,a!ism ,9 ,pagan ,antiquity ,by ,a4 ,b4 ,dra*mann ,pr(essor ( ,classical ,philology 9 ! ,univ]sity ( ,cop5hag5 ,gyld5dal #aa ,hanov] ,squ>e1 ,london1 ,w4#a ,cop5hag5 ,*ri/iania #aibb ,,cont5ts ,preface ,introduction ,*apt] ,i ,*apt] ,,ii ,*apt] ,,iii ,*apt] ,,iv ,*apt] ,v ,*apt] ,,vi ,*apt] ,,vii ,*apt] ,,viii ,*apt] ,,ix ,notes ,index ,footnotes ,,preface ,! pres5t treatise orig9ally appe>$ 9 ,dani% z a ,univ]sity publication 7,kjb5havns ,univ]sitets ,fe/skrift1 ,novemb] #aiai74 ,9 submitt+ x to ! ,engli% public1 ,i wi% to ackn[l$ge my pr(\nd indebt$ness to ,mr4 ,g4 ,f4 ,hill ( ! ,briti% ,museum1 :o n only sugge/$ ! ,engli% edition1 b also ) untir+ k9dness has subject$ ! translation1 z orig9ally made by ,miss ,+eborg ,&]s51 ,m4,a4 ( ,cop5hag51 to a pa9/ak+ & mo/ valuable revision4 ,= an acc\nt ( ! previ\s treatm5ts ( ! subject1 z well z ( ! me?od employ$ 9 my inve/igation1 ! read] is ref]r$ to ! introductory rem>ks :i* prec$e ! ,notes4 ,a4 ,b4 ,,dra*mann4 ,,*>lott5lund1 ,july #aibb4 ,,introduction ,! pres5t inquiry is ! outcome ( a reque/ to write an article on 8,a!ism0 = a project$ diction>y ( ! religi\s hi/ory ( classical antiquity4 ,on go+ ?r\gh ! s\rces ,i f\nd t ! subject might well des]ve a m compreh5sive treatm5t ?an ! scope ( a diction>y w\ld all[4 ,x is su* a treatm5t t ,i h attempt$ 9 ! foll[+ pages4 ,a difficulty t occurr$ at ! v beg9n+ ( ! inquiry 0 h[ to def9e ! notion ( a!ism4 ,n[adays ! t]m is tak5 to designate ! attitude :i* d5ies e idea ( ,god4 ,ev5 antiquity sometimes ref]r$ to a!ism 9 ?is s5se2 b an inquiry deal+ ) ! hi/ory ( religion c\ld n />t f a def9ition ( t k9d4 ,x w\ld h to keep 9 view1 n ! philosophical notion ( ,god1 b ! conceptions ( ! gods z !y appe> 9 ! religion ( antiquity4 ,h5ce ,i came to def9e a!ism 9 ,pagan antiquity z ! po9t ( view :i* d5ies ! exi/5ce ( ! anci5t gods4 ,x is 9 ?is s5se t ! ^w w be us$ 9 ! foll[+ inquiry4 ,ev5 ?\gh we disreg>d philosophical a!ism1 ! def9ition is some:at n>r[2 = 9 antiquity m]e d5ial ( ! exi/5ce ( ! gods ( popul> belief 0 n ! only attitude :i* 0 designat$ z a!ism4 ,b x has ! advantage ( />t+ f ! conception ( ! anci5t gods t may be said to h f9ally prevail$4 ,9 ! s5se 9 :i* ! ^w is us$ "h we are n[adays all ( u a!i/s4 ,we d n believe t ! gods :om ! ,greeks & ! ,romans wor%ipp$ & believ$ 9 exi/ or h ev] exi/$2 we hold !m to be productions ( ! human imag9ation to :i* no?+ real corresponds4 ,?is view has n[adays become s +ra9$ 9 u & appe>s s self-evid5t1 t we f9d x difficult to imag9e t x has n be5 preval5t ?r\gh long ages2 nay1 x is p]haps a widely diffus$ assumption t ev5 9 antiquity educat$ & unbias$ p]sons held ! same view ( ! religion ( _! p z we d4 ,9 reality bo? assumptions are errone\s3 our 8a!ism0 9 reg>d to anci5t paganism is ( rec5t date1 & 9 antiquity itself d[nright d5ial ( ! exi/5ce ( ! gods 0 a comp>atively r>e ph5om5on4 ,! demon/ration ( ?is fact1 r ?an a consid]ation ( ! v>i\s int]m$iate positions tak5 up by ! ?9k]s ( antiquity 9 _! desire to avoid a complete rupture ) ! traditional ideas ( ! gods1 has be5 "o ( ! *ief purposes ( ?is inquiry4 ,?\gh ! def9ition ( a!ism set d[n "h might seem to be cle> & unequivocal1 & ?\gh ,i h tri$ to adh]e /rictly to x1 cases h unavoidably occurr$ t 7 difficult to classify4 ,! mo/ emb>rass+ are ^? :i* involve a re9t]pretation ( ! conception ( ! gods1 i4e4 :i*1 :ile ackn[l$g+ t !re is "s reality correspond+ to ! conception1 yet def9e ?is reality z ess5tially diff]5t f x4 ,moreov]1 ! ackn[l$gm5t ( a c]ta9 gr\p ( gods 7! cele/ial bodies1 = in/ance7 comb9$ ) ! rejection ( o!rs1 may create difficulties 9 def9+ ! notion ( a!ism2 9 practice1 h[ev]1 ?is doctr9e g5]ally co9cides ) ! =m]1 by :i* ! gods are expla9$ away4 ,on ! :ole x w\ld h>dly be j1 9 a field ( inquiry l ! pres5t1 to expect or require absolutely cle>ly def9$ b\nd>y-l9es2 transition =ms w always occur4 ,! p]sons ( :om x is relat$ t !y d5i$ ! exi/5ce ( ! anci5t gods are 9 !mselves few1 & !y all belong to ! highe/ level ( culture2 by f> ! great] "p ( !m are simply pr(essional philosoph]s4 ,h5ce ! inquiry w almo/ exclusively h to deal ) philosoph]s & philosophical s*ools & _! doctr9es2 ( religion z exhibit$ 9 ! masses1 z a social factor1 x w only treat by exception4 ,b 9 its purpose x is conc]n$ ) ! hi/ory ( religion1 n ) philosophy2 !re=e--9 accordance ) ! def9ition ( its object--x w deal z little z possible ) ! purely philosophical notions ( ,god t h no?+ to d ) popul> religion4 ,:at x aims at illu/rat+ is a c]ta9--if y l1 ! negative--aspect ( anci5t religion4 ,b its result1 if x c be suffici5tly e/abli%$1 w n be )\t importance = ! und]/&+ ( ! positive religi\s s5se ( antiquity4 ,if y want to obta9 "s idea ( ! hold a c]ta9 religion _h on its adh]5ts1 x is n amiss to "k some?+ ab\t ! ext5t to :i* x dom9at$ ev5 ! /rata ( society mo/ expos$ to influ5ces t w5t aga9/ x4 ,x might seem m natural1 9 deal+ ) a!ism 9 antiquity1 to adopt ! def9ition curr5t among ! anci5ts !mselves4 ,t ?is me?od w\ld prove futile ! foll[+ inve/igation w1 ,i hope1 make suffici5tly evid5t2 antiquity succe$$ z little z we mod]ns 9 connect+ any cle> & unequivocal idea ) ! words t signify 8d5ial ( ,god40 ,on ! o!r h&1 x is1 ( c\rse1 impossible to beg9 at all except f ! traditions ( antiquity ab\t d5ial & d5i]s4 ,h5ce ! c\rse ( ! inquiry w be1 fir/ to make cle> :at antiquity und]/ood by d5ial ( ! gods & :at p]sons x designat$ z d5i]s1 & !n to exam9e 9 h[ f> ^! p]sons 7 a!i/s 9 our s5se ( ! ^w4 ,,*apt] ,i ,a!ism & a!i/ are words =m$ f ,greek roots & ) ,greek d]ivative end+s4 ,nev]!less !y are n ,greek2 _! =mation is n consonant ) ,greek usage4 ,9 ,greek !y said a!os & a!otes2 to ^! ! ,engli% words ungodly & ungodl9ess correspond r closely4 ,9 exactly ! same way z ungodly1 a!os 0 us$ z an expression ( sev]e c5sure & moral condemnation2 ?is use is an old "o1 & ! olde/ t c be trac$4 ,n till lat] d we f9d x employ$ to d5ote a c]ta9 philosophical cre$2 we ev5 meet ) philosoph]s be>+ a!os z a regul> surname4 ,we "k v little ( ! m5 9 "q2 b x c h>dly be d\bt$ t a!os1 z appli$ to !m1 impli$ n only a d5ial ( ! gods ( popul> belief1 b a d5ial ( gods 9 ! wide/ s5se ( ! ^w1 or ,a!ism z x is n[adays und]/ood4 ,9 ?is case ! ^w is m p>ticul>ly a philosophical t]m4 ,b x 0 us$ 9 a simil> s5se also 9 popul> language1 & corresponds !n closely to ! ,engli% 8d5i] ( ,god10 d5ot+ a p]son :o d5ies ! gods ( 8 p & ,/ate4 ,f ! popul> po9t ( view ! int]e/1 ( c\rse1 c5tr$ 9 ^? only1 n 9 ! expon5ts ( philosophical !ology4 ,?us we f9d ! ^w employ$ bo? ( !oretical d5ial ( ! gods 7a!ism 9 our s5se7 & ( practical d5ial ( ! gods1 z 9 ! case ( ! adh]5ts ( mono!ism1 ,jews & ,*ri/ians4 ,a!ism1 9 ! !oretical z well z ! practical s5se ( ! ^w1 01 accord+ to ! anci5t conception ( law1 always a crime2 b 9 practice x 0 treat$ 9 diff]5t ways1 :i* v>i$ bo? accord+ to ! p]iod 9 "q & accord+ to ! m or less dang]\s nature ( ! ?reat x (f]$ to e/abli%$ religion4 ,x is only z f> z ,a!ns & ,imp]ial ,rome are conc]n$ t we h any def9ite k ( ! law & ! judicial proc$ure on ?is po9t2 a some:at detail$ acc\nt ( ! /ate ( ?+s 9 ,a!ns & ,rome _c be disp5s$ ) "h4 ,9 ! crim9al law ( ,a!ns we meet ) ! t]m asebeia--lit]ally3 impiety or disrespect t[>ds ! gods4 ,z an e/abli%$ =mula ( accusation ( asebeia exi/$1 legislation mu/ h dealt ) ! subject2 b h[ x 0 def9$ we d n "k4 ,! ^w itself conveys ! idea t ! law p>ticul>ly _h (f5ces aga9/ public wor%ip 9 view2 & ?is is confirm$ by ! fact t a numb] ( su* (f5ces--f ! fell+ ( sacr$ trees to ! pr(anation ( ! ,eleus9ian ,my/]ies--7 treat$ z asebeia4 ,:51 9 ! next place1 t[>ds ! close ( ! fif? c5tury ,b4,c41 free-?9k+ began to assume =ms :i* seem$ dang]\s to ! religion ( ! ,/ate1 !oretical d5ial ( ! gods 0 also includ$ "u asebeia4 ,f ab\t ! beg9n+ ( ! ,peloponnesian ,w> to ! close ( ! f\r? c5tury ,b4,c41 !re are on record a numb] ( prosecutions ( philosoph]s :o 7 tri$ & condemn$ = d5ial ( ! gods4 ,! indictm5t seems 9 mo/ cases--! trial ( ,socrates is ! only "o ( :i* we "k details--to h be5 on ! *>ge ( asebeia1 & ! proc$ure prop] !reto seems to h be5 employ$1 ?\gh !re 0 no pro( or ass]tion ( ! accus$ hav+ (f5d$ aga9/ public wor%ip2 z to ,socrates1 we "k ! opposite to h be5 ! case2 he wor%ipp$ ! gods l any o!r good citiz54 ,?is ext5sion ( ! conception ( asebeia to include !oretical d5ial ( ! gods no d\bt _h no f\ndation 9 law2 ?is is among/ o!r ?+s evid5t f ! fact t x 0 necess>y1 9 ord] to convict ,anaxagoras1 to pass a special public resolution 9 virtue ( :i* 8 free-?9k+ !ories became indictable4 ,! law presumably dat$ f a "t :5 !oretical d5ial ( ! gods lay beyond ! horizon ( legislation4 ,nev]!less1 9 ! trial ( ,socrates x is simply tak5 = grant$ t d5ial ( ! gods is a capital crime1 & t n only on ! side ( ! prosecution1 b also on ! side ( ! def5ce3 ! trial only turns on a "q ( fact1 ! legal basis is tak5 = grant$4 ,s invet]ate1 !n1 at ?is "t 0 ! conception ( ! unlawful nature ( ! d5ial ( ! gods among ! p ( ,a!ns4 ,9 ! c\rse ( ! f\r? c5tury ,b4,c4 sev]al philosoph]s 7 accus$ ( d5ial ( ! gods or blasphemy2 b aft] ! close ( ! c5tury we he> no m ( su* trials4 ,to be sure1 our k ( ! succe$+ c5turies1 :5 ,a!ns 0 b a prov9cial t[n1 is f> less copi\s ?an ( ! days ( its greatness2 nev]!less1 x is beyond d\bt t ! practice 9 reg>d to !oretical d5ial ( ! gods 0 *ang$4 ,a philosoph] l ,c>neades1 = in/ance1 might1 9 view ( 8 sceptical /&po9t1 j z well h be5 convict$ ( asebeia z ,protagoras1 :o 0 convict$ because he _h decl>$ t he did n "k :e!r ! gods exi/$ or n2 & z to su* a process aga9/ ,c>neades1 tradition w\ld n h rema9$ sil5t4 ,in/ead1 we le>n t he 0 employ$ z ! tru/$ repres5tative ( ! ,/ate on mo/ important diplomatic missions4 ,x is evid5t t ,a!ns _h arriv$ at ! po9t ( view t ! !oretical d5ial ( ! gods might be tol]at$1 :]eas ! law1 ( c\rse1 cont9u$ to protect public wor%ip4 ,9 ,rome !y did n possess1 z 9 ,a!ns1 a g5]al /atute aga9/ religi\s (f5ces2 !re 7 only special provisions1 & !y 71 moreov]1 few & insuffici5t4 ,?is defect1 h[ev]1 0 rem$i$ by ! vigor\s police au?ority ) :i* ! ,roman magi/rates 7 inve/$4 ,9 ,rome sev]e measures 7 (t5 tak5 aga9/ movem5ts :i* ?reat5$ ! ,roman (ficial wor%ip1 b x 0 done at ! discretion ( ! adm9i/ration & n accord+ to h>d-&-fa/ rules2 h5ce ! practice 0 some:at v>y+1 & a c]ta9 arbitr>9ess inevitable4 ,no example is kn[n f ,rome ( action tak5 aga9/ !oretical d5ial ( ! gods correspond+ to ! trials ( ! philosoph]s 9 ,a!ns4 ,! ma9 cause ( ?is 01 no d\bt1 t free-?9k+ 9 ! fif? c5tury ,b4,c4 invad$ ,hellas1 & specially ,a!ns1 l a flood :i* ?reat5$ to ov]?r[ ev]y?+2 9 ,rome1 on ! o!r h&1 ,greek philosophy made its way 9 sl[ly & gradually1 & ?is took place at a "t :5 9 ! c\ntry ( its orig9 x _h long ago f\nd a modus viv5di ) popul> religion & 0 ackn[l$g$ z h>mless to ! e/abli%$ wor%ip4 ,! m practical outlook ( ! ,romans may p]haps also h _h some?+ to say 9 ! matt]3 !y 7 r indiff]5t to !oretical speculations1 :]eas !y 7 n to be trifl$ ) :5 _! national in/itutions 7 conc]n$4 ,9 consequ5ce ( ?is po9t ( view ! ,roman gov]nm5t fir/ came to deal ) d5ial ( ! gods z a brea* ( law :5 confront$ ) ! two mono!i/ic religions :i* invad$ ! ,empire f ! ,ea/4 ,t :i* di/+ui%$ ,jews & ,*ri/ians f ,pagans 0 n t !y d5i$ ! exi/5ce ( ! ,pagan gods--! ,*ri/ians1 at any rate1 did n d ?is z a rule--b t !y d5i$ t !y 7 gods1 & !re=e refus$ to wor%ip !m4 ,!y 7 practical1 n !oretical d5i]s4 ,! tol]ance :i* ! ,roman gov]nm5t %[$ t[>ds all =eign cre$s & ! result ( :i* 9 imp]ial times 01 practically speak+1 fre$om ( religion ov] ! :ole ,empire1 c\ld n be ext5d$ to ! ,jews & ! ,*ri/ians2 = x 0 9 ! la/ resort bas$ on reciprocity1 on ! fact t wor%ip ( ! ,egyptian or ,p]sian gods did n exclude wor%ip ( ! ,roman ones4 ,e conv]t1 on ! o!r h&1 won ov] to ,judaism or ,*ri/ianity 0 eo ipso an apo/ate f ! ,roman religion1 an a!os accord+ to ! anci5t conception4 ,h5ce1 z soon z su* religions began to spread1 !y con/itut$ a s]i\s dang] to ! e/abli%$ religion1 & ! ,roman gov]nm5t int]v5$4 ,judaism & ,*ri/ianity 7 n treat$ q alike2 9 ?is connexion details are ( no int]e/1 b c]ta9 pr9cipal features mu/ be dwelt on z significant ( ! attitude ( antiquity t[>ds d5ial ( ! gods4 ,to simplify matt]s ,i conf9e myself to ,*ri/ianity1 :]e ?+s are less complicat$4 ,! ,*ri/ians 7 g5]ally designat$ z a!oi1 z d5i]s ( ! gods1 & ! objection aga9/ !m 0 precisely _! d5ial ( ! ,pagan gods1 n _! religion z su*4 ,:5 ! ,*ri/ian1 summon$ be=e ! ,roman magi/rates1 agre$ to sacrifice to ! ,pagan gods 7among !m1 ! ,emp]or7 he 0 acquitt$2 he 0 n puni%$ = previ\sly hav+ att5d$ ,*ri/ian s]vices1 & x seems t he 0 n ev5 requir$ to und]take n to d s 9 future4 ,only if he refus$ to sacrifice1 0 he puni%$4 ,we _c ask = a cle>] pro( t x is apo/asy z su*1 d5ial ( ! gods1 aga9/ :i* action is tak54 ,x is 9 keep+ ) ?is t1 at any rate "u ! e>li] ,empire1 no attempt 0 made to seek out ! ,*ri/ians at _! assemblies1 to h9d] _! s]vices or ! l2 x 0 consid]$ suffici5t to take /eps :5 in=mation 0 laid4 ,! puni%m5ts met$ out 7 diff]5t1 9 t !y 7 left solely to ! discretion ( ! magi/rates4 ,b !y 7 g5]ally sev]e3 =c$ lab\r 9 m9es & capital puni%m5t 7 q common4 ,no discrim9ation 0 made betwe5 ,roman citiz5s & o!rs belong+ to ! ,empire1 b all 7 treat$ alike2 t ! ,roman citiz5 c\ld n und]go capital puni%m5t )\t appeal to ! ,emp]or does n affect ! pr9ciple4 ,?is proc$ure has really no expressly =mulat$ basis 9 law2 ! ,roman p5al code did n1 z m5tion$ above1 take cognizance ( d5ial ( ! gods4 ,nev]!less1 ! s5t5ces on ! ,*ri/ians 7 consid]$ by ! ,pagans ( ! e>li] "t z a matt] ( c\rse1 ! ju/ice ( :i* 0 n conte/$1 & ! proc$ure ( ! gov]nm5t 0 9 pr9ciple ! same "u humane & consci5ti\s rul]s l ,trajan & ,m>cus ,aurelius z "u tyrants l ,n]o & ,domitian4 ,"h aga9 x is evid5t h[ firmly root$ 9 ! m9d ( antiquity 0 ! conviction t d5ial ( ! gods 0 a capital (f5ce4 ,to resume :at has "h be5 set =? conc]n+ ! attitude ( anci5t society to a!ism3 x is1 9 ! fir/ place1 evid5t t ! frequ5tly m5tion$ tol]ance ( poly!ism 0 n ext5d$ to ^? :o d5i$ its gods2 9 fact1 x 0 appli$ only to ^? :o ackn[l$g$ !m ev5 if !y wor%ipp$ o!rs besides4 ,b ! ass]tion ( ?is pr9ciple ( intol]ance v>i$ greatly 9 practice accord+ to :e!r x 0 a "q ( !oretical d5ial ( ! gods--a!ism 9 our s5se--or practical refusal to wor%ip ! ,pagan gods4 ,aga9/ a!ism ! community took action only dur+ a comp>atively %ort p]iod1 &1 z f> z we "k1 only 9 a s+le place4 ,! latt] limitation is probably expla9$ n only by ! defectiv5ess ( tradition1 b also by ! fact t 9 ,a!ns free-?9k+ made its appe>ance ab\t ! ye> #djj z a g5]al ph5om5on & !re=e attract$ ! att5tion ( ! community4 ,ap>t f ?is case1 ! philosophical d5i] ( ,god 0 left 9 peace all ?r\gh antiquity1 9 ! same way z ! individual citiz5 0 n int]f]$ )1 z a rule1 :5 he1 = "o reason or ano!r1 refra9$ f tak+ "p 9 ! wor%ip ( ! deities4 ,on ! o!r h&1 z soon z practical refusal to believe 9 ! gods1 apo/asy f ! e/abli%$ religion1 assum$ dang]\s proportions1 ru?less sev]ity 0 ex]cis$ aga9/ x4 ,! discrim9ation1 h[ev]1 made 9 ! treatm5t ( ! !oretical & practical d5ial ( ! gods is c]ta9ly n due m]ely to consid]ation ( ! m or less isolat$ occurr5ce ( ! ph5om5on2 x is root$ at ! same "t 9 ! v nature ( anci5t religion4 ,! ess5ce ( anci5t poly!ism is ! wor%ip ( ! gods1 t is1 cultus2 ( a doctr9e ( div9ity prop]ly speak+1 ( !ology1 !re 7 only slight rudim5ts1 & !re 0 no idea ( any elaborate dogmatic sy/em4 ,q diff]5t attitudes 7 accord+ly assum$ t[>ds ! philosoph]1 :o held 8 own op9ions ( ! gods1 b took "p 9 ! public wor%ip l anybody else2 & t[>ds ! mono!i/1 to :om ! :ole ( ! ,pagan wor%ip 0 an abom9ation1 :i* "o %\ld ab/a9 f at any co/1 & :i* "o %\ld prevail on o!rs to give up = ! sake ( _! own good 9 ?is life or ! next4 ,9 ! lit]ature ( antiquity we meet ) sporadic /atem5ts to ! effect t c]ta9 philosoph]s bore ! epi!t a!os z a sort ( surname2 & 9 a few ( ! lat] au?ors ( antiquity we ev5 f9d li/s ( m5--almo/ all ( !m philosoph]s--:o d5i$ ! exi/5ce ( ! gods4 ,fur!rmore1 we possess in=mation ab\t c]ta9 p]sons--^! also1 if ,jews & ,*ri/ians are exclud$1 are ne>ly all ( !m philosoph]s--hav+ be5 accus$ (1 & ev5tually convict$ (1 d5ial ( ! gods2 "s ( ^! are n 9 our li/s4 ,in=mation ( ?is k9d w1 z rem>k$ above1 be tak5 z ! po9t ( dep>ture = an inve/igation ( a!ism 9 antiquity4 ,= practical reasons1 h[ev]1 x is reasonable to include "s philosoph]s :om antiquity did n designate z a!i/s1 & :o did n come into conflict ) (ficial religion1 b ( :om x has be5 ma9ta9$ 9 lat] times t !y did n believe 9 ! exi/5ce ( ! gods ( popul> belief4 ,?us we arrive at ! foll[+ li/1 9 :i* ^? :o 7 d5ot$ z a!oi are italicis$ & ^? :o 7 accus$ ( impiety are m>k$ ) an a/]isk3 ,x5ophanes4 99,anaxagoras4 ,diog5es ( ,apollonia4 ,hippo ( ,rhegium4 99,protagoras4 ,prodicus4 ,critias4 99,diagoras ( ,melos4 99,socrates4 ,anti/h5es4 ,plato4 99,ari/otle4 ,!ophra/us4 99,/ilpo4 99,!odorus4 99,bion4 ,epicurus4 ,euhem]us4 ,! p]sons are put d[n 9 *ronological ord]4 ,?is ord] w 9 "s measure be pres]v$ 9 ! foll[+ survey2 b reg>d = ! cont9uity ( ! tradition ( ! doctr9e w entail c]ta9 deviations4 ,x w1 t is to say1 be natural to divide ! mat]ial into f\r gr\ps3 ! pre-,socratic philosophy2 ! ,sophi/s2 ,socrates & ! ,socratics2 ,hell5i/ic philosophy4 ,ea* ( ^! gr\ps has a philosophical "* ( its own1 & x w be se5 t ?is "* also makes itself felt 9 ! relation to ! gods ( ! popul> belief1 ev5 ?\gh we "h meet ) ph5om5a ( m isolat$ occurr5ce4 ,! f\r gr\ps mu/ be supplem5t$ by a fif?1 a survey ( ! conditions 9 ,imp]ial ,rome4 ,a!i/s ( ?is p]iod are n f\nd 9 our li/s2 b a good deal ( old ,pagan free-?9k+ survives 9 ! fir/ c5turies ( our era1 & also ! epi!t a!oi 0 be/[$ g5]ally on ! ,*ri/ians & sometimes on ! ,jews1 & if only = ?is reason !y _c be altoge!r pass$ by 9 ?is survey4 ,,*apt] ,,ii ,! paganism ( antiquity is bas$ on a primitive religion1 i4e4 x is orig9ally 9 ! ma9 homog5e\s ) ! religions n[adays met ) 9 ! s-call$ primitive peoples4 ,x und]w5t1 h[ev]1 a long process ( evolution p>allel ) & condition$ by ! developm5t ( ,greek & lat] ,roman civilisation4 ,?is evolution c>ri$ anci5t religion f> away f its primitive />t+-po9t2 x produc$ num]\s new =mations1 above all a huge sy/em ( an?ropomorphic gods1 ea* ) a def9ite "* & p]sonality ( 8 own4 ,?is developm5t is ! result ( an int]play ( num]\s factors3 *ang+ social & economical conditions evok$ ! desire = new religi\s ideas2 ! influ5ce ( o!r peoples made itself felt2 poetry & ! f9e arts contribut$ l>gely to ! m\ld+ ( ^! ideas2 consci\s reflection1 too1 arose e>ly & modifi$ orig9al simplicity4 ,b :at is *>act]i/ic ( ! :ole process is ! fact t x w5t on cont9u\sly )\t breaks or sudd5 b\nds4 ,n[h]e 9 anci5t religion1 z f> z we c trace x1 did a p[]ful religi\s p]sonality /rike 9 ) a radical trans=mation1 ) a direct rejection ( old ideas & dogmatic acc5tuation ( new ones4 ,! result ( ?is quiet gr[? 0 an exce$+ly het]og5e\s organism1 9 :i* rema9s ( anci5t1 highly primitive cu/oms & ideas 7 reta9$ along ) o!r elem5ts ( a f> m advanc$ "*4 ,su* a /ate ( ?+s ne$ n 9 itself tr\ble ! g5]al consci\sness2 x is a well-e/abli%$ fact t 9 religion ! mo/ div]g5t elem5ts are n incompatible4 ,nev]!less1 among ! ,greeks1 ) _! /rong proclivity to reflective ?\ght1 criticism e>ly arose aga9/ ! traditional conceptions ( ! gods4 ,! typical me?od ( ?is criticism is t ! high] conceptions ( ! gods are us$ aga9/ ! l[]4 ,f ! e>lie/ times ! ,greek religi\s s5se fav\r$ absolut5ess ( def9ition :]e ! gods are conc]n$2 ev5 9 ,hom] !y are n only et]nal & happy1 b also all-p[]ful & all-kn[+4 ,correspond+ expressions ( a moral "* are h>dly to be f\nd 9 ,hom]2 b z e>ly z ,hesiod & ,solon we f9d1 at any rate1 ,zeus z ! repres5tative ( heav5ly ju/ice4 ,) su* def9itions a l>ge numb] ( cu/oms ( public wor%ip &1 above all1 a numb] ( /ories ab\t ! gods1 7 9 viol5t contradiction2 ?us we f9d ev5 s old & s pi\s a poet z ,p9d> occasionally reject+ my?ical /ories :i* he ?9ks at v>iance ) ! sublime nature ( ! gods4 ,?is =m ( criticism ( popul> beliefs is cont9u$ ?r\gh ! :ole ( antiquity2 x is f\nd n only 9 philosoph]s & philosophically educat$ laym51 b appe>s spontane\sly 9 ev]ybody ( a reflective m9d2 its be/ kn[n repres5tative 9 e>li] times is ,euripides4 ,typical ( its popul> =m is 9 ! fir/ place its casualness2 x is direct$ aga9/ details :i* at ! mom5t attract att5tion1 :ile x leaves o!r ?+s alone :i* 9 pr9ciple are q z (f5sive1 b ei!r n v obvi\sly s1 or else n relevant to ! matt] 9 h&4 ,secondly1 x is nave3 x takes ! gods ( ! popul> belief = grant$ ess5tially z !y are2 x does n raise ! crucial "q :e!r ! popul> belief is n q ju/ifi$ 9 attribut+ to ^! high] be+s all k9ds ( imp]fection1 & wrong 9 attribut+ p]fection to !m1 & /ill less if su* be+s1 :e!r !y are def9$ z p]fect or imp]fect1 exi/ at all4 ,x foll[s t z a :ole ?is =m ( criticism is outside ! scope ( our inquiry4 ,/ill1 !re is "o s+le p]sonality 9 e>ly ,greek ?\ght :o seems to h proce$$ /ill fur!r on ! l9es ( ?is nave criticism1 namely1 ,x5ophanes ( ,colophon4 ,he is g5]ally includ$ among/ ! philosoph]s1 & rightly 9 s f> z he initiat$ a philosophical speculation :i* 0 ( ! highe/ importance 9 ! developm5t ( ,greek sci5tific ?\ght4 ,b 9 ! pres5t connexion x w\ld1 nev]!less1 be mislead+ to place ,x5ophanes among ^? philosoph]s :o came into conflict ) ! popul> belief because _! conception ( ,exi/5ce 0 bas$ on sci5ce4 ,! />t+-po9t = 8 criticism ( ! popul> belief is 9 fact n philosophical1 b religi\s2 he ranks ) p]sonalities l ,p9d> & ,euripides--he 0 also a v]se-writ] himself1 ) consid]able poetic gift--& is only di/+ui%$ f !m by ! great] consi/5cy ( 8 ?\ght4 ,h5ce1 ! correct c\rse is to deal ) him 9 ?is place z ! only em95t ?9k] 9 antiquity ab\t :om x is kn[n t--/>t+ f popul> belief & religi\s motives--he rea*$ a /&po9t :i* at any rate ) "s tru? may be designat$ z a!ism4 ,x5ophanes liv$ 9 ! latt] "p ( ! six? & ! beg9n+ ( ! fif? c5turies ,b4,c4 7accord+ to 8 own /atem5t he rea*$ an age ( m ?an n9ety ye>s74 ,he 0 an it9]ant s+] :o travell$ ab\t & recit$ poetry1 presumably n m]ely 8 own b also t ( o!rs4 ,9 8 own poems he sev]ely attack$ ! mann] 9 :i* ,hom] & ,hesiod1 ! mo/ fam\s poets ( ,greece1 _h repres5t$ ! gods3 !y _h attribut$ to !m ev]y?+ :i* 9 man's eyes is outrage\s & repreh5sible--!ft1 adult]y & deception ( "o ano!r4 ,_! acc\nts ( ! fights ( ! gods aga9/ ,titans & ,giants he d5\nc$ z 8inv5tions ( ! anci5ts40 ,b he did n /op at t3 8,m5 believe t ! gods are born1 are clo!d & %ap$ & speak l !mselves02 8if ox5 & horses & lions c\ld draw & pa9t1 !y w\ld del9eate _! gods 9 _! own image02 8! ,negroes believe t _! gods are flat-nos$ & black1 ! ,?racians t !irs h blue eyes & r$ hair40 ,?us he attack$ directly ! popul> belief t ! gods are an?ropomorphic1 & 8 argum5ts te/ify t he cle>ly realis$ t m5 create _! gods 9 _! own image4 ,on ano!r ma9 po9t1 too1 he 0 9 direct opposition to ! religi\s ideas ( 8 "t3 he reject$ ,div9ation1 ! belief t ! gods imp>t$ ! secrets ( ! future to m5--:i* 0 deem$ a ma9/ay ( ! belief 9 ! exi/5ce ( ! gods4 ,z a positive c\nt]p>t to ! an?ropomorphic gods1 ,x5ophanes set up a philosophical conception ( ,god3 ,god mu/ be ,"o1 ,et]nal1 ,un*angeable & id5tical ) himself 9 e way 7all sight1 all he>+ & all m9d74 ,?is deity1 accord+ to ! explicit /atem5ts ( our e>lie/ s\rces1 he id5tifi$ ) ! univ]se4 ,if we exam9e m closely ! argum5ts put =? by ,x5ophanes 9 support ( 8 rem>kable conception ( ! deity1 we realise t he ev]y:]e />ts f ! def9itions ( ! nature ( ! gods z giv5 by popul> religion2 b1 be x und]/ood1 solely f ! absolute def9itions4 ,he takes ! exi/5ce ( ! div9e1 ) its absolute attributes1 = grant$2 x is 9 fact ! basis ( all 8 speculation4 ,8 criticism ( ! popul> ideas ( ! gods is !re=e closely connect$ ) 8 philosophical conception ( ,god2 ! two are ! positive & negative sides ( ! same ?+4 ,altoge!r 8 connexion ) :at ,i call ! nave criticism ( ! popul> religion is unmi/akable4 ,x is und\bt$ly a rem>kable fact t we meet at ?is e>ly date ) su* a consi/5t repres5tative ( ?is criticism4 ,if we take ,x5ophanes at 8 ^w we mu/ describe him z an a!i/1 & a!ism 9 ! six? c5tury ,b4,c4 is a v curi\s ph5om5on inde$4 ,nei!r 0 x ackn[l$g$ 9 antiquity2 no "o plac$ ,x5ophanes among/ a!oi2 & ,cic]o ev5 says some:]e 7accord+ to ,greek au?ority7 t ,x5ophanes 0 ! only "o ( ^? :o believ$ 9 gods :o reject$ div9ation4 ,9 m rec5t times1 too1 s]i\s d\bt has be5 express$ :e!r ,x5ophanes actually d5i$ ! exi/5ce ( ! gods4 ,ref]5ce has among/ o!r ?+s be5 made to ! fact t he speaks 9 sev]al places ab\t 8gods0 :]e he1 accord+ to 8 view1 ought to say 8,god02 nay1 he has ev5 =mulat$ 8 fundam5tal idea 9 ! words3 8,"o ,god1 ! greate/ among/ gods & m51 nei!r 9 %ape nor m9d l unto any mortal40 ,to be sure1 ,x5ophanes is n always consi/5t 9 8 language2 b no weight :atev] ought to be atta*$ to ?is1 lea/ ( all 9 ! case ( a man :o exclusively express$ himself 9 v]se4 ,ano!r !ory re/s on ! tradition t ,x5ophanes reg>d$ 8 deity & ! univ]se z id5tical1 consequ5tly 0 a pan!i/4 ,9 t case1 x is said1 he may v well h consid]$1 = in/ance1 ! heav5ly bodies z deities4 ,s\nd z ?is argum5t is 9 g5]al1 x does n apply to ?is case4 ,:5 a ?9k] arrives at pan!ism1 />t+ f a criticism ( poly!ism :i* is expressly bas$ on ! anti!sis betwe5 ! unity & plurality ( ! deity--!n v valid pro(s1 inde$1 are ne$$ 9 ord] to ju/ify ! assumption t he aft] all believ$ 9 a plurality ( gods2 & su* pro(s are want+ 9 ! case ( ,x5ophanes4 ,judg+ f ! mat]ial 9 h& "o c h>dly arrive at any o!r conclusion ?an t ! /&po9t ( ,x5ophanes comes "u our def9ition ( a!ism4 ,b we mu/ n =get t only fragm5ts ( 8 writ+s h be5 pres]v$1 & t ! m ext5sive ( !m d n assi/ u greatly to ! und]/&+ ( 8 religi\s /&po9t4 ,x is possible t we might h arriv$ at a diff]5t conclusion _h we b possess$ 8 *ief philosophical "w 9 its entirety1 or at lea/ l>g] portions ( x4 ,& ,i mu/ c&idly confess t if ,i 7 ask$ :e!r1 9 my he>t ( he>ts1 ,i believ$ t a ,greek ( ! six? c5tury ,b4,c4 d5i$ po9t-blank ! exi/5ce ( 8 gods1 my answ] w\ld be 9 ! negative4 ,t ,x5ophanes 0 n consid]$ an a!i/ by ! anci5ts may possibly be expla9$ by ! fact t !y object$ to fa/5 ?is designation on a man ^: reason+ took ! deity z a />t+-po9t & ^: sole aim 0 to def9e its nature4 ,p]haps !y also _h an inkl+ t he 9 reality /ood on ! gr\nd ( popul> belief1 ev5 if he w5t beyond x4 ,/ill m curi\s is ! fact t 8 religi\s view does n seem to h influ5c$ ! imm$iately succe$+ philosophy at all4 ,8 successors1 ,p>m5ides & ,z5o1 develop$ 8 doctr9e ( unity1 b 9 a pan!i/ic direction1 & on a logical1 n religi\s l9e ( argum5t2 ab\t _! attitude to popul> belief we are told practically no?+4 ,& ,ionic speculation took a q diff]5t direction4 ,n till a c5tury lat]1 9 ,euripides1 d we obs]ve a di/9ct influ5ce ( 8 criticism ( popul> belief2 b at t "t o!r curr5ts ( op9ion _h int]v5$ :i* are n dep5d5t on ,x5ophanes1 b might direct att5tion to him4 ,,*apt] ,,iii ,anci5t ,greek naturalism is ess5tially calculat$ to collide ) ! popul> belief4 ,x seeks a natural explanation ( ! _w1 fir/ & =emo/ ( its orig91 b 9 ! next place ( individual natural ph5om5a4 ,z to ! g5esis ( ! _w1 speculations ( a my?ical k9d _h already develop$ on ! basis ( ! popul> belief4 ,!y 7 n1 h[ev]1 b9d+ on anybody1 &1 above all1 ! idea ( ! gods hav+ creat$ ! _w 0 altoge!r ali5 to ,greek religion4 ,?us1 )\t (f5ce to !m x might be ma9ta9$ t ev]y?+ orig9at$ f a prim>y sub/ance or f a mixture ( sev]al prim>y sub/ances1 z 0 g5]ally ma9ta9$ by ! anci5t naturali/s4 ,on ! o!r h&1 a conflict arose z soon z ! heav5ly ph5om5a1 su* z lightn+ & ?und]1 7 ascrib$ to natural causes1 or :5 ! heav5ly bodies 7 made out to be natural objects2 = to ! ,greeks x 0 an e/abli%$ fact t ,zeus s5t lightn+ & ?und]1 & t ! sun & ! moon 7 gods4 ,a refusal to believe 9 ! latt] 0 especially dang]\s because !y 7 visible gods1 & z to ! p]son :o did n believe 9 _! div9ity ! obvi\s conclusion w\ld be t he believ$ /ill less 9 ! invisible gods4 ,t ?is inf]5ce 0 drawn w appe> be=e long4 ,b ! epi!t 8a!i/0 0 v r>ely atta*$ to ! anci5t naturali/s2 only a few ( ! lat] 7& ^? ! lea/ important7 7 giv5 ! nickname a!os4 ,altoge!r we he> v little ( ! relation ( ^! philosoph]s to ! popul> belief1 & ?is v sil5ce is surely significant4 ,no d\bt1 mo/ ( !m be/[$ b a scant att5tion on ?is aspect ( ! matt]2 !y 7 engross$ 9 speculations :i* did n br+ !m into conflict ) ! popul> belief1 & ev5 _! sci5tific treatm5t ( ! 8div9e0 natural ph5om5a did n make !m d\bt ! exi/5ce ( ! gods4 ,?is is connect$ ) a peculi>ity 9 _! conception ( exi/5ce4 ,tradition tells u ( sev]al ( !m1 & x applies presumably also to ^? ( :om x is n record$1 t !y designat$ _! prim>y sub/ance or sub/ances z gods2 sometimes !y also appli$ ?is designation to ! _w or worlds orig9at+ 9 ! prim>y sub/ance4 ,?is view is deeply root$ 9 ! ,greek popul> belief & h>monises ) its fundam5tal view ( exi/5ce4 ,to ^! anci5t ?9k]s ! prim>y sub/ance is at once a liv+ & a sup]human p[]2 & any liv+ p[] :i* transc5d$ t ( man 0 div9e to ! ,greeks4 ,hylozoism 7! !ory t matt] is alive7 consequ5tly1 :5 x allies itself ) popul> belief1 leads /raight to pan!ism1 :]eas x excludes mono!ism1 :i* presupposes a di/9ction betwe5 god & matt]4 ,n[ x is a matt] ( exp]i5ce t1 :ile mono!ism is ! h]$it>y foe ( poly!ism1 poly!ism & pan!ism g v well toge!r4 ,! univ]se be+ div9e1 !re is no reason to d\bt t be+s ( a high] ord] ?an man exi/1 nor any reason to refuse to be/[ on !m ! pr$icate 8div9e02 & ) ?is we f9d ourselves 9 pr9ciple on ! /&po9t ( poly!i/ic popul> belief4 ,!re is no?+ surpris+1 !n1 9 ! tradition t ,?ales id5tifi$ ,god ) ! m9d ( ! univ]se & believ$ ! univ]se to be animat$1 & fill$ ) 8demons40 ,! fir/ /atem5t is 9 ?is =m probably influ5c$ by lat] ideas & h>dly a correct expression ( ! view ( ,?ales2 ! re/ be>s ! v /amp ( g5u95ess1 & simil> ideas recur1 m or less completely & v>i\sly refract$1 9 ! succe$+ philosoph]s4 ,to foll[ ^! v>iations 9 detail is outside ! scope ( ?is inve/igation2 b x may be ( int]e/ to see ! =m !y take 9 "o ( ! late/ & mo/ advanc$ repres5tatives ( ,ionian naturalism4 ,9 ,democritus's conception ( ! univ]se1 p]sonal gods w\ld seem exclud$ a priori4 ,he works ) b ?ree premises3 ! atoms1 _! movem5ts1 & empty space4 ,f ?is ev]y?+ is d]iv$ accord+ to /rict causality4 ,su* ph5om5a also z ?und] & lightn+1 comets & eclipses1 :i* 7 g5]ally ascrib$ to ! gods1 are accord+ to 8 op9ion due to natural causes1 :]eas p 9 ! old5 days 7 afraid ( !m because !y believ$ !y 7 due to ! gods4 ,nev]!less1 he seems1 9 ! fir/ place1 to h designat$ ,fire1 :i* he at ! same "t recognis$ z a 8s\l-sub/ance10 z div9e1 ! cosmic fire be+ ! s\l ( ! _w2 & secondly1 he ?\ght t !re 0 some?+ real und]ly+ ! popul> conception ( ! gods4 ,he 0 l$ to ?is f a consid]ation ( dreams1 :i* he ?\ght 7 images ( real objects :i* ent]$ into ! sleep] ?r\gh ! pores ( ! body4 ,n[1 s9ce gods might be se5 9 dreams1 !y mu/ be real be+s4 ,he did actually say t ! gods _h m s5ses ?an ! ord9>y five4 ,:5 he :o ( all ! ,greek philosoph]s w5t fur!/ 9 a purely me*anical conception ( nature took up su* an attitude to ! religion ( 8 p1 "o _c expect ! o!rs1 :o 7 less advanc$1 to disc>d x4 ,nev]!less1 !re is a c]ta9 probability t "s ( ! lat] ,ionian naturali/s w5t fur!r 9 _! criticism ( ! gods ( popul> belief4 ,"o ( !m actually came into conflict ) popul> religion2 x w be natural to beg9 ) him4 ,%ortly be=e ! outbreak ( ! ,peloponnesian ,w>1 ,anaxagoras ( ,clazom5ae 0 accus$ ( impiety & _h to leave ,a!ns1 :]e he _h tak5 up 8 abode4 ,! object ( ! accusation 0 9 reality political2 ! idea be+ to hit ,p]icles ?r\gh 8 fri5d ! naturali/4 ,:at ,anaxagoras 0 *>g$ ) 0 t he _h assum$ t ! heav5ly bodies 7 natural objects2 he _h taught t ! sun 0 a r$-hot mass1 & t ! moon 0 e>? & l>g] ?an ,peloponnese4 ,to base an accusation ( impiety on ?is1 x 0 necess>y fir/ to c>ry a public resolution1 giv+ p[] to prosecute ^? :o gave natural explanations ( heav5ly ph5om5a4 ,z to ,anaxagoras's attitude to popul> belief1 we he> next to no?+ ap>t f ?is4 ,!re is a /ory ( a ram's head be+ f\nd ) "o horn 9 ! middle ( ! =ehead2 x 0 br\ght to ,p]icles1 & ! soo?say] ,lampon expla9$ ! port5t to ! effect t1 ( ! two m51 ,p]icles & ,?ucydides1 :o cont5d$ = ! lead]%ip ( ,a!ns1 "o %\ld prove victori\s4 ,anaxagoras1 on ! o!r h&1 _h ! ram's head cut op5 & %[$ t ! bra9 did n fill up ! cranium1 b 0 egg-%ap$ & lay ga!r$ toge!r at ! po9t :]e ! horn grew out4 ,he evid5tly ?\ght t abortions also1 :i* o!rwise 7 g5]ally consid]$ z signs f ! gods1 7 due to natural causes4 ,beyond ?is1 no?+ is said ( any attack on ! popul> belief on ! "p ( ,anaxagoras1 & 9 8 philosophy no?+ occurr$ :i* logically entail$ a d5ial ( ! exi/5ce ( ! gods4 ,add to ?is t x 0 necess>y to create a new judicial basis = ! accusation aga9/ ,anaxagoras1 & x c be tak5 z c]ta9 t nei!r 9 8 writ+s nor 9 any o!r way did he come =w>d 9 public z a d5i] ( ! gods4 ,x is some:at diff]5t :5 we consid] ! purely p]sonal po9t ( view ( ,anaxagoras4 ,! v fact t no expression ( 8 op9ion conc]n+ ! gods has be5 transmitt$ af=ds food = ?\ght4 ,presumably !re 0 none2 b ?is v fact is notable :5 we be> 9 m9d t ! e>li] naturali/s %[ no su* retic5ce4 ,add to ?is t1 if !re is any place & any "t 9 :i* we might expect a complete emancipation f popul> belief1 comb9$ ) a decid$ dis9cl9ation to give expression to x1 x is ,a!ns "u ,p]icles4 ,m5 l ,p]icles & 8 fri5ds repres5t a high level1 p]haps ! z5i?1 9 ,hell5ic culture4 ,t !y 7 critical ( _m ( ! religi\s conceptions ( _! "t we may take = grant$2 z to ,p]icles himself1 ?is is actually /at$ z a fact1 & ! accusations ( impiety direct$ aga9/ ,aspasia & ,pheidias prove t or?odox circles 7 v well aw>e ( x4 ,b ! accusations prove1 moreov]1 t ,p]icles & ^? :o %>$ 8 views 7 s mu* 9 advance ( _! "t t !y c\ld n af=d to let _! free-?9k+ attitude become a matt] ( public k )\t endang]+ _! political position c]ta9ly1 & possibly ev5 m ?an t4 ,to be sure1 consid]ations ( t k9d did n weigh ) ,anaxagoras2 b he 0--& t we "k on good au?ority--a quiet s*ol> ^: ideal ( life 0 to devote himself to problems ( natural sci5ce1 & he c h>dly h wi%$ to be di/urb$ 9 ?is occupation by affairs 9 :i* he took no sort ( int]e/4 ,! "q is !n only h[ f> m5 l ,p]icles & himself may h v5tur$ 9 _! criticism4 ,?\gh all direct tradition is want+1 we h at any rate circum/antial evid5ce possess+ a c]ta9 degree ( probability4 ,to beg9 )1 ! attempt to give a natural explanation ( prodigies is n 9 itself )\t int]e/4 ,! mantic art1 i4e4 ! ability to pr$ict ! future by signs f ! gods or direct div9e inspiration1 0 ?r\gh\t antiquity consid]$ "o ( ! sure/ pro(s ( ! exi/5ce ( ! gods4 ,n[1 x by no means foll[s t a p]son :o 0 n impress$ by a de=m$ ram's head w\ld d5y1 e4g41 ! ability ( ! ,delphic ,oracle to pr$ict ! future1 especially n s :5 ! p]son 9 "q 0 a naturali/4 ,b t !re 0 at ?is "t a g5]al t5d5cy to reject ! art ( div9ation is evid5t f ! fact t ,h]odotus z well z ,sophocles1 bo? ( !m contempor>ies ( ,p]icles & ,anaxagoras1 expressly cont5d aga9/ attempts 9 t direction1 &1 be x rem>k$1 z if ! !ory !y attack 0 commonly held4 ,sophocles is 9 ?is connexion s f> ! m int]e/+ ( ! two1 z1 on "o h&1 he criticises private div9ation b def5ds ! ,delphic oracle vigor\sly1 :ile he1 on ! o!r h&1 id5tifies d5ial ( ! oracle ) d5ial ( ! gods4 ,& he does ?is 9 su* a way z to make x evid5t t he has a def9ite object 9 m9d4 ,t 9 ?is polemic he may h be5 aim+ precisely at ,anaxagoras is indicat$ by ! fact t ,diopei!s1 :o c>ri$ ! resolution conc]n+ ! accusation ( ! philosoph]1 0 a soo?say] by pr(ession4 ,! /ronge/ evid5ce z to ! free-?9k+ ( ! ,p]iclean age is1 h[ev]1 to be met ) 9 ! hi/orical writ+ ( ,?ucydides4 ,9 8 "w on ! ,peloponnesian ,w>1 ,?ucydides completely elim9at$ ! sup]natural elem5t2 n only did he ?r\gh\t ignore om5s & div9ations1 except 9 s f> z !y play$ a "p z a psy*ological factor1 b he also completely omitt$ any ref]5ce to ! gods 9 8 n>rative4 ,su* a proc$ure 0 at ?is "t unprec$5t$1 & contra/s %>ply ) t ( 8 imm$iate =]unn] ,h]odotus1 :o con/antly lays /ress on ! int]v5tion ( ! gods4 ,t is h>dly conceivable except 9 a man :o _h altoge!r emancipat$ himself f ! religi\s views ( 8 "t4 ,n[1 ,?ucydides is n only a fell[-c\ntryman & y\ng] contempor>y ( ,p]icles1 b he also sees 9 ,p]icles 8 ideal n only z a politician b evid5tly also z a man4 ,h5ce1 :5 ev]y?+ is consid]$1 x is n improbable t ,p]icles & 8 fri5ds w5t to all l5g?s 9 _! criticism ( popul> belief1 al?\gh1 ( c\rse1 x rema9s impossible to /ate any?+ def9ite z to p>ticul> p]sons' individual views4 ,curi\sly en\gh1 ev5 9 antiquity ?is connexion 0 obs]v$2 9 a biography ( ,?ucydides x is said t he 0 a disciple ( ,anaxagoras & accord+ly 0 also consid]$ some?+ ( an a!i/4 ,:ile ,anaxagoras1 8 trial not)/&+1 is n g5]ally designat$ an a!i/1 probably because !re 0 no?+ 9 8 writ+s to :i* he might be p9n$ d[n1 t fate befell two ( 8 contempor>ies1 ,hippo ( ,rhegium & ,diog5es ( ,apollonia4 ,v little1 h[ev]1 is kn[n ( !m4 ,hippo1 :o is said to h be5 a ,py?agorean1 taught t wat] & fire 7 ! orig9 ( ev]y?+2 z to ! reason :y he e>n$ ! nickname a!os1 x is said t he taught t ,wat] 0 ! primal cause ( all1 z well z t he ma9ta9$ t no?+ exi/$ b :at c\ld be p]ceiv$ by ! s5ses4 ,!re is also quot$ a 7fictiti\s7 inscription1 :i* he is said to h caus$ to be put on 8 tomb1 to ! effect t ,dea? has made him ! equal ( ! immortal gods 79 t he n[ exi/s no m ?an !y74 ,o!rwise we "k no?+ special ( ,hippo2 ,ari/otle ref]s to him z %all[4 ,z to ,diog5es1 we le>n t he 0 influ5c$ by ,anaxim5es & ,anaxagoras2 9 agreem5t ) ! =m] he reg>d$ ,air z ! prim>y sub/ance1 & l ,anaxagoras he attribut$ reason to 8 prim>y sub/ance4 ,( 8 doctr9e we h ext5sive acc\nts1 & also "s n inconsid]able fragm5ts ( 8 treatise ,on ,nature2 b !y are almo/ all ( !m ( purely sci5tific1 mo/ly ( an anatomical & physiological "*4 ,9 especial1 z to 8 relation to popul> belief1 x is record$ t he id5tifi$ ,zeus ) ! air4 ,indirectly1 h[ev]1 we are able to demon/rate1 by ! aid ( an almo/ contempor>y witness1 t !re mu/ h be5 "s f\ndation = ! accusation ( 8a!ism40 ,= 9 ,! ,cl\ds1 :]e ,ari/ophanes wants to repres5t ,socrates z an a!i/1 he puts 9 8 m\? scraps ( ! naturalism ( ,diog5es2 t he w\ld h>dly h done1 if ,diog5es _h n already be5 decri$ z an a!i/4 ,x is ( c\rse impossible to base any /atem5t ( ! relation ( ! two philosoph]s to popul> belief on su* a f\ndation4 ,b x is1 nev]!less1 wor? notic+ t :ile n a s+le "o ( ! e>li] naturali/s acquir$ ! designation a!i/1 x 0 appli$ to two ( ! late/ & o!rwise little-kn[n repres5tatives ( ! s*ool4 ,take ?is 9 comb9ation ) :at has be5 said above ( ,anaxagoras1 & we get at any rate a suspicion t ,greek naturalism gradually l$ its adh]5ts beyond ! nave /age :]e _m individual ph5om5a 7 inde$ ascrib$ to natural causes1 ev5 if !y _h =m]ly be5 reg>d$ z caus$ by div9e int]v5tion1 b :]e ! f\ndations ( ! popul> belief 7 left unt\*$4 ,once ?is pa? has be5 ent]$ on1 a po9t w be arriv$ at :]e ! f9al conclusion is drawn & ! exi/5ce ( ! sup]natural completely d5i$4 ,x is probable t ?is happ5$ t[>ds ! close ( ! naturali/ic p]iod4 ,if s e>ly a philosoph] z ,anaxagoras took ?is po9t ( view1 8 p]sonal contribution z a memb] ( ! ,p]iclean circle may h be5 m significant 9 ! religi\s field ?an "o w\ld conjecture f ! "* ( 8 "w4 ,be=e we proce$ to m5tion ! sophi/s1 !re is "o p]son on our li/ :o mu/ be exam9$ ?\gh ! result w be negative1 namely1 ,diagoras ( ,melos4 ,z he appe>s 9 our records1 he falls outside ! classification adopt$ "h2 b z he mu/ h liv$1 at any rate1 ab\t ! middle ( ! fif? c5tury 7he is said to h 8fl\ri%$0 9 #dfd7 he may mo/ fitly be plac$ on ! b\nd>y l9e betwe5 ! ,ionian philosophy & ,sophi/ic4 ,= lat] antiquity ,diagoras is ! typical a!i/2 he heads our li/s ( a!i/s1 & r\nd 8 p]son a :ole s]ies ( my?s h be5 =m$4 ,he is said to h be5 a poet & a pi\s man l o!rs2 b !n a colleague once /ole an ode f him1 escap$ by tak+ an oa? t he 0 innoc5t1 & aft]w>ds made a hit ) ! /ol5 "w4 ,s ,diagoras lo/ 8 fai? 9 ! gods & wrote a treatise "u ! title ( apopyrgizontes logoi 7lit]ally1 de/ructive consid]ations7 9 :i* he attack$ ! belief 9 ! gods4 ,?is looks v plausible1 & is int]e/+ 9 s f> z x1 if correct1 af=ds an in/ance ( a!ism aris+ 9 a layman f actual exp]i5ce1 n 9 a philosoph] f speculation4 ,if we ask1 h[ev]1 :at is kn[n hi/orically ab\t ,diagoras1 we are told a diff]5t tale4 ,!re exi/$ 9 ,a!ns1 engrav$ on a bronze tablet & set up on ! ,acropolis1 a decree ( ! p (f]+ a rew>d ( "o tal5t to him :o %\ld kill ,diagoras ( ,melos1 & ( two tal5ts to him :o %\ld br+ him alive to ,a!ns4 ,! reason giv5 0 t he _h sc(f$ at ! ,eleus9ian ,my/]ies & divulg$ :at took place at !m4 ,! date ( ?is decree is giv5 by a hi/orian z #dae ,b4,c42 t ?is is correct is se5 f a passage 9 ,ari/ophanes's contempor>y drama1 ,! ,birds4 ,fur!rmore1 "o ( ! disciples ( ,ari/otle1 ! lit]>y hi/orian ,ari/ox5us1 /ates t no trace ( impiety 0 to be f\nd 9 ! works ( ! di?yrambic poet ,diagoras1 & t1 9 fact1 !y conta9$ def9ite op9ions to ! contr>y4 ,a rem>k to ! effect t ,diagoras 0 in/rum5tal 9 draw+ up ! laws ( ,mant9ea is probably due to ! same s\rce4 ,! context %[s t ! ref]5ce is to ! e>li] con/itution ( ,mant9ea1 :i* 0 a mixture ( ari/ocracy & democracy1 & is prais$ = its excell5ce4 ,x is inconceivable t1 9 a ,peloponnesian city dur+ ! c\rse (1 nay1 presumably ev5 be=e ! middle ( ! fif? c5tury1 a notori\s a!i/ %\ld h be5 invit$ to advise on ! revision ( its con/itution4 ,x is m probable t ,ari/ox5us adduc$ ?is fact z an additional dispro( ( ,diagoras's a!ism1 9 :i* he evid5tly did n believe4 ,! above in=mation expla9s ! orig9 ( ! leg5d4 ,two fix$ po9ts 7 9 exi/5ce3 ! pi\s poet ( c4 #dfj & ! a!i/ :o 0 outlaw$ 9 #dae2 a bridge 0 con/ruct$ betwe5 !m by ! /ory ( ! /ol5 ode4 ,?is disposes ( ! :ole supposition ( a!ism gr[+ out ( a basis ( exp]i5ce4 ,b1 fur!rmore1 x mu/ be admitt$ t x is d\btful :e!r ! poet & ! a!i/ are "o & ! same p]son4 ,! int]val ( "t betwe5 !m is itself suspici\s1 = ! poet1 accord+ to ! anci5t sy/em ( calculation1 mu/ h be5 ab\t =ty ye>s old 9 #dfd1 consequ5tly betwe5 eighty & n9ety 9 #dae4 7,!re is g5]al agreem5t t ! treatise1 ! title ( :i* has be5 quot$1 mu/ h be5 a lat] =g]y47 ,if1 9 spite ( all1 ,i d>e n absolutely d5y ! id5tity ( ! two ,diagorases ( tradition1 ! reason is t ,ari/ophanes1 :]e he m5tions ! decree conc]n+ ,diagoras1 seems to sugge/ t 8 attack on ! ,my/]ies 0 an old /ory :i* 0 rak$ up aga9 9 #dae4 ,b = our purpose1 at any rate1 no?+ rema9s ( ! copi\s mass ( leg5d b ! fact t "o ,diagoras ( ,melos 9 #dae 0 outlaw$ 9 ,a!ns on ! gr\nd ( 8 attack on ! ,my/]ies4 ,su* an attack may h be5 ! outcome ( a!ism2 !re 0 no lack ( impiety 9 ,a!ns at ! end ( ! fif? c5tury4 ,b :e!r ?is 0 ! case or n we _c possibly tell2 & to ?r[ light on free-?9k+ t5d5cies 9 ,a!ns at ?is "t1 we h o!r & ri*] s\rces ?an ! hi/orical notice ( ,diagoras4 ,,*apt] ,,iv ,) ! movem5t 9 ,greek ?\ght :i* is g5]ally kn[n z sophi/ic1 a new view ( popul> belief appe>s4 ,! criticism ( ! sophi/s 0 direct$ aga9/ ! entire tradition on :i* ,greek society 0 bas$1 & pr9cipally aga9/ ! moral conceptions :i* hi!rto _h be5 unque/ion$3 good & evil1 "r & wrong4 ,! criticism 0 ess5tially negative2 t :i* hi!rto _h be5 imag9$ z absolute 0 demon/rat$ to be relative1 & ! relative 0 id5tifi$ ) ! invalid4 ,?us !y c\ld n help runn+ up aga9/ ! popul> ideas ( ! gods1 & treat+ !m 9 ! same way4 ,a lead+ "p 0 "h play$ by ! sophi/ic di/9ction betwe5 nomos & physis1 ,law & ,nature1 i4e4 t :i* is bas$ on human conv5tion1 & t :i* is f\nd$ on ! nature ( ?+s4 ,! sophi/s c\ld n help see+ t ! :ole public wor%ip & ! ideas associat$ ) x belong$ to ! =m]--to ! doma9 ( 8! law40 ,n only did ! wor%ip & ! conceptions ( ! gods v>y f place to place 9 ! hundr$s ( small indep5d5t communities into :i* ,hellas 0 divid$--a fact :i* ! sophi/s _h special opportunity ( obs]v+ :5 travell+ f t[n to t[n to tea*2 b x 0 ev5 (ficially admitt$ t ! :ole ritual--:i*1 popul>ly speak+1 0 almo/ id5tical ) religion--0 bas$ on conv5tion4 ,if a ,greek 0 ask$ :y a god 0 to be wor%ipp$ 9 su* & su* a way1 g5]ally ! only answ] 03 because x is ! law ( ! ,/ate 7or ! conv5tion2 ! ^w nomos expresses bo? ?+s74 ,h5ce x foll[$ 9 pr9ciple t religion came "u ! doma9 ( 8! law10 be+ consequ5tly ! "w ( man2 & h5ce aga9 ! obvi\s conclusion1 accord+ to sophi/ic reason+1 0 t x 0 no?+ b human imag9ation1 & t !re 0 no physis1 no reality1 beh9d x at all4 ,9 ! case ( ! naturali/s1 x 0 ! positive f\ndation ( _! sy/em1 _! conception ( nature z a :ole1 t l$ !m to criticise ! popul> belief4 ,h5ce _! criticism 0 9 ! ma9 only direct$ aga9/ ^? p>ticul> ideas 9 ! popul> belief :i* 7 at v>iance ) ! results ( _! inve/igations4 ,to be sure1 ! sophi/s 7 n above mak+ use ( ! results ( natural sci5ce 9 _! criticism ( ! popul> belief2 x 0 _! g5]al aim to imp>t ! highe/ education ( _! "t1 & ( a lib]al education natural sci5ce =m$ a r important "p4 ,b _! />t+-po9t 0 q diff]5t f t ( ! naturali/s4 ,_! :ole int]e/ 0 conc5trat$ on man z a memb] ( ! community1 & x 0 f consid]ation ( ?is relation t !y 7 br\ght into collision ) ! e/abli%$ religion4 ,h5ce _! attack 0 f> m dang]\s ?an t ( ! naturali/s2 no long] 0 x direct$ aga9/ details1 x laid b>e ! psy*ological basis itself ( popul> belief & cle>ly reveal$ its un/able "*4 ,_! criticism 0 fundam5tal & c5tral1 n casual & circum/antial4 ,f a purely practical po9t ( view also1 ! criticism ( ! sophi/s 0 f> m dang]\s ?an t ( ! old philosoph]s4 ,!y 7 n !ori/s !mselves1 b practition]s2 _! bus9ess 0 to imp>t ! high] education to ! m mature y\?4 ,x 0 !re=e "p ( _! pr(ession to dissem9ate _! views n by means ( le>n$ pr(essional writ+s1 b by ! p]suasive eloqu5ce ( oral disc\rse4 ,& 9 _! criticism ( ! exi/+ /ate ( ?+s !y did n />t ) special results :i* only sci5ce c\ld prove1 & ! correctness ( :i* ! layman ne$ n recognise2 !y op]at$ ) facts & pr9ciples kn[n & ackn[l$g$ by ev]ybody4 ,x is n to be wond]$ at t su* ef=ts evok$ a vigor\s reaction on ! "p ( e/abli%$ society1 ! m s z 9 any case ! result ( sophi/ic criticism--?\gh n consci\sly its object--0 to liquefy ! moral pr9ciples on :i* ! social ord] 0 bas$4 ,su*1 9 pr9ciple1 appe>$ to be ! /ate ( ?+s4 ,9 practice1 "h z else:]e1 ! devil prov$ n s black z he 0 pa9t$4 ,fir/1 n all ! sophi/s--h>dly ev5 ! majority ( !m--drew ! logical conclusions f _! views 9 respect ( ei!r morals or religion4 ,!y 7 tea*]s ( rhetoric1 & z su* !y taught1 = in/ance1 all ! tricks by :i* a bad cause might be def5d$2 t 0 "p ( ! trade4 ,b x mu/ be suppos$ t ,gorgias1 ! mo/ di/+ui%$ ( !m1 expressly insi/$ t rhetoric1 j l any o!r art ! aim ( :i* 0 to defeat an oppon5t1 %\ld only be us$ = good ends4 ,simil>ly _m ( !m may h /opp$ %ort 9 _! criticism ( popul> belief at "s arbitr>y po9t1 s t x 0 possible = !m to respect at any rate some?+ ( ! e/abli%$ religion1 & s1 ( c\rse1 fir/ & =emo/ ! v belief 9 ! exi/5ce ( ! gods4 ,t !y did n z a rule int]f]e ) public wor%ip1 we may be sure2 t 0 bas$ firmly on 8! ,law40 ,b1 9 addition1 ev5 sophi/s :o p]sonally took an attitude radically contradictory to popul> belief _h ! mo/ important reasons = be+ c>eful 9 advanc+ su* a view4 ,!y _h to live by be+ ! tea*]s ( y\?2 !y _h no fix$ appo9tm5t1 !y travell$ ab\t z lectur]s & enli/$ disciples by means ( _! lectures4 ,= su* m5 x w\ld h be5 a v s]i\s ?+ to attack ! e/abli%$ ord] 9 its t5d]e/ place1 religion1 & above all !y _h to bew>e ( com+ into conflict ) ! p5al laws4 ,?is risk !y did n incur :ile conf9+ !mselves to !oretical discussions ab\t "r & wrong1 nor by ! practical application ( !m 9 _! tea*+ ( rhetoric2 b !y might v easily incur x if attack+ religion4 ,?is be+ ! case1 x is n to be wond]$ at t we d n f9d _m direct /atem5ts ( und\bt$ly a!i/ical "* h&$ d[n f ! m em95t sophi/s1 & t trials = impiety are r>e 9 _! case4 ,b1 nev]!less1 a few su* cases are met )1 & f ^! z our />t+-po9t we w n[ proce$4 ,z to ,protagoras ( ,abd]a1 "o ( ! e>lie/ & mo/ fam\s ( all ! sophi/s1 x is /at$ t he began a pamphlet treat+ ( ! gods ) ! words3 8,conc]n+ ! gods ,i c say no?+1 nei!r t !y exi/ nor t !y d n exi/1 nor ( :at =m !y are2 because !re are _m ?+s :i* prev5t "o f kn[+ t1 namely1 bo? ! unc]ta9ty ( ! matt] & ! %ortness ( man's life40 ,on ?is acc\nt1 x is said1 he 0 *>g$ ) impiety at ,a!ns & 0 outlaw$1 & 8 works 7 publicly burn$4 ,! date ( ?is trial is n kn[n = c]ta92 b x is reasonably suppos$ to h co9cid$ ) t ( ,diagoras1 namely1 9 #dae4 ,at any rate x mu/ h tak5 place aft] #dbc-dba1 z we "k t ,protagoras 0 at t "t /ay+ 9 ,a!ns4 ,z he mu/ h be5 born ab\t #dhe1 ! *>ge ov]took him :5 old & fam\s2 accord+ to "o acc\nt1 8 "w on ! gods seems to belong to 8 e>li] writ+s4 ,to d\bt ! correctness ( ?is tradition w\ld require /rong] reasons ?an we possess1 al?\gh x is r /range t ! condemnation ( ,protagoras is m5tion$ nei!r 9 our hi/orical s\rces nor 9 ,ari/ophanes1 & t ,plato1 :o m5tions ,protagoras r frequ5tly z dead1 nev] alludes to x4 ,at any rate1 ! quotation f ! "w on ! gods is c]ta9ly au!ntic1 = ,plato himself ref]r$ to x4 ,h5ce x is c]ta9 t ,protagoras directly /at$ ! problem z to ! exi/5ce ( ! gods & reg>d$ x z an op5 "q4 ,b beyond t no?+ mu* c be d$uc$ f ! %ort quotation2 & z to ! re/ ( ! book on ! gods we "k no?+4 ,! meagre reasons = scepticism adduc$ probably d n imply any m ?an t ! difficulties are objective z well z subjective4 ,if1 9 ! latt] respect1 ! brevity ( life is specially m5tion$ x may be suppos$ t ,protagoras _h 9 m9d a def9ite pro( ( ! exi/5ce ( ! gods :i* 0 r5d]$ difficult by ! fact t life is s brief2 pr$iction ( ! future may be guess$ at1 b no?+ c]ta9 c be /at$4 ,protagoras is ! only "o ( ! sophi/s ( :om tradition says t he 0 ! object ( p]secution ow+ to 8 religi\s views4 ,! trial ( ,socrates1 h[ev]1 really belongs to ! same category :5 look$ at f ! accus]s' po9t ( view2 ,socrates 0 accus$ z a sophi/4 ,b z 8 own attitude t[>ds popul> religion diff]$ ess5tially f t ( ! sophi/s1 we _c consid] him 9 ?is connexion4 ,protagoras's trial itself is p>tly det]m9$ by special circum/ances4 ,9 all probability x took place at a mom5t :5 a viol5t religi\s reaction _h set 9 at ,a!ns ow+ to "s grave (f5ces aga9/ ! public wor%ip & sanctu>ies ( ! ,/ate 7violation ( ! ,my/]ies & mutilation ( ! ,h]mae74 ,! "w on ! gods _h presumably be5 9 exi/5ce & kn[n long be=e ?is )\t caus+ sc&al to anybody4 ,b1 nev]!less1 ! trial1 l ^? ( ,anaxagoras & ,socrates1 pla9ly be>s witness to ! animosity ) :i* ! mod]n free-?\ght 0 reg>d$ 9 ,a!ns4 ,?is animosity did n easily manife/ itself publicly )\t special reasons2 b x 0 always !re & might always be us$ 9 case ( provocation4 ,z to ,protagoras's p]sonal attitude to ! "q ( ! exi/5ce ( ! gods1 mu* may be guess$ & mu* has be5 guess$2 b no?+ c be /at$ = c]ta94 ,h[ev]1 judg+ f ! man's pr(ession & 8 g5]al habit ( life z x appe>s 9 tradition1 we may take = grant$ t he did n give (f5ce 9 8 outw>d behavi\r by tak+ a ho/ile attitude to public wor%ip or attack+ its f\ndations2 _h t be5 s1 he w\ld n = =ty ye>s h be5 ! mo/ di/+ui%$ tea*] ( ,hellas1 b w\ld simply n h be5 tol]at$4 ,an em95t mod]n s*ol> has !re=e advanc$ ! conjecture t ,protagoras di/+ui%$ betwe5 belief & k1 & t 8 "w on ! gods only aim$ at %[+ t ! exi/5ce ( ! gods c\ld n be sci5tifically demon/rat$4 ,n[ su* a di/9ction probably1 if conceiv$ z a consci\s pr9ciple1 is ali5 to anci5t ?\ght1 at any rate at ! "t ( ,protagoras2 & yet x may conta9 a gra9 ( tru?4 ,:5 x is borne 9 m9d t ! incrim9at$ passage repres5ts ! v exordium ( ! "w ( ,protagoras1 ! impression _c be avoid$ t he himself did n int5d 8 "w to di/urb ! e/abli%$ religion1 b t he q navely took up ! exi/5ce ( ! gods z a subject1 z good z any o!r1 = dialectic discussion4 ,all t he 0 conc]n$ ) 0 !ory & !oris+2 religion 0 practice & ritual2 & he _h no m int5tion ( int]f]+ ) t ?an ! o!r e>li] sophi/s ( assail+ ! legal sy/em ( ! community 9 _! speculation z to relativity ( "r & wrong4 ,all ?is1 h[ev]1 does n alt] ! fact t ! "w ( ,protagoras pos$ ! v "q ( ! exi/5ce ( ! gods z a problem :i* might possibly be solv$ 9 ! negative4 ,he seems to h be5 ! fir/ to d ?is4 ,t x c\ld be done is significant ( ! age to :i* ,protagoras belongs2 t x 0 done 0 und\bt$ly ( great importance = ! developm5t ( ?\ght 9 wide circles4 ,prodicus ( ,ceos1 also "o ( ! mo/ fam\s sophi/s1 advanc$ ! idea t ! conceptions ( ! gods 7 orig9ally associat$ ) ^? ?+s :i* 7 ( use to humanity3 sun & moon1 riv]s & spr+s1 ! products ( ! e>? & ! elem5ts2 !re=e bread 0 id5tifi$ ) ,demet]1 w9e ) ,dionysus1 wat] ) ,poseidon1 fire ) ,hephae/us4 ,z a special in/ance he m5tion$ ! wor%ip ( ! ,nile by ! ,egyptians4 ,9 ,democritus1 :o 0 a slightly eld] contempor>y ( ,prodicus1 we h already met ) inve/igation into ! orig9 ( ! conceptions ( ! gods4 ,!re is a close p>allel betwe5 8 h&l+ ( ! subject & t ( ,prodicus1 b at ! same "t a *>act]i/ic diff]5ce4 ,democritus 0 a naturali/1 h5ce he took z 8 />t+-po9t ! natural ph5om5a commonly ascrib$ to ! influ5ce ( ! gods4 ,prodicus1 on ! o!r h&1 />t$ f ! intellectual life ( man4 ,we le>n t he _h comm5c$ to /udy synonyms1 & t he 0 int]e/$ 9 ! int]pretation ( ! poets4 ,n[ he f\nd t ,hom] occasionally simply sub/itut$ ! "n ( ,hephae/us = fire1 & t o!r poets w5t ev5 fur!r on ! same l9es4 ,fur!rmore1 :ile x 0 common k to e ,greek t c]ta9 natural objects1 su* z ! heav5ly bodies & ! riv]s1 7 reg>d$ z div9e & _h names 9 common ) _! gods1 ?is to ,prodicus w\ld be a specially attractive subject = speculation4 ,x is pla9ly %[n by 8 in/ances t x is l+ui/ic obs]vations ( ?is k9d :i* 7 ! />t+-po9t ( 8 !ory conc]n+ ! orig9 ( ! conceptions ( ! gods4 ,9 ! acc\nts ( ,prodicus x is tak5 = grant$ t he d5i$ ! exi/5ce ( ! gods1 & 9 lat] times he is class$ z a!os4 ,nev]!less we h e reason to d\bt ! correctness ( ?is op9ion4 ,! case ( ,democritus already %[s t a philosoph] might v well d]ive ! conceptions ( ! gods f an incorrect int]pretation ( c]ta9 ph5om5a )\t ?r[+ d\bt on _! exi/5ce4 ,z f> z ,prodicus is conc]n$ x may be assum$ t he did n believe t ,bread1 ,w9e or ,fire 7 gods1 any m ?an ,democritus imag9$ t ,zeus s5t ?und] & lightn+2 nor1 presumably1 did he ev] believe t riv]s 7 gods4 ,b he ne$ n !re=e h d5i$ ! exi/5ce ( ,demet]1 ,dionysus & ,hephae/us1 mu* less ! div9ity ( ! sun & ! moon4 ,& if we consid] 8 !ory m closely x po9ts 9 q a diff]5t direction f t ( a!ism4 ,to ,prodicus x 0 evid5tly ! conception ( utility t matt]$3 if ^! objects came to be reg>d$ z gods x 0 because !y 8b5efit$ humanity40 ,?is too is a g5u9ely sophi/ic view1 *>act]i/ically deviat+ f t ( ! naturali/ ,democritus 9 its limitation to ! human & social aspect ( ! "q4 ,su* a po9t ( view1 if confront$ ) ! "q ( ! exi/5ce ( ! gods1 may v well1 accord+ to sophi/ic me?ods ( reason+1 lead to ! conclusion t primitive man 0 "r 9 s f> z ! useful1 i4e4 t :i* 8b5efits humanity10 really is an ess5tial feature ( ! gods1 & wrong only 9 s f> z he id5tifi$ ! individual useful objects ) ! gods4 ,:e!r ,prodicus adopt$ ?is po9t ( view1 we _c possibly tell2 b ! g5]al body ( tradition conc]n+ ! man1 :i* does n 9 any way sugge/ religi\s radicalism1 indicates z mo/ probable t he did n connect ! "q ( ! orig9 ( ! conceptions ( ! gods ) t ( ! exi/5ce ( ! gods1 :i* to him 0 tak5 = grant$1 & t x 0 only lat] philosoph]s :o1 9 _! rese>*es into ! ideas ( e>li] philosoph]s ab\t ! gods1 inf]r$ 8 a!ism f 8 speculations on ! hi/ory ( religion4 ,critias1 ! well-kn[n reaction>y politician1 ! *ief ( ! ,?irty ,tyrants1 is plac$ among/ ! a!i/s on ! /r5g? ( a passage 9 a satyric drama1 ,sisyphus4 ,! drama is lo/1 b our au?ority quotes ! objectionable passage 9 ext5so2 x is a piece ( no less ?an =ty l9es4 ,! passage argues t human life 9 its orig9s knew no social ord]1 t might rul$ supreme4 ,!n m5 conceiv$ ! idea ( mak+ laws 9 ord] t "r might rule in/ead ( might4 ,! result ( ?is 01 x is true1 t wrong 0 n done op5ly2 b x 0 done secretly in/ead4 ,!n a wise man be?\ght himself ( mak+ m5 believe t !re exi/$ gods :o saw & he>d ev]y?+ :i* m5 did1 nay ev5 knew _! inn]mo/ ?\ghts4 ,&1 9 ord] t m5 might /& 9 prop] awe ( ! gods1 he said t !y liv$ 9 ! sky1 out ( :i* comes t :i* makes m5 afraid1 su* z lightn+ & ?und]1 b also t :i* b5efits !m1 sun%9e & ra91 & ! />s1 ^? fair ornam5ts by ^: c\rse m5 measure "t4 ,?us he succe$$ 9 br++ lawlessness to an end4 ,x is expressly /at$ t x 0 all a cunn+ fraud3 8by su* talk he made 8 tea*+ mo/ acceptable1 veil+ tru? ) false words40 ,9 antiquity x 0 disput$ :e!r ! drama ,sisyphus 0 by ,critias or ,euripides2 n[adays all agree 9 attribut+ x to ,critias2 nor does ! /yle ( ! long fragm5t resemble t ( ,euripides4 ,! "q is1 h[ev]1 ( no consequ5ce 9 ?is connexion3 :e!r ! drama is by ,critias or ,euripides x is wrong to attribute to an au?or op9ions :i* he has put into ! m\? ( a "* 9 a drama4 ,moreov]1 ,sisyphus 0 a satyric play1 i4e4 x belong$ to a class ( poetry ! lib]ty ( :i* 0 ne>ly z great z 9 com$y1 & ! spee* 0 deliv]$ by ,sisyphus himself1 :o1 accord+ to ! leg5d1 is a type ( ! crafty crim9al ^: =te is to d evil & elude puni%m5t4 ,!re is1 9 fact1 no?+ 9 t :i* we o!rwise he> ( ,critias to sugge/ t he *]i%$ free-?9k+ views4 ,he 0--or 9 8 lat] ye>s became--a fanatical adv]s>y ( ! ,attic democracy1 & he 01 :5 he held p[]1 unscrupul\s 9 8 *oice ( ! means ) :i* he oppos$ x & ! m5 :o /ood 9 ! pa? ( 8 reaction>y policy2 b 9 our e>li] s\rces he is nev] accus$ ( impiety 9 ! !oretical s5se4 ,& yet !re _h be5 an excell5t opportunity ( br++ =w>d su* an accusation2 = 9 8 y\? ,critias _h be5 a companion ( ,socrates1 & 8 lat] conduct 0 us$ z a pro( t ,socrates corrupt$ 8 surr\nd+s4 ,b x is always ,critias's political crimes :i* are adduc$ 9 ?is connexion1 n 8 irreligion4 ,on ! o!r h&1 po/]ity look$ ^u him z ! pure type ( tyrant1 & ! label a!i/ !re=e sugge/$ itself on ! slighte/ provocation4 ,b1 ev5 if ! ,sisyphus fragm5t _c be us$ to *>act]ise its au?or z an a!i/1 x is1 nev]!less1 ( ! greate/ int]e/ 9 ?is connexion1 & !re=e dem&s clos] analysis4 ,! introductory idea1 t mank9d has evolv$ f an animal /ate into high] /ages1 is at v>iance ) ! e>li] ,greek conception1 namely1 t hi/ory beg9s ) a gold5 age f :i* !re is a cont9ual decl9e4 ,! !ory ( ! fragm5t is express$ by a s]ies ( au?ors f ! same & ! imm$iately succe$+ p]iod4 ,x occurs 9 ,euripides2 a lat] & o!rwise little-kn[n trag$ian1 ,mos*ion1 develop$ x 9 detail 9 a /ill extant fragm5t2 ,plato accept$ x & made x ! basis ( 8 pres5tation ( ! orig9 ( ! ,/ate2 ,ari/otle takes x = grant$4 ,its s\rce1 too1 has be5 demon/rat$3 x 0 presumably ,democritus :o fir/ advanc$ x4 ,nev]!less ! au?or ( ! fragm5t has h>dly got x direct f ,democritus1 :o at ?is "t 0 little kn[n at ,a!ns1 b f an int]m$i>y4 ,?is int]m$i>y is probably ,protagoras1 ( :om x is said t he compos$ a treatise1 ,! ,orig9al ,/ate1 i4e4 ! prim>y /ate ( mank9d4 ,protagoras 0 a fell[-t[nsman ( ,democritus1 & record$ by tradition z "o ( 8 direct disciples4 ,9 ano!r po9t also ! fragm5t seems to betray ! influ5ce ( ,democritus4 ,:5 x is said t ! wise inv5tors ( ! gods made !m dwell 9 ! skies1 because f ! skies come ^? natural ph5om5a :i* fright5 m51 x is highly sugge/ive ( ,democritus's criticism ( ! div9e explanation ( ?und] & lightn+ & ! l4 ,9 ?is case also ,protagoras may h be5 ! int]m$i>y4 ,9 8 "w on ! gods he _h e opportunity ( discuss+ ! "q 9 detail4 ,b "h we h ! !ory ( ,democritus comb9$ ) t ( ,prodicus 9 t x is ma9ta9$ t f ! skies come also ^? ?+s t b5efit m51 & t !y are on ?is acc\nt also a suitable dwell+-place = ! gods4 ,x is obvi\s t ! au?or ( ! fragm5t 7or 8 s\rce7 0 v]s$ 9 ! mo/ mod]n wisdom4 ,all ?is erudition1 h[ev]1 is made to s]ve a c]ta9 t5d5cy3 ! well-kn[n t5d5cy to repres5t religion z a political inv5tion hav+ z its object ! polic+ ( society4 ,x is a !ory :i* 9 antiquity--to its hon\r be x said--is b ( r>e occurr5ce4 ,!re is a vague indication ( x 9 ,euripides1 a m def9ite "o 9 ,ari/otle1 & an elaborate application ( x 9 ,polybius2 & t is 9 reality all4 7,t _m p 9 m enlight5$ ages upheld religion z a means ( keep+ ! masses 9 *eck1 is a diff]5t matt]47 ,h[ev]1 x is an int]e/+ fact t ! ,critias fragm5t is n only ! fir/ evid5ce ( ! exi/5ce ( ! !ory kn[n to u1 b also presumably ! e>lie/ & probably ! be/ kn[n to lat] antiquity4 ,o!rwise we %\ld n f9d ref]5ce = ! !ory made to a fragm5t ( a f>ce1 b to a quotation f a philosoph]4 ,?is might lead u to conclude t ! !ory 0 ,critias's own inv5tion1 ?\gh1 ( c\rse1 x w\ld n foll[ t he himself adh]$ to x4 ,b x is m probable t x 0 a ready-made mod]n !ory :i* ,critias put into ! m\? ( ,sisyphus4 ,n only does ! :ole "* ( ! fragm5t & its sc5e ( action fav\r ?is supposition1 b !re is also ano!r factor :i* corroborates x4 ,9 ! ,gorgias ,plato makes "o ( ! *>act]s1 ,callicles--a man ( :om we o!rwise "k no?+--pr(ess a doctr9e :i* up to a c]ta9 po9t is almo/ id5tical ) t ( ! fragm5t4 ,accord+ to ,callicles1 ! natural /ate 7& ! "r /ate2 on ?is po9t he is at v>iance ) ! fragm5t7 is t "r belongs to ! /rong4 ,?is /ate has be5 corrupt$ by legislation2 ! laws are inv5tions ( ! weak1 :o are also ! majority1 & _! aim is to h9d] ! encroa*m5t ( ! /rong4 ,if ?is !ory is c>ri$ to its conclusion1 x is obvi\s t religion mu/ be add$ to ! laws2 if ! =m] is n also reg>d$ z an inv5tion = ! polic+ ( society1 ! :ole !ory is upset4 ,n[ 9 ! ,gorgias ! "q z to ! attitude ( ! gods t[>ds ! problem ( :at is "r & :at is wrong is c>efully avoid$ 9 ! discussion4 ,n till ! close ( ! dialogue1 :]e ,plato sub/itutes my? = sci5tific rese>*1 does he draw ! conclusion 9 respect ( religion4 ,he does ?is 9 a positive =m1 z a consequ5ce ( 8 po9t ( view3 aft] dea? ! gods rew>d ! j & puni% ! unju/2 b he expressly assumes t ,callicles w reg>d x all z an old wives' tale4 ,9 ,callicles an attempt has be5 made to see a pseudonym = ,critias4 ,t is c]ta9ly wrong4 ,critias 0 a k9sman ( ,plato1 is introduc$ by "n 9 sev]al dialogues1 nay1 "o dialogue ev5 be>s 8 "n1 & he is ev]y:]e treat$ ) respect & sympa?y4 ,n[adays1 !re=e1 x is g5]ally ackn[l$g$ t ,callicles is a real p]son1 m]ely unkn[n to u z su*4 ,h[ev] t may be1 ,plato w\ld nev] h let a lead+ "* 9 "o ( 8 long] dialogues advance 7& ,socrates refute7 a view :i* _h no bett] au?ority ?an a passage 9 a satyric drama4 ,on ! o!r h&1 !re is1 z %[n above1 difficulty 9 suppos+ t ! doctr9e ( ! fragm5t 0 /at$ 9 ! writ+s ( an em95t sophi/2 s we come to ! conclusion t x 0 develop$ & diffus$ 9 sophi/ic circles by oral tea*+1 & t x became kn[n to ,critias & ,plato 9 ?is way4 ,its orig9ator we d n "k4 ,we might ?9k ( ! sophi/ ,?rasyma*us1 :o 9 ! fir/ book ( ,plato's ,republic ma9ta9s a po9t ( view correspond+ to t ( ,callicles 9 ,gorgias4 ,b :at we o!rwise le>n ( ,?rasyma*us is n sugge/ive ( int]e/ 9 religion1 & ! only /atem5t ( 8 z to t k9d ( ?+ :i* has come d[n to u t5ds to ! d5ial ( a provid5ce1 n d5ial ( ! gods4 ,q rec5tly ,diagoras ( ,melos has be5 guess$ at2 ?is is empty talk1 result+ at be/ 9 sub/itut+ x 7or ,,nn7 = y4 ,if ,i h dwelt 9 su* detail on ! ,sisyphus fragm5t1 x is because x is our fir/ direct & unmi/akable evid5ce ( anci5t a!ism4 ,"h = ! fir/ "t we meet ) ! direct /atem5t :i* we h se>*$ = 9 va9 among all ! prec$+ au?ors3 t ! gods ( popul> belief are fabrication pure & simple & )\t any correspond+ reality1 h[ev] remote4 ,! nature ( our tradition precludes our asc]ta9+ :e!r su* a /atem5t might h be5 made e>li]2 b ! probability is a priori t x 0 n4 ,! :ole developm5t ( anci5t reason+ on religi\s que/ions1 z f> z we are able to survey x1 leads 9 reality to ! conclusion t a!ism z an express$ 7?\gh p]haps n publicly express$7 confession ( fai? did n appe> till ! age ( ! sophi/s4 ,) ! ,critias fragm5t we h also br\ght to an end ! inquiry into ! direct /atem5ts ( a!i/ic t5d5cy :i* h come d[n to u f ! age ( ! sophi/s4 ,! result is1 z we see1 r meagre4 ,b x may be supplem5t$ ) indirect te/imonies :i* prove t !re 0 m ( ! ?+ ?an ! direct tradition w\ld lead u to conjecture1 & t ! d5ial ( ! exi/5ce ( ! gods mu/ h p5etrat$ v wide circles4 ,! fulle/ expression ( ,attic free-?\ght at ! end ( ! fif? c5tury is to be f\nd 9 ! trag$ies ( ,euripides4 ,!y are leav5$ ) reflections on all possible moral & religi\s problems1 & criticism ( ! traditional conceptions ( ! gods plays a lead+ "p 9 !m4 ,we %all1 h[ev]1 h "s difficulty 9 us+ ,euripides z a s\rce ( :at p really ?\ght at ?is p]iod1 p>tly because he is a v pron\nc$ p]sonality & by no means a m]e m\?piece = ! ideas ( 8 contempor>ies--dur+ 8 lifetime he 0 an object ( ! mo/ viol5t animosity ow+1 among o!r ?+s1 to 8 free-?9k+ views--p>tly because he1 z a dramati/1 0 oblig$ to put 8 ideas into ! m\?s ( 8 *>act]s1 s t 9 _m cases x is difficult to decide h[ mu* is due to dramatic consid]ations & h[ mu* to ! p]sonal op9ion ( ! poet4 ,ev5 to ?is day ! religi\s /&po9t ( ,euripides is matt] ( dispute4 ,9 ! mo/ rec5t detail$ treatm5t ( ! "q he is *>act]is$ z an a!i/1 :]eas o!rs reg>d him m]ely z a dialectician :o debates problems )\t hav+ any real /&po9t ( 8 own4 ,i d n believe t ,euripides p]sonally d5i$ ! exi/5ce ( ! gods2 !re is too mu* t tells aga9/ t !ory1 &1 9 fact1 no?+ t tells directly 9 fav\r ( x1 ?\gh he did n q escape ! *>ge ( a!ism ev5 9 8 own day4 ,to prove ! correctness ( ?is view w\ld1 h[ev]1 lead too f> afield 9 ?is connexion4 ,on ! o!r h&1 a %ort *>act]isation ( ,euripides's mann] ( reason+ ab\t religi\s problems is unavoidable z a backgr\nd = ! treatm5t ( ^?--v r>e--passages :]e he has put actually a!i/ic reflections into ! m\?s ( 8 *>act]s4 ,z a ,greek dramati/ ,euripides _h to d]ive 8 subjects f ! h]oic leg5ds1 :i* at ! same "t 7 leg5ds ( ! gods 9 s f> z !y 7 int]wov5 ) tales ( ! gods' direct int]v5tion 9 affairs4 ,x is precisely aga9/ ?is int]v5tion t ! criticism ( ,euripides is prim>ily direct$4 ,aga9 & aga9 he makes 8 *>act]s prote/ aga9/ ! mann] 9 :i* !y are treat$ by ! gods or 9 :i* ! gods g5]ally behave4 ,x is *>act]i/ic ( ,euripides t 8 />t+-po9t 9 ?is connexion is always ! moral "o4 ,s f> he is a typical repres5tative ( t t5d5cy :i*1 9 e>li] times1 0 repres5t$ by ,x5ophanes & a little lat] by ,p9d>2 9 no o!r ,greek poet has ! me?od ( us+ ! high] conceptions ( ! gods aga9/ ! l[] f\nd m complete expression ?an 9 ,euripides4 ,& 9 s f>1 too1 he is /ill entirely on ! gr\nd ( popul> belief4 ,b at ! same "t x is *>act]i/ic ( him t he is famili> ) & highly influ5c$ by ,greek sci5ce4 ,he kn[s ! mo/ em95t repres5tatives ( ,ionian naturalism 7) ! exception ( ,democritus71 & he is fond ( display+ 8 k4 ,nev]!less1 x _c be said t he uses x 9 a cont5ti\s _s aga9/ popul> belief2 on ! contr>y1 he is incl9$ 9 agreem5t ) ! old philosoph]s to id5tify ! gods ( popul> belief ) ! elem5ts4 ,t[>ds sophi/ic he takes a simil>1 b less sympa!tic attitude4 ,sophi/ic 0 n 9 vogue till he 0 a man ( mature age2 he made acqua9tance ) x1 & he made use ( x--!re are reflections 9 8 dramas :i* c>ry di/9ct evid5ce ( sophi/ic influ5ce2 b 9 8 treatm5t ( religi\s problems he is n a disciple ( ! sophi/s1 & on ?is subject1 z on o!rs1 he occasionally attack$ !m4 ,x is aga9/ ?is backgr\nd t we mu/ set ! reflections ) an a!i/ic tone t we f9d 9 ,euripides4 ,!y are1 z already m5tion$1 r>e2 inde$1 /rictly speak+ !re is only "o case 9 :i* a "* op5ly d5ies ! exi/5ce ( ! gods4 ,! passage is a fragm5t ( ! drama ,bell]ophon2 x is1 despite its isolation1 s typical ( ! mann] ( ,euripides t x des]ves to be quot$ 9 full4 8,& !n to say t !re are gods 9 ! heav5s6 ,nay1 !re are none !re2 if y are n fooli% en\gh to be s$uc$ by ! old talk4 ,?9k = y\rselves ab\t ! matt]1 & d n be influ5c$ by my words4 ,i cont5d t ! tyrants kill ! p :olesale1 take _! money & de/roy cities 9 spite ( _! oa?s2 & al?\gh !y d all ?is !y are happi] ?an p :o1 9 peace & quietness1 lead god-fe>+ lives4 ,& ,i "k small /ates :i* hon\r ! gods1 b mu/ obey great] /ates1 :i* are less pi\s1 because _! spe>m5 are few] 9 numb]4 ,& ,i believe t y1 if a slo?ful man j pray$ to ! gods & did n e>n 8 bread by ! "w ( 8 h&s--0 ,"h ! s5se is int]rupt$2 b !re rema9s "o m l9e3 8,t :i* builds ! ca/le ( ! gods is 9 "p ! un=tunate happ5+s 4440 ,! cont9uation is miss+4 ,! argum5tation "h is *>act]i/ic ( ,euripides4 ,f ! inju/ice ( life he inf]s ! non-exi/5ce ( ! gods4 ,! conclusion evid5tly only holds good on ! assumption t ! gods mu/ be j2 & ?is is precisely "o ( ! po/ulates ( popul> belief4 ,! reason+ is n sophi/ic2 on ! contr>y1 9 _! attacks ! sophi/s took up a position outside ! f\ndation ( popul> belief & attack$ ! f\ndation itself4 ,?is reason+1 on ! o!r h&1 is closely alli$ to ! e>li] religi\s ?9k+ ( ! ,greeks2 x only proce$s fur!r ?an ! latt]1 :]e x results 9 rank d5ial4 ,! drama ( ,bell]ophon is lo/1 & recon/ruction is out ( ! "q2 if only = t reason x is unw>rantable to draw any conclusions f ! deta*$ fragm5t z to ! poet's p]sonal attitude t[>ds ! exi/5ce ( ! gods4 ,b1 nev]!less1 ! fragm5t is ( int]e/ 9 ?is connexion4 ,x w\ld nev] h occurr$ to ,sophocles or ,aes*ylus to put su* a spee* 9 ! m\? ( "o ( 8 *>act]s4 ,:5 ,euripides does t x is a pro( t ! "q ( ! exi/5ce ( ! gods has begun to pres5t itself to ! popul> consci\sness at ?is "t4 ,view$ 9 ?is light o!r /atem5ts ( 8 :i* are n 9 !mselves a!i/ic become significant4 ,:5 x is said3 8,if ! gods act 9 a %ameful way1 !y are n gods0--t inde$ is n a!ism 9 our s5se1 b x is v ne> to x4 ,int]e/+ is also ! introduction to ! drama ,melanippe3 8,zeus1 :oev] ,zeus may be2 = ( t ,i only "k :at is told40 ,aes*ylus beg9s a /rophe 9 "o ( 8 mo/ fam\s *oral odes ) almo/ ! same words3 8,zeus1 :oe'er he be2 = if he desire s to be call$1 ,i w address him by ?is "n40 ,9 him x is an expression ( g5u9e antique piety1 :i* excludes all human imp]t95ce t[>ds ! gods to su* a degree t x ev5 =goes kn[+ _! real names4 ,9 ,euripides ! same idea becomes an expression ( d\bt2 b 9 ?is case also ! d\bt is rais$ on ! f\ndation ( popul> belief4 ,x is n surpris+ t s prom95t & su/a9$ a criticism ( popul> belief z t ( ,euripides1 produc$1 moreov]1 on ! /age1 call$ =? a reaction f ! def5d]s ( ! e/abli%$ fai?1 & t *>ges ( impiety 7 n want+4 ,x is m to be wond]$ at t ^! *>ges on ! :ole are s few & slight1 & t ,euripides did n become ! object ( any actual prosecution4 ,we "k ( a private trial 9 :i* ! accus] incid5tally *>g$ ,euripides ) impiety on ! /r5g? ( a quotation f "o ( 8 trag$ies1 ,euripides's answ] be+ a prote/ aga9/ dragg+ 8 poetry into ! affair2 ! v]dict on t belong$ to ano!r c\rt4 ,ari/ophanes1 :o is always sev]e on ,euripides1 has only "o passage directly *>g+ him ) be+ a propagator ( a!ism2 b ! accusation is h>dly meant to be tak5 s]i\sly4 ,9 ,! ,frogs1 :]e he _h e opportunity ( emphasis+ ?is view1 !re is h>dly an indication ( x4 ,9 ,! ,cl\ds1 :]e ! ma9 attack is direct$ aga9/ mod]n free-?\ght1 ,euripides1 to be sure1 is sne]$ at z be+ ! fa%ionable poet ( ! corrupt$ y\?1 b he is n drawn into ! *>ge ( impiety4 ,ev5 :5 ,plato wrote 8 ,republic1 ,euripides 0 g5]ally consid]$ ! 8wise/ ( all trag$ians40 ,?is w\ld h be5 impossible if he _h be5 consid]$ an a!i/4 ,9 spite ( all1 ! g5]al feel+ mu/ und\bt$ly h be5 t ,euripides ultimately took 8 /& on ! gr\nd ( popul> belief4 ,x 0 a simil> in/9ctive judgm5t 9 reg>d to religion :i* prev5t$ antiquity f plac+ ,x5ophanes among/ ! a!i/s4 ,lat] times no d\bt judg$ diff]5tly2 ! quotation f ,melanippe is 9 fact cit$ z a pro( t ,euripides 0 an a!i/ 9 8 he>t ( he>ts4 ,9 ,ari/ophanes we meet ) ! fir/ obs]vations conc]n+ ! *ange 9 ! religi\s conditions ( ,a!ns dur+ ! ,peloponnesian ,w>4 ,9 "o ( 8 plays1 ,! ,cl\ds1 he actually set himself ! task ( tak+ up arms aga9/ mod]n unbelief1 & he *>act]ises x directly z a!ism4 ,if only = t reason ! play des]ves some:at full] consid]ation4 ,x is well kn[n t ,ari/ophanes *ose ,socrates z a repres5tative ( ! mod]n movem5t4 ,9 him he embodies all ! faults ) :i* he wi%$ to pick a qu>rel 9 ! fa%ionable philosophy ( ! day4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! ess5ce ( ,socratic tea*+ is entirely abs5t f ,ari/ophanes's repres5tation2 ( t he _h h>dly any und]/&+1 & ev5 if he _h he w\ld at any rate n h be5 able to make use ( x 9 8 drama4 ,we ne$ n !n 9 ?is connexion consid] ,socrates himself at all2 on ! o!r h&1 ! play gives a good idea ( ! popul> idea ( sophi/ic4 ,"h we f9d all ! features ( ! s*ool1 grotesquely mix$ up & di/ort$ by ! f>ce1 x is true1 b nev]!less easily recognisable3 rhetoric z an end 9 itself1 ( c\rse1 ) emphasis on its immoral aspect2 empty & hair-splitt+ dialectics2 l+ui/ic rese>*es2 ,ionic naturalism2 & fir/ & la/1 z ! focus ( all1 d5ial ( ! gods4 ,t ,ari/ophanes 0 well in=m$ on c]ta9 po9ts1 at any rate1 is cle> f ! fact t ! majority ( ! sci5tific explanations :i* he puts into ! m\? ( ,socrates actually repres5t ! late/ results ( sci5ce at t "t--:i* 9 all probability did n prev5t 8 ,a!nians f consid]+ !m z exce$+ly absurd & ridicul\s4 ,:at matt]s "h1 h[ev]1 is only ! accusation ( a!ism :i* he made aga9/ ,socrates4 ,x is a little difficult to h&le1 9 s f> z ,ari/ophanes1 = dramatic reasons1 has equipp$ ,socrates ) a :ole set ( deities4 ,!re are ! cl\ds !mselves1 :i* are ( ,ari/ophanes's own inv5tion2 !re is also ! air1 :i* he has got f ,diog5es ( ,apollonia1 & f9ally a 8vortex0 :i* is suppos$ to be d]iv$ f ! same s\rce1 & :i* at any rate has ca/ ,zeus d[n f 8 ?rone4 ,all ?is we mu/ ignore1 z x is only condition$ p>tly by te*nical reasons--,ari/ophanes _h to h a *orus & *ose ! cl\ds = ! purpose--& p>tially by ! desire to ridicule ,ionic naturalism4 ,b en\gh is left ov]4 ,9 ! beg9n+ ( ! play ,socrates expressly decl>es t no gods exi/4 ,simil> /atem5ts are repeat$ 9 sev]al places4 ,zeus is sometimes sub/itut$ = ! gods1 b x comes to ! same ?+4 ,& at ! end ( ! play1 :]e ! hone/ ,a!nian1 :o has v5tur$ on ! tickli% gr\nd ( sophi/ic1 admits 8 delusion1 x is expressly said3 8,oh1 :at a fool ,i am6 ,nay1 ,i mu/ h be5 mad inde$ :5 ,i ?\ght ( ?r[+ ! gods away = ,socrates's sake60 ,ev5 9 ! v]ses ) :i* ! *orus conclude ! play x is insi/$ t ! wor/ crime ( ! sophi/s is _! insult to ! gods4 ,! inf]5ce to be drawn f all ?is is simply t ! popul> ,a!nian op9ion--= we may re/ assur$ t ?is & ! view ( ,ari/ophanes are id5tical--0 t ! sophi/s 7 a!i/s4 ,t says b little4 ,= popul> op9ion always works ) broad categories1 & ! probability is t 9 ?is case1 z demon/rat$ above1 x 0 9 ! wrong1 =1 z a rule1 ! sophi/s 7 h>dly consci\s d5i]s ( ! gods4 ,b1 at ! same "t1 at ! back ( ! onslaught ( ,ari/ophanes !re lies ! idea t ! tea*+ ( ! sophi/s l$ to d5ial ( ! gods2 t a!ism 0 ! natural outcome ( _! doctr9e & way ( reason+4 ,& t !re 0 "s tru? !re9 is prov$ by o!r evid5ce :i* c h>dly be reject$4 ,9 ! indictm5t ( ,socrates x is said t he 8(f5d$ by n believ+ 9 ! gods 9 :i* ! ,/ate believ$40 ,9 ! two apologies = ,socrates :i* h come d[n to u "u ,x5ophon's "n1 ! au?or treats ?is accusation entirely "u ! aspect ( a!ism1 & tries to refute x by positive pro(s ( ! piety ( ,socrates4 ,b n "o ^w is said ab\t !re be+1 9 & = itself1 any?+ rem>kable or improbable 9 ! *>ge4 ,9 ,plato's ,apology1 ,plato makes ,socrates ask ! accus] po9t-blank :e!r he is ( ! op9ion t he1 ,socrates1 does n believe 9 ! gods at all & accord+ly is a d[nright d5i] ( ! gods1 or :e!r he m]ely means to say t he believes 9 o!r gods ?an ^? ( ! ,/ate4 ,he makes ! accus] answ] t ! ass]tion is t ,socrates does n believe 9 any gods at all4 ,9 ,plato ,socrates refutes ! accusation indirectly1 us+ a l9e ( argum5t entirely diff]+ f t ( ,x5ophon4 ,b 9 ,plato1 too1 ! accusation is treat$ z be+ 9 no way extraord9>y4 ,9 my op9ion1 ,plato's ,apology _c be us$ z hi/orical evid5ce = details unless special reasons c be giv5 prov+ _! hi/orical value beyond ! fact t !y occur 9 ! ,apology4 ,b 9 ?is connexion ! "q is n :at 0 said or n said at ,socrates's trial4 ,! decisive po9t is t we possess two q indep5d5t & unambigu\s depositions by two fully compet5t witnesses ( ! beg9n+ ( ! f\r? c5tury :i* bo? treat ( ! *>ge ( a!ism z some?+ :i* is nei!r /range nor surpris+ at _! "t4 ,x is !re=e p]missible to conclude t 9 ,a!ns at ?is "t !re really exi/$ circles or at any rate n a few individuals :o _h giv5 up ! belief 9 ! popul> gods4 ,a dialogue betwe5 ,socrates & a "y man by "n ,ari/odemus1 giv5 9 ,x5ophon's ,memorabilia1 makes ! same impression4 ,( ,ari/odemus x is said t he does n sacrifice to ! gods1 does n consult ! ,oracle & ridicules ^? :o d s4 ,:5 he is call$ to acc\nt = ?is behavi\r he ma9ta9s t he does n despise 8! div9e10 b is ( ! op9ion t x is too exalt$ to ne$ 8 wor%ip4 ,moreov]1 he cont5ds t ! gods d n tr\ble !mselves ab\t mank9d4 ,?is is1 ( c\rse1 n a!ism 9 our s5se2 b ,ari/odemus's attitude is1 nev]!less1 extremely ecc5tric 9 a community l t ( ,a!ns 9 ! fif? c5tury4 ,& yet x is n m5tion$ z any?+ isolat$ & extraord9>y1 b z if x 7 some?+ :i*1 to be sure1 0 out ( ! common1 b n unhe>d (4 ,x is fur!r to be obs]v$ t at ! end ( ! fif? c5tury we (t5 he> ( active sacrilegi\s outrages4 ,an example is ! hi/oric trial ( ,alcibiades = pr(anation ( ! ,my/]ies4 ,b ?is 0 n an isolat$ occurr5ce2 !re 7 m ( ! same k9d at ! "t4 ,( ! di?yrambic poet ,c9esias x is said t he pr(an$ holy ?+s 9 an obsc5e mann]4 ,b ! greate/ /ress ( all mu/ be laid on ! well-kn[n mutilation ( ! ,h]mae at ,a!ns 9 #dae1 j be=e ! exp$ition to ,sicily4 ,all ! tales ab\t ! outrages ( ! ,my/]ies may h be5 fictiti\s1 b x is a fact t ! ,h]mae 7 mutilat$4 ,! motive 0 probably political3 ! memb]s ( a secret society int5d$ to pl$ge !mselves to ea* o!r by all committ+ a capital crime4 ,b t !y *ose j ?is =m ( crime %[s q cle>ly t respect = ! ,/ate religion _h greatly decl9$ 9 ^! circles4 ,:at has s f> be5 adduc$ z pro( t ! belief 9 ! gods _h begun to wav] 9 ,a!ns at ! end ( ! fif? c5tury is1 9 my op9ion1 conclusive 9 itself to anybody :o is famili> ) ! m anci5t ,greek modes ( ?\ght & expression on ?is po9t1 & c n only he> :at is said1 b also und]/& h[ x is said & :at is pass$ ov] 9 sil5ce4 ,( c\rse x c always be object$ t ! pro(s are p>tly ! ass]tions ( a comic poet :o c]ta9ly 0 n p>ticul> ab\t accusations ( impiety1 p>tly d$uctions ex sil5tio1 p>tly actions ! motives = :i* are unc]ta94 ,=tunately1 h[ev]1 we h--f a slightly lat] p]iod1 x is true--a positive utt]ance :i* confirms our conclusion & :i* comes f a man :o 0 n 9 ! habit ( talk+ idly & :o _h ! be/ opportunities ( kn[+ ! circum/ances4 ,9 ! t5? book ( 8 ,laws1 writt5 %ortly be=e 8 dea?1 i4e4 ab\t ! middle ( ! f\r? c5tury1 ,plato gives a detail$ acc\nt ( ! "q ( irreligion se5 f ! po9t ( view ( p5al legislation4 ,he di/+ui%es "h betwe5 ?ree =ms1 namely1 d5ial ( ! exi/5ce ( ! gods1 d5ial ( ! div9e provid5ce 7:]eas ! exi/5ce ( ! gods is admitt$71 & f9ally ! assumption t ! gods exi/ & ex]cise provid5ce1 b t !y all[ !mselves to be influ5c$ by sacrifices & pray]s4 ,( ^! ?ree categories ! la/ is evid5tly direct$ aga9/ anci5t popul> belief itself2 x does n !re=e int]e/ u 9 ?is connexion4 ,! second view1 ! d5ial ( a provid5ce1 we h already met ) 9 ,x5ophon 9 ! "* ( ,ari/odemus1 & 9 ! sophi/ ,?rasyma*us2 ,euripides1 too1 sometimes alludes to x1 ?\gh x 0 f> f be+ 8 own op9ion4 ,:e!r x am\nt$ to d5ial ( ! gods or n 01 9 anci5t times1 ! cause ( mu* dispute2 x is1 ( c\rse1 n a!ism 9 our s5se1 b x is c]ta9ly evid5ce t belief 9 ! gods is %ak54 ,! fir/ view1 on ! o!r h&1 is %e] a!ism4 ,plato consequ5tly reckons ) ?is z a s]i\s dang] to ! community2 he m5tions x z a widespread view among ! y\? ( 8 "t1 & 9 8 legislation he s5t5ces to dea? ^? :o fail to be conv]t$4 ,x w\ld seem c]ta91 !re=e1 t !re 01 9 reality1 some?+ 9 x aft] all4 ,plato does n conf9e himself to def9+ a!ism & lay+ d[n ! p5alty = x2 he at ! same "t1 9 accordance ) a pr9ciple :i* he g5]ally foll[s 9 ! ,laws1 discusses x & tries to disprove x4 ,9 ?is way he happ5s to give u in=mation--:i* is ( special int]e/ to u--( ! pro(s :i* 7 adduc$ by its foll[]s4 ,! argum5t is a tw(old "o4 ,fir/ comes ! naturali/ic pro(2 ! heav5ly bodies1 accord+ to ! g5]al 7& ,plato's own7 view ! mo/ c]ta9 deities1 are inanimate natural objects4 ,x is int]e/+ to note t 9 speak+ ( ?is doctr9e 9 detail ref]5ce is cle>ly made to ,anaxagoras2 ?is confirms our a=e-m5tion$ conjectures z to ! "* ( 8 "w4 ,plato 0 q 9 a position to deal ) ,anaxagoras on ! /r5g? n only ( :at he said1 b ( :at he pass$ ov] 9 sil5ce4 ,! second argum5t is ! well-kn[n sophi/ic "o1 t ! gods are nomi1 n physei1 !y dep5d ^u conv5tion1 :i* has no?+ to d ) reality4 ,9 ?is connexion ! argum5t adds t :at applies to ! gods1 applies also to "r & wrong2 i4e4 we f9d "h 9 ! ,laws ! view ) :i* we are famili> f ,callicles 9 ! ,gorgias1 b ) ! miss+ l9k suppli$4 ,& ,plato's developm5t ( ?is !me %[s cle>ly j :at a g5]al hi/orical consid]ation might lead u to expect1 namely1 t x 0 naturalism & sophi/ic t jo9tly und]m9$ ! belief 9 ! old gods4 ,,*apt] ,v ,) ,socrates & 8 successors ! :ole "q ( ! relation ( ,greek ?\ght to popul> belief ent]s ^u a new phase4 ,! ,socratic philosophy is 9 _m ways a cont9uation ( sophi/ic4 ,?is is involv$ already 9 ! fact t ! same que/ions =m ! c5tral int]e/ 9 ! two s*ools ( ?\ght1 s t ! problems /at$ by ! sophi/s became ! decisive factor 9 ! cont5t ( ,socratic & ,platonic ?\ght4 ,! ,socratic s*ools at ! same "t took ov] ! actual programme ( ! sophi/s1 namely1 ! education ( adolesc5ce 9 ! highe/ culture4 ,b1 on ! o!r h&1 ! ,socratic philosophy 0 9 ! opposite camp to sophi/ic2 on _m po9ts x repres5ts a reaction aga9/ x1 a recollection ( ! valuable elem5ts conta9$ 9 e>li] ,greek ?\ght on life1 especially human life1 values :i* sophi/ic reg>d$ ) indiff]5ce or ev5 ho/ility1 & :i* 7 ?reat5$ ) de/ruction if x %\ld c>ry ! day4 ,?is reaction>y t5d5cy 9 ,socratic philosophy appe>s n[h]e m pla9ly ?an 9 ! field ( religion4 ,"u ^! circum/ances x is a peculi> irony ( fate t ! v orig9ator ( ! new tr5d 9 ,greek ?\ght 0 *>g$ ) & s5t5c$ = impiety4 ,we h already m5tion$ ! s+ul> prelude to ! indictm5t af=d$ by ! com$y ( ,ari/ophanes4 ,we h also rem>k$ ^u ! futility ( look+ !re9 = any actual enlight5m5t on ! ,socratic po9t ( view4 ,& ,plato makes ,socrates /ate ?is ) all necess>y %>pness 9 ! ,apology4 ,h5ce :at we may inf] f ! attack ( ,ari/ophanes is m]ely ?is1 t ! g5]al public lump$ ,socrates toge!r ) ! sophi/s & m especially reg>d$ him z a godless fell[4 ,unless ?is _h be5 s1 ,ari/ophanes c\ld n h introduc$ him z ! *ief "* 9 8 trave/y4 ,& )\t d\bt x 0 ?is popul> po9t ( view :i* 8 accus]s reli$ on :5 !y actually includ$ a!ism z a c\nt 9 _! bill ( indictm5t4 ,x w1 nev]!less1 be necess>y to dwell = a mom5t on ?is bill ( indictm5t & ! def5ce4 ,! *>ge ( impiety 0 a tw(old "o1 p>tly = n believ+ 9 ! gods ! ,/ate believ$ 91 p>tly = introduc+ new 8demonic ?+s40 ,?is latt] act 0 directly puni%able accord+ to ,attic law4 ,:at 8 accus]s allud$ to 0 ! daimonion ( ,socrates4 ,t !y %\ld h _h any idea ( :at t 0 mu/ be reg>d$ z utt]ly out ( ! "q1 & :atev] x may h be5--& ( ?is we %all h a ^w to say lat]--x _h at any rate no?+ :atev] to d ) a!ism4 ,z to ! *>ge ( n believ+ 9 ! gods ( ! ,/ate1 ,plato makes ! accus] pref] x 9 ! =m t ,socrates did n believe 9 any gods at all1 aft] :i* x becomes an easy matt] = ,socrates to %[ t x is directly incompatible ) ! *>ge ( introduc+ new deities4 ,z gr\nd = 8 accusation ! accus] /ates--9 ,plato1 z be=e--t ,socrates taught ! same doctr9e ab\t ! sun & moon z ,anaxagoras4 ,! :ole ( ! passage 9 ! ,apology 9 :i* ! "q ( ! d5ial ( gods is dealt )--a %ort dialogue betwe5 ,socrates & ! accus]1 q 9 ! ,socratic mann]--hi/orically speak+1 c>ries little conviction1 & we !re=e d>e n take x = grant$ t ! *>ge ei!r ( a!ism or ( false doctr9e ab\t ! sun & moon 0 put =w>d 9 t =m4 ,b t some?+ ab\t ?is latt] po9t 0 m5tion$ dur+ ! trial mu/ be reg>d$ z probable1 :5 we consid] t ,x5ophon1 too1 def5ds ,socrates at "s l5g? aga9/ ! *>ge ( conc]n+ himself ) speculations on ,nature4 ,t he did n d s mu/ be tak5 = c]ta91 n only f ! express evid5ce ( ,x5ophon & ,plato1 b f ! :ole nature ( ! case4 ,! accusation on ?is po9t 0 assur$ly pure fabrication4 ,!re rema9s only :at 0 no d\bt also ! ma9 po9t1 namely1 ! ass]tion ( ! p]nici\s influ5ce ( ,socrates on ! "y1 & ! inf]5ce ( irreligion to be drawn f x--an argum5t :i* x w\ld be absurd to wa/e any words ^u4 ,! attack1 !n1 af=ds no in=mation ab\t ,socrates's p]sonal po9t ( view z reg>ds belief 9 ! gods1 & ! def5ce only v little4 ,bo? ,x5ophon & ,plato give an acc\nt ( ,socrates's daimonion1 b ?is po9t has s little relation to ! *>ge ( a!ism t x is n wor? exam9ation4 ,= ! re/ ,plato's def5ce is indirect4 ,he makes ,socrates refute 8 oppon5t1 b does n let him say a ^w ab\t 8 own po9t ( view4 ,x5ophon is m positive1 9 s f> z 9 ! fir/ place he ass]ts t ,socrates wor%ipp$ ! gods l any o!r good citiz51 & m especially t he advis$ 8 fri5ds to use ! ,oracle2 9 ! second place1 t1 ?\gh he liv$ 9 full publicity1 no "o ev] saw him d or he>d him say any?+ ( an impi\s nature4 ,all ^! ass]tions are assur$ly correct1 & !y r5d] x highly improbable t ,socrates %\ld h secretly ab&on$ ! popul> fai?1 b !y tell u little t is positive ab\t 8 views4 ,=tunately we possess o!r means ( gett+ to clos] grips ) ! "q2 ! way mu/ be ?r\gh a consid]ation ( ,socrates's :ole conduct & 8 mode ( ?\ght4 ,"h we at once come to ! int]e/+ negative fact t !re is no?+ 9 tradition to indicate t ,socrates ev] occupi$ himself ) !ological que/ions4 ,to be sure1 ,x5ophon has twice put into 8 m\? a :ole !odicy express+ an elaborate teleological view ( nature4 ,b t we d>e n base any?+ ^u ?is is n[1 ,i ?9k1 univ]sally ackn[l$g$4 ,plato1 9 ! dialogue ,eu?yphron1 makes him subject ! popul> notion ( piety to a deva/at+ criticism2 b ?is1 aga91 w n n[adays be reg>d$ z hi/orical by anybody4 ,ev]y?+ we are told ab\t ,socrates :i* be>s ! /amp ( hi/orical tru? indicates t he re/rict$ himself to e?ics & left !ology alone4 ,b ?is v fact is n )\t significance4 ,x indicates t ,socrates's aim 0 n to alt] ! religi\s views ( 8 contempor>ies4 ,s9ce he did n d s we may reasonably believe x 0 because !y did n inconv5i5ce him 9 :at 0 mo/ important to him1 i4e4 e?ics4 ,we may1 h[ev]1 p]haps g ev5 a /ep f>!r4 ,we may v5ture1 ,i ?9k1 to ma9ta9 t s f> f contempor>y religion be+ a h9drance to ,socrates 9 8 occupation z a tea*] ( e?ics1 x 01 on ! contr>y1 an indisp5sable support to him1 nay1 an integral compon5t ( 8 fundam5tal e?ical view4 ,! object ( ,socrates 9 8 relations ) 8 fell[-m5 01 on 8 own %[+--= on ?is important po9t ,i ?9k we c confid5tly rely ^u ,plato's ,apology--to make cle> to !m t !y knew no?+4 ,& :5 he 0 ask$ to say 9 :at he himself diff]$ f o!r p1 he c\ld m5tion only "o ?+1 namely1 t he 0 aw>e ( 8 own ignorance4 ,b 8 ignorance is n an ignorance ( ?is ?+ or t1 x is a radical ignorance1 some?+ involv$ 9 ! ess5ce ( man z man4 ,t is1 9 o!r words1 x is det]m9$ by religion4 ,9 ord] to be at all intelligible & e?ically applicable1 x presupposes ! conception ( be+s ( :om ! ess5ce is k4 ,= ,socrates & 8 contempor>ies ! popul> belief suppli$ su* be+s 9 ! gods4 ,! in/itution ( ! ,oracle itself is an expression ( ! recognition ( ! sup]iority ( ! gods to man 9 k4 ,b ! dogma _h long be5 /at$ ev5 9 its absolute =m :5 ,hom] said3 8,! gods "k ev]y?+40 ,to ,socrates1 :o always took 8 />t+-po9t q popul>ly f notions t 7 univ]sally accept$1 ?is basis 0 simply indisp5sable4 ,& s f> f inconv5i5c+ ,socrates1 ! multiplicity & an?ropomorphism ( ! gods seem$ an advantage to him--! m !y 7 l man 9 all b ! ess5tial qualification1 ! bett]4 ,! ,socratic ignorance has an e?ical be>+4 ,its complem5t is 8 ass]tion t virtue is k4 ,"h aga9 ! gods are ! necess>y presupposition & det]m9ation4 ,t ! gods 7 good1 or1 z x 0 pref]r$ to express x1 8j0 7! ,greek ^w comprises m ?an ! ,engli% ^w71 0 no less a popul> dogma ?an ! notion t !y possess$ k4 ,n[ all ,socrates's ef=ts 7 direct$ t[>ds goodness z an end 9 view1 t[>ds ! e?ical developm5t ( mank9d4 ,"h aga9 popul> belief 0 8 be/ ally4 ,to ! p to :om he talk$1 virtue 7! ,greek ^w is at once bo? wid] & n>r[] 9 s5se ?an ! ,engli% t]m7 0 no m]e ab/ract notion2 x 0 a liv+ reality to !m1 embodi$ 9 be+s t 7 l !mselves1 human be+s1 b p]fect human be+s4 ,if we correlate ?is ) ! negative circum/ance t ,socrates 0 no !ologian b a tea*] ( e?ics1 we c easily und]/& a po9t ( view :i* accept$ popul> belief z x 0 & employ$ x = work+ purposes 9 ! s]vice ( moral tea*+4 ,su* a po9t ( view1 moreov]1 ga9$ extraord9>y /r5g? by ! fact t x pres]v$ cont9uity ) e>li] ,greek religi\s ?\ght4 ,?is latt]1 too1 _h be5 e?ical 9 its be>+2 x1 too1 _h employ$ ! gods 9 ! s]vice ( its e?ical aim4 ,b its c5tral idea 0 felicity1 n virtue2 its />t+-po9t 0 ! popul> dogma ( ! felicity ( ! gods1 n _! ju/ice4 ,9 ?is way x _h come to lay /ress on a virtue :i* might be t]m$ mode/y1 b 9 a religi\s s5se1 i4e4 man mu/ recognise 8 diff]5ce f ! gods z a limit$ be+1 subject to ! vicissitudes ( an exi/5ce above :i* ! gods are rais$4 ,socrates says j ! same1 only t he puts k or virtue1 :i* to him 0 ! same ?+1 9 ! place ( felicity4 ,f a religi\s po9t ( view ! result is exactly ! same1 namely1 ! doctr9e ( ! gods z ! t]m9us & ideal1 & ! insi/5ce on ! gulf sep>at+ man f !m4 ,we are tempt$ to say t1 _h ,socrates turn$ ) ho/ile int5t aga9/ a religion :i* ?us play$ into 8 h&s1 ! m fool he4 ,b ?is is putt+ ! problem ! wrong way up--,socrates nev] /ood critically outside popul> belief & traditional religi\s ?\ght speculat+ z to :e!r he %\ld use x or reject x4 ,no1 8 ?\ght grew out ( x z f ! bosom ( ! e>?4 ,h5ce its mighty religi\s p[]1 its inevitable victory ov] a s*ool ( ?\ght :i* _h sev]$ all connexion ) tradition4 ,t su* a po9t ( view %\ld be s badly misund]/ood z x 0 9 ,a!ns seems incompreh5sible4 ,! explanation is no d\bt t ! :ole /ory ( ,socrates's d5ial ( ! gods 0 only includ$ by 8 accus]s = ! sake ( complet5ess1 & did n play any great "p 9 ! f9al issue4 ,?is seems confirm$ by ! fact t !y f\nd x conv5i5t to support _! *>ge ( a!ism by "o ( introduc+ =eign gods1 ?is be+ puni%able by ,attic law4 ,!y ?us obta9$ "s slight hold = _! accusation4 ,b bo? *>ges mu/ be presum$ to h be5 s signally refut$ dur+ ! trial t x is h>dly possible t any great numb] ( ! judges 7 influ5c$ by !m4 ,x 0 q diff]5t & f> weighti] matt]s :i* br\ght ab\t ! conviction ( ,socrates1 que/ions on :i* !re 0 really a deep & vital diff]5ce ( op9ion betwe5 him & 8 contempor>ies4 ,t ,socrates's attitude t[>ds popul> belief 0 at any rate fully und]/ood else:]e is te/ifi$ by ! answ] ( ! ,delphic ,oracle1 t decl>$ ,socrates to be ! wise/ ( all m54 ,h[ev] rem>kable su* a pron\ncem5t f su* a place may appe>1 x seems impossible to reject ! acc\nts ( x z unhi/orical2 on ! o!r h&1 x does n seem impossible to expla9 h[ ! ,oracle came to decl>e itself z report$4 ,e>li] ,greek ?\ght1 :i* insi/$ ^u ! gulf sep>at+ gods & m51 0 f old5 times intimately connect$ ) ! ,delphic ,oracle4 ,x h>dly sprang f !re2 m probably x arose spontane\sly 9 v>i\s p>ts ( ,hellas4 ,b x w\ld naturally feel attract$ t[>d ! ,oracle1 :i* 0 "o ( ! religi\s c5tres ( ,hellas1 & x 0 recognis$ z legitimate by ! ,oracle4 ,above all1 ! hon\r %[n by ! ,oracle to ,p9d>1 "o ( ! *ief repres5tatives ( ! e>li] ?\ght1 te/ifies to ?is4 ,h5ce !re is no?+ incr$ible 9 ! assumption t ,socrates attract$ notice at ,delphi z a def5d] ( ! old-fa%ion$ religi\s views approv$ by ! ,oracle1 precisely 9 virtue ( 8 opposition to ! ideas !n 9 vogue4 ,if we accept ?is explanation we are1 h[ev]1 exclud$ f tak+ lit]ally ,plato's acc\nt ( ! answ] ( ! ,delphic ,oracle & ,socrates's attitude t[>ds x4 ,plato pres5ts ! case z if ! ,oracle 7 ! />t+-po9t ( ,socrates's philosophy & ( ! peculi> mode ( life :i* 0 indissolubly b\nd up ) x4 ,?is pres5tation _c be correct if we are to reg>d ! ,oracle z hi/orical & und]/& x z we h und]/ood x4 ,! ,oracle presupposes ! ,socrates we "k3 a man ) a religi\s message & a mode ( life :i* 0 b\nd to attract notice to him z an exception f ! g5]al rule4 ,x _c1 !re=e1 h be5 ! cause ( ,socrates's f9d+ himself4 ,on ! o!r h&1 x is difficult to imag9e a man *oos+ a mode ( life l t ( ,socrates )\t a def9ite inducem5t1 )\t "s fact or o!r t w\ld lead him to conceive himself z an exception f ! rule4 ,if we look = su* a fact 9 ! life ( ,socrates1 we %all look 9 va9 z reg>ds ext]nals4 ,ap>t f 8 activities z a religi\s & e?ical p]sonality1 8 life 0 t ( any o!r ,attic citiz54 ,b 9 8 spiritual life !re 0 c]ta9ly "o po9t1 b only "o1 on :i* he deviat$ f ! normal1 namely1 8 daimonion4 ,if we exam9e ! acc\nts ( ?is m closely ! only ?+ we c make ( !m is--or s at lea/ x seems to me--t we are "h 9 ! pres5ce ( a =m--peculi>1 no d\bt1 & highly develop$--( ! ph5om5a :i* are n[adays class$ "u ! concept ( clairvoyance4 ,n[ ,plato makes ,socrates himself say t ! p[] ( avoid+ :at w\ld h>m him1 9 great ?+s & little1 by virtue ( a direct p]ception 7a 8voice071 :i* is :at con/itut$ 8 daimonion1 0 giv5 him f *ildhood4 ,t x 0 reg>d$ z some?+ s+ul> bo? by himself & o!rs is evid5t1 & likewise t he himself reg>d$ x z some?+ sup]natural2 ! designation daimonion itself seems to be 8 own4 ,i ?9k t we mu/ seek = ! orig9 ( ,socrates's peculi> mode ( life 9 ?is direction1 /range z x may be t a purely my/ic elem5t %\ld h giv5 ! impulse to ! mo/ rationali/ic philosophy ! _w has ev] produc$4 ,x is impossible to ent] m deeply into ?is problem "h2 b1 if my conjecture is correct1 we h an additional explanation ( ! fact t ,socrates 0 dispos$ to any?+ r ?an an attack on ! e/abli%$ religion4 ,a view ( popul> religion su* z ,i h "h sket*$ bore 9 itself ! g]m ( a fur!r developm5t :i* mu/ lead 9 o!r directions4 ,a p]sonality l ,socrates might p]haps manage ?r\gh\t a lifetime to keep t balance on a razor's edge :i* is involv$ 9 utilis+ to ! utmo/ 9 ! s]vice ( e?ics ! popul> dogmas ( ! p]fection ( ! gods1 :ile disreg>d+ all irrelevant tales1 all my?s & all notions ( too human a t5or ab\t !m4 ,?is dem&$ conc5tration on ! "o ?+ ne$ful1 9 conjunction ) deep piety ( ! mo/ g5u9e antique k9d1 ) ! mo/ pr(\nd religi\s mode/y1 a comb9ation :i* x 0 assur$ly giv5 to b "o man to atta94 ,socrates's successors _h x n4 ,/>t+ precisely f a ,socratic f\ndation !y ent]$ ^u !ological speculations :i* c>ri$ !m away f ! ,socratic po9t ( view4 ,= ! ,cynics1 :o set up virtue z ! only good1 ! popul> notions ( ! gods w\ld seem to h be5 j z conv5i5t z = ,socrates4 ,& we "k t ,anti/h5es1 ! f\nd] ( ! s*ool1 made ample use ( !m 9 8 e?ical tea*+4 ,he repres5t$ ,h]acles z ! ,cynical ideal & occupi$ himself l>gely ) allegorical int]pretation ( ! my?s4 ,on ! o!r h&1 !re is a tradition t he ma9ta9$ t 8accord+ to nature0 !re 0 only "o god1 b 8accord+ to ! law0 sev]al--a purely sophi/ic view4 ,he inveigh$ aga9/ ! wor%ip ( images1 too1 & ma9ta9$ t god 8did n resemble any ?+10 & we "k t 8 s*ool reject$ all wor%ip ( ! gods because ! gods 87 9 ne$ ( no?+40 ,?is conception1 too1 is presumably traceable to ,anti/h5es4 ,9 all ?is ! !ological int]e/ is evid5t4 ,z soon z ?is int]e/ sets 91 ! h>moni\s relation to ! popul> fai? is upset1 ! discord betwe5 its high] & l[] ideas becomes manife/1 & criticism beg9s to ass]t itself4 ,9 ! case ( ,anti/h5es1 if we may believe tradition1 x seems to h l$ to mono!ism1 9 itself a mo/ rem>kable ph5om5on 9 ! hi/ory ( ,greek religion1 b ! mat]ial is too slight = u to make any?+ ( x4 ,! lat] ,cynics af=d int]e/+ features 9 illu/ration ( a!ism 9 antiquity1 b ?is is be/ left to a lat] *apt]4 ,ab\t ! relations ( ! ,meg>ians to ! popul> fai? we "k next to no?+4 ,"o ( !m1 ,/ilpo1 0 *>g$ ) impiety on acc\nt ( a bad joke ab\t ,a!ne1 & convict$1 al?\gh he tri$ to save himself by ano!r bad joke4 ,z 8 po9t ( view 0 t ( a d[nright sceptic1 he 0 no d\bt an a!i/ accord+ to ! notions ( antiquity2 9 our day he w\ld be call$ an agno/ic1 b ! in=mation t we h ab\t 8 religi\s /&po9t is too slight to repay dwell+ on him4 ,z to ! relation ( ! ,cyr5aic s*ool to ! popul> fai?1 ! g5]al proposition has be5 h&$ d[n to u t ! wise man c\ld n be 8deisidaimon10 i4e4 sup]/iti\s or god-fe>+2 ! ,greek ^w c h bo? s5ses4 ,?is does n speak = piety at any rate1 b !n ! relation%ip ( ! ,cyr5aics to ! gods ( popul> belief 0 diff]5t f t ( ! o!r foll[]s ( ,socrates4 ,z !y set up pleasure--! mom5t>y1 isolat$ feel+ ( pleasure--z ! supreme good1 !y _h no use = ! popul> conceptions ( ! gods 9 _! e?ics1 nay1 ^! conceptions 7 ev5 a h9drance to !m 9 s f> z ! fe> ( ! gods might prove a re/riction :]e x ought n to4 ,9 ^! circum/ances we _c wond] at f9d+ a memb] ( ! s*ool 9 ! li/ ( a!oi4 ,?is is ,!odorus ( ,cyr5e1 :o liv$ ab\t ! ye> #cjj4 ,he really seems to h be5 a d[nright d5i] ( ! gods2 he wrote a "w ,on ! ,gods conta9+ a se>*+ criticism ( !ology1 :i* is said to h expos$ him to unpleasantness dur+ a /ay at ,a!ns1 b ! !n rul] ( ! city1 ,demetrius ( ,phal]um1 protect$ him4 ,!re is no?+ /range 9 a manife/ation ( d[nright a!ism at ?is "t & f ?is qu>t]4 ,m rem>kable is t int]e/ 9 !ology :i* we mu/ assume ,!odorus to h _h1 s9ce he wrote at l5g? ^u ! subject4 ,un=tunately x is n evid5t f ! acc\nt :e!r 8 criticism 0 direct$ mo/ly aga9/ popul> religion or aga9/ ! !ology ( ! philosoph]s4 ,z x 0 ass]t$ 9 antiquity t ,epicurus us$ 8 book l>gely1 ! latt] is m probable4 ,:]eas 9 ! case ( ! 8imp]fect ,socratics0 z well z ( all ! e>li] philosoph]s we mu/ cont5t ourselves ) m or less casual notes1 & at ! be/ ) fragm5ts1 & = ,socrates ) second-h& in=mation1 :5 we come to ,plato we f9d ourselves = ! fir/ "t 9 ! pres5ce ( full & au!ntic in=mation4 ,plato belongs to ^? few among ! anci5t au?ors ( :om ev]y?+ t _! contempor>ies possess$ has be5 pres]v$ to our own day4 ,!re w\ld1 h[ev]1 be no cause to speak ab\t ,plato 9 an inve/igation ( a!ism 9 antiquity1 _h n s em95t a s*ol> z ,zell] r\ndly ass]t$ t ,plato did n believe 9 ! ,greek gods--) ! exception ( ! heav5ly bodies1 9 ! case ( :i* ! facts are obvi\s4 ,on ! o!r h&1 x is impossible "h to ent] ^u a close discussion ( s l>ge a "q2 ,i mu/ cont5t myself ) giv+ my views 9 _! ma9 l9es1 ) a brief /atem5t ( my reasons = hold+ !m4 ,9 ! my?ical portions ( 8 dialogues ,plato uses ! gods z a giv5 poetic motive & treats !m ) poetic lic5ce4 ,o!rwise !y play a v inf]ior "p 9 ! great] portion ( 8 works4 ,9 ! ,eu?yphron he gives a %>p criticism ( ! popul> conception ( piety1 & 9 reality at ! same "t v s]i\sly que/ions ! importance & value ( ! exi/+ =m ( wor%ip4 ,9 8 *ief e?ical "w1 ! ,gorgias1 he subjects ! fundam5tal problems ( individual e?ics to a close discussion )\t say+ "o ^w ( _! relation to religion2 if we except ! my?ic "p at ! end ! gods sc>cely appe> 9 ! dialogue4 ,f9ally1 9 8 ,republic he no d\bt gives a detail$ criticism ( popul> my?ology z an elem5t ( education1 & 9 ! c\rse ( ?is also "s positive def9itions ( ! idea ( ,god1 b ?r\gh\t ! con/ruction ( 8 ideal community he entirely disreg>ds religion & wor%ip1 ev5 if he occasionally takes x = grant$ t a cult ( "s sort exi/s1 & 9 "o place q casually ref]s to ! ,oracle at ,delphi z au?ority = its organisation 9 details4 ,to ?is may fur!r be add$ ! negative po9t t he nev] 9 any ( 8 works made ,socrates def9e 8 position 9 reg>d to ! sophi/ic treatm5t ( ! popul> religion4 ,9 ,plato's lat] works ! case is diff]5t4 ,9 ! con/ruction ( ! univ]se describ$ 9 ! ,timaeus ! gods h a def9ite & significant place1 & 9 ! ,laws1 ,plato's la/ "w1 !y play a lead+ "p4 ,"h he n only gives elaborate rules = ! organisation ( ! wor%ip :i* p]meate ! :ole life ( ! community1 b ev5 9 ! argum5t ( ! dialogue ! gods are ev]y:]e 9 evid5ce 9 a way :i* /rongly sugge/s bigotry4 ,f9ally1 ,plato gives ! above-m5tion$ def9itions ( impiety & fixes ! sev]e/ puni%m5t = x--= d[nright d5ial ( ! gods1 :5 all attempts at conv]sion h fail$1 ! p5alty ( dea?4 ,on ?is evid5ce we are tempt$ to take ! view t ,plato 9 8 e>li] ye>s took up a critical attitude 9 reg>d to ! gods ( popul> belief1 p]haps ev5 d5i$ !m altoge!r1 t he gradually grew m cons]vative1 & end$ by be+ a confirm$ bigot4 ,& we might look = a corroboration ( ?is 9 a peculi> obs]vation 9 ! ,laws4 ,plato op5s 8 admonition to ! "y aga9/ a!ism by rem9d+ !m t !y are "y1 & t false op9ion conc]n+ ! gods is a common disease among ! "y1 b t utt] d5ial ( _! exi/5ce is n wont to endure to old age4 ,9 ?is we might see an expression ( p]sonal religi\s exp]i5ce4 ,nev]!less ,i d n ?9k su* a con/ruction ( ,plato's religi\s developm5t feasible4 ,a decisive objection is 8 exposition ( ! ,socratic po9t ( view 9 s e>ly a "w z ! ,apology4 ,i at any rate reg>d x z psy*ologically impossible t a d[nright a!i/1 be he ev] s great a poet1 %\ld be able to draw su* a picture ( a deeply religi\s p]sonality1 & draw x ) s mu* sympa?y & su* conv9c+ =ce4 ,add to ?is o!r facts ( second>y mom5t4 ,ev5 ! close criticism to :i* ,plato subjects ! popul> notions ( ! gods 9 8 ,republic does n indicate d5ial ( ! gods z su*2 moreov]1 x is built on a positive f\ndation1 on ! idea ( ! goodness ( ! gods & _! tru? 7:i* = ,plato manife/s itself 9 immutability74 ,f9ally1 ,plato at all times vigor\sly advocat$ ! belief 9 provid5ce4 ,9 ! ,laws he /amps unbelief 9 div9e provid5ce z impiety2 9 ! ,republic he insi/s 9 a prom95t passage t ! gods love ! j man & ord] ev]y?+ = him 9 ! be/ way4 ,& he puts ! same ?\ght into ,socrates's m\? 9 ! ,apology1 ?\gh x is h>dly ,socratic 9 ! /rict s5se ( ! ^w1 i4e4 z a ma9 po9t 9 ,socrates's conception ( exi/5ce4 ,all ?is %\ld w>n u n to exagg]ate ! significance ( ! diff]5ce :i* may be po9t$ out betwe5 ! religi\s /&po9ts ( ! y\ng] & ! old] ,plato4 ,b ! diff]5ce itself _c1 ,i ?9k1 be d5i$2 !re c h>dly be any d\bt t ,plato 0 mu* m critical ( popul> belief 9 8 y\? & prime ?an t[>ds ! close ( 8 life4 ,ev5 9 ,plato's lat] works !re is1 9 spite ( _! cons]vative attitude1 a v peculi> res]vation 9 reg>d to ! an?ropomorphic gods ( popul> belief4 ,x %[s itself 9 ! ,laws 9 ! fact t :]e he sets out to prove ! exi/5ce ( ! gods he cont5ts himself ) prov+ ! div9ity ( ! heav5ly bodies & q disreg>ds ! o!r gods4 ,x appe>s /ill m pla9ly 9 ! ,timaeus1 :]e he gives a philosophical explanation ( h[ ! div9e heav5ly bodies came into exi/5ce1 b says expressly ( ! o!r gods t su* an explanation is impossible1 & t we mu/ abide by :at ! old !ologians said on ?is subject2 !y be+ p>tly ! *ildr5 ( gods w\ld "k be/ :]e _! p>5ts came f4 ,x is obs]vations ( ?is k9d t induc$ ,zell] to believe t ,plato altoge!r d5i$ ! gods ( popul> belief2 he also cont5ds t ! gods h no place 9 ,plato's sy/em4 ,?is latt] cont5tion is p]fectly correct2 ,plato nev] id5tifi$ ! gods ) ! ideas 7al?\gh he comes v ne> to x 9 ! ,republic1 :]e he attributes to !m immutability1 ! quality :i* det]m9es ! ess5ce ( ! ideas71 & 9 ! ,timaeus he di/+ui%es %>ply betwe5 !m4 ,no d\bt 8 doctr9e ( ideas l$ up to a k9d ( div9ity1 ! idea ( ! good1 z ! cr[n ( ! sy/em1 b ! direct inf]5ce f ?is conception w\ld be pure mono!ism & s exclude poly!ism4 ,?is inf]5ce ,plato did n draw1 ?\gh 8 treatm5t ( ! gods 9 ! ,laws & ,timaeus c]ta9ly %[s t he 0 q cle> t ! gods ( ! popul> fai? 7 an irrational elem5t 9 8 conception ( ! univ]se4 ,! two passages d n entitle u to g fur!r & conclude t he utt]ly reject$ !m1 & 9 ! ,timaeus1 :]e ,plato makes bo? classes ( gods1 bo? ! heav5ly bodies & ! o!rs1 take "p 9 ! creation ( man1 ?is is pla9ly preclud$4 ,! playful turn ) :i* he evades inquiry into ! orig9 ( ! gods ?us receives its prop] limitation2 x is entirely conf9$ to _! orig94 ,su*1 accord+ to my view1 is ! /ate ( ! case4 ,x is ( fundam5tal importance to emphasise ! fact t we _c conclude1 because ! gods ( popul> belief d n fit into ! sy/em ( a philosoph]1 t he d5ies _! exi/5ce4 ,9 :at foll[s we %all h occasion to po9t out a case 9 :i*1 z all are n[ agre$1 a philosophical s*ool has adopt$ & /ubbornly held to ! belief 9 ! exi/5ce ( gods ?\gh ?is assumption 0 directly oppos$ to a fundam5tal proposition 9 its sy/em ( doctr9e4 ,! case ( ,plato is p>ticul>ly int]e/+ because he himself 0 aw>e & has po9t$ out t "h 0 a po9t on :i* ! consi/5t sci5tific application ( 8 conception ( ! univ]se mu/ fail4 ,x is ! outcome--"o ( _m--( :at is p]haps 8 f9e/ quality z a philosoph]1 namely1 8 intellectual hone/y4 ,an indirect te/imony to ! correctness ( ! view "h /at$ w be f\nd 9 ! way 9 :i* ,plato's fai?ful disciple ,x5ocrates develop$ 8 !ology1 = x %[s t ,x5ocrates presuppos$ ! exi/5ce ( ! gods ( popul> belief z giv5 by ,plato4 ,x5ocrates made x 8 g5]al task to sy/ematise ,plato's philosophy 7:i* _h nev] be5 set =? publicly by himself z a :ole71 & to secure x aga9/ attack4 ,9 ! c\rse ( ?is "w he 0 b\nd to discov] t ! conception ( ! gods ( popul> belief 0 a p>ticul>ly weak po9t 9 ,plato's sy/em1 & he attempt$ to m5d matt]s by a peculi> !ory :i* became ( ! greate/ importance = lat] times4 ,x5ocrates set up z gods1 9 ! fir/ place1 ! heav5ly bodies4 ,next he gave 8 highe/ pr9ciples 7pure ab/racts su* z on5ess & twoness7 & ! elem5ts ( 8 univ]se 7air1 wat] & e>?7 ! names ( "s ( ! highe/ div9ities 9 popul> belief 7,zeus1 ,hades1 ,poseidon1 ,demet]74 ,^! gods1 h[ev]1 did n ent] into direct communication ) m51 b only ?r\gh "s int]m$iate ag5t4 ,! int]m$iate ag5ts 7 ! 8demons10 a class ( be+s :o 7 high] ?an man yet n p]fect l ! gods4 ,!y 71 x seems1 immortal2 !y 7 invisible & f> m p[]ful ?an human be+s2 b !y 7 subject to human passions & 7 ( highly diff]+ grades ( moral p]fection4 ,^! are ! be+s t are ! objects ( ! great] "p ( ! exi/+ cult1 especially su* usages z re/ on ! assumption t ! gods c d h>m & are direct$ t[>ds av]t+ x1 or :i* are 9 o!r ways objectionable2 & ) !m are connect$ ! my?s :i* ,plato subject$ to s sev]e a criticism4 ,x5ocrates f\nd a basis = ?is sy/em 9 ,plato1 :o 9 ! ,symposium sets up ! demons z a class ( be+s betwe5 gods & m51 & makes !m c>ri]s ( ! pray]s & wi%es ( m5 to ! gods4 ,b :at 0 a pass+ ?\ght ) ,plato s]v+ only a poetical purpose 0 tak5 s]i\sly & sy/ematis$ by ,x5ocrates4 ,x c h>dly be said t ,x5ocrates has ga9$ mu* recognition among mod]n writ]s on ! hi/ory ( philosophy = 8 !ory ( demons4 ,& yet ,i _c see t !re 0 any o!r possible solution ( ! problem :i* anci5t popul> belief set anci5t philosophy1 if1 be x und]/ood1 we hold fa/ by two hypo!ses3 ! fir/1 t ! popul> belief & wor%ip ( ! anci5ts 0 bas$ ?r\gh\t on a f\ndation ( reality2 & second1 t moral p]fection is an ess5tial factor 9 ! conception ( ,god4 ,! only inconsi/5cy :i* we may p]haps br+ home to ,x5ocrates is t he reta9$ c]ta9 ( ! popul> names ( ! gods z designations = gods 9 8 s5se2 b ?is inconsi/5cy 01 z we %all see1 subsequ5tly remov$4 ,9 fav\r ( ?is e/imate ( ,x5ocrates's doctr9e ( demons may fur!r be adduc$ t x actually 0 ! la/ ^w ( anci5t philosophy on ! matt]4 ,! doctr9e 0 adopt$ by ! ,/oics1 ! ,neo-,py?agoreans1 & ! ,neo-,platoni/s4 ,only ! ,epicureans w5t ano!r way1 b _! doctr9e di$ out be=e ! close ( antiquity4 ,& s ! doctr9e ( demons became ! gr\nd on :i* ,jewi%-,*ri/ian mono!ism manag$ to come to t]ms ) anci5t paganism1 to conqu] x 9 !ory1 z x 74 ,?is implies1 h[ev]1 t ! doctr9e ( demons1 ?\gh x arose out ( an hone/ attempt to save popul> belief philosophically1 9 reality br+s out its incompatibility ) philosophy4 ,! religion & wor%ip ( ! anci5ts c\ld disp5se ) nei!r ! high] nor ! l[] conceptions ( its gods4 ,if ! =m] 7 done away )1 recognition1 h[ev] full1 ( ! exi/5ce ( ! gods 0 no good2 9 ! long run ! inf]5ce c\ld n be avoid$ t !y 7 immoral p[]s & s ought n to be wor%ipp$4 ,?is 0 ! inf]5ce drawn by ,*ri/ianity 9 !ory & en=c$ 9 practice1 ultimately by ma9 =ce4 ,ari/otle is among ! philosoph]s :o 7 prosecut$ = impiety4 ,:5 ! anti-,mac$onian p>ty came into p[] 9 ,a!ns aft] ! dea? ( ,alex&]1 !re broke out a p]secution aga9/ 8 adh]5ts1 & ?is 0 also direct$ aga9/ ,ari/otle4 ,! basis ( ! *>ge aga9/ him 0 t he _h %[n div9e hon\r aft] 8 dea? to ! tyrant ,h]mias1 ^: gue/ he _h be5 dur+ a prolong$ /ay 9 ,asia ,m9or4 ,?is seems to h be5 a fabrication1 & at any rate has no?+ to d ) a!ism4 ,9 ! writ+s ( ,ari/otle1 z !y 7 !n g5]ally kn[n1 x w\ld assur$ly h be5 impossible to f9d any gr\nd = a *>ge ( a!ism4 ,nev]!less1 ,ari/otle is "o ( ! philosoph]s ab\t ^: fai? 9 ! gods ( popul> religion well-f\nd$ d\bts may be rais$4 ,l ,plato1 he ackn[l$g$ ! div9ity ( ! heav5ly bodies on ! gr\nd t !y mu/ h a s\l s9ce !y _h indep5d5t motion4 ,fur!r1 he has a k9d ( supreme god :o1 himself unmov$1 is ! cause ( all movem5t1 & ^: con/itu5t quality is reason4 ,z reg>ds ! gods ( popul> belief1 9 8 ,e?ics & 8 ,politics he assumes public wor%ip to be a necess>y con/itu5t ( ! life ( ! individual & ! community4 ,he gave no gr\nds = ?is assumption--on ! contr>y1 he expressly decl>$ t x 0 a "q :i* ought n to be discuss$ at all3 he :o /irs up d\bts :e!r hon\r %\ld be paid to ! gods is 9 ne$ n ( tea*+ b ( puni%m5t4 7,t he himself took "p 9 wor%ip is evid5t f 8 w47 ,fur!r1 9 8 e?ical works he us$ ! conceptions ( ! gods almo/ 9 ! same way z we h assum$ t ,socrates did1 i4e4 z ! e?ical ideal & det]m9+ ! limits ( ! human4 ,he nev] ent]$ ^u any elaborate criticism ( ! l[] elem5ts ( popul> religion su* z ,plato gave4 ,s f> ev]y?+ is 9 admirable ord]4 ,b if we look m closely at ?+s !re is nev]!less ne>ly always a little 8b0 9 ,ari/otle's utt]ances ab\t ! gods4 ,:]e he op]ates ) popul> notions he pref]s to speak hypo!tically or to ref] to :at is g5]ally assum$2 or he is cont5t to use only def9itions :i* w also agree ) 8 own philosophical conception ( ,god4 ,b he goes fur!r2 9 a few places 9 8 writ+s !re are utt]ances :i* x seems c only be int]pret$ z a radical d5ial ( ! popul> religion4 ,! mo/ important ( !m des]ves to be quot$ 9 ext5so3 8,a tradition has be5 h&$ d[n f ! anci5ts & f ! mo/ primitive times1 & left to lat] ages 9 ! =m ( my?1 t ^! sub/ances 7i4e4 sky & heav5ly bodies7 are gods & t ! div9e embraces all nature4 ,! re/ consi/s 9 leg5d>y additions int5d$ to impress ! multitude & s]ve ! purposes ( legislation & ! common weal2 = ^! gods are said to h human %ape or resemble c]ta9 o!r be+s 7animals71 & !y say o!r ?+s :i* foll[ f ?is & are ( a simil> k9d to ^? already m5tion$4 ,b if we disreg>d all ?is & re/rict ourselves to ! fir/ po9t1 t !y ?\ght t ! fir/ sub/ances 7 gods1 we mu/ ackn[l$ge t x is a div9ely inspir$ say+4 ,& z1 9 all probability1 e art & sci5ce has be5 discov]$ _m times1 z f> z x is possible1 & has p]i%$ aga91 s ^! notions1 too1 may h be5 pres]v$ till n[ z relics ( ^? times4 ,to ?is ext5t only c we h any idea ( ! op9ion :i* 0 held by our fa!rs & has come d[n f ! beg9n+ ( ?+s40 ,! la/ s5t5ces1 express+ ,ari/otle's idea ( a life-cycle & p]iods ( civilisation :i* repeat !mselves1 h only be5 includ$ 9 ! quotation = ! sake ( complet5ess4 ,if we disreg>d !m1 ! passage pla9ly en\gh /ates ! view t ! only elem5t ( tru? 9 ! traditional notions ab\t ! gods 0 ! div9ity ( ! sky & ! heav5ly bodies2 ! re/ is my?4 ,ari/otle has n[h]e else express$ himself ) su* di/9ctness & 9 su* l5g?1 b !n ! passage 9 "q has a place ( its own4 ,x comes 9 8 ,metaphysics directly aft] ! exposition ( 8 philosophical conception ( ,god--a position m>k$ by pr(\nd e>ne/ness & z x 7 irradiat$ by a quiet inn] f]v\r4 ,we feel t we are "h approa*+ ! sanctum sanctorum ( ! ?9k]4 ,9 ?is connexion1 & only "h1 he wi%$ = once to /ate 8 op9ion ab\t ! religion ( 8 "t )\t res]ve4 ,:at he says "h is a precise =mulation ( ! result arriv$ at by ! be/ ,greek ?9k]s z reg>ds ! religion ( ! ,greek p4 ,x 0 n1 !y ?\ght1 pure fabrication4 ,x conta9$ an elem5t ( tru? ( ! greate/ value4 ,b mo/ ( x consi/$ ( human inv5tions )\t any reality beh9d !m4 ,a po9t ( view l t ( ,ari/otle w\ld1 ,i suppose1 h>dly h be5 call$ a!ism among ! anci5ts1 if only because ! heav5ly bodies 7 ackn[l$g$ z div9e4 ,b accord+ to our def9ition x is a!ism4 ,! 8sky0-gods ( ,ari/otle h no?+ 9 common ) ! gods ( popul> belief1 n ev5 _! names1 = ,ari/otle nev] names !m4 ,& ! re/1 ! :ole cr[d ( ,greek an?ropomorphic gods1 exi/ only 9 ! human imag9ation4 ,ari/otle's successors (f] little ( int]e/ to our inquiry4 ,!ophra/us 0 *>g$ ) impiety1 b ! *>ge broke d[n completely4 ,8 !ological /&po9t 0 c]ta9ly ! same z ,ari/otle's4 ,( ,/rato1 ! mo/ indep5d5t ( ! ,p]ipatetics1 we "k t 9 8 view ( nature he laid great] /ress on ! mat]ial causes ?an ,ari/otle did1 & s arriv$ at a diff]5t conception ( ! supreme deity4 ,ari/otle _h sev]$ ! deity f ,nature & plac$ x outside ! latt] z an incorporeal be+ ^: *ief det]m9+ factor 0 reason4 ,9 ,/rato's view ! deity 0 id5tical ) ,nature &1 l ! latt]1 0 )\t consci\sness2 consci\sness 0 only f\nd 9 organic nature4 ,consequ5tly we _c suppose him to h believ$ 9 ! div9ity ( ! heav5ly bodies 9 ,ari/otle's s5se1 ?\gh no direct /atem5t on ?is subject has come d[n to u4 ,ab\t 8 attitude t[>ds popul> belief we he> no?+4 ,a d5ial ( ! popul> gods is n necess>ily impli$ 9 ,/rato's !ory1 b seems reasonable 9 itself & is fur!r r5d]$ probable by ! fact t all writ]s seem to take x = grant$ t ,/rato knew no god o!r ?an ! :ole ( ,nature4 ,we designat$ ,socratic philosophy1 9 its relation to popul> belief1 z a reaction aga9/ ! radical free-?\ght ( ! sophi/ic movem5t4 ,x may seem peculi> t ) ,ari/otle x develops into a view :i* we c only describe z a!ism4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 an important diff]5ce betwe5 ! /&po9ts ( ! sophi/s & ( ,ari/otle4 ,radical z ! latt] is at bottom1 x is n1 h[ev]1 op5ly oppos$ to popul> belief--on ! contr>y1 to any "o :o did n exam9e x m closely x mu/ h _h ! appe>ance ( accept+ popul> belief4 ,! v assumption t ! heav5ly bodies 7 div9e w\ld contribute to t effect2 ?is1 z we h se51 0 a po9t on :i* ! popul> view laid great /ress4 ,if we add to ?is t ,ari/otle nev] made ! exi/5ce ( ! popul> gods matt] ( debate2 t he expressly ackn[l$g$ ! e/abli%$ wor%ip2 & t he consi/5tly made use ( c]ta9 fundam5tal notions ( popul> belief 9 8 philosophy--we c h>dly avoid ! conclusion t1 not)/&+ 8 p]sonal emancipation f ! exi/+ religion1 he is a true repres5tative ( ! ,socratic reaction aga9/ sophi/ic4 ,b we see1 too1 t !re is a res]vation 9 ?is reaction4 ,9 cont9uity ) e>li] ,greek ?\ght on religion1 x proce$$ f ! absolute def9itions ( ! div9e (f]$ by popul> belief1 b :5 criticis+ an?ropomorphism on ?is basis x did n aft] all avoid fall+ out ) popul> belief4 ,h[ f> ea* philosoph] w5t 9 8 antagonism 0 a matt] ( discretion1 z also 0 ! means *os5 to reconcile ! philosophical ) ! popul> view4 ,! !ology ( ! ,socratic s*ools ?us suff]$ f a c]ta9 half-he>t$ness2 9 ! ma9 x has ! "* ( a compromise4 ,x w\ld n give up ! popul> notions ( ! gods1 & yet !y 7 cont9ually gett+ 9 ! way4 ,?is dualism gov]ns ! :ole ( ! succe$+ ,greek philosophy4 ,,*apt] ,,vi ,dur+ ! ?ree or f\r c5turies :i* pass$ betwe5 ! d[nfall ( free ,hellas & ! beg9n+ ( ! ,roman ,empire1 great social & political *anges took place 9 ! anci5t _w1 involv+ also vital *anges 9 religion4 ,! *ief ph5om5on 9 ?is field1 ! invasion ( =eign1 especially ori5tal1 religions into ,hellas1 does n come )9 ! scope ( ?is inve/igation4 ,on ! "o h&1 x is an expression ( dissatisfaction ) ! old gods2 on ! o!r1 ! intrusion ( new gods w\ld contribute to ! ou/+ ( ! old ones4 ,!re is no "q ( a!ism "h2 x is only a *ange )9 poly!ism4 ,b ap>t f ?is *ange !re is evid5ce t ! old fai? _h lo/ its hold on m5's m9ds to no inconsid]able ext5t4 ,"h1 too1 !re is h>dly any "q ( a!ism prop]ly speak+1 b z a backgr\nd to !--n v num]\s--evid5ces ( su* a!ism 9 our p]iod1 we _c well ignore ! decl9e ( ! popul> fai?4 ,our inve/igation is r5d]$ difficult on ?is po9t1 & g5]ally )9 ?is p]iod1 by ! lack ( direct evid5ce4 ,( ! ri* ,hell5i/ic lit]ature almo/ ev]y?+ has be5 lo/1 & we are re/rict$ to reports & fragm5ts4 ,9 ord] to ga9 a concrete />t+-po9t we w beg9 ) a quotation f ! hi/orian ,polybius--s to speak ! only ,greek prose au?or ( ! e>li] ,hell5i/ic p]iod ( ^: works consid]able & connect$ portions are pres]v$4 ,polybius wrote 9 ! latt] half ( ! second c5tury a hi/ory ( ! _w 9 :i* ,rome took ! dom9ant place4 ,"h he gave1 among o!r ?+s1 a detail$ description ( ! ,roman con/itution & ?us came to t\* ^u ! /ate ( religion 9 ,rome z comp>$ ) t 9 ,greece4 ,he says on ?is subject3 8,! greate/ advantage ( ! ,roman con/itution seems to me to lie 9 its conception ( ! gods1 & ,i believe t :at among o!r peoples is despis$ is :at holds toge!r ! ,roman p[]--,i mean sup]/ition4 ,= ?is feature has by !m be5 develop$ s f> 9 ! direction ( ! #8horrible1' & has s p]meat$ bo? private & public life1 t x is q unique4 ,_m w p]haps f9d ?is /range1 b ,i ?9k !y h act$ s ) an eye to ! mass ( ! p4 ,= if x 7 possible to compose a /ate ( reasonable p su* a proc$ure w\ld no d\bt be unnecess>y1 b z e p reg>d$ z a mass is easily impress$ & full ( crim9al in/9cts1 unreasonable viol5ce1 & fi]ce passion1 !re is no?+ to be done b to keep ! masses "u by vague fe>s & su*-l hocus-pocus4 ,!re=e x is my op9ion t x 0 n )\t good reason or by m]e *ance t ! anci5ts imp>t$ to ! masses ! notions ( ! gods & ! und]world1 b r is x ?\ghtless & irrational :5 n[adays we seek to de/roy !m40 ,z a pro( ( ?is la/ /atem5t foll[s a comp>ison betwe5 ! /ate ( public morals 9 ,greece & 9 ,rome4 ,9 ,greece y _c tru/ a man ) a few hundr$ p\nds )\t t5 not>ies & z _m seals & d\ble ! numb] ( witnesses2 9 ,rome great public treasure is adm9i/]$ ) hone/y m]ely "u ! safegu>d ( an oa?4 ,z we see1 ?is passage conta9s direct evid5ce t 9 ! second c5tury 9 ,hellas--9 contradi/9ction to ,rome--!re 0 an attempt to break d[n ! belief 9 ! gods4 ,by 8 8we0 ,polybius evid5tly ref]r$ especially to ! lead+ political circles4 ,he knew ^! circles f p]sonal exp]i5ce1 & 8 te/imony has all ! m weight because he does n come =w>d 9 ! rle ( ! or?odox man compla9+ 9 ! usual way ( ! impiety ( 8 contempor>ies2 on ! contr>y1 he speaks z ! educat$ & enlight5$ man to :om x is a matt] ( c\rse t all ?is talk ab\t ! gods & ! und]world is a my? :i* nobody among ! bett] classes takes s]i\sly4 ,?is is a tone we h n he>d be=e1 & x is a /rong indirect te/imony to ! fact t ,polybius is n wrong :5 he speaks ( disbelief among ! upp] classes ( ,greece4 ,9 ?is connexion ! "w ( ,polybius has a c]ta9 int]e/ on ano!r po9t4 ,:]e e>li]--& lat]--au?ors w\ld speak ( ! int]v5tion ( ! gods 9 ! m>* ( hi/ory1 he op]ates z a rule ) an idea :i* he calls ,ty*e4 ,! ^w is untranslatable :5 us$ 9 ?is way4 ,x is some?+ betwe5 *ance1 =tune & fate4 ,x is m compreh5sive & m p]sonal ?an *ance2 x has n ! immutable1 ! 8lawb\nd0 "* ( fate2 r x d5otes ! incalculability1 ! caprici\sness associat$1 especially 9 e>li] usage1 ) ! ^w =tune1 b )\t ! t5d5cy ( ?is ^w to be us$ 9 a good s5se4 ,?is ,ty*e-religion--if we may use ?is expression--0 n new 9 ,hellas4 ,q e>ly we f9d ,ty*e wor%ipp$ z a goddess among ! o!r deities1 & x is an old notion t ! gods s5d good =tune1 a notion :i* set its m>k on a s]ies ( e/abli%$ phrases 9 private & public life4 ,b :at is ( int]e/ "h is t %ift+ ( religi\s ideas 9 ! c\rse ( :i* ,ty*e drives ! gods into ! backgr\nd4 ,we f9d indications ( x z e>ly z ,?ucydides4 ,9 8 view ( hi/ory he lays ! ma9 /ress1 c]ta9ly1 on human initiative1 & n lea/ on rational calculation1 z ! cause ( ev5ts4 ,b :]e he is oblig$ to reckon ) an elem5t indep5d5t ( human ef=ts1 he calls x ,ty*e & n 8! immortal gods40 ,a some:at simil> view we f9d 9 ano!r great political au?or ( ! /age ( transition to our p]iod1 namely1 ,demo/h5es4 ,demo/h5es ( c\rse employs ! (ficial app>atus ( gods3 he invokes !m on solemn occasions2 he quotes _! au?ority 9 support ( 8 ass]tions 7once he ev5 report$ a revelation :i* he _h 9 a dream72 he calls 8 oppon5ts enemies ( ! gods1 etc4 ,b 9 8 political consid]ations ! gods play a negligible "p4 ,! factors ) :i* he reckons z a rule are m]ely political =ces4 ,:]e he is compell$ to br+ =w>d elem5ts :i* man _c control1 he %[s a pref]5ce = ,ty*e4 ,he c]ta9ly occasionally id5tifies h] ) ! fav\r ( ! gods1 b 9 su* a way z to give ! impression t x is only a faon de p>l]4 ,direct pron\ncem5ts ( a free-?9k+ k9d "o w\ld n expect f an orator & /atesman1 & yet ,demo/h5es 0 once bold en\gh to say t ,py?ia1 ! m\?piece ( ! ,delphic ,oracle1 0 a p>tisan ( ,mac$onia1 an utt]ance :i* 8 oppon5t ,aes*9es1 :o lik$ to p>ade 8 or?odoxy1 did n omit to ca/ 9 8 tee?4 ,on ! :ole1 ,aes*9es lik$ to repres5t ,demo/h5es z a godless fell[1 & x is n p]haps )\t significance t ! latt] nev] directly repli$ to su* attacks1 or indirectly did any?+ to impair _! =ce4 ,dur+ ! viol5t revolutions t took place 9 ,hellas "u ,alex&] ! ,great & 8 successors1 & ! in/ability ( social & political conditions consequ5t !reon1 ! ,ty*e-religion receiv$ a fre% impetus4 ,) "o /roke ,hellas 0 flung into _w politics4 ,ev]y?+ grew to colossal proportions 9 comp>ison ) e>li] conditions4 ,! small ,hell5ic city-/ates t _h hi!rto be5 ea* = itself a _w %rank into no?+4 ,x is z if ! old gods c\ld n keep pace ) ?is viol5t process ( expansion4 ,m5 felt a crav+ = a wid] & m compreh5sive religi\s concept to answ] to ! *ang$ conditions1 & su* an idea 0 f\nd 9 ! idea ( ,ty*e4 ,?\ghtful m51 su* z ,demetrius ( ,phal]um1 wrote :ole books ab\t x2 /ates built temples to ,ty*e2 9 private religion also x play$ a great "p4 ,no "o reflect$ mu* on ! relation ( ,ty*e to ! old gods4 ,x mu/ be rememb]$ t ,ty*e is a real layman's notion1 & t ,hell5i/ic philosophy reg>d$ x z its task precisely to r5d] man indep5d5t ( ! :ims ( fate4 ,sometimes1 h[ev]1 we f9d a positive /atem5t ( ! view t ,ty*e rul$ ov] ! gods also4 ,x is *>act]i/ic ( ! /ate ( affairs2 m5 did n want to rel9qui% ! old gods1 b c\ld n any long] all[ !m ! lead+ place4 ,if we return = a mom5t to ,polybius1 we %all f9d t 8 conception ( ,ty*e /rik+ly illu/rates ! di/ance betwe5 him & ,?ucydides4 ,9 ! introduction to 8 "w1 on its fir/ page1 he po9ts out t ! univ]sally ackn[l$g$ task ( hi/orical writ+ is p>tly to educate p = political activities1 p>tly to tea* !m to be> ! vicissitudes ( =tune ) =titude by rem9d+ !m ( ! lot ( o!rs4 ,& subsequ5tly1 :5 he passes on to 8 ma9 !me1 ! f\ndation ( ! ,roman _w-empire1 aft] hav+ expla9$ ! plan ( 8 "w1 he says3 8,s f> !n our plan4 ,b ! co-op]ation ( =tune is /ill ne$$ if my life is to be long en\gh = me to accompli% my purpose40 ,an e>li]--or a lat]--au?or w\ld "h ei!r h left ! high] p[]s out ( ! game altoge!r or w\ld h us$ an expression %[+ m submission to ! gods ( ! popul> fai?4 ,9 a lat] au?or1 ,pl9y ! ,eld]1 we aga9 f9d a *>act]i/ic utt]ance ?r[+ light ^u ! significance ( ! ,ty*e-religion4 ,aft] a v free-?9k+ survey ( ! popul> notions reg>d+ ! gods1 ,pl9y says3 8,z an int]m$iate position betwe5 ^! two views 7t !re is a div9e provid5ce & t !re is none7 m5 h !mselves inv5t$ ano!r div9e p[]1 9 ord] t speculation ab\t ! deity might become /ill m unc]ta94 ,?r\gh\t ! _w1 9 e place1 at e h\r ( ! day1 ,=tune alone is invok$ & nam$ by e m\?2 %e alone is accus$1 %e be>s ! guilt ( ev]y?+2 ( h] only d we ?9k1 to h] is all praise1 to h] all blame4 ,& %e is wor%ipp$ ) rail+ words--%e is deem$ incon/ant1 by _m ev5 bl9d2 %e is fickle1 un/able1 unc]ta91 *angeable2 giv+ h] fav\rs to ! unwor?y4 ,to h] is imput$ e loss1 e ga92 9 all ! acc\nts ( life %e alone fills up bo? ! debit & ! cr$it side1 & we are s subject to *ance t ,*ance itself becomes our god1 & aga9 proves ! inc]titude ( ! deity40 ,ev5 if a great deal ( ?is may be put d[n to rhetoric1 by :i* ,pl9y 0 easily c>ri$ away1 ! solid fact itself rema9s t he felt ju/ifi$ 9 speak+ z if ,dame ,=tune _h de?ron$ all ! old gods4 ,t ?is view ( life mu/ h p]si/$ v t5aci\sly ev5 d[n to a "t :5 a /rong reaction 9 ! direction ( positive religi\s feel+ _h set 91 is prov$ by ! romances ( ! "t4 ,! novels ( ! anci5ts 7 9 g5]al poor productions4 ,mo/ ( !m are made aft] ! recipe ( a little mis=tune 9 ea* *apt] & great happ9ess 9 ! la/4 ,! two lov]s meet1 fall 9 love1 "p1 & suff] a s]ies ( tr\bles individually until !y are f9ally unit$4 ,! p[] t gov]ns _! fates & %apes ev]y?+ accord+ to ?is patt]n is regul>ly ,ty*e1 nev] ! gods4 ,! te/imony ( ! novels is ( special significance because !y 7 read by ! g5]al mass ( ! educat$ classes1 n by ! select :o _h philosophy to guide !m4 ,ano!r te/imony to ! weak5+ ( popul> fai? 9 ! ,hell5i/ic age is ! decay ( ! in/itution ( ! ,oracle4 ,?is1 also1 is ( e>ly date2 z e>ly z ! fif? & f\r? c5tury we he> mu* less ( ! int]f]5ce ( ! oracles 9 political matt]s ?an 9 e>li] times4 ,! mo/ important ( !m all1 ! ,delphic ,oracle1 0 dealt a t]rible bl[ 9 ! ,holy ,w> 7#cef-cdf ,b4,c471 :5 ! ,phocians seiz$ x & us$ ! treasures :i* _h be5 accumulat$ 9 x dur+ c5turies to hire m]c5>ies & c>ry on w>4 ,su* proce$+s w\ld assur$ly h be5 impossible a c5tury e>li]2 no soldi]s c\ld h be5 hir$ ) money acquir$ 9 su* a way1 or1 if !y c\ld h be5 procur$1 all ,hellas w\ld h ris5 9 arms aga9/ ! robb]s ( ! ,temple1 :]eas 9 ! ,holy ,w> mo/ ( ! /ates 7 indiff]5t1 & sev]al ev5 sid$ ) ! ,phocians4 ,9 ! succe$+ ye>s1 aft] ,philip ( ,mac$onia _h put an end to ! ,phocian sc&al1 ! ,oracle 0 9 reality 9 8 h&s--x 0 dur+ ?is p]iod t ,demo/h5es /igmatis$ x z ! m\?piece ( ,philip4 ,9 ! succe$+ c5turies1 too1 x 0 dep5d5t on ! v>i\s rul]s ( ,hellas & und\bt$ly lo/ all public au?ority4 ,dur+ ?is p]iod we he> v little ( ! oracles ( ,hellas until ! "t be=e & aft] ! bir? ( ,*ri/ provides u ) def9ite evid5ce ( _! complete decay4 ,?us ,/rabo1 :o wrote dur+ ! reign ( ,augu/us1 says t ! anci5ts atta*$ m importance to div9ation g5]ally & oracles m p>ticul>ly1 :]eas p 9 8 day 7 q indiff]5t to ^! ?+s4 ,he gives z ! reason t ! ,romans 7 cont5t to use ! ,sibyll9e books & _! own sy/em ( div9ation4 ,8 rem>k is made a propos ( ! ,oracle 9 ,libya1 :i* 0 =m]ly 9 great repute1 b 0 almo/ ext9ct 9 8 "t4 ,he is und\bt$ly correct z to ! fact1 b ! decl9e ( ! oracul> sy/em _c be expla9$ by ! indiff]5ce ( ! ,romans4 ,plut>*1 9 a monograph on ! discont9uance ( ! oracles1 furni%es u ) m detail$ in=mation4 ,f ?is x appe>s t n only ! ,oracle ( ,ammon b also ! num]\s oracles ( ,boeotia _h ceas$ to exi/1 ) "o exception1 :ile ev5 = ! ,oracle at ,delphi1 :i* _h =m]ly employ$ ?ree prie/esses1 a s+le "o amply suffic$4 ,we also note ! rem>k t ! que/ions submitt$ to ! ,oracle 7 mo/ly unwor?y or ( no importance4 ,! want ( consid]ation sometimes %[n to sacr$ places & ?+s dur+ ! w>s ( ! ,hell5i/ic p]iod may no d\bt also be reg>d$ z ! result ( a weak5+ ( int]e/ 9 ! old gods4 ,we h detail$ in=mation on ?is po9t f ! w> betwe5 ,philip ( ,mac$onia & ! ,aetolians 9 #bbj-bag ,b4,c4 ,! ,aetolians began by de/roy+ ! temples at ,dium & ,dodona1 :]eupon ,philip retaliat$ by totally wreck+ ! f$]al sanctu>y ( ! ,aetolians at ,!rmon4 ,( ,philip's admiral ,dicae>*us we are told by ,polybius t :]ev] he l&$ he erect$ alt>s to 8godlessness & lawlessness0 & (f]$ up sacrifice on !m4 ,judg+ by ! way he 0 hat$1 8 practice mu/ h answ]$ to 8 !ory4 ,"o m ph5om5on mu/ be m5tion$ 9 ?is context1 ?\gh x falls outside ! limits )9 :i* we h hi!rto mov$1 & ?\gh its connexion ) free-?\ght & religi\s enlight5m5t w no d\bt1 on clos] exam9ation1 prove disputable4 ,?is is ! decay ( ! e/abli%$ wor%ip ( ! ,roman ,/ate 9 ! lat] ye>s ( ! ,republic4 ,9 ! prec$+ pages !re has be5 no occasion to include conditions 9 ,rome 9 our inve/igation1 simply because no?+ has come d[n to u ab\t a!ism 9 ! e>li] days ( ,rome1 & we may presume t x did n exi/4 ,( any religi\s ?\ght at ,rome correspond+ to t ( ! ,greeks we he> no?+1 nor did ! ,romans produce any philosophy4 ,:atev] k ( philosophy !re 0 at ,rome 0 simply borr[$ f ! ,greeks4 ,! ,greek influ5ce 0 n s]i\sly felt until ! second c5tury ,b4,c41 ev5 ?\gh z e>ly z ab\t ! middle ( ! ?ird c5tury ! ,romans1 ?r\gh ! p]=mance ( plays translat$ f ! ,greek1 made acqua9tance ) ,greek dramatic poetry & ! religi\s ?\ght conta9$ !re94 ,nei!r ! latt]1 nor ! h]esies ( ! philosoph]s1 seem to h made any deep impression ^u !m4 ,ennius1 _! mo/ important poet ( ! second c5tury1 0 no d\bt /rongly influ5c$ by ,greek free-?9k+1 b ?is 0 evid5tly an isolat$ ph5om5on4 ,also1 by bir? ,ennius 0 n a native ( ,rome b half a ,greek4 ,! te/imony ( ,polybius 7f ! close ( ! second c5tury7 to ,roman religi\s cons]vatism is emphatic en\gh4 ,its causes are d\btless ( a complex nature1 b z "o ( !m ! peculi> "* ( ! ,roman religion itself /&s out prom95tly4 ,h[ev] mu* x resembl$ ,greek religion 9 ext]nals--a resemblance :i* 0 /r5g!n$ by num]\s loans bo? ( religi\s rites & ( deities--x is decid$ly di/9ct f x 9 be+ re/rict$ /ill m to cultus &1 above all1 9 be+ entirely devoid ( my?ology4 ,! ,roman gods 7 p[]s ab\t ! rites ( ^: wor%ip ! mo/ accurate details 7 kn[n or c\ld be asc]ta9$ if ne$ 71 b !y _h little p]sonality1 & ab\t _! p]sonal relations p knew little & c>$ less4 ,?is 01 ae/hetically1 a great defect4 ,! ,roman gods af=d$ no good !me = poetry & art1 & :5 !y 7 to be us$ z su* !y 7 inv>iably replac$ by loans f ! ,greeks4 ,b1 z 9 ! face ( ,greek free-?\ght & ,greek criticism ( religion1 !y _h ! advantage t ! vital po9t = attack 0 lack+4 ,all ! objectionable tales ( ! exploits ( ! gods & ! associat$ ideas ab\t _! nature :i* _h prompt$ ! ,greek attack on ! popul> fai? simply did n exi/ 9 ,roman religion4 ,on ! o!r h&1 its rites 7 9 _m po9ts m primitive ?an ! ,greek ones1 b ,greek philosophy _h be5 v res]v$ 9 its criticism ( ritual4 ,we may ?us no d\bt take x = grant$1 ?\gh we h no direct evid5ce to t effect1 t ev5 ,romans ) a ,greek education long reg>d$ ! ,greek criticism ( religion z some?+ =eign :i* 0 none ( _! conc]n4 ,t a "t came :5 all ?is 0 *ang$2 t t[>ds ! end ( ! ,republic great scepticism conc]n+ ! e/abli%$ religion ( ,rome 0 f\nd among ! upp] classes1 is beyond d\bt1 & we %all subsequ5tly f9d occasion to consid] ?is m closely4 ,9 ?is connexion ano!r circum/ance dem&s att5tion1 "o :i*1 moreov]1 has by "s be5 associat$ ) ,greek influ5ce among ! upp] classes1 namely1 ! decay ( ! e/abli%$ wor%ip ( ! ,roman ,/ate dur+ ! la/ ye>s ( ! ,republic4 ,( ! actual facts !re c h>dly be any d\bt1 ?\gh we "k v little ab\t !m4 ,! decisive symptoms are3 t ,augu/us1 aft] hav+ tak5 ov] ! gov]nm5t1 _h to repair "s eighty dilapidat$ temples 9 ,rome & re9/itute a s]ies ( religi\s rites & prie/hoods :i* _h ceas$ to function4 ,among !m 0 "o ( ! mo/ important1 t ( ! prie/ ( ,jupit]1 an (fice :i* _h be5 vacant = m ?an sev5ty-five ye>s 7#hg-aa ,b4,c471 because x exclud$ ! hold] f a political c>e]4 ,fur!r1 t compla9ts 7 made ( private p]sons encroa*+ on places t 7 res]v$ = religi\s wor%ip2 & t ,v>ro1 :5 writ+ 8 great "w on ! ,roman religion1 9 _m cases 0 unable to discov] :at god 0 ! object ( an exi/+ cult2 & g5]ally1 accord+ to 8 own /atem5t he wrote 8 "w1 among o!r ?+s1 9 ord] to save great portions ( ! old ,roman religion f fall+ into utt] oblivion on acc\nt ( ! indiff]5ce ( ! ,romans !mselves4 ,x is obvi\s t su* a /ate ( affairs w\ld h be5 impossible 9 a community :]e ! traditional religion 0 a liv+ p[]1 n only =mally ackn[l$g$ by ev]ybody1 b felt to be a necess>y ( life1 ! spiritual daily bread1 z x 71 ( ! nation4 ,to hold1 h[ev]1 t ! ma9 cause ( ! decay ( ! e/abli%$ religion ( ,rome 0 ! invasion ( ,greek culture1 toge!r ) ! fact t ! memb]s ( ! ,roman ari/ocracy1 f :om ! prie/s 7 recruit$ & :o sup]9t5d$ ! cult1 _h become indiff]5t to ! traditional religion ?r\gh ?is influ5ce1 ?is1 ,i ?9k1 is to g altoge!r a/ray4 ,we may take x = grant$ t ! gov]n+ classes 9 ,rome w\ld n h v5tur$ to let ! cult decay if !re _h be5 any s]i\s int]e/ 9 x among ! masses ( ! population2 & x is equally c]ta9 t ,greek philosophy & religi\s criticism did n p5etrate to ^! masses4 ,:5 !y became indiff]5t to ! national religion1 ?is 0 due to causes t _h no?+ to d ) free-?\ght4 ,! old ,roman religion 0 adapt$ = a small1 n>r[ & homog5e\s community ^: ma9 con/itu5t & real core consi/$ ( ! f>m]s1 l>ge & small1 & m9or artisans4 ,9 ! la/ c5turies ( ! ,republic ! social developm5t _h occasion$ ! complete decay ( ! ,roman peasantry1 & ! free artisans _h f>$ little bett]4 ,9 ! place ( ! old ,rome _h aris5 ! capital ( an empire1 inhabit$ by a population ( a million & ( extraord9>ily mix$ composition4 ,n only did ?is population comprise a numb] ( immigrant =eign]s1 b1 9 consequ5ce ( ! peculi> ,roman rule t e slave on be+ set free atta9$ citiz5%ip1 a l>ge p]c5tage ( ! citiz5s mu/ ( necessity h be5 ( =eign orig94 ,only c]ta9 portions ( ! ,roman religion1 m especially ! cult ( ! great c5tral deities ( ! ,/ate religion1 c h kept pace ) ^! *ang$ conditions2 ! rema9d] _h 9 reality lo/ all hold on ,roman society z x _h develop$ 9 process ( "t1 & 0 only kept alive by =ce ( habit4 ,to ?is mu/ be add$ ! peculi> ,roman mixture ( mobility & cons]vatism 9 religi\s matt]s4 ,! ,roman sup]/ition & unc]ta9ty 9 reg>d to ! gods l$ on ! "o h& to a cont9ual sett+ up ( new cults & new sanctu>ies1 & on ! o!r h& to a fe> ( lett+ any ( ! old cults die out4 ,9 consequ5ce !re( a great deal ( dead & wor?less ritual mat]ial mu/ h accumulat$ 9 ,rome 9 ! c\rse ( c5turies1 & 0 ( c\rse 9 ! way dur+ ! rapid developm5t ( ! city 9 ! la/ c5tury ( ! ,republic4 ,?+s mu/ gradually h come to su* a pass t a ?or\gh re=m1 above all a r$uction1 ( ! :ole cult _h become a necessity4 ,to introduce su* a re=m ! republican gov]nm5t 0 j z unsuit$ z x 0 to c>ry out all ! o!r tasks impos$ by ! developm5t ( ! empire & ! capital at t "t4 ,on ?is po9t1 h[ev]1 x mu/ n be =gott5 t ! gov]n+ class n only lack$ ability1 = political reasons1 to c>ry out s]i\s re=ms1 b also ! w to d s1 on acc\nt ( religi\s indiff]5ce1 & s let ?+s g altoge!r to ! bad4 ,! consequ5ce 0 an>*y1 9 ?is z 9 all o!r sph]es at t "t2 b at ! same "t ! t5d5cy t[>ds ! only s5sible issue1 a re/riction ( ! old ,roman ,/ate-cult1 is pla9ly evid5t4 ,! simultane\s /rong infusion ( =eign religions 0 unavoidable 9 ! mix$ population ( ! capital4 ,t ^! influ5ces also affect$ ! l[] classes ( ! citiz5s is at any rate a pro( t !y 7 n indiff]5t to religion4 ,9 its ma9 outl9es ?is is all ! in=mation t ,i h be5 able to glean ab\t ! g5]al decl9e ( ! belief 9 ! gods dur+ ! ,hell5i/ic p]iod4 ,judg+ f su* in=mation we %\ld expect to f9d /rong t5d5cies to a!ism 9 ! philosophy ( ! p]iod4 ,^! anticipations are1 h[ev]1 doom$ to disappo9tm5t4 ,! rul+ philosophical s*ools on ! :ole pres]v$ a fri5dly attitude t[>ds ! gods ( ! popul> fai? & especially t[>ds _! wor%ip1 al?\gh !y only accept$ ! exi/+ religion ) /rict res]vation4 ,mo/ *>act]i/ic b lea/ consi/5t & orig9al 0 ! attitude ( ! ,/oic s*ool4 ,! ,/oics 7 pan!i/s4 ,_! deity 0 a sub/ance :i* !y designat$ z fire1 b :i*1 x mu/ be admitt$1 diff]$ greatly f fire z an elem5t4 ,x p]meat$ ! entire _w4 ,x _h produc$ ! _w out ( itself1 & x absorb$ x aga91 & ?is process 0 repeat$ to et]nity4 ,! div9e fire 0 also reason1 & z su* ! cause ( ! h>mony ( ! _w-ord]4 ,:at ( consci\s reason 0 f\nd 9 ! _w 0 "p ( ! div9e reason4 ,?\gh 9 ?is s*eme ( ?+s !re 0 9 ! ab/ract pl5ty ( room = ! gods ( popul> belief1 nev]!less ! ,/oics did n 9 reality ackn[l$ge !m4 ,9 pr9ciple _! /&po9t 0 ! same z ,ari/otle's4 ,!y suppos$ ! heav5ly bodies to be div9e1 b all ! re/1 namely1 ! an?ropomorphic gods1 7 no?+ to !m4 ,9 _! explanation ( ! orig9 ( ! gods !y w5t beyond ,ari/otle1 b _! doctr9e 0 n always ! same on ?is po9t4 ,! e>li] ,/oics reg>d$ my?ology & all !ology z human inv5tions1 b n arbitr>y inv5tions4 ,my?ology1 !y ?\ght1 %\ld be und]/ood allegorically2 x 0 ! nave expression p>tly ( a correct conception ( ,nature1 p>tly ( e?ical & metaphysical tru?s4 ,/rictly speak+1 m5 _h always be5 ,/oics1 ?\gh 9 an imp]fect way4 ,?is po9t ( view 0 elaborat$ 9 detail by ! fir/ ,/oics1 :o took _! /& p>tly on ! e>li] naturalism :i* _h already brok5 ! gr\nd 9 ?is direction1 & p>tly on sophi/ic1 s t !y ev5 br\ght into vogue aga9 ! !ory ( ,prodicus1 t ! gods 7 a hypo/asis ( ! b5efits ( civilisation4 ,su* a /&po9t c\ld n ( c\rse be ma9ta9$ )\t arbitr>9ess & absurdities :i* expos$ x to emb>rass+ criticism4 ,?is seems to h be5 ! reason :y ! lat] ,/oics1 & especially ,poseidonius1 took ano!r road4 ,!y adopt$ ! doctr9e ( ,x5ocrates ) reg>d to demons & develop$ x 9 fanta/ic =ms4 ,! e>li] me?od 0 n1 h[ev]1 giv5 up1 & at ! "t ( ,cic]o we f9d bo? views repres5t$ 9 ! doctr9e ( ! s*ool4 ,su* is ! appe>ance ( ! !ory4 ,9 bo? its =ms x is evid5tly an attempt to meet popul> belief half-way f a /&po9t :i* is really beyond x4 ,?is t5d5cy is se5 ev5 m pla9ly 9 ! practice ( ! ,/oics4 ,!y recognis$ public wor%ip & insi/$ on its advantages2 9 _! moral reflections !y employ$ ! gods z ideals 9 ! ,socratic mann]1 reg>dless ( ! fact t 9 _! !ory !y did n really all[ = gods :o 7 ideal m52 nay1 !y ev5 w5t ! l5g? ( giv+ to _! philosophical deity1 ! 8univ]sal reason10 ! "n ( ,zeus by pref]5ce1 ?\gh x _h no?+ b ! "n 9 common ) ! ,olympian rul] ( gods & m54 ,?is p]vad+ ambiguity br\ght mu* well-des]v$ repro( on ! ,/oics ev5 9 anci5t times2 b1 h[ev] unattractive x may seem to u1 x is ( significance z a manife/ation ( ! great hold popul> belief cont9u$ to h ev5 on ! m9ds ( ! upp] classes1 = x 0 to ^! t ! ,/oics appeal$4 ,f> m orig9al & consi/5t is ! ,epicurean attitude t[>ds ! popul> fai?4 ,epicurus unres]v$ly ackn[l$g$ its f\ndation1 i4e4 ! exi/5ce ( an?ropomorphic be+s ( a high] ord] ?an man4 ,8 gods _h human %ape b !y 7 et]nal & bless$4 ,9 ! latt] def9ition 0 includ$1 accord+ to ! e?ical ideal ( ,epicurus1 ! idea t ! gods 7 free f e c>e1 includ+ tak+ an int]e/ 9 nature or 9 human affairs4 ,!y 7 entirely outside ! _w1 a fact to :i* ,epicurus gave expression by plac+ !m 9 ! empty spaces betwe5 ! inf9ite numb] ( sph]ical worlds :i* he assum$4 ,!re 8 gods liv$ 9 bliss l ideal ,epicureans4 ,lucretius1 ! only poet ( ?is s*ool1 extoll$ !m 9 spl5did v]se ^: motif he borr[$ f ,hom]'s description ( ,olympus4 ,9 ?is way ,epicurus also manag$ to uphold public wor%ip itself4 ,x c\ld n1 ( c\rse1 h any practical aim1 b x 0 ju/ifi$ z an expression ( ! respect man ow$ to be+s ^: exi/5ce express$ ! human ideal4 ,! reasons :y ,epicurus assum$ ?is attitude t[>ds popul> belief are simple en\gh4 ,he ma9ta9$ t ! evid5ce ( s5sual p]ception 0 ! basis ( all k1 & he ?\ght t ! s5ses 7?r\gh dreams7 gave evid5ce ( ! exi/5ce ( ! gods4 ,& 9 ! popul> ideas ( ! bliss ( ! gods he f\nd 8 e?ical ideal directly confirm$4 ,z reg>ds _! et]nity ! case 0 m difficult4 ,! basis ( 8 sy/em 0 ! !ory t ev]y?+ 0 made ( atoms & t only ! atoms z su*1 n ! bodies compos$ ( ! atoms1 7 et]nal4 ,he conceiv$ ! gods1 too1 z made ( atoms1 nev]!less he held t !y 7 et]nal4 ,any rational explanation ( ?is po/ulate is n possible on ,epicurus's hypo!ses1 & ! criticism ( 8 !ology 0 !re=e especially direct$ aga9/ ?is po9t4 ,epicurus 0 ! ,greek philosoph] :o mo/ consi/5tly took ! c\rse ( emphasis+ ! popul> dogma ( ! p]fection ( ! gods 9 ord] to pres]ve ! popul> notions ab\t !m4 ,& he 0 ! philosoph] to :om ?is w\ld seem ! mo/ obvi\s c\rse1 because 8 e?ical ideal--quietism--agre$ ) ! olde/ popul> ideal ( div9e exi/5ce4 ,9 ?is way ,epicureanism became ! mo/ or?odox ( all ,greek philosophical s*ools4 ,if nev]!less ,epicurus did n escape ! *>ge ( a!ism ! sole reason is t 8 :ole !ology 0 d5\nc$ (f-h& z hypocrisy4 ,x 0 assum$ to be set up by him only to %ield himself aga9/ a *>ge ( impiety1 n to be 8 actual belief4 ,?is accusation is n[ univ]sally ackn[l$g$ to be unju/ifi$1 & ! ,epicureans _h no difficulty 9 rebutt+ x ) int]e/4 ,!y took special delight 9 po9t+ out t ! !ology ( ! o!r s*ools 0 mu* m remote f popul> belief ?an !irs1 nay1 9 spite ( recognition ( ! exi/+ religion1 0 9 tru? fundam5tally at v>iance ) x4 ,b 9 reality _! own 0 9 no bett] case3 gods :o did n tr\ble 9 ! lea/ ab\t human affairs 7 be+s = :om popul> belief _h no use4 ,x made no diff]5ce t ,epicurus's def9ition ( ! nature ( ! gods 0 ! direct outcome ( a fundam5tal doctr9e ( popul> belief4 ,popul> religion w n tol]ate p$antry4 ,9 ?is connexion we _c well pass ov] a ?ird philosophical s*ool :i* play$ no inconspicu\s rle 9 ! latt] half ( our p]iod1 namely1 ,scepticism4 ,! ,sceptic philosophy z su* dates f ,socrates1 f :om ! s-call$ ,meg>ian s*ool took its orig91 b x did n rea* its greate/ importance until ! second c5tury1 :5 ! ,academic s*ool became ,sceptic4 ,x 0 especially ! fam\s philosoph] ,c>neades1 a brilliant ma/] ( logic & dialectic1 :o made a success by 8 se>*+ negative criticism ( ! doctr9es ( ! o!r philosophical s*ools 7! ,dogmatics74 ,= su* criticism ! !ology ( ! philosoph]s 0 a grateful subject1 & ,c>neades did n sp>e x4 ,"h z 9 all ! inve/igations ( ! ,sceptics ! !oretical result 0 t no sci5tific c]ta9ty c\ld be atta9$3 x 0 equally wrong to ass]t or to d5y ! exi/5ce ( ! gods4 ,b 9 practice ! attitude ( ! ,sceptics 0 q diff]5t4 ,j z !y behav$ l o!r p1 act+ ^u _! imm$iate impressions & exp]i5ce1 ?\gh !y did n believe t any?+ c\ld be sci5tifically prov$1 e4g4 n ev5 ! reality ( ! _w ( ! s5ses1 s also did !y ackn[l$ge ! exi/+ cult & liv$ g5]ally l good hea!ns4 ,*>act]i/ic ?\gh ,scepticism be ( a p]iod ( ,greek spiritual life 9 :i* ,greek ?\ght lo/ its belief 9 itself1 x 01 h[ev]1 v f> f support+ a!ism4 ,on ! contr>y1 accord+ to ! correct ,sceptic doctr9e a!ism 0 a dogmatic cont5tion :i* !oretically 0 z objectionable z its anti!sis1 & 9 practice 0 to be utt]ly disc\nt5anc$4 ,a m radical /&po9t ?an ?is z reg>ds ! gods ( ! popul> fai? is n f\nd dur+ ! ,hell5i/ic p]iod except among ! less not$ s*ools1 & 9 ! beg9n+ ( ! p]iod4 ,we h already m5tion$ su* ?9k]s z ,/rato1 ,!odorus1 & ,/ilpo2 *ronologically !y belong to ! ,hell5i/ic ,age1 b 9 virtue ( _! connexion ) ! ,socratic philosophy !y 7 dealt ) 9 ! la/ *apt]4 ,a def9ite polemical attitude t[>ds ! popul> fai? is also a *>act]i/ic ( ! ,cynic s*ool1 h5ce1 ?\gh our in=mation is v meagre1 we mu/ speak ( x a little m fully4 ,! ,cynics cont9u$ ! t5d5cy ( ,anti/h5es1 b ! s*ool comp>atively soon lo/ its importance4 ,aft] ! ?ird c5tury we he> no m ab\t ! ,cynics until !y crop up aga9 ab\t ! ye> ,a4,d4 #ajj4 ,b 9 ! f\r? & ?ird c5turies ! s*ool _h important repres5tatives4 ,! mo/ fam\s is ,diog5es2 8 life1 to be sure1 is entangl$ 9 su* a web ( leg5d t x is difficult to arrive at a true picture ( 8 p]sonality4 ,( 8 attitude t[>ds popul> belief we "k "o ?+1 t he did n take "p 9 ! wor%ip ( ! gods4 ,?is 0 a g5]al pr9ciple ( ! ,cynics2 _! argum5t 0 t ! gods 7 89 ne$ ( no?+0 7cf4 above1 pp4 #fj & #da74 ,if we f9d him accus$ ( a!ism1 9 an anecdote ( v d\btful value1 x may1 if !re is any?+ 9 x1 be due to 8 rejection ( wor%ip4 ,( "o ( 8 successors1 h[ev]1 ,bion ( ,bory/h5es1 we h au!ntic in=mation t he d5i$ ! exi/5ce ( ! gods1 ) ! edify+ leg5d atta*$ t he 0 conv]t$ be=e 8 dea?4 ,b we also he> ( ,bion t he 0 a disciple ( ! a!i/ ,!odorus1 & o!r facts g to sugge/ t ,bion unit$ ,cynic & ,h$oni/ic pr9ciples 9 8 mode ( life--a compromise t 0 n s unlikely z might be suppos$4 ,bion's attitude _c !re=e be tak5 z typical ( ,cynicism4 ,ano!r ,cynic ( ab\t ! same p]iod 7! beg9n+ ( ! ?ird c5tury7 0 ,m5ippus ( ,gad>a 79 nor!rn ,pale/9e74 ,he wrote tales & dialogues 9 a mixture ( prose & v]se4 ,! cont5ts 7 satirical1 ! satire be+ direct$ aga9/ ! contempor>y philosoph]s & _! doctr9es1 & aga9/ ! popul> notions ( ! gods4 ,m5ippus avail$ himself p>tly ( ! old criticism ( my?ology & p>tly ( ! philosophical attacks on ! popul> conception ( ! gods4 ,! only novelty 0 ! faceti\s =m 9 :i* he conceal$ ! /+ ( s]i\s criticism4 ,x is impossible to decide :e!r he positively d5i$ ! exi/5ce ( ! gods1 b 8 satire on ! popul> notions & its success among 8 contempor>ies at lea/ te/ifies to ! weak5+ ( ! popul> fai? among ! educat$ classes4 ,9 ,hellas itself he seems to h gone out ( fa%ion v e>ly2 b ! ,romans took him up aga92 ,v>ro & ,s5eca imitat$ him1 & ,lucian made 8 "n fam\s aga9 9 ! ,greek _w 9 ! second c5tury aft] ,*ri/4 ,x is *iefly due to ,lucian t we c =m an idea ( ,m5ippus's lit]>y "w1 h5ce we %all return to ,cynic satire 9 our *apt] on ! age ( ! ,roman ,empire4 ,dur+ our survey ( ,greek philosophical ?\ght 9 ! ,hell5i/ic p]iod we h only met ) a few cases ( a!ism 9 ! /rict s5se1 & !y all occur ab\t & imm$iately aft] #cjj1 ?\gh !re does n seem to be any int]nal connexion betwe5 !m4 ,ab\t ! same "t !re appe>$ a writ]1 outside ! circle ( philosoph]s1 :o is regul>ly li/$ among ! a!oi1 & :o has giv5 a "n to a peculi> !ory ab\t ! orig9 ( ! idea ( ! gods1 namely1 ,euhem]us4 ,he is said to h travell$ ext5sively 9 ! s]vice ( ,k+ ,cass&] ( ,mac$onia4 ,at any rate he publi%$ 8 !ological views 9 ! %ape ( a book ( travel :i* 01 h[ev]1 :olly fiction4 ,he relates h[ he came to an isl&1 ,pan*aia1 9 ! ,indian ,ocean1 & 9 a temple !re f\nd a l5g?y inscription 9 :i* ,uranos1 ,kronos1 ,zeus & o!r gods record$ _! exploits4 ,! sub/ance ( ! tale 0 t ^! gods _h once be5 m51 great k+s & rul]s1 :o _h be/[$ on _! peoples all sorts ( improvem5ts 9 civilisation & _h ?us got !mselves wor%ipp$ z gods4 ,x appe>s f ! acc\nts t ,euhem]us suppos$ ! heav5ly bodies to be real & et]nal gods--he ?\ght t ,uranos _h fir/ taught m5 to wor%ip !m2 fur!r1 z 8 !ory is g5]ally und]/ood1 x mu/ be assum$ t 9 8 op9ion ! o!r gods _h ceas$ to exi/ z su* aft] _! dea?4 ,?is accords ) ! fact t ,euhem]us 0 g5]ally *>act]is$ z an a!i/4 ,! !ory t ! gods 7 at fir/ m5 0 n orig9at$ by ,euhem]us1 ?\gh x takes its "n 7,euhem]ism7 f him4 ,! !ory _h "s support 9 ! popul> fai? :i* recognis$ gods 7,h]acles1 ,asclepius7 :o _h liv$ z m5 on e>?2 & ! op9ion :i* 0 fundam5tal to ,greek religion1 t ! gods _h come into exi/5ce1 & _h n exi/$ f et]nity1 w\ld fav\r ?is !ory4 ,moreov]1 ,euhem]us _h _h an imm$iate precursor 9 ! slightly e>li] ,hecataeus ( ,abd]a1 :o _h set =? a simil> !ory1 ) ! diff]5ce1 h[ev]1 t he took ! view t all excell5t m5 became real gods4 ,b ,euhem]us's !ory appe>$ j at ! "r mom5t & fell on f]tile soil4 ,alex&] ! ,great & 8 successors _h adopt$ ! ,ori5tal policy by :i* ! rul] 0 wor%ipp$ z a god1 & 7 support$ 9 ?is by a t5d5cy :i* _h already made itself felt occasionally among ! ,greeks 9 ! ,ea/4 ,euhem]us only inv]t$ matt]s--if ! rul]s 7 gods1 x 0 an obvi\s inf]5ce t ! gods 7 rul]s4 ,no wond] t 8 !ory ga9$ a l>ge foll[+4 ,its great influ5ce is se5 f num]\s simil> attempts 9 ! ,hell5i/ic _w4 ,at ,rome1 9 ! second c5tury1 ,ennius translat$ 8 works into ,lat91 & z late z ! "t ( ,augu/us an au?or su* z ,diodorus1 9 8 popul> hi/ory ( ! _w1 s]v$ up ,euhem]ism z ! be/ sci5tific explanation ( ! orig9 ( religion4 ,x is *>act]i/ic1 too1 t bo? ,jews & ,*ri/ians1 9 _! attacks on ,paganism1 reckon$ ) ,euhem]ism z a well-e/abli%$ !ory4 ,z e "o kn[s1 x has surviv$ to our day2 ,c>lyle1 ,i suppose1 be+ its la/ prom95t expon5t4 ,x is *>act]i/ic ( ,euhem]ism 9 its mo/ radical =m t x assum$ t ! gods ( poly!ism did n exi/2 s f> x is a!ism4 ,b x is no less *>act]i/ic t x made ! concession to popul> belief t its gods _h once exi/$4 ,h]eby x takes its place1 9 spite ( its great] radicalism1 on ! same plane ) mo/ o!r anci5t !ories ab\t ! orig9 ( m5's notions ab\t ! gods4 ,! gods ( popul> belief c\ld n survive 9 ! light ( anci5t ?\ght1 :i* 9 its ess5ce 0 free-?\ght1 n ti$ d[n by dogmas4 ,b ! philosoph]s ( old c\ld n b believe t a psy*ological fact ( su* enorm\s dim5sions z anci5t poly!ism mu/ h some?+ answ]+ to x 9 ! objective _w4 ,anci5t philosophy nev] got cle> ( ?is dilemma2 h5ce ,plato's op5 recognition ( ! absurdity2 h5ce ,ari/otle's delight at be+ able to meet ! popul> fai? half-way 9 8 assumption ( ! div9ity ( ! heav5ly bodies2 h5ce ,x5ocrates's demons1 ! allegories ( ! ,/oics1 ! ideal ,epicureans ( ,epicurus1 ,euhem]us's e>ly b5efactors ( mank9d4 ,& we may say t ! m ! ,greeks got to "k ( ! _w ab\t !m ! m !y 7 confirm$ 9 _! view1 = 9 ! v>i$ multiplicity ( poly!ism !y f\nd ! same pr9ciple ev]y:]e1 ! same belief 9 a multitude ( be+s ( a high] ord] ?an man4 ,euhem]us's !ory is no d\bt ! la/ s]i\s attempt 9 ! old pagan _w to give an explanation ( ! popul> fai? :i* may be call$ g5u9e a!ism4 ,we w n1 h[ev]1 leave ! ,hell5i/ic p]iod )\t ca/+ a glance at "s p]sonalities ab\t :om we h in=mation en\gh to =m an idea at fir/ h& ( _! religi\s /&po9t1 & ^: attitude t[>ds popul> belief at any rate comes v ne> to a!ism pure & simple4 ,"o ( !m is ,polybius4 ,9 ! above-cit$ passage ref]r+ to ! decl9e ( ! popul> fai? 9 ! ,hell5i/ic p]iod1 ,polybius also gives 8 own !ory ( ! orig9 ( m5's notions reg>d+ ! gods4 ,x is n new4 ,x is ! !ory kn[n f ! ,critias fragm5t1 :at may be call$ ! political !ory4 ,9 ! fragm5t x appe>s z a!ism pure & simple1 & x seems obvi\s to und]/& x 9 ! same way 9 ,polybius4 ,t he %[s a lean+ t[>ds ,euhem]ism 9 ano!r passage :]e he speaks ab\t ! orig9 ( religi\s ideas1 is 9 itself n aga9/ ?is--! two !ories are closely relat$ & might v well be comb9$4 ,b we h a s]ies ( passages 9 :i* ,polybius express$ himself 9 a way t seems q irreconcilable ) a purely a!i/ic /&po9t4 ,he expressly ackn[l$g$ div9ation & wor%ip z ju/ifi$2 9 sev]al places he ref]s to disa/]s t h befall5 individuals or a :ole p z be+ s5t by ! gods1 or ev5 z a puni%m5t = impiety2 & t[>ds ! close ( 8 "w he actually1 9 m>k$ contra/ to ! tone ( its beg9n+1 (f]s up a pray] to ! gods to grant him a happy end+ to 8 long life4 ,x w\ld seem z if ,polybius at a c]ta9 p]iod ( 8 life came "u ! influ5ce ( ,/oicism & 9 consequ5ce greatly modifi$ 8 e>li] views4 ,t ^! 7 ( an a!i/ic "* seems1 h[ev]1 beyond d\bt1 & t is ! decisive po9t 9 ?is connexion4 ,cic]o's philosophical /&po9t 0 t ( an ,academic1 i4e4 a ,sceptic4 ,b--9 accord1 = ! re/1 ) ! doctr9es ( ! s*ool j at ?is p]iod--he employ$ 8 lib]ty z a ,sceptic to fav\r su* philosophical doctr9es z seem$ to him m reasonable ?an o!rs1 reg>dless ( ! s*ool f :i* !y 7 d]iv$4 ,9 8 philosophy ( religion he 0 m especially a ,/oic4 ,he himself expressly insi/$ on ?is po9t ( view 9 ! clos+ words ( 8 "w on ! ,nature ( ! ,gods4 ,z he 0 n1 & made no pret5ce ( be+1 a philosoph]1 8 philosophical expositions h no importance = u2 !y are ?r\gh\t second-h&1 mo/ly m]e translations f ,greek s\rces4 ,t we h employ$ !m 9 ! =ego+ pages to ?r[ light on ! !ology ( ! e>li]1 m especially ! ,hell5i/ic1 philosophy1 goes )\t say+4 ,b 8 p]sonal religi\s /&po9t is n )\t int]e/4 ,z orator & /atesman ,cic]o took 8 /& :olly on ! side ( ! e/abli%$ ,roman religion1 op]at+ ) ! 8immortal gods10 ) ,jupit] ,optimus ,maximus1 etc41 at 8 conv5i5ce4 ,9 8 works on ! ,/ate & ! ,laws he adh]es decid$ly to ! e/abli%$ religion4 ,b all ?is is m]e politics4 ,p]sonally ,cic]o _h no religion o!r ?an philosophy4 ,philosophy 0 8 consolation 9 adv]sity1 or he attempt$ to make x s1 = ! result 0 (t5 indiff]5t2 & he look$ to philosophy to guide him 9 e?ical que/ions4 ,we nev] f9d any indication 9 8 writ+s t ! gods ( popul> belief meant any?+ to him 9 ^! respects4 ,& :at is m--he assum$ ?is (f-h& to be ! /&po9t ( ev]ybody else1 & evid5tly he 0 ju/ifi$4 ,a great numb] ( lett]s f him to 8 circle1 & n a few f 8 fri5ds & acqua9tances to him1 h be5 pres]v$2 & 9 8 philosophical writ+s he (t5 introduces contempor>y ,romans z *>act]s 9 ! dialogue4 ,b 9 all ?is lit]ature !re is nev] ! fa9te/ indication t a ,roman ( ! bett] class ent]ta9$1 or c\ld ev5 be suppos$ to ent]ta91 an or?odox view ) reg>d to ! ,/ate religion4 ,to ,cic]o & 8 circle ! popul> fai? did n exi/ z an elem5t ( _! p]sonal religion4 ,su* a /&po9t is ( c\rse1 practically speak+1 a!ism1 & 9 ?is s5se a!ism 0 widely spread among ! high] classes ( ! ,graeco-,roman society ab\t ! "t ( ! bir? ( ,*ri/4 ,b f ?is to !oretical a!ism !re is /ill a good /ep4 ,cic]o himself af=ds an amus+ example ( h[ easily p1 :o h app>5tly q emancipat$ !mselves f ! (ficial religion ( _! community1 may backslide4 ,:5 8 belov$ daught] ,tullia di$ 9 ! ye> #de ,b4,c41 x became evid5t t ,cic]o1 9 ! fir/ viol5ce ( 8 grief1 :i* 0 ! m ov]:elm+ because he 0 exclud$ f political activity dur+ ,cs>'s dictator%ip1 c\ld n console himself ) philosophy alone4 ,he want$ some?+ m tangible to take hold on1 & s he hit ^u ! idea ( hav+ ,tullia exalt$ among ! gods4 ,he ?\ght ( build+ a temple & in/itut+ a cult 9 h] hon\r4 ,he mov$ heav5 & e>? to arrange ! matt]1 s\ght to buy gr\nd 9 a prom95t place 9 ,rome1 & 0 will+ to make ! greate/ pecuni>y sacrifices to get a conspicu\s result4 ,no?+ came ( x all1 h[ev]2 ,cic]o's fri5ds1 :o 7 to help him to put ! matt] ?r\gh1 7 p]haps h>dly s eag] z he2 "t assuag$ 8 own grief1 & f9ally he cont5t$ himself ) publi%+ a consolatory epi/le writt5 by himself1 or1 correctly speak+1 translat$ f a fam\s ,greek "w & adapt$ to ! occasion4 ,s f> he end$ :]e he %\ld1 i4e4 9 philosophy2 b ! little incid5t is significant1 n lea/ because x %[s :at practical ends ,euhem]ism c\ld be br\ght to s]ve & h[ d\btful 0 its a!i/ic "* aft] all4 ,= n only 0 ! contemplat$ apo!osis ( ,tullia 9 itself a ,euhem]i/ic idea1 b ,cic]o also expressly def5d$ x ) ,euhem]i/ic argum5ts1 ?\gh speak+ z if ! dep>t$ :o 7 wor%ipp$ z gods really _h become gods4 ,! attitude ( ,cic]o & 8 contempor>ies t[>ds popul> belief 0 /ill ! g5]al attitude 9 ! fir/ days ( ! ,empire4 ,x 0 ( no avail t ,augu/us re-e/abli%$ ! decay$ ,/ate cult 9 all its spl5d\r & v>iety1 or t ! poets dur+ 8 reign1 :5 !y wi%$ to express !mselves 9 h>mony ) ! _s ( ! new rgime1 directly or indirectly extoll$ ! reviv$ or?odoxy4 ,:]ev] we f9d p]sonal religi\s feel+ express$ by m5 ( t "t1 9 ! ,epi/les ( ,horace1 9 ,virgil's po/hum\s m9or poems or 9 su* passages 9 8 great] works :]e he expresses 8 own ideals1 x is philosophy t is pr$om9ant & ! (ficial religion ignor$4 ,virgil 0 an ,epicurean2 ,horace an ,eclectic1 n[ an ,epicurean1 !n a ,/oic2 ,augu/us _h a dome/ic philosoph]4 ,ovid employ$ 8 g5ius 9 writ+ trave/ies ( ! old my?ology :ile at ! same "t he compos$ a poem1 s]i\s = him1 on ! ,roman cult2 & :5 disa/] befell him & he 0 ca/ out f ! society ( ! capital1 :i* 0 ! brea? ( life to him1 he 0 ab&on$ n only by m51 b also by ! gods--he _h n ev5 a philosophy ) :i* to console himself4 ,x is only 9 inf]ior writ]s su* z ,val]ius ,maximus1 :o wrote a "w on great de$s--good & evil--"u ,tib]ius1 t we f9d a diff]5t _s4 ,direct utt]ances ab\t m5's relation%ip to ! gods1 f :i* conclusions c be drawn1 are seldom met ) dur+ ?is p]iod4 ,! :ole "q 0 s remote f ! ?\ghts ( ^! p t !y nev] m5tion$ x except :5 !y assum$ an or?odox air = political or ae/hetic reasons4 ,/ill1 "h & !re we come across some?+4 ,"o ( ! mo/ significant pron\ncem5ts is t ( ,pl9y ! ,eld]1 f :om we quot$ ! passage ab\t ! wor%ip ( ,=tune4 ,pl9y op5s 8 sci5tific encyclop$ia by expla9+ ! /ructure ( ! univ]se 9 its broad features2 ?is he does on ! l9es ( ! physics ( ! ,/oics1 h5ce he designates ! univ]se z ,god4 ,next comes a survey ( special !ology4 ,x is introduc$ z foll[s3 8,i !re=e deem x a sign ( human weakness to ask ab\t ! %ape & =m ( ,god4 ,:oev] ,god is1 if any o!r god 7?an ! univ]se7 exi/s at all1 & 9 :atev] "p ( ! _w he is1 he is all p]ception1 all sight1 all he>+1 all s\l1 all reason1 all self40 ,! popul> notions ( ! gods are !n review$1 9 ! mo/ sup]cili\s tone1 & _! absurdities po9t$ out4 ,a polite b[ is made to ! wor%ip ( ! ,emp]ors & its motives1 ! re/ is little b p]siflage4 ,n ev5 ,provid5ce1 :i* 0 recognis$ by ! ,/oics1 is ackn[l$g$ by ,pl9y4 ,! conclusion is l ! beg9n+3 8,to imp]fect human nature x is a special consolation t ,god also is n omnipot5t 7he c nei!r put himself to dea?1 ev5 if he w\ld1 ?\gh he has giv5 man t p[] & x is 8 *oice/ gift 9 ?is puni%m5t :i* is life2 nor c he give immortality to mortals or call ! dead to life2 nor c he br+ x to pass t ^? :o h liv$ h n liv$1 or t he :o has held hon\rable (fices did n hold !m72 & t he has no o!r p[] ov] ! pa/ ?an t ( oblivion2 & t 79 ord] t we may also give a je/+ pro( ( our p>tn]%ip ) ,god7 he _c br+ x ab\t t twice t5 is n tw5ty1 & m ( ! same sort--by all :i* ! p[] ( ,nature is cle>ly reveal$1 & t x is ?is we call ,god40 ,an op9ion l t express$ "h mu/ )\t d\bt be designat$ z a!ism1 ev5 ?\gh x is no?+ b ! ,/oic pan!ism logically c>ri$ out4 ,z we h said be=e1 we r>ely meet x s directly express$1 b !re c h>dly be any d\bt t ev5 9 ! "t ( ,pl9y x 0 q common 9 ,rome4 ,at ?is po9t1 !n1 _h ! educat$ classes ( ! anci5t _w arriv$ "u ! influ5ce ( ,hell5i/ic philosophy4 ,,*apt] ,,vii ,?\gh ! f\ndation ( ! ,empire 9 _m ways inaugurat$ a new era = ! antique _w1 x is1 ( c\rse1 impossible1 9 an inquiry :i* is n conf9$ to political hi/ory 9 ! n>r[e/ s5se ( ! ^w1 to op]ate ) any?+ b ! loose/ *ronological divisions4 ,accord+ly 9 ! la/ *apt] we _h to include ph5om5a f ! e>ly days ( ! ,empire 9 ord] n to sep>ate ?+s :i* naturally belong$ toge!r4 ,f ! po9t ( view ( religi\s hi/ory ! divid+ l9e _c possibly be drawn at ! ,emp]or ,augu/us1 9 spite ( 8 re/oration ( wor%ip & ! or?odox reaction 9 ! (ficial ,augu/an poetry1 b r at ab\t ! beg9n+ ( ! second c5tury4 ,! en?usiasm ( ! ,augu/an ,age = ! good old times 0 nev] mu* m ?an affectation4 ,x quickly evaporat$ :5 ! promis$ mill5nium 0 n =?com+1 & 0 replac$ by a res]ve :i* develop$ into cynicism--b1 be x und]/ood1 9 ! upp] circles ( ! capital only4 ,9 ! empire at l>ge ! developm5t took its natural tranquil c\rse1 unaffect$ by ! mann] 9 :i* ! old ,roman nobility 0 effac+ itself2 & ?is developm5t did n t5d t[>ds a!ism4 ,! reaction t[>ds positive religi\s feel+1 :i* becomes cle>ly manife/ 9 ! second c5tury aft] ,*ri/1 ?\gh ! prep>ation = x is und\bt$ly ( e>li] date1 is p]haps ! mo/ rem>kable ph5om5on 9 ! religi\s hi/ory ( antiquity4 ,?is is n ! place to inquire into its causes1 :i* /ill rema9 l>gely unexpla9$2 !re is ev5 no reason to ent] m closely into its out] manife/ations1 z ! ?+ itself is d\bt$ by nobody4 ,x is suffici5t to m5tion z in/ances au?ors l ,suetonius1 ) 8 nave belief 9 miracles1 & ! rhetorician ,ari/ides1 ) 8 ,asclepius-cult & g5]al sanctimoni\sness2 or a m9or figure su* z ,aelian1 :o wrote :ole books ( a pron\nc$1 nay ev5 fanatical1 devotionalism2 or )9 ! sph]e ( philosophy movem5ts l ,neo-,py?agoreanism & ,neo-,platonism1 bo? ( :i* are z mu* 9 ! nature ( my/ic !ology z attempts at a sci5tific explanation ( ! univ]se4 ,x is *>act]i/ic1 too1 t an ess5tially anti-religi\s s*ool l t ( ! ,epicureans actually dies out at ?is "t4 ,"u ^! conditions our task 9 ?is *apt] mu/ be to br+ out ! comp>atively few & weak traces ( o!r curr5ts :i* /ill made !mselves felt4 ,( ! e>li] philosophical s*ools ,/oicism fl[]$ afre% 9 ! second c5tury2 ! ,emp]or ,m>cus ,aurelius himself 0 a prom95t adh]5t ( ! cre$4 ,?is lat] ,/oicism diff]s1 h[ev]1 some:at f ! e>li]4 ,x limits ! sci5tific app>atus :i* ! e>ly ,/oics _h op]at$ ) to a m9imum1 & is almo/ exclusively conc]n$ ) practical e?ics on a religi\s basis4 ,its religion is t ( ord9>y ,/oicism3 ,pan!ism & belief 9 ,provid5ce4 ,b1 on ! :ole1 x takes up a m sympa!tic attitude t[>ds popul> religion ?an e>ly ,/oicism _h done4 ,( ! bitt] criticism ( ! absurdities ( ! wor%ip ( ! gods & ( my?ology :i* is /ill to be met ) z late z ,s5eca1 no?+ rema9s4 ,on ! contr>y1 p>ticipation 9 public wor%ip is /ill enjo9$ z be+ a duty2 nay1 m3 attacks on belief 9 ! gods--9 ! pla9 popul> s5se ( ! ^w--are d5\nc$ z p]nici\s & repreh5sible4 ,p]haps no cle>] pro( c\ld be adduc$ ( ! revolution :i* _h tak5 place 9 ! attitude ( ! educat$ classes t[>ds popul> religion ?an ?is *ange ( front on ! "p ( ,/oicism4 ,contr>y to ?is 0 ! attitude ( ano!r s*ool :i* 0 9 vogue at ! same "t z ! ,/oic1 namely1 ! ,cynic4 ,betwe5 ,cynicism & popul> belief /ra9$ relations _h exi/$ s9ce e>ly times4 ,x is true1 ! ,cynics did n altoge!r d5y ! exi/5ce ( ! gods2 b !y reject$ wor%ip on ! gr\nd t ! gods 7 n 9 ne$ ( any?+1 & !y d5i$ categorically ! majority ( ! popul> ideas ab\t ! gods4 ,= ! latt] 71 9 fact1 popul> & traditional1 & ! :ole aim ( ! ,cynics 0 to antagonise ! curr5t e/imate ( values4 ,a *>act]i/ic in/ance ( _! mann] is provid$ by ?is v p]iod 9 ! fragm5ts ( ! "w ( ,o5omaus4 ,! "w 0 entitl$ ,! ,sw9dl]s ,unmask$1 & x conta9$ a viol5t attack on oracles4 ,its tone is exce$+ly pung5t4 ,9 ! extant fragm5ts ,o5omaus addresses ! god 9 ,delphi & ov]:elms him ) insults4 ,b we are expressly told--& "o utt]ance ( ,o5omaus himself v]ifies x--t ! attack 0 n really direct$ aga9/ ! god1 b aga9/ ! m5 :o gave oracles 9 8 "n4 ,9 8 op9ion ! :ole ?+ 0 a prie/ly fraud--a view :i* o!rwise 0 r unfamili> to ! anci5ts1 b play$ an important "p lat]4 ,incid5tally !re is a viol5t attack on idolatry4 ,! "w is n )\t acut5ess ( ?\ght & a c]ta9 co>se wit ( ! true ,cynical k9d2 b x is entirely uncritical 7oracles are us$ :i* are evid5tly inv5tions ( lat] times7 & ( no great significance4 ,x is ev5 difficult to avoid ! impression t ! au?or's aim is 9 "s degree to create a s5sation4 ,cynics ( t day 7 n /rang]s to t k9d ( ?+4 ,b x is at any rate a pro( ( ! fact t !re 7 at ! "t t5d5cies oppos$ to ! religi\s reaction4 ,a m significant ph5om5on ( ! same k9d is to be f\nd 9 ! writ+s ( ,lucian4 ,lucian 0 by education a rhetorician1 by pr(ession an it9]ant lectur] & essayi/4 ,at a c]ta9 /age ( 8 life he became acqua9t$ ) ! ,cynic philosophy & = "s "t felt mu* attract$ to x4 ,f t he evid5tly acquir$ a s9c]e contempt ( ! vulg> sup]/ition :i* fl\ri%$ 9 8 "t1 ev5 9 circles ( :i* "o might h expect$ some?+ bett]4 ,9 writ+s :i* = ! great] "p belong to 8 lat] p]iod1 he pillori$ individuals :o trad$ 7or seem$ to trade7 9 ! religi\s f]m5t ( ! "t1 z well z satiris$ sup]/ition z su*4 ,9 ?is way he made an important contribution to ! spiritual hi/ory ( ! age4 ,b simultane\sly he produc$1 = ! ent]ta9m5t ( 8 public1 a s]ies ( writ+s ! aim ( :i* is to make fun ( ! ,olympian gods4 ,9 ?is "w also he leant on ! lit]ature ( ! ,cynics1 b sub/itut$ = _! grave & bit+ satire light caus]ies or slight dramatic sket*es1 9 :i* 8 wit--= ,lucian 0 really witty--_h full scope4 ,z an in/ance ( 8 mann] ,i %all quote a %ort passage f ! dialogue ,timon4 ,x is ,zeus :o speaks2 he has giv5 ,h]mes ord]s to s5d ! god ( weal? to ,timon1 :o has wa/$ 8 =tune by 8 lib]ality & is n[ ab&on$ by 8 false fri5ds4 ,!n he goes on3 8,z to ! flatt]]s y speak ( & _! +ratitude1 ,i %all deal ) !m ano!r "t1 & !y w meet ) _! due puni%m5t z soon z ,i h _h my ?und]bolt repair$4 ,! two l>ge/ d>ts ( x 7 brok5 & blunt$ ! o!r day :5 ,i got 9 a rage & flung x at ! sophi/ ,anaxagoras1 :o 0 try+ to make 8 disciples believe t we gods d n exi/ at all4 ,h[ev]1 ,i miss$ him1 = ,p]icles held 8 h& ov] him1 b ! bolt /ruck ! temple ( ! ,dioscuri & set fire to x1 & ! bolt itself 0 ne>ly de/roy$ :5 x /ruck ! rock40 ,?is sort ( ?+ ab\nds 9 ,lucian1 ev5 if x is n always equally amus+ & to ! po9t4 ,n[ !re is no?+ /range 9 ! fact t a witty man = once %\ld feel incl9$ to make game ( ! old my?ology2 ?is might h happ5$ almo/ at any "t1 once ! critical _s _h be5 awak5$4 ,b t a man1 & moreov] an essayi/1 :o _h to live by ! approval ( 8 public1 %\ld make x 8 trade1 z x 71 & t at a "t ( vigor\s religi\s reaction1 seems m difficult to acc\nt =4 ,lucian's controv]sial pamphlets aga9/ sup]/ition _c be class$ (f-h& ) 8 ,dialogues ( ! ,gods2 ! latt] are ( a q diff]5t & f> m h>mless "*4 ,! fact is r t my?ology at ?is "t 0 fair game4 ,x 0 cut (f f its connexion ) religion--a connexion :i* 9 hi/orical times 0 nev] v intimate & 0 n[ entirely sev]$4 ,?is _h be5 br\ght ab\t 9 "p by c5turies ( criticism ( ! mo/ v>i$ k9d1 9 "p precisely z a result ( ! religi\s reaction :i* _h n[ set 94 ,if p turn$ dur+ ?is "t to ! old gods--:o1 h[ev]1 _h be5 consid]ably contam9at$ ) new elem5ts--x 0 because !y _h no?+ else to turn to2 b :at !y n[ look$ = 0 some?+ q diff]5t f ! old religion4 ,! p[]ful tradition :i* _h b\nd memb]s ( ea* small community--we %\ld say1 ( ea* t[n%ip--to its famili> gods1 ) all t belong$ to !m1 0 n[ 9 process ( dissolution2 9 ! l>g] cities ( ! _w-empire ) _! mix$ populations x _h entirely disappe>$4 ,religion 0 no long] prim>ily a conc]n ( society2 x 0 a p]sonal matt]4 ,9 ! face ( ! enorm\s selection ( gods :i* anci5t paganism came gradually to pr(f]1 ! individual 0 free to *oose1 z individual or z a memb] ( a communion bas$ ^u religi\s1 n political1 sympa?y4 ,"u ^! circum/ances ! exi/5ce ( ! gods & _! p[] & w to help _! wor%ipp]s 0 ! only ?+ ( int]e/2 all ! old tales ab\t !m 7 m ?an ev] my?s ( no religi\s value4 ,on clos] inspection ,lucian inde$ proves to h ex]cis$ a c]ta9 selection 9 8 satire4 ,gods l ,asclepius & ,s]apis1 :o 7 popul> 9 8 day1 he pref]s to say no?+ ab\t2 & ev5 ) a ph5om5on l ,*ri/ianity he deals cauti\sly2 he /icks to ! old ,olympian gods4 ,?us 8 d]ision ( ^! con/itutes an indirect pro( t !y _h gone out ( vogue1 & 8 =be>ance on o!r po9ts is a pro( ( ! p[] ( ! curr5t religion ov] contempor>y m9ds4 ,z to ascrib+ any deep] religi\s conviction to ,lucian--7 x ev5 ( a purely negative k9d--t is1 9 view ( ! :ole "* ( 8 "w1 out ( ! "q4 ,to be sure1 8 polemical pamphlets aga9/ sup]/ition %[ cle>ly1 l ^? ( ,o5omaus1 t ! religi\s reaction did n run its c\rse )\t criticism f c]ta9 sides2 b ev5 "h x is significant t ! criticism comes f a pr(essional je/] & n f a s]i\s religi\s ?9k]4 ,a few words rema9 to be said ab\t ! two mono!i/ic religions :i* 9 ! days ( ! ,roman ,empire came to play a great1 "o ( !m inde$ a decisive1 "p4 ,i h already ref]r$ to pagan society's attitude t[>ds ,judaism & ,*ri/ianity1 & po9t$ out t ! adh]5ts ( bo? 7 designat$ & treat$ z a!i/s--! ,jews only occasionally & ) c]ta9 res]vations1 ! ,*ri/ians ne>ly always & unconditionally4 ,! "q "h is1 h[ f> ?is designation 0 ju/ifi$ accord+ to ! def9ition ( a!ism :i* is ! basis ( our inquiry4 ,9 ! prec$+ pages we h sev]al times ref]r$ to ! fact t ! real enemy ( ,poly!ism is n ! philosophical !ology1 :i* g5]ally t5ds m or less t[>ds ,pan!ism1 b ,mono!ism4 ,x is 9 keep+ ) ?is t ! ,jews & ! ,*ri/ians 9 practice are d[nright d5i]s ( ! pagan gods3 !y w\ld n wor%ip !m2 :]eas ! ,greek philosoph]s z a rule respect$ wor%ip1 h[ev] f> !y w5t 9 _! criticism ( m5's ideas ( ! gods4 ,we %all n dwell "h on ?is aspect ( ! matt]2 we are conc]n$ ) ! !ory only4 ,detail$ expositions ( x occur 9 num]\s writ+s1 f ! passages 9 ! ,old ,te/am5t :]e hea!nism is attack$1 to ! def5ces ( ,*ri/ianity by ! late/ ,fa!rs ( ! ,*ur*4 ,! orig9al ,jewi% view1 accord+ to :i* ! hea!n gods are real be+s j z mu* z ! ,god ( ! ,jews !mselves--only ,jews mu/ n wor%ip !m--is 9 ! lat] portions ( ! ,old ,te/am5t sup]s$$ by ! view t ! gods are only images made ( wood1 /one or metal1 & incapable ( do+ ei!r good or evil4 ,?is po9t ( view is tak5 ov] by lat] ,jewi% au?ors & completely dom9ates !m4 ,9 ^? acqua9t$ ) ,greek ?\ght x is comb9$ ) ,euhem]i/ic ideas3 ! images repres5t dead m54 ,! !ory t ! gods are really natural objects--elem5ts or heav5ly bodies--is occasionally tak5 into acc\nt too4 ,alongside ( ^! op9ions !re appe>s also ! view t ! pagan gods are evil spirits 7demons74 ,x is already f\nd 9 a few places 9 ! ,old ,te/am5t1 & aft] t sporadically & q incid5tally 9 lat] ,jewi% writ+s2 9 "o place x is comb9$ ) ! ,old ,te/am5t's acc\nt ( ! fall5 angels4 ,! demon-!ory is n an in/rum5t ( ,jewi% apologetics prop]1 n ev5 ( ,philo1 ?\gh he has a complete demonology & c h>dly h be5 ignorant ( ! ,platonic-,/oic doctr9e ( demons4 ,ap>t f ! few &1 z x 71 incid5tal utt]ances conc]n+ demons1 ! ,jewi% view ( ! pagan gods impresses "o z decid$ly a!i/ic4 ,! god is id5tical ) ! idol1 & ! idol is a dead object1 ! "w ( m5's h&s1 or ! god is id5tical ) a natural object1 made by ,god to be sure1 b )\t s\l or1 at any rate1 )\t div9ity4 ,x is rem>kable t no ,jewi% controv]siali/ s]i\sly envisag$ ! problem ( ! real view ( ! gods embodi$ 9 ! popul> belief ( ! anci5ts1 namely1 t !y are p]sonal be+s ( a high] ord] ?an man4 ,x is inconceivable t m5 l ,philo1 ,josephus & ! au?or ( ! ,wisdom ( ,solomon %\ld h be5 ignorant ( x4 ,i "k no?+ to acc\nt = ?is curi\s ph5om5on2 & till "s light has be5 ?r[n ^u ! matt]1 ,i %\ld hesitate to ass]t t ! ,jewi% conception ( ,poly!ism 0 purely a!i/ic1 h[ev] mu* appe>ance x may h ( be+ s4 ,x 0 o!rwise ) ,*ri/ian polemical writ+4 ,z e>ly z ,/4 ,paul ! demon-!ory appe>s di/9ctly1 ?\gh side by side ) utt]ances ( seem+ly a!i/ic "*4 ,o!r ,new ,te/am5t au?ors1 too1 designate ! gods z demons4 ,! subsequ5t apologi/s1 except+ ! e>lie/1 ,ari/ides1 lay ! ma9 /ress on demonology1 b include = ! sake ( complet5ess idolatry & ! l1 sometimes )\t c>+ ab\t or try+ to conciliate ! contradictions4 ,9 ! long run demonology is victori\s2 9 ,/4 ,augu/9e1 ! =emo/ among ,*ri/ian apologi/s1 !re is h>dly any o!r po9t ( view t c\nts4 ,to trace ! ,*ri/ian demonology 9 detail & give an acc\nt ( its v>i\s aspects is outside ! scope ( ?is essay4 ,its orig9 is a tw(old "o1 p>tly ! ,jewi% demonology1 :i* j at ! comm5cem5t ( our era _h receiv$ a great impetus1 p>tly ! !ory ( ! ,greek philosoph]s1 :i* we h *>act]is$ above :5 speak+ ( ,x5ocrates4 ,! ,*ri/ian doctr9e reg>d+ demons diff]s f ! latt]1 especially by ! fact t x does n ackn[l$ge good demons2 !y 7 all evil4 ,?is 0 ! indisp5sable basis = ! int]dict aga9/ ! wor%ip ( demons2 9 its fur!r developm5t ! ,*ri/ians1 foll[+ ,jewi% tradition1 po9t$ to an orig9 9 ! fall5 angels1 & ?us effect$ a connexion ) ! ,old ,te/am5t4 ,:ile !y at ! same "t reta9$ its angelology !y _h to di/+ui% good & evil be+s int]m$iate betwe5 god & man2 b !y c>efully avoid$ designat+ ! angels z demons1 & kept !m di/9ct f ! pagan gods1 :o 7 all demons & evil4 ,! application ( demonology to ! pagan wor%ip caus$ c]ta9 difficulties 9 detail4 ,to be sure1 x 0 possible to id5tify a giv5 pagan god ) a c]ta9 demon1 & ?is 0 (t5 done2 b x 0 impossible to id5tify ! ,pagans' conceptions ( _! gods ) ! ,*ri/ians' conceptions ( demons4 ,! ,pagans1 9 fact1 ascrib$ to _! gods n only demoniac 7diabolical7 b also div9e qualities1 :i* ! ,*ri/ians absolutely d5i$ !m4 ,consequ5tly !y _h to recognise t pagan wor%ip to a great ext5t re/$ on a delusion1 on a misconception ( ! ess5tial "* ( ! gods :i* 7 wor%ipp$4 ,?is view 0 corroborat$ by ! dogma ( ! fall5 angels1 :i* 0 altoge!r ali5 to paganism4 ,by id5tify+ !m ) ! evil spirits ( ! ,bible1 demon-names 7 ev5 obta9$ :i* diff]$ f ^? ( ! pagan gods &1 ( c\rse1 7 ! correct ones2 7 !y n giv5 9 ,holy ,writ8 ,9 g5]al1 ! ,*ri/ians1 :o possess$ an au!ntic revelation ( ! matt]1 7 ( c\rse mu* bett] in=m$ ab\t ! nature ( ! pagan gods ?an ! ,pagans !mselves1 :o 7 grop+ 9 ! d>k4 ,euhem]ism1 :i* plays a great "p 9 ! apologi/s1 help$ 9 ! same direction3 ! supposition t ! idols 7 orig9ally m5 exi/$ among ! ,pagans !mselves1 & x 0 too mu* 9 h>mony ) ! t5d5cy ( ! apologi/s to be left unemploy$4 ,x 0 reconcil$ ) demonology by ! supposition t ! demons _h assum$ ! masks ( dead h]oes2 !y _h beguil$ mank9d to wor%ip !m 9 ord] to possess !mselves ( ! sacrifices1 :i* !y always covet$1 & by ?is deception to be able to rule & corrupt m54 ,! ,*ri/ians also c\ld n avoid recognis+ t "p ( ! pagan wor%ip 0 wor%ip ( natural objects1 9 p>ticul> ( ! heav5ly bodies2 & ?is error ( wor%ipp+ ! 8creation in/ead ( ! creator0 0 s obvi\s t ! ,*ri/ians 7 n incl9$ to resort to demonology = an explanation ( ?is ph5om5on1 ! less s z !y c\ld n id5tify ! sun or ! moon ) a demon4 ,! conflict ( ^! diff]5t po9ts ( view acc\nts = ! peculi> vacillation 9 ! ,*ri/ian conception ( paganism4 ,on "o h&1 we meet ) crude conceptions1 accord+ to :i* ! pagan gods are j l s _m demons2 !y are specially prom95t :5 pagan miracles & prophecies are to be expla9$4 ,on ! o!r h&1 !re is a tra9 ( ?\ght :i* c>ri$ to its logical conclusion w\ld lead to conceiv+ paganism z a :ole z a huge delusion ( humanity1 b a delusion caus$ inde$ by sup]natural ag5cies4 ,?is conclusion h>dly pres5t$ itself to ! e>ly ,*ur*2 lat]1 h[ev]1 x 0 drawn & caus$ a n inconsid]able %ift+ 9 m5's views & explanations ( paganism4 ,demonology is to su* a degree ! rul+ po9t ( view 9 ,*ri/ian apologetics t x w\ld be absurd to make a collection f ^! writ+s ( utt]ances ) an a!i/ic r+4 ,su* utt]ances are to be f\nd 9 mo/ ( !m2 !y appe> spontane\sly1 = in/ance1 :]ev] idolatry is attack$4 ,b "o _c atta* any importance to !m :5 !y appe> 9 ?is connexion1 n ev5 9 apologi/s 9 ^: works ! demon !ory is lack+4 ,no ,*ri/ian !ologian 9 antiquity advanc$1 mu* less su/a9$1 ! view t ! pagan gods 7 m]e phantoms ( human imag9ation )\t any correspond+ reality4 ,rem>kable z ?is /ate ( ?+s may appe> to u mod]ns1 x is really q simple1 nay ev5 a matt] ( c\rse1 :5 reg>d$ hi/orically4 ,*ri/ianity _h f its v beg9n+ a decid$ly duali/ic "*4 ,! contra/ betwe5 ?is _w & ! _w to come 0 id5tical ) ! contra/ betwe5 ! k+dom ( ! ,devil & ! k+dom ( ,god4 ,z soon z ! new religion came into contact ) paganism1 ! latt] 0 necess>ily reg>d$ z belong+ to ! k+dom ( ! ,devil2 ?us ! conception ( ! gods z demons 0 a =egone conclusion4 ,9 ! m9ds ( ! lat] apologi/s1 :o became acqua9t$ ) ,greek philosophy1 ?is conception receiv$ additional confirmation2 did x n inde$ agree 9 ! ma9 ) ,platonic & ,/oic !ory8 ,details 7 add$3 ! ,*ri/ians c\ld n d5y ! pagan miracles )\t ?r[+ a d\bt on _! own1 = miracles _c be done away ) at all except by a d5ial on pr9ciple2 nei!r c\ld !y expla9 paganism--t gigantic1 mill5nial ab]ration ( humanity--by m]ely human causes1 mu* less lay ! blame on ,god alone4 ,b ultimately all ?is re/s on "o & ! same ?+--! sup]natural & duali/ic hypo!sis4 ,consequ5tly demonology is ! k]nel ( ! ,*ri/ian conception ( paganism3 x is n m]ely a natural result ( ! hypo!ses1 x is ! "o & only correct expression ( ! way 9 :i* ! new religion und]/ood ! old4 ,,*apt] ,,viii ,9 ! prec$+ inquiry we took z our />t+-po9t n ! anci5t conception ( a!ism b ! mod]n view ( ! nature ( ! pagan gods4 ,x prov$ t ?is view 01 ^u ! :ole1 feebly repres5t$ dur+ antiquity1 & t x 0 ano!r view 7demonology7 :i* 0 transmitt$ to lat] ages f ! clos+ ye>s ( antiquity4 ,! inquiry w !re=e f9d its natural conclusion 9 a demon/ration ( ! "t & mann] 9 :i* ! conception h&$ d[n f antiquity ( ! nature ( paganism 0 sup]s$$ & displac$ by ! mod]n view4 ,?is "q is1 h[ev]1 m difficult to answ] ?an "o w\ld p]haps ?9k4 ,aft] anci5t paganism _h ceas$ to exi/ z a liv+ religion1 x _h lo/ its practical int]e/1 & !oretically ! ,middle ,ages 7 occupi$ ) q o!r problems ?an ! nature ( paganism4 ,at ! revival ( ! /udy ( anci5t lit]ature1 dur+ ! ,r5aissance1 p c]ta9ly aga9 came into ! mo/ intimate contact ) anci5t religion itself1 b sy/ematic inve/igations ( its nature d n seem to h be5 tak5 up 9 real e>ne/ until aft] ! middle ( ! sixte5? c5tury4 ,x is !re=e difficult to asc]ta9 9 :at light paganism 0 reg>d$ dur+ ! ?\s& ye>s :i* _h !n pass$ s9ce its f9al ext9ction4 ,f ! sev5te5? & eighte5? c5turies1 on ! o!r h&1 ! mat]ial is extraord9>ily pl5tiful1 ?\gh b slightly inve/igat$4 ,previ\s works 9 ?is field seem to be entirely want+2 at any rate x has n be5 possible = me to f9d any collective treatm5t ( ! subject1 nor ev5 any contributions wor? m5tion+ t[>ds ! solution ( ! num]\s individual problems :i* arise :5 we ent] ^u :at might be call$ 8! hi/ory ( ! hi/ory ( religion407#a7 ,9 ?is essay ,i mu/ !re=e re/rict myself to a few aphori/ic rem>ks :i* may p]haps give occasion = ?is subject1 9 itself n devoid ( int]e/1 to receive m detail$ treatm5t at "s future "t4 ,milton1 9 ! beg9n+ ( ,p>adise ,lo/1 :i* appe>$ 9 #affg1 makes ,satan assemble all 8 angels = cont9u$ battle aga9/ ,god4 ,among ! demons !re enum]at$1 anci5t gods also appe>2 !y are1 !n1 pla9ly reg>d$ z devils4 ,n[ ,milton 0 n only a poet1 b also a s\nd s*ol> & an or?odox !ologian2 we may !re=e re/ assur$ t 8 conception ( ! pagan gods 0 dogmatically correct & 9 accord ) ! prevail+ views ( 8 "t4 ,9 him1 !re=e1 we h f\nd a fix$ po9t f :i* we c look =w>ds & backw>ds2 z late z aft] ! middle ( ! sev5te5? c5tury ! e>ly ,*ri/ian view ( ! nature ( paganism evid5tly p]si/$ 9 lead+ circles4 ,we seldom f9d def9ite hea!n gods s precisely designat$ z demons z 9 ,milton1 b no d\bt seems possible t ! g5]al pr9ciple 0 accept$ by contempor>y & e>li] au?ors4 ,! *ief "w ( ! sev5te5? c5tury on anci5t religion is ! ,de ,!ologia ,g5tili ( ,g4 ,i4 ,voss2 he op]ates entirely ) ! traditional view4 ,x may be trac$ back ?r\gh a succession ( writ+s ( ! sev5te5? & sixte5? c5turies4 ,!y are all1 or almo/ all1 agre$ t antique paganism 0 ! "w ( ! devil1 & t idolatry 01 at any rate 9 "p1 a wor%ip ( demons4 ,f ! ,middle ,ages ,i c adduce a pregnant expression ( ! same view f ,?omas ,aqu9as2 9 8 treatm5t ( idolatry & also ( false prophecy he def9itely accepts ! demonology ( ! e>ly ,*ur*4 ,on ?is po9t he appeals to ,augu/9e1 & ) p]fect "r2 f ?is x may presumably be assum$ t ! ,s*oolm5 9 g5]al _h ! same view1 ,augu/9e be+1 z we "k1 an au?ority = ,ca?olic !ologians4 ,9 m$iaeval poets also we occasionally f9d ! same view express$4 ,z f> z ,i h be5 able to asc]ta91 ,dante has no anci5t gods among 8 devils1 & ! degree to :i* he _h dissociat$ himself f anci5t paganism may be gaug$ by ! fact t 9 "o ( ! mo/ impassion$ passages ( 8 poem he addresses ! ,*ri/ian ,god z 8,great ,jupit]40 ,b he all[s figures ( anci5t my?ology su* z ,*>on1 ,m9os & ,g]yon to appe> 9 8 inf]nal _w1 & :5 he designates ! pagan gods z 8false & untru?ful10 demonology is evid5tly at ! back ( 8 m9d4 ,! m$iaeval epic poets :o dealt ) antique subjects took ov] ! pagan gods m or less4 ,sometimes1 z 9 ! ,romance ( ,troy1 ! ,*ri/ian v5e] is s ?ick t ! pagan gr\ndwork is b slightly app>5t2 9 o!r poems1 su* z ! adaptation ( ! ,a5eid1 x is m 9 evid5ce4 ,9 s f> z ! gods are n elim9at$ !y seem z a rule to be tak5 ov] q navely f ! s\rce )\t fur!r comm5t2 b occasionally ! poet expresses 8 view ( _! nature4 ,?us ! ,fr5* adapt] ( ,/atius's ,!bas1 9 ^: "w ! ,*ri/ian elem5t is o!rwise n prom95t1 cauti\sly rem>ks t ,jupit] & ,tisiphone1 by :om 8 h]oes swe>1 are 9 reality only devils4 ,g5]ally speak+1 ! gods ( antiquity are (t5 designat$ z devils 9 m$iaeval poetry1 b at times ! op9ion t !y are dep>t$ human be+s crops up4 ,?us1 z we might expect1 ! !ories ( anci5t times /ill survive & reta9 _! sway4 ,!re is a doma9 9 :i* we might expect to f9d di/9ct traces ( ! survival ( ! anci5t gods 9 ! m$iaeval popul> consci\sness1 namely1 t ( magic4 ,!re does n1 h[ev]1 seem to be mu* 9 x2 ! =ms ( m$iaeval magic (t5 g back to antiquity1 b ! be+s x op]ates ) are pre-em95tly ! ,*ri/ian devils1 if we may v5ture to employ ! t]m1 & ! evil spirits ( popul> belief4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 extant a collection ( magic =mulae aga9/ v>i\s ailm5ts 9 :i* pagan gods appe>3 ,h]cules & ,juno ,reg9a1 ,juno & ,jupit]1 ! nymphs1 ,luna ,jovis filia1 ,sol invictus4 ,! collection is transmitt$ 9 a manuscript ( ! n9? c5tury2 ! =mulae mo/ly convey ! impression ( dat+ f a mu* e>li] p]iod1 b ! fact t !y 7 copi$ 9 ! ,middle ,ages sugge/s t !y 7 int5d$ = practical application4 ,a problem1 ! clos] inve/igation ( :i* w\ld no d\bt yield an int]e/+ result1 b :i* does n seem to h be5 mu* notic$1 is ! ,european conception ( ! hea!n religions ) :i* ! explor]s came into contact on _! great voyages ( discov]y4 ,primitive hea!nism z a liv+ reality _h la9 r beyond ! horizon ( ! ,middle ,ages2 :5 x 0 met ) 9 ,am]ica1 x evid5tly awak5$ consid]able int]e/4 ,!re is a description ( ! religion ( ,p]u & ,mexico1 writt5 by ! ,jesuit ,aco/a at ! close ( ! sixte5? c5tury1 :i* gives u a cle> insight into ! or?odox view ( hea!nism dur+ ! ,r5aissance4 ,accord+ to ,aco/a1 hea!nism is z a :ole ! "w ( ! ,devil2 he has s$uc$ m5 to idolatry 9 ord] t he himself may be wor%ipp$ in/ead ( ! true ,god4 ,all wor%ip ( idols is 9 reality wor%ip ( ,satan4 ,! individual idols1 h[ev]1 are n id5tifi$ ) individual devils2 ,aco/a di/+ui%es betwe5 ! wor%ip ( nature 7heav5ly bodies1 natural objects ( ! e>?1 "r d[n to trees1 etc471 ! wor%ip ( ! dead1 & ! wor%ip ( images1 b says no?+ ab\t ! wor%ip ( demons4 ,at "o po9t only is !re a direct int]v5tion ( ! evil p[]s1 namely1 9 magic1 & p>ticul>ly 9 oracles2 & "h !n we f9d1 z an exception1 m5tion ( individual devils :i* mu/ be imag9$ to inhabit ! idols4 ,! same conception is f\nd aga9 z late z ! sev5te5? c5tury 9 a /ory told by ,g4 ,i4 ,voss ( ! "t ( ! ,dut* w>s 9 ,brazil4 ,arcissewski1 a ,poli% (fic] s]v+ 9 ! ,dut* army1 _h witness$ ! conjur+ ( a devil among ! ,tapuis4 ,! demon made 8 appe>ance all "r1 b prov$ to be a native well kn[n to ,arcissewski4 ,z he1 h[ev]1 made "s true progno/ications1 ,voss1 z x seems at v>iance ) ,arcissewski1 ?9ks t !re mu/ h be5 "s sup]natural p[]s conc]n$ 9 ! game4 ,an exceptional place is occupi$ by ! attempt made dur+ ! ,r5aissance at an actual revival ( anci5t paganism & ! wor%ip ( its gods4 ,x proce$$ f ,ple?on1 ! head ( ! ,flor5t9e ,academy1 & seems to h spread !nce to ! ,roman ,academy4 ,! :ole movem5t mu/ be view$ m p>ticul>ly z an outcome ( ! en?usiasm dur+ ! ,r5aissance = ! culture ( antiquity & m especially = its philosophy r ?an its religion2 ! gods wor%ipp$ 7 giv5 a new & /rongly philosophical int]pretation4 ,b x is n improbable t ! traditional !ory ( ! reality ( ! anci5t deities may h _h some?+ to d ) x4 ,simultane\sly ) demonology1 & :ile x 0 /ill ackn[l$g$ 9 pr9ciple1 !re fl\ri%$ m naturali/ic conceptions ( paganism1 bo? 9 ! ,middle ,ages & dur+ ! ,r5aissance4 ,z rem>k$ above1 ! way 0 already prep>$ = !m dur+ antiquity4 ,9 ,?omas ,aqu9as we f9d a lucid explanation ( ! orig9 ( idolatry ) a ref]5ce to ! anci5t !ory4 ,"h we meet ) ! famili> elem5ts3 ! wor%ip ( ! />s & ! cult ( ! dead4 ,accord+ to ,?omas1 man has a natural disposition t[>ds ?is error1 b x only comes into play :5 he is l$ a/ray by demons4 ,9 ! sixte5? & sev5te5? c5turies ! ,devil is m5tion$ (t5] ?an ! demons 7comp>e ,aco/a's view ( ! hea!nism ( ! ,am]ican ,indians72 evid5tly ! conception ( ! nature ( evil _h und]gone a *ange 9 ! direction ( mono!ism4 ,9 ?is way m scope 0 giv5 = ! adoption ( naturali/ic views 9 reg>d to ! individual =ms 9 :i* paganism manife/$ itself ?an :5 deal+ ) a multiplicity ( demons t answ]$ individually to ! pagan gods1 & we meet ) sy/ematic attempts to expla9 ! orig9 ( idolatry by natural means1 ?\gh /ill ) ! ,devil 9 ! backgr\nd4 ,"o ( ^! sy/ems1 :i* play$ a prom95t "p1 especially 9 ! sev5te5? c5tury1 is ! s-call$ ,hebraism1 i4e4 ! attempt to d]ive ! :ole ( paganism f ,judaism4 ,?is fa%ion1 = :i* ! way _h already be5 prep>$ by ,jewi% & ,*ri/ian apologi/s1 rea*es its climax1 ,i ?9k1 ) ,abbot ,huet1 :o d]iv$ all ! gods ( antiquity 7& n only ,greek & ,roman antiquity7 f ,moses1 & all ! goddesses f 8 si/]2 accord+ to him ! k ( ^! two p]sons _h spread f ! ,jews to o!r peoples1 :o _h wov5 ab\t !m a web ( 8fables40 ,alongside ( ,hebraism1 :i* is ,euhem]i/ic 9 pr9ciple1 allegorical me?ods ( int]pretation 7 put =w>d4 ,! *ief repres5tative ( ?is t5d5cy 9 e>li] times is ,natalis ,comes 7,nol du ,comte71 ! au?or ( ! fir/ h&book ( my?ology2 he directly set himself ! task ( allegoris+ all ! my?s4 ,! allegories are mo/ly moral1 b also physical2 ,euhem]i/ic int]pretations are n reject$ ei!r1 & 9 sev]al places ! au?or gives all ?ree explanations side by side )\t *oos+ betwe5 !m4 ,9 ! foot/eps ( du ,comte foll[s ,bacon1 9 8 ,de ,sapi5tia ,vet]um2 to ! moral & physical allegories he adds political ones1 z :5 ,jove's /ruggle ) ,typhoeus is made to symbolise a wise rul]'s treatm5t ( a rebellion4 ,:ile ^! attempts at int]pretation1 bo? ! ,euhem]i/ic & ! allegorical1 are 9 pr9ciple a direct cont9uation ( ^? ( antiquity1 ano!r me?od po9ts pla9ly 9 ! direction ( ! fanta/ic notions ( ! ,middle ,ages4 ,z e>ly z ! sixte5? c5tury ! idea arose ( connect+ ! !ology ( ! anci5ts ) al*emy4 ,! idea seem$ obvi\s because ! metals 7 designat$ by ! names ( ! planets1 :i* are also ! names ( ! gods4 ,x f\nd acceptance1 & 9 ! sev5te5? c5tury we h a s]ies ( writ+s 9 :i* anci5t my?ology is expla9$ z ! symbolical language ( *emical processes4 ,)9 ! limits ( ! sup]natural explanation ! int]e/ c5tr$ m & m 9 a s+le po9t3 ! oracles4 ,z f> back z 9 ,aqu9as1 8false prophecy0 is a ma9 section 9 ! *apt] on demons1 ^: p[] to =etell ! future he expressly ackn[l$ges4 ,9 ! sixte5? & sev5te5? c5turies1 :5 ! int]e/ 9 ! pr$iction ( ! future 0 s /rong1 ! anci5t acc\nts ( true progno/ications 7 ! real prop ( demonology4 ,h5ce demons g5]ally play a great "p 9 ^! explanations1 ev5 ?\gh 9 o!r cases ! ,devil fills ! bill4 ,?us ,aco/a 9 8 acc\nt ( ! ,am]ican religions2 ?us ,voss & num]\s o!r writ]s ( ! sev5te5? c5tury2 & x is h>dly a m]e accid5t1 "o w\ld ?9k1 :5 ,milton specially m5tions ,dodona & ,delphi z ! seats ( wor%ip ( ! ,greek demons4 ,among a few ( ! humani/s we c]ta9ly f9d an attempt to apply ! natural explanation ev5 "h2 ?us ,caelius ,rhodig9us ass]t$ t a great "p 7b n all67 ( ! oracul> sy/em might be expla9$ z prie/ly impo/ure1 & 8 slightly y\ng] contempor>y ,caelius ,calcagn9us1 9 8 dialogue on oracles1 seems to g /ill fur!r & to d5y ! p[] ( pr$ict+ ! future to any o!r be+ ?an ! true ,god4 ,an exceptional position is occupi$ by ,pomponazzi1 :o 9 8 little pamphlet ,de ,incantationibus seems to wi% to d]ive all magic1 includ+ ! oracles1 f natural causes1 ?\gh ultimately he =mally ackn[l$ges demonology z ! au?oritative explanation4 ,b ^! advances did n f9d acceptance2 we f9d ev5 ,voss combat+ ! view on :i* !y 7 f\nd$4 ,x is *>act]i/ic ( ! p[] ( demonology 9 ?is doma9 t 9 support ( 8 po9t ( view he c quote no less a writ] ?an ,ma*iavelli4 ,! au?or :o op5$ battle 9 real e>ne/ aga9/ demonology 0 a ,dut* s*ol>1 "o van ,dale1 o!rwise little kn[n4 ,9 a c\ple ( treatises writt5 ab\t ! close ( ! sev5te5? c5tury he tri$ to %[ t ! :ole ( idolatry 7z well z ! oracles 9 p>ticul>7 0 n dep5d5t on ! int]v5tion ( sup]natural be+s1 b 0 solely due to impo/ure on ! "p ( ! prie/s4 ,van ,dale 0 a ,prote/ant1 s he easily got ov] ! unanim\s recognition ( demonology by ! ,fa!rs ( ! ,*ur*4 ,! acc\nts ( demons 9 ! ,old & ,new ,te/am5ts prov$ m difficult to deal )2 x is int]e/+ to see h[ he wriggles ab\t to get r\nd !m--& x illu/rates mo/ in/ructively ! degree to :i* demonology af=ds ! only reasonable & natural explanation ( paganism on ! basis ( e>ly ,*ri/ian belief4 ,van ,dale's books are le>n$ works writt5 9 ,lat91 full ( quotations 9 ,lat91 ,greek1 & ,hebrew1 & moreov] confus$ & obscure 9 exposition1 z is (t5 ! case ) ,dut* writ+s ( t "t4 ,b a clev] ,fr5*man1 ,font5elle1 took ^u himself ! task ( r5d]+ 8 "w on ! oracles into ,fr5* 9 a popul> & attractive =m4 ,8 book call$ =? an answ]+ pamphlet f a ,jesuit advocat+ ! traditional view2 ! little controv]sy seems to h made "s /ir 9 ,france ab\t ! ye> #agjj4 ,at any rate ,bani]1 :o1 9 ! beg9n+ ( ! eighte5? c5tury1 treat$ anci5t my?ology f a ,euhem]i/ic po9t ( view1 gave "s consid]ation to x4 ,8 own conclusion is--9 #agch6--t demonology _c be disp5s$ ) = ! explanation ( ! oracles4 ,he gives 8 gr\nds = ?is 9 a v s5sible criticism ( van ,dale's prie/ly fraud !ory1 ! absurdity ( :i* he exposes ) s\nd argum5ts4 ,bani] is ! la/ au?or to :om ,i c po9t = ! demon-!ory appli$ z an explanation ( a ph5om5on 9 anci5t religion2 ,i h n f\nd x 9 any o!r my?ologi/ ( ! eighte5? c5tury1 & ev5 9 ,bani]1 ) ! exception ( ?is s+le po9t1 ev]y?+ is expla9$ q naturally accord+ to ! be/ ,euhem]i/ic models4 ,b 9 ! positive und]/&+ ( ! nature ( anci5t paganism no v consid]able advance _h actually be5 made )al4 ,a *>act]i/ic example ( ?is is ! treatm5t ( anci5t religion by su* an em95t intellect z ,giambatti/a ,vico4 ,9 8 ,sci5za ,nuova1 :i* appe>$ 9 #agbe1 z ! f\ndation ( 8 exposition ( ! religion ( antiquity he gives a *>act]isation ( ! mode ( ?\ght ( primitive mank9d1 :i* is s p]t95t & psy*ologically s correct t x anticipates ! results ( m ?an a hundr$ ye>s ( rese>*4 ,( any sup]natural explanation no trace is f\nd 9 him1 ?\gh o!rwise he speaks z a good ,ca?olic4 ,b :5 he proce$s to expla9 ! nature ( ! anci5t ideas ( ! gods 9 detail1 all t x comes to is a s]ies ( allegories1 among :i* ! politico-social play a ma9 "p4 ,vico sees ! e>lie/ hi/ory ( mank9d 9 ! light ( ! traditions ab\t ,rome2 ! ,graeco-,roman gods1 !n1 & ! my?s ab\t !m1 become to him l>gely an expression ( /ruggles betwe5 ! 8patricians & plebeians0 ( remote antiquity4 ,mo/ ( ! my?ology ( ! eighte5? c5tury is l ?is4 ,! ,euhem]i/ic s*ool gradually gave up ! hypo!sis ( ! ,jewi% religion z ! orig9 ( paganism2 ,bani]1 ! *ief repres5tative ( ! s*ool1 /ill argues at l5g? aga9/ ,hebraism4 ,9 its place1 ,pho5icians1 ,assyrians1 ,p]sians &1 above all1 ,egyptians1 are br\ght into play1 or1 z 9 ! case ( ! ,engli%man ,bryant1 ! :ole ( my?ology is expla9$ z rem9isc5ces ( ! exploits ( an aborig9al race1 ! ,cu?ites1 :i* nev] exi/$4 ,! allegori/ s*ool gradually ralli$ r\nd ! idea ( ! cult ( ! heav5ly bodies z ! orig9 ( ! pagan religions2 z late z ! days ( ! ,fr5* ,revolution1 ,dupuis1 9 a volum9\s "w1 tri$ to trace ! :ole ( anci5t religion & my?ology back to a/ronomy4 ,on ! :ole ! movem5t div]g$ m & m f ,euhem]ism t[>ds ! conception ( ,greek religion z a k9d ( cult ( nature2 :5 ! sudd5 awak5+ to a m correct und]/&+ came t[>ds ! close ( ! c5tury1 ,euhem]ism 0 evid5tly already an antiquat$ view4 ,?us1 s9ce ! ,r5aissance1 by a sl[ & v devi\s process ( developm5t1 a gradual approa* _h be5 made to a m correct view ( ! nature ( anci5t religion4 ,aft] ! ,devil _h m or less tak5 ! place ( ! demons1 ! re/ ( demonology1 ! moral allegory1 ,hebraism & ,euhem]ism 7 elim9at$ by successive /ages1 & nature-symbolism 0 rea*$ z ! f9al /age4 ,we "k n[ t ev5 ?is is n ! correct explanation ( ! nature & orig9 ( ! conception ( ! gods prevail+ among ! anci5ts4 ,rec5t inve/igations h %[n t ! ,greek gods1 9 spite ( _! app>5t simplicity & cl>ity1 are highly complex organisms1 ! products ( a long process ( developm5t to :i* ! mo/ div]se factors h contribut$4 ,9 ord] to arrive at ?is result ano!r c5tury ( "w1 ) _m attempts 9 ! wrong direction1 has be5 requir$4 ,! idea t ! ,greek gods 7 nature-gods really dom9at$ rese>* ?r\gh almo/ ! :ole ( ! n9ete5? c5tury4 ,if x has n[ be5 de?ron$ or r$uc$ to ! measure ( tru? x conta9s--= und\bt$ly a natural object ent]s z a compon5t into ! ess5ce ( "s ,greek deities--?is is 9 ! fir/ place due to ! int5sive /udy ( ! religions ( primitive peoples1 liv+ or obsolete2 & ! results ( ?is /udy 7 only appli$ to ,greek religion dur+ ! la/ decade ( ! c5tury4 ,b ! />t+-po9t ( mod]n hi/ory ( religion lies mu* f>!r back3 its beg9n+s date f ! great revival ( hi/orical rese>* :i* 0 inaugurat$ by ,r\sseau & cont9u$ by ,h]d]4 ,h5ce=w>d ! unhi/orical me?ods ( ! age ( enlight5m5t 7 aboli%$1 & att5tion direct$ 9 real e>ne/ t[>ds ! e>li] /ages ( human civilisation4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 c>ries u a /ep beyond ! po9t ( "t at :i* ?is sket* %\ld1 /rictly speak+1 /op4 ,= by ! beg9n+ ( ! eighte5? c5tury--b n be=e--! negative fact :i* is all important 9 ?is connexion _h won recognition3 namely1 t !re exi/$ no sup]natural be+s lat5t beh9d ! ,greek ideas ( _! gods1 & correspond+ at any rate 9 "s degree to !m2 b t ^! ideas mu/ be reg>d$ & expla9$ z entirely inv5tions ( ! human imag9ation4 ,,*apt] ,,ix ,at ! v beg9n+ ( ?is inquiry x 0 emphasis$ t its !me w\ld 9 ! ma9 be ! religi\s views ( ! upp] class1 & )9 ?is sph]e aga9 especially ! views ( ^? circles :i* 7 9 close t\* ) philosophy4 ,! reason = ?is is ( c\rse 9 ! fir/ place t only 9 su* circles c we expect to f9d express$ a po9t ( view approa*+ to positive a!ism4 ,b we may assur$ly g fur!r ?an ?is4 ,we %all h>dly be too bold 9 ass]t+ t ! free-?9k+ ( philosophically educat$ m5 9 reality _h v slight influ5ce on ! great mass ( ! population4 ,philosophy did n p5etrate s f>1 & :atev] degree ( p]ception we e/imate ! masses to h _h ( ! fact t ! upp] lay] ( society reg>d$ ! popul> fai? ) critical eyes--& 9 ! long run x c\ld n be conceal$--we _c fail to recognise t religi\s developm5t among ! anci5ts did n t5d t[>ds a!ism4 ,important *anges took place 9 anci5t religion dur+ ! ,hell5i/ic ,age & ! "t ( ! ,roman ,empire1 b _! causes 7 ( a social & national k9d1 &1 if we conf9e ourselves to paganism1 !y only l$ to c]ta9 gods go+ out ( fa%ion & o!rs com+ 94 ,! utmo/ we c ass]t is t a c]ta9 weak5+ ( ! religi\s life may h be5 widely preval5t dur+ ! "t ( transition betwe5 ! two ages--! transition falls at some:at diff]5t dates 9 ! ea/]n & we/]n "p ( ! ,empire--b t weak5+ 0 soon ov]come4 ,n[ ! peculi> result ( ?is inve/igation ( ! /ate ( religion among ! upp] classes seems to me to be ?is3 ! curve ( int5sity ( religi\s feel+ :i* conjecture leads u to draw ?r\gh ! spiritual life ( ! anci5ts z a :ole1 t same curve1 b m di/9ct & %>ply acc5tuat$1 is f\nd aga9 9 ! relations ( ! upp] classes to ! popul> fai?4 ,t[>ds ! close ( ! fif? c5tury x looks z if ! cultur$ classes t =m$ ! c5tre ( ,greek intellectual life 7 outgr[+ ! anci5t religion4 ,! reaction :i* set 9 ) ,socrates & ,plato c]ta9ly *eck$ ?is movem5t1 b x did n /op x4 ,cynics1 ,p]ipatetics1 ,/oics1 ,epicureans & ,sceptics1 9 spite ( _! widely diff]+ po9ts ( view1 7 all entirely unable to %>e ! religi\s ideas ( _! c\ntrym5 9 ! =m 9 :i* !y 7 ca/ 9 ! national religion4 ,h[ev] _m all[ances !y made1 _! attitude t[>ds ! popul> fai? 0 critical1 & on important po9ts !y d5i$ x4 ,x is aga9/ ! backgr\nd ?us result+ f anci5t philosophy's treatm5t ( anci5t religion t we mu/ view su* ph5om5a z ,polybius1 ,cic]o1 & ,pl9y ! ,eld]1 if we wi% to und]/& _! full significance4 ,on ! o!r h&1 x is c]ta9 t ?is 0 n ! view t conqu]$ 9 ! end among ! educat$ classes 9 antiquity4 ,! l[] we come d[n 9 ! ,empire ! m evid5t does ! positive relation ( ! upp] class to ! gods ( ! popul> fai? become4 ,"s few examples h already be5 m5tion$ 9 ! prec$+ pages4 ,9 philosophy ! :ole movem5t f9ds its typical expression 9 demonology1 :i* dur+ ! lat] ,empire reign$ undisput$ 9 ! "o or two s*ools t /ill reta9$ any vitality4 ,x is significant t its s\rce 0 ! e>li] ,platonism1 ) its v cons]vative attitude t[>ds popul> belief1 & t x 0 tak5 ov] by ! lat] ,/oic s*ool1 :i* inaugurat$ ! g5]al religi\s reaction 9 philosophy4 ,& x is no less significant t demonology 0 swall[$ :ole by ! mono!i/ic religion :i* sup]s$$ anci5t paganism1 & = m ?an a ?\s& ye>s 0 ! recognis$ explanation ( ! nature !re(4 ,9 accordance ) ! l9e ( developm5t "h sket*$1 ! inquiry has ( necessity be5 focus$ on two ma9 po9ts3 ,sophi/ic & ! ,hell5i/ic ,age4 ,n[ x is ( peculi> int]e/ to note :at small traces ( pure a!ism c aft] all be f\nd "h1 9 spite ( all criticism ( ! popul> fai?4 ,we h surmis$ its pres5ce among a few prom95t p]sonalities 9 fif?-c5tury ,a!ns2 we h f\nd evid5ce ( its ext5sion 9 ! same place 9 ! p]iod imm$iately foll[+2 & 9 ! "t ( transition betwe5 ! f\r? & ?ird c5turies we h ?\ght x likely t x exi/$ among a v few philosoph]s1 ( :om none are 9 ! fir/ rank4 ,ev]y:]e else we f9d adju/m5ts1 9 "p v s]i\s & real concessions1 to popul> belief4 ,n to m5tion ! attitude t[>ds wor%ip1 :i* 0 only ho/ile 9 "o sect ( slight importance3 ! assumption ( ! div9ity ( ! heav5ly bodies :i* 0 common to ! ,academics1 ,p]ipatetics1 & ,/oics is really 9 pr9ciple an ackn[l$gem5t ( ! popul> fai?1 ^: conception ( ! gods 0 actually borr[$ & appli$1 n to "s philosophical ab/raction1 b to individual & concrete natural objects4 ,! an?ropomorphic gods ( ! ,epicureans po9t 9 ! same direction4 ,9 spite ( _! pr(\nd diff]5ce f ! be+s t 7 wor%ipp$ & believ$ 9 by ! ord9>y ,greek1 !y are 9 complete h>mony ) ! op9ion on :i* all poly!ism is bas$3 t !re are individual be+s ( a high] ord] ?an man4 ,& ?\gh ! ,/oics 9 !ory conf9$ _! ackn[l$gm5t ( ?is doctr9e to ! heav5ly bodies1 9 practice--ev5 if we disreg>d demonology--!y consi/5tly br\ght x to be> ^u ! an?ropomorphic gods1 9 direct cont9uation ( ! ,socratic reaction aga9/ ! a!i/ic t5d5cies ( ,sophi/ic4 ,if n[ we ask ourselves :at may be ! cause ( ?is peculi> dualism 9 ! relation%ip ( anci5t ?\ght to religion1 ?\gh admitt+ ! highly complex nature ( ! problem1 we c sc>cely avoid recognis+ a c]ta9 pr9ciple4 ,anci5t ?\ght outgrew ! anci5t popul> fai?2 t is beyond d\bt4 ,h5ce its critical attitude4 ,b x nev] outgrew t sup]naturali/ view :i* 0 ! f\ndation ( ! popul> fai?4 ,h5ce its concessions to ! popul> fai?1 ev5 :5 x 0 mo/ critical1 & its f9al surr5d] !reunto4 ,& t x nev] outgrew ! f\ndation ( ! popul> fai? is connect$ ) its :ole conception ( nature & especially ) its conception ( ! univ]se4 ,we _c inde$ d5y t ! anci5ts _h a c]ta9 feel+ t nature 0 regulat$ by laws1 b !y only made imp]fect attempts at a me*anical !ory ( nature 9 :i* ?is regulation ( ! _w by law 0 c>ri$ ?r\gh 9 pr9ciple1 & ) "o brilliant exception !y adh]$ implicitly to ! geoc5tric conception ( ! univ]se4 ,we may1 ,i ?9k1 v5ture to ass]t ) good reason t on su* assumptions ! philosoph]s ( antiquity c\ld n advance fur!r ?an !y did4 ,9 o!r words1 on ! giv5 hypo!ses ! sup]naturali/ view 0 ! correct "o1 ! "o t 0 mo/ probable1 & !re=e t on :i* p f9ally agre$4 ,a few *os5 spirits may at any "t by intuition1 )\t any /rictly sci5tific f\ndation1 emancipate !mselves entirely f religi\s errors2 ?is also happ5$ among ! anci5ts1 & on ! fir/ occasion 0 n unconnect$ ) an enorm\s advance 9 ! conception ( nature4 ,b x is c]ta9 t ! views ( an entire age are always decisively condition$ by its k & int]pretation ( ! univ]se surr\nd+ x1 & _c 9 pr9ciple be emancipat$ !refrom4 ,se5 f ?is po9t ( view1 our brief sket* ( ! attitude ( po/]ity t[>ds ! religion ( ! pagan _w w also n be )\t int]e/4 ,if1 aft] isolat$ advances dur+ ! mighty awak5+ ( ! ,r5aissance1 x is n until ! transition f ! sev5te5? to ! eighte5? c5tury t we f9d ! mod]n a!i/ic conception ( ! nature ( ! gods ( ! anci5ts e/abli%$ 9 pr9ciple & consi/5tly appli$1 we c sc>cely avoid connect+ ?is fact ) ! advance ( natural sci5ce 9 ! sev5te5? c5tury1 & n lea/ ) ! victory ( ! helioc5tric sy/em4 ,aft] ! close ( antiquity ! pagan gods _h rec$$ to a di/ance1 practically speak+1 because !y 7 n wor%ipp$ any m4 ,no "o tr\bl$ himself ab\t !m4 ,b 9 !ory "o _h got no fur!r1 i4e4 no advance _h be5 made on ! anci5ts1 & no advance c\ld be made z long z sup]naturalism 0 adh]$ to 9 connexion ) ! anci5t view ( ! univ]se4 ,?r\gh mono!ism ! notions ( ! div9ity ( ! sun1 moon & planets _h c]ta9ly be5 got rid (1 b n s ! notion ( ! _w--i4e4 ! globe enclos$ )9 ! firmam5t--z fill$ ) p]sonal be+s ( a high] ord] ?an man2 & ev5 ! duty ( turn+ ! sph]es to :i* ! heav5ly bodies 7 believ$ to be fa/5$ 0--q consi/5tly--assign$ to "s ( ^! be+s4 ,z long z su* notions 7 9 op]ation1 n only 7 !re no gr\nds = d5y+ ! reality ( ! pagan gods1 b !re 0 e reason to assume x4 ,s f> we may rightly say t x 0 ,cop]nicus1 ,galileo1 ,giordano ,bruno1 ,kepl] & ,newton t did away ) ! traditional conception ( anci5t paganism4 ,natural sci5ce1 h[ev]1 furni%es only ! negative result t ! gods ( poly!ism are n :at !y are said to be3 real be+s ( a high] ord] ?an man4 ,to reveal :at !y are1 o!r k is requir$4 ,?is 0 n atta9$ until long aft] ! revival ( natural sci5ce 9 ! sixte5? & sev5te5? c5turies4 ,! vacillation 9 ! eighte5? c5tury betwe5 v>i\s !ories ( ! explanation ( ! nature ( anci5t poly!ism--!ories :i* 7 all false1 ?\gh n equally false--is 9 ?is respect significant en\gh2 likewise ! gradual progress :i* *>act]ises rese>* 9 ! n9ete5? c5tury1 & :i* may be indicat$ by su* names z ,heyne1 ,buttmann1 ,k4 ,o4 ,mll]1 ,lobeck1 ,mannh>dt1 ,rohde1 & ,us5]1 to m5tion only "s ( ! mo/ important & omitt+ ^? /ill alive4 ,view$ 9 ?is light ! developm5t sket*$ "h )9 a n>r[ly re/rict$ field is typical ( ! c\rse ( ,european intellectual hi/ory f antiquity d[n to our day4 ,,notes ,( ,a!ism 9 ,antiquity z def9$ "h no treatm5t is kn[n to me2 b !re exi/ an old] & a new] book t deal ) ! "q )9 a wid] compass4 ,! fir/ ( ^! is ,kris*e1 ,die !ologis*5 ,lehr5 d] grie*is*5 ,d5k] 7,gtt+51 #ahdj72 x is *iefly conc]n$ ) ! philosophical conceptions ( deity1 b x t\*es also on ! relations ( philosoph]s to popul> religion4 ,! second is ,de*>me1 ,la critique des traditions religieuses *ez les ,grecs 7,p>is1 #aijd72 x is n f]tile 9 new po9ts ( view1 b x has sugge/$ sev]al details :i* ,i might else h ov]look$4 ,su* books z ,caird1 ,! ,evolution ( ,!ology 9 ! ,greek ,philosoph]s 7,glasg[1 #aijd71 or ,moon1 ,religi\s ,?\ght ( ! ,greeks 7,cambridge1 ,mass41 #aiai71 b>ely t\* on ! relation to popul> belief2 ( ,l\is1 ,les doctr9es religieuses des philosophes grecs1 ,i h n be5 able to make use4 ,i regret t ,p\l ,helms1 ,! ,conception ( ,god 9 ,greek ,philosophy 7,dani%1 9 ,/udi] = ,sprog-og ,oldtids=skn+1 ,no4 #aae71 0 n publi%$ until my essay 0 already 9 ! press4 ,g5]al works on ,a!ism are indicat$ 9 ,avel+'s article1 8,a!ism10 9 ! ,ca?olic ,encyclopdia1 vol4 ii41 b none ( !m seem to be f\nd at ,cop5hag54 ,9 ! ,diction>y ( ,religion & ,e?ics1 ii41 !re is a detail$ article on ,a!ism 9 its relation to diff]5t religions2 ! section treat+ ( ,antiquity is writt5 by ,pe>son1 b is meagre4 ,works l ,zell]1 ,philosophie d] ,grie*51 & ,gomp]z1 ,grie*is*e ,d5k]1 conta9 acc\nts ( ! attitude ( philosoph]s 7,gomp]z also includes o!rs7 t[>ds popul> belief2 ( ^! books ,i h ( c\rse made use ?r\gh\t1 b !y are n ref]r$ to 9 ! foll[+ notes except on special occasion4 ,scatt]$ rem>ks & small monographs on details are naturally to be f\nd 9 pl5ty4 ,:]e ,i h met ) su* & f\nd some?+ useful 9 !m1 or :]e ,i express diss5t f !m1 ,i h notic$ x2 b ,i h n aim$ at exhau/+ ! lit]ature on my subject4 ,on ! o!r h& ,i h tri$ to make myself completely acqua9t$ ) ! fir/-h& mat]ial1 :]ev] x gave a direct support = assum+ ,a!ism1 & to take my own view ( x4 ,9 _m cases1 h[ev]1 ! argum5tation has _h to be indirect3 x has be5 necess>y to draw inf]5ces f :at an au?or does n say 9 a c]ta9 connexion :5 he might be expect$ to say x1 or :at he g5]ally & ?r\gh\t avoids m5tion+1 or f 8 g5]al mann] & peculi>ities 9 8 way ( speak+ ( ! gods4 ,9 su* cases ,i h (t5 _h to be cont5t ) my previ\s k & my g5]al impression ( ! facts2 b !n ,i h z a rule made use ( ! important mod]n lit]ature on ! subject4 ,9 work+ out ! sket* ( ! ideas aft] ! end ( ,antiquity1 ,i h be5 almo/ )\t any guidance 9 mod]n lit]ature4 ,i h accord+ly _h to try1 on ! basis ( a sup]ficial acqua9tance ) "s ( ! *ief types1 to =m = myself1 z be/ ,i might1 "s idea ( ! c\rse ( ! evolution2 b ,i h n be5 able to g sy/ematically ?r\gh ! imm5se mat]ial1 h[ev] fruitful su* a rese>* appe>$ to be4 ,9 ! meantime1 betwe5 ! publication ( my ,dani% essay & ?is translation1 !re has appe>$ a "w by ,mr4 ,gruppe1 ,ges*i*te d] klassis*5 ,my?ologie und ,religionsges*i*te 7,leipzig1 #aiba74 ,my task 9 writ+ my la/ *apt]s w\ld h be5 mu* easi] if ,i c\ld h made use ( ,mr4 ,gruppe's le>n$ & compreh5sive treatm5t ( ! subject2 b x w\ld n h be5 sup]flu\s1 = ,mr4 ,gruppe deals pr9cipally ) ! hi/ory ( classical my?ology1 n ) ! hi/ory ( ! belief 9 ! gods ( antiquity4 ,s ,i h v5tur$ to let my sket* /& z x is1 only r$uc+ "s ( ! notes 7:i* ,i _h on purpose made r full1 to aid o!rs :o might pursue ! subject7 by ref]r+ to ,mr4 ,gruppe in/ead ( to ! s\rces !mselves4 ,= k9dly help+ me to f9d my be>+s 9 out-(-!-way p>ts ( my subject1 ,i am indebt$ to my colleagues ,f4 ,buhl1 ,i4,l4 ,heib]g1 ,i4,c4 ,jacobs5 & ,kr4 ,nyrop1 z well z to ,pr(4 ,m>t9 ,p4 ,nilsson 9 ,lund4 ,p4 #a4 ,def9ition ( ,a!ism3 see ! article 9 ! ,ca?olic ,encycl4 vol4 ii4 ,p4 #e4 ,a!ism3 see ,murray1 ,new ,engl4 ,dict41 "u ,a!ism & -ism4 ,! ^w seems to h come up 9 ! ,r5aissance4 ,p4 #f4 ,crim9al ,law at ,a!ns3 see ,lipsius1 ,das attis*e ,re*t und ,re*tsv]fahr51 i4 p4 #ceh4--,! def9ition 9 ,ari/otle1 de virt4 et vit4 #g1 p4 #abea;a1 has1 ,i ?9k1 no legal f\ndation4 ,p4 #i4 ,on ! legal f\ndation = ! trials ( ,*ri/ians1 see ,momms51 ,d] ,religionsfreuel na* rmis*em ,re*t 7,ges4 ,s*r4 iii4 p4 #chi74--,momms5 goes too f>1 ,i ?9k1 9 suppos+ a legal f\ndation = ! trials ( ,*ri/ians2 above all1 ,i d n believe t ! defection f ! ,roman religion 0 ev] consid]$ z maie/as 9 ! te*nical s5se ( ! ^w1 ! m s z x is c]ta9 t1 aft] ! e>lie/ p]iod1 no diff]5ce 0 made 9 ! treatm5t ( citiz5s & ali5s4 ,p4 #ac4 ,li/s ( a!i/s3 ,cic]o1 de nat4 deor4 #a4 #a1 #b 7comp4 #a4 #bc1 #bf74 ,sext4 ,emp4 hypotyp4 #c4 #bac2 adv4 ma?4 #i4 #ej4 ,aelian1 v4h4 #b4 #ca2 de nat4 an4 #f4 #dj4--,! pr$icate a!os is once appli$ to ,anaxagoras by a ,*ri/ian au?or 7,ir5aeus3 see ,diels1 ,vorsokr4 #df1 ,a #aac2 comp>e also ,m>cell9us1 vit4 ,?uc41 see bel[1 note on p4 #bi74 ,( su* isolat$ cases ,i h tak5 no acc\nt4 ,p4 #af4 ,on ! dualism 9 ! ,greek conception ( ! nature ( gods see ,ngelsba*1 ,hom4 ,!ol4 p4 #aa4--,p9d>3 ,ol4 #a4 #bh1 #i4 #ce2 ,py?4 #c4 #bg4 ,p4 #ag4 ,x5ophanes3 ,e9horn1 ,zeit- und ,/reitfrag5 d] mod]n5 ,x5ophanes=s*ung 7,ar*4 f4 ,ges*4 d4 ,philos4 xxxi474 ,p4 #ah4 ,x5ophanes's age3 ,diels1 ,vorsokr4 #aa1 ,b #h4--;,8 criticism ( ,hom] & ,hesiod3 ibid4 #aa1 #ab4--,titans & ,giants3 ibid4 #a4 #bb4--;,criticism ( ,an?ropomorphism3 ibid4 #ad-af4--;,div9ation3 ,cic4 de div4 #a4 #c1 #e4 ,p4 #ai4 ,on ,x5ophanes's conception ( ,god1 comp4 ,vorsokr4 #aa1 ,b #bc-bf2 on ! id5tification ( ,god ) ! univ]se3 ,vorsokr4 #aa1 ,a #cj1 #ca1 #cc-cf4--;,cic]o3 de div4 #a4 #c1 #e4 ,p4 #ba4 ,= ,x5ophanes's !ology1 comp4 ,freud5?al1 ,ar*4 f4 ,ges*4 d4 ,philos4 i4 p4 #cbb1 & ,zell]'s criticism1 ibid4 p4 #ebd4 ,agree+ ) ,freud5?al3 ,de*>me1 p4 #df2 ,campbell1 ,religion 9 ,greek ,lit]ature1 p4 #bic4 ,p4 #ba4 ,p>m5ides does n ev5 appe> to h designat$ 8 8,be+0 z ,god 7,zell]1 i4 p4 #efc74 ,p4 #bc4 ,9 ! eighte5? c5tury p discuss$ diffusely ! "q :e!r ,?ales 0 an a!i/ 7( c\rse 9 ! s5se 9 :i* ! ^w 0 tak5 at t "t72 comp4 ,t5nemann1 ,ges*4 d4 ,philos4 i4 pp4 #fb & #dbb4 ,t5nemann rem>ks q truly t ! "q is put wrongly4 ,p4 #bd4 ,?ales3 ,diels1 ,vorsokr4 #a1 ,a #bb-bc4--;,attitude ( ,democritus t[>ds popul> belief3 ,vorsokr4 #ee1 ,a #gd-gi2 comp4 #aaf1 #aag2 ,b #aff1 & also ,b #cj4 ,diels1 ,ueb] d5 ,dmon5glaub5 des ,d4 7,ar*4 f4 ,ges*4 d4 ,philos4 #ahid1 p4 #aed74 ,p4 #be4 ,trial ( ,anaxagoras3 ,vorsokr4 #df1 ,a #a1 #ag1 #ah1 #ai4 ,p4 #bf4 ,ram's head3 ,vorsokr4 #df1 ,a #af4 ,p4 #bg4 ,geffck5 79 ,h]mes1 #db1 p4 #abg7 has tri$ to make out some?+ ab\t a criticism ( popul> belief by ,anaxagoras f "s passages 9 ,ari/ophanes 7,nub4 #cih7 & ,lucian 7,tim4 #aj1 etc471 b ,i d n ?9k he has succe$$4--,p]icles a free-?9k]3 ,plut4 ,p]icl4 #f & #ch2 comp4 ,de*>me1 p4 #afj4--,p]sonality ( ,anaxagoras3 ,vorsokr4 #df1 ,a #cj 7,ari/otle1 ,eud4 ,e?ics1 ,a #d1 p4 #abae;b1 #f74 ,p4 #bh4 ,h]odotus3 #h1 #gg4--,sophocles3 ,o$4 rex4 #dih1 #hfc4--;,diopei!s3 ,plut4 ,p]icl4 #cb 7,vorsokr4 #df1 ,a #ag74--,?ucydides3 ,class5 9 ! preface to 8 #crd ed41 p4 lvii4 ,p4 #bi4 ,?ucydides1 a disciple ( ,anaxagoras3 ,m>cell9us1 vit4 ,?uc4 #bb4--;,g5]ally ,?ucydides is ?\ght to h be5 m cons]vative 9 8 religi\s op9ions ?an ,i consid] probable2 see ,class51 loc4 cit42 ,de*>me1 p4 #hc2 ,g]tz 9 8 preface to ! ,dani% translation ( ,?ucydides1 p4 xxvii4--,hippo3 ,vorsokr4 #bf1 ,a #d1 #f1 #h1 #i2 ,b #b1 #c4 ,p4 #cj4 ,ari/otle3 ,vorsokr4 #bf1 ,a #g4--;,diog5es an a!i/3 ,aelian1 v4h4 #b1 #ca4--,! air 8 god3 ,vorsokr4 #ea1 ,a #h 7he ?\ght t ,hom] id5tifi$ ,zeus ) ! air1 & approv$ ( ?is z 1 72 ,b #e1 #g1 #h4--;,allusions to 8 doctr9es by ,ari/ophanes3 ,nub4 #bbe1 #hbh 7,vorsokr4 #ea1 ,c #a1 #b74 ,p4 #ca4 ,a *ief repres5tative ( ! navely critical view ( natural ph5om5a is = u ,h]odotus4 ,! locus classicus is vii4 #abi2 comp4 ,gomp]z1 ,grie*4 ,d5k]1 i4 p4 #bjh2 ,heib]g1 ,fe/skrift til ,uss+ 7,cop5hag51 #aijj71 p4 #ia2 ,de*>me1 p4 #fi4--,pr9cipal passages ab\t ,diagoras3 ,sext4 ,emp4 adv4 ma?4 #i1 #ec2 ,suidas1 art4 ,diagoras ,,ii42 s*ol4 ,ari/oph4 ,nub4 #hcj 7! leg5d72 ,suidas1 art4 ,diagoras ,i42 ,ari/oph4 ,av4 #ajga ) s*ol42 s*ol4 ,ari/oph4 ,ran4 #cbj2 ,lysias vi4 #ag2 ,diod4 xiii4 #af 7! decree72 ,philodem4 de piet4 p4 #hi ,gomp4 7comm5ts ( ,ari/ox5us72 ,aelian1 v4h4 ii4 #bb 7legislation at ,mant9ea74--,wilam[itz 7,textges*4 d4 ,lyr4 p4 #hj7 has tri$ to save ! tradition by suppos+ t ! acme ( ,diagoras has be5 put too e>ly4 ,comp4 also 8 rem>ks1 ,grie*4 ,v]skun/4 p4 #dbf1 :]e he has tak5 up ! "q aga9 ) ref]5ce to my treatm5t ( x4 ,z he has n[ conc$$ ! possibility ( ref]r+ ! legislation to ! e>li] date1 ! diff]5ce betwe5 u is really v slight1 & x is ( c\rse possible1 p]haps ev5 probable1 t ! acme ( ! poet has be5 ant$at$4--,ari/oph4 ,av4 #ajga3 8,on ?is v day x is made public1 t if "o ( y kills ,diagoras f ,melos1 he %all h a tal5t1 & if "o kills "o ( ! dead tyrants1 he %all h a tal5t40 ,! p>allel betwe5 ! two decrees1 ( :i* ! latt] is ( c\rse an inv5tion ( ,ari/ophanes1 w\ld be )\t po9t if ! decree aga9/ ,diagoras 0 n z futile z ! decree aga9/ ! tyrants 7i4e4 ! sons ( ,peisi/ratus1 :o _h be5 dead "s ?ree-qu>t]s ( a c5tury71 t is1 if x did n come _m ye>s too late4--,wilam[itz 7,grie*4 ,v]skun/1 loc4 cit47 takes ! s5se to be3 8,y w n get hold ( ,diagoras any m ?an y did ( ! tyrants40 ,b ?is1 besides be+ some:at po9tless1 does n agree s well z my explanation ) ! introductory words3 8,on ?is v day40 ,on ! o!r h&1 ,i nev] meant to imply t ,diagoras 0 dead 9 #dae1 b only t 8 (f5ce 0 an old "o--j z t ( ,protagoras probably 0 7see p4 #ci74 ,p4 #ci4 ,trial ( ,protagoras3 ,vorsokr4 #gd1 ,a #a-d1 #bc2 ! passage ref]r+ to ! gods3 ibid4 ,b #d4--,plato3 ,!aet4 p4 #afb;d 7,vorsokr4 #gd1 ,a #bc74 ,p4 #da4 ,di/9ction betwe5 belief & k by ,protagoras3 ,gomp]z1 ,grie*4 ,d5k]1 i4 p4 #cei4 ,p4 #db4 ,prodicus3 ,vorsokr4 #gg1 ,b #e4 ,comp4 ,norv91 ,allegori5 i d5 grske ,philosophi 7,edda1 #aiai71 p4 #hb4 ,i _c1 h[ev]1 q adopt ,norv9's view ( ! !ory ( ,protagoras4 ,p4 #dd4 ,critias3 ,vorsokr4 #ha1 ,b #be4--,w4 ,ne/le1 ,jahrbb4 f4 ,philol4 xi4 7#aijc71 pp4 #ha & #agh1 gives an exhau/ive treatm5t ( ! subject1 b ,i _c %>e 8 view ( x4 ,p4 #df4 ,euripides3 ,suppl4 #bja4--,mos*ion3 ,trag4 ,fragm4 ed4 ,nauck 7#bnd ed471 p4 #hac4--,plato3 ,rep4 ii4 #cfi;b4 ,p4 #dg4 ,democritus3 ,re9h>dt 9 ,h]mes1 xlvii 7#aiab71 p4 #ejc ,9 spite ( ,wilam[itz's objections 79 8 ,platon1 ii4 p4 #bad71 ,i /ill consid] x probable t ,plato alludes to a philosophical !ory4--,protagoras on ! orig9al /ate3 ,vorsokr4 #gd1 ,b #h;b4 ,p4 #dh4 ,euripides3 ,electra1 #gcg 7,euripides does n believe 9 ! tale t ! sun rev]s$ its c\rse on acc\nt ( ,?ye/es's fraud aga9/ ,atreus1 & !n adds3 8,fables t t]rify m5 are a pr(it to ! wor%ip ( ! gods074--,ari/otle3 ,metaph4 ,a #h1 #ajgd;b2 see text1 p4 #he4--,polybius3 vi4 #ef2 see text pp4 #ij & #aad4--,plato's ,gorgias1 p4 #dhb & foll4 ,p4 #di4--;,callicles3 see e4g4 ,wilam[itz1 ,platon1 i4 p4 #bjh4 ,p4 #ej4--,?rasyma*us3 ,plato1 ,rep4 i4 pp4 #cch;c1 #cdc;a2 comp4 also ii4 p4 #ceh;b4 ,8 rem>k on ,provid5ce 7,vorsokr4 #gh1 ,b #h7 runs ?us3 8,! gods d n see ! ?+s t are done among m52 if !y did1 !y w\ld n ov]look ! greate/ human good1 ju/ice4 ,= we f9d t m5 d n foll[ x40 ,comp4 text1 p4 #fa4--;,diagoras z ,critias's s\rce3 ,ne/le1 ,jahrbb41 #aijc1 p4 #aja4 ,p4 #ea4 ,euripides3 see ,w4 ,ne/le1 ,euripides 7,/uttg>t1 #aija7 pp4 #ea-aeb4 ,"h1 too1 ! mat]ial is set =? exhau/ively2 ! results seem to me inadmissible4 ,br[n+'s !ory 7,! ,r+ & ! ,book1 x4 #affa foll47 t ,euripides did believe 9 ! exi/5ce ( ! gods1 b did n believe !m to be p]fect1 is a possible1 p]haps ev5 a probable1 explanation ( _m ( 8 utt]ances2 b x w h>dly fit all ( !m4 ,i h exam9$ ! "q 9 an essay1 8,br[n+ om ,euripides0 9 my ,udvalgte ,afh&l+]1 p4 #ee4 ,p4 #eb4 ,gods id5tifi$ ) ! ,elem5ts3 ,bac*4 #bgd2 fragm4 #hci4 #hgg1 #ida 7,ne/le1 p4 #aec74 ,p4 #ec4 ,polemic aga9/ sophi/s3 ,ne/le1 p4 #bjf4--;,bell]ophon3 fragm4 #bhf4 ,p4 #ed4 8,if ! gods----03 fragm4 #bib1 #g4 ,p4 #ee4 ,melanippe3 fragm4 #dhj4 ,! words are said to h giv5 (f5ce at ! rehe>sal1 s t ,euripides alt]$ !m at ! production ( ! play 7,plut4 ,amat4 *4 #ac74--;,aes*ylus3 ,agam4 #afj4--;,ari/ophanes3 ,!smoph4 #dej4--;,9 ! ,frogs1 #hib1 ,euripides prays to ! ,e!r & o!r ab/ractions1 n to ! gods4--,cl\ds3 #acga4 ,p4 #ef4 ,plato3 ,republ4 viii4 p4 #efh;a4--,quotation f ,melanippe3 ,plut4 ,amat4 #ac4 ,p4 #eg4 ,ari/ophanes & ,naturalism3 see note to p4 #cj4 ,p4 #eh4 ,d5ial ( ! gods 9 ! ,cl\ds1 #bdg1 #cfg1 #chj1 #dbc1 #fbg1 #hag1 #hbe1 #abcb4--,moral ( ! piece3 #adeb-aeaj4--;,9 ,ari/ophanes's own trave/ies ( ! gods1 s*ol>s h f\nd evid5ce = a weak5+ ( popul> belief1 b ?is is c]ta9ly wrong2 comp4 ,de*>me1 p4 #aji4--,words l 8believe0 & 8belief0 d n cov] ! ,greek ^w 1 :i* signifies at once 8believe0 & 8be 9 ! habit10 8use habitually10 s t x cov]s bo? belief & wor%ip--an ambiguity t is *>act]i/ic ( ,greek religion4--,x5ophon3 ,memorab4 i4 #a2 ,apol4 ,socr4 #aj & foll4 ,p4 #ei4 ,plato3 ,apol4 p4 #bd;b 7! indictm5t72 #bf;b 7! refutation74 ,p4 #fj4 ,ari/odemus3 ,x5oph4 ,memor4 i4 #d4--;,c9esias3 ,de*>me1 p4 #ace4--,! ,h]mocopidae3 ,de*>me1 p4 #aeb4 ,belo*1 ,hi/4 ( ,greece1 ii4 #a1 p4 #cfj1 has ano!r explanation4 ,to my argum5t x is ( no consequ5ce :at special motive is assign$ = ! crime1 z long z x is a political "o4 ,p4 #fa4 ,plato on impiety3 ,laws1 x4 p4 #hhf;b2 comp4 xii4 p4 #ifg;a4 ,curi\sly en\gh1 ! same trip>tition ( ! wrong attitude t[>ds ! gods occurs already 9 ! ,republic1 ii4 p4 #cfe;d1 :]e x is introduc$ incid5tally z well kn[n & a matt] ( c\rse4 ,p4 #fb4 ,euripides3 e4g4 ,hecuba1 #dhh2 ,suppl4 #fjh4--,ref]5ce to ,anaxagoras3 ,laws1 x4 p4 #hhf;d2 to ,sophi/ic1 #hhi;b4 ,p4 #fe4 ,plato 9 ! ,apology3 p4 #ai;c4--,socrates's daimonion a pro( ( asebeia3 ,x5oph4 ,memorab4 i4 #a1 #b2 ,apol4 ,socr4 #ab2 ,plato1 ,apol4 p4 #ca;d4 ,p4 #ff4 ,accusation ( tea*+ ! doctr9e ( ,anaxagoras3 ,plato1 ,apol4 p4 #bf;d2 comp4 ,x5oph4 ,memor4 i4 #a1 #aj4--,plato's def5ce ( ,socrates3 ,apol4 p4 #bg;a4 ,p4 #fg4 ,x5ophon's def5ce ( ,socrates3 ,memor4 i4 #a1 #b2 #f foll41 #aj foll4--,teleological view ( nature3 ,x5oph4 ,memor4 i4 #d2 iv4 #c4--,on ! religi\s /&po9t ( ,socrates1 comp4 my ,udvalgte ,afh&l+]1 p4 #ch4 ,p4 #fh4 ,plato's ,apology1 p4 #ba;d1 #bc;a & f1 etc4--,! gods all-kn[+3 ,odyss4 iv4 #cgi & #dfh2 comp4 ,ngelsba*1 ,hom4 ,!ol4 p4 #ah2 ,na*hom4 ,!ol4 p4 #bc4 ,p4 #fi4 ,! gods j3 ,ngelsba*1 ,hom4 ,!ol4 p4 #big2 ,na*hom4 ,!ol4 p4 #bg4 ,p4 #ga4 ,! relation betwe5 e>ly religi\s ?\ght & ,delphi has be5 expla9$ correctly by ,sam ,wide1 ,e9leit4 9 die ,alt]tumswiss5s*41 ii4 p4 #bba2 comp4 also ,i4 ,l4 ,heib]g 9 ,tilsku]51 #aiai1 ii4 p4 #dd4--;,hon\rs %[n to ,p9d> at ,delphi3 s*ol4 ,p9d4 ed4 ,dra*m4 i4 p4 #b1 #ad2 #e1 #f4 ,pausan1 x4 #bd4 #e4 ,p4 #gb4 ,plato on ! ,delphic ,oracle3 ,apol4 p4 #bj;e4 ,on ! foll[+ comp4 ,i4 ,l4 ,heib]g1 loc4 cit4 p4 #de4--,socrates on 8 daimonion3 ,plato1 ,apol4 p4 #ca;c4 ,p4 #gd4 ,anti/h5es3 ,ritt]1 ,hi/4 philos4 ,gr4#i #bhe4--,on ! lat] ,cynics1 especially ,diog5es1 see ,diog4 ,la]t4 vi4 #aje 7! gods are 9 ne$ ( no?+72 ,julian1 ,or4 vi4 p4 #aii;b 7,diog5es did n wor%ip ! gods74 ,p4 #ge4 ,cyr5aics3 ,diog4 ,la]t4 ii4 #ia4--;,date ( ,!odorus3 ,diog4 ,la]t4 ii4 #aja1 #ajc2 8 book on ! gods3 ,diog4 ,la]t4 ii4 #ig1 ,sext4 ,emp4 adv4 ma?4 ix4 #ee2 8 trial3 ,diog4 ,la]t4 ii4 #aja4 ,p4 #gf4 ,!odorus's book us$ by ,epicurus3 ,diog4 ,la]t4 ii4 #ig4--,zell]3 ,philos4 d4 ,grie*51 ii4 #a1 p4 #ibe4--;,eu?yphron3 see especially p4 #ad;b foll4 ,p4 #gg4 ,criticism ( ,my?ology 9 ! ,republic3 ii4 p4 #cgg;b foll42 wor%ip presuppos$3 e4g4 iii4 p4 #dae;e2 v4 p4 #dei;e1 #dfa;a1 #dfh;d1 #dfi;a1 #dgj;a2 vii4 p4 #edj;b2 ref]5ce to ! ,oracle3 iv4 p4 #dbg;b4--,timaeus3 p4 #dj;d foll4--,laws1 rules ( wor%ip3 vi4 p4 #gei;a1 vii4 p4 #ifg;a & else:]e1 x4 p4 #iji;d2 capital puni%m5t = a!i/s3 x4 p4 #iji;a4 ,comp4 above1 on p4 #fa4 ,p4 #gh4 ,a!ism a s9 ( y\?3 ,laws1 x4 p4 #hhh;a4--,goodness & tru? ( ! gods3 ,republ4 ii4 p4 #cgi;a1 #chj;d1 #chb;a4--,belief 9 ,provid5ce3 ,laws1 x4 p4 #hhe;c1 etc42 ,republ4 x4 p4 #fab;e2 ,apol4 p4 #da;d4 ,p4 #gi4 ,laws1 x4 p4 #hhh;d1 #hic;b foll41 especially #hii;c-d2 comp4 also xii4 p4 #ifg;a-c4--,timaeus3 p4 #dj;d-f4 ,comp4 ,laws1 xii4 p4 #idh;b4 ,p4 #hj4 ,! gods 9 ! ,republic1 ii4 p4 #chj;d4 ,?is passage1 tak5 toge!r ) ,plato's g5]al treatm5t ( popul> belief1 might lead to ! hypo!sis t x 0 ,plato's doctr9e ( ideas r ?an ! rationalism ( 8 y\? t br\ght ab\t /ra9$ relations betwe5 8 ?\ght & popul> belief4 ,i incl9e to ?9k t su* is ! case2 b !re is a long /ep ev5 f su* a /ate ( ?+s to d[nright a!ism1 & ! /ress ,plato always laid on ! belief 9 ,provid5ce is a /rong argum5t 9 fav\r ( 8 belief 9 ! gods1 = he c\ld nev] make 8 ideas act 9 ! capacity ( ,provid5ce4--,! gods z creators ( mank9d3 ,timaeus1 p4 #da;a foll4 ,p4 #ha4 ,x5ocrates3 ! exposition ( 8 doctr9e giv5 9 ! text is bas$ ^u ,he9ze's ,x5okrates 7,leipzig1 #ahib74 ,p4 #hc4 ,trial ( ,ari/otle3 ,diog4 ,la]t4 v4 #e2 ,a!n4 xv4 p4 #fif4--,! writ+s ( ,ari/otle t h come d[n to u are almo/ all ( !m compositions = ! use ( 8 disciples1 & 7 n accessible to ! g5]al public dur+ 8 lifetime4 ,p4 #hd4 ,on ! religi\s views ( ,ari/otle see 9 g5]al ,zell]1 ii4 #b1 p4 #ghg 7,engl4 transl4 ii4 p4 #cbe72 :]e ! ref]5ces to 8 writ+s are giv5 9 full4 ,9 ! foll[+ ,i indicate only a few passages ( special int]e/4--,discussion ( wor%ip preclud$3 ,top4 ,a1 xi4 p4 #aje;a1 #e4--;,ari/otle's ,w3 ,diog4 ,la]t4 v4 #ae4--,! gods z det]m9+ ! limits ( ! human3 e4g4 ,nic4 ,e?4 ,k1 viii4 p4 #aagh;b1 #cc3 87! wise7 w also be 9 ne$ ( outw>d prosp]ity1 z he is 7only7 a man40--,res]vations 9 speak+ ( ! gods1 e4g4 ,nic4 ,e?4 ,k1 ix4 p4 #aagi;a1 #ac3 8he :o is active 9 accordance ) reason 444 mu/ also be suppos$ to be ! mo/ belov$ ( ! gods2 = if ! gods tr\ble !mselves ab\t human affairs--& t !y d s is g5]ally tak5 = grant$--x mu/ be probable t !y take pleasure 9 :at is be/ & mo/ ne>ly relat$ to !mselves 7& t mu/ be ! reason71 & t !y rew>d ^? :o love & hon\r ?is mo/ highly10 etc4 ,! passage is typical bo? ( ! hypo!tical way ( speak+1 & ( ! twi/ 9 ! direction ( ,ari/otle's own conception ( ! deity 7^: ess5ce is reason72 also ( ! ,socratic mann] ( deal+ ) ! gods4 ,p4 #he4 ,! passage quot$ is f ! ,metaphysics1 ,a viii4 p4 #ajgd;a1 #ch4 ,comp4 ,metaph4 ,b1 ii4 p4 #iig;b1 #h2 iv4 p4 #ajjj;a1 #i4 ,p4 #hf4 ,!ophra/us3 ,diog4 ,la]t4 v4 #cg4 ,p4 #hg4 ,/rato3 ,diels1 ,ueb] das physikal4 ,sy/em des ,s41 ,sitzungsb]4 d4 ,b]l4 ,akad41 #ahic1 p4 #aja4--;,8 god ! same z nature3 ,cic4 de nat4 deor4 i4 #ce4 ,p4 #hi4 ,on ! hi/ory ( ,hell5i/ic religion1 see ,w5dl&1 ,die hell5i/is*-rmis*e ,kultur 9 ihr5 ,beziehung5 z4 ,jud5tum u4 ,*ri/5tum 7,tb+51 #aijg74 ,p4 #ij4 ,! passage quot$ is ,polyb4 vi4 #ef1 #f4 ,p4 #ib4 ,on ! ,ty*e-,religion1 see ,ngelsba*1 ,na*hom4 ,!ologie1 p4 #aec2 ,lehrs1 ,populre ,aufstze1 p4 #aec2 ,rohde1 ,grie*4 ,roman1 p4 #bfg 7#a/ ed472 ,w5dl&1 p4 #ei4--,?ucydides3 see ,class5 9 ! introduction to 8 7#crd7 edition1 pp4 lvii-lix1 :]e all ! mat]ial is collect$4 ,a conclusive passage is vii4 #cf1 #f1 :]e ,?uc4 makes ! bigot$ ,nicias be=e a decisive battle express ! hope t 8,=tune0 w fav\r ! ,a!nians4--,demo/h5es's dream3 ,aes*94 iii4 #gg4--;,demo/h5es on ,ty*e3 ,olyn?4 ii4 #bb2 de cor4 #beb4 ,p4 #ic4 ,demo/h5es & ! ,py?ia3 ,aes*4 iii4 #acj4 ,comp4 ibid4 #fh1 #aca1 #aeb2 ,plut>*1 ,dem4 #bj4--;,demetrius ( ,phal]um3 ,polyb4 xxix4 #ba4--,temples ( ,ty*e3 ,ros*]1 ,my?ol4 ,lex41 art4 ,=tuna4 ,p4 #id4 ,ty*e mi/ress ( ! gods3 ,trag4 adesp4 fragm4 #ejf1 ,nauck2 ,dio ,*rys4 lxiv4 p4 #cca ,r4--,polybius3 i4 #a2 iii4 #e1 #g4--,! res]vations aga9/ ,ty*e z a pr9ciple = ! expla9+ ( hi/orical facts1 & ! twi/+ ( ! notion 9 ! direction ( ,provid5ce f\nd 9 c]ta9 passages 9 ,polybius1 d n conc]n u "h2 !y are probably due to ! ,/oic influ5ce he und]w5t dur+ 8 /ay at ,rome4 ,comp4 bel[1 on p4 #aad1 & see ,cuntz1 ,polybios 7,leipzig1 #aijb71 p4 #dc4--,pl9y3 ii4 #bb foll4 ,p4 #ie4 ,ty*e 9 ! novels3 ,rohde1 ,grie*4 ,rom4 p4 #bhj4 ,p4 #ig4 ,/rabo3 xvii4 p4 #hac4--,plut>*3 de def4 or4 #e & #g4 ,p4 #ih4 ,! ,aetolians at ,dium3 ,polyb4 iv4 #fb2 at ,dodona1 iv4 #fg2 ,philip at ,!rmon1 v4 #i2 ,dicae>*us1 xviii4 #ed4--;,decay ( ,roman wor%ip3 ,wiss[a1 ,religion u4 ,kultus d4 ,rm]1 p4 #gj 7#bnd ed474 ,to ?is "w ,i mu/ ref] = indications ( ! s\rces2 b ! polemic 9 ! text is *iefly direct$ aga9/ ,wiss[a4 ,p4 #ii4 ,ennius3 comp4 bel[1 p4 #aab4 ,p4 #ajj4 ,v>ro3 9 ,augu/9e1 de civ4 ,dei1 vi4 #b4 ,p4 #ajc4 ,!ology ( ! ,/oics3 ,zell]1 iii4 #a1 p4 #cji-de4 ,p4 #ajd4 ,demonology ( ! ,/oics3 ,he9ze1 ,x5okrates1 p4 #if4 ,p4 #aje4 ,epicurus's !ology3 ,zell]1 iii4 #a1 pp4 #dbg-ch4 ,comp4 ,s*w>tz1 ,*>akt]kpfe1 ii4 p4 #dc4 ,p4 #ajf4 ,epicurus's doctr9e ( ! et]nity ( ! gods criticis$3 ,cic4 de nat4 deor4 i4 #fh foll4 ,p4 #ajg4 ,! ,sceptics3 ,zell]1 iii4 #a1 pp4 #ejg & #eba4 ,p4 #aji4 ,diog5es3 see note on p4 #gd4--;,bion3 ,diog4 ,la]t4 iv4 #eb & #ed4 ,p4 #aaj4 ,m5ippos3 ,r4 ,helm1 ,lukian u4 ,m5ipp 7,leipzig & ,b]l91 #aijf74 ,p4 #aaa4 ,euhem]us3 ,jacoby 9 ,pauly-,wiss[a's ,real5cyclop41 art4 8,euem]os02 ,w5dl&1 ,hell5i/4 ,kultur1 p4 #gj4--;,euhem]ism be=e ,euhem]us3 ,lobeck1 ,aglaophamus1 p4 #i2 ,w5dl&1 p4 #fg4 ,p4 #aab4 ,a ,dani% s*ol>1 ,dr4 ,j4 ,p4 ,jacobs5 7,afh&l+] og ,artikl]1 p4 #dij71 seems to ?9k t ,euhem]us's !ory 0 influ5c$ by ! wor%ip ( h]oes4 ,b !re is no?+ to %[ t ,euhem]us suppos$ 8 gods to h cont9u$ _! exi/5ce aft] _! dea?1 ?\gh ?is w\ld h be5 9 accordance ) ,greek belief ev5 9 ! ,hell5i/ic p]iod2 he seems r to h insi/$ t !y 7 wor%ipp$ z gods dur+ _! lifetime 7comp4 ,jacoby1 loc4 cit474 ,p4 #aad4 ,euhem]ism 9 ,polybius3 xxxiv4 #b2 comp4 x4 #aj1 #aa4--,relapse into or?odoxy3 xxxvii4 #i 7! decisive passage72 xxxix4 #ai1 #b 7conclud+ pray] to ! gods72 xviii4 #ed1 #g-aj2 xxiii4 #aj1 #ad 7! gods puni% impiety2 comp4 xxxvii4 #i1 #af74 ,!re is a m>k$ contra/ betwe5 su* passages & ! way ,polybius speaks ( ,philip's de/ruction ( ! sanctu>y at ,!rmon2 he blames x sev]ely1 b m]ely on political1 n on religi\s gr\nds 7v4 #i-ab74 ,or?odox utt]ances 9 ! old] portions ( ! "w 7i4 #hd1 #aj2 x4 #b1 #g7 may be due to t accommodation to popul> belief :i* ,polybius himself ackn[l$ges z ju/ifiable 7xvi4 #ab1 #i71 b also to lat] revision4--,influ5ce ( ,/oicism3 ,hirzel1 ,unt]su*ung5 zu ,cic]os philos4 ,s*rift51 ii4 p4 #hda4 ,p4 #aae4 ,cic]o's ,/oicism 9 8 philosophy ( religion3 de nat4 deor4 iii4 #dj1 #ie4 ,p4 #aaf4 ,sanctu>y to ,tullia3 ,cic4 ad ,att4 xii4 #ah foll42 sev]al ( ! lett]s 7#bc1 #be1 #ce1 #cf7 %[ t ,atticus disapprov$ ( ! idea1 & t ,cic]o himself 0 consci\s t x 0 unwor?y ( him4 ,p4 #aag4 ,euhem]i/ic def5ce3 fragm4 consol4 #ad1 #ae4--;,augu/us's reorganisation ( ! cults3 ,wiss[a1 ,religion u4 ,kultus d4 ,rm]1 p4 #gc4 ,rec5t s*ol>s1 especially :5 treat+ ( ,virgil 7,he9ze1 ,v]gils ep4 ,te*nik1 #crd ed4 p4 #bia2 ,nord51 ,a5eis1 vi4 #bnd ed4 pp4 #cad1 #cah1 #cfb71 speak ( ! re=m ( ,augu/us z if x involv$ a real revulsion ( feel+ 9 8 contempor>ies4 ,?is is 9 my op9ion a complete misund]/&+ ( ! facts4 ,virgil's religi\s views3 ,catal4 v41 ,georgics1 ii4 #deh4 ,p4 #aah4 ,pl9y3 hi/4 nat4 ii4 #a-bg4 ,! passages translat$ are #ad & #bg4 ,p4 #abb4 ,s5eca3 fragm4 #ca-ci1 ,haase4--,/oic polemic aga9/ a!ism3 ,epictetus1 diss4 ii4 #bj1 #ba2 comp4 ,m>cus ,aurelius1 vi4 #dd4--,lat] ,cynicism3 ,zell]1 iii4 #a1 p4 #gfc4--,o5omaus3 only pres]v$ 9 exc]pts by ,euseb4 praep4 evang4 #e-f 7a sep>ate edition is want$74--,8 polemic direct$ aga9/ ! prie/s3 ,euseb4 #e1 p4 #bac;c2 comp4 ,o5omaus himself1 ibid4 #f1 p4 #bef;d4 ,p4 #abc4 ,lucian3 see ,*ri/1 ,ges*4 d4 grie*4 ,litt4 ii4 #b1 p4 #eej 7#e? ed471 & ,r4 ,helm1 ,lukian u4 ,m5ipp 7see note to p4 #aaj74 ,p4 #abd4 ,timon3 *4 x4 ,p4 #abf4 ,on ,lucian's caution 9 attack+ ! really popul> gods1 see ,wilam[itz1 9 ,kultur d4 ,geg5w>t1 i4 #h1 p4 #bdh4--,! ,jews a!i/s3 ,h>nack1 ,d] ,vorwurf d4 ,a!ismus 9 d5 #c er/5 ,jahrh4 7,texte u4 ,unt]s41 ,n4,f41 xiii4 #d71 p4 #c4 ,p4 #abg4 ,i h met ) no compreh5sive treatm5t ( ,jewi% & ,*ri/ian polemic aga9/ ,paganism2 ,geffck51 ,zwei grie*4 ,apologet5 7,leipzig1 #aijg71 is *iefly conc]n$ ) inve/igations into ! s\rces4 ,i %all !re=e indicate ! pr9cipal passages on :i* my treatm5t is bas$4--,polemic aga9/ images 9 ! ,old ,te/am5t3 ,isaiah #dd4aj etc42 9 lat] lit]ature3 ,epi/le ( ,j]emiah2 ,wisdom ( ,solomon #ac foll42 ,philo1 de decal4 #fe foll41 etc4--,euhem]ism3 ,wisdom ( ,solomon #ad4ae2 ,epi/le ( ,ari/eas1 #ace2 ,sibyll4 iii4 #edg1 #eed1 #gbc4--;,elem5ts & cele/ial bodies3 ,wisdom ( ,solomon #ac2 ,philo1 de decal4 #eb foll4--,! t5acity ( tradition is app>5t f ! fact t ev5 ,maimonides 9 8 treatise ( idolatry deals only ) />-wor%ip & image-wor%ip4 ,i "k ! treatise only f ! ,lat9 translation by ,d4 ,voss 79 ,g4 ,i4 ,voss's ,op]a1 vol4 v474--,demons3 ,deut]on4 #cb4ag2 ,psalms #ajf4cg2 add 7accord+ to ,,lxx47 ,isaiah #fe4aa2 ,psalms #if4e4 ,lat] writ]s3 ,eno* #ai4ii1 #g2 ,b>u* #d4g4 ,su* passages z ,jub4 #bb1 #ag or ,sibyll4 prooem4 #bb are possibly ,euhem]i/ic4--,fall5 angels3 ,eno*1 #ai4--,philo's demonology3 de gig4 #f-ah1 etc4 ,p4 #abh4 ,/4 ,paul3 #a ,cor4 #aj4bj2 comp4 #h4d & ,rom4 #a4bc4 ,p4 #abi4 ,image-wor%ip & demon-wor%ip n conciliat$3 e4g4 ,t]tull4 ,apologet4 #aj-ae & #bb-bc1 comp4 #bg4--;,jewi% demonology3 ,b\sset1 ,religion d4 ,jud5tums1 p4 #cbf 7#a/ ed474--,fall5 angels3 e4g4 ,a!nag4 #bd foll42 ,augu/9e1 ,en*ir4 #i1 #bh foll42 de civ4 ,dei1 viii4 #bb4 ,p4 #acj4 ,euhem]ism 9 ! ,apologi/s3 e4g4 ,augu/9e1 de civ4 ,dei1 ii4 #aj2 vi4 #g2 vii4 #ah & #cc2 viii4 #bf4--;,euhem]ism & demonology comb9$3 e4g4 ,augu/9e1 de civ4 ,dei1 ii4 #aj2 vii4 #ce2 comp4 vii4 #bh f94--,wor%ip ( ! heav5ly bodies3 e4g4 ,ari/id4 #c foll42 ,augu/9e1 de civ4 ,dei1 vii4 #bi foll4 ,p4 #aca4 ,paganism a delusion caus$ by demons3 ,?omas ,aq4 ,summa !ol4 ,p4 ii4 #b1 ,q4 #id1 art4 #d2 comp4 bel[1 note on p4 #ace4 ,p4 #acc4 ,= ! foll[+ sket* ,i h f\nd valuable mat]ial 9 ,g$ike's essay1 ,ueb] die mannigfaltig5 ,hypo!s5 z4 ,erklrung d4 ,my?ologie 7,v]m4 ,s*rift51 ,b]l91 #ahja1 p4 #fa74 ,p4 #acd4 ,milton3 ,p>adise ,lo/1 i4 #ejf4 ,! !ory t ! pagan oracles fell mute at ! rise ( ,*ri/ianity is also f\nd 9 ,milton1 ,hymn on ! ,morn+ ( ,*ri/'s ,nativity1 /4 xviii4 foll4 ,p4 #ace4 ,g4 ,i4 ,voss2 ,de ,!ologia ,g5tili1 lib4 i4 7publi%$1 #afdb7--,voss's view is 9 ! ma9 t idolatry z a :ole is ! "w ( ! ,devil4 ,:at is wor%ipp$ is p>tly ! heav5ly bodies1 p>tly demons1 p>tly 7& pr9cipally7 dead m52 mo/ ( ! anci5t gods are id5tifi$ ) p]sons f ! ,old ,te/am5t4 ,demon-wor%ip is dealt ) 9 *4 #f2 x is prov$ among o!r ?+s by ! true pr$ictions ( ! oracles4 ,individual ,greek deities are id5tifi$ ) demons 9 *4 #g1 9 a context :]e oracles are dealt )4 ,on old] works ( ! same t5d5cy1 see bel[1 note on p4 #adj2 on ,natalis ,comes1 ibid4 ,a full] treatm5t ( ,voss's !ories is f\nd 9 ,gruppe's "w1 #be4--,?omas ,aqu9as3 ,summa !ol4 ,p4 ii4 #b1 ,q4 #id1 art4 #d2 comp4 also ,q4 #abb1 art4 #b4--;,dante3 ,sommo ,giove = ,god1 ,purg4 vi4 #aah2 8 devils3 ,*>on1 ,inf4 iii4 #hb 7#aji expressly designat$ z 8dimonio072 ,m9os1 ,inf4 v4 #d2 ,g]yon1 ,inf4 xviii4 7!re are m ( ! same k9d74--8,dei falsi e bugi>di03 ,inf4 i4 #gb4 7,plutus1 :o appe>s z a devil 9 ,inf4 vii4 0 probably tak5 by ,dante = an antique god2 b ! "n may also be a classicis+ translation ( ,mammon47 ,p4 #acf4 ,m$iaeval epic poets3 ,nyrop1 ,d5 oldfranske ,helt$igtn+1 p4 #bee & #bfj2 ,d]n$de1 ,ueb] die d5 altfranzs4 ,di*t]n bekannt5 ,/(fe aus dem ,alt]tum 7,diss4 ,gtt+4 #ahhg74--;,confusion ( anci5t & ,*ri/ian elem5ts3 ,d]n$de1 p4 #aj2 ! gods are devils3 ,d]n$de1 pp4 #he1 #hh4--;,euhem]ism3 ,d]n$de1 p4 #d4--;,i h tri$ to get a fir/-h& impression ( ! way ! gods are treat$ by ! old ,fr5* epic poets1 b ! mat]ial is too l>ge1 & indexes suit$ to ! purpose are want+4 ,! paganism ( ! orig9al is tak5 ov] navely1 e4g41 by ,veldeke1 ,eneidt1 i4 #de1 #afi4--,on magic ,i h consult$ ,hor/'s ,dmonomagie 7,frankf4 #ahah72 & 8 ,zaub]-,biblio!k 7,ma9z1 #ahba-bf72 ,s*9dl]1 ,d] ,ab]glaube des ,mittelalt]s 7,breslau1 #aheh72 ,maury1 ,la magie et l'a/rologie dans l'antiquit et au moy5 ge 7,p>is1 #ahfj74 ,^! au?ors all agree t m$iaeval magic is dep5d5t on antiquity1 b t ! pagan gods are sup]s$$ by devils 7or ! ,devil74 ,! connexion 9 sub/ance ) antiquity1 on :i* ,maury specially insi/s1 is c]ta9 en\gh1 b does n conc]n u "h1 :]e ! "q is ab\t ! !ory4 ,9 ! ,zaub]-,bibl4 i4 p4 #acg 79 ! treatise ,pneumatologia v]a et occulta71 ! snake ,py?on is put d[n among ! demons1 ) ! rem>k t ,apollo 0 call$ aft] x4--,magic =mulae ) antique gods3 ,heim1 ,incantam5ta magica 79 ! ,neue ,jahrbb4 f4 ,philologie1 ,suppl4 xix4 #ahic1 p4 #eeg2 ,i owe ?is ref]5ce to ! k9dness ( my colleague1 ,pr(4 ,gro5beck74 ,pradel1 ,religionsges*4 ,v]s4 u4 ,vor>b4 iii41 has collect$ pray]s & magic =mulae f ,italy & ,greece2 !y d n conta9 names ( antique gods4 ,p4 #acg4 ,aco/a3 ,joseph de ,aco/a1 ,hi/oria naturale e morale delle ,indie1 ,v5ice1 #aeif4 ,i h us$ ?is ,italian translation2 ! orig9al "w appe>$ 9 #aeij4--;,demons at "w 9 oracles3 bk4 v4 *4 #i2 9 magic3 *4 #be4 ,p4 #ach4 ,demon 9 ,brazil3 ,voss1 ,!ol4 ,g5t4 i4 *4 #h4--,pagan wor%ip 9 ! ,flor5t9e & ,roman ,academies3 ,voigt1 ,wi$]belebung d4 klass4 ,alt]tums1 ii4 p4 #bci 7#bnd ed472 ,hettn]1 ,ital4 ,/udi51 p4 #agd4--,on ! conception ( ! antique gods 9 ! e>li] ,middle ,ages1 see ,gruppe1 #d4--,?omas ,aqu9as3 ,summa !ol4 ,p4 ii4 #b1 ,q4 #id1 art4 #d4--;,curi\s & typical ( ! m$iaeval way ( reason+ is ! idea ( seek+ prototypes ( ! ,*ri/ian hi/ory ( salvation 9 pagan my?ology4 ,see v4 ,eick51 ,ges*4 u4 ,sy/em d4 mittelalt4 ,weltans*auung 7,/uttg4 #ahhg71 p4 #fdh1 & 7) m detail7 ,f4 ,pip]1 ,my?ologie u4 ,symbolik d4 *ri/l4 ,kun/ 7,weim>1 #ahdg-ea71 i4 p4 #adc2 comp4 also ,gruppe1 #h foll4 ,good in/ances are ! my?s 9 ! ,speculum humanae salvationis1 *s4 #c & #bd4 ,p4 #aci4 ,on ,hebraism 9 g5]al1 see ,gruppe1 #ai & #bd foll42 on ,huet1 #bh4 ,nev]!less1 ,huet op]ates ) demonology 9 connexion ) ! oracles 7,dem4 evang4 ii4 #i1 #cd1 #d74 ,p4 #adj4 ,on ,natalis ,comes1 see ,gruppe1 #ai4 ,9 bk4 i4 *4 #g1 ,natalis ,comes gives an acc\nt ( ! orig9 ( antiquity's conceptions ( ! gods2 x has q a naturali/ic turn4 ,nev]!less1 we f9d 9 *4 #af a rem>k :i* %[s t he embrac$ demonology 9 its crude/ =m2 comp>e also ! !ory set =? 9 *4 #aj4 ,8 int]pretations ( my?s are collect$ 9 bk4 x4--,on ,bacon1 see ,gruppe1 #bb4 ,typhoeus-my?3 introduct4 to ,de sapi5tia vet]um4--,al*emi/ic int]pretations3 ,g$ike1 ,v]m4 ,s*rift51 p4 #gh2 ,gruppe1 #cj4 ,( ! works quot$ by ,g$ike1 ,i h consult$ ,fab]'s ,pan*ymicum 7,frankf4 #afea7 & ,toll's ,=tuita 7,am/]d4 #afhg74 ,fab] has only "s rem>ks on ! matt] 9 bk4 i4 *4 #e2 by ,toll ! al*emi/ic int]pretation is c>ri$ ?r\gh4 ,g$ike quotes1 moreov]1 a "w by ,su>ez de ,salaz>1 :i* mu/ date f ! sixte5? c5tury2 accord+ to ,j*] 7iv4 #aiac7 x only exi/s 9 ,,ms41 & ,i d n "k :]e ,g$ike got 8 ref]5ce4--,?omas3 ,summa1 ,p4 ii4 #b1 ,q4 #agb1 arts4 #e & #f4 ,p4 #ada4 ,demonology z explanation ( ! oracles3 see van ,dale1 ,de oraculis1 p4 #dcj 7,am/]d4 #agjj72 he quotes num]\s treatises f ! sixte5? & sev5te5? c5turies4 ,i h glanc$ at ,moebius1 ,de oraculorum e?nicorum orig9e1 etc4 7,leipzig1 #afef74--;,caelius ,rhodig9us3 ,lectionum antiq4 7,leyd51 #aeaf71 lib4 ii4 cap4 #ab2 comp4 ,gruppe1 #ae4--;,caelius ,calcagn9us3 ,oraculorum lib] 79 8 ,op]a1 ,basle1 #aedd1 p4 #fdj74 ,! little dialogue is n v easy to und]/&2 x is evid5tly a satire on contempor>y cr$ulity2 b t ,caelius completely reject$ div9ation seems to be assum$ also by ,g4 ,i4 ,voss1 ,!ol4 ,g5t4 i4 #f4--,ma*iavelli3 ,discorsi1 i4 #ef4--,van ,dale3 ,de oraculis g5tilium 7#a/ ed4 ,am/]d4 #afhc72 ,de idololatria 7,am/]d4 #afif74 ,difficulties ) ! biblical acc\nts ( demons3 ,de idol41 d$ication4--,font5elle3 ,hi/oire des oracles 7,p>is1 #afhg74 ,! little book has an amus+ preface1 9 :i* ,font5elle ) nave complac5cy 7& ) a %>p eye = van ,dale's defici5cies ( /yle7 gives an acc\nt ( 8 popul>isation ( ! le>n$ "w4 ,on ,font5elle & ! answ] by ! ,jesuit1 ,bal?us1 see = fur!r details ,bani]1 ,la my?ologie et les fables expliques p> l'hi/oire 7,p>is1 #agch71 bk4 iii4 *4 #a4 ,van ,dale's book itself _h call$ =? an answ] by ,moebius 7includ$ 9 ! edition ( #afij ( 8 "w1 de orac4 e?n4 orig474--,on ! influ5ce ex]cis$ by van ,dale & ,font5elle on ! succe$+ my?ologi/s1 see ,gruppe1 #cd4--;,bani]3 see ,gruppe1 #ce4 ,p4 #adc4 ,vico3 ,sci5za nuova 7,milan1 #ahec71 p4 #afh 7bk4 ii4 9 ! section1 ,della metafisica poetica72 political allegories1 e4g4 p4 #cji 79 ! ,canone mitologico74 ,comp4 ,gruppe1 #dd4--;,bani]3 9 ! "w indicat$ above1 bk4 i4 *4 #e4 ,p4 #add4 ,on ! my?ological !ories ( ! eighte5? c5tury1 comp4 ,gruppe1 #cf foll42 on ,bryant1 #dj2 on ,dupuis1 #da4--,polemic aga9/ ,euhem]ism f ! /&po9t ( nature-symbolism3 de la ,b>re1 ,mmoires p\r s]vir l'hi/oire de la religion en ,grce1 9 ,mm4 de l',acad4 des ,inscr4 xxiv4 7#agdi2 ! treatise _h already be5 communicat$ 9 #agcg & #agch72 a po/hum\s cont9uation 9 ,mm4 xxix4 7#aggj7 gives an idea ( de la ,b>re's own po9t ( view1 :i* 0 n a little 9 advance ( 8 "t4 ,comp4 ,gruppe1 #cg4 ,p4 #ade4 ,a good survey ( mod]n inve/igations 9 ! field ( ! hi/ory ( anci5t religion is giv5 by ,sam ,wide 9 ! ,e9leit4 9 die ,alt]tumswiss5s*4 ii42 "h also rem>ks on ! my?ology ( old] times4 ,! lat] "p ( ,gruppe's "w conta9s a v full treatm5t ( ! subject4 ,,index ,absolute def9itions ( ! div9e1 #af1 #ai1 #fh1 #fi1 #hb1 #hh4 ,academics1 #adi4 ,academy1 lat]1 #ajh1 #aad4 ,aco/a1 #acg1 #aci1 #ada4 ,aelian1 #aba4 ,a5eid 7m$iaeval71 #acf4 ,aes*9es1 #ic4 ,aes*ylus1 #ed1 #ee4 ,aetolians1 #ig1 #ih4 ,al*emi/ic explanation ( ,paganism1 #adj4 ,alcibiades1 #fj4 ,alex&] ! ,great1 #ic1 #aab4 ,allegorical int]pretation1 #ajd1 #aac1 #aci1 #adj1 #adc1 #add4 ,am]ican ,paganism1 #acg1 #aci1 #ada4 ,anaxagoras ( ,clazom5ae1 #g1 #ac1 #be-bi1 #cj1 #ca1 #dj1 #fb1 #fc1 #ff1 #abd4 ,anaxim5es1 #cj4 ,angelology1 #abi4 ,an?ropomorphism1 #ad1 #ah1 #ai1 #fi4 ,anti/h5es1 #ac1 #gd1 #aji4 ,apologi/s1 #abh1 #acj1 #acb1 #aci4 ,arcissewsky1 #ach4 ,ari/ides ! ,apologi/1 #abi4 ,ari/ides ,rhetor1 #aba4 ,ari/odemus1 #fj1 #fb4 ,ari/ophanes1 #cj1 #cb1 #cc1 #ci1 #ee1 #ef-eh1 #fe4 ,birds1 #cb4 ,cl\ds1 #cj1 #ee1 #ef-eh ,frogs1 #ee4 ,ari/otle1 #ac1 #cj1 #cb1 #df1 #hc-hg1 #ajd1 #aac4 ,e?ics1 #hd4 ,metaphysics1 #he-hf4 ,politics1 #hd4 ,ari/ox5us1 #cb1 #cc4 ,asclepius1 #aaa1 #aba1 #abf4 ,asebeia1 #f1 #g1 #h4 ,aspasia1 #bg4 ,a!ism 7& ,a!i/7 def9$1 #a2 r>e 9 antiquity1 #b1 #acc2 ( rec5t orig91 #b1 #adc2 orig9 ( ! words1 #e2 li/s ( a!i/s1 #ac2 puni%able by dea? 9 ,plato's ,laws1 #gg2 s9 ( y\?1 #gh4 ,a!ne1 #gd4 ,a!ns1 its treatm5t ( a!ism1 #f-h1 #i1 #ab1 #be1 #ci1 #fe foll41 #gd1 #ge1 #hc1 #hf2 its view ( sophi/ic1 #eh-ei4 ,a!os 7a!oi71 #b1 #aj1 #ac1 #ad1 #ai1 #bc1 #bi1 #dc1 #ge1 #aaj4 ,a!otes1 #b4 ,augu/9e1 ,/41 #abi1 #ace4 ,augu/us1 #aag2 religi\s reaction (1 #ajj1 #aac1 #aag1 #abj4 ,aurelius1 ,m>cus1 #aa1 #aba4 ,bacon1 ,francis 7,de ,sap4 ,vet47 #adj4 ,bani]1 #adb1 #adc4 ,bible1 #acj1 #adb4 ,bion1 #ac1 #aji4 ,brazil1 #ach4 ,bruno1 ,giordano1 #aea4 ,bryant1 #add4 ,buttmann1 #aeb4 ,caelius ,calcagn9us1 #ada4 ,caelius ,rhodig9us1 #ada4 ,callicles1 #dh foll41 #fc4 ,c>lyle1 #aab4 ,c>neades1 #h1 #ajh4 ,cass&] ( ,mac$onia1 #aaa4 ,*>on1 #ace4 ,*ri/ianity1 #abf1 #abh-cb4 ,*ri/ians1 _! a!ism1 #i2 prosecutions (1 #aj2 demonology1 #hc4 ,cic]o1 #ai1 #aje1 #aad-ag1 #adg4 ,nature ( ! ,gods1 #aae4 ,on ! ,/ate1 #aae4 ,on ! ,laws1 #aae4 ,de consolatione1 #aaf4 ,c9esias1 #fj4 ,cop]nicus1 #aea4 ,critias1 #ac1 #dd-ej4 ,sisyphus1 #dd f41 #aad4 ,criticism ( popul> religion1 #af1 #ag1 #ai1 #ce foll41 #gd1 #gh1 #hb1 #hd1 #hh1 #ij1 #ii1 #ajd1 #aji1 #aaj1 #abb1 #abd-bf4 ,cu?ites1 #add4 ,cynics1 #gd1 #aji-aj1 #abb1 #abd1 #adg4 ,cyr5aics1 #ge4 ,daimonion ( ,socrates1 #fe1 #ff1 #gb-gc4 van ,dale1 #ada-db4 ,dante1 #ace4 ,deisidaimon1 #ge4 ,demet]1 #db1 #dc1 #ha4 ,demetrius ( ,phal]um1 #ge1 #ic4 ,on ,ty*e1 #ic4 ,democritus1 #bd1 #db1 #dc1 #dd1 #dg1 #eb4 ,demonology1 #ha-hc1 #aje1 #aac1 #abg-cb1 #acd-db1 #adh1 #adi4 ,demo/h5es1 #ib-ic1 #if4 ,devil1 #acb1 #acg1 #aci1 #ada1 #add4 ,diagoras ( ,melos1 #ac1 #ca-cd1 #ci1 #ej4 ,apopyrgizontes logoi1 #cb1 #cc4 ,dicae>*us1 #ih4 ,diodorus ,siculus1 #aab4 ,diog5es ( ,apollonia1 #ac1 #bi-cj1 #eg4 ,diog5es ! ,cynic1 #aji4 ,dionysus1 #db1 #dc4 ,diopei!s1 #bh4 ,dioscuri1 #abd4 ,dium1 #ih4 ,div9ation1 #ah1 #bj1 #bf1 #bg1 #bh1 #dj1 #ig1 #aad1 #aca1 #ace1 #acg1 #adj-db4 ,comp4 ,oracle4 ,dodona1 #ih1 #ada4 ,dogmatics1 #ajh4 ,domitian1 #aa4 ,dupuis1 #add4 ,elem5ts1 div9e1 #bc1 #bd1 #cj1 #eb foll41 #eg1 #ha1 #ajc1 #abg4 ,eleus9ian ,my/]ies1 #cb1 #cc1 #dj1 #fj4 ,ennius1 #ii1 #aab4 ,epicureans1 ,epicurus1 #ac1 #gf1 #hj1 #hc1 #aje-g1 #aac1 #adg1 #adi4 ,euhem]us1 ,euhem]ism1 #ac1 #aaj-ab1 #aac1 #aad1 #aag1 #abg1 #acj1 #acf1 #acg1 #aci1 #adj1 #adb1 #adc1 #add4 ,euripides1 #af1 #ag1 #ba1 #de1 #df1 #dh1 #ea-ef1 #fb4 ,bell]ophon1 #ec4 ,melanippe1 #ee1 #ef4 ,fall5 angels1 #abh1 #abi1 #acj4 ,flor5t9e ,academy1 #ach4 ,=eign gods1 #gj1 #hi1 #ajc4 ,font5elle1 #adb4 ,geoc5tric view1 #aej4 ,g]yon1 #ace4 ,giants1 #ah4 ,gorgias1 #cg4 ,hades1 #ha4 ,heav5ly bodies1 #b1 #bj1 #bb1 #be1 #dc1 #fb1 #ff1 #gi1 #hj1 #ha1 #hd1 #hg1 #ajd1 #abg1 #abh1 #acj1 #acg1 #aci1 #add1 #adi1 #aea4 ,heav5ly ph5om5a1 #bb4 ,hebraism1 #aci1 #adc1 #add4 ,hecataeus ( ,abd]a1 #aab4 ,helioc5tric view1 #aea4 ,hell5i/ic philosophy1 #id1 #ajc-aj1 #aai4 ,hephae/us1 #db1 #dc4 ,h]acles1 #gd1 #aaa4 ,h]cules1 #acf4 ,h]d]1 #ade4 ,h]mae1 #dj1 #fj4 ,h]mes1 #abd4 ,h]mias1 #hc4 ,h]odotus1 #bh1 #bi4 ,hesiod1 #af1 #ah4 ,heyne1 #aeb4 ,hippo ( ,rhegium1 #ac1 #bi-cj4 ,holy ,w>1 #if4 ,hom]1 #af1 #ah1 #dc1 #fh1 #ajf4 ,horace1 #aag4 ,huet1 #aci4 ,hylozoism1 #bc4 ,ideas1 ,platonic1 #hj4 ,idolatry attack$1 #abc4 ,see also ,image ,wor%ip4 ,ignorance1 ,socratic1 #fh4 ,image ,wor%ip1 #abg1 #abh1 #aca-cg4 ,jews1 _! a!ism1 #i1 #abf4 ,josephus1 #abh4 ,judaism1 #abf1 #abg-bh1 #abi4 ,juno ,reg9a1 #acf4 ,jupit] 79 ,dante71 #ace2 79 ! ,!bas17 #acf4 ,jupit]-prie/1 #ajj4 ,kepl]1 #aea4 ,kronos1 #aaa4 ,lampon1 #bf4 ,lobeck1 #aeb4 ,lucian1 #aaj1 #abc-bf4 ,timon1 #abd4 ,dialogues ( ! ,gods1 #abe4 ,lucretius1 #ajf4 ,luna ,jovis filia1 #acf4 ,mac$onia1 #ic4 ,ma*iavelli1 #ada4 ,magic1 #acf-cg4 ,mannh>dt1 #aeb4 ,mant9ea1 con/itution (1 #cb4 ,m>cus ,aurelius1 #aa1 #aba4 ,m$iaeval epic poets1 #acf4 ,meg>ians1 #gd1 #ajg4 ,m5ippus ( ,gad>a1 #aaj4 ,mexico1 #acg4 ,middle ,ages1 #acc1 #ace-ci4 ,milton 7,p>adise ,lo/71 #acd1 #ace1 #ada4 ,m9os1 #ace4 ,miracles1 pagan1 #aca1 #acb4 ,mode/y1 religions1 #ee1 #gj1 #gc4 ,mos*ion1 #df4 ,moses & 8 si/]1 #aci4 ,mono!ism1 #i1 #ab1 #bc1 #gd1 #hj1 #hc1 #abg foll41 #aci1 #adh1 #aea4 ,mll]1 ,k4 ,o41 #aeb4 ,natalis ,comes1 #aci foll4 ,naturalism1 ,ionian1 #ba1 #bb-be1 #cj-ca1 #eb1 #eg4 ,negroes1 #ah4 ,neo-,platoni/s1 #hc1 #aba4 ,neo-,py?agoreans1 #hc1 #aba4 ,n]o1 #aa4 ,newton1 #aea4 ,nile1 #db4 ,nomos 7& ,physis71 #ce1 #cf1 #ch1 #fc1 #gd4 ,nymphs1 #acf4 ,o5omaus 7,! ,sw9dl]s ,unmask$71 #abb-bc1 #abf4 ,old ,te/am5t1 #abg1 #abi4 ,oracle ( ,ammon1 #ig2 oracles ( ,boeotia1 #ig2 ,delphic ,oracle1 #bh1 #fj1 #fg1 #fh1 #ga1 #gb1 #gg1 #ic1 #if1 #ig1 #abc1 #ada2 decay ( oracles1 #if-ig2 oracles expla9$ by prie/ly fraud1 #abc1 #ada-db4 ,ovid1 #aag4 ,paganism ( ,antiquity1 its "*1 #ae4 ,pan*aia1 #aaa4 ,p>m5ides1 #ba4 ,pan!ism1 #bj1 #bc1 #ajc1 #aai1 #abb1 #abg4 ,paul1 ,/41 #abh4 ,p]icles1 #be1 #bf1 #bg1 #bh1 #bi1 #ca1 #abd4 ,p]ipatetics1 #adg1 #adi4 ,p]u1 #acg4 ,pheidias1 #bg4 ,philip ,,iii4 ( ,mac$onia1 #if4 ,philip ,v4 ( ,mac$onia1 #ig-ih4 ,philo1 #abh4 ,phocians1 #if4 ,physis 7& ,nomos71 #ce1 #cf1 #fc1 #gd4 ,p9d>1 #af1 #ag1 #eb1 #ga4 ,plato1 #ac1 #ci1 #dh1 #di1 #ej1 #ef1 #ei1 #fa-fc1 #fe1 #ff1 #gb1 #gf-ha1 #hb1 #hd1 #aac1 #adg4 ,apology1 #ei1 #fe1 #ff1 #fh1 #gb1 #gh1 #gi4 ,eu?yphron1 #fg1 #gf4 ,gorgias1 #dh foll41 #fc1 #gg4 ,laws1 #fa foll41 #gg1 #gh1 #gi1 #hj4 ,republic1 #ej1 #ef1 #gg1 #gh4 ,symposium1 #hb4 ,timaeus1 #gg1 #gi1 #hj4 ,platonism1 #adh4 ,ple?on1 #ach4 ,pl9y ! ,eld]1 #id1 #ie1 #aah1 #adg4 ,plut>* 7de def4 orac471 #ig4 ,polybius1 #dh1 #ij-ia1 #id1 #ii1 #aac-ad1 #adg2 ,/oicism 9 ,p41 #aad4 ,pomponazzi 7,de ,incantat471 #ada4 ,poseidon1 #db1 #ha4 ,poseidonius1 #ajd4 ,prodicus ( ,ceos1 #ac1 #db-dd1 #ajd4 ,protagoras ( ,abd]a1 #ac1 #ci-db1 #dg4 ,on ! ,gods1 #ci foll4 ,orig9al ,/ate1 #dg4 ,provid5ce1 #fj1 #fa1 #gh1 #aje1 #aah1 #abb4 ,py?ia1 #ic4 ,reaction1 religi\s1 ( second c5tury1 #abj-ba1 #abe2 ( ,augu/us1 see ,augu/us4 ,re9t]pretation ( ! conceptions ( ! gods1 #b4 ,see also ,allegorical int]pretation4 ,religion a political inv5tion1 #dg1 #aad4 ,religi\s ?\ght1 e>ly1 ( ,greece1 #af-ag1 #eb1 #ed1 #ee1 #fi-gj1 #ga1 #hd1 #hh1 #ih1 #ajg4 ,r5aissance1 #acc1 #ach1 #aci foll41 #ada4 ,rohde1 #aeb4 ,roman ,academy1 #ach4 ,roman religion1 #ij1 #ii-ajj1 #aja-b4 ,roman ,/ate-wor%ip1 decay (1 #ih-ajc4 ,romance ( ,troy1 #acf4 ,romances1 #ie-if4 ,rome's treatm5t ( a!ism1 #h-aa4 ,r\sseau1 #ade4 ,scepticism1 #ajg-h1 #aad1 #adg4 ,s*oolm51 #ace4 ,s5eca1 #aaj1 #abb4 ,sibyll9e books1 #ig4 ,sisyphus1 #de1 #dh4 ,socrates1 #g1 #ac1 #dj1 #df1 #di1 #ef1 #eh1 #fd-gc1 #hd1 #ajg1 #adg4 ,see also ,daimonion ( ,s4 ,socratic philosophy1 #fd1 #hg1 #adi4 ,socratic ,s*ools1 #gc1 #hg-hh4 ,sol invictus1 #acf4 ,solon1 #af4 ,sophi/ic1 #ce-ch1 #eg1 #fd1 #hg1 #ajd1 #adh1 #adi4 ,sophocles1 #bh1 #ed4 ,/ilpo1 #ac1 #gd1 #ajh4 ,/oics1 #hc1 #ajc-e1 #aac1 #aah1 #aai1 #aba-bb1 #adg1 #adh1 #adi4 ,/rabo1 #ig4 ,/rato1 #hg1 #ajh4 ,suetonius1 #aba4 ,sup]naturalism1 #adi-ea4 ,sup]/ition1 #ge1 #ij1 #ajb1 #abc1 #abf4 ,tapuis1 #ach4 ,?ales1 #bd4 ,!bas 7m$iaeval71 #acf4 ,!odicy 7,socratic71 #fg4 ,!odoras1 #ac1 #ge-gf1 #ajh1 #aji4 ,on ! ,gods1 #ge4 ,!ophra/us1 #ac1 #hf4 ,!rmon1 #ih4 ,?omas ,aqu9as1 #aca1 #ace1 #ach1 #aci1 #adj4 ,?racians1 #ah4 ,?rasyma*us1 #ej1 #fb4 ,?ucydides 7! hi/orian71 #bh-bi1 #ib1 #id4 ,?ucydides 7! /atesman71 #bf4 ,tib]ius1 #aah4 ,tisiphone1 #acf4 ,titans1 #ah4 ,tol]ance 9 antiquity1 #i1 #aa4 ,trajan1 #aa4 ,tullia1 #aaf4 ,ty*e1 #ia-if1 #aah4 ,typhoeus1 #adj4 ,uranos1 #aaa4 ,us5]1 #aeb4 ,val]ius ,maximus1 #aah4 ,v>ro1 #ajj1 #aaj4 ,vico 7,sci5za ,nuova71 #adc4 ,violation ( sanctu>ies1 #dj1 #fj1 #ig1 #ajj4 ,virgil1 #aag4 ,voss1 ,g4 ,i41 #ace1 #ach1 #ada4 ,wisdom ( ,solomon1 #abh4 ,wor%ip reject$1 #i-ac1 #fj1 #gd1 #gg1 #hd1 #aji1 #abc1 #abe4 ,x5ocrates1 #ha-hb1 #aje1 #aac1 #abi4 ,x5ophanes ( ,colophon1 #ac1 #ag-ba1 #eb1 #ef4 ,x5ophon1 #eh1 #ei1 #fb1 #ff1 #fg4 ,memorab4 #eh1 #fj4 ,apology1 #eh4 ,zell]1 #gf1 #gi4 ,z5o ( ,elea1 #ba4 ,zeus1 #af1 #bb1 #cj1 #dc1 #ee1 #eg1 #eh1 #ha1 #aje1 #aaa1 #abd4 ,,footnotes #a ,?is 0 writt5 be=e ! appe>ance ( ,mr4 ,gruppe's "w1 ,ges*i*te d] klassis*5 ,my?ologie und ,religionsges*i*te4 ,comp>e infra1 p4 #aed4