,scanty as these details are1 they indicate much activity and progress4 ,the proximity of ,russian territory to ,japan--,vladivostock being only some #gjj miles ,n4 of ,nagasaki--is1 of course1 a circumstance highly favourable to the ,orthodox ,mission4 ,coming now to the various bodies arranged by ,mr4 ,loomis under the title of 8,protestant10 we will take first the ,nippon ,sei ,kokwai1 or ,church of ,japan1 which is the name given to the union formed by the ,missions of the ,american ,episcopal ,church1 the ,church of ,england1 and the ,english ,church in ,canada4 ,it is1 however1 only fair to say that the total number of adherents of the ,nippon ,sei ,kokwai are greatly less than half the number claimed by the ,presbyterian ,churches1 as also by the ,churches of the ,american ,board's ,mission4 ,the ,missions1 then1 of the ,american ,church and of the ,church of ,england are to a great extent worked independently of each other1 each being under its own ,episcopal control2 but at the same time1 the two ,churches enjoy1 of course1 full intercommunion1 and are practically one1--often taking counsel together1 and dividing the various districts by mutual arrangement in such a way as to make the best use of their resources4 ,to the ,american ,church belongs the honour of being the first body to commence ,christian work in ,japan in the present century2 the ,rev4 ,c4 ,m4 ,williams1 afterwards ,bishop for ,japan and ,china1 establishing himself at ,tokio in #ahei1 and proceeding at once to translate portions of the ,bible and ,prayer-,book1 hold services for the benefit of ,english-speaking people1 and set on foot schemes for the study of our language4 ,there are now twelve missionary clergy at work1 and twenty-one female missionaries2 together with seven native clergy and nineteen unordained workers and preachers4 ,of the twenty-seven organized churches only one is wholly self-supporting4 ,the number of baptisms in #ahib was1 adults #bjh1 children fifty-eight2 while the total membership amounts to over #a1djj1 with a like number of children receiving instruction in ,sunday ,schools4 ,in #ahgc1 ,dr4 ,henry ,laming was appointed missionary physician1 and arrived at ,osaka1 where he has done and is still doing an excellent work4 ,a good deal of secular educational work is also carried on in connexion with the mission4 ,illustration4 ,sketch ,map of ,japan4 ,we next come to the work of the ,church ,missionary ,society1 which commenced operations in ,japan in #ahfi4 ,the ,society has now twenty-two missionary and seven native clergy engaged2 forty-two female missionaries1 and sixty unordained preachers4 ,of its sixteen organized churches one is self-supporting4 ,the number of baptisms in #ahib was1 adults #bfg1 children #aba2 and the total membership at the present time amounts to #b1abf1 with #fjj children in ,sunday ,schools4 ,the ,society for the ,propagation of the ,gospel commenced work in #ahgc2 and has its headquarters at ,tokio4 ,the work of the two ,community ,missions1 founded by ,bishop ,bickersteth in #ahhg1 is apparently included in the statistics assigned to the ,s4 ,p4 ,g4 in the table before us4 ,at ,st4 ,andrew's ,university ,mission1 five clergy--all of whom are ,university ,graduates1--live in community with several native students preparing for ,ordination1 while at ,st4 ,hilda's ,mission1 a staff of ,english ladies is engaged in work1 which includes schools1 a hospital1 and a home for mission women4 ,both these ,missions are supported by the 8,guild of ,st4 ,paul10--a society which has branches all over ,england1--whose occasional papers are full of interesting information4 ,several other priests of the ,s4 ,p4 ,g4 are engaged at various mission stations2 and these1 with seven native ministers1 make in all some nineteen clergy at work in ,japan4 ,the adult baptisms in #ahib numbered #aea1 and the membership at the present time is given as #ghd4 ,the ,wyckliffe ,college ,mission was sent out by the ,canadian ,church in #ahhh4 ,at present it provides only three clergy1 who are engaged at ,nagoya1 a flourishing commercial city situated about midway between ,kyoto and ,tokio4 ,bishop ,bickersteth1 however1 in his recent ,pastoral ,letter1 refers to its work in hopeful and appreciative terms4 ,the total number of adherents of the ,nippon ,sei ,kokwai will thus be seen to be about #d1cjj 7with upwards of #b1jjj ,sunday ,scholars72 and of these the ,church of ,england can claim barely #c1jjj4 ,at the same time evidence is by no means lacking that the work is being carried on upon thoroughly sound principles and along right lines2 and there are many reasons for believing that1 with adequate resources1 a future awaits it1 under ,god1 far exceeding the calculations that might be suggested by its present numerical strength4 ,some of the readers of these pages may1 possibly1 be in greater sympathy with the general position of the ,s4 ,p4 ,g4 than of the ,c4 ,m4 ,s2 but no consideration of this sort should allow us to be inappreciative of the splendid work which the ,c4 ,m4 ,s4 has done in the past1 and is still doing in non-,christian countries4 ,its chief centre in ,japan is at ,osaka1 another huge commercial city1 some twenty miles from ,kyoto where there is a considerable ,european settlement4 ,bishop ,bickersteth--as does also the ,american ,bishop1 ,dr4 ,williams7#cb7--resides at ,tokio1 the capital2 where the services at ,st4 ,andrew's ,church1 adjoining the ,episcopal residence1 are such as may well gladden the heart of an ,english ,churchman1 who finds himself #aa1jjj miles from home4 ,they include1 ,i may mention1 a ,daily ,celebration4 ,a striking feature of the ,nippon ,sei ,kokwai is presented in its ,biennial ,synods1 three1 if not four1 of which have already been held4 ,the ,synods are composed of clergy and laity1 every congregation of twenty persons being entitled to send its representative2 and they indicate a stage of organization rarely1 if ever1 attained to by so youthful a ,church4 ,in a word1 what is being aimed at throughout is not to ,europeanize1 but to ,christianize2 not to form a 8branch of the ,church of ,england10 but to establish1 on those lines of ,catholic and ,apostolic ,christianity which we believe the ,church of ,england faithfully represents1 a ,japanese ,church1 which may be committed1 as soon as ever circumstances allow1 entirely into the hands of the ,japanese themselves4 ,the ,bishop's ,pastoral ,letter to his ,clergy 7,advent #ahib7 treats1 among other matters1 of the ,marriage ,law of the ,church1 of ,old ,testament ,criticism1--in the course of his comments upon which1 he makes the quotation1 8,the central object of our ,faith is not the ,bible1 but our ,lord0--and of the ,bishop of ,lincoln's case4 ,it exhibits throughout a tone of earnest ,catholicity1 of sanctified prudence1 and of ,apostolic charity4 ,the ,bishop's observations on the confirmation by the ,privy ,council of the ,lambeth ,judgment will be read with satisfaction by many3-- 8,the principle of allowed variety in matters of ritual has now been authoritatively recognized4 ,such recognition is essential to the welfare of a great and living ,church in our day4 ,among other good results which may follow from the decision1 ,i cannot but hope will be the liberation of the energies and interests of a great and historic party1 hitherto far too closely confined within the boundaries of our own country1 for wider and more extended work1 above all in eastern countries4 ,its own position is now legally secured4 ,any outstanding questions of ritual could be speedily settled by the application to them of the same principles which are embodied in the recent judgments4 ,this is so plain that probably no such decisions will be challenged4 ,may it not then be hoped that there will shortly be a marked cessation of controversy at home1 as for some years past we are told there has been in our sister ,church in the ,united ,states1 and coincidently a far more determined effort on the part of the whole ,church than has yet been known1 inspired and sustained by the ,holy ,spirit of ,truth1 to win the ,east to the ,faith of ,christ80 ,we come next to the ,church of ,christ in ,japan1 another amalgamation of religious bodies2 comprising1 in this case1 the ,presbyterian ,church of the ,united ,states1 two or three other ,american sects1 and the ,united ,presbyterian ,church of ,scotland4 ,by far the greater number of denominations engaged in ,japan are of ,american origin2 and this is1 practically1 an ,american work2 the ,scotch ,presbyterians being represented by only two missionaries with a single station1 and only joining the ,mission in #ahge--;fifteen years after two of the ,american bodies had commenced their work4 ,the number of male missionaries in connexion with this movement amounts to fifty-two2 and to these must be added fifty-three native ministers1 #ajj female missionaries1 and over #ajj lay preachers and workers4 ,of the seventy-four organized churches no less than one-third are wholly self-supporting4 ,baptisms in #ahib were1 adults #ghi1 children #ajj2 and the total present membership amounts to #aa1aij1 with over #b1jjj children in ,sunday ,schools4 ,the fact that the ,presbyterians of ,japan have recently adopted the ,apostles' ,creed as their ,confession of ,faith1 in place of the formularies with which their bodies have hitherto been associated1 is hardly the occasion for satisfaction that would at first sight appear2 the course in question being1 ,i understand1 to some extent due to the prevalence of views similar to those held by a large number of the ,congregationalists of ,japan1 to which ,i shall presently refer4 ,the work of the ,presbyterians however1 must be accounted among the most successful efforts for the evangelization of the country2 while they have had from the beginning the advantage of being supported by men of national reputation and position4 ,we come now to the ,kumi-ai ,churches in connexion with the ,american ,board's ,mission2 i4e4 the ,congregationalists4 ,this work owes its foundation to a ,japanese gentleman1--a ,mr4 ,neesima1--who was converted to ,christianity1 whilst on a visit to ,america4 ,its head-quarters are at ,kyoto4 ,starting in #ahfi--several years after the ,presbyterians1 their relations with whom are of a cordial character1--the ,congregationalists very closely approach them in numerical strength4 ,the ,mission is worked by twenty-six missionary and twenty-eight native ministers2 with fifty-seven female missionaries and #ajj lay agents4 ,of ninety-two organized churches one half are self-supporting2 a large proportion of the converts belonging to the middle and upper classes4 #a1jif adults were baptized in #ahib and sixty-six children4 ,total adherents #aj1gjj1 with upwards of #f1jjj children in ,sunday ,schools4 ,in connexion with this ,mission is a large college1 in which the greater number of the students are ,christians1 and many of these candidates for the ministry2 and mention must also be made of two hospitals under the care of missionary physicians4 ,the above figures1 without doubt1 bear witness to great energy on the part of the ,congregationalist body2 and it is with regret that we find ourselves compelled to regard them with somewhat modified satisfaction4 8,speaking generally1 it cannot be too clearly felt that systems which do not definitely teach the truths contained in the ,apostolic and ,nicene ,creeds1 whatever benefits may accrue to individuals from the moral teaching which they impart1 are not merely negative in tendency and results1 but retard the progress of the ,kingdom of ,christ in ,eastern lands40 ,such are the weighty words of ,bishop ,bickersteth17#cc7 the occasion which drew them forth being the adoption by the ,congregationalists of ,japan of the following ,declaration of ,belief3--8,we believe 7i7 in the ,one ,god1 7ii7 in ,jesus ,christ who came on earth to save sinners1 7iii7 in the ,holy ,spirit from ,whom we receive new life1 7iv7 in the ,bible which shews us the way of salvation1 and 7v7 in ,baptism and the ,holy ,supper1 in punishments and rewards given by ,god according to our merits1 in everlasting life if we are righteous1 and in the ,resurrection of the ,dead40 ,several of the clauses in this statement are open to grave objection2 but the fact that the second clause was deliberately adopted in place of the words1 8in ,jesus ,christ1 the ,only-,begotten ,son of ,god1 ,who suffered and died to atone for the sins of the world0--an alteration which was heartily welcomed by the ,unitarians of ,japan--is full of painful significance4 ,the ,bishop1 while expressing his thankfulness that there are large numbers in the ,congregationalist body1 who have no share in the prevailing scepticism1 points out that in dealing with others1 with whom this is not the case1 nothing can be gained by any attempt at co-operation4 8,at such times a severe exclusiveness may be the truest exhibition of a heartfelt sympathy40 ,to the remaining ,missions at work in ,japan we can only very briefly refer4 ,the ,american ,methodist ,episcopal ,church has eighteen missionaries and twenty-nine native ministers2 fifty-eight churches2 and a total following of nearly #d1jjj1 exclusive of children in ,sunday ,schools4 ,the ,canadian ,methodists number over #a1hjj adults2 and the ,baptist ,missionary ,union 7,u4,s4,a47 about #a1cjj4 ,two other ,american sects place their total at #ejj each4 ,the ,german ,swiss ,protestants number #bdj2 the 8,universalists0 seventy-eight2 and the ,society of ,friends 7,u4,s4,a47 forty-three4 ,the ,scandinavian ,church1 whose mission has only recently commenced its work1 has seven clergy engaged2 and the ,unitarians are represented by two ministers--my only reason for mentioning these last-named bodies together being that no further particulars of either are to hand4 ,but it is time to be bringing these remarks to a conclusion4 ,we may1 then1 declare the total number in ,japan of those professing ,christianity in any form--,i should1 by the way1 have mentioned that the number of male converts would appear to exceed by about one-third the number of women1--to be not more than #ajj1jjj2 while the entire population of the country is estimated at from thirty-eight to forty millions4 ,in other words1 not more than one person in every #djj can be said to be1 in any sense1 a ,christian4 ,i emphasize this fact1 not because ,i think it discouraging1 but because it seems becoming the fashion for the cause of ,christianity in ,japan to be spoken of as already won4 ,that ,japan has still great changes and developments to undergo in the near future scarcely admits of question4 8,the nation is working out its spiritual redemption20 and1 as ,mr4 ,loomis well says in his letter to ,the ,christian before referred to1 8,as ,japanese society advances1 there will be all the more a place for ,christian influence4 ,the social problems of the people can only find solution through religion40 ,we may well believe and hope that1 as time goes on1 the true faith of ,jesus ,christ and of ,his ,church will more and more prevail4 ,so1 too1 we may rejoice that the foundations have been laid1 and that some real and steady progress has been effected2 we may hope that more is1 even now1 being accomplished by the leaven of influence than can at present find place in tables and statistics4 ,and yet1 as we look the position boldly in the face1 we must see that elements to occasion anxiety are by no means lacking2 and especially must we see how much more remains to be done that has already been achieved4 ,the possibility of some form of ,christianity being adopted as the national religion1 is a matter as to the desirability of which it is extremely difficult to express an opinion1 until the proposition assumes a more definite shape than is likely for some time to be the case4 ,that both ,christianity and ,christians are subjected to searching criticism at the hands of the more educated natives we have already seen2 while1 from time to time1 tidings are received of bitter opposition encountered by those engaged in the work of evangelization among the poor of the country districts4 ,moreover1 in that spirit of accommodation to which we have several times referred1 as forming so striking a feature of the system1 ,buddhism appears now to be striving to maintain its position in ,japan1 by a re-statement of its doctrines in such terms as to place itself in accordance with the modern systems of philosophy1 which have found such favour and acceptance with the educated classes4 ,at the same time1 there is1 without doubt1 a widespread persuasion throughout ,japan--in many cases most reluctantly arrived at--that the former ascendency of ,buddhism has for ever passed away4 8,a dull apathy as regards religion has settled down upon the educated classes of ,japan4 ,the gods of heathenism have crumbled to nothing before modern science and civilization1 and the glimmer of light and truth to which they pointed has gone as well407#cd7 ,sometimes1 again1 ,christianity is spoken of by ,buddhists in terms which encourage us to hope that there are those who1 while they have not as yet taken the decisive step1 are still 8not far from the kingdom of ,god40 ,take1 for examples1 these words of a ,mr4 ,nakanishi4 8,it is the glory of mankind that ,jesus lived4 ,much that ,christ taught will never decay4 ,did ,christ's teaching come from man1 or from above man8 ,every word1 every phrase1 of ,christ should influence us4 ,in the ,four ,gospels1 the noblest and wisest morality of the world appears4 ,so simple is it1 so easily understood and applied4 #8,love ,god and love man1' as central principles1 suffice to regenerate society and lead men to heaven4 ,christ's character and teachings stand for ever40 ,with a brief reference to one or two further points suggested by ,mr4 ,loomis' table1 ,i will bring this1 my last chapter1 to a close4 ,one of these is the distinction he draws--and it is a distinction quite worth drawing--between married and unmarried missionaries4 ,of course1 the ,roman clergy are all unmarried1 as are also the four missionaries of the ,orthodox ,church2 but when we come to the 8,protestant ,missions10 we find the numbers of married and unmarried clergy to be #bje and thirty-seven respectively4 ,indeed1 with the exception of the ,church of ,england1 the ,scandinavian ,alliance1 and the ,american ,methodist ,episcopal ,church1 which supply six each1 there is no mission with more than two unmarried clergy1 and several have not even one4 ,now it is certain that this is not the way in which great mission work has been done in the past2 but is the newer way better than the old8 ,beyond observing that the presence of female missionaries is in a very special degree needed in ,japan1 be they the wives of the clergy or not1 ,i will not presume to answer that question myself2 but ,i may1 perhaps1 be allowed to record the opinion1 emphatically expressed to me1 of one who has lived in the ,east for a great many years1 and is by no means in sympathy with the compulsory celibacy of the ,roman priesthood4 8,it is10 he remarked1 8far too hastily assumed that the fact of the married missionary usually bringing another valuable ally to the work sufficiently determines the question4 ,but ,i am convinced that1 speaking generally1 it is to the unmarried missionary that wider opportunities of usefulness are extended4 ,nor is it merely that his movements are entirely free and unhampered--that he is exempt from domestic obligations and anxieties--that he has more time for study--and that he is thrown more in the society of his brother clergy4 ,as a man's children begin to grow up1 educational and other considerations in connexion with these1 urge upon him the desirability of returning home1 with the result that1 just as he has begun to master the difficulties of language1 and to enter into the thought and habits of the people1 his place is taken by a tyro1 who1 however well-meaning1 cannot but have all his experience to gain40 ,no doubt1 there is plenty of room for both married and unmarried clergy in the mission field2 but the great preponderance of the married in the case before us may well serve to suggest the consideration3--,might not more of that large and possibly increasing number of unmarried clergy in ,england be drawn to take part in a work of such fascinating interest--8a work10 if ,i may once more quote the words of our ,bishop in ,japan1 8that must be done at once if it is to be done at all40 ,another point that can scarcely fail to strike us as we examine ,mr4 ,loomis' statistics1 is the large number of 8dismissals and exclusions0 made by those bodies which supply information under this head1 and amounting in some cases to several hundreds in a year4 ,that such measures are not resorted to without grave reason may be assumed1 and that some exercise of discipline is especially necessary in dealing with a young and nascent church admits of no dispute4 ,there is indeed every reason to hope that by far the greater number of converts are actuated by an intense sincerity1 and evidence of this is afforded in the self-sacrifice to which they1 in many ways1 readily submit for the ,faith they have embraced4 ,but1 at the same time1 it is probable that the numbers in question indicate an even larger proportion of 8failures10 than is the case with mission work generally2 and that they point not only to losses through 8back-sliding10 but to many instances of insincerity on the part of those professing conversion4 ,it has been remarked that it does not belong to the ,japanese temperament to 8take things au grand serieux20 and this characteristic extends to matters of religion4 ,the young fellow1 for instance1 who1 for some reason or another1 thinks it 8worth his while0 to conform to ,christianity for a time1 will have the very smallest scruples about doing so2 and that1 with a semblance of earnestness that will baffle1 at any rate for some time1 the careful scrutiny to which candidates are rightly subjected by most1 if not all1 of the missionary bodies4 ,the missionaries1 ,i fear1 are often imposed on2 and yet--anything1 surely1 is better than being over suspicious and severe4 ,after all1 what we want to do is to show these different nations to whom we go1 that ,christ and ,his ,church1 and we1 ,his members1 do really care for them1 alike in things temporal and eternal4 ,our ,faith1 to be really preached1 needs to be boldly1 hopefully practised4 ,and especially in ,japan1 where the only idea that such a phrase as 8eternal life0 would commonly suggest is that of a series of painful and endless transmigrations1 must ,christianity be ready to prove herself man's friend in the things of this life1 if she would be looked to with confidence for the things that lie beyond4 ,,publications ,,of ,,the ,,society ,,for ,,promoting ,,christian ,,knowledge4 ,church ,hymns4 ,new ,edition4 ,containing #feh ,hymns4 ,words ,only4 ,edition ,a4 ,long ,primer1 demy #ahmo4 ,in various bindings from #as4 to #ds4 #f;d4 ,edition ,b4 ,small ,pica1 small post #hvo4 ,in various bindings from #as4 #f;d4 to #ds4 #f;d4 ,edition ,c4 ,pearl1 medium #cbmo4 ,paper cover1 #a;d42 limp cloth1 cut flush1 #b;d4 ,edition ,d4 ,diamond1 medium #cbmo4 ,limp cloth1 cut flush1 #d;d4 ,words ,and ,music4 ,edition ,e4 ,nonpareil #hvo4 ,in various bindings from #bs4 #d;d4 to #es4 #f;d4 ,edition ,f4 ,long ,primer1 ,imperial #afmo4 ,in various bindings from #ds4 #f;d4 to #is4 ,works ,by ,mrs4 ,rundle ,charles1 ,author ,of 8,the ,chronicles of the ,schnberg-,cotta ,family40 ,the ,beatitudes4 ,thoughts for ,all ,saints' ,day4 ,post #hvo4 ,cloth boards4 #as4 8,by the ,mystery of ,thy ,holy ,incarnation40 ,post #hvo4 ,cloth boards4 #as4 8,by ,thy ,cross and ,passion40 ,thoughts on the words spoken around and on the ,cross4 ,post #hvo4 ,cloth boards4 #as4 8,by ,thy ,glorious ,resurrection and ,ascension40 ,easter ,thoughts4 ,post #hvo4 ,cloth boards4 #as4 8,by the ,coming of the ,holy ,ghost40 ,thoughts for ,whitsuntide4 ,post #hvo4 ,cloth boards4 #as4 ,the ,true ,vine4 ,post #hvo4 ,cloth boards4 #as4 ,the ,great ,prayer of ,christendom4 ,thoughts on the ,lord's ,prayer4 ,post #hvo4 ,cloth boards4 #as4 ,an ,old ,story of ,bethlehem4 ,one link in the great ,pedigree4 ,fcap4 #dto1 with six plates1 beautifully printed in colours4 ,cloth boards4 #bs4 ,joan the ,maid1 ,deliverer of ,england and ,france4 ,demy #hvo4 ,cloth boards4 #bs4 #f;d4 ,songs1 ,old and ,new4 ,demy #afmo4 ,cloth boards4 #bs4 #f;d4 ,ecce ,ancilla ,domini4 ,mary the ,mother of our ,lord4 ,studies in the ,ideal of ,womanhood4 ,post #hvo4 ,cloth boards4 #as4 #f;d4 ,ecce ,homo1 ,ecce ,rex4 ,pages from the ,story of the ,moral ,conquests of ,christianity4 ,crown #hvo4 ,cloth boards4 #bs4 #f;d4 ,three ,martyrs of the ,nineteenth ,century4 ,studies from the ,lives of ,gordon1 ,livingstone1 and ,patteson4 ,crown #hvo4 ,cloth boards4 #bs4 #f;d4 ,martyrs and ,saints of the ,first ,twelve ,centuries4 ,studies from the ,lives of the ,black-letter ,saints of the ,english ,calendar4 ,crown #hvo4 ,cloth boards4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,against the ,stream4 ,the ,story of an ,heroic ,age in ,england4 ,with eight page woodcuts4 ,crown #hvo4 ,cloth boards4 #bs4 #f;d4 ,conquering and to ,conquer4 ,a ,story of ,rome in the days of ,st4 ,jerome4 ,illustrated4 ,crown #hvo4 ,cloth boards4 #bs4 ,attila and his ,conquerors4 ,a ,story of the days of ,st4 ,patrick and ,st4 ,leo the ,great4 ,crown #hvo4 ,cloth boards4 #bs4 99,early ,christian ,missions of ,ireland1 ,scotland1 and ,england499 ,crown #hvo4 ,cloth boards4 #bs4 #f;d4 99,lapsed1 not ,lost499 ,a ,story of ,roman ,carthage4 ,crown #hvo4 ,cloth boards4 #bs4 99,within the ,veil499 ,studies in the ,epistle to the ,hebrews4 ,post #hvo4 ,cloth boards4 #as4 99,the ,book of the ,unveiling499 ,studies in the ,revelation of ,st4 ,john the ,divine4 ,post #hvo4 ,cloth boards4 #as4 99,lady ,augusta ,stanley499 ,reminiscences4 #ahmo4 ,limp cloth4 #f;d4 99,sketches of the ,women of ,christendom499 ,crown #hvo4 #bs4 #f;d4 99,thoughts and ,characters499 ,being ,selections from the ,writings of ,mrs4 ,,charles4 ,crown #hvo4 ,cloth boards4 #bs4 #f;d4 ,early ,britain4 ,this ,series has for its aim the presentation of ,early ,britain at great historic periods4 ,each volume is the work of an accredited specialist1 and the whole gives the result of recent critical examinations of our ,early ,records4 99,anglo-,saxon ,britain499 ,by the late ,,grant ,,allen4 ,with ,map4 #bs4 #f;d4 99,celtic ,britain499 ,by ,professor ,,rhys4 ,with two ,maps4 #cs4 99,norman ,britain499 ,by the ,rev4 ,w4 ,,hunt4 ,with ,map4 #bs4 99,post-,norman ,britain499 ,by ,,henry ,g4 ,,hewlett4 ,with ,map4 #cs4 99,roman ,britain499 ,by the ,rev4 ,e4 ,,conybeare4 ,with ,map4 #cs4 #f;d4 99,roman ,roads in ,britain499 ,by ,,thomas ,,codrington1 ,m4,inst4 ,c4,e41 ,f4,g4,s4 ,with several ,maps4 #es4 ,conversion ,of ,the ,west4 ,these are intended to show the condition of the chief races of the ,west before they were brought into contact with ,christianity2 and how their ,conversion was brought about1 and the immediate results4 99,fcap4 #hvo1 with ,map1 cloth boards1 #bs4 each499 99,the ,continental ,teutons991 by the late ,very ,rev4 ,c4 ,,merivale4 99,the ,english991 by the late ,rev4 ,g4 ,f4 ,,maclear1 ,d4,d4 99,the ,northmen991 by the late ,rev4 ,g4 ,f4 ,,maclear1 ,d4,d4 99,the ,slavs991 by the late ,rev4 ,g4 ,f4 ,,maclear1 ,d4,d4 ,the ,dawn ,of ,european ,literature4 ,a set of ,works designed to present the chief races of ,europe as they emerge out of pre-historic darkness into the light furnished by their earliest recorded words4 ,post #hvo1 cloth boards1 #bs4 #f;d4 each4 ,anglo ,saxon ,literature4 ,by the ,rev4 ,professor ,,earle4 ,french ,literature4 ,by the late ,,gustave ,,masson1 ,b4,a4 ,slavonic ,literature4 ,by ,w4 ,r4 ,,morfill1 ,m4,a4 ,the ,greek ,epic4 ,by ,george ,c4 ,w4 ,,warr1 ,m4,a4 #cs4 ,the ,fathers ,for ,english ,readers4 ,a ,series of ,monograms on the ,chief ,fathers of the ,church1 the ,fathers selected being centres of influence at important periods of ,church ,history1 and in important spheres of action4 ,fcap4 #hvo1 cloth boards1 #bs4 each4 99,boniface994 ,by the ,rev4 ,canon ,,gregory ,,smith4 #as4 #f;d4 99,clement of ,alexandria994 ,by the ,rev4 ,f4 ,r4 ,,montgomery ,,hitchcock1 ,b4,d4 #cs4 99,leo the ,great994 ,by the ,right ,rev4 ,c4 ,,gore1 ,d4,d4 99,gregory the ,great994 ,by the late ,rev4 ,j4 ,,barmby1 ,b4,d4 99,saint ,ambrose993 his ,life1 ,times1 and ,teaching4 ,by the ,rev4 ,r4 ,,thornton1 ,d4,d4 99,saint ,athanasius993 his ,life and ,times4 ,by the ,rev4 ,r4 ,,wheler ,,bush4 #bs4 #f;d4 99,saint ,augustine994 ,by the late ,rev4 ,e4 ,l4 ,,cutts1 ,d4,d4 99,saint ,basil the ,great994 ,by the ,rev4 ,r4 ,t4 ,,smith1 ,b4,d4 99,saint ,bernard993 ,abbot of ,clairvaux1 ,a4,d4 #ajia-aaec4 ,by ,rev4 ,s4 ,j4 ,eales4 #bs4 #f;d4 99,saint ,jerome994 ,by the late ,rev4 ,,edward ,l4 ,,cutts1 ,d4,d4 99,saint ,hilary of ,poitiers1 and ,saint ,martin of ,tours499 ,by the ,rev4 ,j4 ,,gibson ,,cazenove1 ,d4,d4 99,saint ,john of ,damascus994 ,by the ,rev4 ,j4 ,h4 ,,lupton4 99,saint ,patrick993 his ,life and ,teaching4 ,by the ,rev4 ,e4 ,j4 ,,newell1 ,m4,a4 #bs4 #f;d4 99,synesius of ,cyrene991 ,philosopher and ,bishop4 ,by ,,alice ,,gardner4 99,the ,apostolic ,fathers994 ,by the ,rev4 ,canon ,,scott ,,holland4 99,the ,defenders of the ,faith992 or1 ,the ,christian ,apologists of the ,second and ,third ,centuries4 ,by the ,rev4 ,f4 ,,watson1 ,d4,d4 99,the ,venerable ,bede994 ,by the ,right ,rev4 ,g4 ,f4 ,,browne4 ,the ,history ,of ,the ,ancient ,peoples ,of ,the ,classic ,east4 ,by ,professor ,,maspero4 ,edited by the ,rev4 ,professor ,,sayce4 ,translated by ,m4 ,l4 ,,mcclure4 ,each volume contains ,maps1 coloured ,plates1 and numerous other ,illustrations4 ,demy #dto1 cloth1 bevelled boards4 ,volume ,i4 99,the ,dawn of ,civilization3 ,egypt and ,chaldaea499 ,fourth ,edition4 #bds42 half-morocco1 #dhs4 ,volume ,,ii4 99,the ,struggle of the ,nations3 ,egypt1 ,syria1 and ,assyria499 #bes42 half-morocco1 #ejs4 ,volume ,,iii4 99,the ,passing of the ,empires1 #hej 9999,b4,c49999--#ccj 9999,b4,c499 #bes42 half-morocco1 #ejs4 ,ancient ,history ,from ,the ,monuments4 ,fcap4 #hvo1 cloth boards1 #bs4 each4 99,assyria1 from the ,earliest ,times to the ,fall of ,nineveh499 ,by the late ,,george ,,smith1 of the ,british ,museum4 ,a ,new and ,revised ,edition1 by the ,rev4 ,professor ,,sayce4 99,sinai1 from the ,fourth ,egyptian ,dynasty to the ,present ,day499 ,by the late ,,henry ,s4 ,,palmer4 ,a ,new ,edition1 revised throughout by the ,rev4 ,professor ,,sayce4 ,with ,map4 99,babylonia 7,the ,history of7499 ,by the late ,,george ,,smith4 ,edited and brought up to date by the ,rev4 ,professor ,,sayce4 99,persia1 from the ,earliest ,period to the ,arab ,conquest499 ,by the late ,w4 ,s4 ,w4 ,,vaux1 ,m4,a4 ,a ,new and ,revised ,edition1 by the ,rev4 ,professor ,,sayce4 99,the 999989999,higher ,criticism999909999 and the ,verdict of the ,monuments499 ,by the ,rev4 ,professor ,a4 ,h4 ,,sayce4 ,demy #hvo4 ,buckram1 bevelled boards1 #gs4 #f;d4 ,chief ,ancient ,philosophies4 ,this ,series deals with the chief systems of ,ancient ,thought1 not merely as dry matters of ,history1 but as having a bearing on ,modern ,speculation4 ,fcap4 #hvo1 cloth boards1 #bs4 #f;d4 each4 99,neoplatonism499 ,by the ,rev4 99,c4 ,bigg1 ,d4,d499 #cs4 99,platonism499 ,by the ,rev4 ,,thomas ,b4 ,,strong1 ,m4,a4 #cs4 99,epicureanism499 ,by the late ,professor ,,william ,,wallace4 99,stoicism499 ,by ,rev4 ,w4 ,w4 ,,capes1 ,fellow of ,hertford ,college4 99,aristotelianism499 ,the ,ethics of ,aristotle4 ,by the ,rev4 ,i4 ,,gregory ,,smith4 ,the ,logical ,treatises1 the ,metaphysics1 the ,psychology1 the ,politics4 ,by the ,rev4 ,w4 ,,grundy4 ,diocesan ,histories4 ,this ,series furnishes a perfect ,library of ,english ,ecclesiastical ,history4 ,each volume is complete in itself1 and the possibility of repetition has been carefully guarded against4 ,fcap4 #hvo1 with ,map1 cloth boards4 99,bath and ,wells499 ,by the ,rev4 ,w4 ,,hunt4 #bs4 #f;d4 99,canterbury499 ,by the late ,rev4 ,r4 ,c4 ,,jenkins4 #cs4 #f;d4 99,carlisle499 ,by the late ,,richard ,s4 ,,ferguson4 #bs4 #f;d4 99,chester499 ,by the ,rev4 ,rupert ,h4 ,morris4 ,with ,map4 99,chichester499 ,by the late ,very ,rev4 ,w4 ,r4 ,w4 ,,stephens4 ,with ,map and ,plan4 #bs4 #f;d4 99,durham499 ,by ,rev4 ,j4 ,l4 ,,low4 ,with ,map and ,plan4 #bs4 #f;d4 99,hereford499 ,by the late ,rev4 ,canon ,,phillpott4 #cs4 99,lichfield499 ,by the ,rev4 ,w4 ,,beresford4 #bs4 #f;d4 99,lincoln499 ,by the late ,rev4 ,canon ,e4 ,,venables1 and the late ,ven4 ,archdeacon ,,perry4 ,with ,map4 #ds4 99,llandaff499 ,by the ,rev4 ,e4 ,j4 ,,newell1 ,m4,a4 ,with ,map4 #cs4 #f;d4 99,norwich499 ,by the ,rev4 ,a4 ,,jessopp1 ,d4,d4 #bs4 #f;d4 99,oxford499 ,by the ,rev4 ,e4 ,,marshall4 #bs4 #f;d4 99,peterborough499 ,by the ,rev4 ,g4 ,a4 ,,poole1 ,m4,a4 #bs4 #f;d4 99,rochester499 ,by the ,rev4 ,a4 ,j4 ,,pearman4 ,with ,map4 #ds4 99,salisbury499 ,by the ,rev4 ,w4 ,h4 ,,jones4 ,with ,map4 #bs4 #f;d4 99,sodor and ,man499 ,by ,a4 ,w4 ,,moore1 ,m4,a4 #cs4 99,st4 ,asaph499 ,by the ,ven4 ,archdeacon ,,thomas4 #bs4 99,st4 ,david's499 ,by the ,rev4 ,canon ,,bevan4 ,with ,map4 #bs4 #f;d4 99,winchester499 ,by the ,rev4 ,w4 ,,benham1 ,b4,d4 #cs4 99,worcester499 ,by the ,rev4 ,i4 ,,gregory ,,smith and ,rev4 ,,phipps ,,onslow4 #cs4 #f;d4 99,york499 ,by the ,rev4 ,canon ,,ornsby1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,s4,a4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,non-,christian ,religious ,systems4 ,fcap4 #hvo1 cloth boards1 #bs4 #f;d4 each4 99,buddhism993 being a sketch of the ,life and ,teachings of ,gautama1 the ,buddha4 ,by ,t4 ,w4 ,,rhys ,,davids1 ,m4,a41 ,ph4,d4 ,with ,map4 99,buddhism in ,china499 ,by the ,rev4 ,s4 ,,beal4 ,with ,map4 99,christianity and ,buddhism3 a ,comparison and a ,contrast499 ,by the ,rev4 ,t4 ,,sterling ,,berry1 ,d4,d4 99,confucianism and ,taouism499 ,by ,professor ,,robert ,k4 ,,douglas1 of the ,british ,museum4 ,with ,map4 99,hinduism499 ,by the late ,sir ,m4 ,,monier-,,williams1 ,m4,a41 ,d4,c4,l4 ,with ,map4 99,islam and its ,founder499 ,by ,j4 ,w4 ,h4 ,,stobart4 ,with ,map4 99,islam as a ,missionary ,religion499 ,by ,,charles ,r4 ,,haines4 #bs4 99,studies of ,non-,christian ,religions499 ,by ,,eliot ,,howard4 #bs4 #f;d4 99,the ,coran399 its ,composition and ,teaching1 and the ,testimony it bears to the ,holy ,scriptures4 ,by ,sir ,,william ,,muir1 ,k4,c4,s4,i4 99,the ,religion of the ,crescent1 or ,islam399 its ,strength1 its ,weakness1 its ,origin1 its ,influence4 ,by the ,rev4 ,w4 ,,st4 ,,clair ,,tisdall1 ,m4,a4 #ds4 ,colonial ,church ,histories4 ,fcap4 #hvo1 with ,map1 cloth boards4 99,diocese of ,mackenzie ,river991 by the ,right ,rev4 ,w4 ,c4 ,,bompas1 ,d4,d41 ,bishop of the ,diocese4 #bs4 99,new ,zealand991 by the late ,very ,rev4 ,,henry ,,jacobs1 ,d4,d41 ,dean of ,christchurch4 ,containing the ,dioceses of ,auckland1 ,christchurch1 ,dunedin1 ,nelson1 ,waiapu1 ,wellington and ,melanesia4 #es4 99,history of the ,church in ,eastern ,canada and ,newfoundland991 by the ,rev4 ,j4 ,,langtry4 #cs4 99,the ,church in the ,west ,indies991 by the ,rev4 ,a4 ,,caldecott4 ,b4,d4 #cs4 #f;d4 99,the ,story of the ,australian ,church199 by the ,rev4 ,e4 ,,symonds4 #bs4 #f;d4 ,early ,church ,classics4 ,small post #hvo1 cloth boards1 #as4 each4 99,a ,homily of ,clement of ,alexandria991 entitled1 ,who is the ,rich ,man that is ,being ,saved8 ,by ,rev4 ,p4 ,,mordaunt ,,barnard4 99,bishop ,sarapion's ,prayer-,book993 ,an ,egyptian ,pontifical dated probably about #cej-cef ,a4,d4 ,translated from the ,edition of ,dr4 ,g4 ,,wobbermin4 ,with ,introduction1 ,notes1 and ,indices1 by the ,right ,rev4 ,,john ,,wordsworth1 ,d4,d4 #as4 #f;d4 99,st4 ,cyprian on the ,lord's ,prayer499 ,an ,english ,translation with ,introduction4 ,by the ,rev4 ,t4 ,,herbert ,,bindley1 ,m4,a41 ,d4,d4 #as4 #f;d4 99,st4 ,polycarp1 ,bishop of ,smyrna499 ,by the ,rev4 ,,blomfield ,,jackson1 ,m4,a4 99,the ,doctrine of the ,twelve ,apostles499 ,translated into ,english1 with ,introduction and ,notes1 by the ,rev4 ,,charles ,,bigg1 ,d4,d4 99,the ,epistle of ,st4 ,clement1 ,bishop of ,rome499 ,by the ,rev4 ,john ,a4 ,f4 ,,gregg1 ,m4,a4 99,st4 ,augustine's ,treatise on the ,city of ,god499 ,by ,rev4 ,f4 ,r4 ,m4 ,,hitchcock1 ,m4,a41 ,b4,d4 #as4 #f;d4 99,the ,epistle of the ,gallican ,churches993 ,lugdunum and ,vienna4 ,with an ,appendix containing ,tertullian's ,address to ,martyrs and the ,passion of ,st4 ,perpetua4 ,translated1 with ,introduction and ,notes1 by ,rev4 ,t4 ,,herbert ,,bindley1 ,d4,d4 99,the ,epistles of ,st4 ,ignatius1 ,bishop of ,antioch499 ,by ,rev4 ,j4 ,h4 ,,srawley1 ,m4,a4 ,in two volumes4 #as4 each4 99,the ,liturgy of the ,eighth ,book of 999989999the ,apostolic ,constitutions19999099 commonly called the ,clementine ,liturgy4 ,translated into ,english1 with ,introduction and ,notes1 by ,rev4 ,r4 ,h4 ,,cresswell1 ,m4,a4 #as4 #f;d4 99,the ,shepherd of ,hermas499 ,by the ,rev4 ,c4 ,,taylor1 ,d4,d41 ,master of ,st4 ,john's ,college1 ,cambridge4 ,vol4 ,i4 #bs4 ,,footnotes #a ,sir ,edwin ,arnold's ,seas and ,lands1 chap4 xxvii4 #b ,charles ,,ii's queen1 it will be remembered1 was ,katharine of ,braganza4 #c ,this rendering seems preferable to the more usual 8,way of the ,gods40 ,the term ,polytheism is not1 strictly speaking1 applicable to ,shinto4 #d ,one of the great temples at ,shiba1 ,tokio1 was burnt by the ,buddhists to prevent its falling into the hands of the ,shinto priests4 ,it may be mentioned here1 as an instance of the liberal feeling of the present 7,shinto7 government1 that one of this same group of buildings was lent for the ,church of ,england services1 before ,st4 ,andrew's church was built4 ,it is the old nobility who have been throughout the uncompromising opponents of ,christianity1 and indeed of all change2 and the most zealous supporters of ,buddhism4 #e ,eden's ,japan1 ,historical and ,descriptive4 #f ,even an approximate total is difficult to calculate4 ,at the lowest estimate we have a number considerably exceeding the whole mass of ,christians4 ,but it is important to bear in mind that in ,china1 which supplies more than three-fourths of the total number1 both ,taouism and ,confucianism are professed in conjunction with ,buddhism4 ,see ,rhys ,davids' ,buddhism1 chap4 ,i 7,s4,p4,c4,k474 #g ,thibet4 #h ,light of ,asia1 i4 #adb1 and vi4 #fhh4 #i ,lectures on ,buddhism1 pp4 #fb-c4 #aj ,legends and ,theories of the ,buddhists1 p4 #ahg4 #aa ,prof4 ,max ,mller1 however 7,hibbert ,lectures1 #ahgh1 p4 #acd note71 gives weighty reasons for regarding #dgg ,b4,c4 as the year of ,buddha's death4 #ab 8,the ,buddhists look upon the ,bo-tree as most ,christians have looked upon the ,cross40--,rhys ,davids' ,buddhism1 p4 #cg note4 #ac ,it is1 no doubt1 owing largely to the influence of ,buddhism that the passion of anger is almost unknown in ,japan4 ,in the same way1 a ,japanese1 though the heart were well-nigh breaking1 would consider it a most unworthy thing to let his grief betray itself4 #ad ,miss ,isabella ,bird 7,mrs4 ,bishop71 authoress of ,unbeaten ,tracks in ,japan1 well describes the impression produced on the spectator by the ,daibutsus1 or colossal images of ,buddha1 so common in ,japan3--8,he is not sleeping1 he is not waking1 he is not acting1 he is not thinking1 his consciousness is doubtful2 he exists1--that is all2 his work is done1 a hazy beatitude1 a negation remain4 ,this is the ,nirvana in which the devout ,buddhist may aspire to participate40 ,the ,daibutsu at ,kamakura1 of which an illustration is given opposite1 is one of the largest in ,japan4 ,it is fifty feet high1 and1 as a work of art1 is without a rival4 ,the boss protruding from the forehead is supposed to represent a jewel1 and to symbolize ,illumination4 #ae ,history of the ,jewish ,church1 ,vol4 iii1 ,lecture xlv4 #af ,this is scarcely less true of ,christianity2 and it must be true1 in some measure1 of every religious system which attempts to minister to the needs of beings1 so differently constituted1 and so dissimilarly circumstanced1 as are the members of the human race4 ,as we proceed in this chapter to refer to the various schools of ,buddhism and their characteristics1 we can hardly fail to have suggested to us1 more than once1 those different aspects of ,christianity1 which have been the occasion of all our 8schools of thought10 and1 alas1 of how many of our divisions6 #ag ,those who would investigate the subject further are referred to ,alabaster's ,the ,modern ,buddhist 7,trbner1 #ahgj74 #ah ,for it is men only who inhabit this ,celestial ,region3 women1 worthy of attaining to it1 have changed their sex4 #ai ,jodo means the 8,pure ,land40 #bj ,avalokitesvara8,the ,lord who looks down from heaven40 ,the female form taking the place of the male is1 no doubt1 due to the idea of the woman's being supposed to be the more compassionate nature2 just as1 too often in the ,christian ,church1 the ,blessed ,mother has1 for a like reason1 been made to encroach upon the prerogatives of her ,divine ,son4 ,instances are recorded of the ,chinese1 when conversing with ,europeans1 giving the name of ,kwanyin to the statues of the ,blessed ,virgin in the ,roman ,churches4 7,davis' ,the ,chinese1 chap1 xiv47 #ba ,i have not thought it necessary in this little volume to introduce the subject of ,confucianism4 ,even in ,china it is less a religion than a system of philosophy--political1 social1 moral4 ,it may1 however1 be remarked that the writings of ,confucius are highly esteemed in ,japan1 and that1 in the past at any rate1 they have had a considerable influence in forming the thought and character of its people4 ,the ethics of ,confucius being materialistic1 i4e4 concerned with the things of this present life1 and the ,buddhist ethics being mainly spiritualistic1 the two mutually supplement each other4 ,the great ,confucian ,temple at ,yeddo was until #ahfh the chief ,university of ,japan4 ,now1--so entirely have the ,western systems of education supplanted the teaching of the ,chinese sage1--the building has been converted into a ,museum4 #bb ,charcoal-brazier4 #bc 8,the only reason ,i can ascertain for the constant recurrence of the lotus in ,buddhist art and ceremonial is the idea of its being the symbol of purity4 ,its scent and aspect are alike delightful1 and though rooted in mud and slime it abhors all defilement4 ,if1 therefore1 men would but take it as their model1 they would escape all the contamination of this corrupt world4 ,every man1 it is said1 has a lotus in his bosom1 which will blossom forth if he call in the assistance of ,buddha40 ,unbeaten ,tracks in ,japan1 ,vol4 i4 p4 #bib4 #bd ,buddhists believe in the existence of a personal wicked spirit1 named ,mara1 whose object is to solicit men to evil4 #be ,cf4 the following extract from the speech of the ,bishop of ,exeter at the ,annual ,meeting of the ,c4,m4,s4 #ahib3--8;,if you had been asked to sketch an ideal land1 most suitable for ,christian ,missions1 and when itself ,christianized more suited for evangelistic work among the nations of the far ,east1 what1 ,i ask1 would be the special characteristics of the land and people that you would have desired8 ,perhaps1 first1 as ,englishmen or ,irishmen1 you would have said1 #8,give us islands1 inseparably and for ever united1 give us islands which can hold their sea-girt independence1 and yet near enough to the mainland to exert influence there4' ,such is ,japan--the ,land of the ,rising ,sun4 #8,give us a hardy race1 not untrained in war by land and sea2 for a nation of soldiers1 when won for ,christ1 fights best under the banner of the ,cross--for we are of the ,church militant here on earth3 give us brave men2' and such are the descendants of the old ,daimios and two-sworded ,samurai of ,japan4 #8,give us an industrial race1 not idlers nor loungers1 enervated by a luxurious climate1 but men who delight in toil1 laborious husbandmen1 persevering craftsmen1 shrewd men of business2' and such are the ,japanese agriculturists1 who win two harvests a year from their grateful soil--such are the handicraftsmen there1 whose work is the envy of ,western lands2 such are the merchants1 who hold their own with us in commerce4 #8,give us men of culture1 with noble traditions1 but not so wedded to the past that they will not grasp the present and salute the future2' and such are the quick-witted1 myriad-minded ,japanese1 who1 with a marvellous power of imitation1 ever somehow contrive to engraft their own specialities upon those of ,western lands4 ,witness their ,constitution1 their ,parliament1 their #cj1jjj schools in active operation2 witness their museums and hospitals2 witness their colleges and universities4 #8,but1' you would also have said1 #8give us a race whose women are homespun and refined1 courteous and winsome1 not tottering on tortured feet1 nor immured in zenanas and harems1 but who freely mingle in social life1 and adorn all they touch2' and such1 without controversy1 are the women of ,japan4 ,above all1 #8give us a reverent and a religious people1 who yet are conscious that the religion of their fathers is unsatisfying and unreal1 and who are therefore ready to welcome the ,christ of ,god2' and such are the thoughtful races of ,japan40 #bf ,see on this subject ,study ,,vi in the late ,dean ,plumptre's ,the ,spirits in ,prison4 ,the ,christian can scarcely doubt that ,gautama has1 long ere this1 fallen at the feet of the ,crucified1--knowing at last the ,name whereby he has been saved1--and has heard from the ,divine lips the gracious approval1 waiting to be bestowed on all men of good-will1 of whatever age1 of whatever land1 who have 8worked righteousness10 and have faithfully responded to whatever measure of light and opportunity has been accorded them by ,god4 #bg ,i may observe that the language1 not only of the ,new ,testament1 but of the ,athanasian ,creed1 was quoted to me in this connexion by a ,buddhist priest in ,japan4 ,i endeavoured to point out to him1--how far convincingly ,i cannot say1--what at the present day at least is generally recognized amongst us2 that for the ,christian ,church to warn her own children1 in terms the most emphatic just because the most loving1 against becoming entangled in the deadly errors prevalent at the time when the ,creed was drawn up1 is a thing wholly distinct from passing any sentence of eternal condemnation on1 or1 indeed1 expressing any opinion as to the future state of1 such as live and die without ever having been brought to a knowledge of the ,faith4 ,i added1 of course1 that any acquaintance with the claims of ,christianity is a responsibility for which we believe all will have to give account4 #bh ,i doubt if the speaker1 in his long absence from ,england1 quite realized the extent to which1 of the last few years1 bitterness and intolerance have effaced themselves1 at any rate within the limits of the ,church of ,england2 or was aware of the marked improvement that is exhibited amongst us in dealing with such matters of controversy as still remain4 #bi ,in the course of a letter appearing in ,the ,christian of ,april #bj1 #ahic1 the ,rev4 ,h4 ,loomis writes1 8,let the forty thousand ,christians of ,japan but dedicate themselves to the welfare of the country in all its relations1 and the true new ,japan will be founded40 ,but ,mr4 ,loomis himself has placed the total membership of 8,protestant ,missions0 at #ce1ejj1 of the ,orthodox ,church at #bj1cjj1 and of the ,roman ,church at #dd1hjj4 ,to which sixty thousand of these does ,mr4 ,loomis--presumably--refuse the title of 8,christian08 and are we justified in acting thus towards any who believe in the ,holy ,trinity1 and have accepted ,jesus ,christ as the ,saviour of the ,world1 ,very ,god and ,very ,man8 #cj ,even ,mr4 ,loomis' list does not appear to be exhaustive6 ,the 8,plymouth ,brethren10 e4g41 are certainly represented at ,tokio4 #ca ,the above is an abridgement of a passage in the ,conquests of the ,cross 7,messrs4 ,cassell ,co474 #cb ,in the course of the present year 7#ahic71 the ,rev4 ,j4 ,mc,kim has been raised to the ,american ,episcopate in ,japan2 ,dr4 ,williams continuing to reside at ,tokio4 ,it is also announced that two new ,anglican ,bishops are to be consecrated for the ,islands of ,kyushu and ,yezo respectively4 ,one of these is the ,rev4 ,h4 ,evington1 ,examining ,chaplain to ,bishop ,bickersteth1 who has been connected with the ,c4 ,m4 ,s4 ,mission to ,japan since #ahgd4 #cc ,pastoral ,letter to his ,clergy1 ,advent1 #ahib4 #cd ,occasional ,paper1 ,guild of ,st4 ,paul1 ,oct4 #ahic4