,,transcriber',s ,,note   ,greek letters
 used to identify stars 7,bayer         
designation71 are replaced with the full
 name of the ,greek letter1 e4g4 ,alpha 
,centauri4  ,the single ,greek word in  
the text is transliterated within       
braces1 kome4  ,minor punctuation and   
hyphenation inconsistencies have been   
corrected4  ,the spelling ,bernices for 
,berenices has been retained throughout4
  ,the following minor typographical    
errors have been corrected3 p#ge3       
establish changed to established p#ii3  
,firmanent changed to ,firmament p#aaa3 
they thoughts changed to thy thoughts   
p#abj3 suen changed to seuen p#acd3     
consequenc changed to consequence p#adf3
 geographieal changed to geographical   
p#afg3 ,lyrae changed to ,lyrae for     
consistency p#bhf3 ,removed redundant   
word degrees following the degree symbol
                     ,,the ,,astronomy  
,,of            ,,milton',s ',,paradise 
,,lost'     ,illustration3 ,a ,,typical 
,,sun-,,spot                     ,,the  

,,astronomy                      ,,of   
,,milton',s ',,paradise ,,lost'         
,,by             ,,thomas ,n4 ,,orchard1
 ,m4,d4  ,,member ,,of ,,the ,,british  
,,astronomical ,,association   ,these   
are thy glorious works1 ,parent of good1
 ,almighty6 thine this universal frame1 
,thus wondrous fair3 ,thyself how       
wondrous then6 ,unspeakable4            
,,longmans1 ,,green1 ,,and ,,co4        
,,london1 ,,new ,,york1 ,,and ,,bombay  
#ahif               ,all rights reserved
     ,,contents   ,,chapter             
,,page    ,i4 ,a ,short ,historical     
,sketch of ,astronomy                   
#a   ,,ii4 ,astronomy in the            
,seventeenth ,century                   
#de  ,,iii4 ,milton's ,astronomical     
,knowledge                              
#ha   ,,iv4 ,milton and ,galileo        
#aac    ,v4 ,the ,seasons               
#adj   ,,vi4 ,the ,starry ,heavens      
#aeb  ,,vii4 ,the ,starry ,heavens      
#bjj ,,viii4 ,description of ,celestial 
,objects ,mentioned in ',paradise ,lost'

  #bdd   ,,ix4 ,milton's ,imaginative   
and ,descriptive ,astronomy             
#cjf     ,,illustrations   ,,plates  ,a 
,typical ,sun-spot                      
,frontispiece ,venus on the ,sun's ,disc
                               ,to face 
page  #ff ,cluster in ,hercules         
#bah ,great ,nebula in ,orion           
#bcj ,a ,portion of the ,moon's ,surface
                                        
#bfh   ,,in ,,text  ,,fig4              
,,page #a4  ,the ,ptolemaic ,system of  
the ,universe                           
#hf #b4  ,milton's ,division of         
,universal ,space                       
#if #c4  ,a ,binary ,star ,system--#gj  
,ophiuchi                               
#ahd #d4  ,the ,orbits of the           
,components of ,gamma ,virginis         
#ahi #e4  ,apparent ,orbit of the       
,companion of ,sirius                   
#aij #f4  ,a ,sun-spot ,magnified       
#bdg #g4  ,the ,corona during the       
,eclipse of ,may #ahhc                  
#bed #h4  ,a ,portion of the ,milky ,way

                                        
#bhi    ,,preface   ,many able and      
cultured writers have delighted to      
expatiate on the beauties of ,milton's  
',paradise ,lost1' and to linger with   
admiration over the lofty utterances    
expressed in his poem4 ,though conscious
 of his inability to do justice to the  
sublimest of poets and the noblest of   
sciences1 the author has ventured to    
contribute to ,miltonic literature a    
work which he hopes will prove to be of 
an interesting and instructive          
character4 ,perhaps the choicest        
passages in the poem are associated with
 astronomical allusion1 and it is       
chiefly to the exposition and           
illustration of these that this volume  
is devoted4  ,the writer is indebted to 
many authors for information and        
reference1 and especially to ,miss      
,agnes ,m4 ,clerke1 ,professors ,masson 
and ,young1 ,mr4 ,james ,nasmyth1 ,mr4  
,g4 ,f4 ,chambers1 and ,sir ,robert     
,ball4 ,also to the works of the late   

,mr4 ,r4 ,a4 ,proctor1 ,sirs ,w4 and ,j4
 ,herschel1 ,admiral ,smyth1 ,professor 
,grant1 ,mr4 ,j4 ,r4 ,hind1 ,sir ,david 
,brewster1 ,rev4 ,a4 ,b4 ,whatton1 and  
,prebendary ,webb4  ,most of the        
illustrations have been supplied by the 
,publishers3 ,messrs4 ,macmillan and ,w4
 ,hunt  ,co4 have kindly permitted the  
reproduction of some of their drawings4 
,,manchester1 ,march #ahif4             
,,chapter ,i  ,a ,,short ,,historical   
,,sketch ,,of ,,astronomy   ,astronomy  
is the oldest and most sublime of all   
the sciences4 ,to a contemplative       
observer of the heavens1 the number and 
brilliancy of the stars1 the lustre of  
the planets1 the silvery aspect of the  
,moon1 with her ever-changing phases1   
together with the order1 the harmony1   
and unison pervading them all1 create in
 his mind thoughts of wonder and        
admiration4 ,occupying the abyss of     
space indistinguishable from infinity1  
the starry heavens in grandeur and      
magnificence surpass the loftiest       

conceptions of the human mind2 for1 at a
 distance beyond the range of ordinary  
vision1 the telescope reveals clusters1 
systems1 galaxies1 universes of         
stars--suns--the innumerable host of    
heaven1 each shining with a splendour   
comparable with that of our ,sun1 and1  
in all likelihood1 fulfilling in a      
similar manner the same beneficent      
purposes4  ,the time when man began to  
study the stars is lost in the antiquity
 of prehistoric ages4 ,the ancient      
inhabitants of the ,earth regarded the  
heavenly bodies with veneration and awe1
 erected temples in their honour1 and   
worshipped them as deities4 ,historical 
records of astronomy carry us back      
several thousand years4 ,during the     
greater part of this time1 and until a  
comparatively recent period1 astronomy  
was associated with astrology--a science
 which originated from a desire on the  
part of mankind to penetrate the future1
 and which was based upon the supposed  
influence of the heavenly bodies upon   

human and terrestrial affairs4 ,it was  
natural to imagine that the overruling  
power which governed and directed the   
course of sublunary events resided in   
the heavens1 and that its decrees might 
be understood by watching the movements 
of the heavenly bodies under its        
control4 ,it was1 therefore1 believed   
that by observing the configuration of  
the planets and the positions of the    
constellations at the instant of the    
birth of an individual1 his horoscope1  
or destiny1 could be foretold2 and that 
by making observations of a somewhat    
similar nature the occurrence of events 
of public importance could be predicted4
 ,when1 however1 the laws which govern  
the motions of the heavenly bodies      
became better known1 and especially     
after the discovery of the great law of 
gravitation1 astrology ceased to be a   
belief1 though for long after it        
retained its power over the imagination1
 and was often alluded to in the        
writings of poets and other authors4    

,in the early dawn of astronomical      
science1 the theories upheld with regard
 to the structure of the heavens were of
 a simple and primitive nature1 and     
might even be described as grotesque4   
,this need occasion no surprise when we 
consider the difficulties with which    
ancient astronomers had to contend in   
their endeavours to reduce to order and 
harmony the complicated motions of the  
orbs which they beheld circling around  
them4  ,the grouping of the stars into  
constellations having fanciful names1   
derived from fable or ancient mythology1
 occurred at a very early period1 and   
though devoid of any methodical         
arrangement1 is yet sufficiently        
well-defined to serve the purposes of   
modern astronomers4 ,several of the     
ancient nations of the earth1 including 
the ,chaldeans1 ,egyptians1 ,hindus1 and
 ,chinese1 claim to have been the       
earliest astronomers4 ,chinese records  
of astronomy reveal an antiquity of near
 #c1jjj years ,b4,c41 but they contain  

no evidence that their authors possessed
 any scientific knowledge1 and they     
merely record the occurrence of solar   
eclipses and the appearances of comets4 
,it is not known when astronomy was     
first studied by the ,egyptians2 but    
what astronomical information they have 
handed down is not of a very            
intelligible kind1 nor have they left   
behind any data that can be relied upon4
 ,the ,great ,pyramid1 judging from the 
exactness with which it faces the       
cardinal points1 must have been designed
 by persons who possessed a good        
knowledge of astronomy1 and it was      
probably made use of for observational  
purposes4  ,it is now generally admitted
 that correct astronomical observations 
were first made on the plains of        
,chaldea1 records of eclipses having    
been discovered in ,chaldean cities     
which date back #b1bcd years ,b4,c4 ,the
 ,chaldeans were true astronomers3 they 
made correct observations of the risings
 and settings of the heavenly bodies2   

and the exact orientation of their      
temples and public buildings indicates  
the precision with which they observed  
the positions of celestial objects4     
,they invented the zodiac and gnomon1   
made use of several kinds of dials1     
notified eclipses1 and divided the day  
into twenty-four hours4  ,to the ,greeks
 belongs the credit of having first     
studied astronomy in a regular and      
systematic manner4 ,,thales 7#fdj       
,b4,c47 was one of the earliest of      
,greek astronomers1 and may be regarded 
as the founder of the science among that
 people4 ,he was born at ,miletus1 and  
afterwards repaired to ,egypt for the   
purpose of study4 ,on his return to     
,greece he founded the ,ionian school1  
and taught the sphericity of the ,earth1
 the obliquity of the ecliptic1 and the 
true causes of eclipses of the ,sun and 
,moon4 ,he also directed the attention  
of mariners to the superiority of the   
,lesser ,bear1 as a guide for the       
navigation of vessels1 as compared with 

the ,great ,bear1 by which constellation
 they usually steered4 ,thales believed 
the ,earth to be the centre of the      
universe1 and that the stars were       
composed of fire2 he also predicted the 
occurrence of a great solar eclipse4    
,thales had for his successors          
,anaximander1 ,anaximenes1 and          
,anaxagoras1 who taught the doctrines of
 the ,ionian school4  ,the next great   
astronomer that we read of is           
,,pythagoras1 who was born at ,samos    
#eij ,b4,c4 ,he studied under ,thales1  
and afterwards visited ,egypt and       
,india1 in order that he might make     
himself familiar with the scientific    
theories adopted by those nations4 ,on  
his return to ,europe he founded his    
school in ,italy1 and taught in a more  
extended form the doctrines of the      
,ionian school4 ,in his speculations    
with regard to the structure of the     
universe he propounded the theory       
7though the reasons by which he         
sustained it were fanciful7 that the    

,sun is the centre of the planetary     
system1 and that the ,earth revolves    
round him4 ,this theory--the accuracy of
 which has since been                   
confirmed--received but little attention
 from his successors1 and it sank into  
oblivion until the time of ,copernicus1 
by whom it was revived4 ,pythagoras     
discovered that the ,morning and        
,evening ,stars are one and the same    
planet4  ,among the famous astronomers  
who lived about this period we find     
recorded the names of ,meton1 who       
introduced the ,metonic cycle into      
,greece and erected the first sundial at
 ,athens2 ,eudoxus1 who persuaded the   
,greeks to adopt the year of #cfe-a_/d  
days2 and ,nicetas1 who taught that the 
,earth completed a daily revolution on  
her axis4  ,the ,alexandrian school1    
which flourished for three centuries    
prior to the ,christian era1 produced   
men of eminence whose discoveries and   
investigations1 when arranged and       
classified1 enabled astronomy to be     

regarded as a true theoretical science4 
,the positions of the fixed stars and   
the paths of the planets were determined
 with greater accuracy1 and             
irregularities of the motions of the    
,sun and ,moon were investigated with   
greater precision4 ,attempts were made  
to ascertain the distance of the ,sun   
from the ,earth1 and also the dimensions
 of the terrestrial sphere4 ,the        
obliquity of the ecliptic was accurately
 determined1 and an arc of the meridian 
was measured between ,syene and         
,alexandria4 ,the names of ,aristarchus1
 ,eratosthenes1 ,aristyllus1            
,timocharis1 and ,autolycus1 are        
familiarly known in association with the
 advancement of the astronomy of this   
period4  ,we now reach the name of      
,,hipparchus of ,bithynia 7#adj ,b4,c471
 the most illustrious astronomer of     
antiquity1 who did much to raise        
astronomy to the position of a true     
science1 and who has also left behind   
him ample evidence of his genius 'as a  

mathematician1 an observer1 and a       
theorist4' ,we are indebted to him for  
the earliest star catalogue1 in which he
 included #a1jha stars4 ,he discovered  
the ,precession of the ,equinoxes1 and  
determined the motions of the ,sun and  
,moon1 and also the length of the year1 
with greater precision than any of his  
predecessors4 ,he invented the sciences 
of plane and spherical trigonometry1 and
 was the first to use right ascensions  
and declinations4  ,the next astronomer 
of eminence after ,hipparchus was       
,,ptolemy 7#acj ,a4,d471 who resided at 
,alexandria4 ,he was skilled as a       
mathematician and geographer1 and also  
excelled as a musician4 ,his chief      
discovery was an irregularity of the    
lunar motion1 called the 'evection4' ,he
 was also the first to observe the      
effect of the refraction of light in    
causing the apparent displacement of a  
heavenly body from its true position4   
,ptolemy devoted much of his time to    
extending and improving the theories of 

,hipparchus1 and compiled a great       
treatise1 called the ',almagest1' which 
contains nearly all the knowledge we    
possess of ancient astronomy4 ,ptolemy's
 name is1 however1 most widely known in 
association with what is called the     
,ptolemaic theory4 ,this system1 which  
originated long before his time1 but of 
which he was one of the ablest          
expounders1 was an attempt to establish 
on a scientific basis the conclusions   
and results arrived at by early         
astronomers who studied and observed the
 motions of the heavenly bodies4        
,ptolemy regarded the ,earth as the     
immovable centre of the universe1 round 
which the ,sun1 ,moon1 planets1 and the 
entire heavens completed a daily        
revolution in twenty-four hours4 ,after 
the death of ,ptolemy no worthy         
successor was found to occupy his place1
 the study of astronomy began to decline
 among the ,greeks1 and after a time it 
ceased to be cultivated by that people4 
,the ,arabs next took up the study of   

astronomy1 which they prosecuted most   
assiduously for a period of four        
centuries4 ,their labours were1 however1
 confined chiefly to observational work1
 in which they excelled2 unlike their   
predecessors1 they paid but little      
attention to speculative                
theories--indeed1 they regarded with    
such veneration the opinions held by the
 ,greeks1 that they did not feel        
disposed to question the accuracy of    
their doctrines4 ,the most eminent      
astronomer among the ,arabs was         
,,albategnius 7#fhj ,a4,d474 ,he        
corrected the ,greek observations1 and  
made several discoveries which testified
 to his abilities as an observer4 ,,ibn 
,,yunis and ,,abul ,,wefu were ,arab    
astronomers who earned a high reputation
 on account of the number and accuracy  
of their observations4 ,in ,persia1 a   
descendant of the famous ,genghis ,khan 
erected an observatory1 where           
astronomical observations were          
systematically made4 ,omar1 a ,persian  

astronomer1 suggested a reformation of  
the calendar which1 if it had been      
adopted1 would have insured greater     
accuracy than can be attained by the    
,gregorian style now in use4 ,in #adcc1 
,ulugh ,beg1 who resided at ,samarcand1 
made many observations1 and constructed 
a star catalogue of greater exactness   
than was known to exist prior to his    
time4 ,the ,arabs may be regarded as    
having been the custodians of astronomy 
until the time of its revival in another
 quarter of the ,globe4  ,after the     
lapse of many centuries1 astronomy was  
introduced into ,western ,europe in     
#abbj1 and from that date to the present
 time its career has been one of        
triumphant progress4 ,in #abcj1 a       
translation of ,ptolemy's ',almagest'   
from ,arabic into ,latin was            
accomplished by order of the ,german    
,emperor1 ,frederick ,,ii42 and in #abeb
 ,alphonso ,x41 ,king of ,castile1      
himself a zealous patron of astronomy1  
caused a new set of astronomical tables 

to be constructed at his own expense1   
which1 in honour of his ,majesty1 were  
called the ',alphonsine ,tables4'       
,purbach and ,regiomontanus1 two ,german
 astronomers of distinguished           
reputation1 and ,waltherus1 a man of    
considerable renown1 made many important
 observations in the fifteenth century4 
,the most eminent astronomer who lived  
during the latter part of this century  
was ,copernicus4 ,,nicolas ,,copernicus 
was born ,february #ai1 #adgc1 at       
,thorn1 a small town situated on the    
,vistula1 which formed the boundary     
between the kingdoms of ,prussia and    
,poland4 ,his father was a ,polish      
subject1 and his mother of ,german      
extraction4 ,having lost his parents    
early in life1 he was educated under the
 supervision of his uncle ,lucas1       
,bishop of ,ermland4 ,copernicus        
attended a school at ,thorn1 and        
afterwards entered the ,university of   
,cracow1 in #adia1 where he devoted four
 years to the study of mathematics and  

science4 ,on leaving ,cracow he attached
 himself to the ,university of ,bologna 
as a student of canon law1 and attended 
a course of lectures on astronomy given 
by ,novarra4 ,in the ensuing year he was
 appointed canon of ,frauenburg1 the    
cathedral city of the ,diocese of       
,ermland1 situated on the shores of the 
,frisches ,haff4 ,in the year #aejj he  
was at ,rome1 where he lectured on      
mathematics and astronomy4 ,he next     
spent a few years at the ,university of 
,padua1 where1 besides applying himself 
to mathematics and astronomy1 he studied
 medicine and obtained a degree4 ,in    
#aeje ,copernicus returned to his native
 country1 and was appointed medical     
attendant to his uncle1 the ,bishop of  
,ermland1 with whom he resided in the   
stately castle of ,heilsberg1 situated  
at a distance of forty-six miles from   
,frauenburg4 ,copernicus lived with his 
uncle from #aejg till #aeab1 and during 
that time prosecuted his astronomical   
studies1 and undertook1 besides1 many   

arduous duties associated with the      
administration of the diocese2 these he 
faithfully discharged until the death of
 the ,bishop1 which occurred in #aeab4  
,after the death of his uncle he took up
 his residence at ,frauenburg1 where he 
occupied his time in meditating on his  
new astronomy and undertaking various   
duties of a public character1 which he  
fulfilled with credit and distinction4  
,in #aebc he was appointed              
,administrator-,general of the diocese4 
,though a canon of ,frauenburg1         
,copernicus never became a priest4      
,after many years of profound meditation
 and thought1 ,copernicus1 in a treatise
 entitled ',de ,revolutionibus ,orbium  
,celestium1' propounded a new theory1   
or1 more correctly speaking1 revived the
 ancient ,pythagorean system of the     
universe4 ,this great work1 which he    
dedicated to ,pope ,paul ,,iii41 was    
completed in #aecj2 but he could not be 
prevailed upon to have it published     
until #aedc1 the year in which he died4 

,in #aedb ,copernicus had an apoplectic 
seizure1 followed by paralysis and a    
gradual decay of his mental and vital   
powers4 ,his book was printed at        
,nuremberg1 and the first copy arrived  
at ,frauenburg on ,may #bd1 #aedc1 in   
time to be touched by the hands of the  
dying man1 who in a few hours after     
expired4 ,the house in which ,copernicus
 lived at ,allenstein is still in       
existence1 and in the walls of his      
chamber are visible the perforations    
which he made for the purpose of        
observing the stars cross the meridian4 
,copernicus was the means of creating an
 entire revolution in the science of    
astronomy1 by transferring the centre of
 our system from the ,earth to the ,sun4
 ,he accounted for the alternation of   
day and night by the rotation of the    
,earth on her axis1 and for the         
vicissitudes of the seasons by her      
revolution round the ,sun4 ,he devoted  
the greater part of his life to         
meditating on this theory1 and adduced  

several weighty reasons in its support4 
,copernicus could not help perceiving   
the complications and entanglements by  
which the ,ptolemaic system of the      
universe was surrounded1 and which      
compared unfavourably with the simple   
and orderly manner in which other       
natural phenomena presented themselves  
to his observation4 ,by perceiving that 
,mars when in opposition was not much   
inferior in lustre to ,jupiter1 and when
 in conjunction resembled a star of the 
second magnitude1 he arrived at the     
conclusion that the ,earth could not be 
the centre of the planet's motion4      
,having discovered in some ancient      
manuscripts a theory1 ascribed to the   
,egyptians1 that ,mercury and ,venus    
revolved round the ,sun1 whilst they    
accompanied the orb in his revolution   
round the ,earth1 ,copernicus was able  
to perceive that this afforded him a    
means of explaining the alternate       
appearance of those planets on each side
 of the ,sun4 ,the varied aspects of the

 superior planets1 when observed in     
different parts of their orbits1 also   
led him to conclude that the ,earth was 
not the central body round which they   
accomplished their revolutions4 ,as a   
combined result of his observation and  
reasoning ,copernicus propounded the    
theory that the ,sun is the centre of   
our system1 and that all the planets1   
including the ,earth1 revolve in orbits 
around him4 ,this1 which is called the  
,copernican system1 is now regarded as1 
and has been proved to be1 the true     
theory of the solar system4  ,,tycho    
,,brahe was a celebrated ,danish        
astronomer1 who earned a deservedly high
 reputation on account of the number and
 accuracy of his astronomical           
observations and calculations4 ,the     
various astronomical tables that were in
 use in his time contained many         
inaccuracies1 and it became necessary   
that they should be reconstructed upon a
 more correct basis4 ,tycho possessed   
the practical skill required for this   

kind of work4  ,he was born ,december   
#ad1 #aedf1 at ,knudstorp1 near         
,helsingborg4 ,his father1 ,otto ,brahe1
 traced his descent from a ,swedish     
family of noble birth4 ,at the age of   
thirteen ,tycho was sent to the         
,university of ,copenhagen1 where it was
 intended he should prepare himself for 
the study of the law4  ,the prediction  
of a great solar eclipse1 which was to  
happen on ,august #ba1 #aefj1 caused    
much public excitement in ,denmark1 for 
in those days such phenomena were       
regarded as portending the occurrence of
 events of national importance4 ,tycho  
looked forward with great eagerness to  
the time of the eclipse4 ,he watched its
 progress with intense interest1 and    
when he perceived all the details of the
 phenomenon occur exactly as they were  
predicted1 he resolved to pursue the    
study of a science by which1 as was then
 believed1 the occurrence of future     
events could be foretold4 ,from         
,copenhagen ,tycho ,brahe was sent to   

,leipsic to study jurisprudence1 but    
astronomy absorbed all his thoughts4 ,he
 spent his pocket-money in purchasing   
astronomical books1 and1 when his tutor 
had retired to sleep1 he occupied his   
time night after night in watching the  
stars and making himself familiar with  
their courses4 ,he followed the planets 
in their direct and retrograde          
movements1 and with the aid of a small  
globe and pair of compasses was able by 
means of his own calculations to detect 
serious discrepancies in the ,alphonsine
 and ,prutenic tables4 ,in order to make
 himself more proficient in calculating 
astronomical tables he studied          
arithmetic and geometry1 and learned    
mathematics without the aid of a master4
 ,having remained at ,leipsic for three 
years1 during which time he paid far    
more attention to the study of astronomy
 than to that of law1 he returned to his
 native country in consequence of the   
death of an uncle1 who bequeathed him a 
considerable estate4 ,in ,denmark he    

continued to prosecute his astronomical 
studies1 and incurred the displeasure of
 his friends1 who blamed him for        
neglecting his intended profession and  
wasting his time on astronomy1 which    
they regarded as useless and            
unprofitable4  ,not caring to remain    
among his relatives1 ,tycho ,brahe      
returned to ,germany1 and arrived at    
,wittenberg in #aeff4 ,whilst residing  
here he had an altercation with a       
,danish gentleman over some question in 
mathematics4 ,the quarrel led to a duel 
with swords1 which terminated rather    
unfortunately for ,tycho1 who had a     
portion of his nose cut off4 ,this loss 
he repaired by ingeniously contriving   
one of gold1 silver1 and wax1 which was 
said to bear a good resemblance to the  
original4 ,from ,wittenberg ,tycho      
proceeded to ,augsburg1 where he resided
 for two years4 ,here he made the       
acquaintance of several men             
distinguished for their learning and    
their love of astronomy4 ,during his    

stay at ,augsburg he constructed a      
quadrant of fourteen cubits radius1 on  
which were indicated the single minutes 
of a degree2 he made many valuable      
observations with this instrument1 which
 he used in combination with a large    
sextant4  ,in #aega ,tycho returned to  
,denmark1 where his fame as an          
astronomer had preceded him1 and was the
 means of procuring for him a hearty    
welcome from his relatives and friends4 
,in #aegb1 when returning one night from
 his laboratory--for ,tycho studied     
alchemy as well as astronomy--he beheld 
what appeared to be a new and brilliant 
star in the constellation ,cassiopeia1  
which was situated overhead4 ,he        
directed the attention of his companions
 to this wonderful object1 and all      
declared that they had never observed   
such a star before4 ,on the following   
night he measured its distance from the 
nearest stars in the constellation1 and 
arrived at the conclusion that it was a 
fixed star1 and beyond our system4      

,this remarkable object remained visible
 for sixteen months1 and when at its    
brightest rivalled ,sirius4 ,at first it
 was of a brilliant white colour1 but as
 it diminished in size it became yellow2
 it next changed to a red colour1       
resembling ,aldebaran2 afterwards it    
appeared like ,saturn1 and as it grew   
smaller it decreased in brightness1     
until it finally became invisible4 ,in  
#aegc ,tycho ,brahe married a           
peasant-girl from the village of        
,knudstorp4 ,this imprudent act roused  
the resentment of his relatives1 who1   
being of noble birth1 were indignant    
that he should have contracted such an  
alliance4 ,the bitterness and mutual    
ill-feeling created by this affair      
became so intense that the ,king of     
,denmark deemed it advisable to         
endeavour to bring about a              
reconciliation4  ,after this ,tycho     
returned to ,germany1 and visited       
several cities before deciding where he 
should take up his permanent residence4 

,his fame as an astronomer was now so   
great that he was received with         
distinction wherever he went1 and on the
 occasion of a visit to ,hesse-,cassel  
he spent a few pleasant days with       
,william1 ,landgrave of ,hesse1 who was 
himself skilled in astronomy4           
,frederick ,,ii41 ,king of ,denmark1    
having recognised ,tycho ,brahe's great 
merits as an astronomer1 and not wishing
 that his fame should add lustre to a   
foreign ,court1 expressed a desire that 
he should return to his native country1 
and as an inducement offered him a life 
interest in the island of ,huen1 in the 
,sound1 where he undertook to erect and 
equip an observatory at his own expense2
 the ,king also promised to bestow upon 
him a pension1 and grant him other      
emoluments besides4  ,tycho gladly      
accepted this generous offer1 and during
 the construction of the observatory    
occupied his time in making a           
magnificent collection of instruments   
and appliances adapted for observational

 purposes4 ,this handsome edifice1 upon 
which the ,king of ,denmark expended a  
sum of #bj1jjjl41 was called            
',uranienburg' 7',the ,citadel of the   
,heavens'74 ,here ,tycho resided for a  
period of twenty years1 during which    
time he pursued his astronomical labours
 with untiring energy and zeal1 and made
 a large number of observations and     
calculations of much superior accuracy  
to any that existed previously1 which   
were afterwards of great service to his 
successors4 ,during his long residence  
at ,huen1 ,tycho was visited by many    
distinguished persons1 who were         
attracted to his island home by his fame
 and the magnificence of his            
observatory4 ,among them was ,james     
,,vi4 of ,scotland1 who1 whilst         
journeying to the ,court of ,denmark on 
the occasion of his marriage to a       
,danish princess1 paid ,tycho a visit1  
and enjoyed his hospitality for a week4 
,the ,king was delighted with all that  
he saw1 and on his departure presented  

,tycho with a handsome donation1 and at 
his request composed some ,latin verses1
 in which he eulogised his host and     
praised his observatory4  ,the island of
 ,huen is situated about six miles from 
the coast of ,zealand1 and fourteen from
 ,copenhagen4 ,it has a circumference of
 six miles1 and consists chiefly of an  
elevated plateau1 in the centre of which
 ,tycho erected his observatory1 the    
site of which is now marked by two pits 
and a few mounds of earth--all that     
remains of ,uranienburg4 ,all went well 
with ,tycho ,brahe during the lifetime  
of his noble patron2 but in #aehh       
,frederick ,,ii4 died1 and was succeeded
 by his son1 a youth eleven years of    
age4  ,the ,danish nobles had long been 
jealous of ,tycho's fame and reputation1
 and on the death of the ,king an       
opportunity was afforded them of        
intriguing with the object of           
accomplishing his downfall4 ,several    
false accusations were brought against  
him1 and the ,court party made the      

impoverished state of the ,treasury an  
excuse for depriving him of his pension 
and emoluments granted by the late      
,king4  ,tycho was no longer able to    
bear the expense of maintaining his     
establishment at ,huen1 and fearing that
 he might be deprived of the island     
itself1 he took a house in ,copenhagen1 
to which he removed all his smaller     
instruments4  ,during his residence in  
the capital he was subjected to         
annoyance and persecution4 ,an order was
 issued in the ,king's name preventing  
him from carrying on his chemical       
experiments1 and he besides suffered the
 indignity of a personal assault4 ,tycho
 ,brahe resolved to quit his ungrateful 
country and seek a home in some foreign 
land1 where he should be permitted to   
pursue his studies unmolested and live  
in quietness and peace4 ,he accordingly 
removed from the island of ,huen all his
 instruments and appliances that were of
 a portable nature1 and packed them on  
board a vessel which he hired for the   

purpose of transport1 and1 having       
embarked with his family1 his servants1 
and some of his pupils and assistants1  
'this interesting barque1 freighted with
 the glory of ,denmark1' set sail from  
,copenhagen about the end of #aeig1 and 
having crossed the ,baltic in safety1   
arrived at ,rostock1 where ,tycho found 
some old friends waiting to receive him4
 ,he was now in doubt as to where he    
should find a home1 when the ,austrian  
,emperor ,rudolph1 himself a liberal    
patron of science and the fine arts1    
having heard of ,tycho ,brahe's         
misfortunes1 sent him an invitation to  
take up his abode in his dominions1 and 
promised that he should be treated in a 
manner worthy of his reputation and     
fame4  ,tycho resolved to accept the    
,emperor's kind invitation1 and in the  
spring of #aeii arrived at ,prague1     
where he found a handsome residence     
prepared for his reception4  ,he was    
received by the ,emperor in a most      
cordial manner and treated with the     

greatest kindness4 ,an annual pension of
 three thousand crowns was settled upon 
him for life1 and he was to have his    
choice of several residences belonging  
to his ,majesty1 where he might reside  
and erect a new observatory4 ,from among
 these he selected the ,castle of       
,benach1 in ,bohemia1 which was situated
 on an elevated plateau and commanded a 
wide view of the horizon4  ,during his  
residence at ,benach ,tycho received a  
visit from ,kepler1 who stayed with him 
for several months in order that he     
might carry out some astronomical       
observations4 ,in the following year    
,kepler returned1 and took up his       
permanent residence with ,tycho1 having 
been appointed assistant in his         
observatory1 a post which1 at ,tycho's  
request1 was conferred upon him by the  
,emperor4  ,tycho ,brahe soon discovered
 that his ignorance of the language and 
unfamiliarity with the customs of the   
people caused him much inconvenience4   
,he therefore asked permission from the 

,emperor to be allowed to remove to     
,prague4 ,this request was readily      
granted1 and a suitable residence was   
provided for him in the city4  ,in the  
meantime his family1 his large          
instruments1 and other property1 having 
arrived at ,prague1 ,tycho was soon     
comfortably settled in his new home4    
,though ,tycho ,brahe continued his     
astronomical observations1 yet he could 
not help feeling that he lived among a  
strange people2 nor did the remembrance 
of his sufferings and the cruel         
treatment he received at the hands of   
his fellow-countrymen subdue the        
affection which he cherished towards his
 native land4 ,pondering over the past1 
he became despondent and low-spirited2 a
 morbid imagination caused him to brood 
over small troubles1 and gloomy1        
melancholy thoughts possessed his       
mind--symptoms which seemed to presage  
the approach of some serious malady4    
,one evening1 when visiting at the house
 of a friend1 he was seized with a      

painful illness1 to which he succumbed  
in less than a fortnight4 ,he died at   
,prague on ,october #bd1 #afja1 when in 
his fifty-fifth year4  ,the ,emperor    
,rudolph1 when informed of ,tycho       
,brahe's death1 expressed his deep      
regret1 and commanded that he should be 
interred in the principal church in the 
city1 and that his obsequies should be  
celebrated with every mark of honour and
 respect4  ,tycho ,brahe stands out as  
the most romantic and prominent figure  
in the history of astronomy4 ,his       
independence of character1 his ardent   
attachments1 his strong hatreds1 and his
 love of splendour1 are characteristics 
which distinguish him from all other men
 of his age4 ,this remarkable man was an
 astronomer1 astrologer1 and alchemist2 
but in his latter years he renounced    
astrology1 and believed that the stars  
exercised no influence over the         
destinies of mankind4  ,as a practical  
astronomer1 ,tycho ,brahe has not been  
excelled by any other observer of the   

heavens4 ,the magnificence of his       
observatory at ,huen1 upon the equipment
 and embellishment of which it is stated
 he expended a ton of gold2 the         
splendour and variety of his            
instruments1 and his ingenuity in       
inventing new ones1 would alone have    
made him famous4 ,but it was by the     
skill and assiduity with which he       
carried out his numerous and important  
observations that he has earned for     
himself a position of the most          
honourable distinction among            
astronomers4 ,in his investigation of   
the ,lunar theory ,tycho ,brahe         
discovered the ,moon's annual equation1 
a yearly effect produced by the ,sun's  
disturbing force as the ,earth          
approaches or recedes from him in her   
orbit4 ,he also discovered another      
inequality in the ,moon's motion1 called
 the variation4 ,he determined with     
greater exactness astronomical          
refractions from an altitude of #de deg4
 downwards to the horizon1 and          

constructed a catalogue of #ggg stars4  
,he also made a vast number of          
observations on planets1 which formed   
the basis of the ',rudolphine ,tables1' 
and were of invaluable assistance to    
,kepler in his investigation of the laws
 relating to planetary motion4  ,tycho  
,brahe declined to accept the           
,copernican theory1 and devised a system
 of his own1 which he called the        
',tychonic4' ,by this arrangement the   
,earth remained stationary1 whilst all  
the planets revolved round the ,sun1 who
 in his turn completed a daily          
revolution round the ,earth4 ,all the   
phenomena associated with the motions of
 those bodies could be explained by     
means of this system2 but it did not    
receive much support1 and after the     
,copernican theory became better        
understood it was given up1 and heard of
 no more4  ,we now arrive at the name of
 ,,kepler1 one of the very greatest of  
astronomers1 and a man of remarkable    
genius1 who was the first to discover   

the real nature of the paths pursued by 
the ,earth and planets in their         
revolution round the ,sun4 ,after       
seventeen years of close observation1 he
 announced that those bodies travelled  
round the ,sun in elliptical or oval    
orbits1 and not in circular paths1 as   
was believed by ,copernicus4 ,in his    
investigation of the laws which govern  
the motions of the planets he formulated
 those famous theorems known as         
',kepler's ,laws1' which will endure for
 all time as a proof of his sagacity and
 surpassing genius4 ,prior to the       
discovery of those laws the ,sun1 though
 acknowledged to be the centre of the   
system1 did not appear to occupy a      
central position as regards the motions 
of the planets2 but ,kepler1 by         
demonstrating that the planes of the    
orbits of all the planets1 and the lines
 connecting their apsides1 passed       
through the ,sun1 was enabled to assign 
the orb his true position with regard to
 those bodies4  ,,john ,,kepler was born

 at ,weil1 in the ,duchy of ,wurtemberg1
 ,december #ba1 #aega4 ,his parents1    
though of noble family1 lived in reduced
 circumstances1 owing to causes for     
which they were themselves chiefly      
responsible4 ,in his youth ,kepler      
suffered so much from ill-health that   
his education had to be neglected4 ,in  
#aehf he was sent to a monastic school  
at ,maulbronn1 which had been           
established at the ,reformation1 and was
 under the patronage of the ,duke of    
,wurtemberg4 ,afterwards he studied at  
the ,university of ,tubingen1 where he  
distinguished himself and took a degree4
 ,kepler devoted his attention chiefly  
to science and mathematics1 but paid no 
particular attention to the study of    
astronomy4 ,maestlin1 the professor of  
mathematics1 whose lectures he attended1
 upheld the ,copernican theory1 and     
,kepler1 who adopted the views of his   
teacher1 wrote an essay in favour of the
 diurnal rotation of the ,earth1 in     
which he supported the more recent      

astronomical doctrines4 ,in #aeid1 a    
vacancy having occurred in the          
professorship of astronomy at ,gratz    
consequent upon the death of ,george    
,stadt1 ,kepler was appointed his       
successor4 ,he did not seek this office1
 as he felt no particular desire to take
 up the study of astronomy1 but was     
recommended by his tutors as a man well 
fitted for the post4 ,he was thus in a  
manner compelled to devote his time and 
talents to the science of astronomy4    
,kepler directed his attention to three 
subjects--viz4 'the number1 the size1   
and the motion of the orbits of the     
planets4' ,he endeavoured to ascertain  
if any regular proportion existed       
between the sizes of the planetary      
orbits1 or in the difference of their   
sizes1 but in this he was unsuccessful4 
,he then thought that1 by imagining the 
existence of a planet between ,mars and 
,jupiter1 and another between ,venus and
 ,mercury1 he might be able to attain   
his object2 but he found that this      

assumption afforded him no assistance4  
,kepler then imagined that as there were
 five regular geometrical solids1 and   
five planets1 the distances of the      
latter were regulated by the size of the
 solids described round one another4    
,the discovery afterwards of two        
additional planets testified to the     
absurdity of this speculation4 ,a       
description of these extraordinary      
researches was published1 in #aeif1 in a
 work entitled ',prodromus of           
,cosmographical ,dissertations2         
containing the cosmographical mystery   
respecting the admirable proportion of  
the celestial orbits1 and the genuine   
and real causes of the number1          
magnitude1 and periods of the planets1  
demonstrated by the five regular        
geometrical solids4' ,this volume1      
notwithstanding the fanciful            
speculations which it contained1 was    
received with much favour by            
astronomers1 and both ,tycho ,brahe and 
,galileo encouraged ,kepler to continue 

his researches4 ,galileo admired his    
ingenuity1 and ,tycho advised him 'to   
lay a solid foundation for his views by 
actual observation1 and then1 by        
ascending from these1 to strive to reach
 the causes of things4' ,kepler spent   
many years in these fruitless endeavours
 before he made those grand discoveries 
in search of which he laboured so long4 
,the religious dissensions which at this
 time agitated ,germany were accompanied
 in many places by much tumult and      
excitement4 ,at ,gratz the ,catholics   
threatened to expel the ,protestants    
from the city4 ,kepler1 who was of the  
,reformed faith1 having recognised the  
danger with which he was threatened1    
retired to ,hungary with his wife1 whom 
he had recently married1 and remained   
there for near twelve months1 during    
which time he occupied himself with     
writing several short treatises on      
subjects connected with astronomy4 ,in  
#aeii he returned to ,gratz and resumed 
his professorship4  ,in the year #afjj  

,kepler set out to pay ,tycho ,brahe a  
visit at ,prague1 in order that he might
 be able to avail himself of information
 contained in observations made by      
,tycho with regard to the eccentricities
 of the orbits of the planets4 ,he was  
received by ,tycho with much cordiality1
 and stayed with him for four months at 
his residence at ,benach1 ,tycho in the 
meantime having promised that he would  
use his influence with the ,emperor     
,rudolph to have him appointed as       
assistant in his observatory4 ,on the   
termination of his visit ,kepler        
returned to ,gratz1 and as there was a  
renewal of the religious trouble in the 
city1 he resigned his professorship1    
from which he only derived a small      
income1 and1 relying on ,tycho's        
promise1 he again journeyed to ,prague1 
and arrived there in #afja4 ,kepler was 
presented to the ,emperor by ,tycho1 and
 the post of ,imperial ,mathematician   
was conferred upon him1 with a salary of
 #ajj florins a year1 upon condition    

that he should assist ,tycho in his     
observatory4 ,this appointment was of   
much value to ,kepler1 because it       
afforded him an opportunity of obtaining
 access to the numerous astronomical    
observations made by ,tycho1 which were 
of great assistance to him in the       
investigation of the subject which he   
had chosen--viz4 the laws which govern  
the motions of the planets1 and the form
 and size of the planetary orbits4  ,as 
an acknowledgment of the ,emperor's     
great kindness1 the two astronomers     
resolved to compute a new set of        
astronomical tables1 and in honour of   
his ,majesty they were to be called the 
',rudolphine ,tables4' ,this project    
pleased the ,emperor1 who promised to   
defray the expense of their publication4
 ,logomontanus1 ,tycho's chief          
assistant1 had entrusted to him that    
portion of the work relating to         
observations on the stars1 and ,kepler  
had charge of the part which embraced   
the calculations belonging to the       

planets and their orbits4 ,this         
important work had scarcely been begun  
when the departure of ,logomontanus1 who
 obtained an appointment in ,denmark1   
and the death of ,tycho ,brahe in       
,october #afja1 necessitated its        
suspension for a time4 ,kepler was      
appointed ,chief ,mathematician to the  
,emperor in succession to ,tycho--a     
position of honour and distinction1 and 
to which was attached a handsome salary1
 that was paid out of the ,imperial     
treasury4 ,but owing to the continuance 
of expensive wars1 which entailed a     
severe drain upon the resources of the  
country1 the public funds became very   
low1 and ,kepler's salary was always in 
arrear4 ,this condition of things       
involved him in serious pecuniary       
difficulties1 and the responsibility of 
having to maintain an increasing family 
added to his anxieties4 ,it was with the
 greatest difficulty that he succeeded  
in obtaining payment of even a portion  
of his salary1 and he was reduced to    

such straits as to be under the         
necessity of casting nativities in order
 to obtain money to meet his most       
pressing requirements4  ,in #afji       
,kepler published his great work1       
entitled ',the ,new ,astronomy2 or1     
,commentaries on the ,motions of ,mars4'
 ,it was by his observation of ,mars1   
which has an orbit of greater           
eccentricity than that of any of the    
other planets1 with the exception of    
,mercury1 that he was enabled1 after    
years of patient study1 to announce in  
this volume the discovery of two of the 
three famous theorems known as ,kepler's
 ,laws4 ,the first is1 that all the     
planets move round the ,sun in elliptic 
orbits1 and that the orb occupies one of
 the foci4 ,the second is1 that the     
radius-vector1 or imaginary line joining
 the centre of the planet and the centre
 of the ,sun1 describes equal areas in  
equal times4 ,the third law1 which      
relates to the connection between the   
periodic times and the distances of the 

planets1 was not discovered until ten   
years later1 when ,kepler1 in #afai1    
issued another work1 called the         
',harmonies of the ,world1' dedicated to
 ,james ,i4 of ,england1 in which was   
contained this remarkable law4 ,these   
laws have elevated astronomy to the     
position of a true physical science1 and
 also formed the starting-point of      
,newton's investigations which led to   
the discovery of the law of gravitation4
 ,kepler's delight on the discovery of  
his third law was unbounded4 ,he writes3
 ',nothing holds me4 ,i will indulge in 
my sacred fury4 ,i will triumph over    
mankind by the honest confession that ,i
 have stolen the golden vases of the    
,egyptians to build up a tabernacle for 
my ,god far away from the confines of   
,egypt4 ,if you forgive me1 ,i rejoice2 
if you are angry1 ,i can bear it4 ,the  
die is cast2 the book is written1 to be 
read either now or by posterity ,i care 
not which4 ,it may well wait a century  
for a reader1 as ,god has waited six    

thousand years for an observer4'  ,when 
,kepler presented his celebrated book to
 the ,emperor1 he remarked that it was  
his intention to make a similar attack  
upon the other planets1 and promised    
that he would be successful if his      
,majesty would undertake to find the    
means necessary for carrying on         
operations4 ,but the ,emperor had more  
formidable enemies to contend with      
nearer home than ,jupiter and ,saturn1  
and no funds were forthcoming to assist 
,kepler in his undertaking4  ,the chair 
of mathematics in the ,university of    
,linz having become vacant1 ,kepler     
offered himself as a candidate for the  
appointment1 which he was anxious to    
obtain2 but the ,emperor ,rudolph was   
averse to his leaving ,prague1 and      
encouraged him to hope that the arrears 
of his salary would be paid4 ,but past  
experience led ,kepler to have no very  
sanguine expectations on this point2 nor
 was it until after the death of        
,rudolph1 in #afab1 that he was relieved

 from his pecuniary embarrassments4  ,on
 the accession of ,rudolph's brother1   
,matthias1 to the ,austrian throne1     
,kepler was reappointed ,imperial       
,mathematician2 he was also permitted to
 hold the professorship at ,linz1 to    
which he had been elected4 ,kepler was  
not loth to remove from ,prague1 where  
he had spent eleven years harassed by   
poverty and other domestic afflictions4 
,having settled with his family at      
,linz1 ,kepler issued another work1 in  
#afah1 entitled ',epitome of the        
,copernican ,astronomy1' in which he    
gave a general account of his           
astronomical observations and           
discoveries1 and a summary of his       
opinions with regard to the theories    
which in those days were the subject of 
controversial discussion4 ,almost       
immediately after its publication it was
 included by the ,congregation of the   
,index1 at ,rome1 in the list of        
prohibited books4 ,this occasioned      
,kepler considerable alarm1 as he       

imagined it might interfere with the    
sale of his works1 or give rise to      
difficulties in the issue of others4    
,he1 however1 was assured by his friend 
,remus that the action of the ,papal    
authorities need cause him no anxiety4  
,the ,emperor ,matthias died in #afai1  
and was succeeded by ,ferdinand ,,iii41 
who not only retained ,kepler in his    
office1 but gave orders that all the    
arrears of his salary should be paid1   
including those which accumulated during
 the reign of ,rudolph2 he also         
expressed a desire that the ',rudolphine
 ,tables' should be published without   
delay and at his cost4 ,but other       
obstacles intervened1 for at this time  
,germany was involved in a civil and    
religious war1 which interfered with all
 peaceful vocations4 ,kepler's library  
at ,linz was sealed up by order of the  
,jesuits1 and the city was for a time   
besieged by troops4 ,this state of      
public affairs necessitated a           
considerable delay in the publication of

 the ',tables4'  ,the ',rudolphine      
,tables' were published at ,ulm in      
#afbg4 ,they were commenced by ,tycho   
,brahe1 and completed by ,kepler1 who   
made his calculations from ,tycho's     
observations1 and based them upon his   
own great discovery of the ellipticity  
of the orbits of the planets4 ,they are 
divided into four parts4 ,the first and 
third parts contain logarithmic and     
other tables for the purpose of         
facilitating astronomical calculations2 
in the second are tables of the ,sun1   
,moon1 and planets2 and in the fourth   
are indicated the positions of one      
thousand stars as determined by ,tycho4 
,kepler made a special journey to       
,prague in order to present the         
',tables' to the ,emperor1 and          
afterwards the ,grand ,duke of ,tuscany 
sent him a gold chain as an             
acknowledgment of his appreciation of   
the completion of this great work4      
,albert ,wallenstein1 ,duke of          
,friedland1 an accomplished scholar and 

a man fond of scientific pursuits1 made 
,kepler a most liberal offer if he would
 take up his residence in his dominions4
 ,after duly considering this proposal1 
,kepler decided to accept the ,duke's   
offer1 provided it received the sanction
 of the ,emperor4 ,this was readily     
given1 and ,kepler1 in #afbi1 removed   
with his family from ,linz to ,sagan1 in
 ,silesia4 ,the ,duke of ,friedland     
treated him with great kindness and     
liberality1 and through his influence he
 was appointed to a professorship in the
 ,university of ,rostock4 ,though       
,kepler was permitted to retain the     
pension bestowed upon him by the late   
,emperor ,rudolph1 he was unable after  
his removal to ,silesia to obtain       
payment of it1 and there was a large    
accumulation of arrears4 ,in a final    
endeavour to recover the amount owing to
 him he travelled to ,ratisbon1 and     
appealed to the ,imperial ,assembly1 but
 without success4 ,the fatigue which    
,kepler endured on his journey1 combined

 with vexation and disappointment1      
brought on a fever1 which terminated    
fatally4 ,he died on ,november #ae1     
#afcj1 when in the sixtieth year of his 
age1 and was interred in ,st4 ,peter's  
churchyard1 ,ratisbon4  ,kepler was a   
man of indomitable energy and           
perseverance1 and spared neither time   
nor trouble in the accomplishment of any
 object which he took in hand4 ,in      
thinking over the form of the orbits of 
the planets1 he writes3 ',i brooded with
 the whole energy of my mind on this    
subject--asking why they are not other  
than they are--the number1 the size1 and
 the motions of the orbits4' ,but many  
fanciful ideas passed through ,kepler's 
imaginative brain before he hit upon the
 true form of the planetary orbits4 ,in 
his ',mysterium ,cosmographicum' he     
asserts that the five kinds of regular  
polyhedral solids1 when described round 
one another1 regulated the distances of 
the planets and size of the planetary   
orbits4 ,in support of this theory he   

writes as follows3 ',the orbit of the   
,earth is the measure of the rest4      
,about it circumscribe a dodecahedron4  
,the sphere including this will be that 
of ,mars4 ,about ,mars' orbit describe a
 tetrahedron2 the sphere containing this
 will be ,jupiter's orbit4 ,round       
,jupiter's describe a cube2 the sphere  
including this will be ,saturn's4       
,within the ,earth's orbit inscribe an  
icosahedron2 the sphere inscribed in it 
will be ,venus's orbit4 ,in ,venus      
inscribe an octahedron2 the sphere      
inscribed in it will be ,mercury's4'    
,the above quotation is an instance of  
,kepler's wild and imaginative genius1  
which ultimately led him to make those  
sublime discoveries associated with     
planetary motion which are known as     
',kepler's ,laws4'  ,he describes       
himself as 'troublesome and choleric in 
politics and domestic matters2' but in  
his relations with scientific men he was
 affable and pleasant4 ,he showed no    
jealousy of a rival1 and was always     

ready to recognise merit in others2 nor 
did he hesitate to acknowledge any error
 of his own when more recent discoveries
 proved that he was wrong4  ,some of his
 works contain passages1 written in a   
jocular strain1 indicative of a bright  
and cheerful temperament4 ,the following
 characteristic paragraph refers to the 
opinions of the ,epicureans with regard 
to the appearance of a new star1 which  
they ascribed to a fortuitous concourse 
of atoms3 ',when ,i was a youth1 with   
plenty of idle time on my hands1 ,i was 
much taken with the vanity1 of which    
some grown men are not ashamed1 of      
making anagrams by transposing the      
letters of my name written in ,latin so 
as to make another sentence4 ,out of    
,ioannes ,keplerus came ,serpens in     
akuleo 7a serpent in his sting72 but not
 being satisfied with the meaning of    
these words1 and being unable to make   
another1 ,i trusted the thing to chance1
 and1 taking out of a pack of           
playing-cards as many as there were     

letters in the name1 ,i wrote one upon  
each1 and then began to shuffle them1   
and at each shuffle to read them in the 
order they came1 to see if any meaning  
came of it4 ,now1 may all the ,epicurean
 gods and goddesses confound this same  
chance1 which1 although ,i have spent a 
good deal of time over it1 never showed 
me anything like sense1 even from a     
distance4 ,so ,i gave up my cards to the
 ,epicurean eternity1 to be carried away
 into infinity2 and it is said they are 
still flying about there1 in the utmost 
confusion1 among the atoms1 and have    
never yet come to any meaning4 ,i will  
tell those disputants1 my opponents1 not
 my own opinion1 but my wife's4         
,yesterday1 when weary with writing1 and
 my mind quite dusty with considering   
these atoms1 ,i was called to supper1   
and a salad ,i had asked for was set    
before me4 ,it seems1 then1 said ,i     
aloud1 that if pewter dishes1 leaves of 
lettuce1 grains of salt1 drops of water1
 vinegar and oil1 and slices of egg1 had

 been flying about in the air from all  
eternity1 it might at last happen by    
chance that there would come a salad4   
,yes1 says my wife1 but not so nice and 
well dressed as this of mine is4'       
,notwithstanding the frequent           
interruptions which1 owing to various   
reasons1 retarded his labours1 ,kepler  
was able to bring to a successful       
completion the numerous and important   
works upon which he was engaged during  
his lifetime1 the voluminous nature of  
which may be imagined when it is stated 
that he published thirty-three separate 
works1 besides leaving behind twenty-two
 volumes of manuscript4  ,during his    
researches on the motions of ,mars1     
,kepler discovered that the planet      
sometimes travelled at an accelerated   
rate of speed1 and at another time its  
pace was diminished4 ,at one time he    
observed it to be in advance of the     
place where he calculated it should be  
found1 and at another time it was behind
 it4 ,this caused him considerable      

perplexity1 and1 feeling convinced in   
his mind that the form of the planet's  
orbit could not be circular1 he was     
compelled to turn his attention to some 
other closed curve1 by which those      
inequalities of motion could be         
explained4  ,after years of careful     
observation and study1 ,kepler arrived  
at the conclusion that the form of the  
planet's orbit is an ellipse1 and that  
the ,sun occupies one of the foci4 ,he  
afterwards determined that the orbits of
 all the planets are of an elliptical   
form4  ,having discovered the true form 
of the planetary orbits1 ,kepler next   
endeavoured to ascertain the cause which
 regulates the unequal motion that a    
planet pursues in its path4 ,he observed
 that when a planet approached the ,sun 
its motion was accelerated1 and as it   
receded from him its pace became slower4
  ,this he explained in his next great  
discovery by proving that an imaginary  
line1 or radius-vector1 extending from  
the centre of the ,sun to the centre of 

the planet 'describes equal areas in    
equal times4' ,when near the ,sun1 or at
 perihelion1 a planet traverses a larger
 portion of its arc in the same period  
of time than it does when at the        
opposite part of its orbit1 or when at  
aphelion2 but1 as the areas of both are 
equal1 it follows that the planet does  
not always maintain the same rate of    
speed1 and that its velocity is greatest
 when nearest the ,sun1 and least when  
most distant from him4  ,by the         
application of his first and second laws
 ,kepler was able to formulate a third  
law4 ,he found that there existed a     
remarkable relationship between the mean
 distances of the planets and the times 
in which they complete their revolutions
 round the ,sun1 and discovered 'that   
the squares of the periodic times are to
 each in the same proportion as the     
cubes of the mean distances4' ,the      
periodic time of a planet having been   
ascertained1 the square of the mean     
distance and the mean distance itself   

can be obtained4 ,it is by the          
application of this law that the        
distances of the planets are usually    
calculated4  ,these discoveries are     
known as ,kepler's ,laws1 and are       
usually classified as follows3--  #a4   
',the orbit described by every planet is
 an ellipse1 of which the centre of the 
,sun occupies one of the foci4  #b4     
',every planet moves round the ,sun in a
 plane orbit1 and the radius-vector1 or 
imaginary line joining the centre of the
 planet and the centre of the ,sun1     
describes equal areas in equal times4   
#c4 ',the squares of the periodic times 
of any two planets are proportional to  
the cubes of their mean distances from  
the ,sun4'#a  ,these remarkable         
discoveries do not embrace all the      
achievements by which ,kepler has       
immortalised his name1 and earned for   
himself the proud title of ',legislator 
of the ,heavens2' he predicted transits 
of ,mercury and ,venus1 made important  
discoveries in optics1 and was the      

inventor of the astronomical telescope4 
,,galileo ,,galilei1 the famous ,italian
 astronomer and philosopher1 and the    
contemporary of ,kepler and of ,milton1 
was born at ,pisa on ,february #ae1     
#aefd4  ,his father1 who traced his     
descent from an ancient ,florentine     
family1 was desirous that his son should
 adopt the profession of medicine1 and  
with this intention he entered him as a 
student at the ,university of ,pisa4    
,galileo1 however1 soon discovered that 
the study of mathematics and mechanical 
science possessed a greater attraction  
for his mind1 and1 following his        
inclinations1 he resolved to devote his 
energies to acquiring proficiency in    
those subjects4  ,in #aehc his attention
 was attracted by the oscillation of a  
brass lamp suspended from the ceiling of
 the cathedral at ,pisa4 ,galileo was   
impressed with the regularity of its    
motion as it swung backwards and        
forwards1 and was led to imagine that   
the pendulum movement might prove a     

valuable method for the correct         
measurement of time4 ,the practical     
application of this idea he afterwards  
adopted in the construction of an       
astronomical clock4  ,having become     
proficient in mathematics1 ,galileo1    
whilst engaged in studying the writings 
of ,archimedes1 wrote an essay on ',the 
,hydrostatic ,balance1' and composed a  
treatise on ',the ,centre of ,gravity in
 ,solid ,bodies4' ,the reputation which 
he earned by these contributions to     
science procured for him the appointment
 of ,lecturer on ,mathematics at the    
,university of ,pisa4 ,galileo next     
directed his attention to the works of  
,aristotle1 and made no attempt to      
conceal the disfavour with which he     
regarded many of the doctrines taught by
 the ,greek philosopher2 nor had he any 
difficulty in exposing their            
inaccuracies4 ,one of these1 which      
maintained that the heavier of two      
bodies descended to the earth with the  
greater rapidity1 he proved to be       

incorrect1 and demonstrated by          
experiment from the top of the tower at 
,pisa that1 except for the unequal      
resistance of the air1 all bodies fell  
to the ground with the same velocity4   
,as the chief expounder of the new      
philosophy1 ,galileo had to encounter   
the prejudices of the followers of      
,aristotle1 and of all those who        
disliked any innovation or change in the
 established order of things4 ,the      
antagonism which existed between        
,galileo and his opponents1 who were    
both numerous and influential1 was      
intensified by the bitterness and       
sarcasm which he imparted into his      
controversies1 and the attitude assumed 
by his enemies at last became so        
threatening that he deemed it prudent to
 resign the ,chair of ,mathematics in   
the ,university of ,pisa4  ,in the      
following year he was appointed to a    
similar post at ,padua1 where his fame  
attracted crowds of pupils from all     
parts of ,europe4  ,in #afaa ,galileo   

visited ,rome4 ,he was received with    
much distinction by the different       
learned societies1 and was enrolled a   
member of the ,lyncaean ,academy4 ,in   
two years after his visit to the capital
 he published a work in which he        
declared his adhesion to the ,copernican
 theory1 and openly avowed his disbelief
 in the astronomical facts recorded in  
the ,scriptures4 ,galileo maintained    
that the sacred writings were not       
intended for the purpose of imparting   
scientific information1 and that it was 
impossible for men to ignore phenomena  
witnessed with their eyes1 or disregard 
conclusions arrived at by the exercise  
of their reasoning powers4  ,the        
champions of orthodoxy having become    
alarmed1 an appeal was made to the      
ecclesiastical authorities to assist in 
suppressing this recent astronomical    
heresy1 and other obnoxious doctrines1  
the authorship of which was ascribed to 
,galileo4  ,in #afae1 ,galileo was      
summoned before the ,inquisition to     

reply to the accusation of heresy4 ',he 
was charged with maintaining the motion 
of the ,earth and the stability of the  
,sun2 with teaching this doctrine to his
 pupils2 with corresponding on the      
subject with several ,german            
mathematicians2 and with having         
published it1 and attempted to reconcile
 it to ,scripture in his letters to     
,mark ,velser in #afab4'  ,these charges
 having been formally investigated by   
the ,inquisition1 ,cardinal ,bellarmine 
was authorised to communicate with      
,galileo1 and inform him that unless he 
renounced the obnoxious doctrines1 and  
promised 'neither to teach1 defend1 or  
publish them in future1' it was decreed 
that he should be committed to prison4  
,galileo appeared next day before the   
,cardinal1 and1 without any hesitation1 
pledged himself that for the future he  
would adhere to the pronouncement of the
 ,inquisition4  ,having1 as they        
imagined1 silenced ,galileo1 the        
,inquisition resolved to condemn the    

entire ,copernican system as heretical2 
and in order to effectually accomplish  
this1 besides condemning the writings of
 ,galileo1 they inhibited ,kepler's     
',epitome of the ,copernican ,system1'  
and ,copernicus's own work1 ',de        
,revolutionibus ,orbium ,celestium4'    
,whether it was that ,galileo regarded  
the ,inquisition as a body whose decrees
 were too absurd and unreasonable to be 
heeded1 or that he dreaded the          
consequences which might have followed  
had he remained obstinate1 we know that1
 notwithstanding the pledges which he   
gave1 he was soon afterwards engaged in 
controversial discussion on those       
subjects which he promised not to       
mention again4  ,on the accession of his
 friend ,cardinal ,barberini to the     
pontifical throne in #afbc1 under the   
title of ,urban ,,viii41 ,galileo       
undertook a journey to ,rome to offer   
him his congratulations upon his        
elevation to the papal chair4 ,he was   
received by his ,holiness with marked   

attention and kindness1 was granted     
several prolonged audiences1 and had    
conferred upon him several valuable     
gifts4  ,notwithstanding the kindness of
 ,pope ,urban and the leniency with     
which he was treated by the             
,inquisition1 ,galileo1 having ignored  
his pledge1 published in #afcb a book1  
in dialogue form1 in which three persons
 were supposed to express their         
scientific opinions4 ,the first upheld  
the ,copernican theory and the more     
recent philosophical views2 the second  
person adopted a neutral position1      
suggested doubts1 and made remarks of an
 amusing nature2 the third individual1  
called ,simplicio1 was a believer in    
,ptolemy and ,aristotle1 and based his  
arguments upon the philosophy of the    
ancients4  ,as soon as this work became 
publicly known1 the enemies of ,galileo 
persuaded the ,pope that the third      
person held up to ridicule was intended 
as a representation of himself--an      
individual regardless of scientific     

truth1 and firmly attached to the ideas 
and opinions associated with the        
writings of antiquity4  ,almost         
immediately after the publication of the
 ',dialogues' ,galileo was summoned     
before the ,inquisition1 and1           
notwithstanding his feeble health and   
the infirmities of advanced age1 he was1
 after a long and tedious trial1        
condemned to abjure by oath on his knees
 his scientific beliefs4  ',the ceremony
 of ,galileo's abjuration was one of    
exciting interest and of awful          
formality4 ,clothed in the sackcloth of 
a repentant criminal1 the venerable sage
 fell upon his knees before the         
assembled cardinals1 and1 laying his    
hand upon the ,holy ,evangelists1 he    
invoked the ,divine aid in abjuring1 and
 detesting1 and vowing never again to   
teach the doctrines of the ,earth's     
motion and of the ,sun's stability4 ,he 
pledged himself that he would nevermore1
 either in words or in writing1         
propagate such heresies2 and he swore   

that he would fulfil and observe the    
penances which had been inflicted upon  
him4' ',at the conclusion of this       
ceremony1 in which he recited his       
abjuration word for word and then signed
 it1 he was conveyed1 in conformity with
 his sentence1 to the prison of the     
,inquisition4'#b  ,galileo's sarcasm1   
and the bitterness which he imparted    
into his controversies1 were more the   
cause of his misfortunes than his       
scientific beliefs4 ,when he became     
involved in difficulties he did not     
possess the moral courage to enable him 
to abide by the consequences of his     
acts2 nor did he care to become a martyr
 for the sake of science1 his submission
 to the ,inquisition having probably    
saved him from a fate similar to what   
befell ,bruno4 ,though it would be      
impossible to justify ,galileo's want of
 faith in his dealings with the         
,inquisition1 yet one cannot help       
sympathising deeply with the aged       
philosopher1 who1 in this painful       

episode of his life1 was compelled to go
 through the form of making a           
retractation of his beliefs under       
circumstances of a most humiliating     
nature4  ,but the persecution of        
,galileo did not delay the progress of  
scientific inquiry nor retard the       
advancement of the ,copernican theory1  
which1 after the discovery by ,newton of
 the law of gravitation1 was universally
 adopted as the true theory of the solar
 system4  ,ferdinand1 ,duke of ,tuscany1
 having exerted his influence with ,pope
 ,urban on behalf of ,galileo1 he was1  
after a few days' incarceration1        
released from prison1 and permission was
 given him to reside at ,siena1 where he
 remained for six months4 ,he was       
afterwards allowed to return to his     
villa at ,arcetri1 and1 though regarded 
as a prisoner of the ,inquisition1 was  
permitted to pursue his studies         
unmolested for the remainder of his     
days4  ,galileo died at ,arcetri on     
,january #h1 #afdb1 when in the         

seventy-eighth year of his age4  ,though
 not the inventor1 he was the first to  
construct a refracting telescope and    
apply it to astronomical research4 ,with
 this instrument he made a number of    
important discoveries which tended to   
confirm his belief in the truthfulness  
of the ,copernican theory4  ,on         
directing his telescope to the ,sun1 he 
discovered movable spots on his disc1   
and concluded from his observation of   
them that the orb rotated on his axis in
 about twenty-eight days4 ,he also      
ascertained that the ,moon's            
illumination is due to reflected        
sunlight1 and that her surface is       
diversified by mountains1 valleys1 and  
plains4  ,on the night of ,january #g1  
#afaj1 ,galileo discovered the four     
moons of ,jupiter4 ,this discovery may  
be regarded as one of his most brilliant
 achievements with the telescope2 and1  
notwithstanding the improvement in      
construction and size of modern         
instruments1 no other satellite was     

discovered until near midnight on       
,september #i1 #ahib1 when ,mr4 ,e4 ,e4 
,barnard1 with the splendid telescope of
 the ,lick ,observatory1 added 'another 
gem to the diadem of ,jupiter4'  ,the   
phases of ,venus and ,mars1 the triple  
form of ,saturn1 and the constitution of
 the ,milky ,way1 which he found to     
consist of a countless multitude of     
stars1 were additional discoveries for  
our knowledge of which we are indebted  
to ,galileo and his telescope4 ,galileo 
made many other important discoveries in
 mechanical and physical science4 ,he   
detected the law of falling bodies in   
their accelerated motion towards the    
,earth1 determined the parabolic law of 
projectiles1 and demonstrated that      
matter1 even if invisible1 possessed the
 property of weight4  ,in these pages a 
short historical description is given of
 the progress made in astronomical      
science from an early period to the time
 in which ,milton lived4 ,the           
discoveries of ,copernicus1 ,kepler1 and

 ,galileo had raised it to a position of
 lofty eminence1 though the law of      
gravitation1 which accounts for the form
 and permanency of the planetary orbits1
 still remained undiscovered4 ,theories 
formerly obscure or conjectural were    
either rejected or elucidated with      
accuracy and precision1 and the solar   
system1 having the ,sun as its centre1  
with his attendant family of planets and
 their satellites revolving in majestic 
orbits around him1 presented an         
impressive spectacle of order1 harmony1 
and design4     ,,chapter ,,ii          
,,astronomy ,,in ,,the ,,seventeenth    
,,century   ,the seventeenth century    
embraces the most remarkable epoch in   
the whole history of astronomy4 ,it was 
during this period that those wonderful 
discoveries were made which have been   
the means of raising astronomy to the   
lofty position which it now occupies    
among the sciences4 ,the unrivalled     
genius and patient labours of the       
illustrious men whose names stand out in

 such prominence on the written pages of
 the history of this era have rendered  
it one of the most interesting and      
elevating of studies4 ,though           
,copernicus lived in the preceding      
century1 yet the names of ,tycho ,brahe1
 ,kepler1 ,galileo1 and ,newton1 testify
 to the greatness of the discoveries    
that were made during this period1 which
 have surrounded the memories of those  
men with a lustre of undying fame4      
,foremost among astronomers of less     
conspicuous eminence who made important 
discoveries in this century we find the 
name of ,huygens4  ,,christian ,,huygens
 was born at ,the ,hague in #afbi4 ,he  
was the second son of ,constantine      
,huygens1 an eminent diplomatist1 and   
secretary to the ,prince of ,orange4    
,huygens studied at ,leyden and ,breda1 
and became highly distinguished as a    
geometrician and scientist4 ,he made    
important investigations relative to the
 figure of the ,earth1 and wrote a      
learned treatise on the cause of        

gravity2 he also determined with greater
 accuracy investigations made by        
,galileo regarding the accelerated      
motion of bodies when subjected to the  
influence of that force4  ,huygens      
admitted that the planets and their     
satellites attracted each other with a  
force varying according to the inverse  
ratio of the squares of their distances1
 but rejected the mutual attraction of  
the molecules of matter1 believing that 
they possessed gravity towards a central
 point only1 to which they were         
attracted4 ,this supposition was at     
variance with the ,newtonian theory1    
which1 however1 was universally regarded
 as the correct one4  ,huygens          
originated the theory by which it is    
believed that light is produced by the  
undulatory vibration of the ether2 he   
also discovered polarization4  ,up to   
this time the method adopted in the     
construction of clocks was not capable  
of producing a mechanism which measured 
time with sufficient accuracy to satisfy

 the requirements of astronomers4       
,huygens endeavoured to supply this     
want1 and applied his mechanical        
ingenuity in constructing a clock that  
could be relied upon to keep accurate   
time4 ,though the pendulum motion was   
first adopted by ,galileo1 he was unable
 to arrange its mechanism so that it    
should keep up a continuous movement4   
,the oscillation of the pendulum ceased 
after a time1 and a fresh impulse had to
 be applied to set it in motion4        
,consequently1 ,galileo's clock was of  
no service as a timekeeper4  ,huygens   
overcame this difficulty by so arranging
 the mechanism of his clock that the    
balance1 instead of being horizontal1   
was directed perpendicularly1 and       
prolonged downwards to form a pendulum1 
the oscillations of which regulated the 
downward motion of the weight4 ,this    
invention1 which was highly applauded1  
proved to be of great service           
everywhere1 and was especially valuable 
for astronomical purposes4  ,huygens    

next directed his attention to the      
construction of telescopes1 and         
displayed much skill in the grinding and
 polishing of lenses4 ,he made several  
instruments superior in power and       
accuracy to any that existed previously1
 and with one of these made some        
remarkable discoveries when observing   
the planet ,saturn4  ,the telescopic    
appearance of ,saturn is one of the most
 beautiful in the heavens4 ,the planet1 
surrounded by two brilliant rings1 and  
accompanied by eight attendant moons1   
surpasses all the other orbs of the     
firmament as an object of interest and  
admiration4 ,to the naked eye1 ,saturn  
is visible as a star of the first       
magnitude1 and was known to the ancients
 as the most remote of the planets4     
,travelling in space at a distance of   
nearly one thousand millions of miles   
from the ,sun1 the planet accomplishes a
 revolution of its mighty orbit in      
twenty-nine and a half years4  ,galileo 
was the first astronomer who directed a 

telescope to ,saturn4 ,he observed that 
the planet presented a triform          
appearance1 and that on each side of the
 central globe there were two objects1  
in close contact with it1 which caused  
it to assume an ovoid shape4 ,after     
further observation1 ,galileo perceived 
that the lateral bodies gradually       
decreased in size1 until they became    
invisible4 ,at the expiration of a      
certain period of time they reappeared1 
and were observed to go through a       
certain cycle of changes4 ,by the       
application of increased telescopic     
power it was discovered that the        
appendages were not of a rounded form1  
but appeared as two small crescents1    
having their concave surfaces directed  
towards the planet and their extremities
 in contact with it1 resembling the     
manner in which the handles are attached
 to a cup4  ,these objects were observed
 to go through a series of periodic     
changes4 ,after having become invisible1
 they reappeared as two luminous        

straight bands1 projecting from each    
side of the planet2 during the next     
seven or eight years they gradually     
opened out1 and assumed a crescentic    
form2 they afterwards began to contract1
 and on the expiration of a similar     
period1 during which time they gradually
 decreased in size1 they again became   
invisible4 ,it was perceived that the   
appendages completed a cycle of their   
changes in about fifteen years4  ,in    
#afef1 ,huygens1 with a telescope       
constructed by himself1 was enabled to  
solve the enigma which for so many years
 baffled the efforts of the ablest      
astronomers4 ,he announced his discovery
 in the form of a ,latin cryptograph    
which1 when deciphered1 read as         
follows3--  ',annulo cingitur1 tenui    
plano1 nusquam cohaerente1 ad eclipticam
 inclinatio4'  ',the planet is          
surrounded by a slender flat ring       
everywhere distinct from its surface1   
and inclined to the ecliptic4'  ,huygens
 perceived the shadow of the ring thrown

 on the planet1 and was able to account 
in a satisfactory manner for all the    
phenomena observed in connection with   
its variable appearance4  ,the true form
 of the ring is circular1 but by us it  
is seen foreshortened2 consequently1    
when the ,earth is above or below its   
plane1 it appears of an elliptical      
shape4 ,when the position of the planet 
is such that the plane of the ring      
passes through the ,sun1 the edge of the
 ring only is illumined1 and then it    
becomes invisible for a short period4   
,in the same manner1 when the plane of  
the ring passes through the ,earth1 the 
illumined edge of the ring is not of    
sufficient magnitude to appear visible1 
but as the enlightened side of the plane
 becomes more inclined towards the      
,earth1 the ring comes again into view4 
,when the plane of the ring passes      
between the ,earth and the ,sun1 the    
unillumined side of the ring is turned  
towards the ,earth1 and during the time 
it remains in this position it is       

invisible4  ,huygens discovered the     
sixth satellite of ,saturn 7,titan71 and
 also the ,great ,nebula in ,orion4     
,,johann ,,hevelius1 a celebrated       
,prussian astronomer1 was born at       
,dantzig in #afaa1 and died in that city
 in #afhg4 ,he was a man of wealth1 and 
erected an observatory at his residence1
 where1 for a period of forty years1 he 
carried out a series of astronomical    
observations4  ,he constructed a chart  
of the stars1 and in order to complete  
his work1 formed nine new constellations
 in those spaces in the celestial vault 
which were previously un-named4 ,they   
are known by the names ,camelopardus1   
,canes ,venatici1 ,coma ,bernices1      
,lacerta1 ,leo ,minor1 ,lynx1           
,monoceros1 ,sextans1 and ,vulpecula4   
,he also executed a chart of the ,moon's
 surface1 wrote a description of the    
lunar spots1 and discovered the         
,libration of the ,moon in ,longitude4  
,on ,may #cj1 #affa1 ,hevelius observed 
a transit of ,mercury1 a description of 

which he published1 and included with it
 ,horrox's treatise on the              
first-recorded transit of ,venus4 ,this 
work1 after having passed through       
several hands1 became the property of   
,hevelius1 who was capable of           
appreciating its merits4 ,the manuscript
 was sent to him by ,huygens1 and in    
acknowledging it he writes3 ',how       
greatly does my ,mercury exult in the   
joyous prospect that he may shortly fold
 within his arms ,horrox's long         
looked-for and beloved ,venus6 ,he      
renders you unfeigned thanks that by    
your permission this much-desired union 
is about to be celebrated1 and that the 
writer is able1 with your concurrence1  
to introduce them both together to the  
public4'  ,hevelius made numerous       
researches on comets1 and suggested that
 the form of their paths might be a     
parabola4  ,,giovanni ,,domenico        
,,cassini was born at ,perinaldo1 near  
,nice1 in #afbe4 ,he studied at ,genoa  
and ,bologna1 and was afterwards        

appointed to the ,chair of ,astronomy at
 the latter ,university4 ,he was a man  
of high scientific attainments1 and made
 many important astronomical            
discoveries4  ,in #afga he became       
,director of the ,royal ,observatory at 
,paris1 and devoted a long life to      
trying and difficult observations1 which
 in his later years deprived him of his 
eyesight4  ,in #afdd ,cassini proved    
beyond doubt that ,jupiter rotated on   
his axis1 and also assigned his period  
of rotation with considerable accuracy4 
,he published tables of the planet's    
satellites1 and determined their motions
 from observations of their eclipses4   
,he ascertained the periods of rotation 
of ,venus and ,mars2 executed a chart of
 the lunar surface1 and observed an     
occultation of ,jupiter by the ,moon4   
,cassini discovered the dual nature of  
,saturn's ring1 having perceived that   
instead of one there are two concentric 
rings separated by a dark space4 ,he    
also discovered four of the planet's    

satellites--viz4 ,japetus1 ,rhea1       
,dione1 and ,tethys4 ,he made a near    
approximation to the solar parallax by  
means of researches on the parallax of  
,mars1 and investigated some            
irregularities of the ,moon's motion4   
,cassini discovered the belts of        
,jupiter1 and also the ,zodiacal ,light1
 and established the coincidence of the 
nodes of the lunar equator and orbit4   
,,jaques ,,cassini1 son of ,giovanni1   
was born at ,paris in #afgg4 ,he        
followed in his father's footsteps1 and 
wrote several treatises on astronomical 
subjects4 ,he investigated the period of
 the rotation of ,venus on her axis1 and
 upheld the results arrived at by his   
father1 which were afterwards confirmed 
by observations made by ,schroeter4     
,cassini made some valuable researches  
with regard to the proper motion of the 
stars1 and demonstrated that their      
change of position on the celestial     
vault was real1 and not caused by a     
displacement of the ecliptic4 ,he       

attempted to ascertain the apparent     
diameter of ,sirius1 and made           
observations with regard to the         
visibility of the stars4 ,the ,cassini  
family produced several generations of  
eminent astronomers1 whose discoveries  
and investigations were of much value in
 advancing the science of astronomy4    
,,olaus ,,roemer1 an eminent ,danish    
astronomer1 was born at ,copenhagen     
,september #be1 #afdd4 ,when ,picard1 a 
,french astronomer1 visited ,denmark in 
#afga1 for the purpose of ascertaining  
the exact position of ',uranienburg1'   
the site of ,tycho ,brahe's observatory1
 he made the acquaintance of ,roemer1   
who was engaged in studying mathematics 
and astronomy under ,erasmus            
,bartolinus4 ,having perceived that the 
young man was gifted with no ordinary   
degree of talent1 he secured his        
services to assist him in his           
observations1 and1 on the conclusion of 
his labours1 ,picard was so much        
impressed with the ability displayed by 

,roemer1 that he invited him to         
accompany him to ,france4 ,this         
invitation he accepted1 and took up his 
residence in the ,french capital1 where 
he continued to prosecute his           
astronomical studies4  ,in #afge ,roemer
 communicated to the ,academy of        
,sciences a paper1 in which he announced
 his discovery of the progressive       
transmission of light4 ,it was believed 
that light travelled instantaneously1   
but ,roemer was able to demonstrate the 
inaccuracy of this conclusion1 and      
determined that light travels through   
space with a measurable velocity4  ,by  
diligently observing the eclipses of    
,jupiter's satellites1 ,roemer perceived
 that sometimes they occurred before1   
and sometimes after their predicted     
times4 ,this irregularity1 he           
discovered1 depended upon the position  
of the ,earth with regard to ,jupiter4  
,when the ,earth1 in traversing her     
orbit1 moved round to the opposite side 
of the ,sun1 thereby bringing ,jupiter  

into conjunction1 an eclipse occurred   
sixteen minutes twenty-six seconds later
 than it did when ,jupiter was in       
opposition or nearest to the ,earth4 ,as
 there existed an impression that light 
travelled instantaneously1 it was       
believed that an eclipse occurred at the
 moment it was perceived in the         
telescope4 ,this1 however1 was not so4  
,roemer1 after a long series of         
observations1 concluded that the        
discrepancies were due to the fact that 
light travels with a measurable         
velocity1 and that it requires a greater
 length of time1 upwards of sixteen     
minutes1 to traverse the additional     
distance--the diameter of the ,earth's  
orbit--which intervenes between the     
,earth and ,jupiter1 when the planet is 
in conjunction1 as compared with the    
distance between the ,earth and         
,jupiter1 when the latter is in         
opposition4 ,this discovery of ,roemer's
 was the means of enabling the velocity 
of light to be ascertained1 which1      

according to recent calculations1 is    
about #ahg1jjj miles a second4 ,as an   
acknowledgment of the importance of his 
communication1 ,roemer was awarded a    
seat in the ,academy1 and apartments    
were assigned to him at the ,royal      
,observatory1 where he carried on his   
astronomical studies4  ,in #afha ,roemer
 returned to ,denmark1 and was appointed
 ,professor of ,mathematics in the      
,university of ,copenhagen2 he was also 
entrusted with the care of the city     
observatory--a duty which his reputation
 as an astronomer eminently qualified   
him to undertake4 ,the transit          
instrument--a mechanism of much         
importance to astronomers--was invented 
by ,roemer in #afij2 it consists of a   
telescope fixed to a horizontal axis1   
and adjusted so as to revolve in the    
plane of the meridian4 ,it is employed  
in observing the passage of the heavenly
 bodies across the observer's meridian4 
,to note accurately by means of the     
astronomical clock the exact instant of 

time at which a celestial body crosses  
the centre of the field of view is the  
essential part of a transit observation4
 ,small transit instruments are employed
 for taking the time and for regulating 
the observatory clock1 but large        
instruments are used for delicate and   
exact observations of ,right ,ascensions
 and ,declinations of stars of different
 magnitudes4 ,meridian1 and altitude and
 azimuth circles1 are important         
astronomical appliances1 which owe their
 existence to the inventive skill of    
this distinguished astronomer4  ,roemer 
resided for many years at the           
observatory in the city of ,copenhagen1 
where he pursued his astronomical       
studies until the time of his death1    
which occurred in #agaj4 ,he            
meritoriously attempted to determine the
 parallax of the fixed stars2 and it is 
said that the astronomical calculations 
and observations which he left behind   
him were so voluminous as to equal in   
number those made by ,tycho ,brahe1     

nearly all of which perished in a great 
conflagration that destroyed the        
observatory and a large portion of the  
city of ,copenhagen in #agbh4  ,among   
other astronomers of this century whose 
names deserve recording were ,descartes 
and ,gassendi1 whose mathematical       
researches in their application to      
astronomy were of much value2           
,fabricius1 ,torricelli1 and ,maraldi1  
who by their observations and           
investigations added many facts to the  
general knowledge of the science2 and   
,bayer1 to whom belongs the distinction 
of having constructed the first         
star-atlas4  ,in our own country during 
this period astronomy was cultivated by 
a few enthusiastic men1 who devoted     
their time and talents to promoting the 
advancement of the science4 ,it1        
however1 received no recognition as a   
subject of study at any of the          
,universities1 and no public observatory
 existed in ,great ,britain4  ,though it
 was not until towards the close of the 

century that the attention of all       
,europe was directed to ,england in     
admiration of the discoveries of the    
illustrious ,newton1 yet astronomy had  
its humble votaries1 and chief among    
those was a young clergyman of the name 
of ,horrox4  ,,jeremiah ,,horrox was    
born at ,toxteth1 near ,liverpool1 in   
#afai--;close on three centuries ago4   
,little is known of his family4 ,his    
parents have been described as persons  
who occupied a humble position in life1 
but1 as they were able to give their son
 a classical education which fitted him 
for one of the learned professions1 it  
is probable they were not so obscure as 
they have been represented to be4       
,having received his early education at 
,toxteth1 ,horrox afterwards proceeded  
to ,cambridge1 and was entered as a     
student at ,emmanuel ,college on ,may   
#ah1 #afcb1 when in his fourteenth year4
  ,at the ,university he devoted himself
 to the study of classics1 especially   
,latin1 which in those days was the     

language adopted by men of learning1    
when engaged in writing works of a      
philosophical and scientific character4 
,after having remained at ,cambridge for
 three years1 ,horrox returned to his   
native county1 and was appointed curate 
of ,hoole1 a place about eight miles    
distant from ,preston4 ,hoole is        
described as a narrow low-lying strip of
 land consisting largely of moss1 and   
almost converted into an island by the  
waters of ,martin ,mere on the south1   
and the ,ribble on the north2 and1      
though doubtless an open and favourable 
situation for astronomical observation1 
it could not have been attractive as a  
place of residence4 ,yet it was here on 
,november #bd1 #afci1 that ,horrox made 
his famous observation of the first     
recorded transit of ,venus1 an          
occurrence with which his name will be  
for ever associated4  ,it was while at  
,cambridge that ,horrox first turned his
 attention to the study of astronomy4   
,his love of the sublime1 and the       

captivating influence exerted on his    
mind by the contemplation of the        
heavenly bodies1 induced him to adopt   
astronomy as a pursuit congenial to his 
tastes1 and capable of exercising his   
highest mental powers4 ,having this     
object in view1 he applied himself with 
much earnestness to the study of        
mathematics2 he had1 however1 to rely   
mainly upon his own exertions1 for at   
that time no branch of physical or      
mathematical science was taught at      
,cambridge1 and consequently he obtained
 no professional instruction4  ,it was  
so also with astronomy1 which1 as a     
science1 was scarcely known in this     
country2 no regular record of           
astronomical observations was kept by   
any individual observer1 and no public  
observatory existed in ,england or in   
,france4  ,the disadvantages and        
obstacles which ,horrox had to encounter
 may be best described by quoting his   
own words4 ,he writes3 ',there were many
 hindrances4 ,the abstruse nature of the

 study1 my inexperience and want of     
means dispirited me4 ,i was much pained 
not to have any one to whom ,i could    
look for guidance1 or indeed for the    
sympathy of companionship in my         
endeavours1 and ,i was assailed by the  
languor and weariness which are         
inseparable from every great            
undertaking4 ,what then was to be done8 
,i could not make the pursuit an easy   
one1 much less increase my fortune1 and 
least of all imbue others with a love   
for astronomy2 and yet to complain of   
philosophy on account of its            
difficulties would be foolish and       
unworthy4 ,i determined1 therefore1 that
 the tediousness of study should be     
overcome by industry2 my                
poverty--failing a better method--by    
patience2 and that instead of a master  
,i would use astronomical books4 ,armed 
with these weapons ,i would contend     
successfully2 and1 having heard of      
others acquiring knowledge without      
greater help1 ,i would blush that any   

one should be able to do more than ,i1  
always remembering that word of         
,virgil's--      ,totidem nobis         
animaeque manusque4  ,having heard much 
praise bestowed upon the works of       
,lansberg1 a ,flemish astronomer1       
,horrox thought it would be to his      
advantage to procure a copy of his      
writings4 ,this he succeeded in         
obtaining after some difficulty1 and    
devoted a considerable time to          
calculating ,ephemerides1 based upon the
 ,lansberg ,tables1 but after making a  
number of computations he discovered    
that they were unreliable and           
inaccurate4  ,in the year #afcf ,horrox 
made the acquaintance of ,william       
,crabtree1 a devoted astronomer1 who    
lived at ,broughton1 a suburb of        
,manchester4 ,a close friendship soon   
existed between the two men1 and they   
carried on an active correspondence     
about matters relating to the science   
which they both loved so well4          
,crabtree1 who was an unbeliever in     

,lansberg1 urged ,horrox to discard the 
,flemish astronomer's works1 and devote 
his talents to the study of ,tycho      
,brahe and ,kepler4 ,this advice led    
,horrox to make a more rigorous         
examination of the ,lansberg ,tables1   
and after comparing them with the       
observations made by ,crabtree1 which   
coincided with his own1 he resolved to  
renounce them4 ,acting on the advice of 
his friend1 ,horrox directed his        
attention to the writings of ,kepler4   
,the youthful astronomer soon realised  
their value1 and was charmed with the   
accuracy of observation and inductive   
reasoning displayed in the elucidation  
of those general laws which constituted 
a new era in the history of astronomy4  
,the ,rudolphine ,tables1 which were the
 astronomical calculations commenced by 
,tycho ,brahe1 and completed by ,kepler1
 were regarded by ,horrox as much       
superior to those of ,lansberg2 but it  
occurred to him that they might be      
improved by changing some of the        

numbers1 and yet retaining the          
hypotheses4 ,to this task he applied    
himself with much earnestness and       
assiduity1 and after close application  
and laborious study he accomplished the 
arduous undertaking of bringing those   
tables to a high state of perfection4   
,in his investigation of the ,lunar     
theory1 ,horrox outstripped all his     
predecessors1 and ,sir ,isaac ,newton   
distinctly affirms he was the first to  
discover that the ,moon's motion round  
the ,earth is in the form of an ellipse 
with the centre in the lower focus4     
,besides having made this discovery1    
,horrox was able to explain the causes  
of the inequalities of the ,moon's      
motion1 which render the exact          
computation of her elements so          
difficult4  ,the ,annual ,equation1 an  
irregularity discovered by ,tycho       
,brahe1 which is produced by the        
increase and decrease of the ,sun's     
disturbing force as the ,earth          
approaches or recedes from him in her   

orbit1 had its value first assigned by  
,horrox4 ,this he calculated to be      
eleven minutes sixteen seconds1 which is
 within four seconds of what it has     
since been proved to be by the most     
recent observations4  ,the ,evection1 an
 irregular motion of the ,moon          
discovered by ,ptolemy1 whereby her mean
 longitude is increased or diminished1  
was explained by ,horrox as depending   
upon the libratory motion of the        
apsides1 and the change which takes     
place in the eccentricity of the lunar  
orbit4  ,these discoveries were made by 
,horrox before he attained the age of   
twenty years1 and if his reputation had 
alone rested upon them his name would   
have been honourably associated with    
those who have attained to the highest  
eminence in astronomy4  ,another        
achievement which adds lustre to        
,horrox's name consists in his detection
 of the inequality in the mean motions  
of ,jupiter and ,saturn4  ,he also      
directed his attention to the study of  

cometary bodies1 and arrived at certain 
conclusions with regard to the nature of
 their movements4 ,at first1 he believed
 like ,kepler that comets were projected
 in straight lines from the ,sun2 this  
supposition having been upheld on       
account of the great elongation of their
 orbits4 ,he next perceived that their  
velocity increased as they approached   
the ,sun1 and decreased as they receded 
from him4 ,afterwards he says1 ',they   
move in an elliptic figure or near it1' 
and finally he arrived at the conclusion
 that 'comets move in elliptical orbits1
 being carried round the ,sun with a    
velocity which is probably variable4'   
,this theory has been verified by       
numerous observations1 and is now       
generally accepted by astronomers4      
,horrox also made a series of           
observations on the tides4 ,he notified 
the extent of their rise and fall at    
different periods1 and investigated     
other phenomena associated with their   
ebb and flow4 ,after having continued   

his observations for some time1 he wrote
 to his friend ,crabtree1 and informed  
him that he had perceived many          
interesting details which had not been  
previously described1 and he hoped to be
 able to arrive at some important       
conclusions with regard to their nature 
and cause4 ,unfortunately1 ,horrox's    
writings on this subject1 along with    
many other important papers1 have been  
lost or destroyed4 ,we are therefore    
ignorant of the result of his           
researches1 which were the first        
undertaken by any person for the purpose
 of scientific inquiry4  ,from his study
 of the ,lansberg and ,rudolphine       
,tables1 ,horrox arrived at the         
conclusion that a transit of ,venus     
would occur on ,november #bd1 #afci4    
,this transit was for some unaccountable
 reason overlooked by ,kepler1 who      
predicted one in #afca1 and the next not
 until #agfa4 ,the transit of #afca was 
not visible in ,europe4  ,we are        
indebted to ,horrox for a description of

 the transit of #afci--the first that   
was ever observed of which there is any 
record2 and were it not for the accuracy
 of his calculations1 the occurrence of 
the phenomenon would have been          
unperceived1 and no history of the      
conjunction would have been handed down 
to posterity4 ,as soon as ,horrox had   
assured himself of the time when the    
transit would take place1 he wrote to   
,crabtree to inform him of the date1 and
 asked him to make observations with his
 telescope1 and especially to examine   
the diameter of the planet1 which he    
thought had been over-estimated4 ,he    
also requested him to write to ,dr4     
,foster of ,cambridge1 and inform him of
 the expected event1 as it was desirable
 that the transit should be observed    
from several places in consequence of   
the possibility of failure1 owing to an 
overcast sky4 ,his letter is dated      
,october #bf1 #afci4 ,he says3 ',my     
reason for now writing is to advise you 
of a remarkable conjunction of the ,sun 

and ,venus on the #bdth of ,november1   
when there will be a transit4 ,as such a
 thing has not happened for many years  
past1 and will not occur again in this  
century1 ,i earnestly entreat you to    
watch attentively with your telescope in
 order to observe it as well as you can4
  ',notice particularly the diameter of 
,venus1 which is stated by ,kepler to be
 seven minutes1 and by ,lansberg to be  
eleven1 but which ,i believe to be      
scarcely greater than one minute4'  ,in 
describing the method which he adopted  
for observing the transit1 ,horrox      
writes as follows3 ',having attentively 
examined ,venus with my instrument1 ,i  
described on a sheet of paper a circle1 
whose diameter was nearly equal to six  
inches--the narrowness of the apartment 
not permitting me conveniently to use a 
larger size4 ,i divided the             
circumference of this circle into #cfj  
degrees in the usual manner1 and its    
diameter into thirty equal parts1 which 
gives about as many minutes as are      

equivalent to the ,sun's apparent       
diameter4 ,each of these thirty parts   
was again divided into four equal       
portions1 making in all one hundred and 
twenty2 and these1 if necessary1 may be 
more minutely subdivided4 ,the rest ,i  
left to ocular computation1 which1 in   
such small sections1 is quite as certain
 as any mechanical division4 ,suppose1  
then1 each of these thirty parts to be  
divided into sixty seconds1 according to
 the practice of astronomers4 ,when the 
time of the observation approached1 ,i  
retired to my apartment1 and1 having    
closed the windows against the light1 ,i
 directed my telescope--previously      
adjusted to a focus--through the        
aperture towards the ,sun1 and received 
his rays at right angles upon the paper 
already mentioned4 ,the ,sun's image    
exactly filled the circle1 and ,i       
watched carefully and unceasingly for   
any dark body that might enter upon the 
disc of light4  ',although the corrected
 computation of ,venus' motions which ,i

 had before prepared1 and on the        
accuracy of which ,i implicitly relied1 
forbade me to expect anything before    
three o'clock in the afternoon of the   
#bdth1 yet since1 according to the      
calculations of most astronomers1 the   
conjunction should take place sooner--by
 some even on the #bcrd--,i was         
unwilling to depend entirely on my own  
opinion1 which was not sufficiently     
confirmed1 lest by too much             
self-confidence ,i might endanger the   
observation4 ,anxiously intent1         
therefore1 on the undertaking through   
the greater part of the #bcrd1 and on   
the whole of the #bdth1 ,i omitted no   
available opportunity of observing her  
ingress4 ,i watched carefully on the    
#bdth from sunrise to nine o'clock1 and 
from a little before ten until noon1 and
 at one in the afternoon1 being called  
away in the intervals by business of the
 highest importance1 which for these    
ornamental pursuits ,i could not with   
propriety neglect4#c ,but during all    

this time ,i saw nothing in the ,sun    
except a small and common spot1         
consisting as it were of three points at
 a distance from the centre towards the 
left1 which ,i noticed on the preceding 
and following days4 ,this evidently had 
nothing to do with ,venus4 ,about       
fifteen minutes past three in the       
afternoon1 when ,i was again at liberty 
to continue my labours1 the clouds1 as  
if by divine interposition1 were        
entirely dispersed1 and ,i was once more
 invited to the grateful task of        
repeating my observations4 ,i then      
beheld a most agreeable spectacle--the  
object of my sanguine wishes2 a spot of 
unusual magnitude and of a perfectly    
circular shape1 which had already fully 
entered upon the ,sun's disc on the     
left1 so that the limbs of the ,sun and 
,venus precisely coincided1 forming an  
angle of contact4 ,not doubting that    
this was really the shadow of the       
planet1 ,i immediately applied myself   
sedulously to observe it4  ',in the     

first place1 with respect to the        
inclination1 the line of the diameter of
 the circle being perpendicular to the  
horizon1 although its plane was somewhat
 inclined on account of the ,sun's      
altitude1 ,i found that the shadow of   
,venus at the aforesaid hour--namely1   
fifteen minutes past three--had entered 
the ,sun's disc about #fb deg4 #cj'1    
certainly between #fj deg4 and #fe deg41
 from the top towards the right4 ,this  
was the appearance in the dark          
apartment2 therefore1 out of doors1     
beneath the open sky1 according to the  
laws of optics1 the contrary would be   
the case1 and ,venus would be below the 
centre of the ,sun1 distant #fb deg4    
#cj' from the lower limbs or the nadir1 
as the ,arabians term it4 ,the          
inclination remained to all appearances 
the same until sunset1 when the         
observation was concluded4  ',in the    
second place1 the distance between the  
centres of ,venus and the ,sun ,i found 
by three observations to be as          

follows3--            ,the ,hour4       
,distance of the ,centres4              
,at #c4ae by the clock                  
#ad' #bd''   #c4ce                      
#ac' #cj''   #c4de                      
#ac'  #j''   #c4ej the apparent sunset4 
,the true setting being #c4de1 and the  
apparent about #e minutes later1 the    
difference being caused by refraction4  
,the clock therefore was sufficiently   
correct4  ',in the third place ,i found 
after careful and repeated observation  
that the diameter of ,venus1 as her     
shadow was depicted on the paper1 was   
larger indeed than the thirtieth part of
 the solar diameter1 though not more so 
than the sixth1 or at the utmost the    
fifth of such a part4 ,therefore let the
 diameter of the ,sun be to the diameter
 of ,venus as #cj' to #a' #ab''4        
,certainly her diameter never equalled  
#a' #cj''1 scarcely perhaps #a' #bj''1  
and this was evident as well when the   
planet was near the ,sun's limb as when 
far distant from it4  ,illustration3    

,,venus ,,on ,,the ,,sun',s ,,disc4     
',this observation was made in an       
obscure village where ,i have long been 
in the habit of observing1 about fifteen
 miles to the north of ,liverpool1 the  
latitude of which ,i believe to be #ec  
deg4 #bj'1 although by common maps it is
 stated at #ed deg4 #ab'1 therefore the 
latitude of the village will be #ec deg4
 #ce'1 and longitude of both #bb deg4   
#cj' from the ,fortunate ,islands1 now  
called the ,canaries4 ,this is #ad deg4 
#ae' to the west of ,uraniburg in       
,denmark1 the longitude of which is     
stated by ,brahe1 a native of the place1
 to be #cf deg4 #de' from these islands4
  ',this is all ,i could observe        
respecting this celebrated conjunction  
during the short time the ,sun remained 
in the horizon3 for although ,venus     
continued on his disc for several hours1
 she was not visible to me longer than  
half an hour on account of his so       
quickly setting4 ,nevertheless1 all the 
observations which could possibly be    

made in so short a time ,i was enabled  
by ,divine ,providence to complete so   
effectually that ,i could scarcely have 
wished for a more extended period4 ,the 
inclination was the only point upon     
which ,i failed to attain the utmost    
precision2 for1 owing to the rapid      
motion of the ,sun it was difficult to  
observe with certainty to a single      
degree1 and ,i frankly confess that ,i  
neither did nor could ascertain it4 ,but
 all the rest is sufficiently accurate1 
and as exact as ,i could desire4'       
,besides having ascertained that the    
diameter of ,venus subtends an angle not
 much greater than one minute of arc1   
,horrox reduced the horizontal solar    
parallax from fifty-seven seconds as    
stated by ,kepler to fourteen seconds1 a
 calculation within one and a half      
second of the value assigned to it by   
,halley sixty years after4 ,he also     
reduced the ,sun's semi-diameter4       
,crabtree1 to whom ,horrox refers as    
'his most esteemed friend and a person  

who has few superiors in mathematical   
learning1' made preparations to observe 
the transit similar to those already    
described4 ,but the day was             
unfavourable1 dark clouds obscured the  
sky and rendered the ,sun invisible4    
,crabtree was in despair1 and           
relinquished all hope of being able to  
witness the conjunction4 ,however1 just 
before sunset there was a break in the  
clouds1 and the ,sun shone brilliantly  
for a short interval4 ,crabtree at once 
seized his opportunity1 and to his      
intense delight observed the planet     
fully entered upon the ,sun's disc4     
,instead of proceeding to take          
observations1 he was so overcome with   
emotion at the sight of the phenomenon1 
that he continued to gaze upon it with  
rapt attention1 nor did he recover his  
self-possession until the clouds again  
hid from his view the setting ,sun4#d   
,crabtree's observation of the transit  
was1 however1 not a fruitless one4 ,he  
drew from memory a diagram showing the  

exact position of ,venus on the ,sun's  
disc1 which corresponded in every       
respect with ,horrox's observation2 he  
also estimated the diameter of the      
planet to be #g_/bjj that of the ,sun1  
which when calculated gives one minute  
three seconds2 ,horrox having found it  
to be one minute twelve seconds4 ,this  
transit of ,venus is remarkable as      
having been the first ever observed of  
which there is any record1 and for this 
we are indebted to the genius of        
,horrox1 who by a series of             
calculations1 displaying a wonderfully  
accurate knowledge of mathematics1 was  
enabled to predict the occurrence of the
 phenomenon on the very day1 and almost 
at the hour it appeared1 and of which he
 and his friend ,crabtree were the only 
observers4  ,having thought it desirable
 to write an account of the transit1    
,horrox prepared an elegant ,latin      
treatise1 entitled ',venus in ,sole     
,visa'--',venus seen in the ,sun2' but  
not knowing what steps to take with     

regard to its publication1 he requested 
,crabtree to communicate with his       
bookseller and obtain his advice on the 
matter4  ,in the meantime ,horrox       
returned to ,toxteth1 and arranged to   
fulfil a long-promised visit to         
,crabtree1 which he looked forward to   
with much pleasure1 as it would afford  
him an opportunity of discussing with   
his friend many matters of interest to  
both4 ,this visit was frustrated in a   
manner altogether unexpected4 ,for we   
read that ,horrox was seized with a     
sudden and severe illness1 the nature of
 which is not known1 and that his death 
occurred on the day previous to that of 
his intended visit to his friend at     
,broughton4 ,he expired on ,january #c1 
#afda1 when in the #bcrd year of his    
age4  ,his death was a great grief to   
,crabtree1 who1 in one of his letters1  
describes it as 'an irreparable loss3'  
and it is believed that he only survived
 him a few years4#e ,of the papers left 
by ,horrox1 only a few have been        

preserved1 and these were discovered in 
,crabtree's house after his death4      
,among them was his treatise on the     
transit of ,venus which1 with other     
papers1 was purchased by ,dr4           
,worthington1 ,fellow of ,emmanuel      
,college1 ,cambridge1 a man of learning1
 who was capable of appreciating their  
value4 ,ultimately1 the treatise fell   
into the possession of ,hevelius1 a     
celebrated ,german astronomer1 who      
published it along with a dissertation  
of his own1 describing a transit of     
,mercury4  ,horrox did not live to see  
any of his writings published1 nor was  
any monument erected to his memory until
 nearly two hundred years after his     
death4 ,but his name1 though long       
forgotten except by astronomers1 is now 
engraved on marble in ,westminster      
,abbey4 ,had his life been spared1 it   
would have been difficult to foretell to
 what eminence and fame he might have   
risen1 or what further discoveries his  
genius might have enabled him to make4  

,few among ,english astronomers will    
hesitate to rank him next with the      
illustrious ,newton1 and all will agree 
with ,herschel1 who called him 'the     
pride and the boast of ,british         
,astronomy4'  ,,william ,,gascoigne was 
born in #afab1 in the parish of         
,rothwell1 in the county of ,york1 and  
afterwards resided at ,middleton1 near  
,leeds4  ,he was a man of an inventive  
turn of mind1 and possessed good        
abilities1 which he devoted to improving
 the methods of telescopic observation4 
,at an early age he was occupied in     
observing celestial objects1 making     
researches in optics1 and acquiring a   
proficient knowledge of astronomy4      
,among his acquaintances were ,crabtree 
and ,horrox1 with whom he carried on a  
correspondence on matters appertaining  
to their favourite study4  ,the         
measurement of small angles was found at
 all times to be one of the greatest    
difficulties which astronomers had to   
contend with4 ,tycho ,brahe was so      

misled by his measurements of the       
apparent diameters of the ,sun and      
,moon1 that he concluded a total eclipse
 of the ,sun was impossible4  ,gascoigne
 overcame this difficulty by his        
invention of the micrometer4 ,this      
instrument1 when applied to a telescope1
 was found to be of great service in the
 correct measurement of minute angles   
and distances1 and was the means of     
greatly advancing the progress of       
practical astronomy in the seventeenth  
century4 ,a micrometer consists of a    
short tube1 across the opening of which 
are stretched two parallel wires2 these 
being intersected at right angles by a  
third4 ,the wires are moved to or from  
each other by delicately constructed    
screws1 to which they are attached4     
,each revolution1 or part of a          
revolution1 of a screw indicates the    
distance by which the wires are moved4  
,this apparatus1 when placed in the     
focus of a lens1 gives very accurate    
measurements of the diameters of        

celestial objects4 ,it was successfully 
used by ,gascoigne in determining the   
apparent diameters of the ,sun1 ,moon1  
and several of the planets1 and the     
mutual distances of the stars which form
 the ,pleiades4  ,crabtree1 after having
 paid ,gascoigne a visit in #afci1      
describes in a letter to ,horrox the    
impression created on his mind by the   
micrometer4 ,he writes3 ',the first     
thing ,mr4 ,gascoigne showed me was a   
large telescope1 amplified and adorned  
with new inventions of his own1 whereby 
he can take the diameters of the ,sun or
 ,moon1 or any small angle in the       
heavens or upon the earth1 most exactly 
through the glass to a second4'  ,the   
micrometer is now regarded as an        
indispensable appliance in the          
observatory2 the use of a spider web    
reticule instead of wire having improved
 its efficiency4 ,gascoigne was one of  
the earliest astronomers who recognised 
the value of the ,keplerian telescope   
for observational purposes1 and         

,sherburn affirms that he was the first 
to construct an instrument of this      
description having two convex lenses4   
,whether this be true or not1 it is     
certain that he applied the micrometer  
to the telescope1 and was the first to  
use telescopic sights1 by means of which
 he was able to fix the optical axis of 
his telescope1 and ascertain by         
observation the apparent positions of   
the heavenly bodies4  ,crabtree1 in a   
letter to ,gascoigne1 says3 ',could ,i  
purchase it with travel1 or procure it  
with gold1 ,i would not be without a    
telescope for observing small angles in 
the heavens2 or want the use of your    
device of a glass in a cane upon the    
movable ruler of your sextant1 as ,i    
remember for helping to the exact point 
of the ,sun's rays4'  ,it was not known 
until the beginning of the eighteenth   
century that ,gascoigne had invented and
 used telescopic sights for the purpose 
of making accurate astronomical         
observations4 ,the accidental discovery 

of some documents which contained a     
description of his appliances was the   
means by which this became known4       
,townley states that ,gascoigne had     
completed a treatise on optics1 which   
was ready for publication1 but that no  
trace of the manuscript could be        
discovered after his death4 ,having     
embraced the ,royalist cause1 ,william  
,gascoigne joined the forces of ,charles
 ,i41 and fell in the battle of ,marston
 ,moor on ,july #b1 #afdd4  ,the early  
death of this young and remarkably      
clever man was a severe blow to the     
science of astronomy in ,england4  ,the 
invention of logarithms1 by ,baron      
,napier1 of ,merchistoun1 was found to  
be of inestimable value to astronomers  
in facilitating and abbreviating the    
methods of astronomical calculation4    
,by the use of logarithms1 arithmetical 
computations which necessitated         
laborious application for several months
 could with ease be completed in as many
 days4 ,it was remarked by ,laplace that

 this invention was the means of        
doubling the life of an astronomer1     
besides enabling him to avoid errors and
 the tediousness associated with long   
and abstruse calculations4  ,,thomas    
,,harriot1 an eminent mathematician1 and
 an assiduous astronomer1 made some     
valuable observations of the comet of   
#afjg4 ,he was one of the earliest      
observers who made use of the telescope1
 and it was claimed on his behalf that  
he discovered ,jupiter's satellites1 and
 the spots on the ,sun1 independently of
 ,galileo4 ,other astronomers have been 
desirous of sharing this honour1 but it 
has been conclusively proved that       
,galileo was the first who made those   
discoveries4  ,the investigations of    
,norwood and ,gilbert1 the mechanical   
genius of ,hooke1 and the patient       
researches of ,flamsteed--the first     
,astronomer ,royal--were of much value  
in perfecting many details associated   
with the study of astronomy4  ,the      
,royal ,observatory at ,greenwich was   

founded in #afge4 ,the building was     
erected under a warrant from ,charles   
,,ii4 ,it announces the desire of the   
,sovereign to build a small observatory 
in the park at ,greenwich1 'in order to 
the finding out of the longitude for    
perfecting the art of navigation and    
astronomy4' ,this action on the part of 
the ,king may be regarded as the first  
public acknowledgment of the usefulness 
of astronomy for national purposes4     
,since its erection1 the observatory has
 been presided over by a succession of  
talented men1 who have raised it to a   
position of eminence and usefulness     
unsurpassed by any similar institution  
in this or any other country4 ,the      
well-known names of ,flamsteed1 ,halley1
 ,bradley1 and ,airy1 testify to the    
valuable services rendered by those past
 directors of the ,greenwich            
,observatory in the cause of            
astronomical science4  ,if we take a    
general survey of the science of        
astronomy as it existed from #afjh to   

#afgd--;a period that embraced the time 
in which ,milton lived--we shall find   
that it was still compassed by          
ignorance1 superstition1 and mystery4   
,astrology was zealously cultivated2    
most persons of rank and position had   
their nativity or horoscope cast1 and   
the belief in the ruling of the planets1
 and their influence on human and       
terrestrial affairs1 was through long   
usage firmly established in the public  
mind4 ,indeed1 at this time1 astronomy  
was regarded as a handmaid to astrology2
 for1 with the aid of astronomical      
calculation1 the professors of this     
occult science were enabled to predict  
the positions of the planets1 and by    
this means practised their art with an  
apparent degree of truthfulness4        
,although over one hundred years had    
elapsed since the death of ,copernicus1 
his theory of the solar system did not  
find many supporters1 and the old forms 
of astronomical belief still retained   
their hold on the minds of the majority 

of philosophic thinkers4 ,this can be   
partly accounted for1 as many of the    
,ptolemaic doctrines were at first      
associated with the ,copernican theory1 
nor was it until a later period that    
they were eliminated from the system4   
,though ,copernicus deserved the credit 
of having transferred the centre of our 
system from the ,earth to the ,sun1 yet 
his theory was imperfect in its details1
 and contained many inaccuracies4 ,he   
believed that the planets could only    
move round the ,sun in circular paths1  
nor was he capable of conceiving of any 
other form of orbit in which they could 
perform their revolutions4 ,he was      
therefore compelled to retain the use of
 cycles and epicycles1 in order to      
account for irregularities in the       
uniformly circular motions of those     
bodies4  ,we are indebted to the genius 
of ,kepler for having placed the        
,copernican system upon a sure and      
irremovable basis1 and for having raised
 astronomy to the position of a true    

physical science4 ,by his discovery that
 the planets travel round the ,sun in   
elliptical orbits1 he was enabled to    
abolish cycles and epicycles1 which     
created such confusion and entanglement 
in the system1 and to explain many      
apparent irregularities of motion by    
ascribing to the ,sun his true position 
with regard to the motions of the       
planets4  ,after the death of ,kepler1  
which occurred in #afcj1 the most       
eminent supporter of the ,copernican    
theory was the illustrious ,galileo1    
whose belief in its accuracy and        
truthfulness was confirmed by his own   
discoveries4  ,five of the planets were 
known at this time--viz4 ,mercury1      
,venus1 ,mars1 ,jupiter1 and ,saturn2   
the latter1 which revolves in its orbit 
at a profound distance from the ,sun1   
formed what at that time was believed to
 be the boundary of the planetary       
system4 ,the distance of the ,earth from
 the ,sun was approximately known1 and  
the orb was observed to rotate on his   

axis4  ,it was also ascertained that the
 ,moon shone by reflected light1 and    
that her surface was varied by          
inequalities resembling those of our    
,earth4 ,the elliptical form of her     
orbit had been discovered by ,horrox1   
and her elements were computed with a   
certain degree of accuracy4  ,the cloudy
 luminosity of the ,milky ,way had been 
resolved into a multitude of separate   
stars1 disclosing the immensity of the  
stellar universe4  ,the crescent form of
 the planet ,venus1 the satellites of   
,jupiter and of ,saturn1 and the        
progressive motion and measurement of   
light1 had also been discovered4        
,observations were made of transits of  
,mercury and ,venus1 and refracting and 
reflecting telescopes were invented4    
,the law of universal gravitation1 a    
power which retains the ,earth and      
planets in their orbits1 causing them   
year after year to describe with        
unerring regularity their oval paths    
round the ,sun1 was not known at this   

time4 ,though ,newton was born in #afdb1
 he did not disclose the results of his 
philosophic investigations until        
#afhg--thirteen years after the death of
 ,milton--when1 in the ',principia1' he 
announced his discovery of the great law
 of universal gravitation4  ,kepler1    
though he discovered the laws of        
planetary motion1 was unable to         
determine the motive force which guided 
and retained those bodies in their      
orbits4 ,it was reserved for the genius 
of ,newton to solve this wonderful      
problem4 ,this great philosopher was    
able to prove 'that every particle of   
matter in the universe attracts every   
other particle with a force proportioned
 to the mass of the attracting body1 and
 inversely as the square of the distance
 between them4' ,newton was capable of  
demonstrating that the force which      
guides and retains the ,earth and       
planets in their orbits resides in the  
,sun1 and by the application of this law
 of gravitation he was able to explain  

the motions of all celestial bodies     
entering into the structure of the solar
 system4  ,this discovery may be        
regarded as the crowning point of the   
science of astronomy1 for1 upon the     
unfailing energy of this mysterious     
power depend the order and stability of 
the universe1 extending as it does to   
all material bodies existing in space1  
guiding1 controlling1 and retaining them
 in their several paths and orbits1     
whether it be a tiny meteor1 a circling 
planet1 or a mighty sun4  ,the nature of
 cometary bodies and the laws which     
govern their motions were at this time  
still enshrouded in mystery1 and when   
one of those erratic wanderers made its 
appearance in the sky it was beheld by  
the majority of mankind with feelings of
 awe and superstitious dread1 and       
regarded as a harbinger of evil and     
disaster1 the precursor of war1 of      
famine1 or the overthrow of an empire4  
,newton1 however1 was able to divest    
those bodies of the mystery with which  

they were surrounded by proving that any
 conic section may be described about   
the ,sun1 consistent with the law of    
gravitation1 and that comets1           
notwithstanding the eccentricity of     
their orbits1 obey the laws of planetary
 motion4  ,beyond the confines of our   
solar system1 little was known of the   
magnitude and extent of the sidereal    
universe which occupies the infinitude  
of space by which we are surrounded4    
,the stars were recognised as           
self-luminous bodies1 inconceivably     
remote1 and although they excited the   
curiosity of observers1 and conjectures 
were made as to their origin1 yet no    
conclusive opinions were arrived at with
 regard to their nature and             
constitution1 and except that they were 
regarded as glittering points of light  
which illumine the firmament1 all else  
appertaining to them remained an        
unravelled mystery4 ,even ,copernicus   
had no notion of a universe of stars4   
,galileo1 by his discovery that the     

galaxy consists of a multitude of       
separate stars too remote to be defined 
by ordinary vision1 demonstrated how    
vast are the dimensions of the starry   
heavens1 and on what a stupendous scale 
the universe is constructed4 ,but at    
this time it had not occurred to        
astronomers1 nor was it known until many
 years after1 that the stars are suns   
which shine with a splendour resembling 
that of our ,sun1 and in many instances 
surpassing it4 ,it was not until this   
truth became known that the glories of  
the sidereal heavens were fully         
comprehended1 and their magnificence    
revealed4 ,it was then ascertained that 
the minute points of light which crowd  
the fields of our largest telescopes1 in
 their aggregations forming systems1    
clusters1 galaxies1 and universes of    
stars1 are shining orbs of light1 among 
the countless multitudes of which our   
,sun may be numbered as one4            
,,chapter ,,iii  ,,milton',s            
,,astronomical ,,knowledge   ,it would  

be reasonable to imagine that ,milton's 
knowledge of astronomy was comprehensive
 and accurate1 and superior to that     
possessed by most scientific men of his 
age4 ,his scholarly attainments1 his    
familiarity with ancient history and    
philosophy1 his profound learning1 and  
the universality of his general         
knowledge1 would lead one to conclude   
that the science which treats of the    
mechanism of the heavens1 and especially
 the observational part of it--which at 
all times has been a source of          
inspiration to poets of every degree of 
excellence--was to him a study of       
absorbing interest1 and one calculated  
to make a deep impression upon his      
devoutly poetical mind4 ,the serious    
character of ,milton's verse1 and the   
reverent manner in which celestial      
incidents and objects are described in  
it1 impress one with the belief that his
 contemplation of the heavens1 and of   
the orbs that roll and shine in the     
firmament overhead1 afforded him much   

enjoyment and meditative delight4 ,for  
no poet1 in ancient or in modern times1 
has introduced into his writings with   
such frequency1 or with such pleasing   
effect1 so many passages descriptive of 
the beauty and grandeur of the heavens4 
,no other poet1 by the creative effort  
of his imagination1 has soared to such a
 height2 nor has he ever been excelled  
in his descriptions of the celestial    
orbs1 and of the beautiful phenomena    
associated with their different motions4
  ,in his minor poems1 which were       
composed during his residence at        
,horton1 a charming rural retreat in    
,buckinghamshire1 where the freshness   
and varied beauty of the landscape and  
the attractive aspects of the midnight  
sky were ever before him1 we find       
enchanting descriptions of celestial    
objects1 and especially of those orbs   
which1 by their brilliancy and lustre1  
have always commanded the admiration of 
mankind4  ,for example1 in ',l',allegro'
 there are the following lines3--       

,right against the eastern gate         
,where the great ,sun begins his state1 
,robed in flames and amber light1       
,the clouds in thousand liveries dight2 
and in ',il ,penseroso'--      ,to      
behold the wandering ,moon1     ,riding 
near her highest noon1     ,like one    
that had been led astray     ,through   
the heaven's wide pathless way1     ,and
 oft as if her head she bowed1          
,stooping through a fleecy cloud4  ,in  
the happy choice of his theme1 and by   
the comprehensive manner in which he has
 treated it1 ,milton has been enabled by
 his poetic genius to give to the world 
in his ',paradise ,lost' a poem which1  
for sublimity of thought1 loftiness of  
imagination1 and beauty of expression in
 metrical verse1 is unsurpassed in any  
language4  ,it is1 however1 our         
intention to deal only with those       
passages in the poem in which allusion  
is made to the heavenly bodies1 and to  
incidents and occurrences associated    
with astronomical phenomena4 ,in the    

exposition and illustration of these it 
has been considered desirable to adopt  
the following general classification3-- 
#a4 ,to ascertain the extent of         
,milton's astronomical knowledge4  #b4  
,to describe the starry heavens and the 
celestial objects mentioned in          
',paradise ,lost4'  #c4 ,to exemplify   
the use which ,milton has made of       
astronomy in the exercise of his        
imaginative and descriptive powers4  ,in
 the earlier half of the seventeenth    
century the ,ptolemaic theory--by which 
it was believed that the ,earth was the 
immovable centre of the universe1 and   
that round it all the heavenly bodies   
completed a diurnal revolution--still   
retained its ascendency over the minds  
of men of learning and science1 and all 
the doctrines associated with this      
ancient astronomical creed were still   
religiously upheld by the educated      
classes among the peoples inhabiting the
 different civilised regions of the     
globe4 ,the ,copernican theory--by which

 the ,sun is assigned the central       
position in our system1 with the ,earth 
and planets revolving in orbits round   
him--obtained the support of a few      
persons of advanced views and high      
scientific attainments1 but its         
doctrines had not yet seriously         
threatened the supremacy of the older   
system4 ,though upwards of one hundred  
years had elapsed since the death of    
,copernicus1 yet the doctrines          
associated with the system of which he  
was the founder were but very tardily   
adopted up to this time4 ,there were    
several reasons which accounted for     
this4 ,the ,copernican system was at    
first imperfect in its details1 and     
included several of the ,ptolemaic1     
doctrines which rendered it less        
intelligible1 and retarded its          
acceptance by persons who would         
otherwise have been inclined to adopt   
it4 ,copernicus believed that the       
planets travelled round the ,sun in     
circular paths4 ,this necessitated the  

retention of cycles and epicycles1 which
 gave rise to much confusion2 nor was it
 until ,kepler made his great discovery 
of the ellipticity of the planetary     
orbits that they were eliminated from   
the system4  ,as the ,ptolemaic system  
of the universe held complete sway over 
the minds of men for upwards of twenty  
centuries1 it was difficult to persuade 
many persons to renounce the            
astronomical beliefs to which they were 
so firmly attached1 in favour of those  
of any other system2 so that the        
overthrow of this venerable theory      
required a lengthened period of time for
 its accomplishment4  ,it was thus in   
his earlier years1 when ,milton devoted 
his time to the study of literature and 
philosophy1 which he read extensively   
when pursuing his academic career at    
,christ's ,college1 ,cambridge1 and     
afterwards at ,horton1 where he spent   
several years in acquiring a more       
proficient knowledge of the literary1   
scientific1 and philosophical writings  

of the age1 that he found the beliefs   
associated with the ,ptolemaic theory   
adopted without doubt or hesitation by  
the numerous authors whose works he     
perused4 ,his knowledge of ,italian     
enabled him to become familiar with     
,dante--one of his favourite authors1   
whose poetical writings were deeply read
 by him1 and who1 in the elaboration of 
his poem1 the ',divina ,commedia1'      
included the entire ,ptolemaic          
cosmology4  ,in ,england the ,copernican
 theory had few supporters1 and the     
majority of those who represented the   
intellect and learning of the country   
still retained their adherence to the   
old form of astronomical belief4 ,we    
therefore find that ,milton followed the
 traditional way of thinking by adopting
 the views associated with the          
,ptolemaic theory4  ,according to the   
,ptolemaic system1 the ,earth was       
regarded as the immovable centre of the 
universe1 and surrounding it were ten   
crystalline spheres1 or heavens1        

arranged in concentric circles1 the     
larger spheres enclosing the smaller    
ones2 and within those was situated the 
cosmos1 or mundane universe1 usually    
described as 'the ,heavens and the      
,earth4' ,to each of the first seven    
spheres there was attached a heavenly   
body1 which was carried round the ,earth
 by the revolution of the crystalline4  
#ast sphere3 that of the ,moon4  #bnd   
sphere3 that of the planet ,mercury4    
#crd sphere3 that of the planet ,venus4 
#dth sphere3 that of the ,sun2 regarded 
as a planet4  #eth sphere3 that of the  
planet ,mars4  #fth sphere3 that of the 
planet ,jupiter4  #gth sphere3 that of  
the planet ,saturn4  #hth sphere3 that  
of the fixed stars4  ,illustration3     
,,fig4 #a  ,the eighth sphere included  
all the fixed stars1 and was called the 
firmament1 because it was believed to   
impart steadiness to the inner spheres1 
and1 by its diurnal revolution1 to carry
 them round the ,earth1 causing the     
change of day and night4  ,the separate 

motions of the spheres1 revolving with  
different velocities1 and at different  
angles to each other1 accounted for the 
astronomical phenomena associated with  
the orbs attached to each4 ,according to
 ,ptolemy's scheme1 the eighth sphere   
formed the outermost boundary of the    
universe2 but later astronomers added to
 this system two other spheres--a ninth1
 called the ,crystalline1 which caused  
,precession of the ,equinoxes2 and a    
tenth1 called the ,primum ,mobile1 or   
,first ,moved1 which brought about the  
alternation of day and night1 by        
carrying all the other spheres round the
 ,earth once in every twenty-four hours4
 ,the ,primum ,mobile enclosed1 as if in
 a shell1 all the other spheres1 in     
which was included the created universe1
 and1 although of vast dimensions1 its  
conception did not overwhelm the mind in
 the same manner that the effort to     
comprehend infinitude does4  ,beyond    
this last sphere there was believed to  
exist a boundless1 uncircumscribed      

region1 of immeasurable extent1 called  
the ,empyrean1 or ,heaven of ,heavens1  
the incorruptible abode of the ,deity1  
the place of eternal mysteries1 which   
the comprehension of man was unable to  
fathom1 and of which it was impossible  
for his mind to form any conception4    
,such were the imaginative beliefs upon 
which this ancient astronomical theory  
was founded1 that for a period of       
upwards of two thousand years held      
undisputed sway over the minds of men1  
and exercised during that time a        
predominating influence upon the        
imagination1 thoughts1 and conceptions  
of all those who devoted themselves to  
literature1 science1 and art4 ,of the   
truthfulness of this assertion there is 
ample evidence in the poetical1         
philosophical1 and historical writings  
of ancient authors1 whose ideas and     
conceptions regarding the created       
universe were limited and circumscribed 
by this form of astronomical belief4 ,in
 the works of more recent writers we    

find that it continued to assert its    
influence2 and among our ,english poets1
 from ,chaucer down to ,shakespeare1    
there are numerous references to the    
natural phenomena associated with this  
system1 and most frequently expressed by
 poetical allusions to 'the music of the
 spheres4'  ,the ideas associated with  
the ,ptolemaic theory were gratifying to
 the pride and vanity of man1 who could 
regard with complacency the paramount   
importance of the globe which he        
inhabited1 and of which he was the      
absolute ruler1 fixed in the centre of  
the universe1 and surrounded by ten     
revolving spheres1 that carried along   
with them in their circuit all other    
celestial bodies--,sun1 ,moon1 and      
stars1 which would appear to have been  
created for his delectation1 and for the
 purpose of ministering to his          
requirements4 ,but when the ,copernican 
theory became better understood1 and    
especially after the discovery of the   
law of universal gravitation1 this      

venerable system of the universe1 based 
upon a pile of unreasonable and false   
hypotheses1 after an existence of over  
twenty centuries1 sank into oblivion1   
and was no more heard of4  ,milton's    
,ptolemaism is apparent in some of his  
shorter pieces1 and also in his minor   
poems1 ',arcades' and ',comus4' ,his    
',ode on the ,nativity' is written in   
conformity with this belief1 and the    
expression1      ,ring out ye crystal   
spheres1  indicates a poetical allusion 
to this theory4 ,but as ,milton grew    
older his ,ptolemaism became greatly    
modified1 and there are good reasons for
 believing that in his latter years he  
renounced it entirely in favour of      
,copernicanism4 ,when on his continental
 tour in #afch1 he made the acquaintance
 of eminent men who held views different
 from those with which he was familiar2 
and in his interview with ,galileo at   
,arcetri1 the aged astronomer may have  
impressed upon his mind the superiority 
of the ,copernican theory1 in accounting

 for the occurrence of celestial        
phenomena1 as compared with the         
,ptolemaic4  ,on his return to ,england 
from the ,continent1 ,milton took up his
 residence in ,london1 and lived in     
apartments in a house in ,st4 ,bride's  
,churchyard4 ,having no regular         
vocation1 and not wishing to be         
dependent upon his father1 he undertook 
the education of his two nephews1 ,john 
and ,edward ,phillips1 aged nine and ten
 years respectively4 ,from ,st4 ,bride's
 ,churchyard he removed to a larger     
house in ,aldersgate1 where he received 
as pupils the sons of some of his most  
intimate acquaintances4 ,in the list of 
subjects which ,milton selected for the 
purpose of imparting instruction to     
those youths he included astronomy and  
mathematics1 which formed part of the   
curriculum of this educational          
establishment4 ,the text-book from which
 he taught his nephews and other pupils 
astronomy was called ',de ,sphaera      
,mundi1' a work written by ,joannes     

,sacrobasco 7,john ,holywood7 in the    
thirteenth century4 ,this book was an   
epitome of ,ptolemy's ',almagest1' and  
therefore entirely ,ptolemaic in its    
teaching4 ,it enjoyed great popularity  
during the ,middle ,ages1 and is        
reported to have gone through as many as
 forty editions4  ,the selection of     
astronomy as one of the subjects in     
which ,milton instructed his pupils     
affords us evidence that he must have   
devoted considerable time and attention 
to acquiring a knowledge of the facts   
and details associated with the study of
 the science4 ,in the attainment of this
 he had to depend upon his own exertions
 and the assistance derived from        
astronomical books2 for at this time    
astronomy received no recognition as a  
branch of study at any of the           
universities2 and in ,britain the       
science attracted less attention than on
 the ,continent1 where the genius of    
,kepler and ,galileo elevated it to a   
position of national importance4  ,we   

shall find as we proceed that ,milton's 
knowledge of astronomy was comprehensive
 and accurate2 that he was familiar with
 the astronomical reasons by which many 
natural phenomena which occur around us 
can be explained2 and that he understood
 many of the details of the science     
which are unknown to ordinary observers 
of the heavens4  ,it is remarkable how  
largely astronomy enters into the       
composition of ',paradise ,lost1' and we
 doubt if any author could have written 
such a poem without possessing a        
knowledge of the heavens and of the     
celestial orbs such as can only be      
attained by a proficient and intimate   
acquaintance with this science4  ,the   
arguments in favour of or against the   
,ptolemaic and ,copernican theories were
 well known to ,milton1 even as regards 
their minute details2 and in ,book viii4
 he introduces a scientific discussion  
based upon the respective merits of     
those theories4 ,the configuration of   
the celestial and terrestrial spheres1  

and the great circles by which they are 
circumscribed1 he also knew4 ,the causes
 which bring about the change of the    
seasons2 the obliquity of the ecliptic2 
the zodiacal constellations through     
which the ,sun travels1 and the periods 
of the year in which he occupies them1  
are embraced in ,milton's knowledge of  
the science of astronomy4 ,the motions  
of the ,earth1 including the ,precession
 of the ,equinoxes2 the number and      
distinctive appearances of the planets1 
their direct and retrograde courses1 and
 their satellites1 are also described by
 him4 ,the constellations1 and their    
relative positions on the celestial     
sphere2 the principal stars1            
star-groups1 and clusters1 and the      
,galaxy1 testify to ,milton's knowledge 
of astronomy1 and to the use which he   
has made of the science in the          
elaboration of his poem4  ,the names of 
fourteen of the constellations are      
mentioned in ',paradise ,lost4' ,these1 
when arranged alphabetically1 read as   

follows3--  ,andromeda1 ,aries1 ,astrea1
 ,centaurus1 ,cancer1 ,capricornus1     
,gemini1 ,leo1 ,libra1 ,ophiuchus1      
,orion1 ,scorpio1 ,taurus1 and ,virgo4  
,milton's allusions to the zodiacal     
constellations are chiefly associated   
with his description of the ,sun's path 
in the heavens2 but with the celestial  
sign ,libra 7the ,scales7 he has        
introduced a lofty and poetical         
conception of the means by which the    
,creator made known ,his will when there
 arose a contention between ,gabriel and
 ,satan on his discovery in ,paradise4  
,the ,eternal1 to prevent such horrid   
fray1     ,hung forth in ,heaven his    
golden scales1 yet seen     ,betwixt    
,astrea#f and the ,scorpion sign1       
,wherein all things created first he    
weighed1     ,the pendulous round ,earth
 with balanced air     ,in counterpoise1
 now ponders all events1     ,battles   
and realms4 ,in these he put two        
weights1     ,the sequel each of parting
 and of fight3     ,the latter quick up 

flew1 and kicked the beam4--iv4         
#iif-ajjd4  ,orion1 the finest          
constellation in the heavens1 did not   
escape ,milton's observation1 and there 
is one allusion to it in his poem4 ,it  
arrives on the meridian in winter1 where
 it is conspicuous as a brilliant       
assemblage of stars1 and represents an  
armed giant1 or hunter1 holding a       
massive club in his right hand1 and     
having a shield of lion's hide on his   
left arm4 ,a triple-gemmed belt         
encircles his waist1 from which is      
suspended a glittering sword1 tipped    
with a bright star4 ,the two brilliants 
,betelgeux and ,bellatrix form the      
giant's shoulders1 and the bright star  
,rigel marks the position of his        
advanced foot4 ,the rising of ,orion was
 believed to be accompanied by stormy   
and tempestuous weather4 ,milton alludes
 to this in the following lines3--      
,when with fierce winds ,orion armed    
,hath vexed the ,red ,sea coast1 whose  
waves o'erthrew     ,busiris and his    

,memphian chivalry4--i4 #cje-g4         
,andromeda is described as being borne  
by ,aries1 and in ',ophiuchus huge'     
,milton locates a comet which extends   
the whole length of the constellation4  
,it is evident that ,milton possessed a 
precise knowledge of the configuration  
and size of the constellations1 and of  
the positions which they occupy         
relatively to each other on the         
celestial sphere4  ,though ,milton was  
conversant with the ,copernican theory1 
and entertained a conviction of its     
accuracy and truthfulness1 and doubtless
 recognised the superiority of this     
system1 which1 besides conveying to the 
mind a nobler conception of the universe
 and of the solar system--though it     
diminished the importance of the ,earth 
as a member of it--was capable of       
explaining the occurrence of celestial  
phenomena in a manner more satisfactory 
than could be arrived at by the         
,ptolemaic theory4 ,notwithstanding     
this1 he selected the ,ptolemaic        

cosmology as the scientific basis upon  
which he constructed his ',paradise     
,lost1' and in its elaboration adhered  
with marked fidelity to this system4    
,there were many reasons why ,milton1 in
 the composition of an imaginative poem1
 should have chosen the ,ptolemaic      
system of the universe rather than the  
,copernican4 ,this form of astronomical 
belief was adopted by all the authors   
whose works he perused and studied in   
his younger days1 including his         
favourite poet1 ,dante2 and his own     
poetic imaginings1 as indicated by his  
early poems1 were in harmony with the   
doctrines of this astronomical creed1 a 
long acquaintance with which had1       
without doubt1 influenced his mind in   
its favour4 ,this system of revolving   
spheres1 with the steadfast ,earth at   
its centre1 and the whole enclosed by   
the ,primum ,mobile1 constituted a more 
attractive and picturesque object for   
poetic description than the simple and  
uncircumscribed arrangement of the      

universe expressed by the ,copernican   
theory4 ,it also afforded him an        
opportunity of localising those regions 
of space in which the chief incidents in
 his poem are described--viz4 ,,heaven1 
or ,,the ,,empyrean1 ,,chaos1 ,,hell1   
and the ,,mundane ,,universe4 ,milton's 
,ptolemaism1 with its adjuncts1 may be  
understood by the following3  ,all that 
portion of space above the newly created
 universe1 and beyond the ,primum       
,mobile1 was known as ,,heaven1 or ,,the
 ,,empyrean--a region of light1 of      
glory1 and of happiness2 the            
dwelling-place of the ,deity1 ,who1     
though omnipresent1 here visibly        
revealed ,himself to all the multitude  
of angels whom ,he created1 and who     
surrounded his throne in adoration and  
worship4  ,underneath the universe there
 existed a vast region of similar       
dimensions to the ,empyrean1 called     
,,chaos1 which was occupied by the      
embryo elements of matter1 that with    
incessant turmoil and confusion warred  

with each other for supremacy--a wild   
abyss--      ,the womb of ,nature and   
perhaps her grave4--ii4 #iaa4  ,the     
lower portion of this region was divided
 off from the remainder1 and embraced   
the locality known as ,,hell--the place 
of torment1 where the rebellious angels 
were driven and shut in after their     
expulsion from ,heaven4      ,as far    
removed from ,god and light of ,heaven  
,as from the centre thrice to the utmost
 pole4--i4 #gc-gd4  ,the ,,new          
,,universe1 which included the ,earth   
and all the orbs of the firmament known 
as the ,starry ,heavens1 was created out
 of ,chaos1 and hung1 as if suspended by
 a golden chain1 from the ,empyrean     
above2 and although its magnitude and   
dimensions were inconceivable1 yet1     
according to the ,ptolemaic theory1 it  
was enclosed by the tenth sphere or     
,primum ,mobile4  ,by this partitioning 
of space ,milton was able to contrive a 
system which fulfilled the requirements 
of his great poem4  ,the annexed diagram

 explains the relative positions of the 
different regions into which space was  
divided4  ,though there are traces of   
,copernicanism found in ',paradise      
,lost1' yet ,milton has very faithfully 
adhered to the ,ptolemaic mechanism and 
nomenclature throughout his poem4  ,in  
his description of the ,creation1 the   
,earth is formed first1 then the ,sun1  
followed by the ,moon1 and afterwards   
the stars1 all of which are described as
 being in motion round the ,earth4      
,allusion is also made to this ancient  
system in several prominent passages1   
and in the following lines there is a   
distinct reference to the various       
revolving spheres4  ,illustration3      
,,fig4 #b      ,they pass the planets   
seven1 and pass the fixed1     ,and that
 crystalline sphere whose balance weighs
     ,the trepidation talked1 and that  
first moved4--iii4 #dha-hc4  ,the seven 
planetary spheres are first mentioned2  
then the eighth sphere1 or that of the  
fixed stars2 then the ninth1 or         

crystalline1 which was believed to cause
 a shaking1 or trepidation1 to account  
for certain irregularities in the       
motions of the stars2 and1 lastly1 the  
tenth sphere1 or ,primum ,mobile1 called
 the 'first moved' because it set the   
other spheres in motion4  ,to an        
uninstructed observer1 the apparent     
motion of the heavenly bodies round the 
,earth would naturally lead him to      
conclude that1 of the two theories1 the 
,ptolemaic was the correct one4 ,we     
therefore find that ,milton adopted the 
system most in accord with the knowledge
 and intelligence possessed by the      
persons portrayed by him in his poem2   
and in describing the natural phenomena 
witnessed in the heavens by our first   
parents1 he adheres to the doctrines of 
the ,ptolemaic system1 as being most in 
harmony with the simple and primitive   
conceptions of those created beings4    
,to their upward gaze1 the orbs of      
heaven appeared to be in ceaseless      
motion2 the solid ,earth1 upon which    

they stood1 was alone immovable and at  
rest4 ,day after day they observed the  
,sun pursue his steadfast course with   
unerring regularity3 his rising in the  
east1 accompanied by the rosy hues of   
morn2 his meridian splendour1 and his   
sinking in the west1 tinting in colours 
of purple and gold inimitable the fleecy
 clouds floating in the azure sky1 as he
 bids farewell for a time to scenes of  
life and happiness1 rejoicing in the    
light and warmth of his all-cheering    
beams4 ,with the advent of night they   
beheld the ,moon1 now increasing1 now   
waning1 pursue her irregular path1 also 
to disappear in the west2 whilst1 like  
the bands of an army marshalled in loose
 array1 the constellations of glittering
 stars1 with stately motion1 traversed  
their nocturnal arcs1 circling the pole 
of the heavens4  ,by referring to ,book 
viii41 #ae-age1 we find an account of an
 interesting scientific discussion1 or  
conversation1 between ,adam and ,raphael
 regarding the merits of the ,ptolemaic 

and ,copernican systems1 and of the     
relative importance and size of the     
heavenly bodies4 ,by it we are afforded 
an opportunity of learning how accurate 
and precise a knowledge ,milton         
possessed of both theories1 and in what 
clear and perspicuous language he       
expresses his arguments in favour of or 
against the doctrines associated with   
each4  ,we may1 with good reason1 regard
 the views expressed by ,adam as        
representing ,milton's own opinions1    
which were in conformity with the       
,copernican theory2 and in the ,angel's 
reply1 though of an undecided character1
 we are able to perceive how aptly      
,milton describes the erroneous         
conclusions upon which the ,ptolemaic   
theory was based4  ,in this scientific  
discussion1 it would seem rather strange
 that ,adam1 the first of men1 should   
have been capable of such philosophic   
reasoning1 propounding1 as if by        
intuition1 a theory upon which was      
founded a system that had not been      

discovered until many centuries after   
the time that astronomy became a        
science4 ,by attributing to ,adam such a
 degree of intelligence and wisdom1 the 
poet has taken a liberty which enabled  
him to carry on this discussion in a    
manner befitting the importance of the  
subject4  ,in the following lines ,adam 
expresses to his ,angel-guest1 in       
forcible and convincing language1 his   
reasons in support of the ,copernican   
theory3--      ,when ,i behold this     
goodly frame1 this ,world1     ,of      
,heaven and ,earth consisting1 and      
compute     ,their magnitudes--this     
,earth1 a spot1 a grain1     ,an atom1  
with the ,firmament compared     ,and   
all her numbered stars1 that seem to    
roll     ,spaces incomprehensible 7for  
such     ,their distance argues1 and    
their swift return     ,diurnal7 merely 
to officiate light     ,round this      
opacous ,earth1 this punctual spot1     
,one day and night1 in all her vast     
survey     ,useless besides--reasoning1 

,i oft admire1     ,how ,nature1 wise   
and frugal could commit     ,such       
disproportions1 with superfluous hand   
,so many nobler bodies to create1       
,greater so manifold1 to this one use1  
,for aught appears1 and on their ,orbs  
impose     ,such restless revolution day
 by day     ,repeated1 while the        
sedentary ,earth1     ,that better might
 with far less compass move1     ,served
 by more noble than herself1 attains    
,her end without least motion1 and      
receives1     ,as tribute1 such a       
sumless journey brought     ,of         
incorporeal speed1 her warmth and light2
     ,speed1 to describe whose swiftness
 number fails4--viii4 #ae-ch4  ,we are  
enabled to perceive that ,milton had    
formed a correct conception of the      
magnitude and proportions of the        
universe1 and also of the relative size 
and importance of the ,earth1 which he  
describes as 'a spot1 a grain1 an atom1'
 when compared with the surrounding     
heavens4 ,he expresses his surprise that

 all the stars of the firmament1 whose  
distances are so remote1 and whose      
dimensions so greatly exceed those of   
this globe1 should in their diurnal     
revolution have 'such a sumless journey 
of incorporeal speed imposed upon them' 
merely to officiate light to the ,earth1
 'this punctual spot2' and reasoning1   
wonders how ,nature1 wise and frugal in 
her ways1 should commit such            
disproportions1 by adopting means so    
great to accomplish a result so small1  
when motion imparted to the sedentary   
,earth would with greater ease produce  
the same effect4  ,the inconceivable    
velocity with which it would be         
necessary for those orbs to travel in   
order to accomplish a daily revolution  
round the ,earth might be described as  
almost spiritual1 and beyond the power  
of calculation by numbers4  ,the ,angel1
 after listening to ,adam's argument1   
expresses approval of his desire to     
obtain knowledge1 but answers him       
dubiously1 and at the same time         

criticises in a severe and adverse      
manner the ,ptolemaic theory4      ,to  
ask or search ,i blame thee not2 for    
,heaven     ,is as the ,book of ,god    
before thee set1     ,wherein to read   
his wondrous works1 and learn     ,his  
seasons1 hours1 or days1 or months1 or  
years4     ,this to attain1 whether     
,heaven move or ,earth1     ,imports    
not1 if thou reckon right2 the rest     
,from ,man or ,angel the ,great         
,architect     ,did wisely to conceal1  
and not divulge     ,his secrets1 to be 
scanned by them who ought     ,rather   
admire4 ,or1 if they list to try        
,conjecture1 he his fabric of the       
,heavens     ,hath left to their        
disputes1 perhaps to move     ,his      
laughter at their quaint opinions wide  
,hereafter1 when they come to model     
,heaven1     ,and calculate the stars2  
how they will wield     ,the mighty     
frame2 how build1 unbuild1 contrive     
,to save appearances2 how gird the      
,sphere     ,with ,centric and          

,eccentric scribbled o'er     ,cycle and
 ,epicycle1 ,orb in ,orb4--viii4 #ff-hd4
  ,when1 with the advancement of        
science1 astronomical observations were 
made with greater accuracy1 it was      
discovered that uniformity of motion was
 not always maintained by those bodies  
which were believed to move in circles  
round the ,earth4 ,it was observed that 
the ,sun1 when on one side of his orbit1
 had an accelerated motion1 as compared 
with the speed at which he travelled    
when on the other side4 ,the planets1   
also1 appeared to move with             
irregularity3 sometimes a planet was    
observed to advance1 then become        
stationary1 and afterwards affect a     
retrograde movement4 ,those inequalities
 of motion could not be explained by    
means of the revolution of crystalline  
spheres alone1 but were accounted for by
 imagining the existence of a small     
circle1 or epicycle1 whose centre       
corresponded with a fixed point in the  
larger circle1 or eccentric1 as it was  

called4 ,this small circle revolved on  
its axis when carried round with the    
larger one1 and round it the planet also
 revolved1 which when situated in its   
outer portion would have a forward1 and 
when in its inner portion a retrograde1 
motion4  ,the theory of eccentrics and  
epicycles was sufficient for a time to  
account for the inequalities of motion  
already described1 and by this means the
 ,ptolemaic system was enabled to retain
 its ascendency for a longer period than
 it otherwise would have done4 ,but more
 recent discoveries brought to light    
discrepancies and difficulties which    
were explained away by adding epicycle  
to epicycle4 ,this created a most       
complicated entanglement1 and hastened  
the downfall of a system which1 after an
 existence of many centuries1 sank into 
oblivion1 and is now remembered as a    
belief of bygone ages4  ,the devices    
which the upholders of this system were 
compelled to adopt1 in order 'to save   
appearances1' with 'centric and         

eccentric1' cycle and epicycle1 'orb in 
orb1' are in this manner appropriately  
described by ,milton1 as indicating the 
confusion arising from a theory based   
upon false hypotheses4  ,continuing his 
reply1 the ,angel says3--      ,already 
by thy reasoning this ,i guess1     ,who
 art to lead thy offspring1 and         
supposest     ,that bodies bright and   
greater should not serve     ,the less  
not bright1 nor ,heaven such journies   
run1     ,earth sitting still1 when she 
alone receives     ,the benefit4        
,consider1 first1 that great     ,or    
bright infers not excellence4 ,the      
,earth1     ,though1 in comparison of   
,heaven1 so small1     ,nor glistering1 
may of solid good contain     ,more     
plenty than the ,sun that barren shines1
     ,whose virtue on itself works no   
effect1     ,but in the fruitful ,earth2
 there first received1     ,his beams1  
inactive else1 their vigour find1       
,yet not to ,earth are those bright     
luminaries     ,officious1 but to thee1 

,earth's habitant4     ,and1 for the    
,heaven's wide circuit1 let it speak    
,the ,maker's high magnificence1 who    
built     ,so spacious1 and his line    
stretched out so far1     ,that ,man may
 know he dwells not in his own--     ,an
 edifice too large for him to fill1     
,lodged in a small partition2 and the   
rest     ,ordained for uses to his ,lord
 best known1     ,the swiftness of those
 ,circles attribute1     ,though        
numberless1 to his ,omnipotence1        
,that to corporeal substances could add 
,speed almost spiritual4 ,me thou       
think'st not slow1     ,who since the   
morning-hour set out from ,heaven       
,where ,god resides1 and ere midday     
arrived     ,in ,eden--distance         
inexpressible     ,by numbers that have 
name4 ,but this ,i urge1     ,admitting 
motion in the ,heavens1 to show         
,invalid that which thee to doubt it    
moved2     ,not that ,i so affirm1      
though so it seem     ,to thee who hast 
thy dwelling here on ,earth4     ,god1  

to remove his ways from human sense1    
,placed ,heaven from ,earth so far1 that
 earthly sight1     ,if it presume1     
might err in things too high1     ,and  
no advantage gain4--viii4 #he-abb4      
,notwithstanding the ,angel's severe    
criticism of the ,ptolemaic system1 he  
does not unreservedly support the       
conclusions arrived at by ,adam1 but    
endeavours to show that his reasoning   
may not be altogether correct4 ,he      
questions the validity of his argument  
that bodies of greater size and         
brightness should not serve the smaller1
 though not bright1 and that heaven     
should move1 while the ,earth remained  
at rest4 ,he argues that great or bright
 infers not excellence1 and that the    
,earth1 though small1 may contain more  
virtue than the ,sun1 that 'barren      
shines1' whose beams create no          
beneficial effect1 except when directed 
on the fruitful ,earth4 ,he reminds     
,adam that those bright luminaries      
minister not to the ,earth1 but to      

himself1 ',earth's habitant1' and       
directs his attention to the            
magnificence and extent of the          
surrounding universe1 of which he       
occupies but a small portion4 ,the      
diurnal swiftness of the orbs that move 
round the ,earth he attributes to ,god's
 omnipotence1 that to material bodies   
'could add speed almost spiritual4'     
,the ,angel1 after alluding to his rapid
 flight through space1 suggests that    
,god placed heaven so far from ,earth   
that man might not presume to inquire   
into things which it would be of no     
advantage for him to know4 ,he then     
suddenly changes to the ,copernican     
system1 which he lucidly describes in   
the following lines3--                  
,what if the ,sun     ,be centre to the 
,world1 and other stars     ,by his     
attractive virtue and their own         
,incited1 dance about him various       
rounds8     ,their wandering course1 now
 high1 now low1 then hid1               
,progressive1 retrograde1 or standing   

still1     ,in six thou seest2 and what 
if1 seventh to these     ,the planet    
,earth1 so steadfast though she seem1   
,insensibly three different motions     
move8     ,which else to several spheres
 thou must ascribe1     ,moved contrary 
with thwart obliquities1     ,or save   
the ,sun his labour1 and that swift     
,nocturnal and diurnal rhomb supposed   
,invisible else above all stars1 the    
wheel     ,of day and night2 which needs
 not thy belief1     ,if ,earth1        
industrious of herself1 fetch day       
,travelling east1 and with her part     
averse     ,from the ,sun's beam meet   
night1 her other part     ,still        
luminous by his ray4 ,what if that      
light1     ,sent from her through the   
wide transpicuous air1     ,to the      
terrestrial ,moon be as a star1         
,enlightening her by day1 as she by     
night     ,this ,earth--reciprocal1 if  
land be there1     ,fields and          
inhabitants8 ,her spots thou seest      
,as clouds1 and clouds may rain1 and    

rain produce     ,fruits in her softened
 soil1 for some to eat     ,allotted    
there2 and other ,suns1 perhaps1        
,with their attendant ,moons1 thou wilt 
descry1     ,communicating male and     
female light--     ,which two great     
sexes animate the ,world1     ,stored in
 each orb perhaps with some that live4  
,for such vast room in ,nature          
unpossessed     ,by living soul1 desert 
and desolate1     ,only to shine1 yet   
scarce to contribute     ,each orb a    
glimpse of light1 conveyed so far       
,down to this habitable1 which returns  
,light back to them1 is obvious to      
dispute4--viii4 #abb-eh4  ,the          
,copernican theory1 which is less       
complicated and more easily understood  
than the ,ptolemaic1 is described by    
,milton with accuracy and methodical    
skill4  ,the ,sun having been assigned  
that central position in the system     
which his magnitude and importance claim
 as his due1 the planets circling in    
orbits around him have their motions    

described in a manner indicative of the 
precise knowledge which ,milton acquired
 of this theory4 ,at this time the law  
of gravitation was unknown1 and1        
although the ellipticity of the orbits  
of the planets had been discovered by   
,kepler1 the nature of the motive force 
which guided and retained them in their 
paths still remained a mystery4 ,it was 
believed that the planets were whirled  
round the ,sun1 as if by the action of  
magnetic fibres2 a mutual attractive    
influence having been supposed to exist 
between them and the orb1 similar to    
that of the opposite poles of magnets4  
,milton alludes to this theory in the   
following lines3--                      
,they1 as they move     ,their starry   
dance in numbers that compute     ,days1
 months1 and years1 towards his         
all-cheering lamp     ,turn swift their 
various motions1 or are turned     ,by  
his magnetic beam4--iii4 #egi-hc4  ,an  
important advance upon this theory was  
made by ,horrox1 who1 in his study of   

celestial dynamics1 attributed the      
curvilineal motion of the planets to the
 influence of two forces1 one           
projective1 the other attractive4 ,he   
illustrated this by observing the path  
described by a stone when thrown        
obliquely into the air4 ,he perceived   
that its motion was governed by the     
impulse imparted to it by the hand1 and 
also by the attractive force of the     
,earth4 ,under these two influences1 the
 stone describes a graceful curve1 and  
in its descent falls at the same angle  
at which it rose4 ,hence arises the     
general law3 ',when two spheres are     
mutually attracted1 and if not prevented
 by foreign influences1 their straight  
paths are deflected into curves concave 
to each other1 and corresponding with   
one of the sections of a cone1 according
 to the velocity of the revolving body4 
,if the velocity with which the         
revolving body is impelled be equal to  
what it would acquire by falling through
 half the radius of a circle described  

from the centre of deflection1 its orbit
 will be circular2 but if it be less    
than that quantity1 its path becomes    
elliptical4'  ,newton afterwards        
embraced this law in his great principle
 of gravitation1 and demonstrated that  
the force which guides and retains the  
,earth and planets in their orbits      
resides in the ,sun4 ,by the orb's      
attractive influence a planet1 after    
having received its first impulse1 is   
deflected from its original straight    
path1 and bent towards that luminary1   
and by the combined action of the       
projective and attractive forces is made
 to describe an orbit which1 if         
elliptical1 has one of its foci occupied
 by the ,sun4 ,so evenly balanced are   
those two forces1 that one is unable to 
gain any permanent ascendency over the  
other1 and consequently the planet      
traverses its orbit with unerring       
regularity1 and1 if undisturbed by      
external influences1 will continue in   
its path for all time4  ,milton         

describes the position of the planets in
 the sky as--      ,now high1 now low1  
then hid2  and their motions--          
,progressive1 retrograde1 or standing   
still4  ,it is evident that ,milton was 
familiar with the apparently irregular  
paths pursued by the planets when       
observed from the ,earth4 ,he knew of   
their stationary points1 and also the   
backward loopings traced out by them on 
the surface of the sphere4  ,if observed
 from the ,sun1 all the planets would be
 seen to follow their true paths round  
that body2 their motion would invariably
 lie in the same direction1 and any     
variation in their speed as they        
approached perihelion or aphelion would 
be real4 ,but the planets1 when observed
 from the ,earth1 which is itself in    
motion1 appear to move irregularly4     
,sometimes they remain stationary for a 
brief period1 and1 instead of           
progressing onward1 affect a retrograde 
movement4 ,this irregularity of motion  
is only apparent1 and can be explained  

as a result of the combined motions of  
the ,earth and planets1 which are       
travelling together round the ,sun with 
different velocities1 and in orbits of  
unequal magnitude4  ,in his allusion to 
the ,copernican system the 'planet'     
',earth' is described by ,milton as     
seventh4 ,this is not strictly accurate1
 as only five planets were known--viz4  
,mercury1 ,venus1 ,mars1 ,jupiter1 and  
,saturn2 but to make up the number      
,milton has included the ,moon1 which   
may be regarded as the ,earth's planet4 
,the three motions ascribed to the      
,earth are--7#a7 ,the diurnal rotation  
on her axis2 7#b7 her annual revolution 
round the ,sun2 7#c7 ,precession of the 
,equinoxes4  ,the rotation of the ,earth
 on her axis may be likened to the      
spinning motion of a top1 and is the    
cause of the alternation of day and     
night4 ,this rotatory motion is         
sustained with such exact precision     
that1 during the past #b1jjj years1 it  
has been impossible to detect the       

minutest difference in the time in which
 the ,earth accomplishes a revolution on
 her axis1 and therefore the length of  
the sidereal day1 which is #c minutes   
#ef seconds shorter than the mean solar 
day1 is invariable4 ,in this motion of  
the ,earth we have a time-measuring unit
 which may be regarded as absolutely    
correct4  ,the ,earth completes a       
revolution of her orbit in #cfe-a_/d    
days4 ,in this period of time she       
accomplishes a journey of #ehj millions 
of miles1 travelling at the average rate
 of #ff1jjj miles an hour4 ,the change  
of the seasons1 and the lengthening and 
shortening of the day1 are natural      
phenomena1 which occur as a consequence 
of the ,earth's annual revolution round 
the ,sun4 ,precession is a retrograde or
 westerly motion of the equinoctial     
points1 caused by the attraction of the 
,sun1 ,moon1 and planets on the         
spheroidal figure of the ,earth4 ,by    
this movement the poles of the ,earth   
are made to describe a circular path in 

that part of the heavens to which they  
point2 so that1 after the lapse of many 
years1 the star which is known as the   
,pole ,star will not occupy the position
 indicated by its name1 but will be     
situated at a considerable distance from
 the pole4 ,these motions1 ,milton says1
 unless attributed to the ,earth1 must  
be ascribed to several spheres crossing 
and thwarting each other obliquely2 but 
the ,earth1 by rotating from west to    
east1 will of herself fetch day1 her    
other half1 averted from the ,sun's     
rays1 being enveloped in night4 ,thus   
saving the ,sun his labour1 and the     
'primum mobile1' 'that swift nocturnal  
and diurnal rhomb1' which carried all   
the lower spheres along with it1 and    
brought about the change of day and     
night4  ,milton's allusion to the       
occurrence of natural phenomena in the  
,moon similar to those which happen on  
the ,earth is in keeping with the       
opinions entertained regarding our      
satellite1 ,galileo having imagined that

 he discovered with his telescope       
continents and seas on the lunar        
surface1 which led to the belief that   
the ,moon was the abode of intelligent  
life4      444 and other suns1 perhaps1 
,with their attendant moons1 thou wilt  
descry     ,communicating male and      
female light4--viii4 #adh-ej4  ,milton  
in these lines refers to ,jupiter and   
,saturn1 and their satellites1 which had
 been recently discovered2 those of the 
former by ,galileo1 and four of those of
 the latter by ,cassini4 ,the existence 
of male and female light was an idea    
entertained by the ancients1 and which  
is mentioned by ,pliny4 ,the ,sun was   
regarded as a masculine star1 and the   
,moon as feminine2 the light emanating  
from each being similarly distinguished1
 and possessing different properties4   
,milton supposes that1 as the ,earth    
receives light from the stars1 she      
returns light back to them4 ,but in his 
time little was known about the stars1  
nor was it ascertained how distant they 

are4  ,the ,angel1 in bringing to a     
conclusion his conversation with ,adam1 
deems it unadvisable to vouchsafe him a 
decisive reply to his inquiry regarding 
the motions of celestial bodies1 and in 
the following lines gives a beautifully 
poetical summary of this elevated and   
philosophic discussion3--      ,but     
whether thus these things1 or whether   
not1     ,whether the ,sun1 predominant 
in ,heaven1     ,rise on the ,earth1 or 
,earth rise on the ,sun2     ,he from   
the east his flaming round begin1       
,or she from west her silent course     
advance     ,with inoffensive pace that 
spinning sleeps     ,on her soft axle1  
whilst she paces even1     ,and bears   
thee soft with the smooth air along--   
,solicit not thy thoughts with matters  
hid4--viii4 #aei-fg4  ,in this          
scientific discourse between ,adam and  
,raphael1 in which they discuss the     
structural arrangement of the heavens   
and the motions of celestial bodies1 we 
are afforded an opportunity of learning 

what exact and comprehensive knowledge  
,milton possessed of both the ,ptolemaic
 and ,copernican theories4 ,the concise 
and accurate manner in which he         
describes the doctrines belonging to    
each system indicates that he must have 
devoted considerable time and attention 
to making himself master of the details 
associated with both theories1 which in 
his time were the cause of much         
controversy and discussion among        
philosophers and men of science4  ,the  
,ptolemaic system1 with its crystalline 
spheres revolving round the ,earth1 the 
addition to those of cycles and         
epicycles1 and the heaping of them upon 
each other1 in order to account for     
phenomena associated with the motions of
 celestial bodies1 are concisely and    
accurately described4  ,the             
unreasonableness of this theory1 when   
compared with the ,copernican1 is       
clearly delineated by ,milton where     
,adam is made to express his views with 
regard to motion in the heavens4 ,his   

argument1 declared in logical and       
persuasive language1 demonstrates how   
contrary to reason it would be to       
imagine that the entire heavens should  
revolve round the ,earth to bring about 
a result which could be more easily     
attained by imparting motion to the     
,earth herself4 ,the inconceivable      
velocity with which it would be         
necessary for the celestial orbs to     
travel in order to accomplish their     
daily revolution is described by him as 
opposed to all reason1 and entailing    
upon them a journey which it would be   
impossible for material bodies to       
perform4 ,none the less accurate is     
,milton's description of the ,copernican
 system4 ,he describes the ,sun as      
occupying that position in the system   
which his magnitude and supreme         
importance claim as his sole right1     
having the planets with their           
satellites1      ,that from his lordly  
eye keep distance due4--iii4 #egh1      
circling in majestic orbits around him1 

acknowledging his controlling power1 and
 bending to his firm but gentle sway4   
,their positions1 their paths1 and their
 motions1 real and apparent1 are        
described in flowing and harmonious     
verse4     ,,chapter ,,iv  ,,milton     
,,and ,,galileo   ,after the death of   
his mother1 which occurred in #afcg1    
,milton expressed a desire to visit the 
,continent1 where there were many places
 of interest which he often longed to   
see4 ,having obtained the consent of his
 kind and indulgent father1 he set out  
on his travels in ,april #afch1         
accompanied by a single man-servant1 and
 arrived in ,paris1 where he only stayed
 a few days4 ,during his residence in   
the ,french capital he was introduced by
 ,lord ,scudamore1 the ,english         
,ambassador at the ,court of            
,versailles1 to ,hugo ,grotius1 one of  
the most distinguished scholars and     
philosophic thinkers of his age4 ,from  
,paris ,milton journeyed to ,nice1 where
 he first beheld the beauty of ,italian 

scenery and the classic shores of the   
,mediterranean ,sea4 ,from ,nice he     
sailed to ,genoa and ,leghorn1 and after
 a short stay at those places continued 
his journey to ,florence1 one of the    
most interesting and picturesque of     
,italian cities4 ,situated in the       
,valley of the ,arno1 and encircled by  
sloping hills covered with luxuriant    
vegetation1 the sides of which were     
studded with residences half-hidden     
among the foliage of gardens and        
vineyards1 ,florence1 besides being     
famed for its natural beauty1 was at    
that time the centre of ,italian culture
 and learning1 and the abode of men     
eminent in literature and science4 ,here
 ,milton remained for a period of two   
months1 and enjoyed the friendship and  
hospitality of its most noted citizens1 
many of whom delighted to honour their  
,english visitor4 ,he was warmly        
welcomed by the members of the various  
literary academies1 who admired his     
compositions and conversation2 the      

flattering encomiums bestowed upon him  
by those learned societies having been  
amply repaid by ,milton in choice and   
elegant ,latin verse4  ,among those who 
resided in the vicinity of ,florence was
 the illustrious ,galileo1 who in his   
sorrow-stricken old age was held a      
prisoner of the ,inquisition for having 
upheld and taught scientific doctrines  
which were declared to be heretical4    
,after his abjuration he was committed  
to prison1 but on the intervention of   
influential friends was released after a
 few days' incarceration1 and permitted 
to return to his home at ,arcetri4 ,he  
was1 however1 kept under strict         
surveillance1 and forbidden to leave his
 house or receive any of his intimate   
friends without having first obtained   
the sanction of the ecclesiastical      
authorities4 ,after several years of    
close confinement at ,arcetri1 during   
which time he suffered much from        
rheumatism and continued ill-health1    
aggravated by grief and mental          

depression consequent upon the death of 
his favourite daughter1 ,galileo applied
 for permission to go to ,florence in   
order to place himself under medical    
treatment4 ,this request was granted by 
the ,pope subject to certain conditions1
 which would be communicated to him when
 he presented himself at the office of  
the ,inquisition at ,florence4 ,these   
were more severe than he anticipated4   
,he was forbidden to leave his house or 
receive any of his friends there1 and   
those injunctions were so strictly      
adhered to that during ,passion ,week he
 had to obtain a special order so that  
he might be able to attend mass4 ,at the
 expiration of a few months ,galileo was
 ordered to return to ,arcetri1 which he
 never left again4  ,an affliction1     
perhaps the most deplorable that can    
happen to any human being1 was added to 
the burden of ,galileo's misfortunes and
 woes4 ,a disorder which had some years 
previously injured the sight of his     
right eye returned in #afcf4 ,in the    

following year the left eye became      
similarly affected1 with the result that
 in a few months ,galileo became totally
 blind4 ,his friends at first hoped that
 the disease was cataract1 and that some
 relief might be afforded by means of an
 operation2 but it was discovered to be 
an opacity of the cornea1 which at his  
age was considered unamenable to        
treatment4 ,this sudden and unexpected  
calamity was to ,galileo a most         
deplorable occurrence1 for it           
necessitated the relinquishment of his  
favourite pursuit1 which he followed    
with such intense interest and delight4 
,his friend ,castelli writes3 ',the     
noblest eye is darkened which ,nature   
ever made2 an eye so privileged1 and    
gifted with such rare qualities that it 
may with truth be said to have seen more
 than all of those eyes who are gone1   
and to have opened the eyes of all who  
are to come4' ,galileo endured his      
affliction with patient resignation and 
fortitude1 and in the following extract 

from a letter by him he acknowledges the
 chastening hand of a ,divine           
,providence3 ',alas6 your dear friend   
and servant ,galileo has become totally 
blind1 so that this heaven1 this earth1 
this universe1 which with wonderful     
observations ,i had enlarged a hundred  
and a thousand times beyond the belief  
of bygone ages1 henceforward for me is  
shrunk into the narrow space which ,i   
myself fill in it4 ,so it pleases ,god2 
it shall then please me also4' ,the     
rigorous curtailment of his liberty     
which prompted ,galileo to head his     
letters1 ',from my prison at ,arcetri1' 
was relaxed when total blindness had    
supervened upon the infirmities of age4 
,permission was given him to receive his
 friends1 and he was allowed to have    
free intercourse with his neighbours4   
,milton1 during his stay at ,florence1  
visited ,galileo at ,arcetri4 ,we are   
ignorant of the details of this eventful
 and interesting interview between the  
aged and blind astronomer and the young 

,english poet1 who afterwards           
immortalised his name in heroic verse1  
and who in his declining years suffered 
from an affliction similar to that which
 befel ,galileo1 and to which he alludes
 so pathetically in the following       
lines3--                                
,thee ,i revisit safe1     ,and feel thy
 sovran vital lamp2 but thou            
,revisitest not these eyes1 that roll in
 vain     ,to find thy piercing ray1 and
 find no dawn2     ,so thick a drop     
serene hath quenched their orbs1     ,or
 dim suffusion veiled4--iii4 #ba-bf4    
,we can imagine that ,galileo's         
astronomical views1 which at that time  
were the subject of much discussion     
among scientific men and professors of  
religion1 and on account of which he    
suffered persecution1 were eagerly      
discussed4 ,it is also probable that the
 information communicated by ,galileo1  
or by some of his followers1 may have   
persuaded ,milton to entertain a more   
favourable opinion of the ,copernican   

theory4 ,the interesting discoveries    
made by ,galileo with his telescope     
without doubt formed a pleasant subject 
of conversation1 and ,milton enjoyed the
 privilege of listening to a detailed   
description of these from the lips of   
the aged astronomer4 ,the telescope1 its
 principle1 its mechanism1 and the      
method of observing1 were most probably 
explained to him2 and we can believe    
that an opportunity was afforded him of 
examining those in ,galileo's           
observatory1 and of perhaps testing     
their magnifying power upon some        
celestial object favourably situated for
 observation4 ,though ,milton has not   
favoured us with any details of his     
visit to ,galileo1 yet it was one which 
made a lasting impression upon his mind1
 and was never afterwards forgotten by  
him4 ',there it was1' he writes1 ',i    
found and visited the famous ,galileo1  
grown old1 a prisoner of the            
,inquisition for thinking in astronomy  
otherwise than the ,franciscan and      

,dominican licensers thought4' ,in years
 long after1 when ,milton1 himself      
feeble and blind1 sat down to compose   
his ',paradise ,lost1' the remembrance  
of the ,tuscan artist and his telescope 
was still fresh in his memory4  ,by the 
invention of the telescope and its      
application to astronomical research1 a 
vast amount of information and          
additional detail have been learned     
regarding the bodies which enter into   
the formation of the solar system2 and  
by its aid many new ones were also      
discovered4 ,on sweeping the heavens    
with the instrument1 the illimitable    
extent of the sidereal universe became  
apparent1 and numberless objects of     
interest were brought within the range  
of vision the existence of which had not
 been previously imagined4  ,the        
,galilean telescope was invented in     
#afji4 ,but the magnifying power of     
certain lenses1 and their combination in
 producing singular visual effects1 are 
alluded to in the writings of several   

early authors4 ,the value of single     
lenses as an aid to sight had been long 
known1 and spectacles were in common use
 in the fourteenth century4 ,several    
mathematicians have described the       
wonderful optical results obtained from 
glasses concave and convex1 of parabolic
 and circular forms1 and from           
'perspective glasses1' in which were    
embodied the principle of the telescope4
 ,it is asserted that our countryman1   
,roger ,bacon 7#abad71 had some notion  
of the properties of the telescope2 but 
among those familiar with the           
combination of lenses the two men who   
made the nearest approach to the        
invention of the instrument were        
,baptista ,porta and ,gerolamo          
,fracastro4 ,the latter1 who died in    
#aeec1 writes as follows3 ',for which   
reason those things which are seen at   
the bottom of water appear greater than 
those which are at the top2 and if      
anyone look through two eye-glasses1 one
 placed upon the other1 he will see     

everything much larger and nearer4' ,it 
is doubtful if ,fracastro had any notion
 of constructing a mechanism which might
 answer the purpose of a telescopic     
tube4 ,baptista ,porta 7#afaa7 is more  
explicit in what he describes4 ,he      
writes3 ',concave lenses show distant   
objects most clearly1 convex those which
 are nearer2 whence they may be used to 
assist the sight4 ,with a concave glass 
distant objects will be seen1 small1 but
 distinct2 with a convex one1 those near
 at hand1 larger1 but confused2 if you  
know rightly how to combine one of each 
sort1 you will see both far and near    
objects larger and clearer4' ,he then   
goes on to say3 ',i shall now endeavour 
to show in what manner we may continue  
to recognise our friends at the distance
 of several miles1 and how those of weak
 sight may read the most minute letters 
from a distance4 ,it is an invention of 
great utility1 and grounded on optical  
principles2 nor is at all difficult of  
execution2 but it must be so divulged as

 not to be understood by the vulgar1 and
 yet be clear to the sharp-sighted4'    
,after this1 he proceeds to describe a  
mechanism the details of which are      
confusing and unintelligible1 nor did it
 appear to bear any resemblance to a    
telescopic tube4  ,in a work published  
by ,thomas ,digges in #aeia1 he makes   
the following allusion to his father's  
experiments with the lenses3 ',my       
father1 by his continuall painfull      
practices1 assisted with demonstrations 
mathematicall1 was able1 and sundry     
times hath by proportionall glasses1    
duely situate in convenient angles1 not 
only discouered things farre off1 read  
letters1 numbered peeces of money with  
the verye coyne and superscription      
thereof cast by some of his freends of  
purpose1 upon downes in open fields2 but
 also seuen miles off1 declared what    
hath beene doone at that instant in     
priuate places4' ,it must be admitted   
that if ,leonard ,digges had not        
constructed a telescope1 he knew how to 

combine lenses by the aid of which a    
visual effect was created similar to    
that produced by the use of the         
instrument4  ,the inventor of the       
telescope was a ,dutchman named ,hans   
,lippershey1 who carried on the business
 of a spectacle-maker in the town of    
,middelburg4 ,his discovery was purely  
accidental4 ,it is said that the        
instrument--which was directed towards a
 weather-cock on a church spire1 of     
which it gave a large and inverted      
image--was for some time exhibited in   
his shop as a curiosity before its      
importance was recognised4 ,the ,marquis
 ,spinola1 happening to see this        
philosophical toy1 purchased it1 and    
presented it to ,prince ,maurice of     
,nassau1 who imagined it might be of    
service for the purpose of military     
reconnoitring4 ,the value of the        
invention was1 however1 soon realised1  
and in the following year telescopes    
were sold in ,paris4 ,in #afji1         
,galileo1 when on a visit to a friend at

 ,venice1 received intelligence of the  
invention of an instrument by a ,dutch  
optician which possessed the power of   
causing distant objects to appear much  
nearer than when observed by ordinary   
vision4 ,the accuracy of this           
information was confirmed by letters    
which he received from ,paris2 and this 
general report1 ,galileo asserted1 was  
all he knew of the subject4 ,fuccarius1 
in a disparaging letter1 says that one  
of the ,dutch telescopes had been       
brought to ,venice1 and that he himself 
had seen it4 ,this statement is not     
incompatible with ,galileo's affirmation
 that he had not seen the original      
instrument1 and knew no more about it   
than what had been communicated to him  
in the letters from the ,french capital4
 ,it was insinuated by ,fuccarius that  
,galileo had seen the telescope at      
,venice1 but1 as he denied this1 we     
should not hesitate to believe in his   
veracity4  ,immediately after his return
 to ,padua1 ,galileo began to think how 

he might be able to contrive an         
instrument with properties similar to   
the one of which he had been informed2  
and in the following words describes the
 process of reasoning by which he       
arrived at a successful result3 ',i     
argued in the following manner4 ,the    
contrivance consists either of one glass
 or of more--one is not sufficient1     
since it must be either convex1 concave1
 or plane4 ,the last does not produce   
any sensible alteration in objects2 the 
concave diminishes them4 ,it is true    
that the convex magnifies1 but it       
renders them confused and indistinct2   
consequently1 one glass is insufficient 
to produce the desired effect4          
,proceeding to consider two glasses1 and
 bearing in mind that the plane causes  
no change1 ,i determined that the       
instrument could not consist of the     
combination of a plane glass with either
 of the other two4 ,i therefore applied 
myself to make experiments on           
combinations of the two other kinds1 and

 thus obtained that of which ,i was in  
search4' ,galileo's telescope consisted 
of two lenses--one plano-convex1 the    
other plano-concave1 the latter being   
held next the eye4 ,these he fixed in a 
piece of organ pipe1 which served the   
purpose of a tube1 the glasses being    
distant from each other by the          
difference of their focal lengths4 ,an  
exactly similar principle is adopted in 
the construction of an opera-glass1     
which can be accurately described as a  
double ,galilean telescope4 ,galileo    
must be regarded as the inventor of this
 kind of telescope1 which in one respect
 differed very materially from the one  
constructed by the ,dutch optician4 ,if 
what has been said with regard to the   
inverted weather-cock be true1 then     
,lippershey's telescope was made with   
two convex lenses1 distant from each    
other by the sum of their focal lengths1
 and all objects observed with it were  
seen inverted4 ,refracting astronomical 
telescopes are now constructed on this  

principle1 it having been discovered    
that for observational purposes they    
possess several advantages over the     
,galilean instrument4 ,when ,galileo had
 completed his first telescope he       
returned with it to ,venice1 where he   
exhibited it to his friends4 ,the       
sensation created by this small         
instrument1 which magnified only three  
times1 was most extraordinary1 and      
almost amounted to a frenzy4 ,crowds of 
the principal citizens of ,venice       
flocked to ,galileo's house in order    
that they might see the magical tube    
about which such wonderful reports were 
circulated2 and for upwards of a month  
he was daily occupied in describing his 
invention to attentive audiences4 ,at   
the expiration of this time the ,doge of
 ,venice1 ,leonardo ,deodati1 hinted    
that the ,senate would not be averse to 
receive the telescope as a gift4        
,galileo readily acquiesced with this   
desire1 and1 as an acknowledgment of his
 merits1 a decree was issued confirming 

his appointment as professor at ,padua  
for life1 and increasing his salary from
 #ejj to #a1jjj florins4 ,the public    
excitement created by the telescope     
showed no signs of abatement4 ,sirturi  
mentions that1 having succeeded in      
constructing an instrument1 he ascended 
the tower of ,st4 ,mark's at ,venice1   
hoping to be able to use it there       
without interruption4 ,he was1 however1 
detected by a few individuals1 and soon 
surrounded by a crowd1 which took       
possession of his telescope1 and        
detained him for several hours until    
their curiosity was satisfied4 ,eager   
inquiries having been made as to where  
he lodged1 ,sirturi1 fearing a          
repetition of his experience in the     
church tower1 decided to quit ,venice   
early next morning1 and betake himself  
to a quieter and less frequented        
neighbourhood4  ,the instrument was at  
first called ,galileo's tube2 the double
 eye-glass2 the perspective2 the trunk2 
the cylinder4 ,the appellation telescope

 was given it by ,demisiano4  ,galileo  
next directed his attention to the      
construction of telescopes1 and applied 
his mechanical skill in making          
instruments of a larger size1 one of    
which magnified eight times4 ',and at   
length1' he writes1 'sparing neither    
labour nor expense1 he completed an     
instrument that was capable of          
magnifying more than thirty times4'     
,galileo now commenced an exploration of
 the celestial regions with his         
telescope1 and on carefully examining   
some of the heavenly bodies1 made many  
wonderful discoveries which added       
greatly to the fame and lustre of his   
name4  ,the first celestial object to   
which ,galileo directed his telescope   
was the ,moon4 ,he was deeply interested
 to find how much her surface resembled 
that of the ,earth1 and was able to     
perceive lofty mountain ranges1 the     
illumined peaks of which reflected the  
sunlight1 whilst their bases and sides  
were still enveloped in dark shadow2    

great plains which he imagined were     
seas1 valleys1 elevated ridges1         
depressions1 and inequalities similar to
 what are found on our globe4 ,galileo  
believed the ,moon to be a habitable    
world1 and concluded that the dark and  
luminous portions of her surface were   
land and water1 which reflected with    
unequal intensity the light of the ,sun4
 ,the followers of ,aristotle received  
the announcement of these discoveries   
with much displeasure4 ,they maintained 
that the ,moon was perfectly spherical  
and smooth--a vast mirror1 the dark     
portions of which were the reflection of
 our terrestrial mountains and          
forests--and accused ,galileo 'of taking
 a delight in distorting and ruining the
 fairest works of ,nature4' ,he appealed
 to the unequal condition of the surface
 of our globe1 but this was of no avail 
in altering their preconceived notions  
of the lunar surface4  ,perhaps the most
 important discovery made by ,galileo   
with the telescope was that of the four 

moons of ,jupiter4 ,on the night of     
,january #g1 #afaj1 when engaged in     
observing the planet1 his attention was 
attracted by three small stars which    
appeared brighter than those in their   
immediate neighbourhood4 ,they were all 
in a straight line and parallel with the
 ecliptic2 two of them were situated to 
the east1 and one to the west of        
,jupiter4 ,on the following night he was
 surprised to find all three to the west
 of the planet1 and nearer to each      
other4 ,this caused him considerable    
perplexity1 and he was at a loss to     
understand how ,jupiter could be east of
 the three stars1 when on the preceding 
night he was observed to the west of two
 of them4 ,galileo was unable to        
reconcile the altered positions of those
 bodies with the apparent motion of     
,jupiter among the fixed stars as       
indicated by the astronomical tables4   
,the next opportunity he had of         
observing them was on the #ajth1 when   
two stars only were visible1 and they   

were to the east of the planet4 ,as it  
was impossible for ,jupiter to move from
 west to east on ,january #h and from   
east to west on the #ajth1 he concluded 
that it was the motion of the stars and 
not that of ,jupiter which accounted for
 the observed phenomena4 ,galileo       
watched the stars attentively on        
successive evenings and discovered a    
fourth1 and on observing how they       
changed their positions relatively to   
each other he soon arrived at the       
conclusion that the stars were four     
moons which revolved round ,jupiter     
after the manner in which the ,moon     
revolves round the ,earth4 ,having      
assured himself that the four new stars 
were four moons that with periodical    
regularity circled round the great      
planet1 ,galileo named them the         
,medicean ,stars in honour of his       
patron1 ,cosmo de' ,medici1 ,grand ,duke
 of ,tuscany4 ,he also published an     
essay entitled ',nuncius ,sidereus1' or 
the ',sidereal ,messenger1' which       

contained an account of this important  
discovery4  ,the announcement of        
,galileo's discovery of the four        
satellites of ,jupiter created a        
profound sensation1 and its significance
 became at once apparent4 ,aristotelians
 and ,ptolemaists received the          
information with much disfavour and     
incredulity1 and many persons positively
 refused to believe ,galileo1 whom they 
accused of inventing fables4 ,on the    
other hand1 the upholders of the        
,copernican theory hailed it with       
satisfaction1 as it declared that       
,jupiter with his four moons constituted
 a system of greater magnitude and      
importance than that of our globe with  
her single satellite1 and that          
consequently the ,earth could not be    
regarded as the centre of the universe4 
,when ,kepler heard of this remarkable  
discovery1 he wrote to ,galileo and     
expressed himself in the following      
characteristic manner3 ',i was sitting  
idle at home thinking of you1 most      

excellent ,galileo1 and your letters1   
when the news was brought me of the     
discovery of four planets by the help of
 the double eye-glass4 ,wachenfels      
stopped his carriage at my door to tell 
me1 when such a fit of wonder seized me 
at a report which seemed so very absurd1
 and ,i was thrown into such agitation  
at seeing an old dispute between us     
decided in this way1 that between his   
joy1 my colouring1 and the laughter of  
both1 confounded as we were by such a   
novelty1 we were hardly capable1 he of  
speaking1 or ,i of listening4444 ,i am  
so far from disbelieving in the         
existence of the four circumjovial      
planets1 that ,i long for a telescope to
 anticipate you1 if possible1 in        
discovering two round ,mars 7as the     
proportion seems to me to require71 six 
or eight round ,saturn1 and perhaps one 
each round ,mercury and ,venus4' ,the   
intelligence of ,galileo's discoveries  
was received by his opponents in a      
spirit entirely different from that     

manifested by ,kepler4 ,the principal   
professor of philosophy at ,padua1 when 
requested to look at the ,moon and      
planets through ,galileo's glass1       
persistently declined1 and did his      
utmost to persuade the ,grand ,duke that
 the four satellites of ,jupiter could  
not possibly exist4 ,francesco ,sizzi1 a
 ,florentine astronomer1 argued that1 as
 there are seven apertures in the head1 
seven known metals1 and seven days in   
the week1 so there could only be seven  
planets4 ,to these absurd remarks       
,galileo replied by saying that1        
'whatever their force might be as a     
reason for believing beforehand that no 
more than seven planets would be        
discovered1 they hardly seemed of       
sufficient weight to destroy the new    
ones when actually seen4' ,another      
individual1 named ,christmann1 writes3  
',we are not to think that ,jupiter has 
four satellites given him by ,nature in 
order1 by revolving round him1 to       
immortalize the name of the ,medici1 who

 first had notice of the observation4   
,these are the dreams of idle men1 who  
love ludicrous ideas better than our    
laborious and industrious correction of 
the heavens4 ,nature abhors so horrible 
a chaos1 and to the truly wise such     
vanity is detestable4' ,martin ,horky1 a
 protege of ,kepler's1 issued a pamphlet
 in which he made a violent attack on   
,galileo4 ,he says3 ',i will never      
concede his four new planets to that    
,italian from ,padua though ,i die for  
it4' ,he then asks the following        
questions1 and replies to them himself3 
7#a7 ,whether they exist8 7#b7 ,what    
they are8 7#c7 ,what they are like8 7#d7
 ,why they are8 ',the first question is 
soon disposed of by ,horky's declaring  
positively that he has examined the     
heavens with ,galileo's own glass1 and  
that no such thing as a satellite about 
,jupiter exists4 ,to the second1 he     
declared solemnly that he does not more 
surely know that he has a soul in his   
body than that reflected rays are the   

sole cause of ,galileo's erroneous      
observations4 ,in regard to the third   
question1 he says that these planets are
 like the smallest fly compared to an   
elephant2 and1 finally1 concludes on the
 fourth1 that the only use of them is to
 gratify ,galileo's thirst of gold1 and 
to afford himself a subject of          
discussion4'#g ,galileo did not         
condescend to take any notice of this   
scurrilous production2 but ,horky1 who  
imagined that he had done something     
clever1 sent a copy of his pamphlet to  
,kepler4 ,in a few days after he called 
to see him1 and was received with such a
 storm of indignation that he begged for
 mercy and implored his forgiveness4    
,kepler forgave him1 but insisted on his
 making amends4 ,he writes3 ',i have    
taken him again into favour upon this   
preliminary condition1 to which he has  
agreed--that ,i am to show him          
,jupiter's satellites1 and he is to see 
them1 and own that they are there4'     
,the evidence in support of the         

existence of ,jupiter's satellites      
became so conclusive that the opponents 
of ,galileo were compelled to renounce  
their disbelief in those bodies1 whether
 real or pretended4 ,the ,grand ,duke1  
preferring to trust to his eyes rather  
than believe in the arguments of the    
professor at ,padua1 observed the       
satellites on several occasions1 along  
with ,galileo1 at ,pisa1 and on his     
departure bestowed upon him a gift of   
one thousand florins4 ,several of       
,galileo's enemies1 as a result of their
 observations1 now arrived at the       
conclusion that his discovery was       
incomplete1 and that ,jupiter had more  
than four satellites in attendance upon 
him4 ,scheiner counted five1 ,rheita    
nine1 and other observers increased the 
number to twelve4 ,but it was found to  
be quite as hazardous to exceed the     
number stated by ,galileo as it was to  
deny the existence of any2 for1 when    
,jupiter had traversed a short distance 
of his path among the fixed stars1 the  

only bodies that accompanied him were   
his four original attendants1 which     
continued to revolve round him with     
unerring regularity in every part of his
 orbit4  ,galileo did not afford his    
opponents much time to oppose or        
controvert with argument the discoveries
 made by him with the telescope before  
his announcement of a new one attracted 
public attention from those already     
known4 ,he1 however1 exercised greater  
caution in disclosing the results of his
 observations1 as other persons laid    
claim to having made similar discoveries
 prior to the time at which his were    
announced4 ,he therefore adopted a      
method in common use among astronomers  
in those days1 by which the letters in a
 sentence announcing a discovery were   
transposed so as to form an anagram4    
,galileo announced his next discovery in
 this manner1 and which read as         
follows3--      ,smaismrmilme poeta     
leumi bvne nugttaviras4  ,this1 when    
deciphered1 formed the sentence3--      

,altissimum planetam tergeminum         
observavi4      ,i have observed that   
the remotest planet is triple4  ,galileo
 perceived that ,saturn presented a     
triform appearance1 and that1 instead of
 one body1 there were three1 all in a   
straight line1 and apparently in contact
 with each other1 the middle one being  
larger than the two lateral ones4 ,in a 
letter to ,kepler he remarked3 ',now ,i 
have discovered a ,court for ,jupiter1  
and two servants for this old man1 who  
aid his steps and never quit his side4' 
,kepler1 who excelled as an imaginative 
writer1 replied3 ',i will not make an   
old man of ,saturn1 nor slaves of his   
attendant globes2 but rather let this   
tricorporate form be ,geryon--so shall  
,galileo be ,hercules1 and the telescope
 his club1 armed with which he has      
conquered that distant planet1 and      
dragged him from the remotest depths of 
,nature1 and exposed him to the view of 
all4' ,continuing his observations1     
,galileo perceived that the two lateral 

objects gradually decreased in size1 and
 at the expiration of two years entirely
 disappeared1 leaving the central globe 
visible only4 ,he was unable to assign  
any reason for this peculiar occurrence1
 which caused him much perplexity1 and  
he expresses himself thus3 ',what is to 
be said concerning so strange a         
metamorphosis8 ,are the two lesser stars
 consumed after the manner of the solar 
spots8 ,have they vanished and suddenly 
fled8 ,has ,saturn1 perhaps1 devoured   
his own children8 ,or were the          
appearances1 indeed1 illusion or fraud1 
with which the glasses have so long     
deceived me1 as well as many others to  
whom ,i have shown them8 ,now1 perhaps1 
is the time to revive the well-nigh     
withered hopes of those who1 guided by  
more profound contemplations1 have      
discovered the fallacy of the new       
observations1 and demonstrated the utter
 impossibility of their existence4 ,i do
 not know what to say in a case so      
surprising1 so unlooked-for1 and so     

novel4 ,the shortness of the time1 the  
unexpected nature of the event1 the     
weakness of my understanding1 and the   
fear of being mistaken1 have greatly    
confounded me4' ,after a certain        
interval those bodies reappeared2 but   
,galileo's glass was not sufficiently   
powerful to enable him to ascertain     
their nature nor solve the mystery1     
which for upwards of half a century     
perplexed the ablest astronomers4  ,the 
elucidation of this inexplicable        
phenomenon was reserved for ,christian  
,huygens1 who1 with an improved         
telescope of his own construction1 was  
able to declare that ,saturn's          
appendages were portions of a ring which
 surrounds the planet1 and is everywhere
 distinct from its surface4  ,galileo   
next directed his attention to the      
planet ,venus1 and as a result of his   
observations was led to communicate to  
the public another anagram3--      ,haec
 immatura a me jam frustra leguntur oy4 
,this1 when rendered correctly1 reads3--

      ,cynthiae figuras aemulatur mater 
amorum4      ,venus rivals the          
appearances of the ,moon4  ,the phases  
of ,venus were one of the most          
interesting of ,galileo's discoveries   
with the telescope4 ,when observed near 
inferior conjunction the planet presents
 the appearance of a slender crescent1  
resembling the ,moon when a few days    
old4 ,travelling from this point to     
superior conjunction1 the illumined     
portion of her disc gradually increases1
 until it becomes circular1 like the    
full ,moon4 ,this changing appearance of
 ,venus afforded ,galileo irresistible  
proof that the planet is an opaque body1
 which derives its light from the ,sun1 
and that it circles round the           
orb--convincing evidence of the accuracy
 and truthfulness of the ,copernican    
theory4  ,it was in this manner that    
,galileo announced his discovery of the 
phases of ,venus1 the peerless planet of
 our morning and evening skies1 whose   
slender crescent forms such a beautiful 

object in the telescope1 and who1 as she
 traverses her orbit1 exhibits all the  
varied changes of form presented by the 
,moon in her monthly journey round the  
,earth4 ,these varying aspects of ,venus
 were not unknown to ,milton2 and1      
indeed1 he may have been informed of    
them by ,galileo in his conversation    
with him at ,arcetri2 nor has he failed 
to introduce an allusion to this        
beautiful phenomenon in his poem4 ,in   
his description of the ,creation1 after 
the ,sun was formed1 he adds3--         
,hither1 as to their fountain1 other    
stars     ,repairing1 in their golden   
urns draw light1     ,and hence the     
morning planet gilds her horns4--vii4   
#cfd-ff4  ,galileo also discovered that 
the planet ,mars does not always present
 the appearance of a circular disc4     
,when near opposition the full disc of  
the planet is visible1 but at all other 
times it is gibbous1 and approaches     
nearest to that of a half-moon when at  
the quadratures4  ,in the year #afaj1 on

 directing his telescope to the ,sun1   
,galileo detected dark spots on the     
solar disc4 ,similar spots1 sufficiently
 large to be distinguished by the naked 
eye1 had been observed from time to time
 for centuries prior to the invention of
 the telescope1 but nothing was known of
 their nature4 ,in #afji ,kepler        
observed a spot on the ,sun1 which he   
thought was the planet ,mercury in      
conjunction with the orb2 the short time
 during which it was visible1 in        
consequence of clouds having obscured   
the face of the luminary1 prevented him 
from being able to determine the        
accuracy of his surmise1 but since then 
it has been ascertained that no transit 
of ,mercury took place at that time1 and
 ,kepler afterwards acknowledged that he
 had arrived at an erroneous conclusion4
 ,galileo was much puzzled in trying to 
find out the true nature of the spots4  
,at first he was led to imagine that    
planets like ,mercury and ,venus        
revolved round the ,sun at a short      

distance from the orb1 and that their   
dark bodies1 travelling across the solar
 disc1 gave rise to the phenomenon of   
the spots4 ,after further observation1  
he ascertained that the spots were in   
actual contact with the ,sun2 that they 
were irregular in shape and size1 and   
continued to appear and disappear4      
,sometimes a large spot would break up  
into several smaller ones1 and at other 
times three or four small spots would   
unite to form a large one4 ,they all had
 a common motion1 and appeared to rotate
 with the ,sun1 from which ,galileo     
concluded that the orb rotated on his   
axis in about twenty-eight days4        
,galileo believed that the spots were   
clouds floating in the solar atmosphere1
 and that they intercepted a portion of 
the light of the ,sun4  ,the ,milky     
,way1 that wondrous zone of light which 
encircles the heavens1 remained for many
 ages a source of perplexity to ancient 
astronomers and philosophers1 who1 in   
their endeavours to ascertain its       

nature1 had arrived at various absurd   
and erroneous conclusions4 ,on directing
 his telescope to this luminous tract1  
,galileo discovered1 to his             
inexpressible admiration1 that it       
consists of a vast multitude of stars1  
too minute to be visible to the naked   
eye4 ,he also discerned that its milky  
luminosity is created by the blended    
light of myriads of stars1 so remote as 
to be incapable of definition by his    
telescope4 ,in his ',nuncius ,sidereus' 
he gives an account of his observations 
of the ,galaxy and expresses his        
satisfaction that he has been enabled to
 terminate an ancient controversy by    
demonstrating to the senses the stellar 
structure of the ,milky ,way4 ,when     
engaged in exploring the celestial      
regions with his telescope1 ,galileo    
observed a marked difference in the     
appearance of the fixed stars1 as       
compared with that of the planets4 ,each
 of the latter showed a rounded disc    
resembling that of a small moon1 but the

 stars exhibited no disc1 and shone as  
vivid sparkling points of light2 all of 
them1 whether of large or small         
magnitude1 presenting the same          
appearance in the telescope4 ,this led  
him to conclude that the fixed stars    
were not illumined by the ,sun1 because 
their brilliancy in all their changes of
 position remained unaltered4 ,but1 in  
the case of the planets1 he found that  
their lustre varied according to their  
distance from the ,sun2 consequently1 he
 believed they were opaque bodies which 
reflected the solar rays4 ,on directing 
his telescope to the ,pleiades1 which1  
to the naked eye1 appear as a group of  
seven stars1 he succeeded in counting   
forty lucid points4 ,the nebula         
,praesepe in ,cancer1 he was also able  
to resolve into a cluster of stars4     
,galileo made many other observations of
 the heavenly bodies with his telescope1
 all of which he describes as having    
afforded him 'incredible delight4'      
,shortly before the failure of his      

eyesight1 ,galileo discovered the       
,moon's diurnal libration1 a variation  
in the visible edges of the ,moon caused
 by its oscillatory motion1 and the     
diurnal rotation of the ,earth on her   
axis4  ,though ,milton has not favoured 
us with any interesting details of his  
interview with ,galileo1 nor expressed  
his opinions with regard to the         
controversies which at that time        
agitated both the religious and         
scientific worlds of thought1 and which 
eventually culminated in a storm of     
rancour and hatred that burst over the  
devoted head of the aged astronomer1 and
 brought him to his knees1 yet he       
informs us that he 'found and visited'  
,galileo1 whom he describes as 'grown   
old1' and cynically remarks that he 'was
 held a prisoner of the ,inquisition for
 thinking in astronomy otherwise than   
the ,franciscan and ,dominican licensers
 thought4' ,milton does not allude to   
his blindness1 and yet it would be      
natural to imagine that1 had his host   

suffered from this affliction at the    
time of his visit1 he would have        
referred to it4 ,we learn that ,milton  
arrived in ,italy in the spring of      
#afch4 ,in #afcg1 the affection which1  
in the preceding year1 deprived ,galileo
 of the use of his right eye1 attacked  
the left also1 which began to grow dim1 
and in the course of a few months became
 sightless2 so that1 although ,milton   
has not alluded to this calamity1       
,galileo had become totally blind at the
 time of his visit4  ,how much ,milton  
was impressed with the fame of ,galileo 
and his telescope becomes apparent on   
referring to his ',paradise ,lost4' ,in 
it he alludes to the instrument upon    
three different occasions1 twice when in
 the hands of ,galileo2 and the         
remembrance of the same artist was      
doubtless in his mind when he mentions  
the 'glazed optic tube' in another part 
of his poem4 ,the interval that elapsed 
from the date of ,milton's visit to     
,galileo in #afch1 to the publication of

 ',paradise ,lost' in #affg1 included a 
period of about thirty years1 yet this  
length of time did not erase from       
,milton's memory his recollection of    
,galileo and of his pleasant sojourn at 
,florence4  ,the first allusion in the  
poem to the ,italian astronomer is in   
the lines in which ,milton describes the
 shield carried by ,satan3--            
,the broad circumference     ,hung on   
his shoulders like the ,moon1 whose orb 
,through optic glass the ,tuscan artist 
views     ,at evening1 from the top of  
,fesole1     ,or in ,valdarno1 to descry
 new lands1     ,rivers1 or mountains1  
in her spotty globe4--i4 #bhf-ia4       
,galileo is described as having observed
 the ,moon from the heights of ,fesole1 
which formed part of the suburbs of     
,florence1 or from ,valdarno1 the valley
 of the ,arno1 in which the city is     
situated4 ,the belief that ,galileo had 
discovered continents and seas on the   
,moon justified ,milton in imagining the
 existence of rivers and mountains on   

the lunar surface4 ,the expression      
'spotty globe' is more descriptive of   
the appearance of our satellite when    
observed with the telescope1 than when  
seen with the naked eye4 ,galileo's     
attention was attracted by the freckled 
aspect of the ,moon--a visual effect    
created by the number of extinct        
volcanoes scattered over the surface of 
the orb4  ,in his next allusion to the  
telescope ,milton associates ,galileo's 
name with the instrument3--             
,as when by night the glass     ,of     
,galileo1 less assured1 observes        
,imagined lands and regions in the      
,moon4--v4 #bfa-fc4  ,in these lines    
,milton describes with accuracy the     
extent of ,galileo's knowledge of our   
satellite4 ,the conclusions which the   
,italian astronomer arrived at with     
regard to its habitability were not     
supported by telescopic evidence        
sufficient to justify such a belief4    
,galileo writes3 ',had its surface been 
absolutely smooth it would have been but

 a vast1 unblessed desert1 void of      
animals1 of plants1 of cities and men2  
the abode of silence and                
inaction--senseless1 lifeless1 soulless1
 and stripped of all those ornaments    
which now render it so variable and so  
beautiful3'--      ,there lands the     
,fiend1 a spot like which perhaps       
,astronomer in the ,sun's lucent orb    
,through his glazed optic tube yet never
 saw4--iii4 #ehh-ij4  ,milton may have  
remembered that ,galileo was the first  
astronomer who directed a telescope to  
the ,sun2 and that he discovered the    
dark spots frequently seen on the solar 
disc4  ,anyone who has read a history of
 the life of ,galileo1 and contemplated 
the career of this remarkable man1 his  
ardent struggles in the cause of freedom
 and philosophic truth1 his victories   
and reverses1 his brilliant astronomical
 discoveries1 and his investigation of  
the laws of motion1 and other natural   
phenomena1 will arrive at the conclusion
 that he merited the distinction        

conferred upon him by our great ,english
 poet1 when he included him among the   
renowned few whose names are found in   
the pages of ',paradise ,lost4'         
,,chapter ,v  ,,the ,,seasons   ,the    
great path of the ,sun among the        
constellations as seen from the ,earth  
is called the ,ecliptic4 ,it is divided 
into #cfj deg41 and again into twelve   
equal parts of #cj deg41 called ,signs4 
,as one half of the ecliptic is north1  
and the other half south1 of the        
equator1 the line of intersection of    
their planes is at two points which are 
known as the equinoctial points1        
because1 when the ,sun on his upward and
 downward journey arrives at either of  
them the days and nights are of equal   
length all over the world4 ,the         
equinoctial points are not stationary1  
but have a westerly motion of #ej''     
annually along the ecliptic2 at this    
rate they will require a period of      
#be1hfh years to complete an entire     
circuit of the heavens4  ,milton alludes

 to the ecliptic when he mentions the   
arrival of ,satan upon the ,earth3--    
,down from the ecliptic1 sped with hoped
 success1     ,throws his steep flight  
in many an airy wheel1     ,nor staid   
till on ,niphates top he lights4--iii4  
#gdj-db4  ,extending for #i deg4 on each
 side of the ecliptic is a zone or belt 
called the ,zodiac1 the mesial line of  
which is occupied by the ,sun1 and      
within this space the principal planets 
perform their annual revolutions4 ,it   
was for long believed that the paths of 
all the planets lay within the zodiac1  
but on the discovery of the minor       
planets1 ,ceres1 ,pallas1 and ,juno1 it 
was ascertained that they travelled     
beyond this zone4 ,the stars situated   
within the zodiac are divided into      
twelve groups or constellations1 which  
correspond with the twelve signs1 and   
each is named after an animal or some   
figure which it is supposed to resemble4
 ,the zodiac is of great antiquity2 the 
ancient ,egyptians and ,hindoos made use

 of it1 and there are allusions to it in
 the earliest astronomical records4 ,the
 twelve constellations of the zodiac    
bear the following names3--  ,aries the 
,ram ,taurus the ,bull ,gemini the      
,twins ,cancer the ,crab ,leo the ,lion 
,virgo the ,virgin ,libra the ,balance  
,scorpio the ,scorpion ,sagittarius the 
,archer ,capricornus the ,goat ,aquarius
 the ,water-bearer ,pisces the ,fishes  
,in close association with the ,sun's   
annual journey are the seasons1 upon the
 regular sequence of which mankind      
depend for the various products of the  
soil essential for the maintenance and  
enjoyment of life4 ,the revolution of   
the ,earth in her orbit1 and the        
inclination of her axis to her annual   
path1 causing the plane of the equator  
to be inclined #bc-a_/b deg4 to that of 
the ecliptic1 are the reasons which     
account for the succession of the       
seasons--,spring1 ,summer1 ,autumn1 and 
,winter4 ,owing to the position of the  
,earth's axis with regard to her orbit1 

the ,sun appears to travel #bc-a_/b deg4
 north and #bc-a_/b deg4 south of the   
equator4 ,when1 on ,june #ba1 the orb   
attains his highest northern altitude1  
we have the summer solstice and the     
longest days2 when1 by retracing his    
steps1 he declines #bc-a_/b deg4 below  
the equator1 at which point he arrives  
on ,december #ba1 we have the winter    
solstice and the shortest days4         
,intermediate between those two seasons 
are spring and autumn4 ,when the ,sun1  
on his journey northward1 reaches the   
equator1 we have the vernal equinox1 and
 at this period of the year the days and
 nights are of equal length all over the
 globe4 ,in a similar manner1 when1 on  
his return journey1 the ,sun is again on
 the equator1 the autumnal equinox      
occurs4 ,in summer the ,north ,pole is  
inclined towards the ,sun1 consequently 
his rays fall more direct and impart    
much more heat to the northern          
hemisphere than in winter1 when the     
,pole is turned away from the ,sun4     

,this difference in the incidence of the
 solar rays upon the surface of the     
globe1 along with the increased length  
of the day1 mainly accounts for the high
 temperature of summer as compared with 
that of winter4  ,astronomically1 the   
seasons commence at the periods of the  
equinoxes and solstices4 ,spring begins 
on ,march #ba1 the time of the vernal   
equinox2 summer on ,june #ba1 at the    
summer solstice2 autumn on ,september   
#bb1 at the autumnal equinox2 and winter
 on ,december #ba1 at the winter        
solstice4 ,this conventional division of
 the year is not equally applicable to  
all parts of the globe4 ,in the arctic  
and antarctic regions spring and autumn 
are very brief1 the summer is short and 
the winter of long duration4 ,in the    
tropics1 owing to the comparatively     
slight difference in the obliquity of   
the ,sun's rays1 one season is1 as      
regards temperature1 not much different 
from the other2 but in the temperate    
regions of the ,earth the vicissitudes  

of the seasons are more perceptible and 
can be best distinguished by the growth 
of vegetation1 and the changes          
observable in the foliage of shrubs and 
trees4 ,in spring there is the budding1 
in summer the blossom1 in autumn the    
fruit-bearing1 and in winter the        
leafless condition of deciduous trees1  
and the repose of vegetable life4  ,the 
legendary belief that before the ,fall  
there reigned on the ,earth a perpetual 
spring1 is introduced by ,milton in his 
poem when he describes the pleasant     
surroundings associated with the happy  
conditions of life that existed in      
,paradise3--                            
,thus was this place1     ,a happy rural
 seat of various view3     ,groves whose
 rich trees wept odorous gums and balm2 
,others whose fruit1 burnished with     
golden rind1     ,hung                  
amiable--,hesperian fables true1     ,if
 true here only--and of delicious taste4
     ,betwixt them lawns1 or level      
downs1 and flocks     ,grazing the      

tender herb1 were interposed1     ,or   
palmy hillock2 or the flowery lap       
,of some irriguous valley spread her    
store1     ,flowers of all hue1 and     
without thorn the rose4     ,another    
side1 umbrageous grots and caves     ,of
 cool recess1 o'er which the mantling   
vine     ,lays forth her purple grape1  
and gently creeps     ,luxuriant2       
meanwhile murmuring waters fall         
,down the slope hill dispersed1 or in a 
lake     ,that to the fringed bank with 
myrtle crowned     ,her crystal mirror  
holds1 unite their streams4     ,the    
birds their quire apply2 airs1 vernal   
airs1     ,breathing the smell of field 
and grove1 attune     ,the trembling    
leaves1 while universal ,pan1     ,knit 
with the ,graces and the ,hours in      
dance1     ,led on the eternal          
,spring4--iv4 #bdf-fh4  ,in sad contrast
 with this charming sylvan scene1 we    
turn to the unhappy consequences which  
ensued as a result of the first act of  
transgression4 ,milton describes a      

change of climate characterised by      
extremes of heat and cold which         
succeeded the perpetual spring4 ,the    
,sun was made to shine so that the      
,earth should be exposed to torrid heat 
and icy cold unpleasant to endure4 ,the 
pale ,moon and the planets were given   
power to combine with noxious effect1   
and the fixed stars to shed their       
malignant influences3--                 
,the ,sun     ,had first his precept so 
to move1 so shine1     ,as might affect 
the ,earth with cold and heat           
,scarce tolerable1 and from the north to
 call     ,decrepit winter1 from the    
south to bring     ,solstitial summer's 
heat4 ,to the blanc ,moon     ,her      
office they prescribed2 to the other    
five     ,their planetary motions and   
aspects1     ,in sextile1 square1 and   
trine1 and opposite1     ,of noxious    
efficacy1 and when to join     ,in synod
 unbenign2 and taught the fixed         
,their influence malignant when to      
shower--     ,which of them rising with 

the ,sun or falling1     ,should prove  
tempestuous4 ,to the winds they set     
,their corners1 when with bluster to    
confound     ,sea1 air1 and shore2 the  
thunder when to roll     ,with terror   
through the dark aerial hall4--x4       
#fea-fg4  ,we are here afforded an      
opportunity of learning that ,milton    
possessed some knowledge of astrology1  
to which he makes allusion in other     
parts of his poem besides4 ,in his time1
 astrology was believed in by many      
persons1 and there were few learned men 
but who knew something of that occult   
science4 ,milton may be included among  
those who devoted some attention to     
astrology4 ,of this there is ample      
evidence1 by the manner in which he     
expresses himself in words and phrases  
in common use among astrologers4  ,the  
professors of this art recognised five  
planetary aspects1 viz41 opposition1    
conjunction1 sextile1 square1 and trine1
 each possessing its peculiar kind of   
influence on events4 ,the ,moon1 the    

planets1 and the constellations in their
 conjunctions and configurations1 were  
believed to reveal to those who could   
understand the significance of their    
aspects1 the destiny of individuals and 
the occurrence of future events4 ,the   
inauspicious influences of the heavenly 
bodies are described by ,milton as      
contributing to the general             
disarrangement of the happy condition of
 things that existed before the ,fall4  
,after having described the adverse     
physical changes which occurred in      
,nature as a consequence of the ,fall1  
,milton makes use of his astronomical   
knowledge in explaining how they were   
brought about1 and suggests two         
hypotheses3 7#a7 a change of position of
 the ,earth's axis2 7#b7 an alteration  
of the ,sun's path from the equinoctial 
road3--      ,some say he bid his       
,angels turn askance     ,the poles of  
,earth twice ten degrees and more       
,from the ,sun's axle2 they with labour 
pushed     ,oblique the centric globe3  

some say the ,sun     ,was bid turn     
reins from the equinoctial road         
,like distant breadth--to ,taurus with  
the seven     ,atlantic ,sisters1 and   
the ,spartan ,twins1     ,up to the     
,tropic ,crab2 thence down amain     ,by
 ,leo1 and the ,virgin1 and the ,scales1
     ,as deep as ,capricorn2 to bring in
 change     ,of seasons to each clime4  
,else had the spring     ,perpetual     
smiled on ,earth with vernant           
flowers4--x4 #ffh-gi4  ,in support of   
the theory of a perpetual spring1       
,milton assumes that the ,earth's axis  
was directed at right angles to her     
orbit1 and that the plane of the equator
 coincided with that of the ecliptic4   
,consequently1 the ,sun's path remained 
always on the equator1 where his rays   
were vertical1 and north and south of   
this line each locality on the ,earth   
enjoyed one constant season1 the        
character of which depended upon its    
geographical position4 ,in what are now 
the temperate regions of the globe there

 was one continuous season1 similar in  
climate and length of day to what is    
experienced at the vernal equinox1 when 
the ,sun is for a few days on the       
equator4 ,there was then no winter1 no  
summer1 nor autumn2 and1 consequently1  
the growth of vegetation must have taken
 place under conditions of climate      
entirely different to what exist on the 
,earth at the present time4  ,the change
 of position of the ,earth's axis1      
'twice ten degrees and more from the    
,sun's axle1' is described by ,milton as
 having been accomplished by the might  
of angels1 who 'with labour pushed      
oblique the centric globe4'  7#b7       
,according to the ,ptolemaic belief1 the
 ,sun revolved round the ,earth1 but his
 course was altered from the equinoctial
 road to the path that he now pursues1  
which is the ecliptic4 ,instead of      
remaining on the equator1 he travels an 
equal distance from this line upwards   
and downwards in each hemisphere4  ,the 
path of the ,sun in the heavens is      

described by ,milton with marked        
precision1 and he mentions in regular   
order the names of the zodiacal         
constellations through which the orb    
travels4 ,passing through ,taurus with  
the seven ,atlantic ,sisters 7the       
,pleiades7 and the ,spartan ,twins      
7,gemini71 he enters the ,tropic ,crab  
7,cancer71 in which constellation he    
attains his highest northern altitude2  
thence downwards he travels through     
,leo1 ,virgo1 and the ,scales 7,libra71 
as deep as ,capricornus1 reaching his   
lowest point of declination at the      
winter solstice2 and were it not for    
this alteration of the ,sun's path1 the 
poet informs us that perpetual spring   
would have reigned upon the ,earth4     
,milton was evidently well acquainted   
with the astronomical reasons 7the      
revolution of the ,earth in her orbit   
and the obliquity of the ecliptic7 by   
which the occurrence and regular        
sequence of the seasons can be          
explained4  ,the path of the ,sun in the

 heavens2 his upward and downward course
 from the equator2 the names of the     
constellations through which the orb    
travels1 and the periods of the year at 
which he enters them1 were also familiar
 to him4  ,the grateful change of the   
seasons1 and the varied aspects of      
nature peculiar to each1 which give a   
charm and freshness to the rolling year1
 must have been to ,milton a source of  
pleasure and delight1 and have          
stimulated his poetic fancy4  ,his      
observation of natural phenomena1 and   
his keen perception of the pleasing     
changes which accompany them1 are       
described in the following lines3--     
,as1 when from mountain-tops the dusky  
clouds     ,ascending1 while the north  
wind sleeps1 o'erspread     ,heaven's   
cheerful face1 the louring element      
,scowls o'er the darkened landskip snow 
or shower1     ,if chance the radiant   
,sun1 with farewell sweet1     ,extend  
his evening beam1 the fields revive1    
,the birds their notes renew1 and       

bleating herds     ,attest their joy1   
that hill and valley rings4--ii4        
#dhh-ie4  ,the ancient poets ,virgil and
 ,ovid describe the ,earth as having    
been created in the spring2 and         
associated with this season1 which      
to the heart inspires     ,vernal       
delight and joy--iv4 #aed-ee1  were the 
,graces and the ,hours1 which danced    
hand in hand as they led on the eternal 
,spring4  ,milton alludes to the seasons
 on several occasions throughout his    
poem1 and to the natural phenomena      
associated with them3--                 
,as bees     ,in springtime when the    
,sun with ,taurus rides1     ,pour forth
 their populous youth about the hive    
,in clusters2 they among fresh dews and 
flowers     ,fly to and fro1 or on the  
smoothed plank     ,the suburb of their 
straw-built citadel     ,new rubbed with
 balm1 expatiate and confer     ,their  
state affairs4--i4 #gfh-ge4  ,the ,sun  
is in the constellation ,taurus in      
,april1 when the warmth of his rays     

begins to impart new life and activity  
to the insect world after their long    
winter's sleep4  ,in his description of 
the repast partaken by the ,angel       
,raphael with ,adam and ,eve in         
,paradise1 ,milton writes3--            
,raised of grassy turf     ,their table 
was1 and mossy seats had round1     ,and
 on her ample square1 from side to side1
     ,all ,autumn piled1 though ,spring 
and ,autumn here     ,danced hand in    
hand4--v4 #cia-ie4  ,in describing      
,beelzebub when about to address the    
,stygian ,council1 he says3--           
,his look     ,drew audience and        
attention still as night     ,or        
summer's noontide air1 while thus he    
spake4--ii4 #cjg-cji4  ,the failing     
vision from which ,milton suffered in   
his declining years was succeeded by    
total blindness4 ,this sad affliction he
 alludes to in the following lines3--   
,thus with the year     ,seasons return2
 but not to me returns     ,day1 or the 
sweet approach of even or morn1     ,or 

sight of vernal bloom1 or summer's      
rose4--iii4 #dj-dc4  ,we are able to    
perceive how much ,milton was impressed 
with the beautiful seasons1 and the     
varying aspects of the year which       
accompany them1 and how his poetic      
imagination luxuriated in the changing  
variety of nature observable in earth   
and sky that from day to day afforded   
him exquisite delight2 and1 although his
 poem was written when blindness had    
overtaken him1 yet those glad           
remembrances remained as fresh in his   
memory as when in his youth he roamed   
among the flowery meadows1 the vocal    
woodlands1 and the winding lanes of     
,buckinghamshire4  ,the idea expressed  
by ,milton that the primitive earth     
enjoyed a perpetual spring1 though      
pleasing to the imagination1 and well   
adapted for poetic description1 is not  
sustained by any astronomical testimony4
 ,indeed1 the position of the ,earth1   
with her axis at right angles to her    
orbit1 is one which may be regarded as  

being ill adapted for the support and   
maintenance of life on her surface1 just
 as her present position is the best    
that can be imagined for fulfilling this
 purpose4  ,astronomy teaches us to rely
 with certainty upon the permanence and 
regular sequence of the seasons4 ,the   
position of the ,earth's axis as she    
speeds along in her orbit through the   
unresisting ether remains unchanged1 and
 her rapid rotation has the effect of   
increasing its stability4 ,yet1 the     
,earth performs none of her motions with
 rigid precision1 and there is a very   
slow alteration of the position of her  
axis occurring1 which1 if unchecked1    
would eventually produce a coincidence  
of the equator and the ecliptic4        
,instead of a succession of the seasons1
 there would then be perpetual spring   
upon the ,earth1 and1 although it would 
require a great epoch of time to bring  
about such a change1 there would result 
a condition of things entirely different
 to what now exists on the globe4 ,but1 

before the ecliptic can have approached 
sufficiently near the equator to produce
 any appreciable effect upon the climate
 of the ,earth1 its motion must cease1  
and after remaining stationary for a    
time1 it will begin to recede to its    
former position4 ,the seasons must      
therefore follow each other in regular  
sequence1 and throughout all time1      
reminding us of the promise of the      
,creator1 'that while the ,earth        
remaineth seed-time and harvest1 and    
cold and heat1 and summer and winter    
shall not cease4'     ,,chapter ,,vi    
,,the ,,starry ,,heavens   ,the         
celestial vault1 that1 like a circling  
canopy of sapphire hue1 stretches       
overhead from horizon to horizon1       
resplendent by night with myriad stars  
of different magnitudes and varied      
brilliancy1 forming clusterings and     
configurations of fantastic shape and   
beauty1 arrests the attention of the    
most casual observer4 ,but to one who   
has studied the heavens1 and followed   

the efforts of human genius in          
unravelling the mysteries associated    
with those bright orbs1 the impression  
created on his mind as he gazes upon    
them in the still hours of the night1   
when the turmoil of life is hushed in   
repose1 is one of wonder and longing to 
know more of their being and the hidden 
causes which brought them forth4 ,here1 
we have poetry written in letters of    
gold on the sable vestment of night2    
music in the gliding motion of the      
spheres2 and harmony in the orbital     
sweep of sun1 planet1 and satellite4    
,milton was not only familiar with 'the 
face of the sky1' as it is popularly    
called1 but also knew the structure of  
the celestial sphere1 and the great     
circles by which it is circumscribed4   
,two of those--the colures--he alludes  
to in the following lines1 when he      
describes the manner in which ,satan1 to
 avoid detection1 compassed the ,earth1 
after his discovery by ,gabriel in      
,paradise1 and his flight thence3--     

,the space of seven continued nights he 
rode     ,with darkness--thrice the     
equinoctial line     ,he circled1 four  
times crossed the car of night     ,from
 pole to pole1 traversing each          
colure4--ix4 #fc-ff4  ,aristarchus of   
,samos believed the stars were golden   
studs1 that illumined the crystal dome  
of heaven2 but modern research has      
transformed this conception of the      
ancient astronomer's into a universe of 
blazing suns rushing through regions of 
illimitable space4 ,in ,milton's time   
astronomers had arrived at no definite  
conclusion with regard to the nature of 
the stars4 ,they were known to be       
self-luminous bodies1 situated at a     
remote distance in space1 but it had not
 been ascertained with any degree of    
certainty that they were suns1          
resembling in magnitude and brilliancy  
our ,sun4 ,indeed1 little was known of  
those orbs until within the past hundred
 years1 when the exploration of the     
heavens by the aid of greatly increased 

telescopic power1 was the means of      
creating a new branch of astronomical   
science1 called sidereal astronomy4  ,we
 are indebted to ,sir ,william          
,herschel1 more than to any other       
astronomer1 for our knowledge of the    
stellar universe4 ,it was he who        
ascertained the vastness of its         
dimensions1 and attempted to delineate  
its structural configuration4 ,he also  
explored the star depths1 which occupy  
the infinitude of space by which we are 
surrounded1 and made many wonderful     
discoveries1 which testify to his       
ability as an observer1 and to his      
greatness as an astronomer4  ,william   
,herschel was born at ,hanover1         
,november #ae1 #agch4 ,his father was a 
musician in the band of the ,hanoverian 
,guard1 and trained his son in his own  
profession4 ,after four years of        
military service1 young ,herschel       
arrived in ,england when nineteen years 
of age1 and maintained himself by giving
 lessons in music4 ,we hear of him first

 at ,leeds1 where he followed his       
profession1 and instructed the band of  
the ,durham ,militia4 ,from ,leeds he   
went to ,halifax1 and was appointed     
organist there2 on the expiration of    
twelve months he removed to ,bath1 and  
was elected to a similar post at the    
,octagon ,chapel in that city4 ,here1   
fortune smiled upon him1 and he became a
 busy and prosperous man4 ,besides      
attending to his numerous private       
engagements1 he organised concerts1     
oratorios1 and other public musical     
entertainments1 which gained him much   
popularity among the cultivated classes 
which frequented this fashionable       
resort4 ,notwithstanding his numerous   
professional engagements1 ,herschel was 
able to devote a portion of his time to 
acquiring knowledge on other subjects4  
,he became proficient in ,italian and   
,greek1 studied mathematics1 and read   
books on astronomy4 ,in #aggc he        
borrowed a small telescope1 which he    
used for observational purposes1 and was

 so captivated with the appearances     
presented by the celestial bodies1 that 
he resolved to dedicate his life to     
acquiring 'a knowledge of the           
construction of the heavens4' ,this     
resolution he nobly adhered to1 and     
became one of the most distinguished of 
astronomers4 ,like many other           
astronomers1 ,herschel possessed the    
requisite skill which enabled him to    
construct his own telescopes4 ,being    
desirous of possessing a more powerful  
instrument1 and not having the means to 
purchase one1 he commenced the          
manufacture of specula1 the grinding and
 polishing of which had to be done by   
hand1 entailing the necessity of tedious
 labour and the exercise of much        
patience4 ,after repeated failures he at
 length completed a #e-a_/b-;foot       
,gregorian reflector1 and with this     
instrument made his first survey of the 
heavens4 ,having perceived the          
desirability of possessing a more       
powerful telescope1 he equipped himself 

with a reflector of twenty feet focal   
length1 and it was with this instrument 
that he made those wonderful discoveries
 which established his reputation as a  
great astronomer4  ,on ,march #ca1      
#agha1 when examining the stars in the  
constellation ,gemini1 ,herschel        
observed a star which presented an      
appearance slightly different to that of
 the other stars by which it was        
surrounded2 it looked larger1 had a     
perceptible disc1 and its light became  
fainter when viewed with a higher       
magnifying power4 ,after having         
carefully examined this object1         
,herschel arrived at the conclusion that
 he had discovered a comet4 ,he         
communicated intelligence of his        
discovery to the ,royal ,society1 and1 a
 notification of it having been sent to 
the ,continental observatories1 this    
celestial visitor was subjected to a    
close scrutiny2 its progressive motion  
among the stars was carefully observed1 
and an orbit was assigned to it4 ,after 

it had been under observation for some  
time1 doubts were expressed as to its   
being a comet1 these were increased on  
further examination1 and eventually it  
was discovered that this interesting    
object was a new planet4 ,this important
 discovery at once raised ,herschel to a
 position of eminence and distinction1  
and from a star-gazing musician he      
became a famous astronomer4 ,a new      
planet named ,uranus was added to our   
system1 which completes a revolution    
round the ,sun in a little over         
eighty-four years1 and at a distance of 
near #a1jjj millions of miles beyond the
 orbit of ,saturn4 ,herschel's name     
became a household word4 ,george ,,iii4 
invited him to ,court in order that he  
might obtain from his own lips an       
account of his discovery of the new     
planet2 and so favourable was the       
impression made by ,herschel upon the   
,king1 that he proposed to create him   
,royal ,astronomer at ,windsor1 and     
bestow upon him a salary of #bjjl4 a    

year4 ,herschel decided to accept the   
proffered appointment1 and1 with his    
sister ,caroline1 removed from ,bath to 
,datchet1 near ,windsor1 in #aghb1 and  
from there to ,slough in #aghf4 ,in     
#aghh he married the wealthy widow of a 
,london merchant1 by whom he had one    
son1 who worthily sustained his father's
 high reputation as an astronomer4      
,herschel was created a ,knight in      
#ahaf1 and in #ahba was elected first   
,president of the ,royal ,astronomical  
,society4 ,he died at ,slough on ,august
 #be1 #ahbb1 when in the eighty-fourth  
year of his age1 and was buried in      
,upton ,churchyard4  ,it is inscribed on
 his tomb1 that 'he burst the barriers  
of heaven2' the lofty praise conveyed by
 this expression is not greater than    
what ,herschel merited when we consider 
with what unwearied assiduity and       
patience he laboured to accomplish the  
results described in the words which    
have been quoted4 ,by a method called   
'star-gauging' he accomplished an entire

 survey of the heavens and examined     
minutely all the stars in their groups  
and aggregations as they passed before  
his eye in the field of the telescope4  
,he sounded the depths of the ,milky    
,way1 and explored the wondrous regions 
of that shining zone1 peopled with      
myriads of suns so closely aggregated in
 some of its tracts as to suggest the   
appearance of a mosaic of stars4 ,he    
resolved numerous nebulae into clusters 
of stars1 and penetrated with his great 
telescope depth after depth of space    
crowded with 'island universes of       
stars1' beyond which he was able to     
discern luminous haze and filmy streaks 
of light1 the evidence of the existence 
of other universes plunged in depths    
still more profound1 where space verges 
on infinity4 ,in his exploration of the 
starry heavens ,herschel's labours were 
truly amazing4 ,on four different       
occasions he completed a survey of the  
firmament1 and counted the stars in     
several thousand gauge-fields2 he       

discovered #b1djj nebulae1 #hjj double  
stars1 and attempted to ascertain the   
approximate distances of the stars by a 
comparison of their relative brightness4
  ,it had long been surmised1 though no 
actual proof was forthcoming1 that the  
law of gravitation by which the order   
and stability of our system are         
maintained exercises its potent         
influence over other material bodies    
existing in space1 and that other       
systems1 though differing in many       
respects from that of ours1 and         
presenting a more complex arrangement in
 their structure1 perform their motions 
subject to the guidance of this         
universal law4 ,the uncertainty with    
regard to the controlling influence of  
gravity was removed by ,herschel when he
 made his important discovery of binary 
star systems4 ,the components of a      
binary star are usually in such close   
proximity that1 to the naked eye1 they  
appear as one star1 and sometimes1 even 
with telescopic aid1 it is impossible to

 distinguish them individually2 but when
 observed with sufficient magnifying    
power they can be easily perceived as   
two lucid points4 ,double stars were for
 a long time believed to be a purely    
optical phenomenon--an effect created by
 two stars projected on the sphere so as
 to appear nearly in the same line of   
vision1 and1 although apparently almost 
in contact1 situated at great distances 
apart4 ,at one time ,herschel           
entertained a similar opinion with      
regard to those stars4 ,in #aggi he     
undertook an extensive exploration of   
the heavens with the object of          
discovering double stars4 ,as a result  
of his labours he presented to the      
,royal ,society in #aghb a list of #bfi 
newly discovered double stars1 and in   
three years after he supplemented this  
list with another which contained #dcd  
more new stars4 ,he carefully measured  
the distances by which the component    
stars were separated1 and determined    
their position angles1 in order that he 

might be able to detect the existence of
 any sensible parallax4 ,on repeating   
his observations twenty years after1 he 
discovered that the relative positions  
of many of the stars had changed1 and in
 #ahjb he made the important            
announcement of his discovery that the  
components of many double stars form    
independent systems1 held together in a 
mutual bond of union and revolving round
 one common centre of gravity4  ,the    
importance of this discovery1 which we  
owe to ,herschel's sagacity and accuracy
 of observation1 cannot be              
over-estimated2 what was previously     
conjecture and surmise1 now became      
precise knowledge established upon a    
sure and accurate basis4 ,it was        
ascertained that the law of gravity     
exerts its power in regulating and      
controlling the motions of all celestial
 bodies within the range of telescopic  
vision1 and that the order and harmony  
which pervade our system are equally    
present among other systems of suns and 

worlds distributed throughout the       
regions of space4 ,the spectacle of two 
or more suns revolving round each other1
 forming systems of greater magnitude   
and importance than that of ours1       
conveyed to the minds of astronomers a  
knowledge of the mechanism of the       
heavens which had hitherto been unknown 
to them4  ,during the many years which  
,herschel devoted to the exploration of 
the starry heavens1 and when engaged    
night after night in examining and      
enumerating the various groups and      
clusters of stars which passed before   
his eye in the field of his powerful    
telescope1 he did not fail to remember  
the sublime object of his life1 and to  
which he made all his other             
investigations subordinate1 viz41 the   
delineation of the structural           
configuration of the heavens1 and the   
inclusion of all aggregations1 groups1  
clusters1 and galaxies of stars which   
are apparently scattered promiscuously  
throughout the regions of space into one

 grand harmonious design of celestial   
architecture4  ,having this object in   
view1 he explored the wondrous zone of  
the ,milky ,way1 gauged its depths1     
measured its dimensions1 and1 in        
attempting to unravel the intricacies of
 its structure1 penetrated its recesses 
far beyond the limit attained by any    
other observer4 ,acting on the          
assumption that the stars are uniformly 
distributed throughout space1 ,herschel1
 by his method of star-gauging1         
concluded that the sidereal system      
consists of an irregular stratum of     
evenly distributed suns1 resembling in  
form a cloven flat disc1 and that the   
apparent richness of some regions as    
compared with that of others could be   
accounted for by the position from which
 it was viewed by an observer4 ,the     
stars would appear least numerous where 
the visual line was shortest1 and1 as it
 became lengthened1 they would increase 
in number until1 by crowding behind each
 other as a greater depth of stratum was

 penetrated1 they would1 when very      
remote1 present the appearance of a     
luminous cloud or zone of light4 ,after 
further observation ,herschel was       
compelled to relinquish his theory of   
equal star distribution1 and found1 as  
he approached the ,galaxy1 that the     
stars became much more numerous1 and    
that in the ,milky ,way itself there was
 evidence of the gravitation of stars   
towards certain regions forming         
aggregations and clusters which would   
ultimately lead to its breaking up into 
numerous separate sidereal systems4 ,as 
he extended his survey of the heavens   
and examined with greater minuteness the
 stellar regions in the ,galactic tract1
 he discovered that by his method of    
star-gauging he was unable to define the
 complexity of structure and variety of 
arrangement which came under his        
observation2 he also perceived that the 
star-depths are unfathomable1 and       
discerned that beyond the reach of his  
telescope there existed systems and     

galaxies of stars situated at an        
appalling distance in the abysmal depths
 of space4 ,though the magnitude of that
 portion of the sidereal heavens which  
came under his observation was          
inconceivable as regards its dimensions1
 ,herschel was able to perceive that it 
formed but a part--and most probably a  
small part--of the stellar universe1 and
 that without a more extended knowledge 
of this universe1 which at present is   
unattainable1 it would be impossible to 
determine its structural configuration  
or discover the relationships that exist
 among the sidereal systems and         
,galactic concourses of stars           
distributed throughout space4 ,herschel 
ultimately abandoned his star-gauging   
method of observation and confined his  
attention to exploring the star depths  
and investigating the laws and theories 
associated with the bodies occupying    
those distant regions4  ,since all the  
planets if viewed from the ,sun would be
 seen to move harmoniously and in       

regular order round that body1 so there 
may be somewhere in the universe a      
central point1 or1 as some persons      
imagine1 a great central sun1 round     
which all the systems of stars perform  
their majestic revolutions with the same
 beautiful regularity2 having their     
motions controlled by the same law of   
gravitation1 and possessing the same    
dynamical stability which characterises 
the mechanism of the solar system4  ,the
 extent of the distance which intervenes
 between our system and the fixed stars 
constituted a problem which exercised   
the minds of astronomers from an early  
period until the middle of the present  
century4  ,tycho ,brahe1 who repudiated 
the ,copernican theory1 asserted as one 
of his reasons against it that the      
distances by which the heavenly bodies  
are separated from each other were      
greater than even the upholders of this 
theory believed them to be4 ,although   
the distance of the ,sun from the ,earth
 was unknown1 ,tycho was aware that the 

diameter of the ,earth's orbit must be  
measured by millions of miles1 and yet  
there was no perceptible motion or      
change of position of the stars when    
viewed from any point of the vast       
circumference which she traverses4      
,consequently1 the ,earth1 if viewed    
from the neighbourhood of a star1 would 
also appear motionless1 and the         
dimensions of her orbit would be reduced
 to that of a point4 ,this seemed       
incredible to ,tycho1 and he therefore  
concluded that the ,copernican theory   
was incorrect4  ,the conclusion that the
 stars are orbs resembling our ,sun in  
magnitude and brilliancy was one which1 
,tycho urged1 should not be hastily     
adopted2 and yet1 if it were conceded   
that the ,earth is a body which revolves
 round the ,sun1 it would be necessary  
to admit that the stars are suns also4  
,if the ,earth's orbit1 as seen from a  
star1 were reduced to a point1 then the 
,sun1 which occupies its centre1 would  
be reduced to a point of light also1    

and1 when observed from a star of equal 
brilliancy and magnitude1 would have the
 same resemblance that the star has when
 viewed from the ,earth1 which may be   
regarded as being in proximity to the   
,sun4 ,tycho ,brahe would not admit the 
accuracy of these conclusions1 which    
were too bewildering and overwhelming   
for his mental conception4  ,but the    
investigations of later astronomers     
disclosed the fact that the heavenly    
bodies are situated at distances more   
remote from each other than had been    
previously imagined1 and that the       
reasons which led ,tycho to reject the  
,copernican theory were based upon      
erroneous conclusions1 and could1 with  
greater aptitude1 be employed in its    
support4 ,it was ascertained that the   
distance of the ,sun from the ,earth1   
which at different periods was surmised 
to be ten1 twenty1 and forty millions of
 miles1 was much greater than had been  
previously estimated4 ,later            
calculations determined it to be not    

less than eighty millions of miles1 and1
 according to the most recent           
observations1 the distance of the ,sun  
from the ,earth is believed to be about 
ninety-three millions of miles4  ,having
 once ascertained the distance between  
the ,earth and the ,sun1 astronomers    
were enabled to determine with greater  
facility the distances of other heavenly
 bodies4  ,it was now known that the    
diameter of the ,earth's orbit exceeded 
#ahc millions of miles1 and yet1 with a 
base line of such enormous length1 and  
with instruments of the most perfect    
construction1 astronomers were only able
 to perceive the minutest appreciable   
alteration in the positions of a few    
stars when observed from opposite points
 of the terrestrial orbit4  ,it had long
 been the ambitious desire of           
astronomers to accomplish1 if possible1 
a measurement of the abyss which        
separates our system from the nearest of
 the fixed stars4 ,no imaginary         
measuring line had ever been stretched  

across this region of space1 nor had its
 unfathomed depths ever been sounded by 
any effort of the human mind4 ,the stars
 were known to be inconceivably remote1 
but how far away no person could tell1  
nor did there exist any guide by which  
an approximation of their distances     
could be arrived at4  ,in attempting to 
calculate the distances of the stars1   
astronomers have had recourse to a      
method called ',parallax1' by which is  
meant the apparent change of position of
 a heavenly body when viewed from two   
different points of observation4  ,the  
annual parallax of a heavenly body is   
the angle subtended at that body by the 
radius of the ,earth's orbit4  ,the     
stars have no diurnal parallax1 because1
 owing to their great distance1 the     
,earth's radius does not subtend any    
measurable angle1 but the radius of the 
,earth's orbit1 which is immensely      
larger1 does1 in the case of a few      
stars1 subtend a very minute angle4     
',this enormous base line of #ahc       

millions of miles is barely sufficient1 
in conjunction with the use of the most 
delicate and powerful astronomical      
instruments1 to exhibit the minutest    
measureable displacement of two or three
 of the nearest stars4'--,proctor4  ,the
 efforts of early astronomers to detect 
any perceptible alteration in the       
positions of the stars when observed    
from any point of the circumference of  
the ,earth's orbit were unsuccessful4   
,copernicus ascribed the absence of any 
parallax to the immense distances of the
 stars as compared with the dimensions  
of the terrestrial orbit4 ,tycho ,brahe1
 though possessing better appliances1   
and instruments of more perfect         
construction1 was unable to perceive any
 annual displacement of the stars1 and  
brought this forward as evidence against
 the ,copernican theory4  ,galileo      
suggested a method of obtaining the     
parallax of the fixed stars1 by         
observing two stars of unequal magnitude
 apparently near to each other1 though  

really far apart4 ,those1 when observed 
from different points of the ,earth's   
orbit1 would appear to change their     
positions relatively to each other4 ,the
 smaller and more distant star would    
remain unaltered1 whilst the larger and 
nearer star would have changed its      
position with respect to the other4 ,by 
continuing to observe the larger star   
during the time that the ,earth         
accomplished a revolution of her orbit1 
,galileo believed that its parallax     
might be successfully determined4       
,though he did not himself put this     
method into practice1 it has been tried 
by others with successful results4  ,in 
#affi1 ,hooke made the first attempt to 
ascertain the parallax of a fixed star1 
and selected for this purpose ,gamma    
,draconis1 a bright star in the ,head of
 the ,dragon4 ,this constellation passed
 near the zenith of ,london at the time 
that he made his observations1 and was  
favourably situated1 so as to avoid the 
effects of refraction4 ,hooke made four 

observations in the months of ,july1    
,august1 and ,october1 and believed that
 he determined the parallax of the star2
 but it was afterwards discovered that  
he was in error1 and that the apparent  
displacement of the star was mainly due 
to the aberration of light--a phenomenon
 which was not discovered at that time4 
,a few years later1 ,picard1 a ,french  
astronomer1 attempted to find the       
parallax of ,alpha ,lyrae1 but was      
unsuccessful4 ,in #afib-ic1 ,roemer1 a  
,danish astronomer1 observed            
irregularities in the declinations of   
the stars which could neither be        
ascribed to parallax or refraction1 and 
which he imagined resulted from a       
changing position of the ,earth's axis4 
,one of the principal causes which      
baffled astronomers in their endeavours 
to determine the parallax of the fixed  
stars was a phenomenon called the       
',aberration of ,light1' which was      
discovered and explained by ,bradley in 
#agbg4 ,the peculiar effect of          

aberration was perceived by him when    
endeavouring to obtain the parallax of  
,gamma ,draconis4  ,owing to the        
progressive transmission of light1      
conjointly with the motion of the ,earth
 in her orbit1 there results an apparent
 slight displacement of a star from its 
true position4 ,the extent of the       
displacement depends upon the ratio of  
the velocity of light as compared with  
the speed of the ,earth in her orbit1   
which is as #aj1jjj to #a4 ,as a        
consequence of this1 each star describes
 a small ellipse in the course of a     
year1 the central point of which would  
indicate the place occupied by the star 
if the ,earth were at rest4 ,the        
shifting position of the star is very   
slight1 and at the end of a year it     
returns to its former place4  ,prior to 
the discovery of aberration1 astronomers
 ascribed the apparent displacement of  
the stars arising from this cause as    
being due to parallax--a conclusion     
which led to erroneous results2 but     

after ,bradley's discovery this source  
of error was avoided1 and it was found  
that the parallax of the stars had to be
 considerably reduced4  ,bessel was the 
first astronomer who merited the high   
distinction of having determined the    
first reliable stellar parallax1 and by 
this achievement he was enabled to      
fathom the profound abyss which         
separates our solar system from the     
stars4  ,frederick ,william ,bessel was 
born in #agfd at ,minden1 in            
,westphalia4 ,it was his intention to   
pursue a mercantile career1 and he      
commenced life by becoming apprenticed  
to a firm of merchants at ,bremen4 ,soon
 afterwards he accompanied a trading    
expedition to ,china and the ,east      
,indies1 and while on this voyage picked
 up a good deal of information with     
regard to many matters which came under 
his observation4 ,he acquired a         
knowledge of ,spanish and ,english1 and 
made himself acquainted with the art of 
navigation4 ,on his return home1 ,bessel

 endeavoured to determine the longitude 
of ,bremen4 ,the only appliances which  
he made use of were a sextant           
constructed by himself1 and a common    
clock2 and yet1 with those rude         
instruments1 he successfully            
accomplished his object4 ,during the    
next two years he devoted all his spare 
time to the study of mathematics and    
astronomy1 and1 having obtained         
possession of ,harriot's observations of
 the celebrated comet of #afjg--known as
 ,halley's comet--,bessel1 after much   
diligent application and careful        
calculation1 was enabled to deduce from 
them an orbit1 which he assigned to that
 remarkable body4 ,this meritorious     
achievement was the means of procuring  
for him a widely known reputation4  ,a  
vacancy for an assistant having occurred
 at ,schroeter's ,observatory at        
,lilienthal1 the post was offered to    
,bessel and accepted by him4 ,here he   
remained for four years1 and was        
afterwards appointed ,director of the   

new ,prussian ,observatory at           
,koenigsberg1 where he pursued his      
astronomical labours for a period of    
upwards of thirty years4 ,bessel        
directed his energies chiefly to the    
study of stellar astronomy1 and made    
many observations in determining the    
number1 the exact positions1 and proper 
motions of the stars4 ,he was remarkable
 for the precision with which he carried
 out his observations1 and for the      
accuracy which characterised all his    
calculations4  ,in #ahcg ,bessel1 by the
 exercise of his consummate skill1      
endeavoured to solve a problem which for
 many years baffled the efforts of the  
ablest astronomers1 viz41 the           
determination of the parallax of the    
fixed stars4 ,this had been so          
frequently attempted1 and without       
success1 that the results of any new    
observations were received with         
incredulity before their value could be 
ascertained4  ,bessel was ably assisted 
by ,joseph ,frauenhofer1 an eminent     

optician of ,munich1 who constructed a  
magnificent heliometer for the          
,observatory at ,koenigsberg1 and in its
 design introduced a principle which    
admirably adapted it for micrometrical  
measurement4  ,the star selected by     
,bessel is a binary known as #fa ,cygni1
 the components being of magnitudes #e4e
 and #f respectively4 ,it has a large   
proper motion1 which led him to conclude
 that its parallax must be considerable4
  ,this star will always be an object of
 interest to astronomers1 as it was the 
first of the stellar multitude that     
revealed to ,bessel the secret of its   
distance4  ,bessel commenced his        
observations in ,october #ahcg1 and     
continued them until ,march #ahdj4      
,during this time he made #djb          
measurements1 and1 before arriving at a 
conclusive result1 carefully considered 
every imaginable cause of error1 and    
rigorously calculated any inaccuracies  
that might arise therefrom4 ,finally1 he
 determined the parallax of the star to 

be #j''4cdhc--;a result equivalent to a 
distance about #fjj1jjj times that of   
the ,earth from the ,sun4 ,in #ahdb-dc  
,m4 ,peters1 of the ,pulkova            
,observatory1 arrived at an almost      
similar result1 having obtained a       
parallax of #j''4cdi2 but by more recent
 observations the parallax of the star  
has been increased to about half a      
second4  ,about the same time that      
,bessel was occupied with his           
observation of #fa ,cygni1 ,professor   
,henderson1 of ,edinburgh1 when in      
charge of the ,observatory at the ,cape 
of ,good ,hope1 directed his attention  
to ,alpha ,centauri1 one of the         
brightest stars in the ,southern        
,hemisphere4 ,during #ahcb-cc he made a 
series of observations of the star1 with
 the object of ascertaining its mean    
declination2 and1 having been informed  
afterwards of its large proper motion1  
he resolved to make an endeavour to     
determine its parallax4 ,this he        
accomplished after his return to        

,scotland1 having been appointed        
,astronomer ,royal in that country4 ,by 
an examination of the observations made 
by him at the ,cape1 he determined the  
parallax of ,alpha ,centauri to be      
#a''4af1 but later astronomers have     
reduced it to #j''4ge4  ,professor      
,henderson's detection of the parallax  
of ,alpha ,centauri was communicated to 
the ,astronomical ,society two months   
after ,bessel announced his             
determination of the parallax of #fa    
,cygni4  ,the parallax of #fa ,cygni    
assigns to the star a distance of forty 
billions of miles from the ,earth1 and  
that of ,alpha ,centauri--regarded as   
the nearest star to our system--a       
distance of twenty-five billions of     
miles4  ,it is utterly beyond the       
capacity of the human mind to form any  
adequate conception of those vast       
distances1 even when measured by the    
velocity with which the ether of space  
is thrilled into light4 ,light1 which   
travels twelve millions of miles in a   

minute1 requires #d-a_/c years to cross 
the abyss which intervenes between      
,alpha ,centauri and the ,earth1 and    
from #fa ,cygni the period required for 
light to reach our globe is rather less 
than double that time4  ,the parallax of
 more than a dozen other stars has been 
determined1 and the light passage of a  
few of the best known is estimated as   
follows3--,sirius1 eight years2         
,procyon1 twelve2 ,altair1 sixteen2     
,aldebaran1 twenty-eight2 ,capella1     
thirty2 ,regulus1 thirty-five2 ,polaris1
 sixty-three2 and ,vega1 ninety-six     
years4  ,it does not always follow that 
the brightest stars are those situated  
nearest to our system1 though in a      
general way this may be regarded as     
correct4 ,the diminishing magnitudes of 
the stars can be accounted for mainly by
 their increased distances1 rather than 
by any difference in their intrinsic    
brilliancy4 ,we should not err by       
inferring that the most minute stars are
 also the most remote2 the telescope    

revealing thousands that are invisible  
to the naked eye4 ,there are1 however1  
exceptions to this general rule1 and    
there are many stars of small magnitude 
less remote than those whose names have 
been enumerated1 and whose light passage
 testifies to their profound distances  
and surpassing magnitude when compared  
with that of our ,sun4  ,sirius1 'the   
leader of the heavenly host1' is distant
 fifty billions of miles4 ,the orb      
shines with a brilliancy far surpassing 
that of the ,sun1 and greatly exceeds   
him in mass and dimensions4 ,arcturus1  
the bright star in ,booetes1 whose      
golden yellow light renders it such a   
conspicuous object1 is so far distant   
that its measurement gives no reliable  
parallax2 and if we may infer from what 
little we know of the stars1 ,arcturus  
is believed to be the most magnificent  
and massive orb entering into the       
structure of that portion of the        
sidereal system which comes within our  
cognisance4 ,judging by its relative    

size and brightness1 this star is ten   
thousand times more luminous1 and may   
exceed the ,sun one million times in    
volume4  ,deneb1 in the constellation of
 the ,swan1 though a first-magnitude    
star1 possesses no perceptible proper   
motion or parallax--a circumstance      
indicative of amazing distance1 and     
magnitude equalling1 or surpassing1     
,arcturus and ,sirius4  ,canopus1 in the
 constellation ,argo1 in the ,southern  
,hemisphere1 the brightest star in the  
heavens with the exception of ,sirius1  
possesses no sensible parallax2         
consequently1 its distance is unknown1  
though it has been estimated that its   
light passage cannot be less than       
sixty-five years4  ,by establishing a   
mean value for the parallax of stars of 
different magnitudes1 it was believed   
that an approximation of their distances
 could be obtained by calculating the   
time occupied in their light passage4   
,the light period for stars of the first
 magnitude has been estimated at        

thirty-six and a half years2 this       
applies to the brightest stars1 which   
are also regarded as the nearest4 ,at   
the distance indicated by this period1  
the ,sun would shrink to the dimensions 
of a seventh-magnitude star and become  
invisible to the naked eye2 this of     
itself affords sufficient proof that the
 great luminary of our system cannot be 
regarded as one of the leading orbs of  
the firmament4 ,stars of the second     
magnitude have a mean distance of       
fifty-eight light years1 those of the   
third magnitude ninety-two years1 and so
 on4 ,m4 ,peters estimated that light   
from stars of the sixth magnitude1 which
 are just visible to the naked eye1     
requires a period of #ach years to      
accomplish its journey hither2 whilst   
light emitted from the smallest stars   
visible in large telescopes does not    
reach the ,earth until after the lapse  
of thousands of years from the time of  
leaving its source4  ,the profound      
distances of the nearest stars by which 

we are surrounded lead us to consider   
the isolated position of the solar      
system in space4 ,a pinnacle of rock1 or
 forsaken raft floating in mid-ocean1 is
 not more distant from the shore than is
 the ,sun from his nearest neighbours4  
,the inconceivable dimensions of the    
abyss by which the orb and his          
attendants are surrounded in utter      
loneliness may be partially comprehended
 when it is known that light1 which     
travels from the ,sun to the ,earth--a  
distance of ninety-three millions of    
miles--in eight minutes1 requires a     
period of four and a third years to     
reach us from the nearest fixed star4 ,a
 sphere having the ,sun at its centre   
and this nearest star at its            
circumference would have a diameter of  
upwards of fifty billions of miles2 the 
volume of the orb when compared with the
 dimensions of this circular vacuity of 
space is as a small shot to a globe #ijj
 miles in diameter4 ,it has been        
estimated by ,father ,secchi that1 if a 

comet when at aphelion were to arrive at
 a point midway between the ,sun and the
 nearest fixed star1 it would require   
one hundred million years in the        
accomplishment of its journey thither4  
,and yet the ,sun is one of a group of  
stars which occupy a region of the      
heavens adjacent to the ,milky ,way and 
surrounded by that zone2 nor is his     
isolation greater than that of those    
stars which are his companions1 and who1
 notwithstanding their profound         
distance1 influence his movements by    
their gravitational attraction1 and in  
combination with the other stars of the 
firmament control his destiny4  ,ancient
 astronomers1 for the purpose of        
description1 have mapped out the heavens
 into numerous irregular divisions      
called 'constellations4' ,they are of   
various forms and sizes1 according to   
the configuration of the stars which    
occupy them1 and have been named after  
different animals1 mythological heroes1 
and other objects which they appear to  

resemble4 ,in a few instances there does
 exist a similitude to the object after 
which a constellation is called2 this is
 evident in the case of ,corona         
,borealis 7the ,northern ,crown71 in    
which there can be seen a conspicuous   
arrangement of stars resembling a       
coronet1 and in the constellations of   
the ,dolphin and ,scorpion1 where the   
stars are so distributed that the forms 
of those creatures can be readily       
recognised4 ,there is some slight       
resemblance to a bear in ,ursa ,major1  
and to a lion in ,leo1 and no great     
effort of the mind is required to       
imagine a chair in ,cassiopeia1 and a   
giant in ,orion2 but in the majority of 
instances it is difficult to perceive   
any likeness of the object after which a
 constellation is named1 and in many    
cases there is no resemblance whatever4 
,the constellations are sixty-seven in  
number3 excluding those of the ,zodiac1 
which have been already mentioned1 the  
constellations of the ,northern         

,hemisphere number twenty-nine4 ,the    
most important of these are ,ursa ,major
 and ,minor1 ,andromeda1 ,cassiopeia1   
,cepheus1 ,cygnus1 ,lyra1 ,aquila1      
,auriga1 ,draco1 ,booetes1 ,hercules1   
,pegasus1 and ,corona ,borealis4  ,to an
 observer of the nocturnal sky the stars
 appear to be very unequally distributed
 over the celestial sphere4 ,in some    
regions they are few in number and of   
small magnitude1 whilst in other parts  
of the heavens1 and especially in the   
vicinity of the ,milky ,way1 they are   
present in great numbers and form groups
 and aggregations of striking appearance
 and conspicuous brilliancy4 ,on taking 
a casual glance at the midnight sky on a
 clear moonless night1 one is struck    
with the apparent countless multitude of
 the stars2 yet this impression of their
 vast number is deceptive1 for not more 
than two thousand stars are usually     
visible at one time4  ,much1 however1   
depends upon the keenness of vision of  
the observer1 and the transparency of   

the atmosphere4 ,argelander counted at  
,bonn more than #c1jjj stars1 and       
,hozeau1 near the equator1 where all the
 stars of the sphere successively appear
 in view1 enumerated #f1jjj stars4 ,this
 number may be regarded as including all
 the stars in the heavens that are      
visible to the naked eye4 ,with the aid 
of an opera glass thousands of stars can
 be seen that are imperceptible to      
ordinary vision4 ,argelander1 with a    
small telescope of #b-a_/b inches       
aperture1 was able to count #bcd1jjj    
stars in the ,northern ,hemisphere4     
,large telescopes reveal multitudes of  
stars utterly beyond the power of       
enumeration1 nor do they appear to      
diminish in number as depth after depth 
of space is penetrated by powerful      
instruments4 ,the star-population of the
 heavens has been reckoned at           
#ajj1jjj1jjj1 but this estimate is      
merely an assumption2 recent discoveries
 made by means of stellar photography   
indicate that the stars exist in        

myriads4 ,it is reasonable to believe   
that there is a limit to the sidereal   
universe1 but it is impossible to assign
 its bounds or comprehend the apparently
 infinite extent of its dimensions4     
,scintillation or twinkling of the stars
 is a property which distinguishes them 
from the planets4 ,it is due to a       
disturbed condition of the atmosphere   
and is most apparent when a star is near
 the horizon2 at the zenith it almost   
entirely vanishes4 ,humboldt states that
 in the clear air of ,cumana1 in ,south 
,america1 the stars do not twinkle after
 they reach an elevation of #ae deg4    
above the horizon4 ,the presence of     
moisture in the atmosphere intensifies  
scintillation1 and this is usually      
regarded as a prognostication of rain4  
,white stars twinkle more than red ones4
 ,the occurrence of scintillation can be
 accounted for by the fact that the     
stars are visible as single points of   
light which twinkle as a whole1 but in  
the case of the ,sun1 ,moon1 and        

planets1 they form discs from which many
 points of light are emitted2 they1     
therefore1 do not scintillate as a      
whole1 for the absence of rays of light 
from one portion of their surface is    
compensated by those from other parts of
 their discs1 giving a mean average     
which creates a steadiness of vision4   
,the stars are divided into separate    
classes called 'magnitudes1' by which   
their relative apparent size and degree 
of brightness are distinguished4 ,the   
magnitude of a star does not indicate   
its mass or dimensions1 but its         
light-giving power1 which depends partly
 upon its size and distance1 though     
mainly upon the intensity of its        
luminosity4 ,the most conspicuous are   
termed stars of the first magnitude2    
there are ten of those in the ,northern 
,hemisphere1 and an equal number south  
of the equator1 but they are not all of 
the same brilliancy4 ,sirius outshines  
every other star of the firmament1 and  
,arcturus has no rival in the northern  

heavens4 ,the names of the              
first-magnitude stars north of the      
equator are3 ,arcturus1 ,capella1 ,vega1
 ,betelgeux1 ,procyon1 ,aldebaran1      
,altair1 ,pollux1 ,regulus1 and ,deneb4 
,the next class in order of brightness  
are called second-magnitude stars2 they 
are fifty or sixty in number1 the most  
important of which is the ,pole ,star4  
,the stars diminish in luminosity by    
successive gradations1 and when they    
sink to the sixth magnitude reach the   
utmost limit at which they appear       
visible to the naked eye4 ,in great     
telescopes this classification is       
carried so low as to include stars of   
the eighteenth and twentieth magnitudes4
  ,entering into the structure of the   
stellar universe we have ,single ,stars1
 ,double ,stars1 ,triple1 ,quadruple1   
and ,multiple ,stars1 ,temporary1       
,periodical1 and ,variable ,stars1      
,star-groups1 ,star-clusters1 ,galaxies1
 and ,nebulae4  ,,single ,,or           
,,insulated ,,stars include all those   

orbs sufficiently isolated in space so  
as not to be perceptibly influenced by  
the attraction of other similar bodies4 
,they are believed to constitute the    
centres of planetary systems1 and fulfil
 the purpose for which they were created
 by dispensing light and heat to the    
worlds which circle around them4  ,the  
,sun is an example of this class of     
star1 and constitutes the centre of the 
system to which the ,earth belongs4     
,reasoning from analogy1 it would be    
natural to conclude that there are other
 suns1 numberless beyond conception1 the
 centres of systems of revolving worlds1
 and although we are utterly unable to  
catch a glimpse of their planetary      
attendants1 even with the aid of the    
most powerful telescopes1 yet they have 
in a few instances been felt1 and have  
afforded unmistakable indications of    
their existence4  ,since the ,sun must  
be regarded as one of the stellar       
multitude that people the regions of    
space1 and whose surpassing splendour   

when contrasted with that of other      
luminaries can be accounted for by his  
proximity to us1 it would be of interest
 to ascertain his relative importance   
when compared with other celestial orbs 
which may be his peers or his superiors 
in magnitude and brilliancy4  ,the ,sun 
is one of a widely scattered group of   
stars situated in the plane of the      
,milky ,way and surrounded by that zone1
 and1 as a star among the stars1 would  
be included in the constellation of the 
,centaur4  ,although regarded as one of 
the leading orbs of the firmament1 and  
of supreme importance to us1 astronomers
 are undecided whether to classify the  
,sun with stars of greater magnitude and
 brightness1 or assign him a position   
among minor orbs of smaller size4 ,much 
uncertainty exists with regard to star  
magnitudes4 ,this arises from inability 
on the part of astronomers to ascertain 
the distances of the vast majority of   
stars visible to the naked eye1 and also
 on account of inequality in their      

intrinsic brilliancy4 ,among the stars  
there exists an indefinite range of     
stellar magnitudes4 ,there are many     
stars known whose dimensions have been  
ascertained to greatly exceed those of  
the ,sun1 and there are others of much  
smaller size4 ,no approximation of the  
magnitude of telescopic stars can be    
arrived at2 many of them may rival      
,sirius1 ,canopus1 and ,arcturus1 in    
size and splendour1 their apparent      
minuteness being a consequence of their 
extreme remoteness4 ,if the ,sun were   
removed a distance in space equal to    
that of many of the brightest stars1 he 
would in appearance be reduced to a     
minute point of light or become         
altogether invisible2 and there are     
other stars1 situated at distances still
 more remote1 of which sufficient is    
known to justify us in arriving at the  
conclusion that the ,sun must be ranked 
among the minor orbs of the firmament1  
and that many of the stars surpass him  
in brilliancy and magnitude4  ,,double  

,,stars4--,to the unaided eye1 these    
appear as single points of light2 but1  
when observed with a telescope of       
sufficient magnifying power1 their dual 
nature can be detected4  ,the first     
double star discovered was ,mizar1 the  
middle star of the three in ,ursa ,major
 which form the tail of the bear4 ,the  
components are of the fourth and fifth  
magnitudes1 of a brilliant white colour1
 and distant fourteen seconds of arc4   
,in #afgh1 ,cassini perceived stars     
which appeared as single points of light
 when viewed with the naked eye1 but    
when observed with the telescope        
presented the appearance of being       
double4  ,the astronomer ,bode1 in      
#agha1 published a list of eighty double
 stars1 and1 in a few years after1 ,sir 
,william ,herschel discovered several   
hundreds more of those objects4 ,they   
are now known to exist in thousands1    
,mr4 ,burnham1 of the ,lick             
,observatory1 having1 by his keen       
perception of vision1 contributed more  

than any other observer to swell their  
number4  ,all double stars are not      
binaries2 many of them are known as     
'optical doubles'--an impression created
 by two stars when almost in the same   
line of vision1 and1 though apparently  
near1 are situated at a great distance  
apart and devoid of any physical        
relationship4  ,binary stars consist of 
two suns which revolve round their      
common centre of gravity1 and form real 
dual systems4  ,the close proximity of  
the components of double stars impressed
 the minds of some astronomers with the 
belief that a physical bond of union    
existed between them4 ,in the interval  
between #agah and #agei1 ,bradley       
detected a change of #cj deg4 in the    
position angle of the two stars forming 
,castor1 and was very nearly discovering
 their physical connection4  ,in #agfg1 
the ,rev4 ,john ,michell wrote3 ',it is 
highly probable in particular1 and next 
to a certainty in general1 that such    
double stars as appear to consist of two

 or more stars placed very near together
 do really consist of stars placed near 
together and under the influence of some
 general law4' ,afterwards he says3 ',it
 is not improbable that a few years may 
inform us that some of the great number 
of double and triple stars which have   
been observed by ,mr4 ,herschel are     
systems of bodies revolving about each  
other4' ,christian ,mayer1 a ,german    
astronomer1 formed a list of stellar    
pairs1 and announced1 in #aggf1 the     
supposed discovery of 'satellites' to   
many of the principal stars4 ,his       
observations were1 however1 not exact   
enough to lead to any useful results1   
and the existence of his 'planet stars' 
was at that time derided1 and believed  
to find a place only in his imagination4
  ,the conclusions arrived at by some   
astronomers with regard to double stars 
were afterwards confirmed by ,herschel1 
when1 by his observation of a change in 
the relative positions of many of their 
components1 he was able to announce that

 they form independent systems in mutual
 revolution1 and are controlled by the  
law of gravitation4  ,the number of     
binary stars in active revolution is    
known to exceed #ejj2 but1 besides      
these1 there are doubtless numerous     
other compound stars which1 on account  
of their extreme remoteness and the     
close proximity of their components1 are
 irresolvable into pairs by any optical 
appliances which we possess4  ,the      
revolution of two suns in one sphere    
presents to our observation a scheme of 
creative design entirely different to   
the single-star system with which we are
 familiar--one of a higher and more     
complex order in the ascending scale of 
celestial architecture4 ,for1 if we     
assume that around each revolving sun   
there circles a retinue of planetary    
worlds1 it is obvious that a much more  
complicated arrangement must exist among
 the orbs which enter into the formation
 of such a system than is found among   
those which gravitate round our ,sun4   

,the common centre of gravity of a      
binary system is situated on a line     
between both stars1 and distant from    
each in inverse proportion to their     
respective masses4 ,when the stars are  
of equal mass their orbits are of equal 
dimensions1 but when the mass of one    
star exceeds that of the other1 the     
orbit of the larger star is             
proportionately diminished as compared  
with the circumference traversed by the 
smaller star4 ,when their orbits are    
circular--a rare occurrence--both stars 
pursue each other in the same path1 and 
invariably occupy it at diametrically   
opposite points2 nor is it possible for 
one star to approach the other by the   
minutest interval of space in any       
duration of time1 so long as the        
synchronous harmony of their revolution 
remains undisturbed4  ,illustration3    
,,fig4 #c4--;,a ,binary ,star           
,system--#gj ,ophiuchi  7,drawn by ,mr4 
,j4 ,e4 ,gore47  ,when a pair of suns   
move in an ellipse1 their orbits        

intersect and are of equal dimensions   
when the stars are of equal mass1 their 
common centre of gravity being then at a
 point equidistant from each4           
,consequently1 neither star can approach
 or recede from this point without the  
other affecting a similar motion1 they  
must be at periastron and apastron      
together1 and any acceleration or       
retardation of speed must occur         
simultaneously with each4 ,stars of     
unequal magnitude always maintain a     
proportionate distance from their common
 focus1 and both simultaneously occupy  
corresponding parts of their orbits4    
,the nature of the motions of those     
distant suns1 and the form of the orbits
 which they traverse1 have been         
investigated by several eminent         
astronomers1 and although the subject is
 one of much difficulty1 on account of  
their extreme remoteness and the minute 
angles which have to be dealt with1     
necessitating the carrying out of very  
refined observations1 yet a considerable

 amount of information has been obtained
 with regard to the paths which they    
pursue in the accomplishment of their   
revolutions round each other4  ,the     
orbits of about sixty stellar pairs have
 been computed1 but only with partial   
success4 ,some stars have shown         
themselves to be totally regardless of  
theory and computation1 and have shot   
ahead far beyond the limits ascribed to 
them1 whilst others1 by the slowness of 
their motions1 have upset the           
calculations of astronomers as much in  
the opposite direction4 ,so that out of 
this number the orbits of not more than 
half a dozen are satisfactorily known4  
,the dimensions of stellar orbits are of
 very varied extent4 ,some pairs are    
apparently so close that the best       
optical means which we possess are      
incapable of dividing them1 whilst      
others revolve in wide and spacious     
orbits4  ,the most marked peculiarity of
 the orbits of binary stars is their    
high eccentricity2 they are usually much

 more eccentric than are those of the   
planets1 and in some instances approach 
in form that of a comet4  ,the finest   
binary star in the northern heavens is  
,castor1 the brighter of the two leading
 stars in the constellation ,gemini4    
,the components are of the second and   
third magnitudes1 and over five seconds 
apart4 ,they are of a brilliant white   
colour1 and form a beautiful object in  
the telescope4  ,in #agai ,bradley      
determined the relative positions of    
those stars1 and on comparing the       
results obtained by him with recent     
measurements it was found that they had 
altered to the extent of #abe deg44     
,travelling at the same rate of speed1  
they will require a period of about #dbj
 years to complete an entire circuit of 
their orbits4 ,this pace1 however1 has  
not been maintained1 for1 their         
periastron having occurred in #agej1    
they travelled more rapidly in the last 
century than they are doing at present1 
and1 as their orbits are so eccentric   

that when at apastron the stars are     
twice as remote from each other as at   
periastron1 they will for the next three
 and a half centuries continue to       
slacken their pace1 until they shall    
have reached the most remote points of  
their orbits1 when they will again begin
 to approach with an increasing         
velocity2 so that the time in which an  
entire revolution can be accomplished   
will not be much less than #a1jjj       
years4#h  ,as the distance of ,castor is
 unknown1 it is impossible to compute   
the combined mass of its components4    
,they are very remote1 their light      
period being estimated at forty-four    
years4 ,castor is doubtless a more      
massive orb than our ,sun1 and possesses
 a higher degree of luminosity4  ,alpha 
,centauri1 in the ,southern ,hemisphere1
 is the brightest binary1 and also the  
nearest known star in the heavens2 its  
estimated distance being twenty-five    
billions of miles4 ,both components     
equal stars of the first magnitude1 and 

are of a brilliant white colour4 ,since 
they were first observed1 in #agji1 they
 have completed two revolutions1 and are
 now accomplishing a third4 ,the        
eccentricity of their orbit approaches  
in form that of ,faye's comet1 which    
travels round the ,sun2 consequently the
 stars1 when at apastron1 are twice     
their periastron distance4 ,their period
 of revolution is about eighty-eight    
years4 ,the mean radius of their orbit  
corresponds to a span of #a1jjj millions
 of miles1 so that those orbs are       
sometimes as close to each other as     
,jupiter is to the ,sun1 and never so   
far distant as ,uranus4#i ,their        
combined mass is twice that of the ,sun1
 and the luminosity of each star is     
slightly greater4  ,the double star #fa 
,cygni--one of the nearest to our       
system--is believed to be a binary the  
components of which move in an orbit of 
more spacious dimensions than that of   
any other known revolving pair4 ,though 
they have been under continuous         

observation since #agec1 it is only     
within the last few years that any      
orbital motion has been perceived4 ,some
 observers are disinclined to admit the 
accuracy of this statement2 whilst      
others believe that the stars have      
executed a hyperbolic sweep round their 
common centre of gravity and are now    
separating4  ,the radius of the orbit in
 which those bodies travel is sixty-five
 times the distance of the ,earth from  
the ,sun2 which means that they travel  
in an orbit twice the width of that of  
the planet ,neptune4 ,it has been       
estimated that they complete a          
revolution in about eight centuries4    
,the united mass of the system is about 
one-half that of the ,sun1 and in point 
of luminosity they are much inferior to 
that orb4  ,the star #gj ,ophiuchi 7fig4
 #c7 may be regarded as typical of a    
binary system4 ,the components are five 
seconds apart1 and of the fourth and    
sixth magnitudes4 ,their light period is
 stated to be twenty years1 and the     

combined mass of the system is nearly   
three times that of the ,sun4 ,the pair 
travel in an orbit from fourteen to     
forty-two times the radius of the       
,earth's orbit2 so that when at apastron
 they are three times as distant from   
each other as when at periastron4 ,they 
complete a revolution in eighty-eight   
years4  ,the accompanying diagram 7fig4 
#d7 is a delineation of the beautiful   
orbits of the components of ,gamma      
,virginis4 ,these may be described as   
elongated ellipses4 ,both stars being of
 equal mass1 their orbits are of equal  
dimensions1 and their common centre of  
gravity at a point equidistant from     
each4 ,any approach to1 or recession    
from this point1 must occur             
simultaneously with each2 they must     
always occupy corresponding parts of    
their orbits1 and be in apastron and at 
periastron in the same period of time4  
,the ellipse described by this pair is  
the most eccentric of known binary      
orbits1 and approaches in form the path 

pursued by ,encke's comet round the     
,sun4 ,these orbs complete a revolution 
in #ahj years1 and when in apastron are 
seventeen times more remote from each   
other than when at periastron4          
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4--,the ,orbits 
of the ,components of ,gamma ,virginis4 
,from his observation of the motion of  
,sirius in #ahdd1 ,bessel was led to    
believe that the brilliant orb was      
accompanied by another body1 whose      
gravitational attraction was responsible
 for the irregularities observed in the 
path of the great dog-star when pursuing
 his journey through space4 ,the        
elements of this hypothetical body were 
afterwards computed by ,peters and      
,auwers1 and its exact position assigned
 by ,safford in #ahfa4  ,on ,january    
#ca1 #ahfb1 ,mr4 ,alvan ,clarke1 of     
,cambridgeport1 ,massachusetts1 when    
engaged in testing a recently           
constructed telescope of great power1   
directed it on ,sirius1 and was enabled 
by good fortune to discover the         

companion star at a distance of ten     
seconds from its primary4 ,since its    
discovery1 the star has pursued with    
such precision the theoretical path     
previously assigned to it that          
astronomers have had no hesitation in   
identifying it as the hypothetical body 
whose existence ,bessel had correctly   
surmised4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4        
#e4--;,apparent ,orbit of the ,companion
 of ,sirius4  7,drawn by ,mr4 ,burnham47
  ,the ,sirian satellite is a yellow    
star of the eighth magnitude1 and shines
 with a feeble light when contrasted    
with the surpassing brilliancy of its   
neighbour4  ,astronomers were for some  
time in doubt as to whether the uneven  
motion which characterised the path of  
,sirius could be ascribed to the        
attraction of its obscure attendant1    
which presented such a marked contrast  
to its primary1 and several observers   
were inclined to believe that the       
disturbing body still remained          
undiscovered4 ,when1 however1 the       

density of the lesser star became known1
 it was discovered that1 weight for     
weight1 that of ,sirius exceeded it only
 in the proportion of two to one1 though
 as a light-giver the great orb is      
believed to be #e1jjj times more        
luminous4 ,the ,sirian satellite        
revolves round its primary in about     
fifty years1 and at a distance          
twenty-eight times that of the ,earth   
from the ,sun4  ,the surpassing         
brilliancy of ,sirius as compared with  
that of the other stars of the firmament
 has rendered it at all times an object 
of interest to observers4 ,the          
,egyptians worshipped the star as       
,sothis1 and it was believed to be the  
abode of the soul of ,isis4 ,the nations
 inhabiting the region of the ,nile     
commenced their year with the heliacal  
rising of ,sirius1 and its appearance   
was regarded as a sure forerunner of the
 rising of the great river1 the         
fertilising flood of which was          
attributed to the influence of this     

beautiful star4 ,it is believed that the
 ,mazzaroth in ,job is an allusion to   
this brilliant orb4 ,among the ,romans  
,sirius was regarded as a star of evil  
omen2 its appearance above the horizon  
after the summer solstice was believed  
to be associated with pestilence and    
fevers1 consequent upon the oppressive  
heat of the season of the year4 ,the    
dies caniculares1 or dog-days1 were     
reckoned to begin twenty days before1   
and to continue for twenty days after1  
the heliacal rising of ,sirius1 the     
dog-star4 ,during those days a peculiar 
influence was believed to exist which   
created diseases in men and madness     
among dogs4 ,homer alludes to the star  
'whose burning breath     ,taints the   
red air with fevers1 plagues and death4'
  ,sirius1 which is in ,canis ,major    
7one of ,orion's hunting dogs71 is a far
 more glorious orb than our ,sun4       
,according to recent photometric        
measurements it emits seventy times the 
quantity of light1 and is three times   

more massive than the great luminary of 
our system4 ,at the distance of ,sirius 
7fifty billions of miles7 the ,sun would
 shrink to the dimensions of a          
third-magnitude star1 and the light of  
seventy such stars would be required to 
equal in appearance the brilliant       
radiance of the great dog-star4 ,the    
orb1 with his retinue of attendant      
worlds--some of which are reported as   
having been seen--is travelling through 
space with a velocity of not less than  
#a1jjj miles a minute4  ,an irregularity
 of motion resembling that of ,sirius   
has been detected with regard to        
,procyon1 the lesser dog-star4 ,but in  
this case the companion star has not as 
yet been seen1 though a careful search  
has been made for it with the most      
powerful of telescopes4 ,should it be a 
planetary body1 illumined by its        
primary1 its reflected light would not  
appear visible to us1 even if it were   
much less remote than it is4  ,we are   
able only to perceive the effulgence of 

brilliant suns scattered throughout the 
regions of space2 but besides those1    
there are doubtless many faintly        
luminous orbs and opaque bodies of vast 
dimensions occupying regions unknown to 
us1 but by a knowledge of the existence 
of which an enlarged conception is      
conveyed to our minds of the greatness  
of the universe4  ,the most rapid of    
known revolving pairs is ,delta         
,equulei4 ,the components are so close  
that only the finest instruments can    
separate them1 and this they cannot do  
at all times4 ,they accomplish a        
revolution in eleven and a half years4  
,the slowest revolving pair is ,zeta    
,aquarii4 ,the motion of the components 
is so tardy that to complete a circuit  
of their orbits they require a period of
 about sixteen centuries4 ,other binary 
stars have had different periods        
assigned to them2 eleven pairs have been
 computed to revolve round each other in
 less than fifty years1 and fifteen in  
less than #ajj but more than fifty4     

,there are other compound stars whose   
motions appear to be much more leisurely
 than those just mentioned1 and although
 no orbital movement has1 so far1 been  
detected among them1 yet1 so vast is the
 scale upon which the sidereal system is
 constructed1 that thousands of years   
must elapse before they can have        
accomplished a revolution of their      
orbits4  ,the ,pole ,star is an optical 
double1 but the components are of very  
unequal magnitude4 ,the ,pole ,star     
itself is of the second magnitude1 but  
its companion is only of the ninth1 and 
on account of its minuteness is regarded
 as a good test for telescopes of small 
aperture4 ,mizar1 in the constellation  
,ursa ,major1 is a beautiful double     
star4 ,the components are wide apart1   
and can be easily observed with a small 
instrument4  ,there is a remarkable star
 in the constellation of the ,lyre      
7,epsilon ,lyrae71 described as a double
 double4 ,this object can just be       
distinguished by a person with keen     

eyesight as consisting of two stars2    
when observed with a telescope they     
appear widely separated1 and each star  
is seen to have a companion1 the entire 
system forming two binary pairs in      
active revolution4 ,the pair which first
 cross the meridian complete a          
revolution in about #b1jjj years2 the   
second pair have a more rapid motion1   
and accomplish it in half that time4    
,the two pairs are believed to be       
physically connected1 and revolve round 
their common centre of gravity in a     
period of time not much under one       
million years4  ,cor ,caroli1 in ,canes 
,venatici1 is a pleasing double star1   
the components being of a pale white and
 lilac colour4  ,albireo1 in the        
constellation of the ,swan1 is one of   
the loveliest of double stars4 ,the     
larger component is of the third        
magnitude1 and of a golden yellow       
colour2 the smaller of the sixth        
magnitude1 and of a sapphire blue4      
,epsilon ,booetis1 known also as ,mirac1

 and called by ,admiral ,smyth          
',pulcherrima1' on account of its       
surpassing beauty1 is a delicate object 
of charming appearance4 ,the components 
of this lovely star are of the third and
 seventh magnitudes3 the primary orange1
 the secondary sea-green4  ,the late    
,mr4 ,r4 ,a4 ,proctor1 in describing a  
binary star system1 writes as follows3  
',if we regard a pair of stars as       
forming a double sun1 round which--or1  
rather1 round the common centre of      
which--other orbs revolve as planets1 we
 are struck by the difference between   
such a scheme and our own solar system2 
but we find the difference yet more     
surprising when we consider the         
possibility that in some such schemes   
each component sun may have its own     
distinct system of dependent worlds4 ,in
 the former case the ordinary state of  
things would probably be such that both 
suns would be above the horizon at the  
same time1 and then1 probably1 their    
distinctive peculiarities would only be 

recognisable when one chanced to pass   
over the disc of the other1 as our ,moon
 passes over the ,sun's disc in         
eclipses4 ,for short intervals of time1 
however1 at rising or setting1 one or   
other would be visible alone2 and the   
phenomena of sunset and sunrise must    
therefore be very varied1 and also      
exquisitely beautiful1 in worlds        
circling round such double suns4 ,but   
when each sun has a separate system1    
even more remarkable relations must be  
presented4 ,for each system of dependent
 worlds1 besides its own proper sun1    
must have another sun--less splendid1   
perhaps 7because farther off71 but still
 brighter beyond comparison than our    
moon at the full4 ,and1 according to the
 position of any planet of either       
system1 there will result for the time  
being either an interchange of suns1    
instead of the change from night to day1
 or else double sunlight during the day1
 and a corresponding intensified        
contrast between night and day4 ,where  

the two suns are very unequal or very   
differently coloured1 or where the      
orbital path of each is very eccentric1 
so that they are sometimes close        
together and at others far apart1 the   
varieties in the worlds circling round  
either1 or around the common centre of  
both1 must be yet more remarkable4 ,it  
must be confessed1 we may well say with 
,sir ,john ,herschel1 that we have here 
a strangely wide and novel field for    
speculative excursions1 and one which it
 is not easy to avoid luxuriating in4'  
,anyone who takes a cursory glance at   
the heavens on a clear night can readily
 perceive that there exists considerable
 diversity of colour among the stars4   
,the contrast between some is pronounced
 and well marked1 whilst others exhibit 
refined gradations of hue4  ,the most   
numerous class of stars are those which 
are described as white or colourless4   
,they comprise about one-half of the    
stars visible to the naked eye4 ,among  
the most conspicuous examples of this   

type are ,sirius--whose diamond blaze is
 sometimes mingled with an occasional   
flash of blue and red--,altair1 ,spica1 
,castor1 ,regulus1 ,rigel1 all the stars
 of ,ursa ,major with the exception of  
one1 and ,vega--a glittering gem of pale
 sapphire1 almost colourless4 ,the light
 emitted by stars of this class gives a 
continuous spectrum1 the predominating  
element being hydrogen1 having a very   
elevated temperature and under          
relatively high pressure4 ,the vapours  
of iron1 sodium1 magnesium1 and other   
metals1 are indicated as existing in    
small quantities4  ,the second class of 
stars is that to which our ,sun belongs4
 ,they are of a yellow colour1 and      
embrace two-thirds of the remaining     
stars4 ,the most prominent examples of  
this type are ,arcturus1 ,capella1      
,aldebaran1 ,procyon1 and ,pollux4      
,hydrogen does not predominate so much  
in these as in the ,sirian stars1 and   
their spectra resemble closely the solar
 spectrum1 indicating that they are     

composed of elements similar to those   
which exist in the ,sun4  ,the star     
which bears the nearest resemblance to  
our ,sun1 both as regards the colour of 
its light and physical structure1 is    
,capella1 the most conspicuous star in  
the constellation ,auriga1 and one of   
the leading brilliants in the ,northern 
,hemisphere4 ,its spectrum presents all 
the characteristics observed in the     
solar spectrum1 and there exists an     
almost identical similarity in their    
physical constitution1 though ,capella  
is a much more magnificent orb than the 
,sun4  ,the third class of stars        
includes those which are of a ruddy hue1
 such as ,betelgeux in the right        
shoulder of ,orion1 ,antares in         
,scorpio1 and ,alpha ,herculis4 ,their  
spectra present a banded or columnar    
appearance1 and there is greater        
absorption1 especially of the blue rays 
of light4 ,it is believed that the      
temperature of stars of this colour is  
not so elevated as that of those        

belonging to the other two orders1 and  
that this is a sufficient reason to     
account for the different appearance of 
their spectra4  ,the aid of a good      
telescope is1 however1 necessary to     
enable us to perceive the varied colours
 and tints of the sparkling gems with   
which ,nature has adorned her star-built
 edifice of the universe4 ,most of the  
precious stones on ,earth have their    
counterparts in the heavens1 presenting 
in a jewelled form contrasts of colour1 
pleasing harmonies1 and endless variety 
of shade4 ,the diamond1 sapphire1       
emerald1 amethyst1 topaz1 and ruby      
sparkle among crowds of stars of more   
sombre hue4 ,agate1 chalcedony1 onyx1   
opal1 beryl1 lapis-lazuli1 and          
aquamarine are represented by the       
radiant sheen emanating from distant    
suns1 displaying an inexhaustible       
variety of colour1 blended in tints of  
untold harmony4  ,it is among double    
stars that the richest and most varied  
colours predominate4 ,there are pairs of

 white1 yellow1 orange1 and red stars2  
yellow and blue1 yellow and pale        
emerald1 yellow and rose red1 yellow and
 fawn1 green and gold1 azure and        
crimson1 golden and azure1 orange and   
emerald1 orange and lilac1 orange and   
purple1 orange and green1 white and     
blue1 white and lilac1 lilac and dark   
purple1 c41 c4 ,there are companion     
stars revolving round their primaries1  
coloured olive1 lilac1 russet1 fawn1    
dun1 buff1 grey1 and other shades       
indistinguishable by any name4  ,our    
knowledge of binary star systems brings 
us to what may be regarded as the       
threshold of the fabric of the heavens4 
,for it is known that other systems     
exist into the construction of which    
numerous stars enter4 ,these form       
intricate and complex stellar           
arrangements1 in which the component    
stars are physically united and retained
 in their orbits by their mutual        
attraction4     ,,chapter ,,vii  ,,the  
,,starry ,,heavens   ,,triple1          

,,quadruple1 ,,and ,,multiple           
,,stars4--,these1 when observed with the
 naked eye1 appear as single stars1 but1
 when examined with a high magnifying   
power1 each lucid point can be resolved 
into several component stars4 ,they vary
 in number from three to half a dozen or
 more1 and form systems of a more       
complex character than what are observed
 in the case of binary stars4 ,in the   
usual construction of a triple system1  
the secondary star of a binary is       
resolvable into two1 each star being in 
mutual revolution1 whilst they both     
gravitate round their primary4 ,by      
another arrangement1 a close pair       
control the movements of a distant      
attendant4  ,one of the most interesting
 of triple stars is the tricoloured     
,gamma ,andromedae4 ,the brilliant      
components of this system have their    
counterparts in the topaz1 the emerald1 
and the sapphire--the larger star is of 
the third magnitude and of a golden     
yellow colour2 the secondary of the     

fifth magnitude and of an emerald green4
 ,these stars are ten seconds apart1    
and1 though they have been under        
observation since #aggg1 no orbital     
movement has as yet been detected1 but  
their common proper motion indicates    
their close relationship and physical   
connection4 ,in #ahdb1 ,otto ,struve    
discovered that the companion star is   
itself double1 and round it there       
gravitates a sapphire sun1 which is     
believed to accomplish a revolution of  
its orbit in about #ejj years4 ,if round
 those suns there should be circling    
planetary systems of worlds inhabited by
 intelligent beings1 the varied effects 
produced by the light emanating from    
those different coloured orbs would be  
of a very beautiful and pleasing nature4
  ,a system suggestive of the endless   
variety of stellar arrangement that     
exists throughout the sidereal regions  
is apparent in the case of the triple   
star ,zeta ,cancri4 ,two of the stars1  
of magnitudes six and seven1 form a     

binary in rapid revolution1 the         
components of which complete a circuit  
of their orbits in fifty-eight years1   
whilst the more distant third star1 of  
almost similar magnitude1 accomplishes a
 wide orbital ellipse round the other   
two in #ejj or #fjj years4 ,these stars 
have been closely observed by           
astronomers during the past forty years1
 with the result that their motions have
 appeared most perplexing1 and          
complicated beyond precedent4 ',if this 
be really a ternary system1' wrote ,sir 
,john ,herschel1 'connected by the      
mutual attraction of its parts1 its     
perturbations will present one of the   
most intricate problems in physical     
astronomy4' ,the second star revolves   
round its primary1 whilst the third     
pursues a retrograde course1 but its    
path1 instead of being even1 presents   
the appearance of a series of circular  
loopings1 in traversing which the star  
alternately quickens and slackens its   
pace1 or at times appears to be         

stationary4  ,astronomers have arrived  
at the conclusion that these            
perturbations are produced by the       
presence of a fourth member1 which1     
though invisible1 is probably the most  
massive of the system--perhaps a        
magnificent world teeming with animated 
beings1 and attended by three suns which
 gravitate round it1 dispensing light   
and heat to meet the requirements of the
 various forms of life which exist on   
its surface4 ,in this system we have an 
arrangement the reverse of what exists  
in the solar system1 where all the      
planets revolve round a predominant sun2
 but here there is a strange            
verification of the old ,ptolemaic      
belief with regard to the path of a sun1
 though in this instance there are three
 suns circling round a dark globe which 
they illumine and vivify4  ,triple stars
 occur with comparative frequency       
throughout the heavens4 ,in ,monoceros  
there is a fine triple star1 discovered 
by ,herschel1 which he describes as 'one

 of the most beautiful sights in the    
heavens4' ,the stars ,xi and ,beta      
,scorpii form triple systems in which   
the components are differently arranged4
 ,in ,xi the primary and secondary      
consist of two revolving stars which    
control the movements of a distant      
attendant2 in ,beta the primary and     
secondary stars are in mutual           
revolution1 whilst round the former     
there circles a very close minute       
companion4 ,there are doubtless many    
binary stars which1 if examined with    
adequate telescopic power1 would resolve
 themselves into triple and multiple    
systems1 but the profound distances of  
those objects render the detection of   
their components a most difficult task4 
,quadruple stars are usually arranged in
 pairs1 i4e4 the primary and secondary  
of a binary system are each resolvable  
into two1 forming two pairs1 each pair  
being in mutual revolution1 while they  
both gravitate round their common centre
 of gravity4 ,epsilon ,lyrae1 which has 

been described as a double double1 is an
 example of a quadruple system1 and ,nu 
,scorpii is of a similar construction1  
but more beautiful because its          
components are in closer proximity to   
each other4 ,close upon twenty of those 
double double systems have been         
discovered in different parts of the    
heavens4  ,one of the most interesting  
of quadruple systems is ,theta ,orionis1
 which is situated in the ,great        
,nebula1 by which it is surrounded4     
,this star1 when observed with a        
telescope of low power1 can be at once  
resolved into four separate lucent      
points1 so arranged as to form a        
quadrilateral figure or trapezium4 ,they
 are of the fifth1 sixth1 seventh1 and  
eighth magnitudes1 and described as pale
 white1 garnet1 faint lilac1 and red4   
,though they have been under careful    
observation for upwards of two          
centuries1 no perceptible motion has    
been perceived as occurring among them1 
nor has there been any change in their  

relative positions--they appear to be   
perfectly motionless2 but we must not   
infer from this that no physical bond of
 union exists between them1 for they are
 situated at an amazing distance from   
the ,earth4 ,ascending higher in the    
scale of celestial architecture1 we have
 multiple stars forming systems still   
more elaborate and complex1 into the    
structure of which numerous stars enter1
 and they1 as they increase in number1  
gradually merge into star-clusters4  ,if
 we assume that around each of the      
components of a multiple star there     
circles a retinue of planetary worlds1  
we are confronted with a most perplexing
 problem as to how the dynamical        
stability of a system so different from1
 and so vastly more complicated than1   
that of our solar system is             
maintained--where1 as it were1 suns and 
planets intermingle--how numerous       
circling orbs can accomplish their      
revolutions without being swayed and    
deflected from their paths by the       

gravitational attraction of adjacent    
members of the same system4 ,perplexing 
though the arrangement of such a scheme 
may be to our conception1 yet1 each orb 
has been weighed1 poised1 and adjusted  
by ,infinite ,wisdom1 to perform its    
intricate motions in synchronous harmony
 with other members of the system--all  
moving in unison like the parts of a    
complicated piece of mechanism1 and     
maintained in stable equilibrium by     
their mutual attraction--      ,mystical
 dance1 which yonder starry sphere      
,of planets and of fixed in all her     
wheels     ,resembles nearest2 mazes    
intricate1     ,eccentric1 intervolved1 
yet regular     ,then most1 when most   
irregular they seem2     ,and in their  
motions harmony divine     ,so smooths  
her charming tones that ,god's own ear  
,listens delighted4--v4 #fbj-bg4  ,all  
the natural phenomena with which we are 
familiar would1 in the case of planets  
revolving round the component suns of a 
multiple system1 be of a different kind 

or altogether absent4 ,instead of being 
illumined by one sun1 those worlds      
would1 at certain times1 have several   
suns--some more distant than            
others--above their horizons1 and upon  
very rare occasions1 if ever1 would     
there be an entire absence of all of    
those orbs from their skies4            
,consequently there would be no year    
such as we are familiar with2 no regular
 sequence of seasons similar to what is 
experienced on ,earth2 no alternation of
 day and night1 for there would be 'no  
night there1' though1 in the absence of 
the primary orb1 the light emitted by   
distant suns1 whilst sufficient to      
banish night1 and beyond comparison     
brighter than the ,moon when at full1   
would1 in the diminution of its         
intensity from that of noonday1 be as   
grateful a change as that of from day to
 night which occurs on our globe4       
,should those suns be differently       
coloured1 each emitting its own peculiar
 shade of light as it appears above the 

horizon1 the varied aspects of the      
perpetual day enjoyed by the inhabitants
 of those circling worlds present to the
 imagination harmonies of light and     
shade over which it is pleasant to      
linger4  ,,temporary1 ,,periodical1     
,,and ,,variable ,,stars4--,it may seem 
remarkable that among so many thousands 
of stars which spangle the firmament1   
there should occur no very perceptible  
change or variation in their aspect and 
brilliancy4 ,from age to age they       
present the same appearance1 shine with 
the same undiminished splendour1 and    
rise and set with the same regularity4  
,so that from time immemorial the stars 
have been regarded by mankind as the    
embodiment of all that is eternal and   
unchangeable4 ,yet1 the serenity of the 
celestial regions does not always remain
 undisturbed--at occasional times a     
',nova1' or new star1 blazes forth      
unexpectedly in the heavens1 and        
perplexes astronomers2 and1 after       
shining with a varying degree of        

brilliancy for a few weeks or months1   
gradually diminishes in size and        
brightness and eventually becomes lost  
to sight4  ,a record has been kept of   
about twenty temporary stars that have  
been observed at various periods since  
the time that reliable data of those    
objects have been published4 ,pliny     
mentions the appearance of a new star in
 the time of ,hipparchus 7#acd ,b4,c472 
it was seen in the constellation of the 
,scorpion1 and it is said that it was   
the apparition of this star which       
induced the celebrated astronomer to    
construct what is known as the earliest 
star catalogue4 ,a new star is said to  
have become visible when the ,emperor   
,honorius ruled1 and another during the 
reign of the ,emperor ,otho1 about #ide 
,a4,d4 ,in ,may #ajab a new star        
appeared in ,aries1 and in ,july #abjc  
another was observed in ,scorpio1 which 
resembled ,saturn4 ,the most remarkable 
star of this kind was one observed by   
,tycho ,brahe1 which appeared in the    

constellation ,cassiopeia4 ,he first    
perceived it on ,november #aa1 #aegb4   
,in lustre it equalled ,jupiter1 and    
when at its brightest rivalled ,venus2  
it was visible at noonday1 and at night 
its light could be perceived through    
strata of cloud which rendered all other
 stars invisible4 ,the star maintained  
its brilliancy for three weeks1 when it 
became of a yellowish colour and        
perceptibly decreased in size2 it       
afterwards assumed a ruddy hue          
resembling ,aldebaran1 and1 diminishing 
gradually in magnitude and brightness1  
ceased to be visible in ,march #aegd4   
,it twinkled more than the other stars1 
and during the time it could be         
perceived its position remained         
unchanged4 ,in #afjd a conspicuous new  
star burst forth in ,ophiuchus4 ,it     
surpassed in brilliancy stars of the    
first magnitude1 and outshone the planet
 ,jupiter1 which was in its proximity4  
,kepler observed this star1 and         
described it as 'sparkling like a       

diamond with prismatic tints4' ,it soon 
began to decline after its appearance2  
in ,march #afje it had shrunk to the    
dimensions of a third-magnitude star1   
and in a year later it became entirely  
lost to view4 ,other stars of the same  
class1 though of a less conspicuous     
character1 have been observed at        
occasional times4 ,anthelme1 a          
,carthusian monk1 discovered one near   
,beta ,cygni in #afgj2 another appeared 
in ,ophiuchus in #ahdh2 one in ,scorpio 
in #ahfj2 one in ,corona ,borealis in   
#ahff2 in ,cygnus in #ahgf2 in          
,andromeda in #ahhe2 and in ,auriga in  
#ahib4  ,various theories have been     
advanced in order to account for the    
sudden outbursts of those stars1 the    
light from which has probably occupied  
not much less than one hundred years in 
its passage hither4 ,it has been        
suggested that the collision of two     
suns1 or of two great masses of matter1 
would create such phenomena2 but1 apart 
from the improbability of such a        

catastrophe occurring among the         
celestial orbs1 the rapid subsidence in 
the luminosity of the observed objects  
would indicate that the outburst was    
produced by causes of a more rapidly    
transitory nature than what would result
 from the collision of two condensed    
masses of matter4 ,a collision occurring
 between two swarms of meteors has been 
suggested as one way of accounting for  
the sudden appearance of those stars2   
but another1 and more plausible1        
explanation is that they are produced by
 a great eruption of glowing gas from   
the interior of a sun1 causing an       
enormous increase in its luminosity1    
which subsides after a time1 and is     
succeeded by a normal condition of      
things4 ,it has been observed that all  
those temporary stars1 with the         
exception of two1 have appeared in the  
region of the ,milky ,way4 ,in this     
luminous zone the condensation of small 
gaseous stars and nebulae is more       
pronounced than in any other part of the

 heavens1 and this would seem to        
indicate that there may be cosmical     
changes taking place among them which   
need not be associated with the         
occurrence of catastrophes resulting in 
the conflagration of worlds1 and that   
,nature1 in accomplishing her purposes1 
does not overstep the uniform working of
 her laws1 upon which depend the        
stability and existence of the universe4
  ,,periodical ,,and ,,variable ,,stars 
are distinguished from other similar    
objects by the fluctuations which occur 
in the quantity of light emitted by     
them4 ,the difference in the luminosity 
of some stars is at times so marked     
that1 in a few weeks or months1 they    
decline from the first or second        
magnitudes to invisibility1 and1 after  
the expiration of a certain period1 they
 again gradually regain their pristine  
condition4 ,when these changes take     
place with regular recurrence1 they are 
called 'periodical2' when they occur in 
a variable and uncertain manner1 they   

are called 'irregular4' ,about #cjj     
stars are known as variable1 but the    
majority of them are telescopic objects4
 ,their periodical changes of brilliancy
 present every degree of variety2 in    
some stars they are scarcely perceptible
 and occur at long intervals2 in others1
 changes of brightness occur in a few   
hours or days1 by which the light       
emitted is intensified many hundreds of 
times4  ,some stars accomplish their    
cycle of change in a few days1 many in a
 few weeks or months1 and there are     
others which do not complete their      
periods until the expiration of a number
 of years4  ,one of the most remarkable 
of variable stars is called ,mira 'the  
wonderful1' in the constellation ,cetus4
 ,when at its maximum brilliancy it     
shines for two or three weeks as a star 
of the second magnitude4 ,it then begins
 to gradually decline1 and at the end of
 three months becomes invisible4 ,it    
remains invisible for five months1 and  
then reappears1 and during the ensuing  

three months it regains by degrees its  
former brilliancy4 ,mira completes a    
cycle of its changes in #ccd days1 and1 
during that time1 oscillates between a  
star of the second and tenth magnitude4 
,the variability of ,mira ,ceti was     
first observed by ,david ,fabricius in  
the sixteenth century4  ,another        
remarkable star is ,eta ,argus1 which is
 surrounded by the great nebula in the  
constellation ,argo ,navis4 ,it is      
invisible to the naked eye1 but in the  
telescope it has a reddish appearance1  
and is slightly brighter than the stars 
in its vicinity4 ,it was first observed 
by ,halley in #afgg1 and it was then of 
the fourth magnitude4 ,in #agea it had  
risen to the second magnitude1 and      
maintained its position as a star of    
this class until #ahcg1 when1 on        
,december #af of that year1 its         
brilliancy suddenly increased1 and it   
equalled in a short time ,alpha         
,centauri4 ,it reached its maximum in   
#ahdc1 and then it was surpassed only by

 ,sirius4 ,it maintained its brilliancy 
for about ten years4 ,in #aheh1 it      
declined to the second magnitude1 in    
#ahei to the third1 and1 gradually      
diminishing1 it became invisible to the 
naked eye in #ahfh4 ,it is now of the   
seventh magnitude1 and is again         
increasing1 and may soon resume its     
position among the other stars4 ,it is  
believed to have a period of seventy    
years1 and in that time its light ebbs  
and flows between the seventh and first 
magnitudes4  ,the most interesting      
variable star in the heavens is ,algol  
7the demon71 in the constellation       
,perseus4 ,its light fluctuations can be
 observed without the aid of a          
telescope1 and it completes a cycle of  
its changes in two or three days4 ,for  
about two days and thirteen hours it is 
conspicuously visible as a star of the  
second magnitude2 it then begins to     
decline1 and in about four hours sinks  
to the dimensions of a fourth-magnitude 
star2 it remains in this condition for  

twenty minutes1 and then increases      
gradually until1 at the expiration of   
four hours1 it regains its former       
brilliancy1 which it sustains for two   
days and thirteen hours1 when it again  
goes through the same cycle of changes  
in a precisely similar manner to what   
has been described4 ,astrologers have   
ascribed many evil influences to the    
demon star1 which adorned the head of   
,medusa2 nor did it escape the          
observation of ancient astronomers that 
this malevolent orb is--as a modern     
writer amusingly remarks--slowly winking
 at us from out the depths of space4    
,variable stars are found in greater    
numbers in some parts of the heavens    
than in others4 ,those of a white       
colour1 and with shorter and more       
regular periods1 are most numerous in   
the region of the ,milky ,way2 those    
that are small1 with long periods and of
 a reddish hue1 are more widely removed 
from that zone4 ,stars of this class are
 all very remote1 and no attempt has as 

yet been made to ascertain the parallax 
of ,algol4  ,several theories have been 
suggested in order to account for the   
periodical brilliancy of those stars4   
,it has been suggested that the stars   
have opaque non-luminous patches on     
their surfaces1 and that during axial   
rotation their light ebbs and flows     
according as the dark or bright portions
 are turned towards us4 ,this theory is 
highly improbable4 ,another and more    
plausible reason1 especially with regard
 to short period variables1 is1 that    
around those stars there revolve opaque 
bodies or satellites which at times     
intercept a portion of their light by   
producing a partial eclipse of their    
discs1 similar to that caused by the    
dark body of the ,moon when passing     
between the ,sun and the ,earth4  ,it is
 now known that in the case of variables
 of the ,algol type1 the periodical     
fluctuations of their light arises from 
this cause1 and that round ,algol there 
is a dark world or satellite travelling1

 which completes a revolution of its    
orbit in about sixty-nine hours1 and    
that1 during each circuit1 it intercepts
 one half of the light of its primary by
 partially eclipsing the orb1 and       
thereby creating a diminution in its    
apparent magnitude which becomes        
perceptible at recurring intervals4     
,,star ,,groups4--,these are plentifully
 scattered over the heavens and1 by     
their conspicuous brilliancy1 add to the
 grandeur and magnificence of the       
midnight sky4 ,the ,hyades in ,taurus1  
of which ,aldebaran is the chief1       
forming the eye of the ,bull1 attract   
attention4  ,the stars in ,coma         
,bernices form a rich group2 the sickle 
in ,leo1 the seven stars in ,ursa       
,major1 and those in ,cassiopeia and    
,aquila are familiarly known to all     
observers4 ,besides these1 there are    
many other groups and aggregations of   
stars which adorn the celestial vault   
and enhance the beauty of the heavens4  
,,star ,,clusters4--,on observing the   

heavens on a clear1 dark night1 there   
can be seen in different parts of the   
sky closely aggregated groups of stars  
called clusters4 ,in some instances the 
component stars are so near together    
that the naked eye is unable to discern 
the individual members of the cluster4  
,they then assume an indistinct1 hazy1  
cloudlike appearance4 ,upwards of #ejj  
clusters are known to astronomers1 the  
majority of which are very remote4 ,many
 of them contain thousands of stars     
compressed into a very small space1 and 
others are so distant that the largest  
telescopes are incapable of resolving   
their nebulous appearance into separate 
stars4  ,star clusters have been        
arranged into two classes1 'irregular'  
and 'globular2' but no sharp line of    
demarcation exists between them1 though 
each have their distinctive             
peculiarities4 ,irregular clusters      
consist of aggregations of stars brought
 promiscuously together1 and presenting 
an appearance devoid of any structural  

arrangement4 ,they are of different     
shapes and sizes1 possess no distinct   
outline1 and are not condensed towards  
their centre1 like those that are       
globular4 ,on examination1 they present 
an intricate reticulated appearance2    
streams and branches of stars extend    
outwards from the parent cluster1       
sometimes in rows and sinuous lines1    
and1 in other instances1 diverging from 
a common centre1 forming sprays4        
,sometimes the stars are seen to follow 
each other on the same curve which      
terminates in loops and arches of       
symmetrical proportions4  ,there are    
three conspicuous clusters in the       
northern sky that are visible to the    
naked eye--viz4 the ,pleiades in        
,taurus1 the ,great ,cluster in the     
sword-handle of ,perseus1 and ,praesepe 
in ,cancer1 commonly called the         
,beehive4  ,the cluster which from time 
immemorial has had bestowed upon it the 
chief attention of mankind are the      
beautiful ,pleiades or ,seven ,sisters1 

and intertwined among its stars are the 
legendary and mythological beliefs of   
ancient nations and untutored tribes    
inhabiting the different regions of the 
globe4 ,when viewed with a telescope of 
moderate size the cluster appears as a  
scattered group1 and numerous stars     
become visible that are imperceptible to
 ordinary vision4  ,in the sword-handle 
of ,perseus there is a cluster which1 to
 the naked eye1 appears as a small patch
 of luminous cloud4 ,this inconspicuous 
object when observed with an instrument 
of moderate power is resolved into a    
magnificent assemblage of stars1 and    
presents a spectacle which creates in   
the mind of the beholder mingled        
feelings of admiration and amazement4   
,no telescope has yet penetrated its    
utmost depths1 or revealed all the      
glories of this shining region1 crowded 
with glittering points of light         
comparable in number to the pebbles     
strewn on the shore of a troubled sea4  
,the cluster ,praesepe in ,cancer is    

visible on a clear night to the unaided 
eye as a small nebula4 ,this object     
attracted the attention of ,galileo1 to 
which he applied his newly invented     
telescope1 and was delighted to find    
that his glass was capable of resolving 
it into a group of stars thirty-six in  
number1 and all of comparatively large  
magnitude4 ,the disappearance of        
,praesepe in consequence of the         
condensation of vapour in the atmosphere
 was regarded by the ancients as a sure 
indication of approaching rain4 ,in the 
same constellation1 near the ,crab's    
southern claw1 there is another rich    
cluster1 which consists of #bjj stars of
 the ninth and tenth magnitudes4  ,in   
,sobieski's ,shield there is a          
magnificent fan-shaped cluster of minute
 stars with a prominent one in its      
centre2 and in the constellation of the 
,southern ,cross there is a cluster     
which1 on account of the varied colours 
of its component stars1 has been        
compared by ,sir ,john ,herschel to 'a  

piece of rich fancy jewellery2' eight of
 the principal stars being coloured red1
 green1 and blue4  ,,globular           
,,clusters4--,these have been described 
by ,herschel as 'the most magnificent   
objects that can be seen in the         
heavens4' ,they are all very remote1 of 
a rounded form1 and when viewed with a  
telescope present the appearance of 'a  
ball of stars4' ,in some clusters the   
constituent stars are distinguishable as
 minute points of light2 in others1 more
 remote1 they are of a coarse granular  
texture1 and in those still more distant
 they resemble a 'heap of golden sand4' 
,some clusters are situated at such a   
profound distance in space that it is   
impossible with the most powerful of    
telescopes to define their stellar      
structure2 all that can be distinguished
 of these is a cloudy luminosity        
resembling in appearance an irresolvable
 nebula4 ,globular clusters usually     
present a radiated appearance4 ,rays1   
branches1 and spiral-shaped streams of  

stars appear to flow from the           
circumference of some2 and1 in other    
instances1 fantastic appendages of stars
 project outwards from the parent       
cluster4 ,there doubtless exists much   
variety in the structural arrangement of
 these clusters1 and an equal diversity 
in the magnitude and number of the stars
 which enter into their formation4 ,the 
stars in some clusters may equal those  
of the first magnitude1 and in others   
they may not exceed in dimensions the   
minor planets4 ,in the telescope they   
vary in size from the eleventh to the   
fifteenth magnitude2 the smaller stars  
occupy the centre of a cluster1 whilst  
the larger ones are found near its      
circumference4 ,globular clusters are   
more condensed towards their centre than
 those of irregular shape1 and some have
 a nucleated appearance4 ,this apparent 
condensation is not altogether owing to 
the depth of star strata as viewed from 
the circumference of the cluster1 but   
there appears to exist an attractive    

force 7probably gravitational7 which    
draws the stars towards its centre1 and 
if this 'clustering power' were not     
opposed by some other counteracting     
force1 those bodies would coalesce into 
one mass4 ,it may be 'that a centrifugal
 impulse predominates by which          
full-grown orbs are driven from the     
nursery of suns in which they were      
reared to seek their separate fortunes  
and enter on an independent career      
elsewhere4'  ,it is not known how the   
dynamical equilibrium of a star cluster 
is maintained2 and on account of its    
extreme distance no motion is           
perceptible among its component stars4  
,the laws by which those stellar        
aggregations are produced and governed  
are wrapped in obscurity1 and the nature
 of the motions of their stars1 whether 
towards concentration or diffusion1     
cannot at present be ascertained4 ,if   
those globular clusters could be        
observed sufficiently near1 they would  
most probably expand into vast systems  

of suns occupying immense regions of    
space4  ,the largest and most           
magnificent globular cluster in the     
heavens is ,omega ,centauri1 in the     
,southern ,hemisphere4 ,to the naked eye
 it resembles a round1 indistinct1      
cometary object1 about equal to a star  
of the fourth magnitude2 but when       
observed with a powerful telescope it   
appears as a globe of considerable      
dimensions composed of innumerable stars
 of the thirteenth and fifteenth        
magnitudes1 all exceedingly minute and  
gathered into small knots and groups4 ,a
 remarkable cluster in ,toucani is      
described by ,sir ,john ,herschel as    
'most magnificent2 very large2 very     
bright1 and very much compressed in the 
middle4' ,the interior mass consists of 
closely aggregated pale rose-coloured   
stars1 surrounded by others of a pure   
white which embrace the remainder of the
 cluster4 ,there is a fine globular     
cluster in ,sagittarius between the     
,archer's head and the bow4 ,it was     

observed by ,hevelius in #affe4 ,the    
central portion is very much compressed1
 and consists of excessively minute     
stars enclosed by others of larger size4
 ,in ,aquarius there is a magnificent   
ball of stars of a beautiful spherical  
form1 which ,sir ,j4 ,herschel compared 
to a heap of fine sand4 ,numerous other 
clusters are profusely distributed over 
the heavens1 occupying regions in the   
profound depths of space which can only 
be reached by the aid of most powerful  
instruments4  ,the finest and most      
remarkable object of this class visible 
in the northern heavens is the ,great   
,cluster which lies between ,eta and    
,zeta ,herculis4 ,it was discovered by  
,halley in #agad1 who writes3 ',this is 
but a little patch1 but it shows itself 
to the naked eye when the sky is serene 
and the moon absent4' ,when observed    
with a powerful telescope its           
magnificence at once becomes apparent to
 the beholder4 ',perhaps1' says ,dr4    
,nichol1 'no one ever saw it for the    

first time through a telescope without  
uttering a shout of wonder4' ,at its    
circumference the stars are rather      
scattered1 but towards the centre they  
appear so closely aggregated that their 
combined effulgence forms a perfect     
blaze of light4 ,sir ,william ,herschel 
estimated that there are #ad1jjj stars  
in the cluster1 each a magnificent world
 but unaccompanied by any planetary     
attendants4  ,illustration3 ,,cluster   
,,in ,,hercules  ,as a result of more   
recent investigations this number has   
been considerably reduced1 and it is now
 generally believed that about #d1jjj   
stars enter into the formation of the   
cluster4 ,as its distance from the      
,earth is unknown1 it follows that there
 must be some uncertainty attached to   
any conclusions that may be arrived at  
with regard to this superb object4 ,miss
 ,agnes ,clerke estimates the number of 
the constituent stars at #d1jjj1 and in 
support of her conclusion this talented 
lady writes as follows3 ',the apparent  

diameter of this object1 including most 
of the scattered stars in streaky masses
 and lines which form a sort of glory   
round it1 is #h'2 that of its truly     
spherical portion may be put at #e'4    
,now1 a globe subtending an angle of #e'
 must have 7because the sine of that    
angle is to radius nearly as to #a 3    
#fhg7 a real diameter #a_/fhg of its    
distance from the eye1 which1 if we     
assume to be such as would correspond to
 a parallax of #a_/bj of a second1 we   
find that the cluster1 outliers apart1  
measures #eeh1jjj millions of miles     
across4 ,light1 in other words1 occupies
 thirty-six days in traversing it1 but  
sixty-five years in journeying thence   
hither4 ,its components may be regarded1
 on an average1 as of the twelfth       
magnitude2 for1 although the divergent  
stars rank much higher in the scale of  
brightness1 the central ones1 there is  
reason to believe1 are notably fainter4 
,the sum total of their light1 if       
concentrated into one stellar point1    

would at any rate very little 7if at    
all7 exceed that of a third-magnitude   
star4 ,and one star of the third is     
equivalent to just four thousand stars  
of the twelfth magnitude4 ,hence we     
arrive at the conclusion that the stars 
in the ,hercules ,cluster number much   
more nearly four than fourteen          
thousand4'  ,for what purpose do those  
thousands of clustering orbs shine8 ,who
 can tell8 ,night is unknown in the     
regions illumined by their brilliant    
radiance4 ,this stupendous aggregation  
of suns testifies to the magnificence of
 the starry heavens1 and to the         
omnipotence of the ,creator4            
,,galaxies4--,these consist of vast     
aggregations of stars which form        
separate 'island universes' floating in 
the depths of space2 they are believed  
to equal in magnitude and magnificence  
the ,milky ,way--the galaxy to which our
 system belongs4  ,,nebulae4--,we now   
reach the last1 and what are believed to
 be the most distant of the known       

contents of the heavens4 ,they are all  
exceedingly remote1 devoid of any       
perceptible motion1 faintly luminous1   
and1 with the exception of two of their 
number1 invisible to the naked eye4     
,halley was the first astronomer who    
paid any attention to those objects4 ,in
 #agaf he enumerated six of them1 but of
 this number only two can1 in a strict  
sense1 be regarded as nebulae1 the      
others since then have been resolved    
into magnificent star clusters4 ,in     
#aghd1 ,messier catalogued #ajc nebulae1
 and the ,herschels--father and son--in 
their survey of the stellar regions1    
discovered #d1jjj of those objects4     
,there are now #h1jjj known nebulae in  
the heavens1 but the majority of them   
are not of much interest to astronomers4
 ,prior to the invention of the         
spectroscope it was believed that all   
nebulae were irresolvable star clusters1
 but the analysis of their light by this
 instrument indicated that their        
composition was not stellar but gaseous4

 ,their spectra consist of a few bright 
lines revealing the presence of         
hydrogen1 nitrogen1 and other gaseous   
elements4  ,much that is mysterious and 
uncertain is associated with those      
objects which appear to lie far beyond  
the limits of our sidereal system4 ,it  
is now generally believed that they     
exhibit the earliest stage in the       
formation of stars and planets--inchoate
 worlds in process of slow evolution1   
which will eventually condense into     
systems of suns1 and planetary worlds4  
,nebulae present every variety of form4 
,some are annular1 elliptic1 circular1  
and spiral2 others are fan-shaped1      
cylindrical1 and irregular1 with tufted 
appendages1 rays1 and filaments4 ,a     
fancied resemblance to different        
animated creatures has been observed in 
some4 ,in ,taurus there is a nebula     
called the ',crab' on account of its    
likeness to the crustacean2 another is  
called the ',owl ,nebula' from its      
resemblance to the face of that bird4   

,the ,orion ,nebula suggests the opened 
jaws of a fish or sea monster1 hence    
called the ,fish-,mouth ,nebula4 ,there 
is a ,horse-,shoe ,nebula1 a ,dumb-,bell
 ,nebula1 and many others of various    
shapes and forms4 ,they are classified  
as follows3 7#a7 ,annular ,nebulae1 7#b7
 ,elliptic ,nebulae1 7#c7 ,spiral       
,nebulae1 7#d7 ,planetary ,nebulae1 7#e7
 ,nebulous ,stars1 7#f7 ,large          
,irregular ,nebulae4  ,,annular         
,,nebulae4--,these resemble in          
appearance an oval-shaped luminous ring2
 they are comparatively few in number1  
and not more than a dozen have been     
discovered in the whole heavens4 ,the   
most remarkable object of this class is 
the ,ring ,nebula1 which is situated    
between the stars ,beta and ,gamma      
,lyrae4 ,it is visible in a             
moderate-sized telescope as a           
well-defined1 flat1 oval ring2 its      
central part is not quite dark but is   
occupied by a filmy haze of luminous    
matter which is prolonged inwards from  

the margin of the ring4 ,when examined  
with a high power the edges of the ring 
have a fringed appearance1 and numerous 
glittering stellar points become visible
 both within and without its            
circumference4 ,this nebulous ring1     
though a small object in the telescope1 
is of enormous magnitude1 and if it were
 not more distant than #fa ,cygni1 one  
of the nearest of the fixed stars1 its  
diameter would not be less than #bj1jjj 
millions of miles1 but it has been      
estimated by ,herschel that it is #ijj  
times more remote than ,sirius4 ,how    
stupendous1 then1 must be its           
dimensions1 and how bewildering to our  
conception is the profound immensity of 
space in which it is located6 ,an       
annular nebula similar to that of ,lyra1
 but on a smaller scale1 is found in    
,cygnus1 and within it there can be seen
 a conspicuous star4 ,another exists in 
,scorpio which contains two stars       
situated within the ring at             
diametrically opposite points to each   

other4  ,,elliptical ,,nebulae4--,the   
most interesting object of this class is
 the ,great ,nebula in ,andromeda1      
called 'the transcendentally beautiful  
queen of the nebulae'--an appellation   
which it scarcely merits4 ,this object1 
which is plainly visible to the naked   
eye1 is of an oval shape1 of a milky    
white colour1 and is situated near the  
most northern star of the three which   
form the girdle of ,andromeda4 ,it was  
known to the ancients1 and ,ali ,sufi1 a
 ,persian astronomer who flourished in  
the tenth century1 alludes to it2 but it
 did not attract much attention until   
the seventeenth century4 ,simon ,marius 
was the first to observe this object    
with a telescope4 ,this he did on       
,december #ae1 #afab2 he describes it as
 shining with a pale white light        
resembling in appearance the flame of a 
candle when seen through a              
semi-transparent piece of horn4 ,when   
examined with a high magnifying power it
 is seen to occupy a largely extended   

area measuring #d deg4 in length and    
#b-a_/b deg4 in breadth4 ,its luminosity
 increases from the circumference to the
 centre1 where there can be seen a small
 nucleus with an ill-defined boundary1  
which has the appearance of being       
granular1 but its composition is not    
stellar4 ,two dark channels running     
almost parallel to each other and to the
 axis of the nebula have been observed  
by ,bond2 these1 when prolonged1 form   
into curves which terminate in two great
 rings4 ,they are wide rifts which      
separate streams of nebulous matter1 and
 are indicative that some formative     
processes may be going on within the    
nebula4  ,astronomers have been baffled 
in their attempts to discover the nature
 of the ,andromeda ,nebula4 ,though     
great telescopes have been able to      
render visible thousands of stars over  
and around it1 yet the nebula itself is 
irresolvable and bears no trace of      
stellar formation2 neither1 according to
 ,dr4 ,huggins1 is its spectrum gaseous1

 a circumstance which deepens the       
mystery associated with this object4    
,its distance is unknown1 and its       
dimensions cannot be ascertained4       
,other elliptical nebulae are found in  
different regions of the heavens4 ,in   
,ursa ,major there is an oval nebula    
resembling that of ,andromeda1 but on a 
much smaller scale4 ,it possesses a     
nucleus1 and on the photographic plate  
there can be detected the presence of   
spiral structure1 indicating the        
existence of streams of nebulous matter4
 ,adjacent to this nebula is another of 
the same class with a double nucleus1   
and associated with it is a nebulous    
star4  ,,spiral ,,nebulae4--,the great  
reflector of ,earl ,rosse at            
,parsonstown was the successful means by
 which nebulae of this form were        
discovered4 ,this powerful telescope was
 capable of defining with greater       
accuracy the structural formation of    
those objects than any other instrument 
in use4 ,it was ascertained that spiral 

coils and convoluted whorls enter into  
the structure of most nebulae1          
indicating a similarity in the process  
of change which may be going on in these
 vast accumulations of cosmical matter4 
,the most interesting specimen of a     
spiral nebula is situated in ,canes     
,venatici4 ,it consists of spiral coils 
emanating from a centre with a nucleus  
and surrounded by a narrow luminous     
ring4 ,in appearance it resembles the   
coiled mainspring of a watch4           
,,planetary ,,nebulae4--,these have been
 so named on account of the resemblance 
which they bear to the discs of planets4
 ,they are of uniform brightness1       
circular in shape1 with sharply-defined 
edges1 and are frequently of a bluish   
colour4 ,they are more numerous than    
annular nebulae2 three-fourths of their 
number are in the ,southern ,hemisphere1
 and they are situated in or very near  
the ,milky ,way4 ,those objects were    
first described by ,sir ,william        
,herschel1 who was rather perplexed as  

to what was their real nature and how he
 should classify them4 ,he remarked that
 they could not be planets belonging to 
far-off suns1 nor distant comets1 nor   
distended stars4 ,consequently1 he      
concluded rightly that they were        
nebulae4 ,when observed with large      
telescopes1 they lose their planetary   
aspect1 and their sharpness of outline  
is less apparent2 their discs become    
broken up into bright and dark portions1
 and in some1 numerous minute stars have
 been observed1 whilst others have      
well-defined nuclei4  ,the most         
prominent nebula of this class is       
situated in the constellation ,ursa     
,major1 and is called the ,owl ,nebula1 
from its fancied resemblance to the face
 of that bird4 ,sir ,john ,herschel     
describes it as 'a most extraordinary   
object1 a large1 uniform nebulous disc1 
quite round1 very bright1 not sharply   
defined1 but yet very suddenly fading   
away to darkness4' ,when examined in    
#ahdh with ,earl ,rosse's reflector1 two

 bright stars were discovered in its    
interior2 each was in the centre of a   
circular dark space surrounded by whorls
 of nebulous matter--hence the origin of
 its name4 ,this nebula gives a bright  
line spectrum indicative of gaseous     
composition4 ,it is believed to consist 
chiefly of hydrogen and other gases     
which form a globe of such stupendous   
magnitude that1 if we surmise its       
distance from the earth to be sixty-five
 light years--an estimate much too      
low--'its diameter would exceed that of 
the orbit of ,neptune upwards of #ajj   
times4'#aj ,within its compass the orbs 
of hundreds of solar systems as large as
 that of ours would be able to perform  
their revolutions1 having spacious      
intervals existing between each system4 
,another interesting planetary nebula is
 in the constellation of the ,dragon1   
near to the pole of the ecliptic2 it is 
slightly oval1 of a pale blue colour1   
and contains a star of the eleventh     
magnitude in its centre4 ,it gives a    

gaseous spectrum4 ,attempts have been   
made to determine its parallax1 but     
without success1 and during the eighty  
years it has been under observation it  
has remained apparently motionless4 ,its
 light period1 if estimated at #adj     
years1 would indicate the existence of a
 globe with a diameter equal to         
forty-four diameters of the orbit of the
 planet ,neptune4#aa ,a nebula of this  
class was discovered by ,sir ,john      
,herschel in the ,centaur4 ,he described
 it as resembling ,uranus1 but larger2  
its colour was of a beautiful rich blue1
 and its light equalled that of a star  
of the seventh magnitude4  ,,nebulous   
,,stars4--,these stars are each         
surrounded by a luminous haze several   
minutes of arc in diameter and of a     
circular form4 ,sir ,william ,herschel1 
by his observation of those objects1    
arrived at the conclusion 'that there   
exists in space a shining fluid of a    
nature totally unknown to us1 and that  
the nebulosity about those stars was not

 of a starry nature4' ,thirteen stars of
 this type have been enumerated by him  
and many others have since been         
discovered4 ,the 'glow' which surrounds 
them has been observed in a few         
instances to have vanished without      
leaving any trace of nebulosity behind1 
but the causes which have brought about 
such a result are entirely unknown4 ,the
 nature of those stars is involved in   
considerable obscurity1 and one class of
 nebula would seem to merge into the    
other2 nebulous stars with faint        
aureolae do not differ much from small  
nebulae interspersed with stellar       
points4  ,,large ,,irregular            
,,nebulae4--,these are found in both    
hemispheres1 and are remarkable on      
account of the varied appearances which 
they present1 and the large extent of   
space which many of them occupy4 ,in    
some1 the nebulous matter of which they 
are composed can be seen like masses of 
tufted flocculi1 sometimes piled up1 and
 at other times promiscuously scattered1

 resembling in appearance the foam on   
the crested billows of a surging ocean  
rendered suddenly motionless1 or        
cirro-cumuli floating in a tranquil sky4
 ,islands of light with intervening dark
 channels1 promontories projecting into 
gulfs of deep shade1 sprays of luminous 
matter1 convoluted filaments1 whorls1   
wreaths1 and spiral streams all enter   
into the structural formation of a great
 nebula4  ,the ,great ,nebula in ,argo1 
in the ,southern ,hemisphere1 is one of 
the most remarkable objects of this     
class4 ,it consists of bright irregular 
masses of luminous matter1 streaks and  
branches1 and occupies an area about    
equal to one square degree4 ,at its     
eastern border is situated the variable 
star ,eta ,argus1 which fluctuates      
between the first and seventh magnitudes
 in a period of about seventy years4  ,a
 rich portion of the ,galaxy lies in    
front of the nebula1 which creates an   
effect as if it were studded over with  
stars4 ,sir ,john ,herschel1 in         

describing this nebula1 writes as       
follows3--',the whole is situated in a  
very rich and brilliant part of the     
,milky ,way1 so thickly strewed with    
stars that1 in the area occupied by the 
nebula1 not less than #a1bjj have been  
actually counted4 ,yet it is obvious    
that these have no connection whatever  
with the nebula1 being1 in fact1 only a 
simple continuation over it of the      
general ground of the ,galaxy4 ,the     
conclusion can hardly be avoided that1  
in looking at it1 we see through and    
beyond the ,milky ,way1 far out into    
space1 through a starless region1       
disconnecting it altogether from our    
system4 ,it is not easy for language to 
convey a full impression of the beauty  
and sublimity of the spectacle which    
this nebula offers as it enters the     
field of view of a telescope1 fixed in  
right ascension1 by the diurnal motion1 
ushered in as it is by so glorious and  
innumerable a procession of stars1 to   
which it forms a sort of climax1 and in 

a part of the heavens otherwise full of 
interest4' ,another large bright nebula 
7called #cj ,doradus71 also in the      
,southern ,hemisphere1 is composed of a 
series of loops with intricate windings 
forming a kind of open network against  
the background of the sky which it      
adorns4 ,sir ,john ,herschel describes  
it as one of the most extraordinary     
objects in the heavens4  ,the ',crab'   
,nebula in ,taurus1 the ',horse-,shoe'  
,nebula in ,sobieski's ,shield1 and the 
',dumb-,bell' ,nebula in ,vulpecula are 
remarkable objects1 but the assistance  
of a powerful telescope is required to  
bring out their distinctive features4   
,the ',crab' ,nebula is partially       
resolvable into stars2 the other two are
 believed to be gaseous4  ,the largest  
and most remarkable of all the nebulae  
is that known as the ,great ,nebula in  
,orion1 which was discovered and        
delineated by ,huygens in the middle of 
the seventeenth century4 ,it is         
perceptible to the naked eye1 and when  

viewed with a glass of low power can be 
seen as a circular luminous haze        
surrounding the multiple star ,theta    
,orionis--one of the stars in the       
,giant's ,sword1 and which is of itself 
a remarkable object4 ,the most          
conspicuous part of the nebula bears a  
slight resemblance to the wing of a     
bird2 it consists of flocculent masses  
of nebulous matter possessing a faint   
greenish tinge4 ,sir ,john ,herschel    
compared it to a surface studded over   
with flocks of wool1 or to the breaking 
up of a mackerel sky when the clouds of 
which it consists begin to assume a     
cirrous appearance4 ,its brightest      
portion is occupied by four conspicuous 
stars1 which form a trapezium2 around   
each there is a dark space free from    
nebulosity1 a circumstance which would  
seem to indicate that the stars possess 
the power either of absorbing or of     
repelling the nebulous matter in their  
immediate vicinity4 ,when observed with 
a powerful telescope1 this nebula       

appears to be of vast dimensions1 and1  
with its effluents1 occupies an area of 
#d deg4 by #e-a_/b deg44 ,irregular     
branching masses1 streams1 sprays1      
filaments1 and curved spiral wreaths    
project outward from the parent mass1   
and become gradually lost in the        
surrounding space4 ,this object remained
 for long a profound mystery2 no        
telescope was capable of resolving it1  
nor was it known what this 'unformed    
fiery mist1 the chaotic material of     
future suns1' was1 until the            
spectroscope revealed that it consists  
of a stupendous mass of incandescent    
gases--nitrogen1 hydrogen1 and other    
elementary substances1 occupying a      
region of space believed by some to     
equal in extent the whole stellar system
 to which our ,sun belongs4  ,in the    
,southern ,hemisphere1 near to the pole 
of the equator1 are two nebulous clouds 
of unequal size2 the larger having an   
area about four times that of the       
smaller4 ,they are known as the         

,magellanic ,clouds1 having been called 
after the navigator ,magellan4 ,both are
 visible on a moonless night1 but in    
bright moonlight the smaller disappears4
 ,sir ,john ,herschel1 when at the ,cape
 of ,good ,hope1 examined those objects 
with his powerful telescope4 ,he        
described them 'as consisting of swarms 
of stars1 globular clusters1 and nebulae
 of various kinds1 some portions of them
 being quite irresolvable1 and          
presenting the same milky appearance in 
the telescope that the nebulae          
themselves do to the naked eye4' ,these 
are believed to be other universes of   
stars sunk in the profound depths of    
space1 our knowledge of their existence 
being dependent upon the faint nebulous 
light which left them1 perhaps1 several 
thousand years ago4  ,illustration3     
,,great ,,nebula ,,in ,,orion  ,the     
description of the various kinds of     
nebulae leads us to consider what is    
called the ,nebular ,hypothesis4 ,that  
the stars and solar system had at some  

time in the past a beginning1 is as much
 a matter of certainty as that they will
 at some future time cease to be4       
,stars1 like organic beings1 have their 
birth1 grow and arrive at maturity1 then
 decline into a state of decrepitude1   
and finally die out4 ,the duration of   
the life of a star1 which may be        
reckoned by millions of years1 depends  
upon the length of time during which it 
can maintain a temperature that renders 
it capable of emitting light4 ,by the   
constant radiation of its heat into     
space1 a condition of its constituent   
particles consequent upon the gradual   
contraction of its mass will ultimately 
occur1 which will result in the         
exhaustion of its stores of thermal     
energy1 the extinction of its light1 and
 the reduction of what was once a       
brilliant orb to the condition of a mass
 of cold1 opaque1 inert matter4         
,inquiries as to the origin of the stars
 have led scientific men to conclude    
that they have been evolved from gaseous

 nebulae1 and these have therefore been 
regarded as indicating the earliest     
stage in the formation of suns and      
planets4 ,it is believed that the       
condensation of those attenuated masses 
of luminous matter into stars is capable
 of accounting for the generation and   
formation of all the shining orbs which 
enter into the structure of the starry  
heavens4 ,in the evolution of a 'cosmos 
out of a chaos' we should expect to find
 stars presenting every stage of        
development--some in an embryo state and
 others more advanced2 stars in full    
vigour and activity1 stars that have    
passed the meridian of life1 and stars  
in a condition of decay and on the verge
 of extinction4 ,the observations of    
astronomers have led them to conclude   
that this condition of 'youth and age'  
exists among the stellar multitude2 but 
the characteristics by which it is      
distinguished are neither very obvious  
nor reliable4  ,the nebular theory is   
incapable of proof or demonstration2 but

 modern discoveries tend to support the 
accuracy of its conclusions1 and its    
principles have now been adopted by the 
majority of philosophic thinkers4 ,the  
physical changes which are going on in  
the nebulae towards stellar evolution1  
or in fully formed stars towards        
dissolution1 are so slow that the life  
of an individual1 or even the historical
 records of the past1 are incapable of  
furnishing any evidence of alteration in
 their condition4 ,a period of time     
infinitely greater than what has elapsed
 since the birth of science must pass   
before anything can be known of the life
 history of the stars2 indeed1 the      
allotted span of man's existence on this
 planet may have terminated ere the     
evolution of a large nebula into a star 
cluster can have taken place4  ,the     
nebular hypothesis was first propounded 
by ,kant1 who suggested that the sun and
 planets originated from a vast and     
diffused mass of cosmical matter4 ,this 
theory was afterwards supported by      

,herschel and by the great ,french      
astronomer ,laplace4 ,as a result of    
close and continued observation of the  
different classes of nebulae1 ,herschel 
arrived at the conclusion that there    
exists in space a widely diffused       
'shining fluid1' of a nature totally    
unknown to us1 and that the nebulosity  
which he perceived to surround some     
stars was not of a starry nature4 ,he   
further adds that this self-luminous    
matter 'seemed more fit to produce a    
star by its condensation than to depend 
on the star for its existence4' ,his    
sagacious conclusion with regard to the 
non-stellar nature of this nebulous     
matter was afterwards confirmed by the  
spectroscope2 for at that time it was   
believed that even the faintest nebulae 
were irresolvable star clusters4  ,in   
#ahaa ,herschel read a paper before the 
,royal ,society in which he propounded  
his famous nebular hypothesis1 and      
stated his reasons for believing that   
nebulae1 by their gradual condensation1 

were transformed into stars4 ,having    
assumed that there exists a highly      
attenuated self-luminous substance      
diffused over vast regions of space1 he 
endeavoured to show that by the law of  
attraction its particles would have a   
tendency to coalesce and form           
aggregations of nebulous matter1 and    
that each of these1 by the continued    
action of the same force1 would         
gradually condense and ultimately       
acquire the consistence of a star4 ,in  
the case of large irregular nebulae1    
numerous centres of attraction would    
originate in the mass1 round which the  
nebulous particles of matter would      
arrange themselves2 each nucleus1 when  
condensation had been completed1 would  
become a star1 and the entire nebula    
would in this manner be transformed into
 a cluster of stars4 ,herschel believed 
that he could trace the different stages
 of nebular condensation which result in
 the evolution of a star4 ,in large1    
faintly luminous nebulae the process of 

condensation had only commenced2 in     
others that were smaller and brighter it
 was in a more advanced stage2 in those 
that contained nuclei there was evidence
 of nascent stars2 and1 finally1 there  
could be seen in some nebulae minute    
stellar points--new-born                
suns--interspersed among the haze of the
 transforming mass4 ,by this theory     
,herschel was able to account for the   
phenomena associated with nebulous stars
 and the supposed changes which were    
observed in some nebulae4 ,the nebular  
hypothesis as described by ,herschel was
 not received with much favour1 nor did 
it unsettle much the belief that all    
nebulae were vast stellar aggregations1 
and that their cloudy luminosity was a  
consequence of the inadequacy of        
telescopic power to resolve them into   
their component stars4 ,laplace1 who was
 highly gifted as a geometrician1       
demonstrated how the solar system could 
have been evolved in accordance with    
dynamical principles from a slowly      

rotating and slowly contracting         
spheroidal nebula4 ,the rotatory motion 
of a nebula1 in obedience to a          
well-known mechanical law1 increases as 
its density becomes greater1 and this   
goes on until the tangential force at   
the equator overcomes the gravitational 
attraction at its centre4 ,when this    
occurs1 a revolving ring of nebulous    
matter is thrown off from the parent    
mass1 and by this means equilibrium is  
restored between the two forces4 ,as the
 rotatory velocity of the nebula        
continues to increase with its          
contraction1 another ring is cast off1  
and in this manner a succession of      
revolving rings may be detached from the
 condensing spheroid2 each newly-formed 
ring being nearer to the centre of the  
contracting mass and revolving in a     
shorter period than its predecessor4 ,in
 the evolution of our system1 the       
central mass of the nebula became the   
,sun and each of the revolving rings1 by
 their condensation into one mass1      

formed a planet4 ,in a similar manner1  
though on a diminished scale1 the       
elementary planets1 whilst in a nebulous
 state1 parted with annular portions of 
their substance1 out of which were      
evolved their systems of satellites4    
,this theory furnished a plausible      
reason1 which was capable of explaining 
how the orbs which constitute the solar 
system came into existence1 and1 though 
hypothetical1 yet the manner in which it
 accounted for the orderly and          
symmetrical genesis of the system       
rendered it attractive and fascinating  
to scientific minds4  ,the evidence in  
support of the nebulous origin of the   
solar system1 if not conclusive1 is of  
much weight and importance4 ,the        
remarkable harmony with which the orbs  
of the system perform their motions is  
strongly indicative of their common     
origin and that their evolution occurred
 in subordination to the law of         
universal gravitation4 ,the following   
are the characteristic points in favour 

of this theory3--  #a4 ,all the planets 
revolve round the ,sun in the same      
direction1 and they all occupy nearly   
the same plane4  #b4 ,their satellites1 
with the exception of those of ,uranus  
and ,neptune1 perform their revolutions 
in obedience to the same law4  #c4 ,the 
rotation on their axes of the ,sun1     
planets1 and satellites is in the same  
direction as their orbital motion4      
,between the orbits of ,mars and        
,jupiter there revolves a remarkable    
group of small planets or planetoids4   
,on account of the absence of a planet  
in this region1 where1 according to the 
laws of planetary distances1 one ought  
to be found1 the existence of those     
small bodies was suspected for some     
years prior to their discovery4 ,the    
first was detected by ,piazzi at        
,palermo in #ahja2 two others were      
discovered by ,olbers in #ahjb and      
#ahjg1 and one by ,harding in #ahjd4    
,for some time it was believed that no  
more planetoids existed1 but in #ahde a 

fifth was detected by ,hencke1 and from 
that year until now upwards of #cjj of  
those small bodies have been discovered4
 ,their magnitudes are of varied extent2
 the diameter of the largest is believed
 not to exceed #dej miles1 and that of  
the smaller ones from twenty to thirty  
miles4 ,it was surmised at one time1    
when only a few of those bodies were    
known1 that they were the fragments of a
 planet which met with some terrible    
catastrophe2 but since the discovery of 
so many other planetoids this theory    
cannot be maintained4 ,according to the 
nebular hypothesis1 these bodies are the
 consolidated portions of a nebulous    
ring which remained separate instead of 
having coalesced into one mass so as to 
form a planet4 ,the uniform condensation
 of the ring would result in the        
formation of a multitude of small       
planets similar to what are found       
between the orbits of ,mars and         
,jupiter4 ,in ,saturn's ring we have a  
remarkable instance of annular          

consolidation in which the form of the  
ring has been preserved4 ,the ring is   
believed to consist of myriads of minute
 bodies1 each of which travels in an    
orbit of its own as it pursues its path 
round the planet2 the close             
approximation and exceeding minuteness  
of those moving objects create the      
appearance of a solid continuous ring4  
,though1 by means of the nebular        
hypothesis1 it is impossible to explain 
all the phenomena associated with the   
motions of the orbs which enter into the
 structure of the solar system1 yet this
 does not detract much from the merits  
of the theory1 the fundamental          
principles of which are based upon the  
evolution of the solar system from a    
rotating nebula4 ,the retrograde motions
 of the satellites of ,uranus and       
,neptune1 the velocity of the inner     
,martian moon1 and other abnormalities  
in the system1 have not as yet been     
explained1 but doubtless there are      
reasons by which those peculiarities can

 be accounted for if they were only     
known1 'felix qui potuit cognoscere     
causas omnium rerum4'  ,no attempt has  
been made to supplant the nebular       
hypothesis by any other theory of       
cosmical evolution4 ,modern             
investigations and discoveries have     
strengthened its position1 and at       
present it is the only means by which we
 can account for the existence of the   
visible material universe by which we   
are surrounded4  ,in the days when      
,milton lived--three hundred years      
ago--the nocturnal heavens presented the
 same appearance to an observer as they 
do at the present time4 ,the stars      
pursued their identical paths1 and      
looked down upon the ,earth with the    
same aspect of serene tranquillity1     
regardless of the vicissitudes which    
affect the inhabitants of this          
terrestrial sphere4 ,the constellations 
that adorn the celestial vault duly     
appeared in their seasons1              
and in the ascending scale     ,of      

,heaven the stars that usher evening    
rose4--iv4 #ced-ee4  ,the winter glories
 of ,orion1 the scintillating brilliancy
 of ,sirius1 and the spangled firmament1
 bearing no impress of change or        
variation which would lead one to       
conclude that the heavens were other    
than eternal1 attracted then1 as now1   
the admiration of beholders4  ,apart    
from the orbs which constitute the solar
 system1 little was known of the        
sidereal heavens beyond the visual      
effect created by the nocturnal aspect  
of the star-lit sky4 ,though ancient    
philosophers hazarded an opinion that   
the stars were suns1 they received but  
scant attention from early astronomers1 
by whom they were merely regarded as    
convenient fixed points which enabled   
them to determine with greater accuracy 
the positions of the planets and the    
paths traced out by them in the heavens4
 ,the ,ptolemaists1 who believed in the 
diurnal revolution of the spheres1      
assigned to the stars a very subordinate

 place in their cosmology1 which was the
 one adopted by ,milton2 and although   
,copernicus relegated them to their     
proper location in space1 yet he had no 
clear conception of a universe of stars4
 ,tycho ,brahe1 who declined to accept  
the ,copernican theory1 disbelieved that
 the stars were suns1 and ,galileo1 who 
discovered the stellar nature of the    
,milky ,way1 remarked that the stars    
were not illumined by the ,sun's rays in
 the same manner that the planets are1  
but expressed no opinion with regard to 
their physical constitution4 ,it is only
 within the past fifty years that proof 
has been obtained of the real nature of 
the stars4 ,by the spectroscopic        
analysis of their light it has been     
ascertained that the elements of matter 
which enter into their composition exist
 in a condition similar to what is found
 in the ,sun4 ,the stars are therefore  
suns1 many of them surpassing in        
magnitude and brilliancy the great      
luminary of our system4  ,though ,milton

 makes frequent allusion to the         
magnificence of the starry heavens1 we  
have no evidence that he regarded the   
stars as suns1 nor does he refer to them
 as such in any part of his poem4#ab    
,what impressed him most was their      
number and brilliancy1 to which         
reference is made in the following      
passages3      ,about him all the       
,sanctities of ,heaven     ,stood thick 
as stars4--iii4 #fj-fa4      ,and sowed 
with stars the ,heavens thick as a      
field4--vii4 #ceh4      ,amongst        
innumerable stars1 that shone     ,stars
 distant1 but nigh hand seemed other    
worlds4--iii4 #efd-fe4                  
her reign     ,with thousand lesser     
lights dividual holds1     ,with        
thousand thousand stars1 that then      
appeared     ,spangling the             
hemisphere4--vii4 #cha-hd4  ,milton     
describes the number of the fallen      
angels as                               
an host     ,innumerable as the stars of
 night4--v4 #gdd-de1  and the attention 

of ,satan is directed by the archangel  
,uriel to the multitude of stars formed 
from the chaotic elements of matter3    
,numberless as thou seest1 and how they 
move2     ,each had his place appointed1
 each his course2     ,the rest in      
circuit walls this universe4--iii4      
#gai-ba4    ,though ,milton was         
doubtless familiar with the leading orbs
 of the firmament and knew their names1 
and the constellations in which they are
 situated1 yet he makes no direct       
allusion to any of them in his poem4    
,neither ,arcturus1 which is mentioned  
in the ,book of ,job1 nor ,sirius1 which
 attracted the attention of ,homer1 who 
compared the brightness of ,achilles'   
armour to the dazzling brilliancy of the
 dog-star1 finds a place in ',paradise  
,lost4' ,and yet the superior magnitude 
and brilliancy of some stars when       
compared with those of others did not   
escape ,milton's observation when1 in   
describing the lofty eminence of ,satan 
in heaven1 prior to his fall1 he        

represents him as                       
brighter once amidst the host     ,of   
angels than that star the stars         
among4--vii4 #acb-cc4  ,there is but one
 star to which ,milton makes individual 
allusion1 and1 though not of any        
conspicuous brilliancy1 yet it is one of
 much importance to astronomers--       
the fleecy star that bears              
,andromeda far off ,atlantic seas       
,beyond the horizon4--iii4 #eeh-fj4     
,this is ,alpha ,arietis1 the first     
point in the constellation of that name1
 which signifies the ,ram1 and from     
which the right ascensions of the stars 
are measured on the celestial sphere4   
,in the time of ,hipparchus the ecliptic
 intersected the celestial equator in   
,aries1 which indicated the commencement
 of the astronomical year and the       
occurrence of the vernal equinox2 but1  
owing to precession1 this point is now  
#cj deg4 westward of ,aries and in the  
constellation ,pisces4 ,the star was    
called ,hamal by the ,arabs1 signifying 

a sheep1 and the animal is represented  
as looking backwards4 ,manilius         
writes3--      ,first ,aries1 glorious  
in his golden wool1     ,looks back and 
wonders at the mighty ,bull4  ,aries is 
associated with the legend of the       
,golden ,fleece1 in quest of which      
,jason and his valiant crew sailed in   
the ship ',argo4' ,in the autumn1       
,andromeda is situated above ,aries1 and
 would seem to be borne by the latter1  
which accounts for ,milton's description
 of the relative positions of those two 
constellations4  ,milton alludes to the 
starry sphere in several passages in his
 poem1 and also mentions the starry pole
 above which he soared in imagination up
 to the ,empyrean or ,heaven of         
,heavens4 ,his contemplation of the     
,galaxy must have impressed his mind    
with the magnitude and extent of the    
sidereal universe1 for he was aware that
 this luminous zone which encircles the 
heavens consists of myriads of stars1 so
 remote as to be incapable of definition

 by unaided vision4 ,milton's           
description of this vast assemblage of  
stars is worthy of its magnificence1 and
 the purpose with which he poetically   
associates this glorified highway       
testifies to the sublimity of his       
thoughts and to the originality of his  
genius4 ,in those parts of his poem in  
which he describes the glories of the   
celestial regions1 and instances the    
beautiful phenomena associated with the 
individual orbs of the firmament1 we are
 able to perceive with what exquisite   
delight he beheld them all4  ,the       
invention of the telescope1 and the     
important discoveries made by ,kepler1  
,galileo1 and ,newton in the seventeenth
 century1 were the means of effecting a 
rapid advance in the science of         
astronomy2 but that branch of it known  
as sidereal astronomy was not then in   
existence4 ,the star depths1 owing to   
inadequate telescopic power1 remained   
unexplored1 and the secrets associated  
with those distant regions were         

inviolable1 and lay beyond the reach of 
human knowledge4 ,the physical          
constitution of the stars was unknown1  
nor was it ascertained with any degree  
of certainty that they were suns4 ,the  
knowledge possessed by astronomers in   
those days was but meagre compared with 
what is now known of the sidereal       
heavens4 ,milton's astronomical         
knowledge1 we find1 was commensurate    
with what was known of the stellar      
universe1 and this he has conspicuously 
displayed in his poem4     ,,chapter    
,,viii  ,,description ,,of ,,celestial  
,,objects ,,mentioned ,,in ',,paradise  
,,lost'   ,,the ,,sun  ,the surpassing  
splendour of the ,sun1 as compared with 
that of any of the other orbs of the    
firmament1 is not more impressive than  
his stupendous magnitude1 and the       
important functions which it is his     
prerogative to fulfil4 ,situated at the 
centre of our system--of which he may be
 regarded as 'both eye and soul'--the   
orb has a diameter approaching          

#a1jjj1jjj miles1 and a mass #gej times 
greater than that of all the planets    
combined4 ,these1 by his attractive     
power1 he retains in their several paths
 and orbits1 and even far distant       
,neptune acknowledges his potent sway4  
,with prodigal liberality he dispenses  
his vast stores of light and heat1 which
 illumine and vivify the worlds circling
 around him1 and upon the constant      
supply of which all animated beings     
depend for their existence4 ,deprived of
 the light of the ,sun1 this world would
 be enveloped in perpetual darkness1 and
 we should all miserably perish4  ,the  
,sun is distant from the ,earth about   
#ic1jjj1jjj miles4 ,his diameter is     
#hfg1jjj miles1 or nearly four times the
 extent of the radius of the ,moon's    
orbit4 ,the mass of the orb exceeds that
 of the ,earth #ccj1jjj times1 and in   
volume #a1cje1jjj times4 ,the ,sun is a 
sphere1 and rotates on his axis from    
west to east in #be days #h hours4 ,the 
velocity of a point at the solar equator

 is #d1djg miles an hour4 ,the density  
of the ,sun is only one-fourth that of  
the ,earth1 or1 in other words1 bulk for
 bulk1 the ,earth is four times heavier 
than the ,sun4 ,the force of gravity at 
the ,sun's surface is twenty-seven times
 greater than it is on the ,earth2 it   
would therefore be impossible for beings
 constituted as we are to exist on the  
solar surface4  ,the dazzling luminous  
envelope which indicates to the naked   
eye the boundary of the solar disc is   
called the ,,photosphere4 ,it is most   
brilliant at the centre of the ,sun1 and
 diminishes in brightness towards the   
circumference1 where its luminosity is  
but one-fourth that of the central      
portion of the disc4 ,the photosphere   
consists of gaseous vapours or clouds1  
of irregular form and size1 separated by
 less brilliant interstices1 and glowing
 white with the heat derived from the   
interior of the ,sun4 ,in the telescope 
the photosphere is not of uniform       
brilliancy1 but presents a mottled or   

granular appearance1 an effect created  
by the intermixture of spaces of unequal
 brightness4 ,small nodules of intense  
brilliance1 resembling 'rice-grains1'   
but which1 according to ,nasmyth1 are of
 a willow-leaf shape with pointed       
extremities1 which form a network over  
portions of the photosphere1 are        
sprinkled profusely over a more faintly 
luminous background4 ,these 'grains'    
consist of irregular rounded masses1    
having an area of several hundred miles4
 ,by the application of a high          
magnifying power they can be resolved   
into 'granules'--minute luminous dots   
which constitute one-fifth of the ,sun's
 surface and emit three-fourths of the  
light4 ,this granulation is not uniform 
over the surface of the photosphere2 in 
some parts it is indistinct1 and appears
 to be replaced by interlacing          
filamentous bands1 which are most       
apparent in the penumbrae of the spots  
and around the spots themselves4 ,the   
'granules' are the tops of ascending    

masses of intensely luminous vapour2 the
 comparatively dark 'pores' consist of  
similar descending masses1 which1 having
 radiated their energy1 are returning to
 be again heated underneath the surface 
of the photosphere4  ,in certain regions
 of the photosphere several dark patches
 are usually visible1 which are called  
'sun-spots4' ,at occasional times they  
are almost entirely absent from the     
solar disc4 ,it has been observed that  
they occupy a zone extending from #aj   
deg4 to #ce deg4 north and south of the 
solar equator1 but are not found in the 
equatorial and polar regions of the     
,sun4 ,a sun-spot is usually described  
as consisting of an irregular dark      
central portion1 called the umbra2      
surrounding it is an edging or fringe   
less dark1 consisting of filaments      
radiating inwards called the penumbra4  
,within the umbra there is sometimes    
seen a still darker spot1 called the    
nucleus4 ,the umbra is generally        
uniformly dark1 but at times filmy      

luminous clouds have been observed      
floating over it4 ,the nucleus is       
believed to be the orifice of a tubular 
depression in the floor of the umbra1   
prolonged downwards to an unknown depth4
 ,the penumbra is brightest at its inner
 edge1 where the filaments present a    
marked contrast when compared with the  
dark cavity of the umbra which they     
surround and overhang4 ,sometimes       
lengthened processes unite with those of
 the opposite side and form bands and   
'bridges' across the umbra4 ,the darkest
 portion of the penumbra is its external
 edge1 which stands out conspicuously   
against the adjoining bright surface of 
the ,sun4 ,one penumbra will sometimes  
enclose several umbrae whilst the nuclei
 may be entirely wanting4               
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f4--;,a ,sun-spot
 magnified4  7,janssen47  ,sun-spots    
usually appear in groups2 large isolated
 spots are of rare occurrence1 and are  
generally accompanied by several smaller
 ones of less perfect formation4 ,the   

exact moment of the origin of a sun-spot
 cannot be ascertained1 because it      
arises from an imperceptible point2 it  
grows very rapidly1 and often attains   
its full size in a day4  ,prior to its  
appearance there is an unusual          
disturbance of the solar surface over   
the site of the spot3 luminous ridges1  
called faculae1 and dark 'pores' become 
conspicuous1 between which greyish      
patches appear1 that seem to lie        
underneath a thin layer of the          
photosphere2 this is rapidly dispelled  
and a fully formed spot comes into view4
 ,when a sun-spot has completed its     
period of existence1 the photospheric   
matter overwhelms the penumbra1 and     
rushes into the umbra1 which it         
obliterates1 causing the spot to        
disappear4 ,the duration of sun-spots is
 subject to considerable variation2 some
 last for weeks or months1 and others   
for a few days or hours4 ,a spot when   
once fully formed maintains its shape1  
which is usually rounded1 until the     

period of its breaking up4 ,spots of    
long duration rotate with the ,sun4     
,those which become visible at the edge 
of the ,sun's limb have been observed to
 travel across his disc in less than a  
fortnight1 disappearing at the margin of
 the opposite limb2 afterwards1 if      
sufficiently long-lived1 they have      
reappeared in twelve or thirteen days on
 the surface of the orb where first     
observed4 ,it was by observation of the 
spots that the period of the axial      
rotation of the ,sun became known4      
,sun-spots vary very much in size--some 
are only a few hundred miles in width1  
whilst others have a diameter of #dj1jjj
 or #ej1jjj miles or upwards4 ,in some  
instances the umbra alone has a breadth 
of #bj1jjj or #cj1jjj miles--three times
 the extent of the diameter of the      
,earth4 ,spots of this size are visible 
to the naked eye when the ,sun is       
partially obscured by fog1 or when his  
brilliancy is diminished by vapours near
 the horizon4 ,a year seldom passes     

without the occurrence of several of    
such spots being recorded4 ,the largest 
sun-spot ever observed had a diameter of
 about #aej1jjj miles4 ,a group of      
spots1 including their penumbrae1 will  
occupy an area of many millions of      
square miles4  ,by long observation it  
has been ascertained that sun-spots     
increase and diminish in number with    
periodical regularity1 and that a       
maximum sun-spot period occurs at the   
end of each eleven years4 ,when spots   
are numerous on the ,sun's disc there is
 great disturbance of the solar surface1
 accompanied by fierce rushes of        
intensely heated gases4 ,this solar     
activity is known to influence          
terrestrial magnetism by causing a      
marked oscillation of the magnetic      
needle1 and giving rise to so-called    
'magnetic storms1' accompanied by       
magnificent displays of aurorae1 with   
variations in electrical earth-currents4
 ,it would therefore appear that        
sun-spots have a pronounced effect upon 

magnetic terrestrial phenomena1 but how 
this is produced remains unknown4       
,besides sun-spots1 there are seen on   
the solar disc bright flocculent streaks
 or ridges of luminous matter called    
faculae2 they are found over the whole  
surface of the ,sun1 but are most       
numerous near the limb and in the       
immediate vicinity of the spots4 ,they  
have been compared to immense           
waves--vast upheavals of photospheric   
matter1 indicative of enormous pressure1
 and often extending in length for many 
thousands of miles4  ,nearly all        
observers have arrived at the conclusion
 that sun-spots are depressions or      
cavities in the photosphere1 but        
considerable difference of opinion      
exists as to how they are formed4 ,the  
most commonly accepted theory is that   
they are caused by the pressure of      
descending masses of vapour having a    
reduced temperature1 which absorb the   
light and prevent it reaching us4 ,our  
knowledge of the ,sun is insufficient to

 admit of any accurate conclusion on    
this point2 though we are able to       
perceive that the surface of the orb is 
in a state of violent agitation and     
perpetual change1 yet his great distance
 and intense luminosity prevent our     
capability of perceiving the ultimate   
minuter details which go to form the    
texture of the solar surface4 ',bearing 
in mind that a second of arc on the ,sun
 represents #dee miles1 it follows that 
an object #aej miles in diameter is     
about the minimum visible even as a mere
 mathematical point1 and that anything  
that is sufficiently large to give the  
slightest impression of shape and       
extension of surface must have an area  
of at least a quarter of a million      
square miles2 ordinarily speaking1 we   
shall not gather much information about 
any object that covers less than a      
million4'#ac ,since the ,british        
,islands have only an area of #abj1gjj  
square miles1 it is evident that on the 
surface of the ,sun there are many      

phenomena and physical changes occurring
 which escape our observation4 ,though  
the changes which occur in the spots and
 faculae appear to be slow when observed
 through the telescope1 yet in reality  
they are not so4 ,tremendous storms and 
cyclones of intensely heated gases1     
which may be compared to the flames     
arising from a great furnace1 sweep over
 different areas of the ,sun with a     
velocity of hundreds of miles an hour4  
,vast ridges and crests of incandescent 
vapour are upheaved by the action of    
internal heat1 which exceeds in         
intensity the temperature at which the  
most refractory of terrestrial          
substances can be volatilised2 and      
downrushes of the same photospheric     
matter take place after it has parted   
with some of its stores of thermal      
energy4 ,sun-spots of considerable      
magnitude have been observed to grow    
rapidly and then disappear in a very    
short period of time2 occasionally a    
spot is seen to divide into two or more 

portions1 the fragments flying asunder  
with a velocity of not less than #a1jjj 
miles an hour4 ,it is by these upheavals
 and convulsions of the solar atmosphere
 that the light and heat are maintained 
which illumine and vivify the worlds    
that gravitate round the ,sun4  ,during 
total eclipses of the ,sun1 several     
phenomena become visible which have     
enabled astronomers to gain some further
 knowledge of the nature of the solar   
appendages4 ,the most important of these
 is the ,,chromosphere1 which consists  
of layers of incandescent gases that    
envelop the photosphere and completely  
surround the ,sun4 ,its average depth is
 from #e1jjj to #f1jjj miles1 and when  
seen during an eclipse is of a beautiful
 rose colour1 resembling a sheet of     
flame4 ,as seen in profile at the edge  
of the ,sun's disc1 it presents an      
irregular serrated appearance1 an effect
 created by the protuberance of luminous
 ridges and processes--masses of flame  
which arise from over its entire        

surface4 ,the chromosphere consists     
chiefly of glowing hydrogen1 and an     
element called helium1 which has been   
recently discovered in a terrestrial    
substance called cleveite2 there are    
also present the vapours of iron1       
calcium1 cerium1 titanium1 barium1 and  
magnesium4 ,from the surface of this    
ocean of fire1 jets and pointed spires  
of flaming hydrogen shoot up with       
amazing velocity1 and attain an altitude
 of ten1 twenty1 fifty1 and even one    
hundred thousand miles in a very short  
period of time4 ,they are1 however1 of  
an evanescent nature1 change rapidly in 
form and appearance1 and often in the   
course of an hour or two die down so as 
not to be recognisable4 ,these          
prominences1 as they are called1 have   
been divided into two classes4 ,some are
 in masses that float like clouds in the
 atmosphere1 which they resemble in form
 and appearance2 they are usually       
attached to the chromosphere by a single
 stem1 or by slender columns2           

occasionally they are entirely free4    
,these are called quiescent prominences2
 they consist of clouds of hydrogen1 and
 are of more lasting duration than the  
other variety1 called eruptive or       
metallic prominences4 ,the latter are   
usually found in the vicinity of        
sun-spots1 and1 besides hydrogen1       
contain the vapours of various metals4  
,they are of different forms1 and       
present the appearance of filaments1    
spikes1 and jets of liquid fire2 others 
are pyramidal1 convoluted1 and          
parabolic4  ,these outbursts1 bending   
over like the jets from a fountain1 and 
descending in graceful curves of flame1 
ascend from the surface of the          
chromosphere with a velocity often      
exceeding #ajj miles in a second1 and   
frequently reach an enormous height1 but
 are of transient duration4 ,they are   
closely connected with sun-spots1 and   
are evidence of the tremendous forces   
that are in action on the surface of the
 ,sun4  ,the ,,corona is an aureole of  

light which is seen to surround the ,sun
 during a total eclipse4 ,it is an      
impressive and beautiful phenomenon1 and
 is only visible when the ,sun is       
concealed behind the dark body of the   
,moon4 ,professor ,young gives the      
following graphic description of the    
corona3 ',from behind it the ,moon      
stream out on all sides radiant         
filaments1 beams1 and sheets of pearly  
light1 which reach to a distance        
sometimes of several degrees from the   
solar surface1 forming an irregular     
stellate halo1 with the black globe of  
the ,moon in its apparent centre4 ,the  
portion nearest the ,sun is of dazzling 
brightness1 but still less brilliant    
than the prominences1 which blaze       
through it like carbuncles4 ,generally  
this inner corona has a pretty uniform  
height1 forming a ring three or four    
minutes of arc in width1 separated by a 
somewhat definite outline from the outer
 corona1 which reaches to a much greater
 distance and is far more irregular in  

form4 ,usually there are several rifts1 
as they have been called1 like narrow   
beams of darkness1 extending from the   
very edge of the ,sun to the outer      
night1 and much resembling the cloud    
shadows which radiate from the ,sun     
before a thundershower4 ,but the edges  
of these rifts are frequently curved1   
showing them to be something else than  
real shadows4 ,sometimes there are      
narrow bright streamers as long as the  
rifts1 or longer4 ,these are often      
inclined1 or occasionally even nearly   
tangential to the solar surface1 and    
frequently are curved4 ,on the whole1   
the corona is usually less extensive and
 brilliant over the solar poles1 and    
there is a recognisable tendency to     
accumulation above the middle latitudes1
 or spot zones2 so that1 speaking       
roughly1 the corona shows a disposition 
to assume the form of a quadrilateral or
 four-rayed star1 though in almost every
 individual case this form is greatly   
modified by abnormal streamers at some  

point or other4' ,the corona surrounds  
the ,sun and its other envelopes to a   
depth of many thousands of miles4 ,it   
consists of various elements which exist
 in a condition of extreme tenuity2     
hydrogen1 helium1 and a substance called
 coronium appear to predominate1 whilst 
finely divided shining particles of     
matter and electrical discharges        
resembling those of an aurora assist in 
its illumination4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4
 #g4--,the ,corona during the ,eclipse  
of ,may #ahhc4  ,we possess no knowledge
 of the physical structure of the       
interior of the ,sun1 nor have we any   
terrestrial analogy to guide us as to   
how matter would behave when subjected  
to such conditions of extreme           
temperature and pressure as exist in the
 interior of the orb4 ,yet we are       
justified in concluding that the ,sun is
 mainly a gaseous sphere which is slowly
 contracting1 and that the energy       
expended in this process is being       
transformed into heat so extreme as to  

render the orb a great fountain of      
light4  ,milton in his poem makes more  
frequent allusion to the ,sun than to   
any of the other orbs of the firmament1 
and1 in all his references to the great 
luminary1 describes him in a manner     
worthy of his unrivalled splendour1 and 
of his supreme importance in the system 
which he upholds and governs4 ,after    
having alighted on ,mount ,niphates1    
,satan is described as looking          
,sometimes towards ,heaven and the      
full-blazing ,sun1     ,which now sat   
high in his meridian tower4--iv4 #bi-cj4
  ,he then addresses him thus3--      ,o
 thou that with surpassing glory        
crowned1     ,look'st from thy sole     
dominion like the god     ,of this new  
,world--at whose sight all the stars    
,hide their diminished heads--to thee ,i
 call1     ,but with no friendly voice1 
and add thy name1     ,o ,sun1 to tell  
thee how ,i hate thy beams1     ,that   
bring to my remembrance from what state 
,i fell1 how glorious once above thy    

sphere4--iv4 #cb-ci4  ,on another       
occasion3--      ,the golden ,sun in    
splendour likest ,heaven     ,allured   
his eye4--iii4 #egb-gc4  ,in describing 
the different periods of the day1       
,milton seldom fails to associate the   
,sun with these times1 and rightly so1  
since they are brought about by the     
apparent diurnal journey of the orb     
across the heavens4 ,commencing with    
morning1 he says3--                     
,meanwhile1     ,to re-salute the world 
with sacred light1     ,leucothea waked1
 and with fresh dews embalmed     ,the  
,earth4--xi4 #acc-cf4      ,soon as they
 forth were come to open sight     ,of  
day-spring1 and the ,sun--who1 scarce   
up-risen1     ,with wheels yet hovering 
o'er the ocean-brim1     ,shot parallel 
to the ,earth his dewy ray1             
,discovering in wide landskip all the   
east     ,of ,paradise and ,eden's happy
 plains4--v4 #ach-dc                    
or some renowned metropolis     ,with   
glistering spires and pinnacles adorned1

     ,which now the rising ,sun gilds   
with his beams4--iii4 #edi-ea4          
while now the mounted ,sun     ,shot    
down direct his fervid rays1 to warm    
,earth's inmost womb4--v4 #cjj-cjb4     
for scarce the ,sun     ,hath finished  
half his journey1 and scarce begins     
,his other half in the great zone of    
,heaven4--v4 #eeh-fj4      ,to sit and  
taste1 till this meridian heat     ,be  
over1 and the ,sun more cool            
decline4--v4 #cfi-gj4      ,and the     
great ,light of ,day yet wants to run   
,much of his race1 though steep4        
,suspense in ,heaven1     ,held by thy  
voice1 thy potent voice he hears1       
,and longer will delay1 to hear thee    
tell     ,his generation1 and the rising
 birth     ,of ,nature from the         
unapparent deep4--vii4 #ih-ajc4  ,the   
declining day and approach of evening   
are described as follows3--             
,meanwhile in utmost longitude1 where   
,heaven     ,with ,earth and ,ocean     
meets1 the setting ,sun     ,slowly     

descended1 and with right aspect        
,against the eastern gate of ,paradise  
,levelled his evening rays4--iv4        
#eci-dc4                                
the ,sun now fallen     ,beneath the    
,azores2 whether the ,prime ,orb1       
,incredible how swift1 had thither      
rolled     ,diurnal1 or this less       
volubil ,earth1     ,by shorter flight  
to the east1 had left him there         
,arraying with reflected purple and gold
     ,the clouds that on his western    
throne attend4--iv4 #eia-ig4            
the parting ,sun     ,beyond the        
,earth's green ,cape and verdant ,isles 
,hesperian sets1 my signal to           
depart4--viii4 #fcj-cb4      ,now was   
the ,sun in western cadence low         
,from noon1 and gentle airs due at their
 hour     ,to fan the ,earth now waked1 
and usher in     ,the evening cool4--x4 
#ib-ie4                                 
for the ,sun1     ,declined1 was hasting
 now with prone career     ,to the      
,ocean ,isles1 and in the ascending     

scale     ,of ,heaven the stars that    
usher evening rose4--iv4 #ceb-ee4  ,in  
the combat between ,michael and ,satan1 
which ended in the overthrow of the     
rebel angels1 ,milton1 in his           
description of their armour1 says3--    
two broad suns their shields     ,blazed
 opposite4--vi4 #cje-cjf1  and in       
describing the faded splendour of the   
ruined ,archangel1 the poet compares him
 to the ,sun when seen under conditions 
which temporarily deprive him of his    
dazzling brilliancy and glory3--        
as when the ,sun new-risen     ,looks   
through the horizontal misty air        
,shorn of his beams1 or1 from behind the
 ,moon     ,in dim eclipse1 disastrous  
twilight sheds     ,on half the nations1
 and with fear of change     ,perplexes 
monarchs4--i4 #eid-ii4  ,this passage   
affords us an example of the sublimity  
of ,milton's imagination and of his     
skill in adapting the grandest phenomena
 in ,nature to the illustration of his  
subject4   ,,the ,,moon  ,the ,moon is  

the ,earth's satellite1 and next to the 
,sun is the most important of the       
celestial orbs so far as its relations  
with our globe are concerned4 ,besides  
affording us light by night1 the ,moon  
is the principal cause of the ebb and   
flow of the tide--a phenomenon of much  
importance to navigators4 ,the ,moon is 
almost a perfect sphere1 and is #b1afj  
miles in diameter4 ,the form of its     
orbit is that of an ellipse with the    
,earth in the lower focus4 ,it revolves 
round its primary in #bg days #g hours1 
at a mean distance of #bcg1jjj miles1   
and with a velocity of #b1bgc miles an  
hour4 ,its equatorial velocity of       
rotation is #aj miles an hour4 ,the     
density of the ,moon is #c4eg that of   
water1 or #j4fc that of the ,earth2     
eighty globes1 each of the weight of the
 ,moon1 would be required to            
counterbalance the weight of the ,earth1
 and fifty globes of a similar size to  
equal it in dimensions4 ,the orb rotates
 on its axis in the same period of time 

in which it accomplishes a revolution of
 its orbit2 consequently the same       
illumined surface of the ,moon is always
 directed towards the ,earth4 ,to the   
naked eye the ,moon appears as large as 
the ,sun1 and it very rapidly changes   
its form and position in the sky4 ,its  
motions1 which are of a very complex    
character1 have been for many ages the  
subject of investigation by             
mathematicians and astronomers1 but     
their difficulties may now be regarded  
as having been finally overcome4  ,the  
phases of the ,moon are always          
interesting and very beautiful4 ,the orb
 is first seen in the west1 after       
sunset1 as a delicate slender crescent  
of pale light2 each night it increases  
in size1 whilst it travels eastward1    
until it attains the figure of a half   
moon2 still growing larger as it pursues
 its course1 it finally becomes a full  
resplendent globe1 rising about the time
 that the ,sun sets and situated        
directly opposite to him4 ,then1 in a   

reverse manner1 after full moon1 it goes
 through the same phases1 until1 as a   
slender crescent1 it becomes invisible  
in the solar rays2 afterwards to        
re-appear in a few days1 and1 in its    
monthly round1 to undergo the same cycle
 of changes4 ,the phases of the ,moon   
depend upon the changing position of the
 orb with regard to the ,sun4 ,the ,moon
 shines by reflected light derived from 
the ,sun1 and as one half of its surface
 is always illumined and the other half 
totally dark1 the crescent increases or 
diminishes when1 by the ,moon's change  
of position1 we see more or less of the 
bright side4 ,visible at first as a     
slender crescent near the setting ,sun1 
the angular distance from the orb and   
the width of the crescent increase      
daily1 until1 at the expiration of seven
 days1 the ,moon is distant one quarter 
of the circumference of the heavens from
 the ,sun4 ,the ,moon is then a         
semi-circle1 or in quadrature4 ,at the  
end of other seven days1 the distance of

 the ,moon from the ,sun is at its      
greatest--half the circumference of its 
orbit4 ,it is then visible as a circular
 disc and we behold the orb as full     
moon4 ,the waning ,moon1 as it gradually
 decreases1 presents the same aspects   
reversed1 and1 finally1 its slender     
crescent disappears in the ,sun's rays4 
,the convex edge of the crescent is     
always turned towards the ,sun4 ,the    
rising of the ,moon in the east and its 
setting in the west is an effect due to 
the diurnal rotation of the ,earth on   
her axis1 but the orb can be perceived  
to have two motions besides3 one from   
west to east1 which carries it round the
 heavens in #bi4ec days1 and another    
from north to south4 ,the west to east  
motion is steady and continuous1 but1   
owing to the ,sun's attractive force1   
the ,moon is made to swerve from its    
path1 giving rise to irregularities of  
its motion called ,,perturbations4 ,the 
most important of these is the annual   
equation1 discovered by ,tycho ,brahe--a

 yearly effect produced by the ,sun's   
disturbing influence as the ,earth      
approaches or recedes from him in her   
orbit2 another irregularity1 called the 
evection1 is a change in the            
eccentricity of the lunar orbit1 by     
which the mean longitude of the ,moon is
 increased or diminished4 ,elliptic     
inequality1 parallactic inequality1 the 
variation1 and secular acceleration1 are
 other perturbations of the lunar       
motion1 which depend directly or        
indirectly on the attractive influence  
of the ,sun and the motion of the ,earth
 in her orbit4  ,as the plane of the    
,moon's orbit is inclined at an angle of
 rather more than #e deg4 to the        
ecliptic1 it follows that the orb1 in   
its journey round the ,earth1 intersects
 this great circle at two points called 
the ',nodes4' ,when crossing the        
ecliptic from south to north the ,moon  
is in its ascending node1 and when      
crossing from north to south in its     
descending node4 ,in ,december the ,moon

 reaches the most northern point of its 
course1 and in ,june the southernmost4  
,consequently we have during the winter 
nights the greatest amount of moonlight1
 and in summer the least4 ,in the       
evenings the moonlight is least in      
,march and greatest in ,september1 when 
we have what is called the ,harvest     
,moon4  ,the telescopic appearance of   
the ,moon is very interesting and       
beautiful1 especially if the orb is     
observed when waxing and waning4 ,as no 
aqueous vapour or cloud obscures the    
lunar surface1 all its details can be   
perceived with great clearness and      
distinctness4 ,indeed1 the topography of
 the ,moon is better known than that of 
the ,earth1 for the whole of its surface
 has been mapped and delineated with    
great accuracy and precision4 ,the ,moon
 is in no sense a duplicate of its      
primary1 and no analogy exists between  
the ,earth and her satellite4 ,evidence 
is wanting of the existence of an       
atmosphere surrounding the ,moon2 no    

clouds or exhalations can be perceived1 
and no water is believed to exist on the
 lunar surface4 ,consequently there are 
no oceans1 seas1 rivers1 or lakes2 no   
fertile plains or forest-clad mountains1
 such as are found upon the ,earth4     
,indeed1 all the conditions essential   
for the support and maintenance of      
organic life by which we are surrounded 
appear to be nonexistent on the ,moon4  
,our satellite has no seasons2 its axial
 rotation is so slow that one lunar day 
is equal in length to fourteen of our   
days2 this period of sunshine is        
succeeded by a night of similar         
duration4 ,the alternation of such      
lengthened days and nights subjects the 
lunar surface to great extremes of heat 
and cold4  ,when viewed with a          
telescope1 the surface of the ,moon is  
perceived to consist of lofty mountain  
chains with rugged peaks1 numerous      
extinct volcanoes called crater         
mountains1 hills1 clefts1 chasms1       
valleys1 and level plains--a region of  

desolation1 presenting to our gaze the  
shattered and upturned fragments of the 
,moon's crust1 convulsed by forces of a 
volcanic nature which have long since   
expended their energies and died out4   
,the mountain ranges on the ,moon       
resemble those of the ,earth1 but they  
have a more rugged outline1 and their   
peaks are more precipitous1 some of them
 rising to a height of #bj1jjj feet4    
,they are called the ,lunar ,alps1      
,apennines1 and ,cordilleras1 and       
embrace every variety of hill1 cliff1   
mound1 and ridge of comparatively low   
elevation4 ,the plains are large level  
areas1 which are situated on various    
parts of the lunar surface2 they are of 
a darker hue than the mountainous       
regions by which they are surrounded1   
and were at one time believed to be     
seas4 ,they are analogous to the        
prairies1 steppes1 and deserts of the   
,earth4  ,valleys4--,some of these are  
of spacious dimensions2 others are      
narrow1 and contract into gorges and    

chasms4 ,clefts or rills are long cracks
 or fissures of considerable depth1     
which extend sometimes for hundreds of  
miles across the various strata of which
 the ,moon's crust is composed4  ,the   
characteristic features of the ,moon's  
surface are the crater mountains3 they  
are very numerous on certain portions of
 the lunar disc1 and give the ,moon the 
freckled appearance which it presents in
 the telescope1 and which ,galileo      
likened to the eyes in the feathers of a
 peacock's tail4 ,they are believed to  
be of volcanic origin1 and have been    
classified as follows3 ',walled plains1 
mountain rings1 ring plains1 crater     
plains1 craters1 craterlets1 and crater 
cones4' ,upwards of #ac1jjj of these    
mountains have been enumerated1 and     
#a1jjj are known to have a diameter     
exceeding nine miles4 ,walled plains    
consist of circular areas which have a  
width varying from #aej miles to a few  
hundred yards4 ,they are enclosed by    
rocky ramparts1 whilst the centre is    

occupied by an elevated peak4 ,the depth
 of these formations1 which are often   
far below the level of the ,moon's      
surface1 ranges from #aj1jjj to #bj1jjj 
feet4 ,mountain rings1 ring plains1 and 
crater plains resemble those already    
described1 but are on a smaller scale2  
the floors of the larger ones are       
frequently occupied by craters and      
craterlets4 ,the latter exist in large  
numbers1 and some portions of the       
,moon's surface appear honeycombed with 
them1 the smaller craters resting on the
 sides of larger ones and occupying the 
bottoms of the more extensive areas4    
,there is no kind of formation on the   
,earth's surface that can be compared   
with these crater mountains1 which      
indicate that the ,moon was at one time 
a fiery globe convulsed by internal     
forces which found an outlet in the     
numerous volcanoes scattered over her   
surface4  ,the most remarkable of these 
volcanic mountains have been named after
 distinguished men4 7#a7 ,copernicus is 

one of the most imposing2 its crater is 
#ef miles in diameter1 and situated at  
its centre is a mountain with six peaks 
#b1djj feet in height4 ,the ring by     
which it is surrounded rises #aa1jjj    
feet above the floor of the crater1 and 
consists of terraces believed to have   
been created by the partial congelation 
and periodic subsidence of a lake of    
molten lava which occupied the enclosed 
area4  7#b7 ,tycho is one of the most   
magnificent and perfect of lunar        
volcanoes1 and is also remarkable as    
being a centre from which1 when the     
,moon is full1 there radiates a number  
of bright streaks which extend across   
the lunar surface1 over mountain and    
valley1 through ring and crater1 for    
many hundreds of miles4 ,their nature is
 unknown1 and nothing resembling them is
 found on the ,earth4 ,tycho has a      
diameter of #ej miles and a depth of    
#ag1jjj feet4 ,the peak which rises from
 the floor of the crater attains a      
height of #f1jjj feet1 and the rampart  

consists of a series of terraces which  
give variety to the appearance of the   
inner wall4 ,the surface of the ,moon   
round ,tycho is honeycombed with small  
volcanoes4  7#c7 ,clavius is one of the 
most extensive of the walled plains2 it 
has a diameter of #adb miles and an area
 of #af1ejj square miles4 ,the rocky    
annulus which surrounds it is very lofty
 and precipitous1 and at one point      
reaches a height of #ag1cjj feet4       
,upwards of #ij craters have been       
counted within this space1 one of the   
peaks attaining to an elevation of      
#bd1jjj feet above the level floor of   
the plain4 ,it is believed that the     
lowest depths of this wild and          
precipitous region are never penetrated 
by sunlight1 they are so overshadowed by
 towering crag and fell which intercept 
the solar rays2 and1 as there is no     
atmosphere to cause reflection1 they are
 consequently enveloped in perpetual    
darkness4  7#d7 ,plato has a diameter of
 about #fj miles and an area of #b1gjj  

square miles2 its central peak rises to 
a height of #g1cjj feet4 ,it has an     
irregular rampart which is broken up    
into terraces averaging about #d1jjj    
feet high2 three cones1 each with an    
elevation of from #g1jjj to #i1jjj feet1
 rest on its western border4  7#e7      
,theophilus is the deepest of the       
visible craters on the ,moon4 ,it has a 
diameter of #fd miles1 and the inner    
edge of the ring rises from the level   
floor to a height ranging from #ad1jjj  
to #ah1jjj feet4 ,a group of mountains  
occupies the centre of the area1 the    
highest peak of which reaches an        
elevation of #e1bjj feet4 ,cyrillus and 
,catharina1 two adjacent craters1 are   
each about #af1jjj feet deep and        
connected by a wide valley4  7#f7       
,aristarchus is the brightest spot on   
the ,moon1 and appears almost dazzling  
in the telescope4 ,the crater has a     
diameter of #db miles1 the centre of    
which is occupied by a steep mountain4  
,the rampart on the western side rises  

to a height of #g1ejj feet1 on the east 
it becomes a plateau which connects it  
with a smaller crater called ,herodotus4
 ,bright streaks radiate from           
,aristarchus when there is full moon1   
and extend for a considerable distance  
over the surface of the orb4  ,though   
the face of the ,moon has been carefully
 scanned for two centuries and a half1  
and selenographers have mapped and      
delineated her features with the utmost 
accuracy and precision1 yet no          
perceptible change of a reliable        
character has been perceived to occur on
 any part of the orb4 ,the surface of   
the hemisphere directed towards the     
,earth appears to be an alternation of  
desert plains1 craggy wildernesses1 and 
extinct volcanoes--a region of          
desolation unoccupied by any living     
thing1 and 'upon which the light of life
 has never dawned4' ,owing to the       
absence of an atmosphere1 there is      
neither diffuse daylight nor twilight on
 the ,moon4 ,every portion of the lunar 

surface not exposed to the ,sun's rays  
is shrouded in darkness1 and black      
shadows can be observed fringing        
prominences of silvery whiteness4 ,if   
the ,moon were enveloped in an          
atmosphere similar to that which        
surrounds the ,earth1 the reflection and
 diffusion of light among the minute    
particles of watery vapour which        
permeate it would give rise to a gradual
 transition from light to darkness2 the 
lunar surface would be visible when not 
illumined by the direct rays of the     
,sun1 and before sunrise and after      
sunset1 dawn and twilight would occur as
 upon the ,earth4 ,but upon the ,moon   
there is no dawn1 and the darkness of   
night envelops the orb until the        
appearance of the edge of the ,sun's    
disc above the horizon1 then his        
dazzling rays illumine the summits and  
loftiest peaks of the lunar mountains   
whilst yet their sides and bases are    
wrapped in deep gloom4 ,since the pace  
of the ,sun across the lunar heavens is 

#bh times slower than it is with us1    
there is continuous sunshine on the     
,moon for #cjd hours1 and this long     
day--equal to about a fortnight of our  
time--is succeeded by a night of similar
 duration4 ,as there is no atmosphere   
overhead to diffuse or reflect the      
light1 the ,sun shines in a pitch-black 
sky1 and at lunar noonday the planets   
and constellations can be seen          
displaying a brilliancy of greater      
intensity than can be perceived on      
,earth during the darkest night4 ,every 
portion of the ,moon's surface is bleak1
 bare1 and untouched by any softening   
influences4 ,no gentle gale ever sweeps 
down her valleys or disturbs the dead   
calm that hangs over this world2 no     
cloud ever tempers the fierce glare of  
the ,sun that pours down his unmitigated
 rays from a sky of inky blackness2 no  
refreshing shower ever falls upon her   
arid mountains and plains2 no sound ever
 breaks the profound stillness that     
reigns over this realm of solitude and  

desolation4  ,illustration3 ,a ,,portion
 ,,of ,,the ,,moon',s ,,surface  ,as    
might be expected1 ,milton makes        
frequent allusion to the ,moon in       
',paradise ,lost1' and does not fail to 
set forth the distinctive charms        
associated with the unrivalled queen of 
the firmament4 ,the majority of poets   
would most likely regard a description  
of evening as incomplete without an     
allusion to the ,moon4 ,milton has      
adhered to this sentiment1 as may be    
perceived in the following lines3--     
till the ,moon1     ,rising in clouded  
majesty1 at length     ,apparent queen1 
unveiled her peerless light1     ,and   
o'er the dark her silver mantle         
threw4--iv4 #fjf-fji4                   
now reigns     ,full-orbed the ,moon1   
and with more pleasing light1           
,shadowy sets off the face of           
things4--v4 #da-dc4  ,the association of
 the ,moon with the nocturnal revels and
 dances of elves and fairies is         
felicitously expressed in the following 

passage3--                              
or faery elves1     ,whose midnight     
revels1 by a forest side     ,or        
fountain1 some belated peasant sees1    
,or dreams he sees1 while overhead the  
,moon     ,sits arbitress1 and nearer to
 the ,earth     ,wheels her pale        
course4--i4 #gha-hf4  ,in contrast with 
this1 we have ,milton's description of  
the ,moon when affected by the          
demoniacal practices of the 'night-hag' 
who was believed to destroy infants for 
the sake of drinking their blood1 and   
applying their mangled limbs to the     
purposes of incantation4 ,the legend is 
of ,scandinavian origin and the locality
 ,lapland3--      ,nor uglier follow the
 night-hag1 when called     ,in secret1 
riding through the air she comes1       
,lured with the smell of infant blood1  
to dance     ,with ,lapland witches1    
while the labouring ,moon     ,eclipses 
at their charms4--ii4 #ffb-ff4  ,in his 
description of the massive shield       
carried by ,satan1 the poet compares it 

with the full moon3--                   
his ponderous shield     ,ethereal      
temper1 massy1 large1 and round1        
,behind him cast4 ,the broad            
circumference     ,hung on his shoulders
 like the ,moon4--i4 #bhd-hg4  ,the     
phases displayed by the ,moon in her    
monthly journey round the ,earth1 and   
which lend a variety of charm to the    
appearances presented by the orb1 are   
poetically described by ,milton in the  
following lines3--                      
but there the neighbouring ,moon        
7,so call that opposite fair star7 her  
aid     ,timely interposes1 and her     
monthly round     ,still ending1 still  
renewing1 through mid-,heaven     ,with 
borrowed light her countenance triform  
,hence fills and empties1 to enlighten  
the ,earth1     ,and in her pale        
dominion checks the night4--iii4        
#gbf-cb4  ,it is interesting to observe 
how aptly ,milton describes the subdued 
illumination of the ,moon's reflected   
light1 as compared with the brilliant   

radiance of the blazing ,sun1 and how   
the distinguishing glory peculiar to    
each orb is appropriately set forth in  
the various passages in which they are  
described2 their contrasted splendour   
enhancing rather than detracting from   
the grandeur and beauty belonging to    
each4   ,,the ,,planet ,,earth#ad  ,no  
lovelier planet circles round the ,sun  
than the planet ,earth1 with her oceans 
and continents1 her mountains1 valleys1 
rivers1 lakes1 and plains2 surrounded by
 heaven's azure1 radiant with the       
sunlight of her day and adorned by night
 with countless sparkling points of     
gold4 ,this beautiful world1 the abode  
of ,,man1 is of paramount importance to 
us1 and is the only part of the universe
 of which we have any direct knowledge4 
,the ,earth may be regarded as one of   
the ,sun's numerous family1 and is      
situated third in order from the        
refulgent orb1 round which it revolves  
in an elliptical orbit at a mean        
distance of #ib1hjj1jjj miles4 ,the     

,earth is nearest to the ,sun at the end
 of ,december1 and furthest away at the 
beginning of ,july2 the difference      
between those distances is #c1bej1jjj   
miles--the extent of the eccentricity of
 the planet's orbit4 ,the figure of the 
,earth is that of an oblate spheroid2 it
 is slightly flattened at the poles and 
bulges at the equator4 ,its polar or    
shortest diameter is #g1hii miles1 its  
equatorial diameter is #g1ibf           
miles--greater than the other by #bg    
miles4 ,the circumference of the ,earth 
at the equator is #bd1hii miles1 and the
 total area of its surface is           
#aig1jjj1jjj square miles4 ,its mean    
density is #e-a_/b times greater than   
that of water4  ,the two principal      
motions performed by the ,earth are3    
7#a7 ,rotation on its axis2 7#b7 its    
annual revolution round the ,sun4 ,the  
,earth always rotates in the same       
manner1 and in the same direction1 from 
west to east4 ,as the axis of rotation  
corresponds with the shortest diameter  

of the planet1 it affords strong        
evidence that the ,earth assumed its    
present shape whilst rapidly rotating   
round its axis when in a fluid or       
plastic condition4 ,this would accord   
with the nebular hypothesis4 ,the ends  
of the ,earth's axis are called the     
poles of the ,earth2 one is the north1  
the other the south pole4 ,the north    
pole is directed towards a star in the  
,lesser ,bear called the ,pole ,star4   
,the south pole is directed to a        
corresponding opposite part of the      
heavens4 ,the ,earth's axis is inclined 
#fc deg4 #cc' to the plane of the       
ecliptic1 and is always directed to the 
same point in the heavens4 ,the ,earth  
accomplishes a revolution on its axis in
 #bc hours #ef minutes #d seconds mean  
solar time1 which is the length of the  
sidereal day4 ,this rate of rotation is 
invariable4 ,at the equator1 where the  
circumference of the globe exceeds      
#bd1jjj miles1 the velocity of a point  
on its surface is upwards of #a1jjj     

miles an hour1 but1 as the poles are    
approached1 the tangential velocity     
diminishes1 and at those points it is   
entirely absent4 ,the ,earth            
accomplishes a revolution of her orbit  
in #cfe days #f hours #i minutes2 in her
 journey round the ,sun she travels a   
circuit of #ehj1jjj1jjj miles at an     
average pace of #ff1jjj miles an hour4  
,the ,earth has other slight motions    
called perturbations1 which are produced
 by the gravitational attraction of     
other members of the solar system4 ,the 
most important of these is ,precession  
of the ,equinoxes1 which is caused by   
the attraction of the ,sun1 ,moon1 and  
planets1 on the protuberant equatorial  
region of the globe4 ,this attraction   
has a tendency to turn the ,earth's axis
 at right angles to her orbit1 but it   
only results in the slow rotation of the
 pole of the equator round that of the  
ecliptic1 which is occurring at the rate
 of #a deg4 in #gj years1 and will      
require a period of #be1hfh years to    

complete an entire revolution of the    
heavens4  ,the spot on ,earth round     
which is centred the chief interest in  
,milton's poem is ,paradise1 which was  
situated in the east of ,eden1 a        
district of ,central ,asia4 ,it was here
 where ,god ordained that man should    
first dwell--a place created for his    
enjoyment and delight4 ,satan1 after his
 soliloquy on ,mount ,niphates1 directs 
his way to ,paradise1 and arrives first 
in ,eden1 where he beholds from a       
distance the ,happy ,garden--      ,so  
on he fares1 and to the border comes    
,of ,eden1 where delicious ,paradise1   
,now nearer1 crowns with her enclosure  
green1     ,as with a rural mound1 the  
champain head     ,of a steep           
wilderness1 whose hairy sides     ,with 
thicket overgrown1 grotesque and wild1  
,access denied2 and overhead upgrew     
,insuperable highth of loftiest shade1  
,cedar1 and pine1 and fir1 and branching
 palm1     ,a sylvan scene1 and1 as the 
ranks ascend1     ,shade above shade1 a 

woody theatre     ,of stateliest view4  
,yet higher than their tops     ,the    
verdurous wall of ,paradise up-sprung2  
,which to our general sire gave prospect
 large     ,into his nether empire      
neighbouring round4     ,and higher than
 that wall1 a circling row     ,of      
goodliest trees1 loaden with fairest    
fruit1     ,blossoms and fruits at once 
of golden hue1     ,appeared1 with gay  
enamelled colours mixed2     ,on which  
the ,sun more glad impressed his beams  
,than in fair evening cloud1 or humid   
bow1     ,when ,god hath showered the   
,earth3 so lovely seemed     ,that      
landskip4 ,and of pure now purer air    
,meets his approach1 and to the heart   
inspires     ,vernal delight and joy1   
able to drive     ,all sadness but      
despair4 ,now gentle gales1     ,fanning
 their odoriferous wings1 dispense      
,native perfumes1 and whisper whence    
they stole     ,those balmy spoils4--iv4
 #aca-ei4  ,satan1 having gained        
admission to the ,garden by overleaping 

the tangled thicket of shrubs and bushes
 which formed an impenetrable barrier   
and prevented any access to the         
enclosure within1 he flew up on to the  
,tree of ,life--      ,beneath him1 with
 new wonder1 now he views1     ,to all  
delight of human sense exposed1     ,in 
narrow room ,nature's whole wealth2 yea1
 more6--     ,a ,heaven on ,earth3 for  
blissful ,paradise     ,of ,god the     
garden was1 by ,him in the east     ,of 
,eden planted1 ,eden stretched her line 
,from ,auran eastward to the royal      
towers     ,of great ,seleucia1 built by
 ,grecian kings1     ,or where the sons 
of ,eden long before     ,dwelt in      
,telassar4 ,in this pleasant soil       
,his far more pleasant garden ,god      
ordained4     ,out of the fertile ground
 he caused to grow     ,all trees of    
noblest kind for sight1 smell1 taste2   
,and all amid them stood the ,tree of   
,life1     ,high eminent1 blooming      
ambrosial fruit     ,of vegetable gold2 
and next to life1     ,our death1 the   

,tree of ,knowledge1 grew fast by--     
,knowledge of good1 bought dear by      
knowing ill4     ,southward through     
,eden went a river large1     ,nor      
changed his course1 but through the     
shaggy hill     ,passed underneath      
ingulfed2 for ,god had thrown     ,that 
mountain1 as his garden mould1 high     
raised     ,upon the rapid current1     
which1 through veins     ,of porous     
earth with kindly thirst up-drawn1      
,rose a fresh fountain1 and with many a 
rill     ,watered the garden2 thence    
united fell     ,down the steep glade1  
and met the nether flood1     ,which    
from his darksome passage now appears1  
,and now1 divided into four main        
streams1     ,runs diverse1 wandering   
many a famous realm     ,and country    
whereof here needs no account2     ,but 
rather to tell how1 if ,art could tell  
,how1 from that sapphire fount the      
crisped brooks1     ,boiling on         
orient-pearl and sands of gold1         
,with mazy error under pendent shades   

,ran nectar1 visiting each plant1 and   
fed     ,flowers worthy of ,paradise1   
which not nice ,art     ,in beds and    
curious knots1 but ,nature boon         
,poured forth profuse on hill1 and dale1
 and plain1     ,both where the morning 
,sun first warmly smote     ,the open   
field1 and where the unpierced shade    
,imbrowned the noontide bowers4--iv4    
#bje-df4  ,milton's description of      
,paradise is not less remarkable in its 
way than the lurid scenes depicted by   
him in ,pandemonium4 ,the versatility of
 his poetic genius is nowhere more      
apparent than in the charming pastoral  
verse contained in this part of his     
poem4 ,the poet has lavished the whole  
wealth of his luxuriant imagination in  
his description of ,eden and blissful   
,paradise with its 'vernal airs' and    
'gentle gales1' its verdant meads1 and  
murmuring streams1 'rolling on          
orient-pearl and sands of gold2' its    
stately trees laden with blossom and    
fruit2 its spicy groves and shady       

bowers1 over which there breathed the   
eternal ,spring4  ,in ,book ,,ix4 ,satan
 expresses himself in an eloquent       
apostrophe to the primitive ,earth1 over
 which he previously wandered for seven 
days--      ,o ,earth1 how like to      
,heaven1 if not preferred     ,more     
justly1 seat worthier of gods1 as built 
,with second thoughts1 reforming what   
was old6     ,for what ,god1 after      
better1 worse would build8              
,terrestrial ,heaven1 danced round by   
other ,heavens1     ,that shine1 yet    
bear their bright officious lamps1      
,light above light1 for thee alone1 as  
seems1     ,in thee concentring all     
their precious beams     ,of sacred     
influence6 ,as ,god in ,heaven     ,is  
centre1 yet extends to all1 so thou     
,centring receiv'st from all those orbs2
 in thee1     ,not in themselves1 all   
their known virtue appears1             
,productive in herb1 plant1 and nobler  
birth     ,of creatures animate with    
gradual life     ,of growth1 sense1     

reason1 all summed up in ,man1     ,with
 what delight ,i could have walked thee 
round1     ,if ,i could joy in          
aught--sweet interchange     ,of hill   
and valley1 rivers1 woods1 and plains1  
,now land1 now sea1 and shores with     
forest crowned1     ,rocks1 dens1 and   
caves4--ix4 #ii-aah4  ,though it is     
impossible to regard the ,earth as      
possessing the importance ascribed to it
 by the ancient ,ptolemaists2           
nevertheless1 our globe is a great and  
mighty world1 and appears to be one of  
the most favourably situated of all the 
planets1 being neither near the ,sun nor
 yet very far distant from the orb2 and 
although1 when compared with the        
universe1 it is no more than a leaf on a
 tree in the midst of a vast forest2    
still1 it is not the least important    
among other circling worlds1 and        
unfailingly fulfils the part allotted to
 it in the great scheme of creation4    
,,the ,,planet ,,hesperus  ,this is the 
beautiful morning and evening star1 the 

peerless planet that ushers in the      
twilight and the dawn1 the harbinger of 
day and unrivalled queen of the evening4
 ,venus1 called after the ,roman goddess
 of ,love1 and also identified with the 
,greek ,aphrodite of ideal beauty1 is   
the name by which the planet is         
popularly known2 but ,milton does not so
 designate it1 and the name ',venus' is 
not found in ',paradise ,lost4' ,the    
ancients called it ,lucifer and         
,phosphor when it shone as a morning    
star before sunrise1 and ,hesperus and  
,vesper when it became visible after    
sunset4 ,it is the most lustrous of all 
the planets1 and at times its brilliancy
 is so marked as to throw a distinct    
shadow at night4  ,venus is the second  
planet in order from the ,sun4 ,its     
orbit lies between that of ,mercury and 
the ,earth1 and in form approaches      
nearer to a circle than that of any of  
the other planets4 ,it travels round the
 ,sun in #bbd4g days1 at a mean distance
 of #fg1jjj1jjj miles1 and with an      

average velocity of #hj1jjj miles an    
hour4 ,its period of rotation is        
unknown4 ,by the observation of dusky   
spots on its surface1 it has been       
surmised that the planet completes a    
revolution on its axis in #bc-a_/d      
hours2 but other observers doubt this   
and are inclined to believe that it     
always presents the same face to the    
,sun4 ,when at inferior conjunction     
,venus approaches nearer to the ,earth  
than any other planet1 its distance then
 being #bg1jjj1jjj miles4 ,its greatest 
elongation varies from #de deg4 to #dg  
deg4 #ab'2 it therefore can never be    
much more than three hours above the    
horizon before sunrise1 or after sunset4
 ,venus is a morning star when passing  
from inferior to superior conjunction1  
and during the other half of its        
synodical period it is an evening star4 
,the planet attains its greatest        
brilliancy at an elongation #dj deg4    
west or east of the ,sun--five weeks    
before and after inferior conjunction4  

,it is at these periods1 when at its    
greatest brilliancy1 that it casts a    
shadow at night4  ,though so pleasing an
 object to the unaided eye1 ,venus1 when
 observed with the telescope1 is often a
 source of disappointment--this is on   
account of its dazzling brilliancy1     
which renders any accurate definition of
 its surface impossible4 ,sir ,john     
,herschel writes3 ',the intense lustre  
of its illuminated part dazzles the     
sight1 and exaggerates every            
imperfection of the telescope2 yet we   
see clearly that its surface is not     
mottled over with permanent spots like  
the ,moon2 we notice in it neither      
mountains nor shadows1 but a uniform    
brightness1 in which sometimes we may   
indeed fancy1 or perhaps more than      
fancy1 brighter or obscurer portions1   
but can seldom or never rest fully      
satisfied of the fact4' ,it is believed 
that the surface of the planet is       
invisible on account of the existence of
 a cloud-laden atmosphere by which it is

 enveloped1 and which may serve as a    
protection against the intense glare of 
the sunshine and heat poured down by the
 not far-distant ,sun4 ,schroeter1 a    
,german astronomer1 believed that he saw
 lofty mountains on the surface of the  
planet1 but their existence has not been
 confirmed by any other observer4 ,the  
,sun if viewed from ,venus would have a 
diameter nearly half as large again as  
when seen from the ,earth2 it is        
therefore probable that the planet is   
subjected to a much higher temperature  
than what is experienced on our globe4  
,the phases of ,venus are similar to    
those exhibited by the ,moon1 and are   
caused by a change in position of the   
illumined hemisphere of the planet with 
regard to the ,earth4 ,at superior      
conjunction the whole enlightened disc  
of the planet is turned towards the     
,earth1 but is invisible by being lost  
in the ,sun's rays4 ,shortly before or  
after it arrives at this point1 its form
 is gibbous1 the illumined portion being

 less than a circle but greater than a  
semi-circle4 ,at its greatest elongation
 west or east of the ,sun the planet    
resembles the ,moon in quadrature--a    
half moon--and between those points and 
inferior conjunction it is visible as a 
beautiful crescent4 ,it becomes narrower
 and sharper as it approaches inferior  
conjunction1 until it resembles a curved
 luminous thread prior to its           
disappearance at the conjunction4 ,after
 having passed this point it reappears  
on the other side of the ,sun as the    
morning star4  ,it would be only natural
 to imagine that this peerless orb1 the 
most beautiful and lustrous of the      
planets1 upon which men have gazed with 
longing admiration1 and designated the  
emblem of 'all beauty and all love1'    
should have impressed ,milton's poetical
 imagination with its charming          
appearance1 and stimulated the flow of  
his captivating muse4 ,he addresses the 
orb as      ,fairest of ,stars1 last in 
the train of night1     ,if better thou 

belong not to the dawn1     ,sure pledge
 of day1 that crown'st the smiling morn 
,with thy bright circlet1 praise ,him in
 thy sphere     ,while day arises1 that 
sweet hour of prime4--v4 #aff-gj4  ,in  
these lines the poet alludes to ,venus  
as the morning star4  ,in the other     
passages in his poem ,milton associates 
the planet sometimes with the morning   
and at other times with the evening--   
,his countenance1 as the ,morning ,star 
that guides     ,the starry flock4--v4  
#gjh-gji4      ,or if the ,star of      
,evening and the ,moon     ,haste to thy
 audience1 ,night with her will bring   
,silence1 and ,sleep listening to thee  
will watch4--vii4 #ajd-ajf4      ,and   
hence the morning planet gilds her      
horns4--vii4 #cff4      ,the ,sun was   
sunk and after him the ,star     ,of    
,hesperus1 whose office is to bring     
,twilight upon the ,earth1 short arbiter
     ,twixt day and night4--ix4 #dg-ej4 
and bid haste the ,evening ,star     ,on
 his hill top to light the bridal       

lamp4--viii4 #eai-bj4  ,milton knew of  
the phases of ,venus and was aware that 
at certain times the planet was visible 
in the telescope as a beautiful         
crescent4 ,the line in which he mentions
 her as gilding her horns is an allusion
 to this appearance of ,venus4   ,,the  
,,pleiades  ,the beautiful cluster of   
the ,pleiades or ,seven ,sisters has    
been regarded with hallowed veneration  
from time immemorial4 ,the happy        
influences believed to be shed down upon
 the ,earth by those stars and their    
close association with human destinies  
have rendered them objects of almost    
sacred interest among the different     
races of mankind4 ,in every region of   
the globe and in every clime1 among     
civilised nations and savage            
fetish-worshipping tribes1 the same     
benign influences were ascribed to the  
stars which form this interesting group4
  ,in ,greek mythology they were known  
as the seven daughters of ,atlas and    
,pleione4 ,different versions are given 

of their fate4 ,by some writers it is   
said they died from grief in consequence
 of the death of their sisters1 the     
,hyades1 or on account of the fate of   
their father1 who1 for treason1 was     
condemned by ,zeus to bear on his head  
and hands the vault of heaven1 on the   
mountains of north-west ,africa which   
bear his name4 ,according to others they
 were the companions of ,diana1 and1 in 
order to escape from ,orion1 by whom    
they were pursued1 the gods translated  
them to the sky4  ,all writers agree in 
saying that after their death or        
translation they were transformed into  
stars4 ,their names are ,alcyone1       
,electra1 ,maia1 ,merope1 ,sterope1     
,taygeta1 and ,celaeno4 ,the seventh    
,atlantid is said to be the 'lost       
,pleiad1' but it can be perceived       
without difficulty by a person          
possessing good eyesight4 ,in the book  
of ,job there is a beautiful allusion to
 the ,pleiades 7chap4 xxxviii47 when    
,god speaks out of the whirlwind and    

asks the patriarch to answer ,him--     
,canst thou bind the sweet influences of
 the ,pleiades1 or loose the            
bands of ,orion8     ,canst thou bring  
forth ,mazzaroth in his season8 or canst
 thou guide         ,arcturus with his  
sons8     ,knowest thou the ordinances  
of heaven8 canst thou set the dominion  
thereof in the earth8  ,admiral ,smyth  
says that this noble passage is more    
correctly rendered as follows3          
,canst thou bind the delightful teemings
 of ,cheemah8     ,or the contractions  
of ,chesil canst thou open8     ,canst  
thou draw forth ,mazzaroth in his season
     ,or ,ayeesh and his sons canst thou
 guide8  ,he writes3 ',in this very     
early description of the cardinal       
constellations1 ,cheemah denotes ,taurus
 with the ,pleiades2 ,chesil is         
,scorpio2 ,mazzaroth is ,sirius in the  
chambers of the south2 and ,ayeesh the  
,greater ,bear1 the ,hebrew word        
signifying a bier1 which was shaped by  
the four well-known bright stars1 while 

the three forming the tail were         
considered as children attending a      
funeral4' ,the ,greeks at an early      
period were attracted by this cluster of
 stars1 and ,hesiod alludes to them in  
his writings4 ,one passage converted    
into rhyme reads as follows3      ,there
 is a time when forty days they lie1    
,and forty nights1 conceal'd from human 
eye2     ,but in the course of the      
revolving year1     ,when the swain     
sharps the scythe1 again appear4  ,their
 heliacal rising was considered a       
favourable time for setting out on a    
voyage1 and their midnight culmination1 
which occurred shortly after the middle 
of ,november1 was celebrated by some    
nations with festivals and public       
ceremonies4 ,considerable diversity of  
opinion existed among the ancients with 
regard to the number of stars which     
constitute this group4 ,it was affirmed 
by some that only six were visible1     
whilst others maintained that seven     
could be seen4 ,ovid writes3      ,quae 

septem dici1 sex tamen esse solent4     
,homer and ,attalus mention six2        
,hipparchus and ,aratus seven4 ,the     
legend with regard to the lost ,pleiad  
would seem to indicate that1 during a   
period in the past1 the star possessed a
 superior brilliancy and was more       
distinctly visible than it is at the    
present time4 ,this may have been so1   
for1 should it belong to the class of   
variable stars1 there would be a        
periodic ebb and flow of its light1 by  
which its fluctuating brilliance could  
be explained4 ,when looked at directly  
only six stars can be seen in the group1
 but should the eye be turned sideways  
more than this number become visible4   
,several observers have counted as many 
as ten or twelve1 and it is stated by   
,kepler that his tutor1 ,maestlin1 was  
able to enumerate fourteen stars and    
mapped eleven in their relative         
positions4 ,with telescopic aid the     
number is largely increased--,galileo   
observed thirty-six with his instrument 

and ,hooke1 in #affd1 counted           
seventy-eight4 ,large modern telescopes 
bring into view several thousand stars  
in this region4  ,the ,pleiades are     
situated at a profound distance in      
space4 ,their light period is estimated 
at #bej years1 indicating a distance of 
#a1ejj billions of miles4 ,our ,sun if  
thus far removed would be reduced to a  
tenth-magnitude star4 ',there can be    
little doubt1' says ,miss ,agnes        
,clerke1 'that the solar brilliancy is  
surpassed by sixty to seventy of the    
,pleiades4 ,and it must be in some cases
 enormously surpassed2 by ,alcyone      
#a1jjj1 by ,electra #dhj1 by ,maia      
nearly #djj times4 ,sirius itself takes 
a subordinate rank when compared with   
the five most brilliant members of a    
group1 the real magnificence of which we
 can thus in some degree apprehend4'    
,this is the only star cluster which can
 be perceived to be moving in space1 or 
which has an ascertained common proper  
motion4 ,its constituents form a        

magnificent system in which the stars   
bear a mutual relationship to each      
other1 and perform intricate internal   
revolutions1 whilst they in systemic    
union drift along through the depths of 
space4 ,there are two allusions to the  
,pleiades in ',paradise ,lost4' ,in     
describing the path of the newly created
 ,sun1 ,milton introduces them as       
indicative of the joyfulness associated 
with the birth of the ,universe--       
,first in his east the glorious lamp was
 seen1     ,regent of day1 and all the  
horizon round     ,invested with bright 
rays1 jocund to run     ,his longitude  
through heaven's high road2 the grey    
,dawn1 and the ,pleiades before him     
danced1     ,shedding sweet             
influence4--vii4 #cgj-ge4  ,it was      
believed that the ,earth was created in 
the spring2 and towards the end of      
,april this group rises a little before 
the ,sun and precedes him in his course1
 'shedding sweet influences4' ,the      
ancients believed that the good or evil 

influences of the stars were exercised  
not in the night but during the day1    
when their rays mingled with those of   
the ,sun4 ,the pernicious influence of  
the ,dog-star is mentioned by ,latin    
writers as being most pronounced during 
the dog-days1 at the end of summer and  
commencement of autumn1 the time of the 
heliacal rising of this star4  ,the     
other allusion to the ,pleiades is in   
,book ,x41 line #fgc1 where ,milton1 in 
describing the altered path of the ,sun 
consequent upon the ,fall1 mentions how 
the orb travels through ,taurus with the
 ,seven ,atlantic ,sisters--the seven   
daughters of ,atlas1 the ,pleiades1     
which are situated on the shoulder of   
the animal representing this zodiacal   
constellation4   ,,the ,,galaxy  ,the   
,galaxy or ,milky ,way is the great     
luminous zone encircling the heavens1   
which can be seen extending across the  
sky from horizon to horizon4 ,its       
diffused nebulous appearance caused the 
ancients much perplexity1 and many      

quaint opinions were hazarded as to the 
nature of this celestial highway2 but   
the mystery associated with it was not  
solved until ,galileo directed his newly
 invented telescope to this lucent      
object1 when1 to his intense delight1 he
 discovered that it consists of myriads 
of stars--millions upon millions of suns
 so distant as to be individually       
indistinguishable to ordinary vision1   
and so closely aggregated1 that their   
blended light gives rise to the milky   
luminosity signified by its name4 ,this 
stelliferous zone almost completely     
encircles the sphere1 which it divides  
into two nearly equal parts1 and is     
inclined at an angle of #fc deg4 to the 
celestial equator4 ,in ,centaurus it    
divides into two portions1 one          
indistinct and of interrupted           
continuity1 the other bright and well   
defined2 these1 after remaining apart   
for #abj deg41 reunite in ,cygnus4 ,the 
,milky ,way is of irregular outline and 
varies in breadth from #e deg4 to #af   

deg42 it intersects the equinoctial in  
the constellations ,monoceros and       
,aquila1 and approaches in ,cassiopeia  
to within #bg deg4 of the north pole of 
the heavens2 an equal distance          
intervenes between it and the south     
pole4 ,its poles are in ,coma ,bernices 
and ,cetus4 ,the stars in the galactic  
tract are very unevenly distributed2 in 
some of its richest regions as many     
stars as are visible to the naked eye on
 a clear night have been counted within 
the space of a square degree4 ,in other 
parts they are much less numerous1 and  
there have been observed besides1       
adjacent to the most luminous portions  
of the zone1 dark intervals and winding 
channels almost entirely devoid of      
stars4 ,an instance of this kind occurs 
in the constellation of the ,southern   
,cross1 where there exists in a rich    
stellar region a large oval-shaped dark 
vacuity1 #h deg4 by #e deg4 in extent1  
that appears to be almost entirely      
denuded of stars4 ,in looking at it1 an 

impression is created that one is gazing
 into an empty void of space far beyond 
the ,milky ,way4 ,this gulf of          
,cimmerian darkness was called by early 
navigators the ,coal ,sack4 ,similar    
dark spaces1 though not of such         
magnitude1 are seen in ,ophiuchus1      
,scorpio1 and ,cygnus4  ,the ,galaxy1   
when viewed with a powerful telescope1  
is found to consist of congeries of     
stars1 vast stellar aggregations1 great 
luminous tracts resolvable into clouds  
of stars of overpowering magnificence1  
superb clusters of various orders1 and  
convoluted nebulous streams wandering   
'with mazy error' among 'islands of     
light and lakes of darkness1' resolved  
by the telescope into banks of shining  
worlds4 ,the concourses of stars which  
enter into the formation of this        
wonderful zone exhibit in a marvellous  
degree the amazing profusion in which   
these orbs exist in certain regions of  
space2 yet those multitudes of stars    
perform their motions in harmonious     

unison and in orderly array1 and by     
their mutual attraction sustain the     
dynamical equilibrium of this stupendous
 galactic ring1 the diameter of which1  
according to one authority1 is not      
traversed by light in less than #ac1jjj 
years4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #h4--;,a  
,portion of the ,milky ,way4  ,sir      
,william ,herschel1 to whom we are      
indebted for most of what we know of the
 ,milky ,way1 commenced a series of     
observations in #aghe with the object of
 acquiring a knowledge of the structure 
of the sidereal heavens4 ,in the        
accomplishment of this object1 to which 
he devoted a considerable part of his   
life1 he undertook a systematic survey  
of that portion of the ,galaxy which is 
visible in the ,northern ,hemisphere4   
,by a method called star-gauging1 which 
consisted in the enumeration of the     
stars in each successive telescopic     
field as the instrument moved slowly    
over the region under observation1 he   
found that the depth of the star strata 

could be approximately ascertained by   
counting the stars along the line of    
vision2 those were most numerous where  
the visual line appeared of the greatest
 length and fewest in number where it   
was shortest4 ,herschel perceived the   
internal structure of the ,galaxy to be 
exceedingly intricate and complex1 and  
that it embraced within its confines an 
endless variety of systems1 clusters1   
and groups1 branches1 sprays1 arches1   
loops1 and streaming filaments of stars1
 all of which combined to form this     
luminous zone4 ',it is indeed1' says a  
well-known astronomer1 'only to the most
 careless glance1 or when viewed through
 an atmosphere of imperfect             
transparency1 that the ,milky ,way seems
 a continuous zone4 ,let the naked eye  
rest thoughtfully on any part of it1    
and1 if circumstances be favourable1 it 
will stand out rather as an accumulation
 of patches and streams of light of     
every conceivable variety of form and   
brightness1 now side by side1 now heaped

 on each other2 again spanning across   
dark spaces1 intertwining and forming a 
most curious and complex network2 and at
 other times darting off into the       
neighbouring skies in branches of       
capricious length and shape which       
gradually thin away and disappear4' ,sir
 ,john ,herschel1 who was occupied for  
four years at the ,cape of ,good ,hope  
in exploring the celestial regions of   
the ,southern ,hemisphere1 describes the
 coming on of the ,milky ,way as seen in
 his #bj-;foot reflector4 ,he first     
remarks 'that all the stars visible to  
us1 whether by unassisted vision or     
through the best telescopes1 belong to  
and form part of a vast stratum or      
considerably flattened and unsymmetrical
 congeries of stars in which our system 
is deeply and eccentrically plunged2    
and1 moreover1 situated near a point    
where the stratum bifurcates or spreads 
itself out into two sheets4' ',as the   
main body of the ,milky ,way comes on   
the frequency and variety of those      

masses 7nebulous7 increases2 here the   
,milky ,way is composed of separate or  
slight or strongly connected clouds of  
semi-nebulous light1 and1 as the        
telescope moves1 the appearance is that 
of clouds passing in a scud1 as sailors 
call it4' ,the ,milky ,way is like sand1
 not strewed evenly as with a sieve1 but
 as if flung down by handfuls 7and both 
hands at once71 leaving dark intervals1 
and all consisting of stars of the      
fourteenth1 sixteenth1 twentieth        
magnitudes down to nebulosity1 in a most
 astonishing manner4 ,after an interval 
of comparative poverty1 the same        
phenomenon1 and even more remarkable1 ,i
 cannot say it is nebulous1 it is all   
resolved1 but the stars are             
inconceivably numerous and minute2 there
 must be millions and all almost equally
 massed together4 ,yet they nowhere run 
to nuclei or clusters much brighter in  
the middle4 ,towards the end of the     
seventeenth hour 7,right ,ascension7 the
 globular clusters begin to come in2    

they consist of stars of excessive      
minuteness1 but yet not more so than the
 ground of the ,milky ,way1 on which not
 only they appear projected1 but of     
which it is very probable they form a   
part4 ',from the foregoing analysis of  
the telescopic aspect of the ,milky ,way
 in this interesting region1 ,i think it
 can hardly be doubted that it consists 
of portions differing exceedingly in    
distance1 but brought by the effect of  
projection into the same1 or nearly the 
same1 visual line2 in particular1 that  
at the anterior edge of what we have    
called the main stream1 we see          
foreshortened a vast and illimitable    
area scattered over with discontinuous  
masses and aggregates of stars in the   
manner of the cumuli of a mackerel sky1 
rather than of a stratum of regular     
thickness and homogeneous formation4'   
,the profound distance at which the     
stars of the ,galaxy are situated in    
space precludes the possibility of our  
obtaining any definite knowledge of     

their magnitude and of the extent of the
 intervals by which they are separated  
from each other1 nor can we learn       
anything of the details associated with 
the systems and combinations into which 
they enter4 ,it is believed that the    
majority of the stars in the ,milky ,way
 equal or surpass the ,sun in brilliancy
 and splendour4 ,they are tenth to      
fifteenth magnitude stars2 now1 the ,sun
 at the distance indicated by these     
magnitudes would in the telescope appear
 a much fainter object2 he would not    
reach the fifteenth magnitude4          
,consequently1 the galactic stars are   
regarded as his peers or superiors in   
magnitude and brilliancy4 ,those myriads
 of suns are all in motion--in nature a 
stationary body is unknown--and they are
 sufficiently far apart so as not to be 
unduly influenced by their mutual       
gravitational attraction2 a distance    
perhaps equal to that which separates   
our ,sun from the nearest fixed star may
 intervene between each of those orbs4  

,in the deepest recesses of the ,milky  
,way1 ,sir ,william ,herschel was able  
to count #ejj stars receding in regular 
order behind each other2 between each   
there existed an interval of space1     
probably not less extensive than the    
interstellar spaces among the stars by  
which we are surrounded4  ,the richest  
galactic regions in the ,northern       
,hemisphere are found in ,perseus1      
,cygnus1 and ,aquila4 ,night after night
 could be spent in sweeping the         
telescope over fields where the stars   
can be seen in amazing profusion4 ,in   
the interval of a quarter of an hour1   
,sir ,william ,herschel observed        
#aaf1jjj stars pass before him in the   
telescope1 and on another occasion he   
perceived #beh1jjj stars in the space of
 forty-one minutes4 ,in the             
constellation of the ,swan there is a   
region about #e deg4 in breadth which   
contains #cca1jjj stars4 ,photography   
reveals in a remarkable manner the      
amazing richness of this stelliferous   

zone2 the impress of the stars on the   
sensitive plate of the camera1 in some  
instances1 resembles a shower of        
descending snowflakes4  ,though ,sir    
,william ,herschel was able to fathom   
the ,galaxy in most of its tracts1 yet  
there were regions which his great      
telescopes were unable to penetrate     
entirely through4 ,in ,cepheus there is 
a spot where he observed the stars      
become 'gradually less till they escape 
the eye so that appearances here favour 
the idea of a succeeding more distant   
clustering part4' ,he perceived another 
in ,scorpio 'where1 through the hollows 
and deep recesses of its complicated    
structure1 we behold what has all the   
appearance of a wide and indefinitely   
prolonged area strewed over with        
discontinuous masses and clouds of stars
 which the telescope at length refuses  
to analyse4' ,the ,great ,cluster in    
,perseus1 which lies in the ,milky ,way1
 also baffled the penetrative capacity  
of ,herschel's instruments4 ,we cannot  

help quoting ,professor ,nichol's       
description of ,herschel's observation  
of this remarkable object4 ,he says3    
',in the ,milky ,way1 thronged all over 
with splendours1 there is one portion   
not unnoticed by the general observer1  
the spot in the sword-hand of ,perseus4 
,that spot shows no stars to the naked  
eye2 the milky light which glorifies it 
comes from regions to which unaided we  
cannot pierce4 ,but to a telescope of   
considerable power the space appears    
lighted up with unnumbered orbs2 and    
these pass on through the depths of the 
infinite1 until1 even to that           
penetrating glass1 they escape all      
scrutiny1 withdrawing into regions      
unvisited by its power4 ,shall we       
adventure into these deeper retirements8
 ,then1 assume an instrument of higher  
efficacy1 and lo6 the change is only    
repeated2 those scarce observed before  
appear as large orbs1 and1 behind1 a new
 series begins1 shading gradually away1 
leading towards farther mysteries6 ,the 

illustrious ,herschel penetrated on one 
occasion into this spot1 until he found 
himself among depths whose light could  
not have reached him in much less than  
#d1jjj years2 no marvel that he withdrew
 from the pursuit1 conceiving that such 
abysses must be endless6' ,the ,milky   
,way may be regarded as a universe by   
itself1 and our ,sun as one of its      
myriad stars4  ,milton was aware of the 
stellar constitution of the ,milky ,way1
 which was one of ,galileo's            
discoveries4 ,the poet gives a          
singularly accurate description of this 
luminous path1 which he glorifies as the
 way by which the ,deity returned up to 
the ,heaven of ,heavens after ,he       
finished ,his great work of creation--  
,so sung     ,the glorious train        
ascending3 ,he through ,heaven1         
,that opened wide her blazing portals1  
led     ,to ,god's eternal house direct 
the way--     ,a broad and ample road1  
whose dust is gold1     ,and pavement   
stars1 as stars to thee appear     ,seen

 in the ,galaxy1 that ,milky ,way       
,which nightly as a circling zone thou  
seest     ,powdered with stars4--vii4   
#egc-ha4   ,,comets  ,records of the    
appearance of these remarkable objects  
have been handed down from earliest     
times2 and when one of those mysterious 
visitors1 travelling from out the depths
 of space1 became visible in our skies1 
it was regarded with apprehension and   
dread as betokening the occurrence of   
calamities and direful events among the 
nations of the ,earth4  ,the word comet 
is derived from the ,greek kome1        
signifying 'hair1' to which the hazy1   
luminous appearance of those objects    
bears some resemblance4 ,a comet        
consists of a bright central part called
 the nucleus2 this is surrounded by     
layers of nebulous matter called the    
coma1 and both combined form the head1  
from which a long appendage extends     
called the tail4 ,the nucleus and tail  
are not essential parts of a comet1 for 
many have been observed in which both   

have been wanting4 ,the tail is         
frequently very conspicuous1 and        
presents considerable diversity both as 
regards its appearance and length4 ,in  
some comets it is entirely absent1 and  
in others it has been observed to       
stretch over an arc of sixty or seventy 
degrees1 indicating a length of #ajj to 
#aej million miles4 ,sometimes it is    
straight1 and at other times it is      
curved at the extremity2 it has been    
observed bifurcated into two branches2  
and1 on rare occasions1 comets have been
 seen with two or more tails4 ,the tail 
of a comet is always directed away from 
the ,sun2 it increases in size as the   
comet approaches the orb1 and diminishes
 as it recedes from him4 ,this depends  
upon the degree of heat to which the    
comet is exposed1 which has the effect  
of driving off or evaporating some of   
the matter composing the head4 ,during  
the time the comet is travelling round  
the ,sun there is a continuous emission 
of this highly attenuated matter1 which 

is visible as the tail1 but when the    
comet begins to recede from the orb and 
reaches cooler regions of space the tail
 diminishes in size as the temperature  
becomes reduced1 and ultimately it      
disappears4  ,the appearance of a comet 
in the sky is often sudden and          
unexpected1 and one of those erratic    
wanderers may become visible at any time
 and in any part of the heavens4 ,it was
 remarked by ,kepler that there are as  
many comets in the sky as there are     
fishes in the ocean4 ,this may or may   
not be true1 for they only become       
visible when they approach the ,sun1 and
 the time during which they remain so   
does not usually exceed a few weeks or  
months4 ,ancient astronomers were much  
perplexed with the motions of comets1   
which appeared to be much more irregular
 than those of other celestial bodies   
and unconformed to any known laws4      
,tycho ,brahe believed that comets moved
 in circular orbits1 and ,kepler        
imagined that they travelled in straight

 lines outwards from the ,sun4 ,newton1 
however1 was able to demonstrate that   
any conic section can be described about
 the ,sun consistent with the law of    
gravitation1 and that the orbits of     
comets correspond with three of the four
 sections into which a cone can be      
divided4 ,consequently1 they obey the   
laws of planetary motion4 ,comets which 
move in ellipses of known eccentricity  
and return with periodical regularity   
may be regarded as belonging to the     
solar system4 ,twenty of these are      
known1 and eleven of them have more than
 once passed their perihelion4 ,those   
most familiarly known complete their    
periods in years as follows3--,encke's  
#c4c2 ,swift's1 #e4e2 ,winnecke's1 #e4f2
 ,tempel's1 #f2 ,brorsen's1 #e4e2       
,faye's1 #g4d2 ,tuttle's1 #ac4h1 and    
,halley's1 #gf4 ,comets with parabolic  
and hyperbolic orbits may be regarded as
 stray objects which visit our system   
once1 and depart never to return again4 
,besides those already mentioned there  

are many comets with orbits of such     
marked eccentricity that their ellipses 
when near perihelion cannot be          
distinguished from parabolae4 ,the great
 comets of #aghj1 #ahaa1 #ahdc1 #aheh1  
#ahfa1 and #ahhb traverse orbits        
approaching this form1 and some of them 
require hundreds and thousands of years 
to accomplish a circuit of their paths4 
,numerous instances of the appearance of
 remarkable comets have been recorded in
 the annals of ancient nations4 ,the    
earliest records of comets are by the   
,chinese1 who were careful observers of 
celestial phenomena4 ,a comet is said to
 have appeared at the time of the birth 
of ,mithridates 7#acd ,b4,c471 which had
 a disc as large as that of the ,sun2 a 
great comet also became visible in the  
heavens about the time of the death of  
,julius ,caesar 7#dd ,b4,c471 and       
another was seen in the reign of        
,justinian 7#eca ,a4,d474 ,a remarkable 
comet was observed in #aajf1 and in     
#adef1 the year in which the ,turks     

obtained possession of ,constantinople  
and threatened to overrun ,europe1 a    
great comet appeared1 which was regarded
 by ,christendom with ominous           
forebodings4 ,the celebrated astronomer 
,halley was the first to predict the    
return of a comet4 ,having become       
acquainted with ,newton's               
investigations1 which showed that the   
forms of the orbits of comets were      
either parabolae or extremely elongated 
ellipses1 he subjected the next great   
comet1 which appeared in #afhb1 to a    
series of observations1 calculated its  
orbit1 and predicted that it would      
return to perihelion in seventy-five or 
seventy-six years4 ,on referring to past
 records he discovered that a great     
comet appeared in #afjg1 which pursued a
 path similar to the one traced out for 
his comet1 another was seen in #aeca1   
and one in #adef4 ,halley perceived that
 the intervals between those dates      
corresponded to a period of about       
seventy-six years1 the time which he    

calculated would be required for his    
comet to complete a revolution of its   
orbit4 ,he therefore had no hesitation  
in predicting that the comet would      
appear again in #ageh4 ,halley knew that
 he would not be alive to witness the   
event1 and alludes to it in the         
following sentence3 ',wherefore if it   
should return according to our          
prediction about the year #ageh1        
impartial posterity will not refuse to  
acknowledge that this was first         
discovered by an ,englishman4' ,as the  
time approached when the comet should be
 drawing near to our system1 much       
interest was excited among astronomers1 
who would have an opportunity afforded  
them of testing the accuracy of         
,halley's prediction4 ,an eminent       
,french mathematician named ,clairaut   
computed anew1 by a method rather       
different to that adopted by ,halley1   
the retarding effect of the attraction  
of the planets upon the speed of the    
comet1 and arrived at the conclusion    

that it would reach perihelion about the
 middle of ,april #agei2 but1 owing to  
unknown influences--,uranus and ,neptune
 not having been discovered--it might be
 a month before or behind the calculated
 time4 ,clairaut made this announcement 
on ,november #ad1 #ageh4 ,astronomers   
were now intently on the look-out for   
the comet1 and night after night the sky
 was swept by telescopes in search of   
the expected visitor1 which for upwards 
of seventy years had been pursuing its  
solitary path invisible to mortal eyes4 
,but the mental vision of the           
mathematician did not fail to follow    
this celestial object1 which was now    
announced as being on the confines of   
our system4 ,the comet was first        
observed on ,december #be1 #ageh1 it    
soon became conspicuous in the heavens1 
and reached perihelion on ,march #ab1   
#agei1 a month before the time assigned 
to it by ,clairaut but within the limit 
of error allowed for unknown influences4
 ,halley's comet returned again in      

#ahce1 and may be expected about the    
year #aiaa4 ,the periodic appearance of 
this comet has been traced back to the  
year #acje4  ,the celebrated comet of   
#afhj was noted as having been the one  
which afforded ,newton an opportunity of
 making observations which led to his   
discovery that comets describe orbits   
round the ,sun in conformity with the   
different sections of a cone4 ,the comet
 of #ahaa was observed for many weeks in
 the northern heavens as a brilliant    
object with a beautiful fan-shaped tail2
 it completes a revolution of its orbit 
in about #c1jjj years4 ,the comet of    
#ahdc was also a splendid object4 ,it   
possessed a tail #bjj million miles in  
length1 and approached within #cb1jjj   
miles of the ,sun4 ,the heat to which it
 was exposed was sufficient to          
volatilize the most infusible substances
 known to exist4 ,donati's comet of     
#aheh will be long remembered as one of 
the most impressive of celestial        
spectacles3 its tail extended over an   

area of forty degrees1 and enveloped the
 star ,arcturus1 which could be seen    
shining through it with undiminished    
brilliancy4 ,its period is estimated to 
be #b1ajj years4 ,a great comet appeared
 in #ahfa1 through the tail of which the
 ,earth passed without any perceptible  
effect having resulted4 ,no remarkable  
comets have appeared during recent      
years4 ,in #ahhj1 #ahha1 and #ahhb1     
several were observed1 and that of #ahha
 was the first successfully             
photographed4  ,comets consist of       
cosmical matter which exists in a       
condition of extreme tenuity1 and       
especially so in the coma and tail4 ,sir
 ,john ,herschel described them as      
almost spiritual in texture1 and small  
stars have been seen shining through    
their densest parts without any         
perceptible diminution of their light4  
,the nucleus is believed to be composed 
of a congeries of meteoric fragments1   
and these1 when exposed to the ,sun's   
heat1 throw off luminous nebulous       

particles that are swept by some        
repulsive force into space and form the 
appendage known as the tail4 ,comets may
 be regarded as celestial objects that  
are perfectly innocuous4 ,neither fear  
nor dread need be apprehended from their
 visits2 they come to please and        
instruct1 not to injure or destroy4     
,milton does not fail to introduce into 
his poem several allusions to comets1   
and in doing so expresses the ideas and 
sentiments which in his time were       
associated with those objects4  ,in     
describing the hostile meeting between  
,satan and ,death before the ,gates of  
,hell1 he writes3                       
,on the other side1     ,incensed with  
indignation1 ,satan stood               
,unterrified1 and like a comet burned1  
,that fires the length of ,ophiuchus    
huge     ,in the arctic sky1 and from   
his horrid hair     ,shakes pestilence  
and war4--ii4 #gjf-aa4  ,this passage is
 eminently descriptive of the appearance
 of a great comet1 and the occasion on  

which it is introduced adds to the      
intensity of the lurid imaginings and   
feelings of terror and dismay with which
 these objects have always been         
regarded4 ,the comparison of the enraged
 ,prince of ,hell with one of those     
mysterious and fiery looking visitors to
 our skies was a grand conception of the
 poet's1 and one worthy of the mighty   
combatant4 ,ophiuchus 7the              
,serpent-bearer7 is a large             
constellation which occupies a rather   
barren region of the heavens to the     
south of ,hercules4 ,it has a length of 
about forty degrees1 and is represented 
by the figure of a man bearing a serpent
 in both hands4 ,it is not easy to      
imagine why ,milton should have assigned
 the comet to this uninteresting        
constellation2 he may possibly have seen
 one in this part of the sky1 or his    
poetical ear may have perceived that the
 expression ',ophiuchus huge1' which has
 about it a ponderous rhythm1 was well  
adapted for the poetic description of a 

comet4  ,the only other allusion in the 
poem to a comet is near its conclusion1 
when the ,cherubim descend to take      
possession of the ,garden1 prior to the 
removal of ,adam and ,eve--             
,high in front advanced1     ,the       
brandished sword of ,god before them    
blazed1     ,fierce as a comet2 which   
with torrid heat1     ,and vapour as the
 ,lybian air adust     ,began to parch  
that temperate clime4--xii4 #fcb-cf4    
,,falling ,,stars  ,on any clear night  
an observer can1 by attentively watching
 the heavens1 perceive a few of those   
objects which become visible for a      
moment as a streak of light and then    
vanish4 ,they are the result of the     
combustion of small meteoric masses     
having a celestial origin1 and          
travelling with cosmical velocity1 and  
which1 in their headlong flight1 become 
so heated by contact with the ,earth's  
atmosphere that they are converted into 
glowing vapour4 ,this vapour when it    
cools condenses into fine powder or     

dust1 and gradually descends upon the   
,earth's surface1 where it can be       
detected4  ,shooting stars become       
visible at a height varying between     
twenty and one hundred and thirty miles1
 and their average velocity has been    
estimated at about thirty miles a       
second4 ,though casual falling stars can
 be seen at all times in every part of  
the heavens1 yet there are certain      
periods at which they appear in large   
numbers1 and have been observed to      
radiate from certain well-defined parts 
of the sky4 ,when the radiant point is  
overhead1 the falling stars spread out  
and resemble a parachute of fire2 but   
when it is below the horizon1 the stars 
ascend upwards like rockets into the    
sky4 ,the radiant point is fixed among  
the stars1 so that at the commencement  
of a shower it may be overhead1 and     
before the termination of the display it
 may have travelled below the horizon4  
,the radiant is usually named after the 
constellation in which it is observed4  

,the ,november meteors are called       
,leonids1 because they radiate from a   
point in the constellation ,leo2 those  
in ,taurus are called ,taurids2 in      
,perseus1 ,perseids2 in ,lyra1 ,lyraids2
 and in ,andromeda1 ,andromedes1 because
 their radiant points are situated in   
those constellations4  ,the falling     
stars that have attracted most attention
 are those which appear on or about     
,november #ac4 ,every year at this      
period they can be seen in greater or   
less numbers1 and on referring to       
numerous past records it has been       
ascertained that a magnificent display  
of those objects occurs every           
thirty-three years4 ,the earliest       
historical allusion to this meteoric    
shower is by ,theophanes1 who wrote that
 in the year #dgb ,a4,d4 the sky at     
,constantinople appeared to be on fire  
with falling stars4 ,in the year #ijb   
,a4,d4 another remarkable display took  
place1 and from that time until #ahcc   
twelve conspicuous displays are recorded

 as having occurred at recurring        
intervals of thirty-three years4 ,the   
grandest display of this kind that was  
ever witnessed occurred in #ahcc4 ,it   
was visible over nearly the whole of the
 ,american continent1 and1 having       
commenced at midnight1 lasted for four  
or five hours4 ,the falling stars were  
so numerous that they appeared to rain  
upon the ,earth1 and caused the utmost  
consternation and terror among those who
 witnessed the phenomenon1 many persons 
having imagined that the end of the     
world was at hand4 ,the regular         
recurrence of these meteoric displays   
has been satisfactorily explained by the
 assumption that round the ,sun there   
travels in an elliptical orbit with     
planetary velocity a vast shoal of      
meteoric bodies some millions of miles  
in length and several hundred thousand  
miles in breadth4 ,the nearest point of 
their orbit to the ,sun coincides with  
the ,earth's orbit1 and the most distant
 part extends beyond the orbit of       

,uranus4 ,these bodies accomplish a     
circuit of their orbit in #cc-a_/d      
years4 ,the ,earth in her annual        
revolution intersects the path of the   
meteors1 and when this occurs some      
falling stars can always be seen2 but   
when the intersection happens at the    
time the shoal is passing1 then there   
results a grand meteoric display4       
,numerous other meteoric swarms travel  
in orbital paths round the ,sun4        
,milton1 in his poem1 alludes to falling
 stars upon two occasions4 ,in          
describing the fall of ,mulciber from   
,heaven he says3--                      
from morn     ,to noon he fell1 from    
noon to dewy eve1     ,a summer's day2  
and with the setting sun     ,dropt from
 the zenith like a falling star1     ,on
 ,lemnos the ,a,egaean isle4--i4        
#gdb-df4  ,the rapid flight of the      
archangel ,uriel from the ,sun to the   
,earth is described in the following    
lines3--      ,thither came ,uriel1     
gliding through the even     ,on a      

sunbeam1 swift as a shooting star       
,in autumn thwarts the night1 when      
vapours fired     ,impress the air1 and 
shows the mariner     ,from what point  
of his compass to beware     ,impetuous 
winds4--iv4 #eee-fj4  ,milton mentions  
the season of the year in which those   
stars are most frequently seen1 and     
refers to an ancient belief by which    
they were regarded as the precursors of 
stormy weather4 ,a translation from     
,virgil contains a similar allusion to  
them--      ,oft shalt thou see ere     
brooding storms arise1     ,star after  
star glide headlong down the skies4     
,the standard borne by the ,cherub      
,azazel is described as having--        
,shone like a meteor streaming to the   
wind4--i4 #ecg4     ,,chapter ,,ix      
,,milton',s ,,imaginative ,,and         
,,descriptive ,,astronomy   ,the theme  
chosen by ,milton for his great epic1   
viz4 the ,fall of ,man and his expulsion
 from ,paradise--perhaps the most       
momentous incident in the history of the

 human race--was one worthy of the      
genius of a great poet and in the       
treatment of which ,milton has been     
sublimely successful4 ,the newly created
 ,earth2 the untainted loveliness of the
 ,paradise in which our first parents   
dwelt during their innocence2 their     
temptation2 their fall and removal from 
the happy garden1 furnished a theme     
which afforded him an opportunity for   
the display of his unrivalled poetic    
genius4  ,though the chief interest in  
the poem is centred in the ,garden of   
,eden and its occupants1 yet ,milton was
 enabled1 by the comprehensive manner in
 which he treated his subject1 to       
introduce into his work a cosmology     
which embraced not only the system to   
which our globe belongs1 but the entire 
starry heavens by which we are          
surrounded4 ,but the universality of his
 genius did not rest here4 ,in the      
utterance of his sacred song he soared  
beyond the starry sphere1 describing    
himself as wrapt above the pole--the    

starry pole--up to the ,empyrean1 or    
,heaven of ,heavens1 the ineffable abode
 of the ,deity and the blissful         
habitation of angelic beings who1 in    
adoration and worship1 surround the     
throne of the ,most ,high4  ,descending 
to that nether world at the opposite    
pole of the universe1 in the lowest     
depth of ,chaos1 the place prepared by  
,eternal ,justice for the rebellious1 he
 unfolds to our horror-stricken gaze the
 terrors of this infernal region2 its   
fiery deluge of ever-burning sulphur2   
its 'regions of sorrow2' its 'doleful   
shades'--the unhappy abode of fallen    
angels who 'in floods and whirlwinds of 
tempestuous fire1' alternated by        
exposure to unendurable cold and icy    
torment1 experience the direful         
consequences of their apostacy4         
,milton's ',paradise ,lost' may be      
regarded as the loftiest intellectual   
effort in the whole range of literature4
 ,in it we find all that was known of   
science1 philosophy1 and theology4 ,the 

theme1 founded upon a ,bible narrative1 
itself written under divine inspiration1
 embraces the entire system of          
,christian doctrine as revealed in the  
,scriptures1 and many of the noblest    
passages in the sacred volume are       
introduced into the poem expressed in   
the lofty utterance of flowing and      
harmonious verse4 ,the choicest         
classical writings of ,greek and ,latin 
authors2 the mythological and           
traditional beliefs of ancient nations2 
historical incidents of valour and      
renown and all that was great and good  
in the annals of mankind were laid under
 contribution by ,milton in the         
illustration and embellishment of his   
poem4  ,in order to obtain a basis or   
foundation upon which to construct his  
great epic1 ,milton found it necessary  
to localise the regions of space in     
which the principal events mentioned in 
his poem are described as having        
occurred4 ,the unfathomable abyss of    
space may be regarded as an             

uncircumscribed sphere boundless on all 
sides round1 and so far as we can       
comprehend of infinite extent4 ,this    
sphere ,milton divided into two         
hemispheres--an upper and a lower4 ,the 
upper was called ,heaven1 or the        
,empyrean--a glorified region of        
boundless dimensions2 the lower         
hemisphere embraced ,chaos--a dark1     
fathomless abyss in which the elements  
of matter existed in a state of         
perpetual tumult and wild uproar4 ,the  
occurrence of a rebellion in ,heaven    
necessitated a further division of the  
sphere4 ,the revolt1 headed by ,lucifer1
 one of the highest archangels1         
afterwards known as ,satan1 who drew    
after him a third of the angelic host1  
contested the supremacy of ,heaven with 
,michael and the angels which kept their
 loyalty4 ,after two days' battle--     
,him the ,almighty ,power     ,hurled   
headlong flaming from the ethereal sky1 
,with hideous ruin and combustion1 down 
,to bottomless perdition2 there to dwell

     ,in adamantine chains and penal    
fire4--i4 #dd-dh4  ,having been         
precipitated over the crystal wall of   
,heaven into the deep abyss1 ,milton    
says3--      ,nine days they fell2      
confounded ,chaos roared1     ,and felt 
tenfold confusion in their fall         
,through his wild ,anarchy2 so huge a   
rout     ,encumbered him with ruin4     
,hell at last1     ,yawning1 received   
them whole1 and on them closed4--vi4    
#hga-ge4  ,hell1 ,milton locates in the 
lowest depth of ,chaos1 a region cut off
 from the body of ,chaos1 through which 
the expelled angels fell for nine days  
before reaching their destined          
habitation4 ,there are now three        
divisions of space3 ,,heaven1 ,,chaos1  
and ,,hell4 ,but a fourth is required to
 enable ,milton to complete his scheme  
for the delineation of his poem4 ,the   
,earth and starry universe were not as  
yet called into existence1 but after the
 overthrow of the rebellious angels1    
,god1 by circumscribing a portion of    

,chaos situated immediately underneath  
the ,empyrean1 created the ,mundane     
,universe1 or the ',heavens and the     
,earth4'#ae ,this new universe ,he      
reclaimed from ,chaos1 and with the     
embryo elements of matter--      ,his   
dark materials to create new            
worlds4--ii4 #iaf4  ,he formed the      
,earth and all the countless shining    
orbs visible overhead1 and the myriads  
more which the telescope reveals1       
scattered in apparently endless         
profusion over the circular immensity of
 space4 ,it is this new universe--the   
,earth and ,starry ,heavens--that claims
 our chief attention1 and in the        
delineation of ,milton's imaginative and
 descriptive powers it is to this latest
 manifestation of ,divine wisdom and    
might that our remarks shall principally
 apply4 ,after the expulsion of the     
rebel angels from ,heaven1 ,god sent    
,his ,son1 the ,messiah to create the   
new universe--a work of omnipotence     
described by ,milton in a manner worthy 

of so magnificent a display of almighty 
power--                                 
,meanwhile the ,son     ,on his great   
expedition now appeared1     ,girt with 
omnipotence1 with radiance crowned      
,of majesty divine3 sapience and love   
,immense2 and all his ,father in ,him   
shone4     ,about his chariot numberless
 were poured     ,cherub and ,seraph1   
,potentates and ,thrones1     ,and      
,virtues1 winged ,spirits1 and chariots 
winged     ,from the armoury of ,god1   
where stand of old     ,myriads1 between
 two brazen mountains lodged            
,against a solemn day1 harnessed at     
hand1     ,celestial equipage2 and now  
came forth     ,spontaneous1 for within 
them ,spirit lived1     ,attendant on   
their ,lord4 ,heaven opened wide        
,her ever-during gates1 harmonious      
sound6     ,on golden hinges moving1 to 
let forth     ,the ,king of ,glory1 in  
his powerful ,word     ,and ,spirit1    
coming to create new worlds4     ,on    
,heavenly ground they stood1 and from   

the shore     ,they viewed the vast     
immeasurable abyss     ,outrageous as a 
sea1 dark1 wasteful1 wild1     ,up from 
the bottom turned by furious winds      
,and surging waves1 as mountains to     
assault     ,heaven's highth1 and with  
the centre mix the pole4     ',silence1 
ye troubled ,waves1 and thou ,deep1     
peace6'     ,said then the omnific      
,word3 'your discord end6'     ,nor     
stayed2 but on the wings of ,cherubim   
,uplifted1 in paternal glory rode       
,far into ,chaos1 and the ,world unborn2
     ,for ,chaos heard his voice4 ,him  
all his train     ,followed in bright   
procession1 to behold     ,creation1 and
 the wonders of his might4     ,then    
stayed the fervid wheels1 and in his    
hand     ,he took the golden compasses1 
prepared     ,in ,god's eternal store1  
to circumscribe     ,this ,universe1 and
 all created things4     ,one foot he   
centred1 and the other turned     ,round
 through the vast profundity obscure2   
,and said1 ',thus far extend1 thus far  

thy bounds2     ,this be thy just       
circumference1 ,o ,world6'     ,thus    
,god the ,heaven created1 thus the      
,earth1     ,matter unformed and void4  
,darkness profound     ,covered the     
abyss2 but on the watery calm     ,his  
brooding wings the ,spirit of ,god      
outspread1     ,and vital virtue        
infused1 and vital warmth1              
,throughout the fluid mass2 but downward
 purged     ,the black1 tartareous1     
cold1 infernal dregs1     ,adverse to   
life2 then founded1 then conglobed      
,like things to like2 the rest to       
several place     ,disparted1 and       
between spun out the ,air2     ,and     
,earth self balanced on her centre      
hung4--vii4 #aib-bdb4  ,milton begins   
his narrative of the ,creation by       
describing the progress of the ,deity on
 ,his great expedition1 accompanied by  
hosts of angels and surrounded with all 
the solemn pomp and splendour of        
,heaven4 ,the brilliant throng having   
passed through ,heaven's gates1 which   

opened wide their portals1 they beheld  
in front of them the dark abyss of      
,chaos--a tempest-tossed sea of warring 
elements upturned in wild confusion4 ,at
 ,god's instant command silence and     
peace reigned over the deep1 and        
tranquil calm succeeded noisy discord4  
,then on the wings of ,cherubim ,he rode
 far into ,chaos1 and with ,his golden  
compasses decreed the dimensions of the 
universe by circumscribing the vast     
vacuity of space4 ,into the elements    
which hasted to their several places1   
,his ,spirit infused vital warmth and   
caused the formless mass of matter to   
assume the figure of a sphere1 and thus 
the ,earth poised on her axis           
unsupported1 and in darkness shrouded   
hung suspended in space4 ,the placing of
 the golden compasses in the hands of   
the ,creator1 with which ,he measured   
out the heavens1 is a noble conception  
on the part of ,milton1 and one most    
appropriate1 since the construction of  
the universe is based upon the          

principles of geometrical science4      
',let there be ,light6' said ,god2 and  
forthwith ,light     ,ethereal1 first of
 things1 quintessence pure1     ,sprung 
from the ,deep2 and from her native east
     ,to journey through the aery gloom 
began1     ,sphered in a radiant cloud2 
for yet the ,sun     ,was not2 she in a 
cloudy tabernacle     ,sojourned the    
while4 ,god saw the light was good2     
,and light from darkness by the         
hemisphere     ,divided2 light the day1 
and darkness night     ,he named4 ,thus 
was the first day even and morn3        
,nor passed uncelebrated1 nor unsung    
,by the celestial quires1 when orient   
light     ,exhaling first from darkness 
they beheld2     ,birthday of ,heaven   
and ,earth2 with joy and shout     ,the 
hollow universal orb they filled1       
,and touched their golden harps1 and    
hymning praised     ,god and his works3 
,creator ,him they sung1     ,both when 
first evening was1 and when first       
morn4--vii4 #bdc-fj4  ,the appearance of

 ,light1 which sprung into existence at 
the fiat of the ,creator1 was the next  
great event witnessed by beholding      
angels--birthday of ,heaven and ,earth1 
first morning and first evening1 which  
the celestial choirs celebrated with    
praise and shouts of joy4 ,the creation 
of the firmament was the great work of  
the second day4      ,again ,god said1  
',let there be firmament     ,amid the  
waters1 and let it divide     ,the      
waters from the waters6' ,and ,god made 
,the firmament1 expanse of liquid1 pure1
     ,transparent1 elemental air1       
diffused     ,in circuit to the         
uttermost convex     ,of this great     
round--partition firm and sure1     ,the
 waters underneath from those above     
,dividing2 for as the ,earth1 so ,he the
 ,world     ,built on circumfluous      
waters calm1 in wide     ,crystalline   
ocean1 and the loud misrule     ,of     
,chaos far removed1 lest fierce extremes
     ,contiguous might distemper the    
whole frame3     ,and ,heaven he named  

the ,firmament4 ,so even     ,and       
morning chorus sung the second          
day4--vii4 #bfa-bge4  ,after describing 
the gathering of the waters off the face
 of the globe into seas1 causing the dry
 land to appear1 which at the word of   
,god became clothed with vegetation1    
rendering the ,earth a habitable abode1 
,milton proceeds to describe the        
creation of the heavenly bodies--       
,again the ,almighty spake3 ',let there 
be ,lights     ,high in the expanse of  
,heaven1 to divide     ,the day from    
night2 and let them be for signs1       
,for seasons1 and for days1 and circling
 years2     ,and let them be for lights1
 as ,i ordain     ,their office in the  
firmament of ,heaven1     ,to give light
 on the ,earth6' and it was so4     ,and
 ,god made two great ,lights1 great for 
their use     ,to ,man1 the greater to  
have rule by day1     ,the less by      
night1 altern2 and made the ,stars1     
,and set them in the firmament of       
,heaven     ,to illuminate the ,earth1  

and rule the day     ,in their          
vicissitude1 and rule the night1        
,and light from darkness to divide4 ,god
 saw1     ,surveying his great work1    
that it was good3     ,for1 of celestial
 bodies1 first1 the ,sun1     ,a mighty 
sphere ,he framed1 unlightsome first1   
,though of ethereal mould2 then formed  
the ,moon     ,globose1 and every       
magnitude of ,stars1     ,and sowed with
 stars the ,heaven thick as a field4    
,of light by far the greater part he    
took1     ,transplanted from her cloudy 
shrine1 and placed     ,in the ,sun's   
orb1 made porous to receive     ,and    
drink the liquid light2 firm to retain  
,her gathered beams1 great palace now of
 ,light4     ,hither1 as to their       
fountain1 other stars     ,repairing1 in
 their golden urns draw light1     ,and 
hence the morning planet gilds her      
horns2     ,by tincture or reflection   
they augment     ,their small peculiar1 
though1 from human sight     ,so far    
remote1 with diminution seen4     ,first

 in his east the glorious lamp was seen1
     ,regent of day1 and all the horizon
 round     ,invested with bright rays1  
jocund to run     ,his longitude through
 ,heaven's high road2 the grey          
,dawn1 and the ,pleiades before him     
danced1     ,shedding sweet influence4  
,less bright the ,moon1     ,but        
opposite in levelled west was set       
,his mirror1 with full face borrowing   
her light     ,from him2 for other light
 she needed none     ,in that aspect1   
and still that distance keeps     ,till 
night2 then in the east her turn she    
shines1     ,revolved on ,heaven's great
 axle1 and her reign     ,with thousand 
lesser lights dividual holds1     ,with 
thousand thousand stars that then       
appeared     ,spangling the hemisphere4 
,then first adorned     ,with their     
bright luminaries1 that set and rose1   
,glad evening and glad morn crowned the 
fourth day4--vii4 #cci-hf4  ,the first  
creation was ,light1 and ,milton1       
according to ,scriptural testimony1     

ascribes its origin to the bidding of   
the ,creator4 ',god said1 ,let there be 
light2 and there was light6' ,the ,sun  
he describes as a mighty sphere1 but at 
first non-luminous4 ,there was light1   
but no sun4 ,the reason usually given in
 explanation of this phenomenon is1 that
 the heavenly bodies were created at the
 same time as the ,earth1 but were      
rendered invisible by a canopy of vapour
 and cloud which enveloped the          
newly-formed globe2 and that afterwards1
 when it dispersed1 they appeared in the
 firmament1 shining in all their        
pristine splendour4 ,milton does not1   
however1 adhere to this view of things1 
but says that light for the first three 
days sojourned in a cloudy shrine or    
tabernacle1 and was afterwards          
transplanted in the ,sun1 which became a
 great palace of light4  ,he expresses  
himself in a somewhat similar manner in 
,book ,,iii41 which opens with an       
address to ,light--one of the most      
beautiful passages in the poem1 in which

 he alludes to his blindness when       
expressing his thoughts and sentiments  
with regard to this ethereal medium1    
which conveys to us the pleasurable     
sensation of vision--      ,hail1 holy  
,light6 offspring of ,heaven first-born6
     ,or of the ,eternal co-eternal     
beam1     ,may ,i express thee unblamed8
 since ,god is light1     ,and never but
 in unapproached light     ,dwelt from  
eternity--dwelt then in thee1           
,bright effluence of bright essence     
increate6     ,or hear'st thou rather1  
pure ,ethereal stream1     ,whose       
fountain who shall tell8 ,before the    
,sun1     ,before the ,heavens thou     
wert1 and at the voice     ,of ,god1 as 
with a mantle1 didst invest     ,the    
rising world of waters dark and deep1   
,won from the void and formless         
,infinite4--iii4 #a-ab4  ,the ,sun      
having become a lucent orb1 ,milton     
poetically describes how the planets    
repair to him as to a fountain1 and in  
their golden urns draw light2 and how   

the morning planet ,venus gilds her     
horns illumined by his rays4 ,the poet  
associates joyous ideas with the        
new-born universe4 ,the ,sun1 now the   
glorious regent of day1 begins his      
journey in the east1 lighting up the    
horizon with his beams2 whilst before   
him danced the grey dawn1 and the       
,pleiades shedding sweet influences4    
,there existed an ancient belief that   
the ,earth was created in the spring1   
and in ,april the ,sun is in the        
zodiacal constellation ,taurus1 in which
 are also situated the ,pleiades2 they  
rise a little before the orb1 and       
precede him in his path through the     
heavens4 ,the stars of this group have  
always been regarded with a peculiar    
sacredness1 and their rays1 mingling    
with those of the ,sun1 were believed to
 shed sweet influences upon the ,earth4 
,the ,moon1 less bright1 with borrowed  
light1 in her turn shines in the east1  
and1 with the thousand thousand         
luminaries that spangle the firmament1  

reigns over the night4  ,we learn in    
,book ,,iii4 that the archangel ,uriel1 
who was beguiled by ,satan1 witnessed   
the ,creation1 and described how the    
heavenly bodies were brought into       
existence1 he having perceived what we  
should call the gaseous elements of     
matter rolled into whorls and vortices  
which became condensed into suns and    
systems of worlds4 ,this mighty angel   
says3--      ,i saw when1 at his word   
the formless mass1     ,this ,world's   
material mould1 came to a heap3         
,confusion heard his voice1 and wild    
,uproar     ,stood ruled1 stood vast    
,infinitude confined2     ,till at his  
second bidding darkness fled1     ,light
 shone1 and order from disorder sprung4 
,swift to their several quarters hasted 
then     ,the cumbrous elements1 ,earth1
 ,flood1 ,air1 ,fire2     ,and this     
ethereal quintessence of ,heaven        
,flew upward1 spirited with various     
forms1     ,that rolled orbicular1 and  
turned to stars     ,numberless1 as thou

 seest1 and how they move2     ,each had
 his place appointed1 each his course2  
,the rest in circuit walls this         
,universe4--iii4 #gjh-ba4  ,in his      
sublime description of the ,creation    
,milton has adhered with marked fidelity
 to the ,mosaic version1 as narrated in 
the first two chapters of ,genesis1 when
 ,god1 by specific acts in certain      
stated periods of time1 created the     
visible universe and all that it        
contains4  ,the successive acts of      
creation are described in words almost  
identical with those of ,scripture1     
embellished and adorned with all the    
wealth of expression which our language 
is capable of affording4 ,the several   
scenes presented to the imagination1 and
 witnessed by hosts of admiring angels  
as each portion of the magnificent work 
was accomplished1 are full of a grandeur
 and majesty worthy of the loftiest     
conceivable effort of ,divine power and 
might4  ,the return of the ,creator     
after the completion of ,his great work 

is described by ,milton in a manner     
worthy of the progress of ,deity through
 the celestial regions4 ,the whole      
creation rang with jubilant delight1 and
 the bright throng which witnessed the  
wonders of ,his might followed ,him with
 acclamation1 ascending by the glorified
 path of the ,milky ,way up to ,his high
 abode--the ,heaven of ,heavens--       
,here finished ,he1 and all that ,he had
 made     ,viewed1 and behold6 all was  
entirely good4     ,so even and morn    
accomplished the sixth day3     ,yet not
 till the ,creator from his work        
,desisting1 though unwearied1 up        
returned1     ,up to the ,heaven of     
,heavens1 ,his high abode1     ,thence  
to behold this new created ,world1      
,the addition of his empire1 how it     
showed     ,in prospect from ,his       
throne1 how good1 how fair1             
,answering his great idea4 ,up ,he rode1
     ,followed with acclamation1 and the
 sound     ,symphonious of ten thousand 
harps1 that tuned     ,angelic          

harmonies3 ,the ,earth1 the ,air        
,resounded 7thou remember'st1 for thou  
heard'st7     ,the ,heavens and all the 
constellations rung1     ,the planets in
 their stations listening stood1        
,while the bright pomp ascended         
jubilant4     ',open ye everlasting     
gates6' they sung2     ',open ye        
,heavens6 your living doors2 let in     
,the great ,creator1 from his work      
returned     ,magnificent1 his six days'
 work1 a ,world2     ,open1 and         
henceforth oft2 for ,god will deign     
,to visit oft the dwellings of just men1
     ,delighted2 and with frequent      
intercourse     ,thither will send his  
winged messengers     ,on errands of    
supernal grace4' ,so sung     ,the      
glorious train ascending3 ,he through   
,heaven1     ,that opened wide her      
blazing portals1 led     ,to ,god's     
eternal house direct the way--     ,a   
broad and ample road1 whose dust is     
gold1     ,and pavement stars1 as stars 
to thee appear     ,seen in the ,galaxy1

 that ,milky ,way     ,which nightly as 
a circling zone thou seest     ,powdered
 with stars4--vii4 #edh-ha4  ,milton1   
throughout his description of the       
,creation1 sustains with lofty eloquence
 his sublime conception of this latest  
display of almighty power2 and invests  
with becoming majesty all the acts of   
the ,creator1 who1 when ,he finished    
,his great work1 saw that all was       
entirely good4  ,shortly after the      
creation of the new universe1 ,satan1   
having escaped from ,hell1 plunged into 
the abyss of ,chaos1 and1 after a long  
and arduous journey upwards1 in which he
 had to fight his way through the       
surging elements that raged around him  
like a tempestuous sea1 he reached the  
upper confines of this region where less
 confusion prevailed1 and where a       
glimmering dawn of light penetrated its 
darkness and gloom1 indicating that the 
limit of the empire of ,chaos and       
ancient ,night had been reached by the  
adventurous fiend4 ,pursuing his way    

with greater ease1 he leisurely beholds 
the sight which is opening to his       
eyes--a sight rendered more glorious by 
his long sojourn in darkness4 ,he       
sees3--      ,far off the empyreal      
,heaven1 extended wide     ,in circuit1 
undetermined square or round1     ,with 
opal towers and battlements adorned     
,of living sapphire1 once his native    
seat1     ,and1 fast by1 hanging in a   
golden chain1     ,this pendent ,world1 
in bigness as a star     ,of smallest   
magnitude close by the ,moon4--ii4      
#ajdg-ec4  ,he gazes upon his native    
,heaven where once he dwelt1 and        
observes the pendent world in quest of  
which he journeyed hither--hung by a    
golden chain from the ,empyrean and no  
larger than a star of the smallest      
magnitude when close by the ,moon4 ,in  
this passage ,milton does not allude to 
the ,earth1 which was invisible1 but to 
the entire starry heavens--the newly    
created universe reclaimed from ,chaos1 
which1 when contrasted with the         

,empyrean1 appeared in size no larger   
than the minutest star when compared    
with the full moon4 ,pursuing his       
journey1 the new universe as it is      
approached expands into a globe of vast 
dimensions2 its convex surface--round   
which the chaotic elements in stormy    
aspect lowered--seemed a boundless      
continent1 dark1 desolate1 and starless1
 except on the side next to the wall of 
,heaven1 which though far-distant       
afforded it some illumination by its    
reflected light4 ,satan1 having alighted
 on this convex shell which enclosed the
 universe1 wandered long over its bleak 
and dismal surface1 until his attention 
was attracted by a gleam of light which 
appeared through an opening at its      
zenith right underneath the ,empyrean4  
,thither he directed his steps1 and     
perceived a structure resembling a      
staircase1 or ladder1 which formed the  
only means of communication between     
,heaven and the new creation1 and upon  
which angels descended and ascended--   

,far distant he descries1     ,ascending
 by degrees magnificent     ,up to the  
wall of ,heaven1 a structure high2      
,at top whereof1 but far more rich1     
appeared     ,the work as of a kingly   
palace gate1     ,with frontispiece of  
diamond and gold     ,embellished2 thick
 with sparkling orient gems     ,the    
portal shone1 inimitable on ,earth      
,by model1 or by shading pencil drawn4  
,the stairs were such as whereon ,jacob 
saw     ,angels ascending and           
descending1 bands     ,of ,guardians    
bright1 when he from ,esau fled     ,to 
,padan ,aram1 in the field of ,luz      
,dreaming by night under the open sky1  
,and waking cried1 ',this is the gate of
 ,heaven4'--iii4 #eja-ae4  ,sometimes   
this mysterious structure was drawn up  
to ,heaven and invisible4 ,at the time  
that ,satan reached the opening1 the    
stairs were lowered1 and standing at    
their base he looked down with wonder   
upon the entire starry universe--       
,such wonder seized1 though after       

,heaven seen1     ,the ,spirit malign1  
but much more envy seized1     ,at sight
 of all this ,world beheld so fair1     
,round he surveys 7and well might1 where
 he stood     ,so high above the        
circling canopy     ,of night's extended
 shade7 from eastern point     ,of      
,libra to the fleecy star that bears    
,andromeda far off ,atlantic seas       
,beyond the horizon2 then from pole to  
pole     ,he views in breadth1 and      
without longer pause1     ,down right   
into the ,world's first region throws   
,his flight precipitant1 and winds with 
ease     ,through the pure marble air   
his oblique way     ,amongst innumerable
 stars1 that shone     ,stars distant1  
but nigh hand seemed other worlds1      
,or other worlds they seemed1 or happy  
isles1     ,like those ,hesperian       
,gardens famed of old1     ,fortunate   
fields1 and groves1 and flowery vales2  
,thrice happy isles6 ,but who dwelt     
happy there     ,he staid not to        
inquire3 above them all     ,the golden 

,sun1 in splendour likest ,heaven       
,allured his eye3 thither his course he 
bends     ,through the calm firmament1  
7but up or down     ,by centre or       
eccentric hard to tell     ,or          
longitude7 where the great luminary1    
,aloof the vulgar constellations thick1 
,that from his lordly eye keep distance 
due1     ,dispenses light from far4     
,they1 as they move     ,their starry   
dance in numbers that compute     ,days1
 months1 and years1 towards his         
all-cheering lamp     ,turn swift their 
various motions1 or are turned     ,by  
his magnetic beam1 that gently warms    
,the ,universe1 and to each inward part 
,with gentle penetration1 though unseen1
     ,shoots invisible virtue even to   
the ,deep2     ,so wondrously was set   
his station bright4--iii4 #eeb-hg4  ,the
 ,ptolemaic cosmology having been       
adopted by ,milton in the elaboration of
 his poem1 he describes the universe in 
conformity with the doctrines associated
 with this form of astronomical belief4 

,to each of the first seven spheres     
which revolved round the steadfast      
,earth there was attached a heavenly    
body2 the eighth sphere embraced all the
 fixed stars1 a countless multitude2 the
 ninth the crystalline2 and enclosing   
all the other spheres as if in a shell  
was the tenth sphere1 or ,primum        
,mobile1 which in its diurnal revolution
 carried round with it all the other    
spheres4 ,the nine inner spheres were   
transparent1 but the tenth was an opaque
 solid shell-like structure1 which      
enclosed the new universe and           
constituted the boundary between it and 
,chaos underneath and the ,empyrean     
above4 ,it was on the surface of this   
sphere that ,satan wandered until he    
discovered the opening at its zenith1   
where1 by means of a staircase or       
ladder1 communication was maintained    
with the ,empyrean4 ,standing on the    
lower steps of this structure he paused 
for a moment to look down into the      
glorious universe which lay beneath     

him--                                   
another ,heaven     ,from ,heaven-gate  
not far1 founded in view     ,on the    
clear hyaline the glassy sea4--vii4     
#fag-ai4  ,he beholds it in all its     
dimensions1 from pole to pole1 and      
longitudinally from ,libra to ,aries1   
then without hesitation precipitates    
himself down into the world's first     
region1 and winds his way with ease     
among the fixed stars4 ,around him he   
sees innumerable shining worlds1        
sparkling and glittering in endless     
profusion over the circumscribed        
immensity of space--mighty              
constellations that shone from afar2    
clustering aggregations of stars2       
floating islands of light2 twinkling    
systems rising out of depths still more 
profound1 and a zone luminous with the  
light of myriads of lucid orbs verging  
on the confines of the universe4 ,all   
these worlds the fiend passed unheeded1 
nor stayed he to inquire who dwelt happy
 there4 ,in splendour above them all the

 ,sun attracted his attention and1      
directing his course towards the great  
luminary of our system1 he alights on   
the surface of the orb4  ,milton now    
makes a digression in order to describe 
what ,satan observed in the ,sun after  
having landed there4 ,the poet embraces 
an opportunity for exercising his       
imaginative and descriptive powers by   
giving an ideal description of what1    
judging from the appearance of the orb1 
might be the natural condition of things
 existing on his surface--      ,there  
lands the ,fiend1 a spot like which     
perhaps     ,astronomer in the ,sun's   
lucent orb     ,through his glazed optic
 tube1 yet never saw4     ,the place he 
found beyond expression bright1         
,compared with aught on ,earth1 metal or
 stone2     ,not all parts like1 but all
 alike informed     ,with radiant light1
 as glowing iron with fire2     ,if     
metal1 part seemed gold1 part silver    
clear2     ,if stone1 carbuncle most or 
chrysolite1     ,ruby or topaz1 to the  

twelve that shone     ,in ,aaron's      
breastplate1 and a stone besides1       
,imagined rather oft than elsewhere     
seen2     ,that stone1 or like to that1 
which here below     ,philosophers in   
vain so long have sought1     ,in vain1 
though by their powerful art they bind  
,volatile ,hermes1 and call up unbound  
,in various shapes old ,proteus from the
 sea1     ,drained through a limbec to  
his native form4     ,what wonder then  
if fields and regions here     ,breathe 
forth elixir pure1 and rivers run       
,potable gold1 when1 with one virtuous  
touch1     ,the arch-chemic ,sun1 so far
 from us remote1     ,produces1 with    
terrestrial humour mixed1     ,here in  
the dark so many precious things     ,of
 colour glorious1 and effect so rare8   
,here matter new to gaze the ,devil met 
,undazzled2 far and wide his eye        
commands2     ,for sight no obstacle    
found here1 nor shade1     ,but all     
sunshine1 as when his beams at noon     
,culminate from the equator1 as they now

     ,shot upward still direct1 whence  
no way round     ,shadow from body      
opaque can fall2 and the air1           
,nowhere so clear sharpened his visual  
ray     ,to objects distant far1 whereby
 he soon     ,saw within here a glorious
 ,angel stand4--iii4 #ehh-fbb4  ,the    
physical structure of the interior of   
the ,sun is unknown2 all that we see of 
the orb is the photosphere--the dazzling
 luminous envelope which indicates to   
the eye the boundary of the solar disc1 
and which is the source of light and    
heat4 ,milton1 in his imaginative and   
beautifully poetical description of the 
,sun1 is not more fanciful in his       
conception of the nature of the         
refulgent orb than a renowned astronomer
 7,sir ,william ,herschel7 who writes in
 the following strain3 ',a cool1 dark1  
solid globe1 its surface diversified    
with mountains and valleys1 clothed in  
luxuriant vegetation and richly stored  
with inhabitants1 protected by a heavy  
cloud-canopy from the intolerable glare 

of the upper luminous region1 where the 
dazzling coruscations of a solar aurora 
some thousands of miles in depth evolved
 the stores of light and heat which     
vivify our world4' ,satan1 disguised as 
a cherub1 makes himself known to ,uriel1
 ,regent of the ,sun4 ,the upright      
,seraph in response to his request      
directs him to the ,earth1 the abode of 
,man--      ,look downward on that      
,globe1 whose hither side     ,with     
light from hence1 though but reflected1 
shines1     ,that place is ,earth1 the  
seat of ,man2 that light     ,his day1  
which else1 as the other hemisphere1    
,night would invade2 but there          
neighbouring ,moon     7,so call that   
opposite fair star7 her aid     ,timely 
interposes1 and her monthly round       
,still ending1 still renewing1 through  
mid-,heaven1     ,with borrowed light   
her countenance triform     ,hence fills
 and empties1 to enlighten the ,earth1  
,and in her pale dominion checks the    
night4--iii4 #gbb-cb4  ,it would be     

impossible not to feel impressed with   
the accuracy and comprehensiveness of   
,milton's astronomical knowledge2 and   
how he has united in charming poetic    
expression the dry details of science   
with the divine inspiration of the      
heavenly muse4 ,the distinctive         
appearances of the ,sun1 ,moon1 planets1
 and stars2 their functional importance 
as regards this terrestrial sphere2 the 
splendour and lustre peculiar to each2  
and the glory displayed in the entire   
created heavens1 are portrayed with a   
skill indicative of a masterly knowledge
 of the science of astronomy4           
,descend from ,heaven1 ,urania1 by that 
name     ,if rightly thou art called1   
whose voice divine     ,following1 above
 the ,olympian hill ,i soar1     ,above 
the flight of ,pegasean wing6     ,the  
meaning1 not the name1 ,i call2 for thou
     ,nor of the ,muses nine1 nor on the
 top     ,of old ,olympus dwell'st2 but 
heavenly-born1     ,before the hills    
appeared or fountain flowed1     ,thou  

with ,eternal ,wisdom didst converse1   
,wisdom thy sister1 and with her didst  
play     ,in presence of the ,almighty  
,father1 pleased     ,with thy celestial
 song4 ,up led by thee1     ,into the   
,heaven of ,heavens ,i have presumed1   
,an earthly guest1 and drawn empyreal   
air1     ,thy tempering4 ,with like     
safety guided down1     ,return me to my
 native element2     ,lest1 from this   
flying steed unreined1 7as once         
,belerophon1 though from a lower clime7 
,dismounted1 on the ,aleian field ,i    
fall1     ,erroneous there to wander1   
and forlorn4     ,half yet remains      
unsung1 but narrower bound     ,within  
the visible diurnal sphere4             
,standing on ,earth1 not rapt above the 
pole1     ,more safe ,i sing with mortal
 voice1 unchanged     ,to hoarse or     
mute1 though fallen on evil days1       
,on evil days though fallen1 and evil   
tongues1     ,in darkness1 and with     
dangers compassed round1     ,and       
solitude2 yet not alone1 while thou     

,visit'st my slumbers nightly1 or when  
morn     ,purples the east4 ,still      
govern thou my song1     ,urania1 and   
fit audience find though few4--vii4     
#a-cb4  ,the ,muses were ,greek         
mythological divinities who possessed   
the power of inspiring song1 and were   
the patrons of poets and musicians4     
,according to ,hesiod they were nine in 
number and presided over the arts4      
,urania was the ,goddess of ,astronomy1 
and ,calliope the ,goddess of ,epic     
,poetry4 ,they are described as the     
daughters of ,zeus1 and ,homer alludes  
to them as the goddesses of song who    
dwelt on the summit of ,mount ,olympus4 
,they were the companions of ,apollo1   
and accompanied with song his playing on
 the lyre at the banquets of the        
,immortals4 ,milton does not invoke the 
mythological goddess1 but ,urania the   
,heavenly ,muse1 whose aid he also      
implores at the commencement of his poem
 prior to his flight above the ,aonian  
,mount4 ,under her divine guidance he   

ascended to the ,heaven of ,heavens and 
breathed empyreal air1 her tempering2 in
 like manner he requests her to lead him
 down to his native element lest he     
should meet with a fate similar to what 
befell ,bellerophon4 ,half his task he  
has completed1 the other half1 confined 
to narrower bounds within the visible   
diurnal sphere1 remains unsung1 and in  
its fulfilment he still implores his    
celestial patroness to govern his song4 
,the natural phenomena which occur as a 
consequence of the motions of the       
heavenly bodies and the diurnal rotation
 of the ,earth on her axis1 are         
accompanied by agreeable alternations in
 the aspect of nature with which every  
one is familiar4 ,the rosy footsteps of 
morn2 the solar splendour of noonday2   
the fading hues of even2 and night with 
her jewelled courts and streams of      
molten stars1 have been sung with       
rapturous admiration by poets of every  
nation and in every age4 ,they1 as      
ardent lovers of nature1 have described 

in choicest language the pleasing       
vicissitudes brought about by the real  
and apparent motions of the celestial   
orbs4  ,in this respect ,milton is      
unsurpassed by any poet in ancient or in
 modern times4 ,the occasions on which  
he describes the heavenly bodies1 or    
alludes to them in association with     
other phenomena1 testify to the felicity
 of his thoughts and to the greatness of
 his poetic genius4 ,surely no poet has 
ever given us a lovelier description of 
evening1 or has added more to its       
exquisite beauty by his allusion to the 
celestial orbs1 than ,milton when he    
describes the first evening in          
,paradise--      ,now came still        
,evening on1 and ,twilight gray     ,had
 in her sober livery all things clad2   
,silence accompanied2 for beast and     
bird1     ,they to their grassy couch1  
these to their nests     ,were slunk1   
all but the wakeful nightingale4        
,she all night long her amorous descant 
sung2     ,silence was pleased4 ,now    

glowed the firmament     ,with living   
sapphires3 ,hesperus that led     ,the  
starry host1 rode brightest1 till the   
,moon1     ,rising in clouded majesty1  
at length     ,apparent queen1 unveiled 
her peerless light1     ,and o'er the   
dark her silver mantle threw4--iv4      
#eih-fji4  ,in the avowal of her        
conjugal love1 ,eve1 with charming      
expression1 associates the orbs of the  
firmament with the delightful           
appearances of nature which presented   
themselves to her observation after she 
awoke to the consciousness of           
intelligent existence4      ,sweet is   
the breath of ,morn1 her rising sweet1  
,with charm of earliest birds3 pleasant 
the ,sun1     ,when first on this       
delightful land he spreads     ,his     
orient beams1 on herb1 tree1 fruit1 and 
flower1     ,glistering with dew2       
fragrant the fertile ,earth     ,after  
soft showers2 and sweet the coming on   
,of grateful ,evening mild2 then silent 
,night1     ,with this her solemn bird1 

and this fair ,moon1     ,and these the 
gems of ,heaven1 her starry train3      
,but neither breath of ,morn1 when she  
ascends     ,with charm of earliest     
birds2 nor rising ,sun     ,on this     
delightful land2 nor herb1 fruit1       
flower1     ,glistering with dew2 nor   
fragrance after showers2     ,nor       
grateful ,evening mild2 nor silent      
,night1     ,with this her solemn bird2 
nor walk by ,moon1     ,or glittering   
star-light1 without thee is sweet4      
,but wherefore all night long shine     
these8 for whom     ,this glorious      
sight1 when sleep hath shut all         
eyes8--iv4 #fda-eh4  ,one of the charms 
of ,milton's verse is the devoutly      
poetical sentiment which pervades it4   
,his thoughts1 though serious1 are not  
austere or gloomy1 and it is in his     
loftiest musings that his reverence     
becomes most apparent4 ,this feeling is 
conspicuous in ,adam's reply to the     
inquiry addressed to him by ,eve--      
,daughter of ,god and ,man1 accomplished

 ,eve1     ,these have their course to  
finish round the ,earth     ,by morrow  
evening1 and from land to land     ,in  
order1 though to nations yet unborn1    
,ministering light prepared1 they set   
and rise2     ,lest total ,darkness     
should by night regain     ,her old     
possession1 and extinguish life     ,in 
,nature and all things2 which these soft
 fires     ,not only enlighten1 but with
 kindly heat     ,of various influence  
foment and warm1     ,temper or nourish1
 or in part shed down     ,their stellar
 virtue on all kinds that grow     ,on  
,earth1 made hereby apter to receive    
,perfection from the ,sun's more potent 
ray4     ,these1 then1 though unbeheld  
in deep of night1     ,shine not in     
vain2 nor think1 though men were none1  
,that ,heaven would want spectators1    
,god want praise3     ,millions of      
spiritual creatures walk the ,earth     
,unseen1 both when we wake1 and when we 
sleep3     ,all these with ceaseless    
praise his works behold     ,both day   

and night4 ,how often from the steep    
,of echoing hill or thicket1 have we    
heard     ,celestial voices to the      
midnight air1     ,sole1 or responsive  
each to other's note     ,singing their 
,great ,creator6 ,oft in bands          
,while they keep watch1 or nightly      
rounding walk1     ,with heavenly touch 
of instrumental sounds     ,in full     
harmonic number joined1 their songs     
,divide the night1 and lift our thoughts
 to ,heaven4--iv4 #ffj-hh4  ,the        
,morning ,hymn of ,praise which ,adam   
and ,eve offer up in concert to their   
,maker contains their loftiest thoughts 
and most reverent sentiments1 expressed 
in melodiously flowing verse4 ,in their 
solemn invocations they call upon the   
orbs of the firmament to join in        
praising and extolling the ,creator1 and
 in their devout enthusiasm and         
adoration address by name those that are
 most conspicuous4 ,hesperus1 'fairest  
of stars1' is asked to praise ,him in   
her sphere4 ,the ,sun1 great image of   

his ,maker1 is told to acknowledge ,him 
his greater1 and to sound ,his praise in
 his eternal course4 ,the ,moon1 the    
fixed stars1 and the planets are called 
upon to resound the praise of the       
,creator1 whose glory is declared in the
 ,heavens--      ,fairest of ,stars1    
last in the train of night1     ,if     
better thou belong not to the dawn1     
,sure pledge of day1 that crown'st the  
smiling morn     ,with thy bright       
circlet1 praise ,him in thy sphere      
,while day arises1 that sweet hour of   
prime4     ,thou ,sun1 of this great    
world both eye and soul1                
,acknowledge ,him thy greater2 sound his
 praise     ,in thy eternal course1 both
 when thou climb'st1     ,and when high 
noon hast gained1 and when thou fall'st4
     ,moon1 that now meet'st the orient 
,sun1 now fliest     ,with the fixed    
stars1 fixed in their orb that flies2   
,and ye five other wandering ,fires1    
that move     ,in mystic dance1 not     
without song1 resound     ,his praise1  

who out of darkness called up           
,light4--v4 #aff-gi4  ,milton's         
conception of celestial distances1 and  
of the vast regions of interstellar     
space1 is finely described in the       
following lines3--                      
,down thither prone in flight     ,he   
speeds1 and through the vast ethereal   
sky     ,sails between worlds and       
worlds1 with steady wing     ,now on the
 polar winds2 then with quick fan       
,winnows the buxom air1 till1 within    
soar     ,of towering eagles4--v4       
#bff-ga4  ,as in their morning1 so in   
their evening devotions1 our first      
parents never fail to introduce a       
reference to the celestial orbs as      
indicating the power and goodness of the
 ,creator1 made manifest in the beauty  
and greatness of ,his works--           
,thus1 at their shady lodge arrived1    
both stood1     ,both turned1 and under 
open sky adored     ,the ,god that made 
both ,sky1 ,air1 ,earth and ,heaven     
,which they beheld2 the ,moon's         

resplendent globe1     ,and starry      
pole4--iv4 #gbj-bd4  ,the numerous      
extracts contained in this volume       
impress upon one's mind how largely     
astronomy enters into the composition of
 ',paradise ,lost1' and of how much     
assistance the knowledge of this science
 was to ,milton in the elaboration of   
his poem4 ,indeed1 it would be hard to  
imagine how such a work could have been 
written except by a poet who possessed a
 proficient and comprehensive knowledge 
of astronomy4 ,the chief characteristic 
of ,milton's poetry is its sublimity1   
which is the natural outcome of the     
magnificence of his conceptions and of  
his own pure imaginative genius4 ,among 
all the fields of literature1 science1  
and philosophy explored by him1 he found
 none more congenial to his tastes1 or  
that afforded his imagination more      
freedom for its loftiest flights1 than  
the sublimest of sciences--astronomy4   
,whether we admire most the accuracy of 
his astronomical knowledge1 or the      

wonderful creations of his poetic fancy1
 or his beautiful descriptions of the   
celestial orbs1 it is apparent that in  
this domain of science1 as a poet1 he   
stands alone and without a rival4 ,in   
his choice of the ,ptolemaic cosmology  
,milton adopted a system with which he  
had been familiar from his youth--the   
same which his favourite poet ,dante    
introduced into his poem1 ',the ,divina 
,commedia1' and which was well adapted  
for poetic description4 ,the picturesque
 conception of ten revolving spheres1   
carrying along with them the orbs       
assigned to each1 which1 by their       
revolution round the steadfast ,earth1  
brought about with unfailing regularity 
the successive alternation of day and   
night1 and in every twenty-four hours   
exhibited the pleasing vicissitudes of  
dawn1 of sunshine1 of twilight1 and of  
darkness1 relieved by the soft          
effulgence of the nocturnal sky1        
afforded ,milton a favourable basis upon
 which to construct a cosmical epic4    

,the ,copernican theory--with which he  
was equally conversant1 and in the      
accuracy and truthfulness of which he   
believed--though less complicated than  
the ,ptolemaic in its details1 did not  
possess the same attractiveness for     
poetic description that belonged to the 
older system4 ,according to this theory 
there is1 surrounding us on all sides1 a
 boundless uncircumscribed ocean of     
space1 to which it is impossible to     
assign any conceivable limit2 in every  
effort to comprehend its dimensions or  
fathom its depths1 the mind recoils upon
 itself1 baffled and discomfited1 with a
 conscious feeling that there can be no 
nearer approach to the end when end     
there is none that can be conceived of4 
,interspersed throughout the regions of 
this azure vast of space is the stellar 
universe1 which to our comprehension is 
as infinite as the abyss in which it    
exists4 ,the solar system1 though of    
magnificent dimensions1 is but a unit in
 the astronomical whole1 in which are   

embraced millions of other similar      
units--other solar systems1 perhaps     
differing in construction from that of  
ours1 with billions of miles of         
interstellar space intervening between  
each2 yet so vast are the dimensions of 
the celestial sphere that those         
distances when measured upon it sink    
into utter insignificance4 ,as the      
receding depths of space are penetrated 
by powerful telescopes1 they are found  
to be pervaded with stars and starry    
archipelagoes1 distributed in profusion 
over the circular immensity and         
extending away into abysmal depths1     
beyond the reach of visibility by any   
optical means which we possess4 ,to the 
universe there is no known end--nowhere 
in imagination can its boundary be      
reached6 ,this bewildering conception of
 the cosmos did not trouble the minds of
 pre-,copernican thinkers4 ,they        
regarded the steadfast ,earth as the    
most important body in the universe2 nor
 were the celestial orbs which circled  

round it believed to be very far        
distant4 ,tycho ,brahe imagined that the
 stars were not much more remote than   
the planets4 ,epicurus thought the stars
 were small crystal mirrors in the sky  
which reflected the solar rays1 and the 
,venerable ,bede remarked that they     
needed assistance from the ,sun's light 
in order to render them more luminous4  
,the adoption of the ,ptolemaic system  
by ,milton afforded greater scope for   
the exercise of his imaginative powers1 
and enabled him to bring within the     
mental grasp of his readers a conception
 of the universe which was not lost in  
the immensity associated with the       
,copernican view of things4 ,besides1 it
 also furnished him with a distinctly   
defined basis upon which to erect the   
superstructure of his poem4 ,above the  
circumscribed universe was ,heaven or   
the ,empyrean2 underneath it was ,chaos1
 from which it had been reclaimed1 and  
in the lowest depth of which ,milton    
located the infernal world called ,hell4

 ,these four regions embraced universal 
space2 and in the elaboration of his    
great epic ,milton relied upon his      
imaginative genius1 his brilliant       
scholarship1 his vast erudition1 and the
 divine inspiration of the heavenly     
muse4 ,with these1 aided by the power   
and vigour of his intellect1 he was     
enabled to produce a cosmical epic that 
surpassed all previous efforts of a     
similar kind1 and which still remains   
without a parallel4  ,one of the        
distinguishing features of ,milton's    
mind was his wonderful imagination1 and 
in its exercise he beheld those sublime 
celestial and terrestrial visions on    
which he reared fabrics of splendour and
 beauty1 described in harmonious numbers
 with the fervid eloquence and charm of 
a true poet4 ,an example of the         
loftiness and originality of his        
imagination is afforded us in his       
description of the ,creation1 the main  
facts of which he derived from the first
 two chapters of ,genesis1 and upon     

these he elaborated in full and striking
 detail his magnificent conception of   
the efforts of ,divine ,might1 which in 
six successive creative acts called into
 existence the universe and all that it 
contains4 ,the rising of the ,earth out 
of ,chaos2 the creation of light and of 
the orbs of the firmament2 the          
joyfulness associated with the onward   
career of the new-born ,sun2 the subdued
 illumination of the full-orbed ,moon1  
and the thousand thousand stars that    
spangle the nocturnal sky--all these    
afforded ,milton a rich field in which  
his imagination luxuriated1 and in the  
description of which he found           
subject-matter worthy of his gifted     
intellect4  ,milton gives an ampler and 
more detailed description of the new    
universe in his narration of ,satan's   
journey through space in search of this 
world1 and brings more vividly before   
the imagination of his readers the      
glories of the celestial regions4 ,the  
fiend1 having emerged from the dark     

abyss of ,chaos into a region of light1 
first beheld the new creation from such 
a distance that to his view it appeared 
as a star suspended by a golden chain   
from the ,empyrean4 ,this stellar       
conception of the poet's harmonised with
 the views of the ,ptolemaists1 who     
believed that the universe was of       
limited extent1 and though its          
dimensions were vast beyond             
comprehension1 it was1 nevertheless1    
enclosed by the tenth sphere or ,primum 
,mobile4 ,it was on the surface of this 
sphere that ,satan alighted1 and over   
which he wandered1 until attracted by a 
beam of light that appeared through an  
opening at its zenith1 where1 by means  
of a stair or ladder1 communication was 
maintained between the new universe and 
,heaven above4 ,hither the undaunted    
fiend hied1 and1 standing on the lower  
steps of this structure1 momentarily    
paused to gaze upon the glorious sight  
which burst upon his view before        
directing his flight down into the newly

 created universe4 ,milton then         
describes his progress through the      
stellar regions1 his landing in the ,sun
 and what he saw there1 and the         
termination of his journey when he      
descends from the ecliptic down to the  
,earth4 ,in doing so the poet gives a   
wonderfully beautiful description of the
 starry universe1 of the ,sun1 ,moon1   
and ,earth 7,book ,,iii4 #edj-gdb71     
enhanced and adorned with his own poetic
 imaginings derived from fable1         
philosophy1 and science4  ,milton makes 
more frequent allusion to the ,sun than 
to any of the other orbs of the         
firmament4 ,this we should expect3 the  
poet always gives the orb the precedence
 which is his due1 and never fails1 when
 the occasion requires it1 to surround  
him with the 'surpassing glory' which   
marks his pre-eminence above all other  
occupants of the sky4 ,the ,moon1 his   
consort--peerless in the subdued        
effulgence of her borrowed light2 the   
beautiful star of evening1 ,hesperus2   

the sidereal heavens with their untold  
glories2 the ,galaxy1 overpowering in   
the magnificence of its clouds and      
streams of stars--all these have their  
beauties and charms mirrored in the     
pages of this remarkable poem4  ,that   
the observation of the celestial orbs1  
their phases1 and the varied phenomena  
which occur as a consequence of their   
motions1 were to ,milton an unfailing   
source of enjoyment and of meditative   
delight1 is evident from the frequency  
with which he alludes to them4 ,the     
following lines also testify to this3-- 
,for wonderful indeed are all his works1
     ,pleasant to know1 and worthiest to
 be all     ,had in remembrance always  
with delight6     ,but what created mind
 can comprehend     ,their number1 or   
the wisdom infinite     ,that brought   
them forth1 but hid their causes        
deep8--iii4 #gjc-gjh4  ,it is very      
pleasant1 as ,milton says1 to           
sit and rightly spell     ,of every star
 that heaven doth show4  ,it is also    

pleasant to know the astronomy of his   
',paradise ,lost1' and to linger over   
the delightful and harmonious utterances
 associated with the sublimest of       
sciences1 expressed in the melodious    
language of ,england's greatest epic    
poet4                 ,,printed ,,by    
,,spottiswoode ,,and ,,co41             
,,new-,,street ,,square                 
,,london     ,,footnotes3   #a          
,chambers's ,handbook of ,astronomy4  #b
 ,brewster's ,martyrs of ,science4  #c  
,the transit occurred on a ,sunday1 and 
the 'business of the highest importance'
 to which ,horrox alludes was his       
clerical duties4  #d ,a fresco by the   
late ,mr4 ,ford ,maddox-,brown1         
depicting ,crabtree observing the       
transit of ,venus1 adorns the interior  
of the ,manchester ,town ,hall4  #e     
,william ,crabtree died on ,august #a1  
#afdd1 aged #cd years4  #f ,the         
constellation ,virgo4  #g ,life of      
,galileo 7,library of ,useful           
,knowledge74  #h ,miss ,clerke's ,system

 of the ,stars4  #i ,miss ,clerke's     
,system of the ,stars4  #aj ,miss       
,clerke's ,system of the ,stars4  #aa   
,ibid4  #ab ,an expression in ,book     
,,viii4 #adh-di would seem to indicate  
that this was inaccurate1 but the lines 
'and other suns perhaps     ,with their 
attendant moons1 thou wilt descry1'  are
 an allusion to the planets ,jupiter and
 ,saturn1 whose satellites had been     
recently discovered4  #ac ,mr4 ,e4 ,w4  
,maunder1 in ,knowledge1 ,march #ahid4  
#ad ,though not a celestial body1 it is 
considered desirable to describe the    
,earth as a member of the solar system4 
#ae ,see diagram1 chap4 iii4 p4 #if4