,libraries47 ,,the ,,beauties ,,of ,,nature ,illustration3 ,frontispiece4 ,,group ,,of ,,beeches1 ,,burnham4 ,page #afg4 ,,the ,,beauties ,,of ,,nature ,,and ,,the ,,wonders ,,of ,,the ,,world ,,we ,,live ,,in ,,by ,,the ,,right ,,hon4 ,,sir ,,john ,,lubbock1 ,,bart41 ,m4,p4 ,f4,r4,s41 ,d4,c4,l41 ,,ll4,d4 ,new ,york ,,macmillan ,,and ,,co4 ,,and ,,london #ahib ,all rights reserved ,,copyright1 #ahib1 ,,by ,,macmillan ,,and ,,co4 ,,typography ,,by ,j4 ,s4 ,,cushing ,,co41 ,,boston1 ,u4,s4,a4 ,,presswork ,,by ,,berwick ,,smith1 ,,boston1 ,u4,s4,a4 ,,contents ,,chapter ,i ,,page ,,introduction #a ,beauty and ,happiness #c ,the ,love of ,nature #e ,enjoyment of ,scenery #ad ,scenery of ,england #ai ,foreign ,scenery #ba ,the ,aurora #cc ,the ,seasons #cd ,,chapter ,,ii ,,on ,,animal ,,life #ci ,love of ,animals #da ,growth and ,metamorphoses #dc ,rudimentary ,organs #de ,modifications #dh ,colour #ej ,communities of ,animals #eg ,ants #eh ,,chapter ,,iii ,,on ,,animal ,,life--continued #ga ,freedom of ,animals #gc ,sleep #gh ,senses #hd ,sense of ,direction #ic ,number of ,species #if ,importance of the ,smaller ,animals #ig ,size of ,animals #ajj ,complexity of ,animal ,structure #aja ,length of ,life #ajb ,on ,individuality #ajd ,animal ,immortality #aab ,,chapter ,,iv ,,on ,,plant ,,life #aae ,structure of ,flowers #abh ,insects and ,flowers #acd ,past ,history of ,flowers #acf ,fruits and ,seeds #acg ,leaves #ach ,aquatic ,plants #add ,on ,hairs #adh ,influence of ,soil #aea ,on ,seedlings #aeb ,sleep of ,plants #aeb ,behaviour of ,leaves in ,rain #aee ,mimicry #aef ,ants and ,plants #aef ,insectivorous ,plants #aeh ,movements of ,plants #aei ,imperfection of our ,knowledge #afc ,,chapter ,v ,,woods ,,and ,,fields #afe ,fairy ,land #agb ,tropical ,forests #agi ,structure of ,trees #ahe ,ages of ,trees #ahh ,meadows #aib ,downs #aid ,,chapter ,,vi ,,mountains #bja ,alpine ,flowers #bje ,mountain ,scenery #bjf ,the ,afterglow #bac ,the ,origin of ,mountains #bad ,glaciers #bbg ,swiss ,mountains #bcb ,volcanoes #bcf ,origin of ,volcanoes #bdc ,,chapter ,,vii ,,water #bdi ,rivers and ,witchcraft #bea ,water ,plants #beb ,water ,animals #bec ,origin of ,rivers #bee ,the ,course of ,rivers #bef ,deltas #bgb ,,chapter ,,viii ,,rivers ,,and ,,lakes #bgg ,on the ,directions of ,rivers #bgi ,the ,conflicts and ,adventures of ,rivers #cja ,on ,lakes #cab ,on the ,configuration of ,valleys #cbc ,,chapter ,,ix ,,the ,,sea #cce ,the ,sea ,coast #ccg ,sea ,life #cdd ,the ,ocean ,depths #cea ,coral ,islands #ceh ,the ,southern ,skies #cfe ,the ,poles #cfg ,,chapter ,x ,,the ,,starry ,,heavens #cgc ,the ,moon #cgg ,the ,sun #chb ,the ,planets #chg ,mercury #chh ,venus #cij ,the ,earth #cia ,mars #cib ,the ,minor ,planets #cic ,jupiter #cid ,saturn #cie ,uranus #cif ,neptune #cig ,origin of the ,planetary ,system #cih ,comets #dja ,shooting ,stars #djf ,the ,stars #daj ,nebul #dbe ,,illustrations ,,fig4 ,,page #a4 ,larva of ,choerocampa porcellus #ec #b4 ,bougainvillea fruticosa2 natural size4 7,after ,allman7 #ajg #c4 ,do4 do4 magnified #ajh #d4 ,do4 do4 ,medusa-form #aji #e4 ,medusa aurita1 and progressive stages of development4 7,after ,steenstrup7 #aaj #f4 ,white ,dead-nettle #abd #g4 ,do4 #abe #h4 ,do4 #abe #i4 ,salvia #abg #aj4 ,do4 #abg #aa4 ,do4 #abg #ab4 ,primrose #aca #ac4 ,do4 #aca #ad4 ,arum #ace #ae4 ,twig of ,beech #adj #af4 ,arrangement of leaves in ,acer platanoides #adb #ag4 ,diagram to illustrate the formation of ,mountain ,chains #baf #ah4 ,section across the ,jura from ,brenets to ,neuchtel4 7,after ,jaccard7 #bai #ai4 ,section from the ,spitzen across the ,brunnialp1 and the ,maderanerthal4 7,after ,heim7 #bba #bj4 ,glacier of the ,blmlis ,alp4 7,after ,reclus7 #bbh #ba4 ,cotopaxi4 7,after ,judd7 #bcg #bb4 ,lava ,stream4 7,after ,judd7 #bci #bc4 ,stromboli1 viewed from the north-west1 ,april #ahgd4 7,after ,judd7 #bdb #bd4 ,upper ,valley of ,st4 ,gotthard #beg #be4 ,section of a river valley4 ,the dotted line shows a slope or talus of debris #bfj #bf4 ,valley of the ,rhone1 with the waterfall of ,sallenches1 showing a talus of debris #bfa #bg4 ,section across a valley4 ,a1 present river valley2 ,b1 old river terrace #bfb #bh4 ,diagram of an ,alpine valley1 showing a river cone4 ,front view #bfc #bi4 ,diagram of an ,alpine valley1 showing a river cone4 ,lateral view #bfe #cj4 ,map of the ,valais near ,sion #bff #ca4 ,view in the ,rhone ,valley1 showing a lateral cone #bfg #cb4 ,do4 showing the slope of a river cone #bfh #cc4 ,shore of the ,lake of ,geneva1 near ,vevey #bfi #cd4 ,view in the district of the ,broads1 ,norfolk #bga #ce4 ,delta of the ,po #bgc #cf4 ,do4 ,mississippi #bgd #cg4 ,map of the ,lake ,district #bha #ch4 ,section of the ,weald of ,kent1 a1 a1 ,upper ,cretaceous strata1 chiefly ,chalk1 forming the ,north and ,south ,downs2 b1 b1 ,escarpment of ,lower ,greensand1 with a valley between it and the ,chalk2 c1 c1 ,weald ,clay1 forming plains2 d1 ,hills formed of ,hastings ,sand and ,clay4 ,the ,chalk1 etc41 once spread across the country1 as shown in the dotted lines #bhc #ci4 ,map of the ,weald of ,kent #bhd #dj4 ,sketch ,map of the ,swiss ,rivers #bia #da4 ,diagram in illustration of mountain structure #bif #db4 ,sketch ,map of the ,aar and its tributaries #bii #dc4 ,river system round ,chur1 as it used to be #cjh #dd4 ,river system round ,chur1 as it is #cji #de4 ,river system of the ,maloya #caa #df4 ,final slope of a river #cag #dg4 ,do4 do4 with a lake #cah #dh4 ,diagrammatic section of a valley 7exaggerated74 ,r ,r1 rocky basis of a valley2 ,a ,a1 sedimentary strata2 ,b1 ordinary level of river2 ,c1 flood level #cbi #di4 ,whitsunday ,island4 7,after ,darwin7 #cei #ej4 ,a group of ,lunar volcanoes2 ,maurolycus1 ,barocius1 etc4 7,after ,judd7 #chj #ea4 ,orbits of the inner ,planets4 7,after ,ball7 #chh #eb4 ,relative distances of the ,planets from the ,sun4 7,after ,ball7 #chi #ec4 ,saturn1 with the surrounding series of rings4 7,after ,lockyer7 #cie #ed4 ,the ,parallactic ,ellipse4 7,after ,ball7 #dac #ee4 ,displacement of the hydrogen line in the spectrum of ,rigel4 7,after ,clarke7 #daf ,,plates ,,burnham ,,beeches ,frontispiece ,,windsor ,,castle4 7,from a drawing by ,j4 ,finnemore7 ,to face page #ac ,,aquatic ,,vegetation1 ,,rio4 7,published by ,spooner and ,co47 #ade ,,tropical ,,forest1 ,,west ,,indies4 7,after ,kingsley7 #agi ,,summit ,,of ,,mont ,,blanc #bjc ,,the ,,mer ,,de ,,glace1 ,,mont ,,blanc #bbi ,,rydal ,,water4 7,from a photograph by ,frith and ,co41 published by ,spooner and ,co47 #bdg ,,windermere #bec ,,view ,,in ,,the ,,valais ,,below ,,st4 ,,maurice #bfd ,,view ,,up ,,the ,,valais ,,from ,,the ,,lake ,,of ,,geneva #bfh ,,the ,,land',s ,,end4 7,from a photograph by ,frith and ,co41 published by ,spooner and ,co47 #ccd ,,view ,,of ,,the ,,moon ,,near ,,the ,,third ,,quarter4 7,from a photograph by ,prof4 ,draper7 #cga ,,chapter ,i ,,introduction ,if any one gave you a few acres1 you would say that you had received a benefit2 can you deny that the boundless extent of the earth is a benefit8 ,if any one gave you money1 you would call that a benefit4 ,god has buried countless masses of gold and silver in the earth4 ,if a house were given you1 bright with marble1 its roof beautifully painted with colours and gilding1 you would call it no small benefit4 ,god has built for you a mansion that fears no fire or ruin 444 covered with a roof which glitters in one fashion by day1 and in another by night4444 ,whence comes the breath you draw2 the light by which you perform the actions of your life8 the blood by which your life is maintained8 the meat by which your hunger is appeased8444 ,the true ,god has planted1 not a few oxen1 but all the herds on their pastures throughout the world1 and furnished food to all the flocks2 he has ordained the alternation of summer and winter 444 has invented so many arts and varieties of voice1 so many notes to make music4444 ,we have implanted in us the seed of all ages1 of all arts2 and ,god our ,master brings forth our intellects from obscurity4--,,seneca4 ,,chapter ,i ,,introduction ,the world we live in is a fairyland of exquisite beauty1 our very existence is a miracle in itself1 and yet few of us enjoy as we might1 and none as yet appreciate fully1 the beauties and wonders which surround us4 ,the greatest traveller cannot hope even in a long life to visit more than a very small part of our earth1 and even of that which is under our very eyes how little we see6 ,what we do see depends mainly on what we look for4 ,when we turn our eyes to the sky1 it is in most cases merely to see whether it is likely to rain4 ,in the same field the farmer will notice the crop1 geologists the fossils1 botanists the flowers1 artists the colouring1 sportsmen the cover for game4 ,though we may all look at the same things1 it does not at all follow that we should see them4 ,it is good1 as ,keble says1 to have our thoughts lift up to that world where all is beautiful and glorious1--but it is well to realise also how much of this world is beautiful4 ,it has1 ,i know1 been maintained1 as for instance by ,victor ,hugo1 that the general effect of beauty is to sadden4 ,comme la vie de l'homme1 mme la plus prospre1 est toujours au fond plus triste que gaie1 le ciel sombre nous est harmonieux4 ,le ciel clatant et joyeux nous est ironique4 ,la ,nature triste nous ressemble et nous console2 la ,nature rayonnante1 magnifique1 superbe 444 a quelque chose d'accablant4#a ,this seems to me1 ,i confess1 a morbid view4 ,there are many no doubt on whom the effect of natural beauty is to intensify feeling1 to deepen melancholy1 as well as to raise the spirits4 ,as ,mrs4 ,w4 ,r4 ,greg in her memoir of her husband tells us3 ,his passionate love for nature1 so amply fed by the beauty of the scenes around him1 intensified the emotions1 as all keen perception of beauty does1 but it did not add to their joyousness4 ,we speak of the pleasure which nature and art and music give us2 what we really mean is that our whole being is quickened by the uplifting of the veil4 ,something passes into us which makes our sorrows more sorrowful1 our joys more joyful1--our whole life more vivid4 ,so it was with him4 ,the long solitary wanderings over the hills1 and the beautiful moonlight nights on the lake served to make the shadows seem darker that were brooding over his home4 ,but surely to most of us ,nature when sombre1 or even gloomy1 is soothing and consoling2 when bright and beautiful1 not only raises the spirits1 but inspires and elevates our whole being-- ,nature never did betray ,the heart that loved her2 'tis her privilege1 ,through all the years of this our life1 to lead ,from joy to joy3 for she can so inform ,the mind that is within us1 so impress ,with quietness and beauty1 and so feed ,with lofty thoughts1 that neither evil tongues1 ,rash judgments1 nor the sneers of selfish men1 ,nor greetings where no kindness is1 nor all ,the dreary intercourse of daily life1 ,shall e'er prevail against us1 or disturb ,our cheerful faith1 that all which we behold ,is full of blessings4#b ,kingsley speaks with enthusiasm of the heaths and moors round his home1 where ,i have so long enjoyed the wonders of nature2 never1 ,i can honestly say1 alone2 because when man was not with me1 ,i had companions in every bee1 and flower and pebble2 and never idle1 because ,i could not pass a swamp1 or a tuft of heather1 without finding in it a fairy tale of which ,i could but decipher here and there a line or two1 and yet found them more interesting than all the books1 save one1 which were ever written upon earth4 ,those who love ,nature can never be dull4 ,they may have other temptations2 but at least they will run no risk of being beguiled1 by ennui1 idleness1 or want of occupation1 to buy the merry madness of an hour with the long penitence of after time4 ,the love of ,nature1 again1 helps us greatly to keep ourselves free from those mean and petty cares which interfere so much with calm and peace of mind4 ,it turns every ordinary walk into a morning or evening sacrifice1 and brightens life until it becomes almost like a fairy tale4 ,in the romances of the ,middle ,ages we read of knights who loved1 and were loved by1 ,nature spirits1--of ,sir ,launfal and the ,fairy ,tryamour1 who furnished him with many good things1 including a magic purse1 in which ,as oft as thou puttest thy hand therein ,a mark of gold thou shalt iwinne1 as well as protection from the main dangers of life4 ,such times have passed away1 but better ones have come4 ,it is not now merely the few1 who are so favoured4 ,all those who love ,nature she loves in return1 and will richly reward1 not perhaps with the good things1 as they are commonly called1 but with the best things1 of this world2 not with money and titles1 horses and carriages1 but with bright and happy thoughts1 contentment and peace of mind4 ,happy indeed is the naturalist3 to him the seasons come round like old friends2 to him the birds sing3 as he walks along1 the flowers stretch out from the hedges1 or look up from the ground1 and as each year fades away1 he looks back on a fresh store of happy memories4 ,though we can never remount the river of our years1 he who loves ,nature is always young4 ,but what is the love of ,nature8 ,some seem to think they show a love of flowers by gathering them4 ,how often one finds a bunch of withered blossoms on the roadside1 plucked only to be thrown away6 ,is this love of ,nature8 ,it is1 on the contrary1 a wicked waste1 for a waste of beauty is almost the worst waste of all4 ,if we could imagine a day prolonged for a lifetime1 or nearly so1 and that sunrise and sunset were rare events which happened but a few times to each of us1 we should certainly be entranced by the beauty of the morning and evening tints4 ,the golden rays of the morning are a fortune in themselves1 but we too often overlook the loveliness of ,nature1 because it is constantly before us4 ,for the senseless folk1 says ,king ,alfred1 is far more struck ,at things it seldom sees4 ,well1 says ,cicero1 did ,aristotle observe1 ',if there were men whose habitations had been always underground1 in great and commodious houses1 adorned with statues and pictures1 furnished with everything which they who are reputed happy abound with2 and if1 without stirring from thence1 they should be informed of a certain divine power and majesty1 and1 after some time1 the earth should open1 and they should quit their dark abode to come to us2 where they should immediately behold the earth1 the seas1 the heavens2 should consider the vast extent of the clouds and force of the winds2 should see the sun1 and observe his grandeur and beauty1 and also his creative power1 inasmuch as day is occasioned by the diffusion of his light through the sky2 and when night has obscured the earth1 they should contemplate the heavens bespangled and adorned with stars2 the surprising variety of the moon1 in her increase and wane2 the rising and setting of all the stars1 and the inviolable regularity of their courses2 when1' says he1 'they should see these things1 they would undoubtedly conclude that there are ,gods1 and that these are their mighty works4'#c ,is my life vulgar1 my fate mean1 ,which on such golden memories can lean8#d ,at the same time the change which has taken place in the character of our religion has in one respect weakened the hold which ,nature has upon our feelings4 ,to the ,greeks--to our own ancestors1--every ,river or ,mountain or ,forest had not only its own special ,deity1 but in some sense was itself instinct with life4 ,they were not only peopled by ,nymphs and ,fauns1 ,elves and ,kelpies1 were not only the favourite abodes of ,water1 ,forest1 or ,mountain ,spirits1 but they had a conscious existence of their own4 ,in the ,middle ,ages indeed1 these spirits were regarded as often mischievous1 and apt to take offence2 sometimes as essentially malevolent--even the most beautiful1 like the ,venus of ,tannhuser1 being often on that very account all the more dangerous2 while the ,mountains and ,forests1 the ,lakes and ,seas1 were the abodes of hideous ghosts and horrible monsters1 of ,giants and ,ogres1 ,sorcerers and ,demons4 ,these fears1 though vague1 were none the less extreme1 and the judicial records of the ,middle ,ages furnish only too conclusive evidence that they were a terrible reality4 ,the light of ,science has now happily dispelled these fearful nightmares4 ,unfortunately1 however1 as men have multiplied1 their energies have hitherto tended1 not to beautify1 but to mar4 ,forests have been cut down1 and replaced by flat fields in geometrical squares1 or on the continent by narrow strips4 ,here and there indeed we meet with oases1 in which beauty has not been sacrificed to profit1 and it is then happily found that not only is there no loss1 but the earth seems to reward even more richly those who treat her with love and respect4 ,scarcely any part of the world affords so great a variety in so small an area as our own island4 ,commencing in the south1 we have first the blue sea itself1 the pebbly beaches1 the white chalk cliffs of ,kent1 the tinted sands of ,alum ,bay1 the ,red ,sandstone of ,devonshire1 ,granite and ,gneiss in ,cornwall3 inland we have the chalk ,downs and clear streams1 the well-wooded weald and the rich hop gardens2 farther westwards the undulating gravelly hills1 and still farther the granite tors3 in the centre of ,england we have to the east the ,norfolk ,broads and the ,fens2 then the fertile ,midlands1 the cornfields1 rich meadows1 and large oxen2 and to the west the ,welsh mountains2 farther north the ,yorkshire ,wolds1 the ,lancashire hills1 the ,lakes of ,westmoreland2 lastly1 the swelling hills1 bleak moors1 and picturesque castles of ,northumberland and ,cumberland4 ,there are of course far larger rivers1 but perhaps none lovelier than ,the crystal ,thamis wont to glide ,in silver channel1 down along the lee1#e ,illustration3 ,,windsor ,,castle4 ,to face page #ac4 by lawns and parks1 meadows and wooded banks1 dotted with country houses and crowned by ,windsor ,castle itself 7see ,frontispiece74 ,by many ,scotland is considered even more beautiful4 ,and yet too many of us see nothing in the fields but sacks of wheat1 in the meadows but trusses of hay1 and in woods but planks for houses1 or cover for game4 ,even from this more prosaic point of view1 how much there is to wonder at and admire1 in the wonderful chemistry which changes grass and leaves1 flowers and seeds1 into bread and milk1 eggs and cream1 butter and honey6 ,almost everything1 says ,hamerton1 that the ,peasant does1 is lifted above vulgarity by ancient1 and often sacred1 associations4 ,there is1 indeed1 hardly any business or occupation with reference to which the same might not be said4 ,the triviality or vulgarity does not depend on what we do1 but on the spirit in which it is done4 ,not only the regular professions1 but every useful occupation in life1 however humble1 is honourable in itself1 and may be pursued with dignity and peace4 ,working in this spirit we have also the satisfaction of feeling that1 as in some mountain track every one who takes the right path1 seems to make the way clearer for those who follow2 so may we also raise the profession we adopt1 and smooth the way for those who come after us4 ,but1 even for those who are not ,agriculturists1 it must be admitted that the country has special charms4 ,one perhaps is the continual change4 ,every week brings some fresh leaf or flower1 bird or insect4 ,every month again has its own charms and beauty4 ,we sit quietly at home and ,nature decks herself for us4 ,in truth we all love change4 ,some think they do not care for it1 but ,i doubt if they know themselves4 ,not1 said ,jefferies1 for many years was ,i able to see why ,i went the same round and did not care for change4 ,i do not want change3 ,i want the same old and loved things1 the same wild flowers1 the same trees and soft ash-green2 the turtle-doves1 the blackbirds1 the coloured yellow-hammer sing1 sing1 singing so long as there is light to cast a shadow on the dial1 for such is the measure of his song1 and ,i want them in the same place4 ,let me find them morning after morning1 the starry-white petals radiating1 striving upwards up to their ideal4 ,let me see the idle shadows resting on the white dust2 let me hear the humble-bees1 and stay to look down on the yellow dandelion disk4 ,let me see the very thistles opening their great crowns--,i should miss the thistles2 the reed grasses hiding the moor-hen2 the bryony bine1 at first crudely ambitious and lifted by force of youthful sap straight above the hedgerow to sink of its weight presently and progress with crafty tendrils2 swifts shot through the air with outstretched wings like crescent-headed shaftless arrows darted from the clouds2 the chaffinch with a feather in her bill2 all the living staircase of the spring1 step by step1 upwards to the great gallery of the summer1 let me watch the same succession year by year4 ,after all then he did enjoy the change and the succession4 ,kingsley again in his charming prose idyll ,my ,winter ,garden tries to persuade himself that he was glad he had never travelled1 having never yet actually got to ,paris4 ,monotony1 he says1 is pleasant in itself2 morally pleasant1 and morally useful4 ,marriage is monotonous2 but there is much1 ,i trust1 to be said in favour of holy wedlock4 ,living in the same house is monotonous2 but three removes1 say the wise1 are as bad as a fire4 ,locomotion is regarded as an evil by our ,litany4 ,the ,litany1 as usual1 is right4 ',those who travel by land or sea' are to be objects of our pity and our prayers2 and ,i do pity them4 ,i delight in that same monotony4 ,it saves curiosity1 anxiety1 excitement1 disappointment1 and a host of bad passions4 ,but even as he writes one can see that he does not convince himself4 ,possibly1 he admits1 after all1 the grapes are sour2 and when some years after he did travel1 how happy he was6 ,at last1 he says1 triumphantly1 ,at last we too are crossing the ,atlantic4 ,at last the dream of forty years1 please ,god1 would be fulfilled1 and ,i should see 7and happily not alone71 the ,west ,indies and the ,spanish ,main4 ,from childhood ,i had studied their ,natural ,history1 their ,charts1 their ,romances2 and now1 at last1 ,i was about to compare books with facts1 and judge for myself of the reported wonders of the ,earthly ,paradise4 ,no doubt there is much to see everywhere4 ,the ,poet and the ,naturalist find tropical forests in every square foot of turf4 ,it may even be better1 and especially for the more sensitive natures1 to live mostly in quiet scenery1 among fields and hedgerows1 woods and downs2 but it is surely good for every one1 from time to time1 to refresh and strengthen both mind and body by a spell of ,sea air or ,mountain beauty4 ,on the other hand we are told1 and told of course with truth1 that though mountains may be the cathedrals of ,nature1 they are generally remote from centres of population2 that our great cities are grimy1 dark1 and ugly2 that factories are creeping over several of our counties1 blighting them into building ground1 replacing trees by chimneys1 and destroying almost every vestige of natural beauty4 ,but if this be true1 is it not all the more desirable that our people should have access to pictures and books1 which may in some small degree1 at any rate1 replace what they have thus unfortunately lost8 ,we cannot all travel2 and even those who can1 are able to see but a small part of the world4 ,moreover1 though no one who has once seen1 can ever forget1 the ,alps1 the ,swiss lakes1 or the ,riviera1 still the recollection becomes less vivid as years roll on1 and it is pleasant1 from time to time1 to be reminded of their beauties4 ,there is one other advantage not less important4 ,we sometimes speak as if to visit a country1 and to see it1 were the same thing4 ,but this is not so4 ,it is not every one who can see ,switzerland like a ,ruskin or a ,tyndall4 ,their beautiful descriptions of mountain scenery depend less on their mastery of the ,english language1 great as that is1 than on their power of seeing what is before them4 ,it has been to me therefore a matter of much interest to know which aspects of ,nature have given the greatest pleasure to1 or have most impressed1 those who1 either from wide experience or from their love of ,nature1 may be considered best able to judge4 ,i will begin with an ,english scene from ,kingsley4 ,he is describing his return from a day's trout-fishing3-- ,what shall we see1 he says1 as we look across the broad1 still1 clear river1 where the great dark trout sail to and fro lazily in the sun8 ,white chalk fields above1 quivering hazy in the heat4 ,a park full of merry hay-makers2 gay red and blue waggons2 stalwart horses switching off the flies2 dark avenues of tall elms2 groups of abele1 'tossing their whispering silver to the sun'2 and amid them the house1--a great square red-brick mass1 made light and cheerful though by quoins and windows of white ,sarsden stone1 with high peaked ,french roofs1 broken by louvres and dormers1 haunted by a thousand swallows and starlings4 ,old walled gardens1 gay with flowers1 shall stretch right and left4 ,clipt yew alleys shall wander away into mysterious glooms1 and out of their black arches shall come tripping children1 like white fairies1 to laugh and talk with the girl who lies dreaming and reading in the hammock there1 beneath the black velvet canopy of the great cedar tree1 like some fair tropic flower hanging from its boughs2 and we will sit down1 and eat and drink among the burdock leaves1 and then watch the quiet house1 and lawn1 and flowers1 and fair human creatures1 and shining water1 all sleeping breathless in the glorious light beneath the glorious blue1 till we doze off1 lulled by the murmur of a thousand insects1 and the rich minstrelsy of nightingale and blackcap1 thrush and dove4 ,peaceful1 graceful1 complete ,english country life and country houses2 everywhere finish and polish2 ,nature perfected by the wealth and art of peaceful centuries6 ,why should ,i exchange you1 even for the sight of all the ,alps8 ,though ,jefferies was unfortunately never able to travel1 few men have loved ,nature more devotedly1 and speaking of his own home he expresses his opinion that3 ,of all sweet things there is none so sweet as fresh air--one great flower it is1 drawn round about2 over1 and enclosing us1 like ,aphrodite's arms2 as if the dome of the sky were a bell-flower drooping down over us1 and the magical essence of it filling all the room of the earth4 ,sweetest of all things is wild-flower air4 ,full of their ideal the starry flowers strained upwards on the bank1 striving to keep above the rude grasses that push by them2 genius has ever had such a struggle4 ,the plain road was made beautiful by the many thoughts it gave4 ,i came every morning to stay by the star-lit bank4 ,passing to countries across the ocean1 ,humboldt tells us that3 ,if ,i might be allowed to abandon myself to the recollection of my own distant travels1 ,i would instance1 amongst the most striking scenes of nature1 the calm sublimity of a tropical night1 when the stars1 not sparkling1 as in our northern skies1 shed their soft and planetary light over the gently heaving ocean2 or ,i would recall the deep valleys of the ,cordilleras1 where the tall and slender palms pierce the leafy veil around them1 and waving on high their feathery and arrow-like branches1 form1 as it were1 'a forest above a forest'2 or ,i would describe the summit of the ,peak of ,teneriffe1 when a horizon layer of clouds1 dazzling in whiteness1 has separated the cone of cinders from the plain below1 and suddenly the ascending current pierces the cloudy veil1 so that the eye of the traveller may range from the brink of the crater1 along the vine-clad slopes of ,orotava1 to the orange gardens and banana groves that skirt the shore4 ,in scenes like these1 it is not the peaceful charm uniformly spread over the face of nature that moves the heart1 but rather the peculiar physiognomy and conformation of the land1 the features of the landscape1 the ever-varying outline of the clouds1 and their blending with the horizon of the sea1 whether it lies spread before us like a smooth and shining mirror1 or is dimly seen through the morning mist4 ,all that the senses can but imperfectly comprehend1 all that is most awful in such romantic scenes of nature1 may become a source of enjoyment to man1 by opening a wide field to the creative power of his imagination4 ,impressions change with the varying movements of the mind1 and we are led by a happy illusion to believe that we receive from the external world that with which we have ourselves invested it4 ,humboldt also singles out for especial praise the following description given of ,tahiti by ,darwin#f3-- ,the land capable of cultivation is scarcely in any part more than a fringe of low alluvial soil1 accumulated round the base of mountains1 and protected from the waves of the sea by a coral reef1 which encircles at a distance the entire line of coast4 ,the reef is broken in several parts so that ships can pass through1 and the lake of smooth water within1 thus affords a safe harbour1 as well as a channel for the native canoes4 ,the low land which comes down to the beach of coral sand is covered by the most beautiful productions of the inter-tropical regions4 ,in the midst of bananas1 orange1 cocoa-nut1 and breadfruit trees1 spots are cleared where yams1 sweet potatoes1 sugar-cane1 and pine-apples are cultivated4 ,even the brushwood is a fruit tree1 namely1 the guava1 which from its abundance is as noxious as a weed4 ,in ,brazil ,i have often admired the contrast of varied beauty in the banana1 palm1 and orange tree2 here we have in addition the breadfruit tree1 conspicuous from its large1 glossy1 and deeply digitated leaf4 ,it is admirable to behold groves of a tree1 sending forth its branches with the force of an ,english ,oak1 loaded with large and most nutritious fruit4 ,however little on most occasions utility explains the delight received from any fine prospect1 in this case it cannot fail to enter as an element in the feeling4 ,the little winding paths1 cool from the surrounding shade1 led to the scattered houses2 and the owners of these everywhere gave us a cheerful and most hospitable reception4 ,darwin himself has told us1 after going round the world that in calling up images of the past1 ,i find the plains of ,patagonia frequently cross before my eyes2 yet these plains are pronounced by all to be most wretched and useless4 ,they are characterised only by negative possessions2 without habitations1 without water1 without trees1 without mountains1 they support only a few dwarf plants4 ,why then--and the case is not peculiar to myself--have these arid wastes taken so firm possession of my mind8 ,why have not the still more level1 the greener and more fertile pampas1 which are serviceable to mankind1 produced an equal impression8 ,i can scarcely analyse these feelings1 but it must be partly owing to the free scope given to the imagination4 ,the plains of ,patagonia are boundless1 for they are scarcely practicable1 and hence unknown2 they bear the stamp of having thus lasted for ages1 and there appears no limit to their duration through future time4 ,if1 as the ancients supposed1 the flat earth was surrounded by an impassable breadth of water1 or by deserts heated to an intolerable excess1 who would not look at these last boundaries to man's knowledge with deep but ill-defined sensations8 ,hamerton1 whose wide experience and artistic power make his opinion especially important1 says3-- ,i know nothing in the visible world that combines splendour and purity so perfectly as a great mountain entirely covered with frozen snow and reflected in the vast mirror of a lake4 ,as the sun declines1 its thousand shadows lengthen1 pure as the cold green azure in the depth of a glacier's crevasse1 and the illuminated snow takes first the tender colour of a white rose1 and then the flush of a red one1 and the sky turns to a pale malachite green1 till the rare strange vision fades into ghastly gray1 but leaves with you a permanent recollection of its too transient beauty4#g ,wallace especially1 and very justly1 praises the description of tropical forest scenery given by ,belt in his charming ,naturalist in ,nicaragua3-- ,on each side of the road great trees towered up1 carrying their crowns out of sight amongst a canopy of foliage1 and with lianas hanging from nearly every bough1 and passing from tree to tree1 entangling the giants in a great network of coiling cables4 ,sometimes a tree appears covered with beautiful flowers which do not belong to it1 but to one of the lianas that twines through its branches and sends down great rope-like stems to the ground4 ,climbing ferns and vanilla cling to the trunks1 and a thousand epiphytes perch themselves on the branches4 ,amongst these are large arums that send down long aerial roots1 tough and strong1 and universally used instead of cordage by the natives4 ,amongst the undergrowth several small species of palms1 varying in height from two to fifteen feet1 are common2 and now and then magnificent tree ferns send off their feathery crowns twenty feet from the ground to delight the sight by their graceful elegance4 ,great broad-leaved heliconias1 leathery melastom1 and succulent-stemmed1 lop-sided leaved and flesh-coloured begonias are abundant1 and typical of tropical ,american forests2 but not less so are the cecropia trees1 with their white stems and large palmated leaves standing up like great candelabra4 ,sometimes the ground is carpeted with large flowers1 yellow1 pink1 or white1 that have fallen from some invisible tree-top above2 or the air is filled with a delicious perfume1 the source of which one seeks around in vain1 for the flowers that cause it are far overhead out of sight1 lost in the great over-shadowing crown of verdure4 ,but1 he adds1 the uniformity of climate which has led to this rich luxuriance and endless variety of vegetation is also the cause of a monotony that in time becomes oppressive4 ,to quote the words of ,mr4 ,belt3 ,unknown are the autumn tints1 the bright browns and yellows of ,english woods2 much less the crimsons1 purples1 and yellows of ,canada1 where the dying foliage rivals1 nay1 excels1 the expiring dolphin in splendour4 ,unknown the cold sleep of winter2 unknown the lovely awakening of vegetation at the first gentle touch of spring4 ,a ceaseless round of ever-active life weaves the fairest scenery of the tropics into one monotonous whole1 of which the component parts exhibit in detail untold variety of beauty4 ,siberia is no doubt as a rule somewhat severe and inhospitable1 but ,m4 ,patrin mentions with enthusiasm how one day descending from the frozen summits of the ,altai1 he came suddenly on a view of the plain of the ,obi--the most beautiful spectacle1 he says1 which he had ever witnessed4 ,behind him were barren rocks and the snows of winter1 in front a great plain1 not indeed entirely green1 or green only in places1 and for the rest covered by three flowers1 the purple ,siberian ,iris1 the golden ,hemerocallis1 and the silvery ,narcissus--green1 purple1 gold1 and white1 as far as the eye could reach4 ,wallace tells us that he himself has derived the keenest enjoyment from his sense of colour3-- ,the heavenly blue of the firmament1 the glowing tints of sunset1 the exquisite purity of the snowy mountains1 and the endless shades of green presented by the verdure-clad surface of the earth1 are a never-failing source of pleasure to all who enjoy the inestimable gift of sight4 ,yet these constitute1 as it were1 but the frame and background of a marvellous and ever-changing picture4 ,in contrast with these broad and soothing tints1 we have presented to us in the vegetable and animal worlds an infinite variety of objects adorned with the most beautiful and most varied hues4 ,flowers1 insects1 and birds are the organisms most generally ornamented in this way2 and their symmetry of form1 their variety of structure1 and the lavish abundance with which they clothe and enliven the earth1 cause them to be objects of universal admiration4 ,the relation of this wealth of colour to our mental and moral nature is indisputable4 ,the child and the savage alike admire the gay tints of flowers1 birds1 and insects2 while to many of us their contemplation brings a solace and enjoyment which is both intellectually and morally beneficial4 ,it can then hardly excite surprise that this relation was long thought to afford a sufficient explanation of the phenomena of colour in nature2 and although the fact that-- ,full many a flower is born to blush unseen1 ,and waste its sweetness on the desert air1 might seem to throw some doubt on the sufficiency of the explanation1 the answer was easy1--that in the progress of discovery man would1 sooner or later1 find out and enjoy every beauty that the hidden recesses of the earth have in store for him4 ,professor ,colvin speaks with special admiration of ,greek scenery3-- ,in other climates1 it is only in particular states of the weather that the remote ever seems so close1 and then with an effect which is sharp and hard as well as clear2 here the clearness is soft2 nothing cuts or glitters1 seen through that magic distance2 the air has not only a new transparency so that you can see farther into it than elsewhere1 but a new quality1 like some crystal of an unknown water1 so that to see into it is greater glory4 ,speaking of the ranges and promontories of sterile limestone1 the same writer observes that their colours are as austere and delicate as the forms4 ,if here the scar of some old quarry throws a stain1 or there the clinging of some thin leafage spreads a bloom1 the stain is of precious gold1 and the bloom of silver4 ,between the blue of the sky and the tenfold blue of the sea these bare ranges seem1 beneath that daylight1 to present a whole system of noble colour flung abroad over perfect forms4 ,and wherever1 in the general sterility1 you find a little moderate verdure--a little moist grass1 a cluster of cypresses--or whenever your eye lights upon the one wood of the district1 the long olive grove of the ,cephissus1 you are struck with a sudden sense of richness1 and feel as if the splendours of the tropics would be nothing to this4 ,most travellers have been fascinated by the beauty of night in the tropics4 ,our evenings no doubt are often delicious also1 though the mild climate we enjoy is partly due to the sky being so often overcast4 ,in parts of the tropics1 however1 the air is calm and cloudless throughout nearly the whole of the year4 ,there is no dew1 and the inhabitants sleep on the house-tops1 in full view of the brightness of the stars and the beauty of the sky1 which is almost indescribable4 ,il faisait1 says ,bernardin de ,st4 ,pierre of such a scene1 une de ces nuits dlicieuses1 si communes entre les tropiques1 et dont le plus abile pinceau ne rendrait pas le beaut4 ,la lune paraissait au milieu du firmament1 entoure d'un rideau de nuages1 que ses rayons dissipaient par degrs4 ,sa lumire se rpandait insensiblement sur les montagnes de l'le et sur leurs pitons1 qui brillaient d'un vert argent4 ,les vents retenaient leurs haleines4 ,on entendait dans les bois1 au fond des valles1 au haut des rochers1 de petits cris1 de doux murmures d'oiseaux1 qui se caressaient dans leurs nids1 rjouis par la clart de la nuit et la tranquillit de l'air4 ,tous1 jusqu'aux insectes1 bruissaient sous l'herbe4 ,les toiles tincelaient au ciel1 et se rflchissaient au sein de la mer1 qui rptait leurs images tremblantes4 ,in the ,arctic and ,antarctic regions the nights are often made quite gorgeous by the ,northern ,lights or ,aurora borealis1 and the corresponding appearance in the ,southern hemisphere4 ,the ,aurora borealis generally begins towards evening1 and first appears as a faint glimmer in the north1 like the approach of dawn4 ,gradually a curve of light spreads like an immense arch of yellowish-white hue1 which gains rapidly in brilliancy1 flashes and vibrates like a flame in the wind4 ,often two or even three arches appear one over the other4 ,after a while coloured rays dart upwards in divergent pencils1 often green below1 yellow in the centre1 and crimson above1 while it is said that sometimes almost black1 or at least very dark violet1 rays are interspersed among the rings of light1 and heighten their effect by contrast4 ,sometimes the two ends of the arch seem to rise off the horizon1 and the whole sheet of light throbs and undulates like a fringed curtain of light2 sometimes the sheaves of rays unite into an immense cupola2 while at others the separate rays seem alternately lit and extinguished4 ,gradually the light flickers and fades away1 and has generally disappeared before the first glimpse of dawn4 ,we seldom see the ,aurora in the south of ,england1 but we must not complain2 our winters are mild1 and every month has its own charm and beauty4 ,in ,january we have the lengthening days4 ,february the first butterfly4 ,march the opening buds4 ,april the young leaves and spring flowers4 ,may the song of birds4 ,june the sweet new-mown hay4 ,july the summer flowers4 ,august the golden grain4 ,september the fruit4 ,october the autumn tints4 ,november the hoar frost on trees and the pure snow4 ,december last not least1 the holidays of ,christmas1 and the bright fireside4 ,it is well to begin the year in ,january1 for we have then before us all the hope of spring4 ,oh wind1 ,if winter comes1 can spring be long behind8#h ,spring seems to revive us all4 ,in the ,song of ,solomon-- ,my beloved spake1 and said unto me1 ,rise up1 my love1 my fair one1 and come away4 ,for1 lo1 the winter is past1 ,the rain is over and gone2 ,the flowers appear on the earth2 ,the time of the singing of birds is come1 ,the voice of the turtle is heard in our land1 ,the fig tree putteth forth her green figs1 ,and the vines with the tender grape give a good smell4 ,but indeed there are days1 says ,emerson1 which occur in this climate1 at almost any season of the year1 wherein the world reaches its perfection1 when the air1 the heavenly bodies1 and the earth make a harmony1 as if nature would indulge her offspring4444 ,these halcyon days may be looked for with a little more assurance in that pure ,october weather1 which we distinguish by the name of the ,indian summer4 ,the day1 immeasurably long1 sleeps over the broad hills and warm wide fields4 ,to have lived through all its sunny hours1 seems longevity enough4 ,yet does not the very name of ,indian summer imply the superiority of the summer itself1--the real1 the true summer1 when the young corn is bursting into ear2 the awned heads of rye1 wheat1 and barley1 and the nodding panicles of oats1 shoot from their green and glaucous stems1 in broad1 level1 and waving expanses of present beauty and future promise4 ,the very waters are strewn with flowers3 the buck-bean1 the water-violet1 the elegant flowering rush1 and the queen of the waters1 the pure and splendid white lily1 invest every stream and lonely mere with grace4#i ,for our greater power of perceiving1 and therefore of enjoying ,nature1 we are greatly indebted to ,science4 ,over and above what is visible to the unaided eye1 the two magic tubes1 the telescope and microscope1 have revealed to us1 at least partially1 the infinitely great and the infinitely little4 ,science1 our ,fairy ,godmother1 will1 unless we perversely reject her help1 and refuse her gifts1 so richly endow us1 that fewer hours of labour will serve to supply us with the material necessaries of life1 leaving us more time to ourselves1 more leisure to enjoy all that makes life best worth living4 ,even now we all have some leisure1 and for it we cannot be too grateful4 ,if any one1 says ,seneca1 gave you a few acres1 you would say that you had received a benefit2 can you deny that the boundless extent of the earth is a benefit8 ,if a house were given you1 bright with marble1 its roof beautifully painted with colours and gilding1 you would call it no small benefit4 ,god has built for you a mansion that fears no fire or ruin 444 covered with a roof which glitters in one fashion by day1 and in another by night4 ,whence comes the breath which you draw2 the light by which you perform the actions of your life8 the blood by which your life is maintained8 the meat by which your hunger is appeased8444 ,the true ,god has planted1 not a few oxen1 but all the herds on their pastures throughout the world1 and furnished food to all the flocks2 he has ordained the alternation of summer and winter 444 he has invented so many arts and varieties of voice1 so many notes to make music4444 ,we have implanted in us the seeds of all ages1 of all arts2 and ,god our ,master brings forth our intellects from obscurity4#aj ,,footnotes3 #a ,choses ,vues4 #b ,wordsworth4 #c ,cicero1 ,de ,natura ,deorum4 #d ,thoreau4 #e ,spenser4 #f ,darwin's ,voyage of the ,beagle4 #g ,hamerton's ,landscape4 #h ,shelley4 #i ,howitt's ,book of the ,seasons4 #aj ,seneca1 ,de ,beneficiis4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,on ,,animal ,,life ,if thy heart be right1 then will every creature be to thee a mirror of life1 and a book of holy doctrine4 ,,thomas ,,kempis4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,on ,,animal ,,life ,there is no species of animal or plant which would not well repay1 ,i will not say merely the study of a day1 but even the devotion of a lifetime4 ,their form and structure1 development and habits1 geographical distribution1 relation to other living beings1 and past history1 constitute an inexhaustible study4 ,when we consider how much we owe to the ,dog1 ,man's faithful friend1 to the noble ,horse1 the patient ,ox1 the ,cow1 the ,sheep1 and our other domestic animals1 we cannot be too grateful to them2 and if we cannot1 like some ancient nations1 actually worship them1 we have perhaps fallen into the other extreme1 underrate the sacredness of animal life1 and treat them too much like mere machines4 ,some species1 however1 are no doubt more interesting than others1 especially perhaps those which live together in true communities1 and which offer so many traits--some sad1 some comical1 and all interesting1--which reproduce more or less closely the circumstances of our own life4 ,the modes of animal life are almost infinitely diversified2 some live on land1 some in water2 of those which are aquatic some dwell in rivers1 some in lakes or pools1 some on the sea-shore1 others in the depths of the ocean4 ,some burrow in the ground1 some find their home in the air4 ,some live in the ,arctic regions1 some in the burning deserts2 one little beetle 7,hydrobius7 in the thermal waters of ,hammam-,meskoutin1 at a temperature of #acj4 ,as to food1 some are carnivorous and wage open war2 some1 more insidious1 attack their victims from within2 others feed on vegetable food1 on leaves or wood1 on seeds or fruits2 in fact1 there is scarcely an animal or vegetable substance which is not the special and favourite food of one or more species4 ,hence to adapt them to these various requirements we find the utmost differences of form and size and structure4 ,even the same individual often goes through great changes4 ,,growth ,,and ,,metamorphoses ,the development1 indeed1 of an animal from birth to maturity is no mere question of growth4 ,the metamorphoses of ,insects have long excited the wonder and admiration of all lovers of nature4 ,they depend to a great extent on the fact that the little creatures quit the egg at an early stage of development1 and lead a different life1 so that the external forces acting on them1 are very different from those by which they are affected when they arrive at maturity4 ,a remarkable case is that of certain ,beetles which are parasitic on ,solitary ,bees4 ,the young larva is very active1 with six strong legs4 ,it conceals itself in some flower1 and when the ,bee comes in search of honey1 leaps upon her1 but is so minute as not to be perceived4 ,the ,bee constructs her cell1 stores it with honey1 and lays her egg4 ,at that moment the little larva quits the ,bee and jumps on to the egg1 which she proceeds gradually to devour4 ,having finished the egg1 she attacks the honey2 but under these circumstances the activity which was at first so necessary has become useless2 the legs which did such good service are no longer required2 and the active slim larva changes into a white fleshy grub1 which floats comfortably in the honey with its mouth just below the surface4 ,even in the same group we may find great differences4 ,for instance1 in the family of ,insects to which ,bees and ,wasps belong1 some have grub larv1 such as the ,bee and ,ant2 some have larv like caterpillars1 such as the ,sawflies2 and there is a group of minute forms the larv of which live inside the eggs of other insects1 and present very remarkable and abnormal forms4 ,these differences depend mainly on the mode of life and the character of the food4 ,,rudimentary ,,organs ,such modifications may be called adaptive1 but there are others of a different origin that have reference to the changes which the race has passed through in bygone ages4 ,in fact the great majority of animals do go through metamorphoses 7many of them as remarkable1 though not so familiar as those of insects71 but in many cases they are passed through within the egg and thus escape popular observation4 ,naturalists who accept the theory of evolution1 consider that the development of each individual represents to a certain extent that which the species has itself gone through in the lapse of ages2 that every individual contains within itself1 so to say1 a history of the race4 ,thus the rudimentary teeth of ,cows1 ,sheep1 ,whales1 etc4 7which never emerge from their sockets71 the rudimentary toes of many mammals1 the hind legs of ,whales and of the ,boa-constrictor1 which are imbedded in the flesh1 the rudimentary collar-bone of the ,dog1 etc41 are indications of descent from ancestors in which these organs were fully developed4 ,again1 though used for such different purposes1 the paddle of a ,whale1 the leg of a ,horse and of a ,mole1 the wing of a ,bird or a ,bat1 and the arm of a ,man1 are all constructed on the same model1 include corresponding bones1 and are similarly arranged4 ,the long neck of the ,giraffe1 and the short one of the ,whale 7if neck it can be called71 contain the same number of vertebr4 ,even after birth the young of allied species resemble one another much more than the mature forms4 ,the stripes on the young ,lion1 the spots on the young ,blackbird1 are well-known cases2 and we find the same law prevalent among the lower animals1 as1 for instance1 among ,insects and ,crustacea4 ,the ,lobster1 ,crab1 ,shrimp1 and ,barnacle are very unlike when full grown1 but in their young stages go through essentially similar metamorphoses4 ,no animal is perhaps in this respect more interesting than the ,horse4 ,the skull of a ,horse and that of a ,man1 though differing so much1 are1 says ,flower1#aa composed of exactly the same number of bones1 having the same general arrangement and relation to each other4 ,not only the individual bones1 but every ridge and surface for the attachment of muscles1 and every hole for the passage of artery or nerve1 seen in the one can be traced in the other4 ,it is often said that the ,horse presents a remarkable peculiarity in that the canine teeth grow but once4 ,there are1 however1 in most ,horses certain spicules or minute points which are shed before the appearance of the permanent canines1 and which are probably the last remnants of the true milk canines4 ,the foot is reduced to a single toe1 representing the third digit1 but the second and fourth1 though rudimentary1 are represented by the splint bones2 while the foot also contains traces of several muscles1 originally belonging to the toes which have now disappeared1 and which linger as it were behind1 with new relations and uses1 sometimes in a reduced1 and almost1 if not quite1 functionless condition4 ,even ,man himself presents traces of gill-openings1 and indications of other organs which are fully developed in lower animals4 ,,modifications ,there is in ,new ,zealand a form of ,crow 7,hura71 in which the female has undergone a very curious modification4 ,it is the only case ,i know1 in which the bill is differently shaped in the two sexes4 ,the bird has taken on the habits of a ,woodpecker1 and the stout crow-like bill of the cock-bird is admirably adapted to tap trees1 and if they sound hollow1 to dig down to the burrow of the ,insect2 but it lacks the horny-pointed tip of the tongue1 which in the true ,woodpecker is provided with recurved hairs1 thus enabling that bird to pierce the grub and draw it out4 ,in the ,hura1 however1 the bill of the hen-bird has become much elongated and slightly curved1 and when the cock has dug down to the burrow1 the hen inserts her long bill and draws out the grub1 which they then divide between them3 a very pretty illustration of the wife as helpmate to the husband4 ,it was indeed until lately the general opinion that animals and plants came into existence just as we now see them4 ,we took pleasure in their beauty2 their adaptation to their habits and mode of life in many cases could not be overlooked or misunderstood4 ,nevertheless the book of ,nature was like some missal richly illuminated1 but written in an unknown tongue4 ,the graceful forms of the letters1 the beauty of the colouring1 excited our wonder and admiration2 but of the true meaning little was known to us2 indeed we scarcely realised that there was any meaning to decipher4 ,now glimpses of the truth are gradually revealing themselves1 we perceive that there is a reason1 and in many cases we know what the reason is1 for every difference in form1 in size1 and in colour2 for every bone and every feather1 almost for every hair4#ab ,,colour ,the colours of animals1 generally1 ,i believe1 serve as a protection4 ,in some1 however1 they probably render them more attractive to their mates1 of which the ,peacock is one of the most remarkable illustrations4 ,in richness of colour birds and insects vie even with flowers4 ,one fine red admiral butterfly1 says ,jefferies1#ac whose broad wings1 stretched out like fans1 looked simply splendid floating round and round the willows which marked the margin of a dry pool4 ,his blue markings were really blue--blue velvet--his red and the white stroke shone as if sunbeams were in his wings4 ,i wish there were more of these butterflies2 in summer1 dry summer1 when the flowers seem gone and the grass is not so dear to us1 and the leaves are dull with heat1 a little colour is so pleasant4 ,to me colour is a sort of food2 every spot of colour is a drop of wine to the spirit4 ,the varied colours which add so much to the beauty of animals and plants are not only thus a delight to the eye1 but afford us also some of the most interesting problems in ,natural ,history4 ,some probably are not in themselves of any direct advantage4 ,the brilliant mother-of-pearl of certain shells1 which during life is completely hidden1 the rich colours of some internal organs of animals1 are not perhaps of any direct benefit1 but are incidental1 like the rich and brilliant hues of many minerals and precious stones4 ,but although this may be true1 ,i believe that most of these colours are now of some advantage4 ,the black back and silvery belly of fishes have been recently referred to by a distinguished naturalist as being obviously of no direct benefit4 ,i should on the contrary have quoted this case as one where the advantage was obvious4 ,the dark back renders the fish less conspicuous to an eye looking down into the water2 while the white under-surface makes them less visible from below4 ,the animals of the desert are sand-coloured2 those of the ,arctic regions are white like snow1 especially in winter2 and pelagic animals are blue4 ,let us take certain special cases4 ,the ,lion1 like other desert animals1 is sand-coloured2 the ,tiger which lives in the ,jungle has vertical stripes1 making him difficult to see among the upright grass2 ,leopards and the tree-cats are spotted1 like rays of light seen through leaves4 ,an interesting case is that of the animals living in the ,sargasso or gulf-weed of the ,atlantic4 ,these creatures--,fish1 ,crustacea1 and ,mollusks alike--are characterised by a peculiar colouring1 not continuously olive like the ,seaweed itself1 but blotched with rounded more or less irregular patches of bright1 opaque white1 so as closely to resemble fronds covered with patches of ,flustra or ,barnacles4 ,take the case of caterpillars1 which are especially defenceless1 and which as a rule feed on leaves4 ,the smallest and youngest are green1 like the leaves on which they live4 ,when they become larger1 they are characterised by longitudinal lines1 which break up the surface and thus render them less conspicuous4 ,on older and larger ones the lines are diagonal1 like the nerves of leaves4 ,conspicuous caterpillars are generally either nauseous in taste1 or protected by hairs4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a4--;,choerocampa porcellus4 ,i say generally1 because there are some interesting exceptions4 ,the large caterpillars of some of the ,elephant ,hawkmoths are very conspicuous1 and rendered all the more so by the presence of a pair of large eyelike spots4 ,every one who sees one of these caterpillars is struck by its likeness to a snake1 and the so-called eyes do much to increase the deception4 ,moreover1 the ring on which they are placed is swollen1 and the insect1 when in danger1 has the habit of retracting its head and front segments1 which gives it an additional resemblance to some small reptile4 ,that small birds are1 as a matter of fact1 afraid of these caterpillars 7which1 however1 ,i need not say1 are in reality altogether harmless7 ,weismann has proved by actual experiment4 ,he put one of these caterpillars in a tray1 in which he was accustomed to place seed for birds4 ,soon a little flock of sparrows and other small birds assembled to feed as usual4 ,one of them lit on the edge of this tray1 and was just going to hop in1 when she spied the caterpillar4 ,immediately she began bobbing her head up and down in the odd way which some small birds have1 but was afraid to go nearer4 ,another joined her and then another1 until at last there was a little company of ten or twelve birds all looking on in astonishment1 but not one ventured into the tray2 while one bird1 which lit in it unsuspectingly1 beat a hasty retreat in evident alarm as soon as she perceived the caterpillar4 ,after waiting for some time1 ,weismann removed it1 when the birds soon attacked the seeds4 ,other caterpillars also are probably protected by their curious resemblance to spotted snakes4 ,one of the large ,indian caterpillars has even acquired the power of hissing4 ,among perfect insects many resemble closely the substances near which they live4 ,some moths are mottled so as to mimic the bark of trees1 or moss1 or the surface of stones4 ,one beautiful tropical butterfly has a dark wing on which are painted a series of green leaf tips1 so that it closely resembles the edge of a pinnate leaf projecting out of shade into sunshine4 ,the argument is strengthened by those cases in which the protection1 or other advantage1 is due not merely to colour1 but partly also to form4 ,such are the insects which resemble sticks or leaves4 ,again1 there are cases in which insects mimic others1 which1 for some reason or other1 are less liable to danger4 ,so also many harmless animals mimic others which are poisonous or otherwise well protected4 ,some butterflies1 as ,mr4 ,bates has pointed out1 mimic others which are nauseous in taste1 and therefore not attacked by birds4 ,in these cases it is generally only the females that are mimetic1 and in some cases only a part of them1 so that there are two1 or even three1 kinds of females1 the one retaining the normal colouring of the group1 the other mimicking another species4 ,some spiders closely resemble ,ants1 and several other insects mimic ,wasps or ,hornets4 ,some reptiles and fish have actually the power of changing the colour of their skin so as to adapt themselves to their surroundings4 ,many cases in which the colouring does not at first sight appear to be protective1 will on consideration be found to be so4 ,it has1 for instance1 been objected that sheep are not coloured green2 but every mountaineer knows that sheep could not have had a colour more adapted to render them inconspicuous1 and that it is almost impossible to distinguish them from the rocks which so constantly crop up on hill sides4 ,even the brilliant blue of the ,kingfisher1 which in a museum renders it so conspicuous1 in its native haunts1 on the contrary1 makes it difficult to distinguish from a flash of light upon the water2 and the richly-coloured ,woodpecker wears the genuine dress of a ,forester--the green coat and crimson cap4 ,it has been found that some brilliantly coloured and conspicuous animals are either nauseous or poisonous4 ,in these cases the brilliant colour is doubtless a protection by rendering them more unmistakable4 ,,communities ,some animals may delight us especially by their beauty1 such as birds or butterflies2 others may surprise us by their size1 as ,elephants and ,whales1 or the still more marvellous monsters of ancient times2 may fascinate us by their exquisite forms1 such as many microscopic shells2 or compel our reluctant attention by their similarity to us in structure2 but none offer more points of interest than those which live in communities4 ,i do not allude to the temporary assemblages of ,starlings1 ,swallows1 and other birds at certain times of year1 nor even to the permanent associations of animals brought together by common wants in suitable localities1 but to regular and more or less organised associations4 ,such colonies as those of ,rooks and ,beavers have no doubt interesting revelations and surprises in store for us1 but they have not been as yet so much studied as those of some insects4 ,among these the ,hive ,bees1 from the beauty and regularity of their cells1 from their utility to man1 and from the debt we owe them for their unconscious agency in the improvement of flowers1 hold a very high place2 but they are probably less intelligent1 and their relations with other animals and with one another are less complex than in the case of ,ants1 which have been so well studied by ,gould1 ,huber1 ,forel1 ,m',cook1 and other naturalists4 ,the subject is a wide one1 for there are at least a thousand species of ,ants1 no two of which have the same habits4 ,in this country we have rather more than thirty1 most of which ,i have kept in confinement4 ,their life is comparatively long3 ,i have had working ,ants which were seven years old1 and a ,queen ,ant lived in one of my nests for fifteen years4 ,the community consists1 in addition to the young1 of males1 which do no work1 of wingless workers1 and one or more ,queen mothers1 who have at first wings1 which1 however1 after one ,marriage flight1 they throw off1 as they never leave the nest again1 and in it wings would of course be useless4 ,the workers do not1 except occasionally1 lay eggs1 but carry on all the affairs of the community4 ,some of them1 and especially the younger ones1 remain in the nest1 excavate chambers and tunnels1 and tend the young1 which are sorted up according to age1 so that my nests often had the appearance of a school1 with the children arranged in classes4 ,in our ,english ,ants the workers in each species are all similar except in size1 but among foreign species there are some in which there are two or even more classes of workers1 differing greatly not only in size1 but also in form4 ,the differences are not the result of age1 nor of race1 but are adaptations to different functions1 the nature of which1 however1 is not yet well understood4 ,among the ,termites those of one class certainly seem to act as soldiers1 and among the true ,ants also some have comparatively immense heads and powerful jaws4 ,it is doubtful1 however1 whether they form a real army4 ,bates observed that on a foraging expedition the large-headed individuals did not walk in the regular ranks1 nor on the return did they carry any of the booty1 but marched along at the side1 and at tolerably regular intervals1 like subaltern officers in a marching regiment4 ,he is disposed1 however1 to ascribe to them a much humbler function1 namely1 to serve merely as indigestible morsels to the ant thrushes4 ,this1 ,i confess1 seems to me improbable4 ,solomon was1 so far as we yet know1 quite correct in describing ,ants as having neither guide1 overseer1 nor ruler4 ,the so-called ,queens are really ,mothers4 ,nevertheless it is true1 and it is curious1 that the working ,ants and ,bees always turn their heads towards the ,queen4 ,it seems as if the sight of her gave them pleasure4 ,on one occasion1 while moving some ,ants from one nest into another for exhibition at the ,royal ,institution1 ,i unfortunately crushed the ,queen and killed her4 ,the others1 however1 did not desert her1 or draw her out as they do dead workers1 but on the contrary carried her into the new nest1 and subsequently into a larger one with which ,i supplied them1 congregating round her for weeks just as if she had been alive4 ,one could hardly help fancying that they were mourning her loss1 or hoping anxiously for her recovery4 ,the ,communities of ,ants are sometimes very large1 numbering even up to #ejj1jjj individuals2 and it is a lesson to us1 that no one has ever yet seen a quarrel between any two ,ants belonging to the same community4 ,on the other hand it must be admitted that they are in hostility1 not only with most other insects1 including ,ants of different species1 but even with those of the same species if belonging to different communities4 ,i have over and over again introduced ,ants from one of my nests into another nest of the same species1 and they were invariably attacked1 seized by a leg or an antenna1 and dragged out4 ,it is evident therefore that the ,ants of each community all recognise one another1 which is very remarkable4 ,but more than this1 ,i several times divided a nest into two halves1 and found that even after a separation of a year and nine months they recognised one another1 and were perfectly friendly2 while they at once attacked ,ants from a different nest1 although of the same species4 ,it has been suggested that the ,ants of each nest have some sign or password by which they recognise one another4 ,to test this ,i made some insensible4 ,first ,i tried chloroform1 but this was fatal to them2 and as therefore they were practically dead1 ,i did not consider the test satisfactory4 ,i decided therefore to intoxicate them4 ,this was less easy than ,i had expected4 ,none of my ,ants would voluntarily degrade themselves by getting drunk4 ,however1 ,i got over the difficulty by putting them into whisky for a few moments4 ,i took fifty specimens1 twenty-five from one nest and twenty-five from another1 made them dead drunk1 marked each with a spot of paint1 and put them on a table close to where other ,ants from one of the nests were feeding4 ,the table was surrounded as usual with a moat of water to prevent them from straying4 ,the ,ants which were feeding soon noticed those which ,i had made drunk4 ,they seemed quite astonished to find their comrades in such a disgraceful condition1 and as much at a loss to know what to do with their drunkards as we are4 ,after a while1 however1 to cut my story short1 they carried them all away3 the strangers they took to the edge of the moat and dropped into the water1 while they bore their friends home into the nest1 where by degrees they slept off the effects of the spirit4 ,thus it is evident that they know their friends even when incapable of giving any sign or password4 ,this little experiment also shows that they help comrades in distress4 ,if a ,wolf or a ,rook be ill or injured1 we are told that it is driven away or even killed by its comrades4 ,not so with ,ants4 ,for instance1 in one of my nests an unfortunate ,ant1 in emerging from the chrysalis skin1 injured her legs so much that she lay on her back quite helpless4 ,for three months1 however1 she was carefully fed and tended by the other ,ants4 ,in another case an ,ant in the same manner had injured her antenn4 ,i watched her also carefully to see what would happen4 ,for some days she did not leave the nest4 ,at last one day she ventured outside1 and after a while met a stranger ,ant of the same species1 but belonging to another nest1 by whom she was at once attacked4 ,i tried to separate them1 but whether by her enemy1 or perhaps by my well-meant but clumsy kindness1 she was evidently much hurt and lay helplessly on her side4 ,several other ,ants passed her without taking any notice1 but soon one came up1 examined her carefully with her antenn1 and carried her off tenderly to the nest4 ,no one1 ,i think1 who saw it could have denied to that ,ant one attribute of humanity1 the quality of kindness4 ,the existence of such communities as those of ,ants or ,bees implies1 no doubt1 some power of communication1 but the amount is still a matter of doubt4 ,it is well known that if one ,bee or ,ant discovers a store of food1 others soon find their way to it4 ,this1 however1 does not prove much4 ,it makes all the difference whether they are brought or sent4 ,if they merely accompany on her return a companion who has brought a store of food1 it does not imply much4 ,to test this1 therefore1 ,i made several experiments4 ,for instance1 one cold day my ,ants were almost all in their nests4 ,one only was out hunting and about six feet from home4 ,i took a dead bluebottle fly1 pinned it on to a piece of cork1 and put it down just in front of her4 ,she at once tried to carry off the fly1 but to her surprise found it immovable4 ,she tugged and tugged1 first one way and then another for about twenty minutes1 and then went straight off to the nest4 ,during that time not a single ,ant had come out2 in fact she was the only ,ant of that nest out at the time4 ,she went straight in1 but in a few seconds--less than half a minute1--came out again with no less than twelve friends1 who trooped off with her1 and eventually tore up the dead fly1 carrying it off in triumph4 ,now the first ,ant took nothing home with her2 she must therefore somehow have made her friends understand that she had found some food1 and wanted them to come and help her to secure it4 ,in all such cases1 however1 so far as my experience goes1 the ,ants brought their friends1 and some of my experiments indicated that they are unable to send them4 ,certain species of ,ants1 again1 make slaves of others1 as ,huber first observed4 ,if a colony of the slave-making ,ants is changing the nest1 a matter which is left to the discretion of the slaves1 the latter carry their mistresses to their new home4 ,again1 if ,i uncovered one of my nests of the ,fuscous ,ant 7,formica fusca71 they all began running about in search of some place of refuge4 ,if now ,i covered over one small part of the nest1 after a while some ,ant discovered it4 ,in such a case1 however1 the brave little insect never remained there1 she came out in search of her friends1 and the first one she met she took up in her jaws1 threw over her shoulder 7their way of carrying friends71 and took into the covered part2 then both came out again1 found two more friends and brought them in1 the same manoeuvre being repeated until the whole community was in a place of safety4 ,this ,i think says much for their public spirit1 but seems to prove that1 in ,f4 fusca at least1 the powers of communication are but limited4 ,one kind of slave-making ,ant has become so completely dependent on their slaves1 that even if provided with food they will die of hunger1 unless there is a slave to put it into their mouth4 ,i found1 however1 that they would thrive very well if supplied with a slave for an hour or so once a week to clean and feed them4 ,but in many cases the community does not consist of ,ants only4 ,they have domestic animals1 and indeed it is not going too far to say that they have domesticated more animals than we have4 ,of these the most important are ,aphides4 ,some species keep ,aphides on trees and bushes1 others collect root-feeding ,aphides into their nests4 ,they serve as cows to the ,ants1 which feed on the honey-dew secreted by the ,aphides4 ,not only1 moreover1 do the ,ants protect the ,aphides themselves1 but collect their eggs in autumn1 and tend them carefully through the winter1 ready for the next spring4 ,many other insects are also domesticated by ,ants1 and some of them1 from living constantly underground1 have completely lost their eyes and become quite blind4 ,but ,i must not let myself be carried away by this fascinating subject1 which ,i have treated more at length in another work4#ad ,i will only say that though their intelligence is no doubt limited1 still ,i do not think that any one who has studied the life-history of ,ants can draw any fundamental line of separation between instinct and reason4 ,when we see a community of ,ants working together in perfect harmony1 it is impossible not to ask ourselves how far they are mere exquisite automatons2 how far they are conscious beings8 ,when we watch an ant-hill tenanted by thousands of industrious inhabitants1 excavating chambers1 forming tunnels1 making roads1 guarding their home1 gathering food1 feeding the young1 tending their domestic animals--each one fulfilling its duties industriously1 and without confusion1--it is difficult altogether to deny to them the gift of reason2 and all our recent observations tend to confirm the opinion that their mental powers differ from those of men1 not so much in kind as in degree4 ,,footnotes3 #aa ,the ,horse4 #ab ,lubbock1 ,fifty ,years of ,science4 #ac ,the ,open ,air4 #ad ,ants1 ,bees1 and ,wasps4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,on ,,animal ,,life--continued ,an organic being is a microcosm--a little universe1 formed of a host of self-propagating organisms1 inconceivably minute and numerous as the stars of heaven4 ,,darwin4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,on ,,animal ,,life--continued4 ,we constantly speak of animals as free4 ,a fish1 says ,ruskin1 is much freer than a ,man2 and as to a fly1 it is a black incarnation of freedom4 ,it is pleasant to think of anything as free1 but in this case the idea is1 ,i fear1 to a great extent erroneous4 ,young animals may frolic and play1 but older ones take life very seriously4 ,about the habits of fish and flies1 indeed1 as yet we know very little4 ,any one1 however1 who will watch animals will soon satisfy himself how diligently they work4 ,even when they seem to be idling over flowers1 or wandering aimlessly about1 they are in truth diligently seeking for food1 or collecting materials for nests4 ,the industry of ,bees is proverbial4 ,when collecting honey or pollen they often visit over twenty flowers in a minute1 keeping constantly to one species1 without yielding a moment's dalliance to any more sweet or lovely tempter4 ,ants fully deserve the commendation of ,solomon4 ,wasps have not the same reputation for industry2 but ,i have watched them from before four in the morning till dark at night working like animated machines without a moment's rest or intermission4 ,sundays and ,bank ,holidays are all the same to them4 ,again1 ,birds have their own gardens and farms from which they do not wander1 and within which they will tolerate no interference4 ,their ideas of the rights of property are far stricter than those of some statesmen4 ,as to freedom1 they have their daily duties as much as a mechanic in a mill or a clerk in an office4 ,they suffer under alarms1 moreover1 from which we are happily free4 ,mr4 ,galton believes that the life of wild animals is very anxious4 ,from my own recollection1 he says1 ,i believe that every antelope in ,south ,africa has to run for its life every one or two days upon an average1 and that he starts or gallops under the influence of a false alarm many times in a day4 ,those who have crouched at night by the side of pools in the desert1 in order to have a shot at the beasts that frequent it1 see strange scenes of animal life2 how the creatures gambol at one moment and fight at another2 how a herd suddenly halts in strained attention1 and then breaks into a maddened rush as one of them becomes conscious of the stealthy movements or rank scent of a beast of prey4 ,now this hourly life-and-death excitement is a keen delight to most wild creatures1 but must be peculiarly distracting to the comfort-loving temperament of others4 ,the latter are alone suited to endure the crass habits and dull routine of domesticated life4 ,suppose that an animal which has been captured and half-tamed1 received ill-usage from his captors1 either as punishment or through mere brutality1 and that he rushed indignantly into the forest with his ribs aching from blows and stones4 ,if a comfort-loving animal1 he will probably be no gainer by the change1 more serious alarms and no less ill-usage awaits him3 he hears the roar of the wild beasts1 and the headlong gallop of the frightened herds1 and he finds the buttings and the kicks of other animals harder to endure than the blows from which he fled3 he has peculiar disadvantages from being a stranger2 the herds of his own species which he seeks for companionship constitute so many cliques1 into which he can only find admission by more fighting with their strongest members than he has spirit to undergo4 ,as a set-off against these miseries1 the freedom of savage life has no charms for his temperament2 so the end of it is1 that with a heavy heart he turns back to the habitation he had quitted4 ,but though animals may not be free1 ,i hope and believe that they are happy4 ,dr4 ,hudson1 an admirable observer1 assures us with confidence that the struggle for existence leaves them much leisure and famous spirits4 ,in the animal world1 he exclaims1#ae what happiness reigns6 ,what ease1 grace1 beauty1 leisure1 and content6 ,watch these living specks as they glide through their forests of alg1 all 'without hurry and care1' as if their 'span-long lives' really could endure for the thousand years that the old catch pines for4 ,here is no greedy jostling at the banquet that nature has spread for them2 no dread of each other2 but a leisurely inspection of the field1 that shows neither the pressure of hunger nor the dread of an enemy4 ',to labour and to be content' 7that 'sweet life' of the son of ,sirach7--to be equally ready for an enemy or a friend--to trust in themselves alone1 to show a brave unconcern for the morrow1 all these are the admirable points of a character almost universal among animals1 and one that would lighten many a heart were it more common among men4 ,that character is the direct result of the golden law ',if one will not work1 neither let him eat'2 a law whose stern kindness1 unflinchingly applied1 has produced whole nations of living creatures1 without a pauper in their ranks1 flushed with health1 alert1 resolute1 self-reliant1 and singularly happy4 ,it has often been said that ,man is the only animal gifted with the power of enjoying a joke1 but if animals do not laugh1 at any rate they sometimes play4 ,we are1 indeed1 apt perhaps to credit them with too much of our own attributes and emotions1 but we can hardly be mistaken in supposing that they enjoy certain scents and sounds4 ,it is difficult to separate the games of kittens and lambs from those of children4 ,our countryman ,gould long ago described the amusements or sportive exercises which he had observed among ,ants4 ,forel was at first incredulous1 but finally confirmed these statements2 and1 speaking of certain tropical ,ants1 ,bates says the conclusion that they were engaged in play was irresistible4 ,,sleep ,we share with other animals the great blessing of ,sleep1 nature's soft nurse1 the mantle that covers thought1 the food that appeases hunger1 the drink that quenches thirst1 the fire that warms cold1 the cold that moderates heat1 the coin that purchases all things1 the balance and weight that equals the shepherd with the king1 and the simple with the wise4 ,some animals dream as we do2 ,dogs1 for instance1 evidently dream of the chase4 ,with the lower animals which cannot shut their eyes it is1 however1 more difficult to make sure whether they are awake or asleep4 ,i have often noticed insects at night1 even when it was warm and light1 behave just as if they were asleep1 and take no notice of objects which would certainly have startled them in the day4 ,the same thing has also been observed in the case of fish4 ,but why should we sleep8 ,what a remarkable thing it is that one-third of our life should be passed in unconsciousness4 ,half of our days1 says ,sir ,t4 ,browne1 we pass in the shadow of the earth1 and the brother of death extracteth a third part of our lives4 ,the obvious suggestion is that we require rest4 ,but this does not fully meet the case4 ,in sleep the mind is still awake1 and lives a life of its own3 our thoughts wander1 uncontrolled1 by the will4 ,the mind1 therefore1 is not necessarily itself at rest2 and yet we all know how it is refreshed by sleep4 ,but though animals sleep1 many of them are nocturnal in their habits4 ,humboldt gives a vivid description of night in a ,brazilian forest4 ,everything passed tranquilly till eleven at night1 and then a noise so terrible arose in the neighbouring forest that it was almost impossible to close our eyes4 ,amid the cries of so many wild beasts howling at once the ,indians discriminated such only as were 7at intervals7 heard separately4 ,these were the little soft cries of the sapajous1 the moans of the alouate apes1 the howlings of the jaguar and couguar1 the peccary and the sloth1 and the cries of 7many7 birds4 ,when the jaguars approached the skirt of the forest our dog1 which till then had never ceased barking1 began to howl and seek for shelter beneath our hammocks4 ,sometimes1 after a long silence1 the cry of the tiger came from the tops of the trees2 and then it was followed by the sharp and long whistling of the monkeys1 which appeared to flee from the danger which threatened them4 ,we heard the same noises repeated during the course of whole months whenever the forest approached the bed of the river4 ,when the natives are interrogated on the causes of the tremendous noise made by the beasts of the forest at certain hours of the night1 the answer is1 they are keeping the feast of the full moon4 ,i believe this agitation is most frequently the effect of some conflict that has arisen in the depths of the forest4 ,the jaguars1 for instance1 pursue the peccaries and the tapirs1 which1 having no defence1 flee in close troops1 and break down the bushes they find in their way4 ,terrified at this struggle1 the timid and distrustful monkeys answer1 from the tops of the trees1 the cries of the large animals4 ,they awaken the birds that live in society1 and by degrees the whole assembly is in commotion4 ,it is not always in a fine moonlight1 but more particularly at the time of a storm of violent showers1 that this tumult takes place among the wild beasts4 ',may heaven grant them a quiet night and repose1 and us also6' said the monk who accompanied us to the ,rio ,negro1 when1 sinking with fatigue1 he assisted in arranging our accommodation for the night4 ,life is indeed among animals a struggle for existence1 and in addition to the more usual weapons--teeth and claws--we find in some animals special and peculiar means of offence and defence4 ,if we had not been so familiarised with the fact1 the possession of poison might well seem a wonderful gift4 ,that a fluid1 harmless in one animal itself1 should yet prove so deadly when transferred to others1 is certainly very remarkable2 and though the venom of the ,cobra or the ,rattlesnake appeal perhaps more effectively to our imagination1 we have conclusive evidence of concentrated poison even in the bite of a midge1 which may remain for days perceptible4 ,the sting of a ,bee or ,wasp1 though somewhat similar in its effect1 is a totally different organ1 being a modified ovipositor4 ,some species of ,ants do not sting in the ordinary sense1 but eject their acrid poison to a distance of several inches4 ,another very remarkable weapon is the electric battery of certain ,eels1 of the ,electric ,cat ,fish1 and the ,torpedoes1 one of which is said to be able to discharge an amount of electricity sufficient to kill a ,man4 ,some of the ,medus and other ,zoophytes are armed by millions of minute organs known as thread cells4 ,each consists of a cell1 within which a firm1 elastic thread is tightly coiled4 ,the moment the ,medusa touches its prey the cells burst and the threads spring out4 ,entering the flesh as they do by myriads1 they prove very effective weapons4 ,the ink of the ,sepia has passed into a proverb4 ,the animal possesses a store of dark fluid1 which1 if attacked1 it at once ejects1 and thus escapes under cover of the cloud thus created4 ,the so-called ,bombardier ,beetles1 when attacked1 discharge at the enemy1 from the hinder part of their body1 an acrid fluid which1 as soon as it comes in contact with air1 explodes with a sound resembling a miniature gun4 ,westwood mentions1 on the authority of ,burchell1 that on one occasion1 whilst resting for the night on the banks of one of the large ,south ,american rivers1 he went out with a lantern to make an astronomical observation1 accompanied by one of his black servant boys2 and as they were proceeding1 their attention was directed to numerous beetles running about upon the shore1 which1 when captured1 proved to be specimens of a large species of ,brachinus4 ,on being seized they immediately began to play off their artillery1 burning and staining the flesh to such a degree that only a few specimens could be captured with the naked hand1 and leaving a mark which remained a considerable time4 ,upon observing the whitish vapour with which the explosions were accompanied1 the negro exclaimed in his broken ,english1 with evident surprise1 ',ah1 massa1 they make smoke6' ,many other remarkable illustrations might be quoted2 as for instance the web of the ,spider1 the pit of the ,ant ,lion1 the mephitic odour of the ,skunk4 ,,senses ,we generally attribute to animals five senses more or less resembling our own4 ,but even as regards our own senses we really know or understand very little4 ,take the question of colour4 ,the rainbow is commonly said to consist of seven colours--red1 orange1 yellow1 green1 blue1 indigo1 and violet4 ,but it is now known that all our colour sensations are mixtures of three simple colours1 red1 green1 and violet4 ,we are1 however1 absolutely ignorant how we perceive these colours4 ,thomas ,young suggested that we have three different systems of nerve fibres1 and ,helmholtz regards this as a not improbable supposition2 but so far as microscopical examination is concerned1 there is no evidence whatever for it4 ,or take again the sense of ,hearing4 ,the vibrations of the air no doubt play upon the drum of the ear1 and the waves thus produced are conducted through a complex chain of small bones to the fenestra ovalis and so to the inner ear or labyrinth4 ,but beyond this all is uncertainty4 ,the labyrinth consists mainly of two parts 7#a7 the cochlea1 and 7#b7 the semicircular canals1 which are three in number1 standing at right angles to one another4 ,it has been supposed that they enable us to maintain the equilibrium of the body1 but no satisfactory explanation of their function has yet been given4 ,in the cochlea1 ,corti discovered a remarkable organ consisting of some four thousand complex arches1 which increase regularly in length and diminish in height4 ,they are connected at one end with the fibres of the auditory nerve1 and ,helmholtz has suggested that the waves of sound play on them1 like the fingers of a performer on the keys of a piano1 each separate arch corresponding to a different sound4 ,we thus obtain a glimpse1 though but a glimpse1 of the manner in which perhaps we hear2 but when we pass on to the senses of smell and taste1 all we know is that the extreme nerve fibres terminate in certain cells which differ in form from those of the general surface2 but in what manner the innumerable differences of taste or smell are communicated to the brain1 we are absolutely ignorant4 ,if then we know so little about ourselves1 no wonder that with reference to other animals our ignorance is extreme4 ,we are too apt to suppose that the senses of animals must closely resemble1 and be confined to ours4 ,no one can doubt that the sensations of other animals differ in many ways from ours4 ,their organs are sometimes constructed on different principles1 and situated in very unexpected places4 ,there are animals which have eyes on their backs1 ears in their legs1 and sing through their sides4 ,we all know that the senses of animals are in many cases much more acute than ours1 as for instance the power of scent in the dog1 of sight in the eagle4 ,moreover1 our eye is much more sensitive to some colours than to others2 least so to crimson1 then successively to red1 orange1 yellow1 blue1 and green2 the sensitiveness for green being as much as #gej times as great as for red4 ,this alone may make objects appear of very different colours to different animals4 ,nor is the difference one of degree merely4 ,the rainbow1 as we see it1 consists of seven colours--red1 orange1 yellow1 green1 blue1 indigo1 and violet4 ,but though the red and violet are the limits of the visible spectrum1 they are not the limits of the spectrum itself1 there are rays1 though invisible to us1 beyond the red at the one end1 and beyond the violet at the other3 the existence of the ultra red can be demonstrated by the thermometer2 while the ultra violet are capable of taking a photograph4 ,but though the red and violet are respectively the limits of our vision1 ,i have shown#af by experiments which have been repeated and confirmed by other naturalists1 that some of the lower animals are capable of perceiving the ultra-violet rays1 which to us are invisible4 ,it is an interesting question whether these rays may not produce on them the impression of a new colour1 or colours1 differing from any of those known to us4 ,so again with hearing1 not only may animals in some cases hear better than we do1 but sounds which are beyond the reach of our ears1 may be audible to theirs4 ,even among ourselves the power of hearing shrill sounds is greater in some persons than in others4 ,sound1 as we know1 is produced by vibration of the air striking on the drum of the ear1 and the fewer are the vibrations in a second1 the deeper is the sound1 which becomes shriller and shriller as the waves of sound become more rapid4 ,in human ears the limits of hearing are reached when about #ce1jjj vibrations strike the drum of the ear in a second4 ,whatever the explanation of the gift of hearing in ourselves may be1 different plans seem to be adopted in the case of other animals4 ,in many ,crustacea and ,insects there are flattened hairs each connected with a nerve fibre1 and so constituted as to vibrate in response to particular notes4 ,in others the ear cavity contains certain minute solid bodies1 known as otoliths1 which in the same way play upon the nerve fibres4 ,sometimes these are secreted by the walls of the cavity itself1 but certain ,crustacea have acquired the remarkable habit of selecting after each moult suitable particles of sand1 which they pick up with their pincers and insert into their ears4 ,many insects1 besides the two large compound eyes one on each side of the head1 have between them three small ones1 known as the ocelli1 arranged in a triangle4 ,the structure of these two sets of eyes is quite different4 ,the ocelli appear to see as our eyes do4 ,the lens throws an inverted image on the back of the eye1 so that with these eyes they must see everything reversed1 as we ourselves really do1 though long practice enables us to correct the impression4 ,on the other hand1 the compound eyes consist of a number of facets1 in some species as many as #bj1jjj in each eye1 and the prevailing impression among entomologists now is that each facet receives the impression of one pencil of rays1 that in fact the image formed in a compound eye is a sort of mosaic4 ,in that case1 vision by means of these eyes must be direct2 and it is indeed difficult to understand how an insect can obtain a correct impression when it looks at the world with five eyes1 three of which see everything reversed1 while the other two see things the right way up6 ,on the other hand1 some regard each facet as an independent eye1 in which case many insects realise the epigram of ,plato-- ,thou lookest on the stars1 my love1 ,ah1 would that ,i could be ,yon starry skies with thousand eyes1 ,that ,i might look on thee6 ,even so1 therefore1 we only substitute one difficulty for another4 ,but this is not all4 ,we have not only no proof that animals are confined to our five senses1 but there are strong reasons for believing that this is not the case4 ,in the first place1 many animals have organs which from their position1 structure1 and rich supply of nerves1 are evidently organs of sense2 and yet which do not appear to be adapted to any one of our five senses4 ,as already mentioned1 the limits of hearing are reached when about #ce1jjj vibrations of the air strike on the drums of our ears4 ,light1 as was first conclusively demonstrated by our great countryman ,young1 is the impression produced by vibration of the ether on the retina of the eye4 ,when #gjj millions of millions of vibrations strike the eye in a second1 we see violet2 and the colour changes as the number diminishes1 #djj millions of millions giving us the impression of red4 ,between #ce thousand and #djj millions of millions the interval is immense1 and it is obvious that there might be any number of sensations4 ,when we consider how greatly animals differ from us1 alike in habits and structure1 is it not possible1 nay1 more1 is it not likely that some of these problematical organs are the seats of senses unknown to us1 and give rise to sensations of which we have no conception8 ,in addition to the capacity for receiving and perceiving1 some animals have the faculty of emitting light4 ,in our country the glow-worm is the most familiar case1 though some other insects and worms have1 at any rate under certain conditions1 the same power1 and it is possible that many others are really luminous1 though with light which is invisible to us4 ,in warmer climates the ,fire-fly1 ,lanthorn-fly1 and many other insects1 shine with much greater brilliance1 and in these cases the glow seems to be a real love-light1 like the lamp of ,hero4 ,many small marine animals1 ,medus1 ,crustacea1 ,worms1 etc41 are also brilliantly luminous at night4 ,deep-sea animals are endowed also in many cases with special luminous organs1 to which ,i shall refer again4 ,,sense ,,of ,,direction ,it has been supposed that animals possess also what has been called a ,sense of ,direction4 ,many interesting cases are on record of animals finding their way home after being taken a considerable distance4 ,to account for this fact it has been suggested that animals possess a sense with which we are not endowed1 or of which1 at any rate1 we possess only a trace4 ,the homing instinct of the pigeon has also been ascribed to the same faculty4 ,my brother ,alfred1 however1 who has paid much attention to pigeons1 informs me that they are never taken any great distance at once2 but if they are intended to take a long flight1 they are trained to do so by stages4 ,darwin suggested that it would be interesting to test the case by taking animals in a close box1 and then whirling them round rapidly before letting them out4 ,this is in fact done with cats in some parts of ,france1 when the family migrates1 and is considered the only way of preventing the cat from returning to the old home4 ,fabre has tried the same thing with some wild ,bees 7,chalicodoma74 ,he took some1 marked them on the back with a spot of white1 and put them into a bag4 ,he then carried them a quarter of a mile1 stopping at a point where an old cross stands by the wayside1 and whirled the bag rapidly round his head4 ,while he was doing so a good woman came by1 who seemed not a little surprised to find the ,professor solemnly whirling a black bag round his head in front of the cross2 and1 he fears1 suspected him of ,satanic practices4 ,he then carried his ,bees a mile and a half in the opposite direction and let them go4 ,three out of ten found their way home4 ,he tried the same experiment several times1 in one case taking them a little over two miles4 ,on an average about a third of the ,bees found their way home4 ,la dmonstration1 says ,fabre1 est suffisante4 ,ni les mouvements enchevtrs d'une rotation comme je l'ai dcrite2 ni l'obstacle de collines franchir et de bois traverser2 ni les embches d'une voie qui s'avance1 rtrograde1 et revient par un ample circuit1 ne peuvent troubler les ,chalicodomes dpayss et les empcher de revenir au nid4 ,i must say1 however1 that ,i am not convinced4 ,in the first place1 the distances were ,i think too short2 and in the second1 though it is true that some of the ,bees found their way home1 nearly two-thirds failed to do so4 ,it would be interesting to try the experiment again1 taking the ,bees say five miles4 ,if they really possess any such sense1 that distance would be no bar to their return4 ,i have myself experimented with ,ants1 taking them about fifty yards from the nest1 and ,i always found that they wandered aimlessly about1 having evidently not the slightest idea of their way home4 ,they certainly did not appear to possess any sense of direction4 ,,number ,,of ,,species ,the total number of species may probably be safely estimated as at least #b1jjj1jjj1 of which but a fraction have yet been described or named4 ,of extinct species the number was probably at least as great4 ,in the geological history of the earth there have been at least twelve periods1 in each of which by far the greatest number were distinct4 ,the ,ancient ,poets described certain gifted mortals as having been privileged to descend into the interior of the earth1 and exercised their imagination in recounting the wonders thus revealed4 ,as in other cases1 however1 the realities of ,science have proved far more varied and surprising than the dreams of fiction4 ,of these extinct species our knowledge is even more incomplete than that of the existing species4 ,but even of our contemporaries it is not too much to say that1 as in the case of plants1 there is not one the structure1 habits1 and life-history of which are yet fully known to us4 ,the male of the ,cynips1 which produces the common ,king ,charles ,oak ,apple1 has only recently been discovered1 those of the root-feeding ,aphides1 which live in hundreds in every nest of the yellow ,meadow ,ant 7,lasius flavus7 are still unknown2 the habits and mode of reproduction of the common ,eel have only just been discovered2 and we may even say generally that many of the most interesting recent discoveries have relation to the commonest and most familiar animals4 ,,importance ,,of ,,the ,,smaller ,,animals ,whatever pre-eminence ,man may claim for himself1 other animals have done far more to affect the face of nature4 ,the principal agents have not been the larger or more intelligent1 but rather the smaller1 and individually less important1 species4 ,beavers may have dammed up many of the rivers of ,british ,columbia1 and turned them into a succession of pools or marshes1 but this is a slight matter compared with the action of earthworms and insects#ag in the creation of vegetable soil2 of the accumulation of animalcules in filling up harbours and lakes2 or of ,zoophytes in the construction of coral islands4 ,microscopic animals make up in number what they lack in size4 ,paris is built of ,infusoria4 ,the ,peninsula of ,florida1 #gh1jjj square miles in extent1 is entirely composed of coral debris and fragments of shells4 ,chalk consists mainly of ,foraminifera and fragments of shells deposited in a deep sea4 ,the number of shells required to make up a cubic inch is almost incredible4 ,ehrenberg has estimated that of the ,bilin polishing slate which caps the mountain1 and has a thickness of forty feet1 a cubic inch contains many hundred million shells of ,infusoria4 ,in another respect these microscopic organisms are of vital importance4 ,many diseases are now known1 and others suspected1 to be entirely due to ,bacteria and other minute forms of life 7,microbes71 which multiply incredibly1 and either destroy their victims1 or after a while diminish again in numbers4 ,we live indeed in a cloud of ,bacteria4 ,at the observatory of ,montsouris at ,paris it has been calculated that there are about #hj in each cubic meter of air4 ,elsewhere1 however1 they are much more numerous4 ,pasteur's researches on the ,silkworm disease led him to the discovery of ,bacterium anthracis1 the cause of splenic fever4 ,microbes are present in persons suffering from cholera1 typhus1 whooping-cough1 measles1 hydrophobia1 etc41 but as to their history and connection with disease we have yet much to learn4 ,it is fortunate1 indeed1 that they do not all attack us4 ,in surgical cases1 again1 the danger of compound fractures and mortification of wounds has been found to be mainly due to the presence of microscopic organisms2 and ,lister1 by his antiseptic treatment which destroys these germs or prevents their access1 has greatly diminished the danger of operations1 and the sufferings of recovery4 ,,size ,,of ,,animals ,in the size of animals we find every gradation from these atoms which even in the most powerful microscopes appear as mere points1 up to the gigantic reptiles of past ages and the ,whales of our present ocean4 ,the horned ,ray or ,skate is #be feet in length1 by #cj in width4 ,the ,cuttle-fishes of our seas1 though so hideous as to resemble a bad dream1 are too small to be formidable2 but off the ,newfoundland coast is a species with arms sometimes #cj feet long1 so as to be #fj feet from tip to tip4 ,the body1 however1 is small in proportion4 ,the ,giraffe attains a height of over #bj feet2 the ,elephant1 though not so tall1 is more bulky2 the ,crocodile reaches a length of over #bj feet1 the ,python of #fj feet1 the extinct ,titanosaurus of the ,american ,jurassic beds1 the largest land animal yet known to us1 #ajj feet in length and #cj in height2 the ,whalebone ,whale over #gj feet1 ,sibbald's ,whale is said to have reached #hj-ij1 which is perhaps the limit4 ,captain ,scoresby indeed mentions a ,rorqual no less than #abj feet in length1 but this is probably too great an estimate4 ,,complexity ,,of ,,animal ,,structure ,the complexity of animal structure is even more marvellous than their mere magnitude4 ,a ,caterpillar contains more than #bjjj muscles4 ,in our own body are some #b1jjj1jjj perspiration glands1 communicating with the surface by ducts having a total length of some #aj miles2 while that of the arteries1 veins1 and capillaries must be very great2 the blood contains millions of millions of corpuscles1 each no doubt a complex structure in itself2 the rods in the retina1 which are supposed to be the ultimate recipient of light1 are estimated at #cj1jjj1jjj2 and ,meinert has calculated that the gray matter of the brain is built up of at least #fjj1jjj1jjj cells4 ,no verbal description1 however1 can do justice to the marvellous complexity of animal structure1 which the microscope alone1 and even that but faintly1 can enable us to realise4 ,,length ,,of ,,life ,how little we yet know of the life-history of ,animals is illustrated by the vagueness of our information as to the age to which they live4 ,professor ,lankester#ah tells us that the paucity and uncertainty of observations on this class of facts is extreme4 ,the ,rabbit is said to reach #aj years1 the ,dog and ,sheep #aj-ab1 the ,pig #bj1 the ,horse #cj1 the ,camel #ajj1 the ,elephant #bjj1 the ,greenland ,whale #djj 7873 among ,birds1 the ,parrot to attain #ajj years1 the ,raven even more4 ,the ,atur ,parrot mentioned by ,humboldt1 talked1 but could not be understood1 because it spoke in the language of an extinct ,indian tribe4 ,it is supposed from their rate of growth that among ,fish the ,carp is said to reach #aej years2 and a ,pike1 #ai feet long1 and weighing #cej lbs41 is said to have been taken in ,suabia in #adig carrying a ring1 on which was inscribed1 ,i am the fish which was first of all put into the lake by the hands of the ,governor of the ,universe1 ,frederick the ,second1 the #eth ,oct4 #abcj4 ,this would imply an age of over #bfg years4 ,many ,reptiles are no doubt very long-lived4 ,a ,tortoise is said to have reached #ejj years4 ,as regards the lower animals1 the greatest age on record is that of ,sir ,j4 ,dalzell's ,sea ,anemone1 which lived for over #ej years4 ,insects are generally short-lived2 the ,queen ,bee1 however1 is said by ,aristotle1 whose statement has not been confirmed by recent writers1 to live #g years4 ,i myself had a ,queen ,ant which attained the age of #ae years4 ,the ,may ,fly 7,ephemera7 is celebrated as living only for a day1 and has given its name to all things short-lived4 ,the statement usually made is1 indeed1 very misleading1 for in its larval condition the ,ephemera lives for weeks4 ,many writers have expressed surprise that in the perfect state its life should be so short4 ,it is1 however1 so defenceless1 and1 moreover1 so much appreciated by birds and fish1 that unless they laid their eggs very rapidly none would perhaps survive to continue the species4 ,many of these estimates are1 as will be seen1 very vague and doubtful1 so that we must still admit with ,bacon that1 touching the length and shortness of life in living creatures1 the information which may be had is but slender1 observation is negligent1 and tradition fabulous4 ,in tame creatures their degenerate life corrupteth them1 in wild creatures their exposing to all weathers often intercepteth them4 ,,on ,,individuality ,when we descend still lower in the animal scale1 the consideration of this question opens out a very curious and interesting subject connected with animal individuality4 ,as regards the animals with which we are most familiar no such question intrudes4 ,among quadrupeds and birds1 fishes and reptiles1 there is no difficulty in deciding whether a given organism is an individual1 or a part of an individual4 ,nor does the difficulty arise in the case of most insects4 ,the ,bee or ,butterfly lays an egg which develops successively into a larva and pupa1 finally producing ,bee or ,butterfly4 ,in these cases1 therefore1 the egg1 larva1 pupa1 and perfect ,insect1 are regarded as stages in the life of a single individual4 ,in certain gnats1 however1 the larva itself produces young larv1 each of which develops into a gnat1 so that the egg produces not one gnat but many gnats4 ,the difficulty of determining what constitutes an individual becomes still greater among the ,zoophytes4 ,these beautiful creatures in many cases so closely resemble plants1 that until our countryman ,ellis proved them to be animals1 ,crabbe was justified in saying-- ,involved in seawrack here we find a race1 ,which ,science1 doubting1 knows not where to place2 ,on shell or stone is dropped the embryo seed1 ,and quickly vegetates a vital breed4 ,we cannot wonder that such organisms were long regarded as belonging to the vegetable kingdom4 ,the cups which terminate the branches contain1 however1 an animal structure1 resembling a small ,sea ,anemone1 and possessing arms which capture the food by which the whole colony is nourished4 ,some of these cups1 moreover1 differ from the rest1 and produce eggs4 ,these then we might be disposed to term ovaries4 ,but in many species they detach themselves from the group and lead an independent existence4 ,thus we find a complete gradation from structures which1 regarded by themselves1 we should unquestionably regard as mere organs1 to others which are certainly separate and independent beings4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b4--;,bougainvillea fruticosa2 natural size4 7,after ,allman47 ,fig4 #b represents1 after ,allman1 a colony of ,bougainvillea fruticosa of the natural size4 ,it is a ,british species1 which is found growing on buoys1 floating timber1 etc41 and1 says ,allman1 ,when in health and vigour1 offers a spectacle unsurpassed in interest by any other species--every branchlet crowned by its graceful hydranth1 and budding with ,medus in all stages of development 7,fig4 #c71 some still in the condition of minute buds1 in which no trace of the definite ,medusa-form can yet be detected2 others1 in which the outlines of the ,medusa can be distinctly traced within the transparent ectotheque 7external layer72 others1 again1 just casting off this thin outer pellicle1 and others completely freed from it1 struggling with convulsive efforts to break loose from the colony1 and finally launched forth in the full enjoyment of their freedom into the surrounding water4 ,i know of no form in which so many of the characteristic features of a typical hydroid are more finely expressed than in this beautiful species4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #c4--;,bougainvillea fruticosa2 magnified to show development4 ,fig4 #d represents the ,medusa or free form of this beautiful species4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #d4--;,bougainvillea fruticosa1 ,medusa-form4 ,if we pass to another great group of ,zoophytes1 that of the ,jelly-fishes1 we have a very similar case4 ,for our first knowledge of the life-history of these ,zoophytes we are indebted to the ,norwegian naturalist ,sars4 ,take1 for instance1 the common ,jelly-fish 7,medusa aurita7 7,fig4 #e7 of our shores4 ,the egg is a pear-shaped body 7#a71 covered with fine hairs1 by the aid of which it swims about1 the broader end in front4 ,after a while it attaches itself1 not as might have been expected by the posterior but by the anterior extremity 7#b74 ,the cilia then disappear1 a mouth is formed at the free end1 tentacles1 first four 7#c71 then eight1 and at length as many as thirty 7#d71 are formed1 and the little creature resembles in essentials the freshwater polyp 7,hydra7 of our ponds4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #e4--,medusa aurita1 and progressive stages of development4 ,at the same time transverse wrinkles 7#d7 are formed round the body1 first near the free extremity and then gradually descending4 ,they become deeper and deeper1 and develop lobes or divisions one under the other1 as at #e4 ,after a while the top ring 7and subsequently the others one by one7 detaches itself1 swims away1 and gradually develops into a ,medusa 7#f74 ,thus1 then1 the life-history is very similar to that of the ,hydroids1 only that while in the ,hydroids the fixed condition is the more permanent1 and the free swimming more transitory1 in the ,medus1 on the contrary1 the fixed condition is apparently only a phase in the production of the free swimming animal4 ,in both the one and the other1 however1 the egg gives rise not to one but to many mature animals4 ,steenstrup has given to these curious phenomena1 many other cases of which occur among the lower animals1 and to which he first called attention1 the name of alternations of generations4 ,in the life-history of ,infusoria 7so called because they swarm in most animal or vegetable infusions7 similar difficulties encounter us4 ,the little creatures1 many of which are round or oval in form1 from time to time become constricted in the middle2 the constriction becomes deeper and deeper1 and at length the two halves twist themselves apart and swim away4 ,in this case1 therefore1 there was one1 and there are now two exactly similar2 but are these two individuals8 ,they are not parent and offspring--that is clear1 for they are of the same age2 nor are they twins1 for there is no parent4 ,as already mentioned1 we regard the ,caterpillar1 ,chrysalis1 and ,butterfly as stages in the life-history of a single individual4 ,but among ,zoophytes1 and even among some insects1 one larva often produces several mature forms4 ,in some species these mature forms remain attached to the larval stock1 and we might be disposed to regard the whole as one complex organism4 ,but in others they detach themselves and lead an independent existence4 ,these considerations then introduce much difficulty into our conception of the idea of an ,individual4 ,,animal ,,immortality ,but1 further than this1 we are confronted by by another problem4 ,if we regard a mass of coral as an individual because it arises by continuous growth from a single egg1 then it follows that some corals must be thousands of years old4 ,some of the lower animals may be cut into pieces1 and each piece will develop into an entire organism4 ,in fact the realisation of the idea of an individual gradually becomes more and more difficult1 and the continuity of existence1 even among the highest animals1 gradually forces itself upon us4 ,i believe that as we become more rational1 as we realise more fully the conditions of existence1 this consideration is likely to have important moral results4 ,it is generally considered that death is the common lot of all living beings4 ,but is this necessarily so8 ,infusoria and other unicellular animals multiply by division4 ,that is to say1 if we watch one for a certain time1 we shall observe1 as already mentioned1 that a constriction takes place1 which grows gradually deeper and deeper1 until at last the two halves become quite detached1 and each swims away independently4 ,the process is repeated over and over again1 and in this manner the species is propagated4 ,here obviously there is no birth and no death4 ,such creatures may be killed1 but they have no natural term of life4 ,they are1 in fact1 theoretically immortal4 ,those which lived millions of years ago may have gone on dividing and subdividing1 and in this sense multitudes of the lower animals are millions of years old4 ,,footnotes3 #ae ,address to ,microscopical ,society1 #ahij4 #af ,ants1 ,bees1 and ,wasps1 and ,the ,senses of ,animals4 #ag ,prof4 ,drummond 7,tropical ,africa7 dwells with great force on the manner in which the soil of ,central ,africa is worked up by the ,white ,ants4 #ah ,lankester1 ,comparative ,longevity4 ,see also ,weismann1 ,duration of ,life4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,on ,,plant ,,life ,flower in the crannied wall1 ,i pluck you out of the crannies1 ,i hold you here1 root and all1 in my hand1 ,little flower--but if ,i could understand ,what you are1 root and all1 and all in all1 ,i should know what ,god and man is4 ,,tennyson4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,on ,,plant ,,life ,we are told that in old days the ,fairies used to give presents of ,flowers and ,leaves to those whom they wished to reward1 or whom they loved best2 and though these gifts were1 it appears1 often received with disappointment1 still it will probably be admitted that flowers have contributed more to the happiness of our lives than either gold or silver or precious stones2 and that our happiest days have been spent out-of-doors in the woods and fields1 when we have 444 found in every woodland way ,the sunlight tint of ,fairy ,gold4#ai ,to many minds ,flowers acquired an additional interest when it was shown that there was a reason for their colour1 size1 and form--in fact1 for every detail of their organisation4 ,if we did but know all that the smallest flower could tell us1 we should have solved some of the greatest mysteries of ,nature4 ,but we cannot hope to succeed--even if we had the genius of ,plato or ,aristotle--without careful1 patient1 and reverent study4 ,from such an inquiry we may hope much2 already we have glimpses1 enough to convince us that the whole history will open out to us conceptions of the ,universe wider and grander than any which the ,imagination alone would ever have suggested4 ,attempts to explain the forms1 colours1 and other characteristics of animals and plants are by no means new4 ,our ,teutonic forefathers had a pretty story which explained certain points about several common plants4 ,balder1 the ,god of ,mirth and ,merriment1 was1 characteristically enough1 regarded as deficient in the possession of immortality4 ,the other divinities1 fearing to lose him1 petitioned ,thor to make him immortal1 and the prayer was granted on condition that every animal and plant would swear not to injure him4 ,to secure this object1 ,nanna1 ,balder's wife1 descended upon the earth4 ,loki1 the ,god of ,envy1 followed her1 disguised as a crow 7which at that time were white71 and settled on a little blue flower1 hoping to cover it up1 so that ,nanna might overlook it4 ,the flower1 however1 cried out forget-me-not1 forget-me-not1 and has ever since been known under that name4 ,loki then flew up into an oak and sat on a mistletoe4 ,here he was more successful4 ,nanna carried off the oath of the oak1 but overlooked the mistletoe4 ,she thought1 however1 and the divinities thought1 that she had successfully accomplished her mission1 and that ,balder had received the gift of immortality4 ,one day1 supposing ,balder proof1 they amused themselves by shooting at him1 posting him against a ,holly4 ,loki tipped an arrow with a piece of ,mistletoe1 against which ,balder was not proof1 and gave it to ,balder's brother4 ,this1 unfortunately1 pierced him to the heart1 and he fell dead4 ,some drops of his blood spurted on to the ,holly1 which accounts for the redness of the berries2 the ,mistletoe was so grieved that she has ever since borne fruit like tears2 and the crow1 whose form ,loki had taken1 and which till then had been white1 was turned black4 ,this pretty myth accounts for several things1 but is open to fatal objections4 ,recent attempts to explain the facts of ,nature are not less fascinating1 and1 ,i think1 more successful4 ,why then this marvellous variety8 this inexhaustible treasury of beautiful forms8 ,does it result from some innate tendency in each species8 ,is it intentionally designed to delight the eye of man8 ,or has the form and size and texture some reference to the structure and organisation1 the habits and requirements of the whole plant8 ,i shall never forget hearing ,darwin's paper on the structure of the ,cowslip and ,primrose1 after which even ,sir ,joseph ,hooker compared himself to ,peter ,bell1 to whom ,a primrose by a river's brim ,a yellow primrose was to him1 ,and it was nothing more4 ,we all1 ,i think1 shared the same feeling1 and found that the explanation of the flower then given1 and to which ,i shall refer again1 invested it with fresh interest and even with new beauty4 ,a regular flower1 such1 for instance1 as a ,geranium or a ,pink1 consists of four or more whorls of leaves1 more or less modified3 the lowest whorl is the ,calyx1 and the separate leaves of which it is composed1 which however are sometimes united into a tube1 are called sepals2 7#b7 a second whorl1 the corolla1 consisting of coloured leaves called petals1 which1 however1 like those of the ,calyx1 are often united into a tube2 7#c7 of one or more stamens1 consisting of a stalk or filament1 and a head or anther1 in which the pollen is produced2 and 7#d7 a pistil1 which is situated in the centre of the flower1 and at the base of which is the ,ovary1 containing one or more seeds4 ,almost all large flowers are brightly coloured1 many produce honey1 and many are sweet-scented4 ,what1 then1 is the use and purpose of this complex organisation8 ,it is1 ,i think1 well established that the main object of the colour1 scent1 and honey of flowers is to attract insects1 which are of use to the plant in carrying the pollen from flower to flower4 ,in many species the pollen is1 and no doubt it originally was in all1 carried by the air4 ,in these cases the chance against any given grain of pollen reaching the pistil of another flower of the same species is of course very great1 and the quantity of pollen required is therefore immense4 ,in species where the pollen is wind-borne as in most of our trees--firs1 oaks1 beech1 ash1 elm1 etc41 and many herbaceous plants1 the flowers are as a rule small and inconspicuous1 greenish1 and without either scent or honey4 ,moreover1 they generally flower early1 so that the pollen may not be intercepted by the leaves1 but may have a better chance of reaching another flower4 ,and they produce an immense quantity of pollen1 as otherwise there would be little chance that any would reach the female flower4 ,every one must have noticed the clouds of pollen produced by the ,scotch ,fir4 ,when1 on the contrary1 the pollen is carried by insects1 the quantity necessary is greatly reduced4 ,still it has been calculated that a ,peony flower produces between #c1jjj1jjj and #d1jjj1jjj pollen grains2 in the ,dandelion1 which is more specialised1 the number is reduced to about #bej1jjj2 while in such a flower as the ,dead-nettle it is still smaller4 ,the honey attracts the insects2 while the scent and colour help them to find the flowers1 the scent being especially useful at night1 which is perhaps the reason why evening flowers are so sweet4 ,it is to insects1 then1 that flowers owe their beauty1 scent1 and sweetness4 ,just as gardeners1 by continual selection1 have added so much to the beauty of our gardens1 so to the unconscious action of insects is due the beauty1 scent1 and sweetness of the flowers of our woods and fields4 ,let us now apply these views to a few common flowers4 ,take1 for instance1 the ,white ,dead-nettle4 ,the corolla of this beautiful and familiar flower 7,fig4 #f7 consists of a narrow tube1 somewhat expanded at the upper end 7,fig4 #g71 where the lower lobe forms a platform1 on each side of which is a small projecting tooth 7,fig4 #h1 m74 ,the upper portion of the corolla is an arched hood 7co71 under which lie four anthers 7a a71 in pairs1 while between them1 and projecting somewhat downwards1 is the pointed pistil 7st72 the tube at the lower part contains honey1 and above the honey is a row of hairs running round the tube4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #f--,white ,dead-nettle4 ,now1 why has the flower this peculiar form8 ,what regulates the length of the tube8 ,what is the use of the arch8 ,what lesson do the little teeth teach us8 ,what advantage is the honey to the flower8 ,of what use is the fringe of hairs8 ,why does the stigma project beyond the anthers8 ,why is the corolla white1 while the rest of the plant is green8 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #g4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #h4 ,the honey of course serves to attract the ,humble ,bees by which the flower is fertilised1 and to which it is especially adapted2 the white colour makes the flower more conspicuous2 the lower lip forms the stage on which the ,bees may alight2 the length of the tube is adapted to that of their proboscis2 its narrowness and the fringe of fine hairs exclude small insects which might rob the flower of its honey without performing any service in return2 the arched upper lip protects the stamens and pistil1 and prevents rain-drops from choking up the tube and washing away the honey2 the little teeth are1 ,i believe1 of no use to the flower in its present condition1 they are the last relics of lobes once much larger1 and still remaining so in some allied species1 but which in the ,dead-nettle1 being no longer of any use1 are gradually disappearing2 the height of the arch has reference to the size of the ,bee1 being just so much above the alighting stage that the ,bee1 while sucking the honey1 rubs its back against the hood and thus comes in contact first with the stigma and then with the anthers1 the pollen-grains from which adhere to the hairs on the ,bee's back1 and are thus carried off to the next flower which the ,bee visits1 when some of them are then licked off by the viscid tip of the stigma4#bj ,illustration3 ,fig4 #i4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aj4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aa4 ,in the ,salvias1 the common blue ,salvia of our gardens1 for instance1--a plant allied to the ,dead-nettle1--the flower 7,fig4 #i7 is constructed on the same plan1 but the arch is much larger1 so that the back of the ,bee does not nearly reach it4 ,the stamens1 however1 have undergone a remarkable modification4 ,two of them have become small and functionless4 ,in the other two the anthers or cells producing the pollen1 which in most flowers form together a round knob or head at the top of the stamen1 are separated by a long arm1 which plays on the top of the stamen as on a hinge4 ,of these two arms one hangs down into the tube1 closing the passage1 while the other lies under the arched upper lip4 ,when the ,bee pushes its proboscis down the tube 7,fig4 #aa7 it presses the lower arm to one side1 and the upper arm consequently descends1 tapping the ,bee on the back1 and dusting it with pollen4 ,when the flower is a little older the pistil 7,fig4 #i1 p7 has elongated so that the stigma 7,fig4 #aj1 st7 touches the back of the ,bee and carries off some of the pollen4 ,this sounds a little complicated1 but is clear enough if we take a twig or stalk of grass and push it down the tube1 when one arm of each of the two larger stamens will at once make its appearance4 ,it is one of the most beautiful pieces of plant mechanism which ,i know1 and was first described by ,sprengel1 a poor ,german schoolmaster4 ,,snapdragon ,at first sight it may seem an objection to the view here advocated that the flowers in some species--as1 for instance1 the common ,snapdragon 7,antirrhinum71 which1 according to the above given tests1 ought to be fertilised by insects--are entirely closed4 ,a little consideration1 however1 will suggest the reply4 ,the ,snapdragon is especially adapted for fertilisation by ,humble ,bees4 ,the stamens and pistil are so arranged that smaller species would not effect the object4 ,it is therefore an advantage that they should be excluded1 and in fact they are not strong enough to move the spring4 ,the ,antirrhinum is1 so to speak1 a closed box1 of which the ,humble ,bees alone possess the key4 ,,furze1 ,,broom1 ,,and ,,laburnum ,other flowers such as the ,furze1 ,broom1 ,laburnum1 etc41 are also opened by ,bees4 ,the petals lock more or less into one another1 and the flower remains at first closed4 ,when1 however1 the insect alighting on it presses down the keel1 the flower bursts open1 and dusts it with pollen4 ,,sweet ,,pea ,in the above cases the flower once opened does not close again4 ,in others1 such as the ,sweet ,pea and the ,bird's-foot ,lotus1 ,nature has been more careful4 ,when the ,bee alights it clasps the wings of the flower with its legs1 thus pressing them down2 they are1 however1 locked into the keel1 or lower petal1 which accordingly is also forced down1 thus exposing the pollen which rubs against1 and part of which sticks to1 the breast of the ,bee4 ,when she leaves the flower the keel and wings rise again1 thus protecting the rest of the pollen and keeping it ready until another visitor comes4 ,it is easy to carry out the same process with the fingers4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ab4 ,fig4 #ac4 ,flower and ,pollen of ,primrose ,,primula ,in the ,primrose and ,cowslip1 again1 we find quite a different plan4 ,it had long been known that if a number of ,cowslips or ,primroses are examined1 about half would be found to have the stigma at the top of the tube and the stamens half way down1 while in the other half the stamens are at the top and the stigma half way down4 ,these two forms are about equally numerous1 but never occur on the same stock4 ,they have been long known to children and gardeners1 who call them thrum-eyed and pin-eyed4 ,mr4 ,darwin was the first to explain the significance of this curious difference4 ,it cost him several years of patient labour1 but when once pointed out it is sufficiently obvious4 ,an insect thrusting its proboscis down a primrose of the long-styled form 7,fig4 #ab7 would dust its proboscis at a part 7a7 which1 when it visited a short-styled flower 7,fig4 #ac71 would come just opposite the head of the pistil 7st71 and could not fail to deposit some of the pollen on the stigma4 ,conversely1 an insect visiting a short-styled plant would dust its proboscis at a part farther from the tip2 which1 when the insect subsequently visited a long-styled flower1 would again come just opposite to the head of the pistil4 ,hence we see that by this beautiful arrangement insects must carry the pollen of the long-styled form to the short-styled1 and vice vers4 ,the economy of pollen is not the only advantage which plants derive from these visits of ,insects4 ,a second and scarcely less important is that they tend to secure cross fertilisation2 that is to say1 that the seed shall be fertilised by pollen from another plant4 ,the fact that cross fertilisation is of advantage to the plant doubtless also explains the curious arrangement that in many plants the stamen and pistil do not mature at the same time--the former having shed their pollen before the pistil is mature2 or1 which happens less often1 the pistil having withered before the pollen is ripe4 ,in most ,geraniums1 ,pinks1 etc41 for instance1 and many allied species1 the stamens ripen first1 and are followed after an interval by the pistil4 ,,the ,,nottingham ,,catchfly ,the ,nottingham ,catchfly 7,silene nutans7 is a very interesting case4 ,the flower is adapted to be fertilised by ,moths4 ,accordingly it opens towards evening1 and as is generally the case with such flowers1 is pale in colour1 and sweet-scented4 ,there are two sets of stamens1 five in each set4 ,the first evening that the flower opens one set of stamens ripen and expose their pollen4 ,towards morning these wither away1 the flower shrivels up1 ceases to emit scent1 and looks as if it were faded4 ,so it remains all next day4 ,towards evening it reopens1 the second set of stamens have their turn1 and the flower again becomes fragrant4 ,by morning1 however1 the second set of stamens have shrivelled1 and the flower is again asleep4 ,finally on the third evening it reopens for the last time1 the long spiral stigmas expand1 and can hardly fail to be fertilised with the pollen brought by ,moths from other flowers4 ,,the ,,heath ,in the hanging flowers of ,heaths the stamens form a ring1 and each one bears two horns4 ,when the ,bee inserts its proboscis into the flower to reach the honey1 it is sure to press against one of these horns1 the ring is dislocated1 and the pollen falls on to the head of the insect4 ,in fact1 any number of other interesting cases might be mentioned4 ,,bees ,,and ,,flies ,bees are intelligent insects1 and would soon cease to visit flowers which did not supply them with food4 ,flies1 however1 are more stupid1 and are often deceived4 ,thus in our lovely little ,parnassia1 five of the ten stamens have ceased to produce pollen1 but are prolonged into fingers1 each terminating in a shining yellow knob1 which looks exactly like a drop of honey1 and by which ,flies are continually deceived4 ,paris quadrifolia also takes them in with a deceptive promise of the same kind4 ,some foreign plants have livid yellow and reddish flowers1 with a most offensive smell1 and are constantly visited by ,flies1 which apparently take them for pieces of decaying meat4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ad4--;,arum4 ,the flower of the common ,lords and ,ladies 7,arum7 of our hedges is a very interesting case4 ,the narrow neck bears a number of hairs pointing downwards4 ,the stamens are situated above the stigma1 which comes to maturity first4 ,small ,flies enter the flower apparently for shelter1 but the hairs prevent them from returning1 and they are kept captive until the anthers have shed their pollen4 ,then1 when the ,flies have been well dusted1 the hairs shrivel up1 leaving a clear road1 and the prisoners are permitted to escape4 ,the tubular flowers of ,aristolochia offer a very similar case4 ,,past ,,history ,,of ,,flowers ,if the views here advocated are correct1 it follows that the original flowers were small and green1 as wind-fertilised flowers are even now4 ,but such flowers are inconspicuous4 ,those which are coloured1 say yellow or white1 are of course much more visible and more likely to be visited by insects4 ,i have elsewhere given my reasons for thinking that under these circumstances some flowers became yellow1 that some of them became white1 others subsequently red1 and some finally blue4 ,it will be observed that red and blue flowers are as a rule highly specialised1 such as ,aconites and ,larkspurs as compared with ,buttercups2 blue ,gentians as compared with yellow1 etc4 ,i have found by experiment that ,bees are especially partial to blue and pink4 ,tubular flowers almost always1 if not always1 contain honey1 and are specially suited to ,butterflies and ,moths1 ,bees and ,flies4 ,those which are fertilised by ,moths generally come out in the evening1 are often very sweetly scented1 and are generally white or pale yellow1 these colours being most visible in the twilight4 ,aristotle long ago noticed the curious fact that in each journey ,bees confine themselves to some particular flower4 ,this is an economy of labour to the ,bee1 because she has not to vary her course of proceeding4 ,it is also an advantage to the plants1 because the pollen is carried from each flower to another of the same species1 and is therefore less likely to be wasted4 ,,fruits ,,and ,,seeds ,after the flower comes the seed1 often contained in a fruit1 and which itself encloses the future plant4 ,fruits and seeds are adapted for dispersion1 beautifully and in various ways3 some by the wind1 being either provided with a wing1 as in the fruits of many trees--,sycamores1 ,ash1 ,elms1 etc42 or with a hairy crown or covering1 as with ,thistles1 ,dandelions1 ,willows1 ,cotton plant1 etc4 ,some seeds are carried by animals2 either as food--such as most edible fruits and seeds1 acorns1 nuts1 apples1 strawberries1 raspberries1 blackberries1 plums1 grasses1 etc4--or involuntarily1 the seeds having hooked hairs or processes1 such as burrs1 cleavers1 etc4 ,some seeds are scattered by the plants themselves1 as1 for instance1 those of many ,geraniums1 ,violets1 ,balsams1 ,shamrocks1 etc4 ,our little ,herb ,robert throws its seeds some #be feet4 ,some seeds force themselves into the ground1 as those of certain grasses1 ,cranes'-bills 7,erodiums71 etc4 ,some are buried by the parent plants1 as those of certain clovers1 vetches1 violets1 etc4 ,some attach themselves to the soil1 as those of the ,flax2 or to trees1 as in the case of the ,mistletoe4 ,,leaves ,again1 as regards the leaves there can1 ,i think1 be no doubt that similar considerations of utility are applicable4 ,their forms are almost infinitely varied4 ,to quote ,ruskin's vivid words1 they take all kinds of strange shapes1 as if to invite us to examine them4 ,star-shaped1 heart-shaped1 spear-shaped1 arrow-shaped1 fretted1 fringed1 cleft1 furrowed1 serrated1 sinuated1 in whorls1 in tufts1 in spires1 in wreaths1 endlessly expressive1 deceptive1 fantastic1 never the same from foot-stalk to blossom1 they seem perpetually to tempt our watchfulness and take delight in outstepping our wonder4 ,but besides these differences of mere form1 there are many others3 of structure1 texture1 and surface2 some are scented or have a strong taste1 or acrid juice1 some are smooth1 others hairy2 and the hairs again are of various kinds4 ,i have elsewhere#ba endeavoured to explain some of the causes which have determined these endless varieties4 ,in the ,beech1 for instance 7,fig4 #ae71 the leaf has an area of about #c square inches4 ,the distance between the buds is about #a-a_/d inch1 and the leaves lie in the general plane of the branch1 which bends slightly at each internode4 ,the basal half of the leaf fits the swell of the twig1 while the upper half follows the edge of the leaf above2 and the form of the inner edge being thus determined1 decides that of the outer one also4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ae4--;,beech4 ,the weight1 and consequently the size of the leaf1 is limited by the strength of the twig2 and1 again1 in a climate such as ours it is important to plants to have their leaves so arranged as to secure the maximum of light4 ,hence in leaves which lie parallel to the plane of the boughs1 as in the ,beech1 the width depends partly on the distance between the buds2 if the leaves were broader1 they would overlap1 if they were narrower1 space would be wasted4 ,consequently the width being determined by the distance between the buds1 and the size depending on the weight which the twig can safely support1 the length also is determined4 ,this argument is well illustrated by comparing the leaves of the ,beech with those of the ,spanish ,chestnut4 ,the arrangement is similar1 and the distance between the buds being about the same1 so is the width of the leaves4 ,but the terminal branches of the ,spanish ,chestnut being much stronger1 the leaves can safely be heavier2 hence the width being fixed1 they grow in length and assume the well-known and peculiar sword-blade shape4 ,in the ,sycamores1 ,maples 7,fig4 #af71 and ,horse-,chestnuts the arrangement is altogether different4 ,the shoots are stiff and upright with leaves placed at right angles to the branches instead of being parallel to them4 ,the leaves are in pairs and decussate with one another2 while the lower ones have long petioles which bring them almost to the level of the upper pairs1 the whole thus forming a beautiful dome4 ,for leaves arranged as in the ,beech the gentle swell at the base is admirably suited2 but in a crown of leaves such as those of the ,sycamore1 space would be wasted1 and it is better that they should expand at once1 so soon as their stalks have carried them free from the upper and inner leaves4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #af4--;,acer platanoides4 ,in the ,black ,poplar the arrangement of the leaves is again quite different4 ,the leaf stalk is flattened1 so that the leaves hang vertically4 ,in connection with this it will be observed that while in most leaves the upper and under surfaces are quite unlike1 in the ,black ,poplar on the contrary they are very similar4 ,the stomata or breathing holes1 moreover1 which in the leaves of most trees are confined to the under surface1 are in this species nearly equally numerous on both4 ,the ,compass ,plant of the ,american prairies1 a plant not unlike a small sunflower1 is another species with upright leaves1 which growing in the wide open prairies tend to point north and south1 thus exposing both surfaces equally to the light and heat4 ,such a position also affects the internal structure of the leaf1 the two sides becoming similar in structure1 while in other cases the upper and under surfaces are very different4 ,in the ,yew the leaves are inserted close to one another1 and are linear2 while in the ,box they are further apart and broader4 ,in other cases the width of the leaves is determined by what botanists call the ,phyllotaxy4 ,some plants have the leaves opposite1 each pair being at right angles with the pairs above and below4 ,in others they are alternate1 and arranged round the stem in a spiral4 ,in one very common arrangement the sixth leaf stands directly over the first1 the intermediate ones forming a spiral which has passed twice round the stem4 ,this1 therefore1 is known as the #b_/e arrangement4 ,common cases are #a_/b1 #a_/c1 #b_/e1 #c_/h1 and #e_/ac4 ,in the first the leaves are generally broad1 in the #c_/h arrangement they are elliptic1 in the #e_/ac and more complicated arrangements nearly linear4 ,the ,willows afford a very interesting series4 ,salix herbacea has the #a_/c arrangement and rounded leaves1 ,salix caprea elliptic leaves and #b_/e1 ,salix pentandra lancet-shaped leaves and #c_/h1 and ,s4 incana linear leaves and a #e_/ac arrangement4 ,the result is that whether the series consists of #b1 #c1 #e1 #h1 or #ac leaves1 in every case1 if we look perpendicularly at a twig the leaves occupy the whole circle4 ,in herbaceous plants upright leaves as a rule are narrow1 which is obviously an advantage1 while prostrate ones are broad4 ,illustration3 ,,aquatic ,,vegetation1 ,,brazil4 ,to face page #ade4 ,,aquatic ,,plants ,many aquatic plants have two kinds of leaves2 some more or less rounded1 which float on the surface2 and others cut up into narrow segments1 which remain below4 ,the latter thus present a greater extent of surface4 ,in air such leaves would be unable even to support their own weight1 much less to resist the force of the wind4 ,in still air1 however1 for the same reason1 finely-divided leaves may be an advantage1 while in exposed positions compact and entire leaves are more suitable4 ,hence herbaceous plants tend to have divided1 bushes and trees entire1 leaves4 ,there are many cases when even in the same family low and herb-like species have finely-cut leaves1 while in shrubby or ligneous ones they more or less resemble those of the ,laurel or ,beech4 ,these considerations affect trees more than herbs1 because trees stand more alone1 while herbaceous plants are more affected by surrounding plants4 ,upright leaves tend to be narrow1 as in the case of grasses2 horizontal leaves1 on the contrary1 wider4 ,large leaves are more or less broken up into leaflets1 as in the ,ash1 ,mountain-,ash1 ,horse-,chestnut1 etc4 ,the forms of leaves depend also much on the manner in which they are packed into the buds4 ,the leaves of our ,english trees1 as ,i have already said1 are so arranged as to secure the maximum of light2 in very hot countries the reverse is the case4 ,hence1 in ,australia1 for instance1 the leaves are arranged not horizontally1 but vertically1 so as to present1 not their surfaces1 but their edges1 to the sun4 ,one ,english plant1 a species of lettuce1 has the same habit4 ,this consideration has led also to other changes4 ,in many species the leaves are arranged directly under1 so as to shelter1 one another4 ,the ,australian species of ,acacia have lost their true leaves1 and the parts which in them we generally call leaves are in reality vertically-flattened leaf stalks4 ,in other cases the stem itself is green1 and to some extent replaces the leaves4 ,in our common ,broom we see an approach to this1 and the same feature is more marked in ,cactus4 ,or the leaves become fleshy1 thus offering1 in proportion to their volume1 a smaller surface for evaporation4 ,of this the ,stonecrops1 ,mesembryanthemum1 etc41 are familiar instances4 ,other modes of checking transpiration and thus adapting plants to dry situations are by the development of hairs1 by the formation of chalky excretions1 by the sap becoming saline or viscid1 by the leaf becoming more or less rolled up1 or protected by a covering of varnish4 ,our ,english trees are for the most part deciduous4 ,leaves would be comparatively useless in winter when growth is stopped by the cold2 moreover1 they would hold the snow1 and thus cause the boughs to be broken down4 ,hence perhaps the glossiness of ,evergreen leaves1 as1 for instance1 of the ,holly1 from which the snow slips off4 ,in warmer climates trees tend to retain their leaves1 and some species which are deciduous in the north become evergreen1 or nearly so1 in the south of ,europe4 ,evergreen leaves are as a rule tougher and thicker than those which drop off in autumn2 they require more protection from the weather4 ,but some evergreen leaves are much longer lived than others2 those of the ,evergreen ,oak do not survive a second year1 those of the ,scotch ,pine live for three1 of the ,spruce ,fir1 ,yew1 etc41 for eight or ten1 of the ,pinsapo even eighteen4 ,as a general rule the ,conifers with short leaves keep them on for several years1 those with long ones for fewer1 the length of the leaf being somewhat in the inverse ratio to the length of its life2 but this is not an invariable criterion1 as other circumstances also have to be taken into consideration4 ,leaves with strong scent1 aromatic taste1 or acrid juice1 are characteristic of dry regions1 where they run especial danger of being eaten1 and where they are thus more or less effectively protected4 ,,on ,,hairs ,the hairs of plants are useful in various ways4 ,in some cases 7#a7 they keep off superfluous moisture2 in others 7#b7 they prevent too rapid evaporation2 in some 7#c7 they serve as a protection against too glaring light2 in some 7#d7 they protect the plant from browsing quadrupeds2 in others 7#e7 from being eaten by insects2 or1 7#f7 serve as a quickset hedge to prevent access to the flowers4 ,in illustration of the first case ,i may refer to many alpine plants1 the well-known ,edelweiss1 for instance1 where the woolly covering of hairs prevents the stomata1 or minute pores leading into the interior of the leaf1 from being clogged up by rain1 dew1 or fog1 and thus enable them to fulfil their functions as soon as the sun comes out4 ,as regards the second case many desert and steppe-plants are covered with felty hairs1 which serve to prevent too rapid evaporation and consequent loss of moisture4 ,the woolly hairy leaves of the ,mulleins 7,verbascum7 doubtless tend to protect them from being eaten1 as also do the spines of ,thistles1 and those of ,hollies1 which1 be it remarked1 gradually disappear on the upper leaves which browsing quadrupeds cannot reach4 ,i have already alluded to the various ways in which flowers are adapted to fertilisation by insects4 ,but ,ants and other small creeping insects cannot effectually secure this object4 ,hence it is important that they should be excluded1 and not allowed to carry off the honey1 for which they would perform no service in return4 ,in many cases1 therefore1 the opening of the flower is either contracted to a narrow passage1 or is itself protected by a fringe of hairs4 ,in others the peduncle1 or the stalk of the plant1 is protected by a hedge1 or chevaux de frise1 of hairs4 ,in this connection ,i might allude to the many plants which are more or less viscid4 ,this also is in most cases a provision to preclude creeping insects from access to the flowers4 ,there are various other kinds of hairs to which ,i might refer--glandular hairs1 secretive hairs1 absorbing hairs1 etc4 ,it is marvellous how beautifully the form and structure of leaves is adapted to the habits and requirements of the plants1 but ,i must not enlarge further on this interesting subject4 ,the time indeed will no doubt come when we shall be able to explain every difference of form and structure1 almost infinite as these differences are4 ,,influence ,,of ,,soil ,the character of the vegetation is of course greatly influenced by that of the soil4 ,in this respect granitic and calcareous regions offer perhaps the best marked contrast4 ,there are in ,switzerland two kinds of ,rhododendrons1 very similar in their flowers1 but contrasted in their leaves3 ,rhododendron hirsutum having them hairy at the edges as the name indicates2 while in ,r4 ferrugineum they are rolled1 but not hairy1 at the edges1 and become ferrugineous on the lower side4 ,this species occurs in the granitic regions1 where ,r4 hirsutum does not grow4 ,the ,yarrows 7,achillea7 afford us a similar case4 ,achillea atrata and ,a4 moschata will live either on calcareous or granitic soil1 but in a district where both occur1 ,a4 atrata grows so much the more vigorously of the two if the soil is calcareous that it soon exterminates ,a4 moschata2 while in granite districts1 on the contrary1 ,a4 moschata is victorious and ,a4 atrata disappears4 ,every keen sportsman will admit that a varied bag has a special charm1 and the botanist in a summer's walk may see at least a hundred plants in flower1 all with either the interest of novelty1 or the charm of an old friend4 ,,on ,,seedlings ,in many cases the ,seedlings afford us an interesting insight into the former condition of the plant4 ,thus the leaves of the ,furze are reduced to thorns2 but those of the ,seedling are herbaceous and trifoliate like those of the ,herb ,genet and other allied species1 subsequent ones gradually passing into spines4 ,this is evidence that the ancestors of the ,furze bore leaves4 ,plants may be said to have their habits as well as animals4 ,,sleep ,,of ,,plants ,many flowers close their petals during rain2 the advantage of which is that it prevents the honey and pollen from being spoilt or washed away4 ,everybody1 however1 has observed that even in fine weather certain flowers close at particular hours4 ,this habit of going to sleep is surely very curious4 ,why should flowers do so8 ,in animals we can better understand it2 they are tired and require rest4 ,but why should flowers sleep8 ,why should some flowers do so1 and not others8 ,moreover1 different flowers keep different hours4 ,the ,daisy opens at sunrise and closes at sunset1 whence its name day's-eye4 ,the ,dandelion 7,leontodon7 is said to open about seven and to close about five2 ,arenaria rubra to be open from nine to three2 the ,white ,water ,lily 7,nympha71 from about seven to four2 the common ,mouse-ear ,hawk-weed 7,hieracium7 from eight to three2 the ,scarlet ,pimpernel 7,anagallis7 to waken at seven and close soon after two2 ,tragopogon pratensis to open at four in the morning1 and close just before twelve1 whence its ,english name1 ,john go to bed at noon4 ,farmers' boys in some parts are said to regulate their dinner time by it4 ,other flowers1 on the contrary1 open in the evening4 ,now it is obvious that flowers which are fertilised by night-flying insects would derive no advantage from being open by day2 and on the other hand1 that those which are fertilised by bees would gain nothing by being open at night4 ,nay it would be a distinct disadvantage1 because it would render them liable to be robbed of their honey and pollen1 by insects which are not capable of fertilising them4 ,i have ventured to suggest then that the closing of flowers may have reference to the habits of insects1 and it may be observed also in support of this1 that wind-fertilised flowers do not sleep2 and that many of those flowers which attract insects by smell1 open and emit their scent at particular hours2 thus ,hesperis matronalis and ,lychnis vespertina smell in the evening1 and ,orchis bifolia is particularly sweet at night4 ,but it is not the flowers only which sleep at night2 in many species the leaves also change their position1 and ,darwin has given strong reasons for considering that the object is to check transpiration and thus tend to a protection against cold4 ,,behaviour ,,of ,,leaves ,,in ,,rain ,the behaviour of plants with reference to rain affords many points of much interest4 ,the ,germander ,speedwell 7,veronica7 has two strong rows of hairs1 the ,chickweed 7,stellaria7 one1 running down the stem and thus conducting the rain to the roots4 ,plants with a main tap-root1 like the ,radish or the ,beet1 have leaves sloping inwards so as to conduct the rain towards the axis of the plant1 and consequently to the roots2 while1 on the contrary1 where the roots are spreading the leaves slope outwards4 ,in other cases the leaves hold the rain or dew drops4 ,every one who has been in the ,alps must have noticed how the leaves of the ,lady's ,mantle 7,alchemilla7 form little cups containing each a sparkling drop of icy water4 ,kerner has suggested that owing to these cold drops1 the cattle and sheep avoid the leaves4 ,,mimicry ,in many cases plants mimic others which are better protected than themselves4 ,thus ,matricaria ,chamomilla mimics the true ,chamomile1 which from its bitterness is not eaten by quadrupeds4 ,ajuga ,champitys mimics ,euphorbia ,cyparissias1 with which it often grows1 and which is protected by its acrid juice4 ,the most familiar case1 however1 is that of the ,stinging and the ,dead ,nettles4 ,they very generally grow together1 and though belonging to quite different families are so similar that they are constantly mistaken for one another4 ,some ,orchids have a curious resemblance to insects1 after which they have accordingly been named the ,bee ,orchis1 ,fly ,orchis1 ,butterfly ,orchis1 etc41 but it has not yet been satisfactorily shown what advantage the resemblance is to the plant4 ,,ants ,,and ,,plants ,the transference of pollen from plant to plant is by no means the only service which insects render4 ,ants1 for instance1 are in many cases very useful to plants4 ,they destroy immense numbers of caterpillars and other insects4 ,forel observing a large ,ants' nest counted more than #bh insects brought in as food per minute4 ,in some cases ,ants attach themselves to particular trees1 constituting a sort of bodyguard4 ,a species of ,acacia1 described by ,belt1 bears hollow thorns1 while each leaflet produces honey in a crater-formed gland at the base1 as well as a small1 sweet1 pear-shaped body at the tip4 ,in consequence it is inhabited by myriads of a small ant1 which nests in the hollow thorns1 and thus finds meat1 drink1 and lodging all provided for it4 ,these ants are continually roaming over the plant1 and constitute a most efficient bodyguard1 not only driving off the leaf-eating ants1 but1 in ,belt's opinion1 rendering the leaves less liable to be eaten by herbivorous mammalia4 ,delpino mentions that on one occasion he was gathering a flower of ,clerodendrum1 when he was himself suddenly attacked by a whole army of small ants4 ,,insectivorous ,,plants ,in the cases above mentioned the relation between flowers and insects is one of mutual advantage4 ,but this is by no means an invariable rule4 ,many insects1 as we all know1 live on plants1 but it came upon botanists as a surprise when our countryman ,ellis first discovered that some plants catch and devour insects4 ,this he observed in a ,north ,american plant1 ,dionsea1 the leaves of which are formed something like a rat-trap1 with a hinge in the middle1 and a formidable row of spines round the edge4 ,on the surface are a few very sensitive hairs1 and the moment any small insect alights on the leaf and touches one of these hairs the two halves of the leaf close up quickly and catch it4 ,the surface then throws out a glutinous secretion1 by means of which the leaf sucks up the nourishment contained in the insect4 ,our common ,sun-dews 7,drosera7 are also insectivorous1 the prey being in their case captured by glutinous hairs4 ,again1 the ,bladderwort 7,utricularia71 a plant with pretty yellow flowers1 growing in pools and slow streams1 is so called because it bears a great number of bladders or utricles1 each of which is a real miniature eel-trap1 having an orifice guarded by a flap opening inwards which allows small water animals to enter1 but prevents them from coming out again4 ,the ,butterwort 7,pinguicula7 is another of these carnivorous plants4 ,,movements ,,of ,,plants ,while considering ,plant life we must by no means confine our attention to the higher orders1 but must remember also those lower groups which converge towards the lower forms of animals1 so that in the present state of our knowledge the two cannot always be distinguished with certainty4 ,many of them differ indeed greatly from the ordinary conception of a plant4 ,even the comparatively highly organised ,sea-weeds multiply by means of bodies called spores1 which an untrained observer would certainly suppose to be animals4 ,they are covered by vibratile hairs or cilia1 by means of which they swim about freely in the water1 and even possess a red spot which1 as being especially sensitive to light1 may be regarded as an elementary eye1 and with the aid of which they select some suitable spot1 to which they ultimately attach themselves4 ,it was long considered as almost a characteristic of plants that they possessed no power of movement4 ,this is now known to be an error4 ,in fact1 as ,darwin has shown1 every growing part of a plant is in continual and even constant rotation4 ,the stems of climbing plants make great sweeps1 and in other cases1 when the motion is not so apparent1 it nevertheless really exists4 ,i have already mentioned that many plants change the position of their leaves or flowers1 or1 as it is called1 sleep at night4 ,the common ,dandelion raises its head when the florets open1 opens and shuts morning and evening1 then lies down again while the seeds are ripening1 and raises itself a second time when they are ready to be carried away by the wind4 ,valisneria spiralis is a very interesting case4 ,it is a native of ,european rivers1 and the female flower has a long spiral stalk which enables it to float on the surface of the water4 ,the male flowers have no stalks1 and grow low down on the plant4 ,they soon1 however1 detach themselves altogether1 rise to the surface1 and thus are enabled to fertilise the female flowers among which they float4 ,the spiral stalk of the female flower then contracts and draws it down to the bottom of the water so that the seeds may ripen in safety4 ,many plants throw or bury their seeds4 ,the sensitive plants close their leaves when touched1 and the leaflets of ,desmodium gyrans are continually revolving4 ,i have already mentioned that the spores of sea-weeds swim freely in the water by means of cilia4 ,some microscopic plants do so throughout a great part of their lives4 ,a still lower group1 the ,myxomycetes1 which resemble small1 more or less branched1 masses of jelly1 and live in damp soil1 among decaying leaves1 under bark and in similar moist situations1 are still more remarkably animal like4 ,they are never fixed1 but in almost continual movement1 due to differences of moisture1 warmth1 light1 or chemical action4 ,if1 for instance1 a moist body is brought into contact with one of their projections1 or pseudopods1 the protoplasm seems to roll itself in that direction1 and so the whole organism gradually changes its place4 ,so again1 while a solution of salt1 carbonate of potash1 or saltpetre causes them to withdraw from the danger1 an infusion of sugar1 or tan1 produces a flow of protoplasm towards the source of nourishment4 ,in fact1 in the same way it rolls over and round its food1 absorbing what is nutritious as it passes along4 ,in cold weather they descend into the soil1 and one of them 7,oethalium71 which lives in tan pits1 descends in winter to a depth of several feet4 ,when about to fructify it changes its habits1 seeks the light instead of avoiding it1 climbs upwards1 and produces its fruit above ground4 ,,imperfection ,,of ,,our ,,knowledge ,the total number of living species of plants may be roughly estimated at #ejj1jjj1 and there is not one1 of which we can say that the structure1 uses1 and life-history are yet fully known to us4 ,our museums contain large numbers which botanists have not yet had time to describe and name4 ,even in our own country not a year passes without some additional plant being discovered2 as regards the less known regions of the earth not half the species have yet been collected4 ,among the ,lichens and ,fungi especially many problems of their life-history1 some1 indeed1 of especial importance to man1 still await solution4 ,our knowledge of the fossil forms1 moreover1 falls far short even of that of existing species1 which1 on the other hand1 they must have greatly exceeded in number4 ,every difference of form1 structure1 and colour has doubtless some cause and explanation1 so that the field for research is really inexhaustible4 ,,footnotes3 #ai ,thomson4 #bj ,lubbock1 ,flowers and ,insects4 #ba ,flowers1 ,fruits1 and ,leaves4 ,,chapter ,v ,,woods ,,and ,,fields ,by day or by night1 summer or winter1 beneath trees the heart feels nearer to that depth of life which the far sky means4 ,the rest of spirit1 found only in beauty1 ideal and pure1 comes there because the distance seems within touch of thought4 ,,jefferies4 ,,chapter ,v ,,woods ,,and ,,fields ,rural life1 says ,cicero1 is not delightful by reason of cornfields only and meadows1 and vineyards and groves1 but also for its gardens and orchards1 for the feeding of cattle1 the swarms of bees1 and the variety of all kinds of flowers4 ,bacon considered that a garden is the greatest refreshment to the spirits of man1 without which buildings and palaces are but gross handyworks1 and a man shall ever see1 that when ages grow to civility and elegancy men come to build stately sooner than to garden finely1 as if gardening were the greater perfection4 ,no doubt the pleasure which we take in a garden is one of the most innocent delights in human life4#bb ,elsewhere there may be scattered flowers1 or sheets of colour due to one or two species1 but in gardens one glory follows another4 ,here are brought together all the quaint enamelled eyes1 ,that on the green turf sucked the honeyed showers1 ,and purple all the ground with vernal flowers4 ,bring the rathe primrose that forsaken dies1 ,the tufted crow-toe1 and pale jessamine1 ,the white pink and the pansy freaked with jet1 ,the glowing violet1 ,the musk rose1 and the well attired woodbine1 ,with cowslips wan that hang the pensive head1 ,and every flower that sad embroidery wears4#bc ,we cannot1 happily we need not try to1 contrast or compare the beauty of gardens with that of woods and fields4 ,and yet to the true lover of ,nature wild flowers have a charm which no garden can equal4 ,cultivated plants are but a living herbarium4 ,they surpass1 no doubt1 the dried specimens of a museum1 but1 lovely as they are1 they can be no more compared with the natural vegetation of our woods and fields than the captives in the ,zoological ,gardens with the same wild species in their native forests and mountains4 ,often indeed1 our woods and fields rival gardens even in the richness of colour4 ,we have all seen meadows white with ,narcissus1 glowing with ,buttercups1 ,cowslips1 early purple ,orchis1 or ,cuckoo ,flowers2 cornfields blazing with ,poppies2 woods carpeted with ,bluebells1 ,anemones1 ,primroses1 and ,forget-me-nots2 commons with the yellow ,lady's ,bedstraw1 ,harebells1 and the sweet ,thyme2 marshy places with the yellow stars of the ,bog ,asphodel1 the ,sun-dew sparkling with diamonds1 ,ragged ,robin1 the beautifully fringed petals of the ,buckbean1 the lovely little ,bog ,pimpernel1 or the feathery tufts of ,cotton ,grass2 hedgerows with ,hawthorn and ,traveller's ,joy1 ,wild ,rose and ,honeysuckle1 while underneath are the curious leaves and orange fruit of the ,lords and ,ladies1 the snowy stars of the ,stitchwort1 ,succory1 ,yarrow1 and several kinds of ,violets2 while all along the banks of streams are the tall red spikes of the ,loosestrife1 the ,hemp ,agrimony1 ,water ,groundsel1 ,sedges1 ,bulrushes1 ,flowering ,rush1 ,sweet ,flag1 etc4 ,many other sweet names will also at once occur to us--,snowdrops1 ,daffodils and ,hearts-ease1 ,lady's ,mantles and ,lady's ,tresses1 ,eyebright1 ,milkwort1 ,foxgloves1 ,herb ,roberts1 ,geraniums1 and among rarer species1 at least in ,england1 ,columbines and ,lilies4 ,but ,nature does not provide delights for the eye only4 ,the other senses are not forgotten4 ,a thousand sounds--many delightful in themselves1 and all by association--songs of birds1 hum of insects1 rustle of leaves1 ripple of water1 seem to fill the air4 ,flowers again are sweet1 as well as lovely4 ,the scent of pine woods1 which is said to be very healthy1 is certainly delicious1 and the effect of ,woodland scenery is good for the mind as well as for the body4 ,resting quietly under an ash tree1 with the scent of flowers1 and the odour of green buds and leaves1 a ray of sunlight yonder lighting up the lichen and the moss on the oak trunk1 a gentle air stirring in the branches above1 giving glimpses of fleecy clouds sailing in the ether1 there comes into the mind a feeling of intense joy in the simple fact of living4#bd ,the wonderful phenomenon of phosphorescence is not a special gift to the animal kingdom4 ,henry ,o4 ,forbes describes a forest in ,sumatra3 ,the stem of every tree blinked with a pale greenish-white light which undulated also across the surface of the ground like moonlight coming and going behind the clouds1 from a minute thread-like fungus invisible in the day-time to the unassisted eye2 and here and there thick dumpy mushrooms displayed a sharp1 clear dome of light1 whose intensity never varied or changed till the break of day2 long phosphorescent caterpillars and centipedes crawled out of every corner1 leaving a trail of light behind them1 while fire-flies darted about above like a lower firmament4#be ,woods and ,forests were to our ancestors the special scenes of enchantment4 ,the great ,ash tree ,yggdrasil bound together ,heaven1 ,earth1 and ,hell4 ,its top reached to ,heaven1 its branches covered the ,earth1 and the roots penetrated into ,hell4 ,the three ,normas or ,fates sat under it1 spinning the thread of life4 ,of all the gods and goddesses of classical mythology or our own folk-lore1 none were more fascinating than the ,nature ,spirits--,elves and ,fairies1 ,neckans and ,kelpies1 ,pixies and ,ouphes1 ,mermaids1 ,undines1 ,water ,spirits1 and all the ,elfin world ,which have their haunts in dale and piny mountain1 ,or forests1 by slow stream or tingling brook4 ,they come out1 as we are told1 especially on moonlight nights4 ,but while evening thus clothes many a scene with poetry1 forests are fairy land all day long4 ,almost any wood contains many and many a spot well suited for ,fairy feasts2 where one might most expect to find ,titania1 resting1 as once we are told1 ,she lay upon a bank1 the favourite haunt ,of the ,spring wind in its first sunshine hour1 ,for the luxuriant strawberry blossoms spread ,like a snow shower then1 and violets ,bowed down their purple vases of perfume ,about her pillow1--linked in a gay band ,floated fantastic shapes2 these were her guards1 ,her lithe and rainbow elves4 ,the fairies have disappeared1 and1 so far as ,england is concerned1 the larger forest animals have vanished almost as completely4 ,the ,elk and ,bear1 the ,boar and ,wolf have gone1 the ,stag has nearly disappeared1 and but a scanty remnant of the original wild ,cattle linger on at ,chillingham4 ,still the woods teem with life2 the ,fox and ,badger1 ,stoat and ,weasel1 ,hare and ,rabbit1 and ,hedgehog1 ,the tawny squirrel vaulting through the boughs1 ,hawk1 buzzard1 jay1 the mavis and the merle1#bf the ,owls and ,nightjar1 the ,woodpecker1 ,nuthatch1 ,magpie1 ,doves1 and a hundred more4 ,in early spring the woods are bright with the feathery catkins of the ,willow1 followed by the soft green of the ,beech1 the white or pink flowers of the ,thorn1 the pyramids of the ,horse-chestnut1 festoons of the ,laburnum and ,acacia1 and the ,oak slowly wakes from its winter sleep1 while the ,ash leaves long linger in their black buds4 ,under foot is a carpet of flowers--,anemones1 ,cowslips1 ,primroses1 ,bluebells1 and the golden blossoms of the ,broom1 which1 however1 while ,gorse and ,heather continue in bloom for months1 blazes for a week or two1 and is then completely extinguished1 like a fire that has burnt itself out4#bg ,in summer the tints grow darker1 the birds are more numerous and full of life2 the air teems with insects1 with the busy murmur of bees and the idle hum of flies1 while the cool of morning and evening1 and the heat of the day1 are all alike delicious4 ,as the year advances and the flowers wane1 we have many beautiful fruits and berries1 the red hips and haws of the wild roses1 scarlet holly berries1 crimson yew cups1 the translucent berries of the ,guelder ,rose1 hanging coral beads of the ,black ,bryony1 feathery festoons of the ,traveller's ,joy1 and others less conspicuous1 but still exquisite in themselves--acorns1 beech nuts1 ash keys1 and many more4 ,it is really difficult to say which are most beautiful1 the tender greens of spring or the rich tints of autumn1 which glow so brightly in the sunshine4 ,tropical fruits are even more striking4 ,no one who has seen it can ever forget a grove of orange trees in full fruit2 while the more we examine the more we find to admire2 all perfectly and exquisitely finished usque ad ungues1 perfect inside and outside1 for ,nature ,does in the ,pomegranate close ,jewels more rare than ,ormus shows4#bh ,in winter the woods are comparatively bare and lifeless1 even the ,brambles and ,woodbine1 which straggle over the tangle of underwood being almost leafless4 ,still even then they have a beauty and interest of their own2 the mossy boles of the trees2 the delicate tracery of the branches which can hardly be appreciated when they are covered with leaves2 and under foot the beds of fallen leaves2 while the evergreens seem brighter than in summer2 the ruddy stems and rich green foliage of the ,scotch ,pines1 and the dark spires of the ,firs1 seeming to acquire fresh beauty4 ,again in winter1 though no doubt the living tenants of the woods are much less numerous1 many of our birds being then far away in the dense ,african forests1 on the other hand those which remain are much more easily visible4 ,we can follow the birds from tree to tree1 and the ,squirrel from bough to bough4 ,it requires little imagination to regard trees as conscious beings1 indeed it is almost an effort not to do so4 ,the various action of trees rooting themselves in inhospitable rocks1 stooping to look into ravines1 hiding from the search of glacier winds1 reaching forth to the rays of rare sunshine1 crowding down together to drink at sweetest streams1 climbing hand in hand among the difficult slopes1 opening in sudden dances among the mossy knolls1 gathering into companies at rest among the fragrant fields1 gliding in grave procession over the heavenward ridges--nothing of this can be conceived among the unvexed and unvaried felicities of the lowland forest2 while to all these direct sources of greater beauty are added1 first the power of redundance1 the mere quantity of foliage visible in the folds and on the promontories of a single ,alp being greater than that of an entire lowland landscape 7unless a view from some ,cathedral tower72 and to this charm of redundance1 that of clearer visibility--tree after tree being constantly shown in successive height1 one behind another1 instead of the mere tops and flanks of masses as in the plains2 and the forms of multitudes of them continually defined against the clear sky1 near and above1 or against white clouds entangled among their branches1 instead of being confused in dimness of distance4#bi ,there is much that is interesting in the relations of one species to another4 ,many plants are parasitic upon others4 ,the foliage of the ,beech is so thick that scarcely anything will grow under it1 except those spring plants1 such as the ,anemone and the ,wood ,buttercup or ,goldilocks1 which flower early before the ,beech is in leaf4 ,there are other cases in which the reason for the association of species is less evident4 ,the ,larch and the ,arolla 7,pinus ,cembra7 are close companions4 ,they grow together in ,siberia2 they do not occur in ,scandinavia or ,russia1 but both reappear in certain ,swiss valleys1 especially in the cantons of ,lucerne and ,valais and the ,engadine4 ,another very remarkable case which has recently been observed is the relation existing between some of our forest trees and certain ,fungi1 the species of which have not yet been clearly ascertained4 ,the root tips of the trees are as it were enclosed in a thin sheet of closely woven mycelium4 ,it was at first supposed that the fungus was attacking the roots of the tree1 but it is now considered that the tree and the fungus mutually benefit one another4 ,the fungus collects nutriment from the soil1 which passes into the tree and up to the leaves1 where it is elaborated into sap1 the greater part being utilized by the tree1 but a portion reabsorbed by the fungus4 ,there is reason to think that1 in some cases at any rate1 the mycelium is that of the ,truffle4 ,illustration3 ,,tropical ,,forest4 ,to face page #agi4 ,the great tropical forests have a totally different character from ours4 ,i reproduce here the plate from ,kingsley's ,at ,last4 ,the trees strike all travellers by their magnificence1 the luxuriance of their vegetation1 and their great variety4 ,our forests contain comparatively few species1 whereas in the tropics we are assured that it is far from common to see two of the same species near one another4 ,but while in our forests the species are few1 each tree has an independence and individuality of its own4 ,in the tropics1 on the contrary1 they are interlaced and interwoven1 so as to form one mass of vegetation2 many of the trunks are almost concealed by an undergrowth of verdure1 and intertwined by spiral stems of parasitic plants2 from tree to tree hang an inextricable network of lianas1 and it is often difficult to tell to which tree the fruits1 flowers1 and leaves really belong4 ,the trunks run straight up to a great height without a branch1 and then form a thick leafy canopy far overhead2 a canopy so dense that even the blaze of the cloudless blue sky is subdued1 one might almost say into a weird gloom1 the effect of which is enhanced by the solemn silence4 ,at first such a forest gives the impression of being more open than an ,english wood1 but a few steps are sufficient to correct this error4 ,there is a thick undergrowth matted together by wiry creepers1 and the intermediate space is traversed in all directions by lines and cords4 ,the ,english traveller misses sadly the sweet songs of our birds1 which are replaced by the hoarse chatter of parrots4 ,now and then a succession of cries even harsher and more discordant tell of a troop of monkeys passing across from tree to tree among the higher branches1 or lower sounds indicate to a practised ear the neighbourhood of an ape1 a sloth1 or some other of the few mammals which inhabit the great forests4 ,occasionally a large blue bee hums past1 a brilliant butterfly flashes across the path1 or a humming-bird hangs in the air over a flower like1 as ,st4 ,pierre says1 an emerald set in coral1 but how weak it is to say that that exquisite little being1 whirring and fluttering in the air1 has a head of ruby1 a throat of emerald1 and wings of sapphire1 as if any triumph of the jeweller's art could ever vie with that sparkling epitome of life and light4#cj ,sir ,wyville ,thomson graphically describes a morning in a ,brazilian forest3-- ,the night was almost absolutely silent1 only now and then a peculiarly shrill cry of some night bird reached us from the woods4 ,as we got into the skirt of the forest the morning broke1 but the rveil in a ,brazilian forest is wonderfully different from the slow creeping on of the dawn of a summer morning at home1 to the music of the thrushes answering one another's full rich notes from neighbouring thorn-trees4 ,suddenly a yellow light spreads upwards in the east1 the stars quickly fade1 and the dark fringes of the forest and the tall palms show out black against the yellow sky1 and almost before one has time to observe the change the sun has risen straight and fierce1 and the whole landscape is bathed in the full light of day4 ,but the morning is yet for another hour cool and fresh1 and the scene is indescribably beautiful4 ,the woods1 so absolutely silent and still before1 break at once into noise and movement4 ,flocks of toucans flutter and scream on the tops of the highest forest trees hopelessly out of shot1 the ear is pierced by the strange wild screeches of a little band of macaws which fly past you like the wrapped-up ghosts of the birds on some gaudy old brocade4#ca ,mr4 ,darwin tells us that nothing can be better than the description of tropical forests given by ,bates4 ,the leafy crowns of the trees1 scarcely two of which could be seen together of the same kind1 were now far away above us1 in another world as it were4 ,we could only see at times1 where there was a break above1 the tracery of the foliage against the clear blue sky4 ,sometimes the leaves were palmate1 or of the shape of large outstretched hands2 at others finely cut or feathery like the leaves of ,mimos4 ,below1 the tree trunks were everywhere linked together by sipos2 the woody flexible stems of climbing and creeping trees1 whose foliage is far away above1 mingled with that of the taller independent trees4 ,some were twisted in strands like cables1 others had thick stems contorted in every variety of shape1 entwining snake-like round the tree trunks or forming gigantic loops and coils among the larger branches2 others1 again1 were of zigzag shape1 or indented like the steps of a staircase1 sweeping from the ground to a giddy height4 ,the reckless and wanton destruction of forests has ruined some of the richest countries on earth4 ,syria and ,asia ,minor1 ,palestine and the north of ,africa were once far more populous than they are at present4 ,they were once lands flowing with milk and honey1 according to the picturesque language of the ,bible1 but are now in many places reduced to dust and ashes4 ,why is there this melancholy change8 ,why have deserts replaced cities8 ,it is mainly owing to the ruthless destruction of the trees1 which has involved that of nations4 ,even nearer home a similar process may be witnessed4 ,two ,french departments--the ,hautes- and ,basses-,alpes--are being gradually reduced to ruin by the destruction of the forests4 ,cultivation is diminishing1 vineyards are being washed away1 the towns are threatened1 the population is dwindling1 and unless something is done the country will be reduced to a desert2 until1 when it has been released from the destructive presence of man1 ,nature reproduces a covering of vegetable soil1 restores the vegetation1 creates the forests anew1 and once again fits these regions for the habitation of man4 ,in another part of ,france we have an illustration of the opposite process4 ,the region of the ,landes1 which fifty years ago was one of the poorest and most miserable in ,france1 has now been made one of the most prosperous owing to the planting of ,pines4 ,the increased value is estimated at no less than #a1jjj1jjj1jjj francs4 ,where there were fifty years ago only a few thousand poor and unhealthy shepherds whose flocks pastured on the scanty herbage1 there are now sawmills1 charcoal kilns1 and turpentine works1 interspersed with thriving villages and fertile agricultural lands4 ,in our own country1 though woodlands are perhaps on the increase1 true forest scenery is gradually disappearing4 ,this is1 ,i suppose1 unavoidable1 but it is a matter of regret4 ,forests have so many charms of their own4 ,they give a delightful impression of space and of abundance4 ,the extravagance is sublime4 ,trees1 as ,jefferies says1 throw away handfuls of flower2 and in the meadows the careless1 spendthrift ways of grass and flower and all things are not to be expressed4 ,seeds by the hundred million float with absolute indifference on the air4 ,the oak has a hundred thousand more leaves than necessary1 and never hides a single acorn4 ,nothing utilitarian--everything on a scale of splendid waste4 ,such noble1 broadcast1 open-armed waste is delicious to behold4 ,never was there such a lying proverb as ',enough is as good as a feast4' ,give me the feast2 give me squandered millions of seeds1 luxurious carpets of petals1 green mountains of oak-leaves4 ,the greater the waste the greater the enjoyment--the nearer the approach to real life4 ,it is of course impossible here to give any idea of the complexity of structure of our forest trees4 ,a slice across the stem of a tree shows many different tissues with more or less technical names1 bark and cambium1 medullary rays1 pith1 and more or less specialised tissue2 air-vessels1 punctate vessels1 woody fibres1 liber fibres1 scalariform vessels1 and other more or less specialised tissues4 ,let us take a single leaf4 ,the name is synonymous with anything very thin1 so that we might well fancy that a leaf would consist of only one or two layers of cells4 ,far from it1 the leaf is a highly complex structure4 ,on the upper surface are a certain number of scattered hairs1 while in the bud these are often numerous1 long1 silky1 and serve to protect the young leaf1 but the greater number fall off soon after the leaf expands4 ,the hairs are seated on a layer of flattened cells--the skin or epidermis4 ,below this are one or more layers of palisade cells1 the function of which seems to be to regulate the quantity of light entering the leaf4 ,under these again is the parenchyme1 several layers of more or less rounded cells1 leaving air spaces and passages between them4 ,from place to place in the parenchyme run fibro-vascular bundles1 forming a sort of skeleton to the leaf1 and comprising air-vessels on the upper side1 rayed or dotted vessels with woody fibre below1 and vessels of various kinds4 ,the under surface of the leaf is formed by another layer of flattened cells1 supporting generally more or less hairs1 and some of them specially modified so as to leave minute openings or stomata leading into the air passages4 ,these stomata are so small that there are millions on a single leaf1 and on plants growing in dry countries1 such as the ,evergreen ,oak1 ,oleander1 etc41 they are sunk in pits1 and further protected by tufts of hair4 ,the cells of the leaf again are themselves complex4 ,they consist of a cell wall perforated by extremely minute orifices1 of protoplasm1 cell fluid1 and numerous granules of ,chlorophyll1 which give the leaf its green colour4 ,while these are1 stated very briefly1 the essential parts of a leaf1 the details differ in every species1 while in the same species and even in the same plant1 the leaves present minor differences according to the situation in which they grow4 ,since1 then1 there is so much complex structure in a single leaf1 what must it be in a whole plant8 ,there is a giant sea-weed 7,macrocystis71 which has been known to reach a length of #ajjj feet1 as also do some of the lianas of tropical forests4 ,these1 however1 attain no great bulk1 and the most gigantic specimens of the vegetable kingdom yet known are the ,wellingtonia 7,sequoia7 gigantea1 which grows to a height of #dej feet1 and the ,blue ,gum 7,eucalyptus7 even to #dhj4 ,one is apt to look on animal structure as more delicate1 and of a higher order1 than that of plants4 ,and so no doubt it is4 ,yet an animal1 even man himself1 will recover from a wound or an operation more rapidly and more perfectly than a tree4#cb ,trees again derive a special interest from the venerable age they attain4 ,in some cases1 no doubt1 the age is more or less mythical1 as1 for instance1 the ,olive of ,minerva at ,athens1 the ,oaks mentioned by ,pliny1 which were thought coeval with the world itself1 the ,fig tree1 under which the wolf suckled the founder of ,rome and his brother1 lasting 7as ,tacitus calculated7 #hdj years1 putting out new shoots1 and presaging the translation of that empire from the ,csarian line1 happening in ,nero's reign4#cc ,but in other cases the estimates rest on a surer foundation1 and it cannot be doubted that there are trees still living which were already of considerable size at the time of the ,conquest4 ,the ,soma ,cypress of ,lombardy1 which is #abj feet high and #bc in circumference1 is calculated to go back to forty years before the birth of ,christ4 ,francis the ,first is said to have driven his sword into it in despair after the battle of ,padua1 and ,napoleon altered his road over the ,simplon so as to spare it4 ,ferdinand and ,isabella in #adgf swore to maintain the privileges of the ,biscayans under the old ,oak of ,guernica4 ,in the ,ardennes an ,oak cut down in #ahbd contained a funeral urn and some ,samnite coins4 ,a writer at the time drew the conclusion that it must have been already a large tree when ,rome was founded1 and though the facts do not warrant this conclusion1 the tree did1 no doubt1 go back to ,pagan times4 ,the great ,yew of ,fountains ,abbey is said to have sheltered the monks when the abbey was rebuilt in #aacc1 and is estimated at an age of #acjj years2 that at ,brabourne in ,kent at #cjjj4 ,de ,candolle gives the following as the ages attainable3-- ,the ,ivy #dej years ,larch #egj ,plane #gej ,cedar of ,lebanon #hjj ,lime #aajj ,oak #aejj ,taxodium distichum #djjj to #fjjj ,baobab #fjjj years ,nowhere is woodland scenery more beautiful than where it passes gradually into the open country4 ,the separate trees1 having more room both for their roots and branches1 are finer1 and can be better seen1 while1 when they are close together1 one cannot see the wood for the trees4 ,the vistas which open out are full of mystery and of promise1 and tempt us gradually out into the green fields4 ,what pleasant memories these very words recall1 games in the hay as children1 and sunny summer days throughout life4 ,consider1 says ,ruskin1#cd what we owe to the meadow grass1 to the covering of the dark ground by that glorious enamel1 by the companies of those soft countless and peaceful spears4 ,the fields6 ,follow but forth for a little time the thought of all that we ought to recognise in those words4 ,all spring and summer is in them--the walks by silent scented paths1 the rests in noonday heat1 the joy of herds and flocks1 the power of all shepherd life and meditation1 the life of sunlight upon the world1 falling in emerald streaks1 and soft blue shadows1 where else it would have struck on the dark mould or scorching dust1 pastures beside the pacing brooks1 soft banks and knolls of lowly hills1 thymy slopes of down overlooked by the blue line of lifted sea1 crisp lawns all dim with early dew1 or smooth in evening warmth of barred sunshine1 dinted by happy feet1 and softening in their fall the sound of loving voices4 99 99 99 99 99 ,go out1 in the spring time1 among the meadows that slope from the shores of the ,swiss lakes to the roots of their lower mountains4 ,there1 mingled with the taller gentians and the white narcissus1 the grass grows deep and free1 and as you follow the winding mountain paths1 beneath arching boughs all veiled and dim with blossom1--paths1 that for ever droop and rise over the green banks and mounds sweeping down in scented undulation1 steep to the blue water1 studded here and there with new mown heaps1 filling all the air with fainter sweetness1--look up towards the higher hills1 where the waves of everlasting green roll silently into their long inlets among the shadows of the pines2 and we may1 perhaps1 at last know the meaning of those quiet words of the #adgth ,psalm1 ',he maketh the grass to grow upon the mountains4' ,on fine days1 he tells us again in his ,autobiography1 when the grass was dry1 ,i used to lie down on it1 and draw the blades as they grew1 with the ground herbage of buttercup or hawkweed mixed among them1 until every square foot of meadow1 or mossy bank1 became an infinite picture and possession to me1 and the grace and adjustment to each other of growing leaves1 a subject of more curious interest to me than the composition of any painter's masterpieces4 ,in the passage above quoted1 ,ruskin alludes especially to ,swiss meadows4 ,they are especially remarkable in the beauty and variety of flowers4 ,in our fields the herbage is mainly grass1 and if it often happens that they glow with ,buttercups or are white with ,ox-eye-daisies1 these are but unwelcome intruders and add nothing to the value of the hay4 ,swiss meadows1 on the contrary1 are sweet and lovely with wild ,geraniums1 ,harebells1 ,bluebells1 ,pink ,restharrow1 ,yellow ,lady's ,bedstraw1 ,chervil1 ,eyebright1 ,red and ,white ,silenes1 ,geraniums1 ,gentians1 and many other flowers which have no familiar ,english names2 all adding not only to the beauty and sweetness of the meadows1 but forming a valuable part of the crop itself4#ce ,on the other hand turf is peculiarly ,english1 and no turf is more delightful than that of our ,downs--delightful to ride on1 to sit on1 or to walk on4 ,the turf indeed feels so springy under our feet that walking on it seems scarcely an exertion3 one could almost fancy that the ,downs themselves were still rising1 even higher1 into the air4 ,the herbage of the ,downs is close rather than short1 hillocks of sweet thyme1 tufts of golden ,potentilla1 of ,milkwort--blue1 pink1 and white--of sweet grass and ,harebells3 here and there pink with ,heather1 or golden with ,furze or ,broom1 while over all are the fresh air and sunshine1 sweet scents1 and the hum of bees4 ,and if the ,downs seem full of life and sunshine1 their broad shoulders are types of kindly strength1 they give also an impression of power and antiquity1 while every now and then we come across a tumulus1 or a group of great grey stones1 the burial place of some ancient hero1 or a sacred temple of our pagan forefathers4 ,on the ,downs indeed things change slowly1 and in parts of ,sussex the strong slow oxen still draw the waggons laden with warm hay or golden wheat sheaves1 or drag the wooden plough along the slopes of the ,downs1 just as they did a thousand years ago4 ,i love the open ,down most1 but without hedges ,england would not be ,england4 ,hedges are everywhere full of beauty and interest1 and nowhere more so than at the foot of the ,downs1 when they are in great part composed of wild ,guelder ,roses and rich dark ,yews1 decked with festoons of ,traveller's ,joy1 the wild ,bryonies1 and garlands of ,wild ,roses covered with thousands of white or delicate pink flowers1 each with a centre of gold4 ,at the foot of the ,downs spring clear sparkling streams2 rain from heaven purified still further by being filtered through a thousand feet of chalk2 fringed with purple ,loosestrife and ,willowherb1 starred with white ,water ,ranunculuses1 or rich ,watercress1 while every now and then a brown water rat rustles in the grasses at the edge1 and splashes into the water1 or a pink speckled trout glides out of sight4 ,in many of our midland and northern counties most of the meadows lie in parallel undulations or rigs4 ,these are generally about a furlong 7#bbj yards7 in length1 and either one or two poles 7#e-a_/b or #aa yards7 in breadth4 ,they seldom run straight1 but tend to curve towards the left4 ,at each end of the field a high bank1 locally called a balk1 often #c or #d feet high1 runs at right angles to the rigs4 ,in small fields there are generally eight1 but sometimes ten1 of these rigs1 which make in the one case #d1 in the other #e acres4 ,these curious characters carry us back to the old tenures1 and archaic cultivation of land1 and to a period when the fields were not in pasture1 but were arable4 ,they also explain our curious system of land measurement4 ,the acre is the amount which a team of oxen were supposed to plough in a day4 ,it corresponds to the ,german morgen and the ,french journe4 ,the furlong or long furrow is the distance which a team of oxen can plough conveniently without stopping to rest4 ,oxen1 as we know1 were driven not with a whip1 but with a goad or pole1 the most convenient length for which was #af-a_/b feet1 and the ancient ploughman used his pole or perch by placing it at right angles to his first furrow1 thus measuring the amount he had to plough4 ,hence our pole or perch of #af-a_/b feet1 which at first sight seems a very singular unit to have selected4 ,this width is also convenient both for turning the plough1 and also for sowing4 ,hence the most convenient unit of land for arable purposes was a furlong in length and a perch or pole in width4 ,the team generally consisted of eight oxen4 ,few peasants1 however1 possessed a whole team1 several generally joining together1 and dividing the produce4 ,hence the number of rigs1 one for each ox4 ,we often1 however1 find ten instead of eight2 one being for the parson's tithe1 the other tenth going to the ploughman4 ,when eight oxen were employed the goad would not of course reach the leaders1 which were guided by a man who walked on the near side4 ,on arriving at the end of each furrow he turned them round1 and as it was easier to pull than to push them1 this gradually gave the furrow a turn towards the left1 thus accounting for the slight curvature4 ,lastly1 while the oxen rested on arriving at the end of the furrow1 the ploughmen scraped off the earth which had accumulated on the coulter and ploughshare1 and the accumulation of these scrapings gradually formed the balk4 ,it is fascinating thus to trace indications of old customs and modes of life1 but it would carry us away from the present subject4 ,even though the ,swiss meadows may offer a greater variety1 our ,english fields are yet rich in flowers3 yellow with ,cowslips and ,primroses1 pink with ,cuckoo flowers and purple with ,orchis1 while1 however1 unwelcome to the eye of the farmer1 the rich ,buttercup ,its tiny polished urn holds up1 ,filled with ripe summer to the edge1#cf turning many a meadow into a veritable field of the cloth of gold1 and there are few prettier sights in nature than an ,english hay field on a summer evening1 with a copse perhaps at one side and a brook on the other2 men with forks tossing the hay in the air to dry2 women with wooden rakes arranging it in swathes ready for the great four-horse waggon1 or collecting it in cocks for the night2 while some way off the mowers are still at work1 and we hear from time to time the pleasant sound of the whetting of the scythe4 ,all are working with a will lest rain should come and their labour be thrown away4 ,this too often happens4 ,but though we often complain of our ,english climate1 it is yet1 take it all in all1 one of the best in the world1 being comparatively free from extremes either of heat or cold1 drought or deluge4 ,to the happy mixture of sunshine and of rain we owe the greenness of our fields1 sparkling with dewdrops ,indwelt with little angels of the ,sun1#cg lit and warmed by golden sunshine ,and fed by silver rain1 which now and again sprinkles the whole earth with diamonds4 ,,footnotes3 #bb ,the ,spectator4 #bc ,milton4 #bd ,jefferies4 #be ,forbes1 ,a ,naturalist's ,wanderings in the ,eastern ,archipelago4 #bf ,tennyson4 #bg ,hamerton4 #bh ,marvell4 #bi ,ruskin4 #cj ,thomson1 ,voyage of the ,challenger4 #ca ,thomson1 ,voyage of the ,challenger4 #cb ,sir ,j4 ,paget1 ,on the ,pathology of ,plants4 #cc ,evelyn's ,sylva4 #cd ,modern ,painters4 #ce ,m4 ,correvon informs me that the ,gruyre cheese is supposed to owe its peculiar flavour to the alpine ,alchemilla1 which is now on that account often purposely sown elsewhere4 #cf ,j4 ,r4 ,lowell4 #cg ,hamerton4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,mountains ,mountains seem to have been built for the human race1 as at once their schools and cathedrals2 full of treasures of illuminated manuscript for the scholar1 kindly in simple lessons for the worker1 quiet in pale cloisters for the thinker1 glorious in holiness for the worshipper4 ,they are great cathedrals of the earth1 with their gates of rock1 pavements of cloud1 choirs of stream and stone1 altars of snow1 and vaults of purple traversed by the continual stars4--,,ruskin4 ,illustration3 ,,summit ,,of ,,mont ,,blanc4 ,to face page #bjc4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,mountains ,the ,alps are to many of us an inexhaustible source of joy and peace1 of health1 and even of life4 ,we have gone to them jaded and worn1 feeling1 perhaps without any external cause1 anxious and out of spirits1 and have returned full of health1 strength1 and energy4 ,among the mountains ,nature herself seems freer and happier1 brighter and purer1 than elsewhere4 ,the rush of the rivers1 and the repose of the lakes1 the pure snowfields and majestic glaciers1 the fresh air1 the mysterious summits of the mountains1 the blue haze of the distance1 the morning tints and the evening glow1 the beauty of the sky and the grandeur of the storm1 have all refreshed and delighted us time after time1 and their memories can never fade away4 ,even now as ,i write comes back to me the bright vision of an ,alpine valley--blue sky above1 glittering snow1 bare grey or rich red rock1 dark pines here and there1 mixed with bright green larches1 then patches of smooth alp1 with clumps of birch and beech1 and dotted with brown chlets2 then below them rock again1 and wood1 but this time with more deciduous trees2 and then the valley itself1 with emerald meadows1 interspersed with alder copses1 threaded together by a silver stream2 and ,i almost fancy ,i can hear the tinkling of distant cowbells coming down from the alp1 and the delicious murmur of the rushing water4 ,the endless variety1 the sense of repose and yet of power1 the dignity of age1 the energy of youth1 the play of colour1 the beauty of form1 the mystery of their origin1 all combine to invest mountains with a solemn beauty4 ,i feel with ,ruskin that mountains are the beginning and the end of all natural scenery2 in them1 and in the forms of inferior landscape that lead to them1 my affections are wholly bound up2 and though ,i can look with happy admiration at the lowland flowers1 and woods1 and open skies1 the happiness is tranquil and cold1 like that of examining detached flowers in a conservatory1 or reading a pleasant book4 ,and of all mountain views which he has seen1 the finest he considers is that from the ,montanvert3 ,i have climbed much and wandered much in the heart of the high ,alps1 but ,i have never yet seen anything which equalled the view from the cabin of the ,montanvert4 ,it is no mere fancy that among mountains the flowers are peculiarly large and brilliant in colour4 ,not only are there many beautiful species which are peculiar to mountains1--alpine ,gentians1 yellow1 blue1 and purple2 alpine ,rhododendrons1 alpine ,primroses and ,cowslips1 alpine ,lychnis1 ,columbine1 ,monkshood1 ,anemones1 ,narcissus1 ,campanulas1 ,soldanellas1 and a thousand others less familiar to us1--but it is well established that even within the limits of the same species those living up in the mountains have larger and brighter flowers than their sisters elsewhere4 ,various alpine species belonging to quite distinct families form close moss-like cushions1 gemmed with star-like flowers1 or covered completely with a carpet of blossom4 ,on the lower mountain slopes and in alpine valleys trees seem to flourish with peculiar luxuriance4 ,pines and ,firs and ,larches above2 then1 as we descend1 ,beeches and magnificent ,chestnuts1 which seem to rejoice in the sweet1 fresh air and the pure mountain streams4 ,to any one accustomed to the rich bird life of ,english woods and hedgerows1 it must be admitted that ,swiss woods and ,alps seem rather lonely and deserted4 ,still the ,hawk1 or even ,eagle1 soaring high up in the air1 the weird cry of the ,marmot1 and the knowledge that1 even if one cannot see ,chamois1 they may all the time be looking down on us1 give the ,alps1 from this point of view also1 a special interest of their own4 ,another great charm of mountain districts is the richness of colour4 ,consider1#ch first1 the difference produced in the whole tone of landscape colour by the introductions of purple1 violet1 and deep ultra-marine blue which we owe to mountains4 ,in an ordinary lowland landscape we have the blue of the sky2 the green of the grass1 which ,i will suppose 7and this is an unnecessary concession to the lowlands7 entirely fresh and bright2 the green of trees2 and certain elements of purple1 far more rich and beautiful than we generally should think1 in their bark and shadows 7bare hedges and thickets1 or tops of trees1 in subdued afternoon sunshine1 are nearly perfect purple and of an exquisite tone71 as well as in ploughed fields1 and dark ground in general4 ,but among mountains1 in addition to all this1 large unbroken spaces of pure violet and purple are introduced in their distances2 and even near1 by films of cloud passing over the darkness of ravines or forests1 blues are produced of the most subtle tenderness2 these azures and purples passing into rose colour of otherwise wholly unattainable delicacy among the upper summits1 the blue of the sky being at the same time purer and deeper than in the plains4 ,nay1 in some sense1 a person who has never seen the rose colour of the rays of dawn crossing a blue mountain twelve or fifteen miles away can hardly be said to know what tenderness in colour means at all2 bright tenderness he may1 indeed1 see in the sky or in a flower1 but this grave tenderness of the far-away hill-purples he cannot conceive4 ,i do not know1 he says elsewhere1 any district possessing a more pure or uninterrupted fulness of mountain character 7and that of the highest order71 or which appears to have been less disturbed by foreign agencies1 than that which borders the course of the ,trient between ,valorsine and ,martigny4 ,the paths which lead to it1 out of the valley of the ,rhone1 rising at first in steep circles among the walnut trees1 like winding stairs among the pillars of a ,gothic tower1 retire over the shoulders of the hills into a valley almost unknown1 but thickly inhabited by an industrious and patient population4 ,along the ridges of the rocks1 smoothed by old glaciers1 into long1 dark1 billowy swellings1 like the backs of plunging dolphins1 the peasant watches the slow colouring of the tufts of moss and roots of herb1 which1 little by little1 gather a feeble soil over the iron substance2 then1 supporting the narrow strip of clinging ground with a few stones1 he subdues it to the spade1 and in a year or two a little crest of corn is seen waving upon the rocky casque4 ,tyndall1 speaking of the scene from the summit of the ,little ,scheideck1#ci says3 ,the upper air exhibited a commotion which we did not experience2 clouds were wildly driven against the flanks of the ,eiger1 the ,jungfrau thundered behind1 while in front of us a magnificent rainbow1 fixing one of its arms in the valley of ,grindelwald1 and1 throwing the other right over the crown of the ,wetterhorn1 clasped the mountain in its embrace4 ,through jagged apertures in the clouds floods of golden light were poured down the sides of the mountain4 ,on the slopes were innumerable chlets1 glistening in the sunbeams1 herds browsing peacefully and shaking their mellow bells2 while the blackness of the pine trees1 crowded into woods1 or scattered in pleasant clusters over alp and valley1 contrasted forcibly with the lively green of the fields4 ,few men had more experience of mountains than ,mr4 ,whymper1 and from him1 ,i will quote one remarkable passage describing the view from the summit of the ,matterhorn just before the terrible catastrophe which overshadows the memory of his first ascent4 ,the day was one of those superlatively calm and clear ones which usually precede bad weather4 ,the atmosphere was perfectly still and free from all clouds or vapours4 ,mountains fifty1 nay1 a hundred miles off looked sharp and near4 ,all their details--ridge and crag1 snow and glacier--stood out with faultless definition4 ,pleasant thoughts of happy days in bygone years came up unbidden as we recognised the old familiar forms4 ,all were revealed1 not one of the principal peaks of the ,alps was hidden4 ,i see them clearly now1 the great inner circle of giants1 backed by the ranges1 chains1 and massifs4444 ,ten thousand feet beneath us were the green fields of ,zermatt1 dotted with chlets1 from which blue smoke rose lazily4 ,eight thousand feet below1 on the other side1 were the pastures of ,breuil4 ,there were black and gloomy forests2 bright and cheerful meadows1 bounding waterfalls and tranquil lakes1 fertile lands and savage wastes1 sunny plains and frigid plateaux4 ,there were the most rugged forms and the most graceful outlines1 bold perpendicular cliffs and gentle undulating slopes2 rocky mountains and snowy mountains1 sombre and solemn1 or glittering and white1 with walls1 turrets1 pinnacles1 pyramids1 domes1 cones1 and spires6 ,there was every combination that the world can give1 and every contrast that the heart could desire4 ,these were summer scenes1 but the ,autumn and ,winter again have a grandeur and beauty of their own4 ,autumn is dark on the mountains2 grey mist rests on the hills4 ,the whirlwind is heard on the heath4 ,dark rolls the river through the narrow plain4 ,the leaves twirl round with the wind1 and strew the grave of the dead4#dj ,even bad weather often but enhances the beauty and grandeur of mountains4 ,when the lower parts are hidden1 and the peaks stand out above the clouds1 they look much loftier than if the whole mountain side is visible4 ,the gloom lends a weirdness and mystery to the scene1 while the flying clouds give it additional variety4 ,rain1 moreover1 adds vividness to the colouring4 ,the leaves and grass become a brighter green1 every sunburnt rock glows into an agate1 and when fine weather returns the new snow gives intense brilliance1 and invests the woods especially with the beauty of ,fairyland4 ,how often in alpine districts does one long for the wings of a dove1 more thoroughly to enjoy and more completely to explore1 the mysteries and recesses of the mountains4 ,the mind1 however1 can go1 even if the body must remain behind4 ,each hour of the day has a beauty of its own4 ,the mornings and evenings again glow with different and even richer tints4 ,in mountain districts the cloud effects are brighter and more varied than in flatter regions4 ,the morning and evening tints are seen to the greatest advantage1 and clouds floating high in the heavens sometimes glitter with the most exquisite iridescent hues that blush and glow ,like angels' wings4#da ,on low ground one may be in the clouds1 but not above them4 ,but as we look down from mountains and see the clouds floating far below us1 we almost seem as if we were looking down on earth from one of the heavenly bodies4 ,not even in the ,alps is there anything more beautiful than the after glow which lights up the snow and ice with a rosy tint for some time after the sun has set4 ,long after the lower slopes are already in the shade1 the summit of ,mont ,blanc for instance is transfigured by the light of the setting sun glowing on the snow4 ,it seems almost like a light from another world1 and vanishes as suddenly and mysteriously as it came4 ,as we look up from the valleys the mountain peaks seem like separate pinnacles projecting far above the general level4 ,this1 however1 is a very erroneous impression1 and when we examine the view from the top of any of the higher mountains1 or even from one of very moderate elevation1 if well placed1 such say as the well-known ,piz ,languard1 we see that in many cases they must have once formed a dome1 or even a table land1 out of which the valleys have been carved4 ,many mountain chains were originally at least twice as high as they are now1 and the highest peaks are those which have suffered least from the wear and tear of time4 ,we used to speak of the everlasting hills1 and are only beginning to realise the vast and many changes which our earth has undergone4 ,there rolls the deep where grew the tree4 ,o earth1 what changes hast thou seen6 ,there where the long street roars1 hath been ,the stillness of the central sea4 ,the hills are shadows1 and they flow ,from form to form1 and nothing stands2 ,they melt like mist1 the solid lands1 ,like clouds they shape themselves and go4#db ,,the ,,origin ,,of ,,mountains ,geography moreover acquires a new interest when we once realise that mountains are no mere accidents1 but that for every mountain chain1 for every peak and valley1 there is a cause and an explanation4 ,the origin of ,mountains is a question of much interest4 ,the building up of ,volcanoes is even now going on before our eyes4 ,some others1 the ,dolomites for instance1 have been regarded by ,richthofen and other geologists as ancient coral islands4 ,the long lines of escarpment which often stretch for miles across country1 are now ascertained1 mainly through the researches of ,whitaker1 to be due to the differential action of aerial causes4 ,the general origin of mountain chains1 however1 was at first naturally enough attributed to direct upward pressure from below4 ,to attribute them in any way to subsidence seems almost a paradox1 and yet it appears to be now well established that the general cause is lateral compression1 due to contraction of the underlying mass4 ,the earth1 we know1 has been gradually cooling1 and as it contracted in doing so1 the strata of the crust would necessarily be thrown into folds4 ,when an apple dries and shrivels in winter1 the surface becomes covered with ridges4 ,or again1 if we place some sheets of paper between two weights on a table1 and then bring the weights nearer together1 the paper will be crumpled up4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ag4--;,adapted from ,ball's paper ,on the ,formation of ,alpine ,valleys and ,lakes1 ,lond4 and ,ed4 ,phil4 ,mag4 #ahfc1 p4 #if4 ,in the same way let us take a section of the earth's surface ,,ab 7,fig4 #ag71 and suppose that1 by the gradual cooling and consequent contraction of the mass1 ,,ab sinks to ,a',b'1 then to ,a'',b''1 and finally to ,a''',b'''4 ,of course if the cooling of the surface and of the deeper portion were the same1 then the strata between ,a and ,b would themselves contract1 and might consequently still form a regular curve between ,a''' and ,b'''4 ,as a matter of fact1 however1 the strata at the surface of our globe have long since approached a constant temperature4 ,under these circumstances there would be no contraction of the strata between ,a and ,b corresponding to that of those in the interior1 and consequently they could not lie flat between ,a''' and ,b'''1 but must be thrown into folds1 commencing along any line of least resistance4 ,sometimes indeed the strata are completely inverted1 as in ,fig4 #ai1 and in other cases they have been squeezed for miles out of their original position4 ,this explanation was first1 ,i believe1 suggested by ,steno4 ,it has been recently developed by ,ball and ,suess1 and especially by ,heim4 ,in this manner it is probable that most mountain chains originated4#dc ,the structure of mountain districts confirms this theoretical explanation4 ,it is obvious of course that when strata are thrown into folds1 they will1 if strained too much1 give way at the summit of the fold4 ,before doing so1 however1 they are stretched and consequently loosened1 while on the other hand the strata at the bottom of the fold are compressed3 the former1 therefore1 are rendered more susceptible of disintegration1 the latter on the contrary acquire greater powers of resistance4 ,hence denudation will act with more effect on the upper than on the lower portion of the folds1 and if continued long enough1 so that1 as shown in the above diagram1 the dotted portion is removed1 we find the original hill tops replaced by valleys1 and the original valleys forming the hill tops4 ,every visitor to ,switzerland must have noticed hills where the strata lie as shown in parts of ,fig4 #ah1 and where it is obvious that strata corresponding to those in dots must have been originally present4 ,in the ,jura1 for instance1 a glance at any good map of the district will show a succession of ridges running parallel to one another in a slightly curved line from ,s4,w4 to ,n4,e4 ,that these ridges are due to folds of the earth's surface is clear from the following figure in ,jaccard's work on the ,geology of the ,jura1 showing a section from ,brenets due south to ,neuchtel by ,le ,locle4 ,these folds are comparatively slight and the hills of no great height4 ,further south1 however1 the strata are much more violently dislocated and compressed together4 ,the ,mont ,salve is the remnant of one of these ridges4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ah4--,section across the ,jura from ,brenets to ,neuchtel4 ,in the ,alps the contortions are much greater than in the ,jura4 ,fig4 #ai shows a section after ,heim1 from the ,spitzen across the ,brunnialp1 and the ,maderanerthal4 ,it is obvious that the valleys are due mainly to erosion1 that the ,maderaner valley has been cut out of the crystalline rocks s1 and was once covered by the ,jurassic strata j1 which must have formerly passed in a great arch over what is now the valley4 ,however improbable it may seem that so great an amount of rock should have disappeared1 evidence is conclusive4 ,ramsay has shown that in some parts of ,wales not less than #bi1jjj feet have been removed1 while there is strong reason for the belief that in ,switzerland an amount has been carried away equal to the present height of the mountains2 though of course it does not follow that the ,alps were once twice as high as they are at present1 because elevation and erosion must have gone on contemporaneously4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ai4--;e1 ,eocene strata2 j1 ,jurassic2 s1 ,crystalline rocks4 ,it has been calculated that the strata between ,ble and the ,st4 ,gotthard have been compressed from #bjb miles to #acj miles1 the ,ardennes from #ej to #be miles1 and the ,appalachians from #aec miles to #fe6 ,prof4 ,gumbel has recently expressed the opinion that the main force to which the elevation of the ,alps was due acted along the main axis of elevation4 ,exactly the opposite inference would seem really to follow from the facts4 ,if the centre of force were along the axis of elevation1 the result would1 as ,suess and ,heim have pointed out1 be to extend1 not to compress1 the strata2 and the folds would remain quite unaccounted for4 ,the suggestion of compression is on the contrary consistent with the main features of ,swiss geography4 ,the principal axis follows a curved line from the ,maritime ,alps towards the north-east by ,mont ,blanc and ,monte ,rosa and ,st4 ,gotthard to the mountains overlooking the ,engadine4 ,the geological strata follow the same direction4 ,north of a line running through ,chambery1 ,yverdun1 ,neuchtel1 ,solothurn1 and ,olten to ,waldshut on the ,rhine are ,jurassic strata2 between that line and a second nearly parallel and running through ,annecy1 ,vevey1 ,lucerne1 ,wesen1 ,appenzell1 and ,bregenz on the ,lake of ,constance1 is the lowland occupied by later ,tertiary strata2 between this second line and another passing through ,albertville1 ,st4 ,maurice1 ,lenk1 ,meiringen1 and ,altdorf lies a more or less broken band of older ,tertiary strata2 south of which are a ,cretaceous zone1 one of ,jurassic age1 then a band of crystalline rocks1 while the central core1 so to say1 of the ,alps1 as for instance at ,st4 ,gotthard1 consists mainly of gneiss or granite4 ,the sedimentary deposits reappear south of the ,alps1 and in the opinion of some high authorities1 as1 for instance1 of ,bonney and ,heim1 passed continuously over the intervening regions4 ,the last great upheaval commenced after the ,miocene period1 and continued through the ,pliocene4 ,miocene strata attain in the ,righi a height of #fjjj feet4 ,for neither the hills nor the mountains are everlasting1 or of the same age4 ,the ,welsh mountains are older than the ,vosges1 the ,vosges than the ,pyrenees1 the ,pyrenees than the ,alps1 and the ,alps than the ,andes1 which indeed are still rising2 so that if our ,english mountains are less imposing so far as mere height is concerned1 they are most venerable from their great antiquity4 ,but though the existing ,alps are in one sense1 and speaking geologically1 very recent1 there is strong reason for believing that there was a chain of lofty mountains there long previously4 ,the first indication1 says ,judd1 of the existence of a line of weakness in this portion of the earth's crust is found towards the close of the ,permian period1 when a series of volcanic outbursts on the very grandest scale took place along a line nearly following that of the present ,alps1 and led to the formation of a range of mountains1 which1 in his opinion1 must have been at least #hjjj to #ijjj feet high4 ,ramsay and ,bonney have also given strong reasons for believing that the present line of the ,alps was1 at a still earlier period1 occupied by a range of mountains no less lofty than those of to-day4 ,thus then1 though the present ,alps are comparatively speaking so recent1 there are good grounds for the belief that they were preceded by one or more earlier ranges1 once as lofty as they are now1 but which were more or less completely levelled by the action of air and water1 just as is happening now to the present mountain ranges4 ,movements of elevation and subsidence are still going on in various parts of the world4 ,scandinavia is rising in the north1 and sinking at the south4 ,south ,america is rising on the west and sinking in the east1 rotating in fact on its axis1 like some stupendous pendulum4 ,the crushing and folding of the strata to which mountain chains are due1 and of which the ,alps afford such marvellous illustrations1 necessarily give rise to ,earthquakes1 and the slight shocks so frequent in parts of ,switzerland#dd appear to indicate that the forces which have raised the ,alps are not yet entirely spent1 and that slow subterranean movements are still in progress along the flanks of the mountains4 ,but if the mountain chains are due to compression1 the present valleys are mainly the result of denudation4 ,as soon as a mountain range is once raised1 all nature seems to conspire against it4 ,sun and ,frost1 ,heat and ,cold1 ,air and ,water1 ,ice and ,snow1 every plant1 from the ,lichen to the ,oak1 and every animal1 from the ,worm to ,man himself1 combine to attack it4 ,water1 however1 is the most powerful agent of all4 ,the autumn rains saturate every pore and cranny2 the water as it freezes cracks and splits the hardest rocks2 while the spring sun melts the snow and swells the rivers1 which in their turn carry off the debris to the plains4 ,perhaps1 however1 it would after all be more correct to say that ,nature1 like some great artist1 carves the shapeless block into form1 and endows the rude mass with life and beauty4 ,what more1 said ,hutton long ago1 is required to explain the configuration of our mountains and valleys8 ,nothing but time4 ,it is not any part of the process that will be disputed2 but1 after allowing all the parts1 the whole will be denied2 and for what8 ,only because we are not disposed to allow that quantity of time which the absolution of so much wasted mountain might require4 ,the tops of the ,swiss mountains stand1 and since their elevation have probably always stood1 above the range of ice1 and hence their bold peaks4 ,in ,scotland1 on the contrary1 and still more in ,norway1 the sheet of ice which once1 as is the case with ,greenland now1 spread over the whole country1 has shorn off the summits and reduced them almost to gigantic bosses2 while in ,wales the same causes1 together with the resistless action of time--for1 as already mentioned1 the ,welsh hills are far older than the mountains of ,switzerland--has ground down the once lofty summits and reduced them to mere stumps1 such as1 if the present forces are left to work out their results1 the ,swiss mountains will be thousands1 or rather tens of thousands1 of years hence4 ,the snow line in ,switzerland is generally given as being between #hejj and #ijjj feet4 ,above this level the snow or nv gradually accumulates until it forms glaciers1 solid rivers of ice which descend more or less far down the valleys4 ,no one who has not seen a glacier can possibly realise what they are like4 ,fig4 #bj represents the glacier of the ,blmlis ,alp1 and the ,plate the ,mer de ,glace4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bj4--;,glacier of the ,blmlis ,alp4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,mer ,,de ,,glace4 ,to face page #bbi4 ,they are often very beautiful4 ,mount ,beerenberg1 says ,lord ,dufferin1 in size1 colour1 and effect far surpassed anything ,i had anticipated4 ,the glaciers were quite an unexpected element of beauty4 ,imagine a mighty river1 of as great a volume as the ,thames1 started down the side of a mountain1 bursting over every impediment1 whirled into a thousand eddies1 tumbling and raging on from ledge to ledge in quivering cataracts of foam1 then suddenly struck rigid by a power so instantaneous in its action that even the froth and fleeting wreaths of spray have stiffened to the immutability of sculpture4 ,unless you had seen it1 it would be almost impossible to conceive the strangeness of the contrast between the actual tranquillity of these silent crystal rivers and the violent descending energy impressed upon their exterior4 ,you must remember too all this is upon a scale of such prodigious magnitude1 that when we succeeded subsequently in approaching the spot--where with a leap like that of ,niagara one of these glaciers plunges down into the sea--the eye1 no longer able to take in its fluvial character1 was content to rest in simple astonishment at what then appeared a lucent precipice of grey-green ice1 rising to the height of several hundred feet above the masts of the vessel4#de ,the cliffs above glaciers shower down fragments of rock which gradually accumulate at the sides and at the end of the glaciers1 forming mounds known as moraines4 ,many ancient moraines occur far beyond the present region of glaciers4 ,in considering the condition of alpine valleys we must remember that the glaciers formerly descended much further than they do at present4 ,the glaciers of the ,rhone for instance occupied the whole of the ,valais1 filled the ,lake of ,geneva--or rather the site now occupied by that lake--and rose #bjjj feet up the slopes of the ,jura2 the ,upper ,ticino1 and contributory valleys1 were occupied by another which filled the basin of the ,lago ,maggiore2 a third occupied the valley of the ,dora ,baltea1 and has left a moraine at ,ivrea some twenty miles long1 and which rises no less than #aejj feet above the present level of the river4 ,the ,scotch and ,scandinavian valleys were similarly filled by rivers of ice1 which indeed at one time covered the whole country with an immense sheet1 as ,greenland is at present4 ,enormous blocks of stone1 the ,pierre ,niton at ,geneva and the ,pierre ,bot above ,neuchtel1 for instance1 were carried by these glaciers for miles and miles2 and many of the stones in the ,norfolk cliffs were brought by ice from ,norway 7perhaps1 however1 by ,icebergs71 across what is now the ,german ,ocean4 ,again wherever the rocks are hard enough to have withstood the weather1 we find them polished and ground1 just as1 and even more so than1 those at the ends and sides of existing glaciers4 ,the most magnificent glacier tracks in the ,alps are1 in ,ruskin's opinion1 those on the rocks of the great angle opposite ,martigny2 the most interesting those above the channel of the ,trient between ,valorsine and the valley of the ,rhone4 ,in ,great ,britain ,i know no better illustration of ice action than is to be seen on the road leading down from ,glen ,quoich to ,loch ,hourn1 one of the most striking examples of desolate and savage scenery in ,scotland4 ,its name in ,celtic is said to mean the ,lake of ,hell4 ,all along the roadside are smoothed and polished hummocks of rock1 most of them deeply furrowed with approximately parallel stri1 presenting a gentle slope on the upper end1 and a steep side below1 clearly showing the direction of the great ice flow4 ,many of the upper ,swiss valleys contain lakes1 as1 for instance1 that of the ,upper ,rhone1 the ,lake of ,geneva1 of the ,reuss1 the ,lake of ,lucerne1 of the ,rhine1 that of ,constance4 ,these lakes are generally very deep4 ,the colour of the upper rivers1 which are white with the diluvium from the glaciers1 is itself evidence of the erosive powers which they exercise4 ,this finely-divided matter is1 however1 precipitated in the lakes1 which1 as well as the rivers issuing from them1 are a beautiful rich blue4 ,is it not probable that this action of finely-divided matter may have some influence on the colour of some of the ,swiss lakes--as that of ,geneva for example8 ,this lake is simply an expansion of the river ,rhone1 which rushes from the end of the ,rhone glacier1 as the ,arveiron does from the end of the ,mer de ,glace4 ,numerous other streams join the ,rhone right and left during its downward course2 and these feeders1 being almost wholly derived from glaciers1 join the ,rhone charged with the finer matter which these in their motion have ground from the rocks over which they have passed4 ,but the glaciers must grind the mass beneath them to particles of all sizes1 and ,i cannot help thinking that the finest of them must remain suspended in the lake throughout its entire length4 ,faraday has shown that a precipitate of gold may require months to sink to the bottom of a bottle not more than five inches high1 and in all probability it would require ages of calm subsidence to bring all the particles which the ,lake of ,geneva contains to its bottom4 ,it seems certainly worthy of examination whether such particles suspended in the water contribute to the production of that magnificent blue which has excited the admiration of all who have seen it under favourable circumstances4#df ,among the ,swiss mountains themselves each has its special character4 ,tyndall thus describes a view in the ,alps1 certainly one of the most beautiful--that1 namely1 from the summit of the gischhorn4 ,skies and summits are to-day without a cloud1 and no mist or turbidity interferes with the sharpness of the outlines4 ,jungfrau1 ,monk1 ,eiger1 ,trugberg1 cliffy ,strahlgrat1 stately lady-like ,aletschhorn1 all grandly pierce the empyrean4 ,like a ,saul of ,mountains1 the ,finsteraarhorn overtops all his neighbours2 then we have the ,oberaarhorn1 with the riven glacier of ,viesch rolling from his shoulders4 ,below is the ,mrjelin ,see1 with its crystal precipices and its floating icebergs1 snowy white1 sailing on a blue green sea4 ,beyond is the range which divides the ,valais from ,italy4 ,sweeping round1 the vision meets an aggregate of peaks which look as fledglings to their mother towards the mighty ,dom4 ,then come the repellent crags of ,mont ,cervin2 the ideal of moral savagery1 of wild untameable ferocity1 mingling involuntarily with our contemplation of the gloomy pile4 ,next comes an object1 scarcely less grand1 conveying1 it may be1 even a deeper impression of majesty and might than the ,matterhorn itself--the ,weisshorn1 perhaps the most splendid object in the ,alps4 ,but beauty is associated with its force1 and we think of it1 not as cruel1 but as grand and strong4 ,further to the right the great ,combin lifts up his bare head2 other peaks crowd around him2 while at the extremity of the curve round which our gaze has swept rises the sovran crown of ,mont ,blanc4 ,and now1 as day sinks1 scrolls of pearly clouds draw themselves around the mountain crests1 being wafted from them into the distant air4 ,they are without colour of any kind2 still1 by grace of form1 and as the embodiment of lustrous light and most tender shade1 their beauty is not to be described4#dg ,,volcanoes ,volcanoes belong to a totally different series of mountains4 ,it is practically impossible to number the ,volcanoes on our earth4 ,humboldt enumerated #bbc1 which ,keith ,johnston raised to nearly #cjj4 ,some1 no doubt1 are always active1 but in the majority the eruptions are occasional1 and though some are undoubtedly now extinct1 it is impossible in all cases to distinguish those which are only in repose from those whose day of activity is over4 ,then1 again1 the question would arise1 which should be regarded as mere subsidiary cones and which are separate volcanoes4 ,the slopes of ,etna present more than #gjj small cones1 and on ,hawaii there are several thousands4 ,in fact1 most of the very lofty volcanoes present more or less lateral cones4 ,the molten matter1 welling up through some fissure1 gradually builds itself up into a cone1 often of the most beautiful regularity1 such as the gigantic peaks of ,chimporazo1 ,cotopaxi 7,fig4 #ba71 and ,fusiyama1 and hence it is that the crater is so often at1 or very near1 the summit4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ba4--;,cotopaxi4 ,perhaps no spectacle in ,nature is more magnificent than a ,volcano in activity4 ,it has been my good fortune to have stood more than once at the edge of the crater of ,vesuvius during an eruption1 to have watched the lava seething below1 while enormous stones were shot up high into the air4 ,such a spectacle can never be forgotten4 ,the most imposing crater in the world is probably that of ,kilauea1 at a height of about #djjj feet on the side of ,mouna ,loa1 in the ,island of ,hawaii4 ,it has a diameter of #b miles1 and is elliptic in outline1 with a longer axis of about #c1 and a circumference of about #g miles4 ,the interior is a great lake of lava1 the level of which is constantly changing4 ,generally1 it stands about #hjj feet below the edge1 and the depth is about #adjj feet4 ,the heat is intense1 and1 especially at night1 when the clouds are coloured scarlet by the reflection from the molten lava1 the effect is said to be magnificent4 ,gradually the lava mounts in the crater until it either bursts through the side or runs over the edge1 after which the crater remains empty1 sometimes for years4 ,a lava stream flows down the slope of the mountain like a burning river1 at first rapidly1 but as it cools1 scori gradually form1 and at length the molten matter covers itself completely 7,fig4 #bb71 both above and at the sides1 with a solid crust1 within which1 as in a tunnel1 it continues to flow slowly as long as it is supplied from the source1 here and there breaking through the crust which1 as continually1 re-forms in front4 ,thus the terrible1 inexorable river of fire slowly descends1 destroying everything in its course4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bb4--,lava ,stream4 ,the stream of lava which burst from ,mouna ,loa in #ahhe had a length of #gj miles2 that of ,skaptar-,jokul in ,iceland in #aghc had a length of #ej miles1 and a maximum depth of nearly #ejj feet4 ,it has been calculated that the mass of lava equalled that of ,mont ,blanc4 ,the stones1 ashes1 and mud ejected during eruptions are even more destructive than the rivers of lava4 ,in #ahea ,tomboro1 a volcano on the ,island of ,sumbava1 cost more lives than fell in the battle of ,waterloo4 ,the earthquake of ,lisbon in #agee destroyed #fj1jjj persons4 ,during the earthquake of ,riobamba and the mud eruption of ,tunguragua1 and again in that of ,krakatoa1 it is estimated that the number who perished was between #cj1jjj and #dj1jjj4 ,at the earthquake of ,antioch in #ebf no less than #bjj1jjj persons are said to have lost their lives4 ,perhaps the most destructive eruption of modern times has been that on ,cosequina4 ,for #be miles it covered the ground with muddy water #af feet in depth4 ,the dust and ashes formed a dense cloud1 extending over many miles1 some of it being carried #bj degrees to the west4 ,the total mass ejected has been estimated at #fj milliards of square yards4 ,stromboli1 in the ,mediterranean 7,fig4 #bc71 though only #bejj feet in height1 is very imposing from its superb regularity1 and its roots plunge below the surface to a depth of #djjj feet4 ,it is1 moreover1 very interesting from the regularity of its action1 which has a period of #e minutes or a little less4 ,on looking down into the crater one sees at a depth of say #cjj feet a seething mass of red-hot lava2 this gradually rises1 and then explodes1 throwing up a cloud of vapour and stones1 after which it sinks again4 ,so regular is it that the ,volcano has been compared to a flashing lighthouse1 and this wonderful process has been going on for ages4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bc4--,stromboli1 viewed from the north-west1 ,april #ahgd4 ,though long extinct1 volcanoes once existed in the ,british ,isles2 ,arthur's ,seat1 near ,edinburgh1 for instance1 appears to be the funnel of a small volcano1 belonging to the ,carboniferous period4 ,the summit of a volcanic mountain is sometimes entirely blown away4 ,between my first two visits to ,vesuvius #bjj feet of the mountain had thus disappeared4 ,vesuvius itself stands in a more ancient crater1 part of which still remains1 and is now known as ,somma1 the greater portion having disappeared in the great eruption of #gi1 when the mountain1 waking from its long sleep1 destroyed ,herculaneum and ,pompeii4 ,as regards the origin of volcanoes there have been two main theories4 ,impressed by the magnitude and grandeur of the phenomena1 enhanced as they are by their destructive character1 many have been disposed to regard the craters of volcanoes as gigantic chimneys1 passing right through the solid crust of the globe1 and communicating with a central fire4 ,recent researches1 however1 have indicated that1 grand and imposing as they are1 volcanoes must yet be regarded as due mainly to local and superficial causes4 ,a glance at the map shows that volcanoes are almost always situated on1 or near1 the sea coast4 ,from the interior of continents they are entirely wanting4 ,the number of active volcanoes in the ,andes1 contrasted with their absence in the ,alps and ,ourals1 the ,himalayas1 and ,central ,asian chains1 is very striking4 ,indeed1 the ,pacific ,ocean is encircled1 as ,ritter has pointed out1 by a ring of fire4 ,beginning with ,new ,zealand1 we have the ,volcanoes of ,tongariro1 ,whakaii1 etc42 thence the circle passes through the ,fiji ,islands1 ,solomon ,islands1 ,new ,guinea1 ,timor1 ,flores1 ,sumbava1 ,lombock1 ,java1 ,sumatra1 the ,philippines1 ,japan1 the ,aleutian ,islands1 along the ,rocky ,mountains1 ,mexico1 ,peru1 and ,chili1 to ,tierra del ,fuego1 and1 in the far south1 to the two great ,volcanoes of ,erebus and ,terror on ,victoria ,land4 ,we know that the contraction of the ,earth's surface with the strains and fractures1 the compression and folds1 which must inevitably result1 is still in operation1 and must give rise to areas of high temperature1 and consequently to volcanoes4 ,we must also remember that the real mountain chains of our earth are the continents1 compared to which even the ,alps and ,andes are mere wrinkles4 ,it is along the lines of the great mountain chains1 that is to say1 along the main coast lines1 rather than in the centres of the continents1 which may be regarded as comparatively quiescent1 that we should naturally expect to find the districts of greatest heat1 and this is perhaps why volcanoes are generally distributed along the coast lines4 ,another reason for regarding ,volcanoes as local phenomena is that many even of those comparatively near one another act quite independently4 ,this is so with ,kilauea and ,mouna ,loa1 both on the small island of ,hawaii4 ,again1 if volcanoes were in connection with a great central sea of fire1 the eruptions must follow the same laws as regulate the tides4 ,this1 however1 is not the case4 ,there are indeed indications of the existence of slight tides in the molten lake which underlies ,vesuvius1 and during the eruption of #ahfe there was increased activity twice a day1 as we should expect to find in any great fluid reservoir1 but very different indeed from what must have been the case if the mountain was in connection with a central ocean of molten matter4 ,indeed1 unless the crust of our earth was of great thickness we should be subject to perpetual earthquakes4 ,no doubt these are far more frequent than is generally supposed2 indeed1 with our improved instruments it can be shown that instead of occasional vibrations1 with long intermediate periods of rest1 we have in reality short intervals of rest with long periods of vibration1 or rather perhaps that the crust of the earth is in constant tremor1 with more violent oscillation from time to time4 ,it appears1 moreover1 that earthquakes are not generally deep-seated4 ,the point at which the shock is vertical can be ascertained1 and it is also possible in some cases to determine the angle at which it emerges elsewhere4 ,when this has been done it has always been found that the seat of disturbance must have been within #cj geographical miles of the surface4 ,yet1 though we cannot connect volcanic action with the central heat of the earth1 but must regard it as a minor and local manifestation of force1 volcanoes still remain among the grandest1 most awful1 and at the same time most magnificent spectacles which the earth can afford4 ,,footnotes3 #ch ,ruskin4 #ci ,the ,glaciers of the ,alps4 #dj ,ossian4 #da ,bullar1 ,azores4 #db ,tennyson4 #dc ,see especially ,heim's great work1 ,unt4 4 d4 ,mechanismus der ,gebirgsbildung4 #dd ,in the last #aej years more than #ajjj are recorded4 #de ,letters from ,high ,latitudes4 #df ,glaciers of the ,alps4 #dg ,mountaineering in #ahfa4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,water ,of all inorganic substances1 acting in their own proper nature1 and without assistance or combination1 water is the most wonderful4 ,if we think of it as the source of all the changefulness and beauty which we have seen in the clouds2 then as the instrument by which the earth we have contemplated was modelled into symmetry1 and its crags chiselled into grace2 then as1 in the form of snow1 it robes the mountains it has made1 with that transcendent light which we could not have conceived if we had not seen2 then as it exists in the foam of the torrent1 in the iris which spans it1 in the morning mist which rises from it1 in the deep crystalline pools which mirror its hanging shore1 in the broad lake and glancing river1 finally1 in that which is to all human minds the best emblem of unwearied1 unconquerable power1 the wild1 various1 fantastic1 tameless unity of the sea2 what shall we compare to this mighty1 this universal element1 for glory and for beauty8 or how shall we follow its eternal cheerfulness of feeling8 ,it is like trying to paint a soul4--,,ruskin4 ,illustration3 ,,rydal ,,water4 ,to face page #bea4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,water ,in the legends of ancient times running water was proof against all sorcery and witchcraft3 ,no spell could stay the living tide ,or charm the rushing stream4#dh ,there was much truth as well as beauty in this idea4 ,flowing waters1 moreover1 have not only power to wash out material stains1 but they also clear away the cobwebs of the brain--the results of over incessant work--and restore us to health and strength4 ,snowfields and glaciers1 mountain torrents1 sparkling brooks1 and stately rivers1 meres and lakes1 and last1 not least1 the great ocean itself1 all alike possess this magic power4 ,when ,i would beget content1 says ,izaak ,walton1 and increase confidence in the power and wisdom and providence of ,almighty ,god1 ,i will walk the meadows by some gliding stream1 and there contemplate the lilies that take no care1 and those very many other little living creatures that are not only created1 but fed 7man knows not how7 by the goodness of the ,god of ,nature1 and therefore trust in ,him2 and in his quaint old language he craves a special blessing on all those that are true lovers of virtue1 and dare trust in ,his ,providence1 and be quiet1 and go a angling4 ,at the water's edge flowers are especially varied and luxuriant1 so that the banks of a river are a long natural garden of tall and graceful grasses and sedges1 the ,meadow ,sweet1 the ,flowering ,rush1 the sweet ,flag1 the ,bull ,rush1 ,purple ,loosestrife1 ,hemp ,agrimony1 ,dewberry1 ,forget-me-not1 and a hundred more1 backed by ,willows1 ,alders1 ,poplars1 and other trees4 ,the ,animal world1 if less conspicuous to the eye1 is quite as fascinating to the imagination4 ,here and there a speckled ,trout may be detected 7rather by the shadow than the substance7 suspended in the clear water1 or darting across a shallow2 if we are quiet we may see ,water ,hens or ,wild ,ducks swimming among the lilies1 a ,kingfisher sitting on a branch or flashing away like a gleam of light2 a solemn ,heron stands maybe at the water's edge1 or slowly rises flapping his great wings2 ,water ,rats1 neat and clean little creatures1 very different from their coarse brown namesakes of the land1 are abundant everywhere2 nor need we even yet quite despair of seeing the ,otter himself4 ,insects of course are gay1 lively1 and innumerable2 but after all the richest fauna is that visible only with a microscope4 ,to gaze1 says ,dr4 ,hudson1 into that wonderful world which lies in a drop of water1 crossed by some stems of green weed1 to see transparent living mechanism at work1 and to gain some idea of its modes of action1 to watch a tiny speck that can sail through the prick of a needle's point2 to see its crystal armour flashing with ever varying tint1 its head glorious with the halo of its quivering cilia2 to see it gliding through the emerald stems1 hunting for its food1 snatching at its prey1 fleeing from its enemy1 chasing its mate 7the fiercest of our passions blazing in an invisible speck72 to see it whirling in a mad dance1 to the sound of its own music1 the music of its happiness1 the exquisite happiness of living--can any one1 who has once enjoyed this sight1 ever turn from it to mere books and drawings1 without the sense that he has left all ,fairyland behind him8#di ,the study of ,natural ,history has indeed the special advantage of carrying us into the country and the open air4 ,lakes are even more restful than rivers or the sea4 ,rivers are always flowing1 though it may be but slowly2 the sea may rest awhile1 now and then1 but is generally full of action and energy2 while lakes seem to sleep and dream4 ,lakes in a beautiful country are like silver ornaments on a lovely dress1 like liquid gems in a beautiful setting1 or bright eyes in a lovely face4 ,indeed as we gaze down on a lake from some hill or cliff it almost looks solid1 like some great blue crystal4 ,illustration3 ,,windermere4 ,to face page #bed4 ,it is not merely for purposes of commerce or convenience that men love to live near rivers4 ,let me live harmlessly1 and near the brink ,of ,trent or ,avon have my dwelling-place2 ,where ,i may see my quill1 or cork1 down sink1 ,with eager bite of pike1 or bleak1 or dace2 ,and on the world and my ,creator think3 ,while some men strive ill-gotten goods t' embrace3 ,and others spend their time in base excess ,of wine2 or worse1 in war1 or wantonness4 ,let them that will1 these pastimes still pursue1 ,and on such pleasing fancies feed their fill3 ,so ,i the fields and meadows green may view ,and daily by fresh rivers walk at will1 ,among the daisies and the violets blue1 ,red hyacinth and yellow daffodil4#ej ,it is interesting and delightful to trace a river from its source to the sea4 ,beginning at the hill-tops1 says ,geikie1 we first meet with the spring or 'well-eye1' from which the river takes its rise4 ,a patch of bright green1 mottling the brown heathy slope1 shows where the water comes to the surface1 a treacherous covering of verdure often concealing a deep pool beneath4 ,from this source the rivulet trickles along the grass and heath1 which it soon cuts through1 reaching the black1 peaty layer below1 and running in it for a short way as in a gutter4 ,excavating its channel in the peat1 it comes down to the soil1 often a stony earth bleached white by the peat4 ,deepening and widening the channel as it gathers force with the increasing slope1 the water digs into the coating of drift or loose decomposed rock that covers the hillside4 ,in favourable localities a narrow precipitous gully1 twenty or thirty feet deep1 may thus be scooped out in the course of a few years4 ,if1 however1 we trace one of the ,swiss rivers to its source we shall generally find that it begins in a snow field or nv nestled in a shoulder of some great mountain4 ,below the nv lies a glacier1 on1 in1 and under which the water runs in a thousand little streams1 eventually emerging at the end1 in some cases forming a beautiful blue cavern1 though in others the end of the glacier is encumbered and concealed by earth and stones4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bd4--,upper ,valley of ,st4 ,gotthard4 ,the uppermost ,alpine valleys are perhaps generally1 though by no means always1 a little desolate and severe1 as1 for instance1 that of ,st4 ,gotthard 7,fig4 #bd74 ,the sides are clothed with rough pasture1 which is flowery indeed1 though of course the flowers are not visible at a distance1 interspersed with live rock and fallen masses1 while along the bottom rushes a white torrent4 ,the snowy peaks are generally more or less hidden by the shoulders of the hills4 ,the valleys further down widen and become more varied and picturesque4 ,the snowy peaks and slopes are more often visible1 the alps or pastures to which the cows are taken in summer1 are greener and dotted with the huts or chlets of the cow-herds1 while the tinkling of the cowbells comes to one from time to time1 softened by distance1 and suggestive of mountain rambles4 ,below the alps there is generally a steeper part clothed with ,firs or with ,larches and ,pines1 some of which seem as if they were scaling the mountains in regiments1 preceded by a certain number of skirmishers4 ,below the fir woods again are ,beeches1 ,chestnuts1 and other deciduous trees1 while the central cultivated portion of the valley is partly arable1 partly pasture1 the latter differing from our meadows in containing a greater variety of flowers--,campanulas1 ,wild ,geraniums1 ,chervil1 ,ragged ,robin1 ,narcissus1 etc4 ,here and there is a brown village1 while more or less in the centre hurries along1 with a delightful rushing sound1 the mountain torrent1 to which the depth1 if not the very existence of the valley1 is mainly due4 ,the meadows are often carefully irrigated1 and the water power is also used for mills1 the streams seeming to rush on1 as ,ruskin says1 eager for their work at the mill1 or their ministry to the meadows4 ,apart from the action of running water1 snow and frost are continually disintegrating the rocks1 and at the base of almost any steep cliff may be seen a slope of debris 7as in ,figs4 #be1 #bf74 ,this stands at a regular angle--the angle of repose--and unless it is continually removed by a stream at the base1 gradually creeps up higher and higher1 until at last the cliff entirely disappears4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #be4--,section of a river valley4 ,the dotted line shows a slope or talus of debris4 ,sometimes the two sides of the valley approach so near that there is not even room for the river and the road3 in that case ,nature claims the supremacy1 and the road has to be carried in a cutting1 or perhaps in a tunnel through the rock4 ,in other cases ,nature is not at one with herself4 ,in many places the debris from the rocks above would reach right across the valley and dam up the stream4 ,then arises a struggle between rock and river1 but the river is always victorious in the end2 even if dammed back for a while1 it concentrates its forces1 rises up the rampart of rock1 rushes over triumphantly1 resumes its original course1 and gradually carries the enemy away4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bf4--,valley of the ,rhone1 with the waterfall of ,sallenches1 showing talus of debris4 ,another prominent feature in many valleys is afforded by the old river1 or lake1 terraces1 which were formed at a time when the river ran at a level far above its present bed4 ,thus many a mountain valley gives some such section as the following4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bg4--;,a1 present river valley2 ,b1 old river terrace4 ,first1 a face of rock1 very steep1 and in some places almost perpendicular2 secondly1 a regular talus of fallen rocks1 stones1 etc41 as shown in the view of the ,rhone ,valley 7,fig4 #bf71 which takes what is known as the slope of repose1 at an angle which depends on the character of the material4 ,as a rule for loose rock fragments it may be taken roughly to be an angle of about #de4 ,then an irregular slope followed in many places by one or more terraces1 and lastly the present bed of the river4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bh4--;,diagram of an ,alpine valley showing a river cone4 ,front view4 ,the width or narrowness of the valley in relation to its depth depends greatly on the condition of the rocks1 the harder and tougher they are the narrower as a rule being the valley4 ,from time to time a side stream enters the main valley4 ,this is itself composed of many smaller rivulets4 ,if the lateral valleys are steep1 the streams bring with them1 especially after rains1 large quantities of earth and stones4 ,when1 however1 they reach the main valley1 the rapidity of the current being less1 their power of transport also diminishes1 and they spread out the material which they carry down in a depressed cone 7,figs4 #bh1 #bi1 #ca1 #cb74 ,a side stream with its terminal cone1 when seen from the opposite side of the valley1 presents the appearance shown in ,figs4 #bh1 #ca1 or1 if we are looking down the valley1 as in ,figs4 #bi1 #cb1 the river being often driven to one side of the main valley1 as1 for instance1 is the case in the ,valais1 near ,sion1 where the ,rhone 7,fig4 #cj7 is driven out of its course by1 and forms a curve round1 the cone brought down by the torrent of the ,borgne4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bi4--;,diagram of an ,alpine valley1 showing a river cone4 ,lateral view4 ,sometimes two lateral valleys 7see ,plate7 come down nearly opposite one another1 so that the cones meet1 as1 for instance1 some little way below ,vernayaz1 and1 indeed1 in several other places in the ,valais 7,fig4 #ca74 ,or more permanent lakes may be due to a ridge of rock running across the valley1 as1 for instance1 just below ,st4 ,maurice in the ,valais4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cj4 ,illustration3 ,,view ,,in ,,the ,,valais ,,below ,,st4 ,,maurice4 ,to face page #bff4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ca4--,view in the ,rhone ,valley1 showing a lateral cone4 ,almost all river valleys contain1 or have contained1 in their course one or more lakes1 and where a river falls into a lake a cone like those just described is formed1 and projects into the lake4 ,thus on the ,lake of ,geneva1 between ,vevey and ,villeneuve 7see ,fig4 #cc71 there are several such promontories1 each marking the place where a stream falls into the lake4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cb4--,view in the ,rhone ,valley1 showing the slope of a river cone4 ,the ,rhone itself has not only filled up what was once the upper end of the lake1 but has built out a strip of land into the water4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cc4--,shore of the ,lake of ,geneva1 near ,vevey4 ,that the lake formerly extended some distance up the ,valais no one can doubt who looks at the flat ground about ,villeneuve4 ,the ,plate opposite1 from a photograph taken above ,vevey1 shows this clearly4 ,it is quite evident that the lake must formerly have extended further up the valley1 and that it has been filled up by material brought down by the ,rhone1 a process which is still continuing4 ,at the other end of the lake the river rushes out #ae feet deep of not flowing1 but flying water2 not water neither--melted glacier matter1 one should call it2 the force of the ice is in it1 and the wreathing of the clouds1 the gladness of the sky1 and the countenance of time4#ea ,illustration3 ,,view ,,up ,,the ,,valais ,,from ,,the ,,lake ,,of ,,geneva4 ,to face page #bgj4 ,in flat countries the habits of rivers are very different4 ,for instance1 in parts of ,norfolk there are many small lakes or broads in a network of rivers--the ,bure1 the ,yare1 the ,ant1 the ,waveney1 etc4--which do not rush on with the haste of some rivers1 or the stately flow of others which are steadily set to reach the sea1 but rather seem like rivers wandering in the meadows on a holiday4 ,they have often no natural banks1 but are bounded by dense growths of tall grasses1 ,bulrushes1 ,reeds1 and ,sedges1 interspersed with the spires of the purple ,loosestrife1 ,willow ,herb1 ,hemp ,agrimony1 and other flowers1 while the fields are very low and protected by dykes1 so that the red cattle appear to be browsing below the level of the water2 and as the rivers take most unexpected turns1 the sailing boats often seem 7,fig4 #cd7 as if they were in the middle of the fields4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cd4--,view in the district of the ,broads1 ,norfolk4 ,at present these rivers are restrained in their courses by banks2 when left free they are continually changing their beds4 ,their courses at first sight seem to follow no rule1 but1 as it is termed1 from a celebrated river of ,asia ,minor1 to meander along without aim or object1 though in fact they follow very definite laws4 ,finally1 when the river at length reaches the sea1 it in many cases spreads out in the form of a fan1 forming a very flat cone or delta1 as it is called1 from the ,greek capital ,greek3 ,delta1 a name first applied to that of the ,nile1 and afterwards extended to other rivers4 ,this is due to the same cause1 and resembles1 except in size1 the comparatively minute cones of mountain streams4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ce4 ,fig4 #ce represents the delta of the ,po1 and it will be observed that ,adria1 once a great port1 and from which the ,adriatic was named1 is now more than #bj miles from the sea4 ,perhaps the most remarkable case is that of the ,mississippi 7,fig4 #cf71 the mouths of which project into the sea like a hand1 or like the petals of a flower4 ,for miles the mud is too soft to support trees1 but is covered by sedges 7,miegea72 the banks of mud gradually become too soft and mobile even for them4 ,the pilots who navigate ships up the river live in frail houses resting on planks1 and kept in place by anchors4 ,still further1 and the banks of the ,mississippi1 if banks they can be called1 are mere strips of reddish mud1 intersected from time to time by transverse streams of water1 which gradually separate them into patches4 ,these become more and more liquid1 until the land1 river1 and sea merge imperceptibly into one another4 ,the river is so muddy that it might almost be called land1 and the mud so saturated by water that it might well be called sea1 so that one can hardly say whether a given spot is on the continent1 in the river1 or on the open ocean4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cf4 ,,footnotes3 #dh ,leyden4 #di ,dr4 ,hudson1 ,address to the ,microscopical ,society1 #ahhi4 #ej ,f4 ,davors4 #ea ,ruskin4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,rivers ,,and ,,lakes ,,on ,,the ,,directions ,,of ,,rivers ,in the last chapter ,i have alluded to the wanderings of rivers within the limits of their own valleys2 we have now to consider the causes which have determined the directions of the valleys themselves4 ,if a tract of country were raised up in the form of a boss or dome1 the rain which fell on it would partly sink in1 partly run away to the lower ground4 ,the least inequality in the surface would determine the first directions of the streams1 which would carry down any loose material1 and thus form little channels1 which would be gradually deepened and enlarged4 ,it is as difficult for a river as for a man to get out of a groove4 ,in such a case the rivers would tend to radiate with more or less regularity from the centre or axis of the dome1 as1 for instance1 in our ,english lake district 7,fig4 #cg74 ,derwent ,water1 ,thirlmere1 ,coniston ,water1 and ,windermere1 run approximately ,n4 and ,s42 ,crummock ,water1 ,loweswater1 and ,buttermere ,n4,w4 by ,s4,e42 ,waste ,water1 ,ullswater1 and ,hawes ,water ,n4,e4 by ,s4,w42 while ,ennerdale ,water lies nearly ,e4 by ,w4 ,can we account in any way1 and if so how1 for these varied directions8 ,the mountains of ,cumberland and ,westmoreland form a more or less oval boss1 the axis of which1 though not straight1 runs practically from ,e4,n4,e4 to ,w4,s4,w41 say from ,scaw ,fell to ,shap ,fell2 and a sketch map shows us almost at a glance that ,derwent ,water1 ,thirlmere1 ,ullswater1 ,coniston ,water1 and ,windermere run at right angles to this axis2 ,ennerdale ,water is just where the boss ends and the mountains disappear2 while ,crummock ,water and ,waste ,water lie at the intermediate angles4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cg4--,map of the ,lake ,district4 ,so much then for the direction4 ,we have still to consider the situation and origin1 and it appears that ,ullswater1 ,coniston ,water1 the ,river ,dudden1 ,waste ,water1 and ,crummock ,water lie along the lines of old faults1 which no doubt in the first instance determined the flow of the water4 ,take another case4 ,in the ,jura the valleys are obviously 7see ,fig4 #ah7 in many cases due to the folding of the strata4 ,it seldom happens1 however1 that the case is so simple4 ,if the elevation is considerable the strata are often fractured1 and fissures are produced4 ,again if the part elevated contains layers of more than one character1 this at once establishes differences4 ,take1 for instance1 the ,weald of ,kent 7,figs4 #ch1 #ci74 ,here we have 7omitting minor layers7 four principal strata concerned1 namely1 the ,chalk1 ,greensand1 ,weald ,clay1 and ,hastings ,sands4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ch4--;a1 a1 ,upper ,cretaceous strata1 chiefly ,chalk1 forming the ,north and ,south ,downs2 b1 b1 ,escarpment of ,lower ,greensand1 with a valley between it and the ,chalk2 c1 c1 ,weald ,clay1 forming plains2 d1 ,hills formed of ,hastings ,sand and ,clay4 ,the ,chalk1 etc41 once spread across the country1 as shown in the dotted lines4 ,the axis of elevation runs 7,fig4 #ci7 from ,winchester by ,petersfield1 ,horsham1 and ,winchelsea to ,boulogne1 and as shown in the following section1 taken from ,professor ,ramsay1 we have on each side of the axis two ridges or escarpments1 one that of the ,chalk1 the other that of the ,greensand1 while between the ,chalk and the ,greensand is a valley1 and between the ,greensand and the ridge of ,hastings ,sand an undulating plain1 in each case with a gentle slope from about where the ,london and ,brighton railway crosses the ,weald towards the east4 ,under these circumstances we might have expected that the streams draining the ,weald would have run in the direction of the axis of elevation1 and at the bases of the escarpments1 as in fact the ,rother does for part of its course1 into the sea between the ,north and ,south ,downs1 instead of which as a rule they run north and south1 cutting in some cases directly through the escarpments2 on the north1 for instance1 the ,wye1 the ,mole1 the ,darenth1 the ,medway1 and the ,stour2 and on the south the ,arun1 the ,addur1 the ,ouse1 and the ,cuckmere4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ci4--,map of the ,weald of ,kent4 ,they do not run in faults or cracks1 and it is clear that they could not have excavated their present valleys under circumstances such as now exist4 ,they carry us back indeed to a time when the ,greensand and ,chalk were continued across the ,weald in a great dome1 as shown by the dotted lines in ,fig4 #ch4 ,they then ran down the slope of the dome1 and as the ,chalk and ,greensand gradually weathered back1 a process still in operation1 the rivers deepened and deepened their valleys1 and thus were enabled to keep their original course4 ,other evidence in support of this view is afforded by the presence of gravel beds in some places at the very top of the ,chalk escarpment--beds which were doubtless deposited when1 what is now the summit of a hill1 was part of a continuous slope4 ,the course of the ,thames offers us a somewhat similar instance4 ,it rises on the ,oolites near ,cirencester1 and cuts through the escarpment of the ,chalk between ,wallingford and ,reading4 ,the cutting through the ,chalk has evidently been effected by the river itself4 ,but this could not have happened under existing conditions4 ,we must remember1 however1 that the ,chalk escarpment is gradually moving eastwards4 ,the ,chalk escarpments indeed are everywhere1 though of course only slowly1 crumbling away4 ,between ,farnham and ,guildford the ,chalk is reduced to a narrow ridge known as the ,hog's ,back4 ,in the same way no doubt the area of the ,chalk formerly extended much further west than it does at present1 and1 indeed1 there can be little doubt1 somewhat further west than the source of the ,thames1 almost to the valley of the ,severn4 ,at that time the ,thames took its origin in a ,chalk spring4 ,gradually1 however1 the ,chalk was worn away by the action of weather1 and especially of rain4 ,the river maintained its course while gradually excavating1 and sinking deeper and deeper into1 the ,chalk4 ,at present the river meets the ,chalk escarpment near ,wallingford1 but the escarpment itself is still gradually retreating eastward4 ,so1 again1 the ,elbe cuts right across the ,erz-,gebirge1 the ,rhine through the mountains between ,bingen and ,coblenz1 the ,potomac1 the ,susquehannah1 and the ,delaware through the ,alleghanies4 ,the case of the ,dranse will be alluded to further on 7p4 #bib74 ,in these cases the rivers preceded the mountains4 ,indeed as soon as the land rose above the waters1 rivers would begin their work1 and having done so1 unless the rate of elevation of the mountain exceeded the power of erosion of the river1 the two would proceed simultaneously1 so that the river would not alter its course1 but would cut deeper and deeper as the mountain range gradually rose4 ,rivers then are in many cases older than mountains4 ,moreover1 the mountains are passive1 the rivers active4 ,since it seems to be well established that in ,switzerland a mass1 more than equal to what remains1 has been removed2 and that many of the present mountains are not sites which were originally raised highest1 but those which have suffered least1 it follows that if in some cases the course of the river is due to the direction of the mountain ridges1 on the other hand the direction of some of the present ridges is due to that of the rivers4 ,at any rate it is certain that of the original surface not a trace or a fragment remains in situ4 ,many of our own ,english mountains were once valleys1 and many of our present valleys occupy the sites of former mountain ridges4 ,heim and ,rtimeyer point out that of the two factors which have produced the relief of mountain regions1 the one1 elevation1 is temporary and transitory2 the other1 denudation1 is constant1 and gains therefore finally the upper hand4 ,we must not1 however1 expect too great regularity4 ,the degree of hardness1 the texture1 and the composition of the rocks cause great differences4 ,on the other hand1 if the alteration of level was too rapid1 the result might be greatly to alter the river courses4 ,mr4 ,darwin mentions such a case1 which1 moreover1 is perhaps the more interesting as being evidently very recent4 ,mr4 ,gill1 he says1 mentioned to me a most interesting1 and as far as ,i am aware1 quite unparalleled case1 of a subterranean disturbance having changed the drainage of a country4 ,travelling from ,casma to ,huaraz 7not very far distant from ,lima7 he found a plain covered with ruins and marks of ancient cultivation1 but now quite barren4 ,near it was the dry course of a considerable river1 whence the water for irrigation had formerly been conducted4 ,there was nothing in the appearance of the water-course to indicate that the river had not flowed there a few years previously2 in some parts beds of sand and gravel were spread out2 in others1 the solid rock had been worn into a broad channel1 which in one spot was about #dj yards in breadth and #h feet deep4 ,it is self-evident that a person following up the course of a stream will always ascend at a greater or less inclination4 ,mr4 ,gill therefore1 was much astonished when walking up the bed of this ancient river1 to find himself suddenly going downhill4 ,he imagined that the downward slope had a fall of about #dj or #ej feet perpendicular4 ,we here have unequivocal evidence that a ridge had been uplifted right across the old bed of a stream4 ,from the moment the river course was thus arched1 the water must necessarily have been thrown back1 and a new channel formed4 ,from that moment also the neighbouring plain must have lost its fertilising stream1 and become a desert4#eb ,the strata1 moreover1 often--indeed generally1 as we have seen1 for instance1 in the case of ,switzerland--bear evidence of most violent contortions1 and even where the convulsions were less extreme1 the valleys thus resulting are sometimes complicated by the existence of older valleys formed under previous conditions4 ,in the ,alps then the present configuration of the surface is mainly the result of denudation4 ,if we look at a map of ,switzerland we can trace but little relation between the river courses and the mountain chains4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dj4--,sketch ,map of the ,swiss ,rivers4 ,the rivers1 as a rule 7,fig4 #dj71 run either ,s4,e4 by ,n4,w41 or1 at right angles to this1 ,n4,e4 and ,s4,w4 ,the ,alps themselves follow a somewhat curved line from the ,maritime ,alps1 commencing with the islands of ,hyres1 by ,briancon1 ,martigny1 the ,valais1 ,urseren ,thal1 ,vorder ,rhein1 ,innsbruck1 ,radstadt1 and ,rottenmann to the ,danube1 a little below ,vienna1--at first nearly north and south1 but gradually curving round until it becomes ,s4,w4 by ,n4,e4 ,the central mountains are mainly composed of ,gneiss1 ,granite1 and crystalline ,schists3 the line of junction between these rocks and the secondary and tertiary strata on the north1 runs1 speaking roughly1 from ,hyres to ,grenoble1 and then by ,albertville1 ,sion1 ,chur1 ,inns1 bruck1 ,radstadt1 and ,hieflau1 towards ,vienna4 ,it is followed 7in some part of their course7 by the ,isre1 the ,rhone1 the ,rhine1 the ,inn1 and the ,enns4 ,one of the great folds shortly described in the preceding chapter runs up the ,isre1 along the ,chamouni ,valley1 up the ,rhone1 through the ,urseren ,thal1 down the ,rhine ,valley to ,chur1 along the ,inn nearly to ,kufstein1 and for some distance along the ,enns4 ,thus1 then1 five great rivers have taken advantage of this main fold1 each of them eventually breaking through into a transverse valley4 ,the ,pusterthal in the ,tyrol offers us an interesting case of what is obviously a single valley1 which has1 however1 been slightly raised in the centre1 near ,toblach1 so that from this point the water flows in opposite directions--the ,drau eastward1 and the ,rienz westward4 ,in this case the elevation is single and slight3 in the main valley there are several1 and they are much loftier1 still we may1 ,i think1 regard that of the ,isre from ,chambery to ,albertville1 of the ,rhone from ,martigny to its source1 of the ,urseren ,thal1 of the ,vorder ,rhine from its source to ,chur1 of the ,inn from ,landeck to below ,innsbruck1 even perhaps of the ,enns from ,radstadt to ,hieflau as in one sense a single valley1 due to one of these longitudinal folds1 but interrupted by bosses of gneiss and granite1--one culminating in ,mont ,blanc1 and another in the ,st4 ,gotthard1--which have separated the waters of the ,isre1 the ,rhone1 the ,vorder ,rhine1 the ,inn1 and the ,enns4 ,that the valley of ,chamouni1 the ,valais1 the ,urseren ,thal1 and that of the ,vorder ,rhine really form part of one great fold is further shown by the presence of a belt of ,jurassic strata nipped in1 as it were1 between the crystalline rocks4 ,this seems to throw light on the remarkable turns taken by the ,rhone at ,martigny and the ,vorder ,rhine at ,chur1 where they respectively quit the great longitudinal fold1 and fall into secondary transverse valleys4 ,the ,rhone for the upper part of its course1 as far as ,martigny1 runs in the great longitudinal fold of the ,valais2 at ,martigny it falls into and adopts the transverse valley1 which properly belongs to the ,dranse2 for the ,dranse is probably an older river and ran in the present course even before the great fold of the ,valais4 ,this would seem to indicate that the ,oberland range is not so old as the ,pennine1 and that its elevation was so gradual that the ,dranse was able to wear away a passage as the ridge gradually rose4 ,after leaving the ,lake of ,geneva the ,rhone follows a course curving gradually to the south1 until it reaches ,st4 ,genix1 where it falls into and adopts a transverse valley which properly belongs to the little river ,guiers2 it subsequently joins the ,ain and finally falls into the ,sane4 ,if these valleys were attributed to their older occupiers we should therefore confine the name of the ,rhone to the portion of its course from the ,rhone glacier to ,martigny4 ,from ,martigny it occupies successively the valleys of the ,dranse1 ,guiers1 ,ain1 and ,sane4 ,in fact1 the ,sane receives the ,ain1 the ,ain the ,guiers1 the ,guiers the ,dranse1 and the ,dranse the ,rhone4 ,this is not a mere question of names1 but also one of antiquity4 ,the ,sane1 for instance1 flowed past ,lyons to the ,mediterranean for ages before it was joined by the ,rhone4 ,in our nomenclature1 however1 the ,rhone has swallowed up the others4 ,this is the more curious because of the three great rivers which unite to form the lower ,rhone1 namely1 the ,sane1 the ,doubs1 and the ,rhone itself1 the ,sane brings for a large part of the year the greatest volume of water1 and the ,doubs has the longest course4 ,other similar cases might be mentioned4 ,the ,aar1 for instance1 is a somewhat larger river than the ,rhine4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #da4--;,diagram in illustration of ,mountain structure4 ,but why should the rivers1 after running for a certain distance in the direction of the main axis1 so often break away into lateral valleys8 ,if the elevation of a chain of mountains be due to the causes suggested in p4 #bad1 it is evident1 though1 so far as ,i am aware1 stress has not hitherto been laid upon this1 that the compression and consequent folding of the strata 7,fig4 #da7 would not be in the direction ,a ,b only1 but also at right angles to it1 in the direction ,a ,c1 though the amount of folding might be much greater in one direction than in the other4 ,thus in the case of ,switzerland1 while the main folds run south-west by north-east1 there would be others at right angles to the main axis4 ,the complex structure of the ,swiss mountains may be partly due to the coexistence of these two directions of pressure at right angles to one another4 ,the presence of a fold so originating would often divert the river to a course more or less nearly at right angles to its original direction4 ,switzerland1 moreover1 slopes northwards from the ,alps1 so that the lowest part of the great ,swiss plain is that along the foot of the ,jura4 ,hence the main drainage runs along the line from ,yverdun to ,neuchtel1 down the ,zihl to ,soleure1 and then along the ,aar to ,waldshut3 the ,upper ,aar1 the ,emmen1 the ,wiggern1 the ,suhr1 the ,wynen1 the lower ,reuss1 the ,sihl1 and the ,limmat1 besides several smaller streams1 running approximately parallel to one another north-north-east1 and at angles to the main axis of elevation1 and all joining the ,aar from the south1 while on the north it does not receive a single contributary of any importance4 ,on the south side of the ,alps again we have the ,dora ,baltea1 the ,sesia1 the ,ticino1 the ,olonna1 the ,adda1 the ,adige1 etc41 all running south-south-east from the axis of elevation to the ,po4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #db4 ,indeed1 the general slope of ,switzerland1 being from the ridge of the ,alps towards the north1 it will be observed 7,fig4 #db7 that almost all the large affluents of these rivers running in longitudinal valleys fall in on the south1 as1 for instance1 those of the ,isre from ,albertville to ,grenoble1 of the ,rhone from its source to ,martigny1 of the ,vorder ,rhine from its source to ,chur1 of the ,inn from ,landeck to ,kufstein1 of the ,enns from its source to near ,admont1 of the ,danube from its source to ,vienna1 and as just mentioned1 of the ,aar from ,bern to ,waldshut4 ,hence also1 whenever the ,swiss rivers running east and west break into a transverse valley1 as the larger ones all do1 and some more than once1 they invariably1 whether originally running east or westwards1 turn towards the north4 ,but although we thus get a clue to the general structure of ,switzerland1 the whole question is extremely complex1 and the strata have been crumpled and folded in the most complicated manner1 sometimes completely reversed1 so that older rocks have been folded back on younger strata1 and even in some cases these folds again refolded4 ,moreover1 the denudation by aerial action1 by glaciers1 frosts1 and rivers has removed hundreds1 or rather thousands1 of feet of strata4 ,in fact1 the mountain tops are not by any means the spots which have been most elevated1 but those which have been least denuded2 and hence it is that so many of the peaks stand at about the same altitude4 ,,the ,,conflicts ,,and ,,adventures ,,of ,,rivers ,our ancestors looked upon rivers as being in some sense alive1 and in fact in their struggle for existence they not only labour to adapt their channel to their own requirements1 but in many cases enter into conflict with one another4 ,in the plain of ,bengal1 for instance1 there are three great rivers1 the ,brahmapootra coming from the north1 the ,ganges from the west1 and the ,megna from the east1 each of them with a number of tributary streams4 ,mr4 ,fergusson#ec has given us a most interesting and entertaining account of the struggles between these great rivers to occupy the fertile plain of ,bengal4 ,the ,megna1 though much inferior in size to the ,brahmapootra1 has one great advantage4 ,it depends mainly on the monsoon rains for its supply1 while the ,brahmapootra not only has a longer course to run1 but relies for its floods1 to a great extent1 on the melting of the snow1 so that1 arriving later at the scene of the struggle1 it finds the country already occupied by the ,megna to such an extent that it has been driven nearly #gj miles northwards1 and forced to find a new channel4 ,under these circumstances it has attacked the territory of the ,ganges1 and being in flood earlier than that river1 though later than the ,megna1 it has in its turn a great advantage4 ,whatever the ultimate result may be the struggle continues vigorously4 ,at ,sooksaghur1 says ,fergusson1 there was a noble country house1 built by ,warren ,hastings1 about a mile from the banks of the ,hoogly4 ,when ,i first knew it in #ahcj half the avenue of noble trees1 which led from the river to the house1 was gone2 when ,i last saw it1 some eight years afterwards1 the river was close at hand4 ,since then house1 stables1 garden1 and village are all gone1 and the river was on the point of breaking through the narrow neck of high land that remained1 and pouring itself into some weak-banded nullahs in the lowlands beyond3 and if it had succeeded1 the ,hoogly would have deserted ,calcutta4 ,at this juncture the ,eastern ,bengal ,railway ,company intervened4 ,they were carrying their works along the ridge1 and they have1 for the moment at least1 stopped the oscillation in this direction4 ,this has affected many of the other tributaries of the ,ganges1 so that the survey made by ,rennell in #aghj-ij is no longer any evidence as to the present course of the rivers4 ,they may now be anywhere else2 in some cases all we can say is that they are certainly not now where they were then4 ,the association of the three great ,european rivers1 the ,rhine1 the ,rhone1 and the ,danube1 with the past history of our race1 invests them with a singular fascination1 and their past history is one of much interest4 ,they all three rise in the group of mountains between the ,galenstock and the ,bernardino1 within a space of a few miles2 on the east the waters run into the ,black ,sea1 on the north into the ,german ,ocean1 and on the west into the ,mediterranean4 ,but it has not always been so4 ,their head-waters have been at one time interwoven together4 ,at present the waters of the ,valais escape from the ,lake of ,geneva at the western end1 and through the remarkable defile of ,fort de l',ecluse and ,malpertius1 which has a depth of #fjj feet1 and is at one place not more than #ad feet across4 ,moreover1 at various points round the ,lake of ,geneva1 remains of lake terraces show that the water once stood at a level much higher than the present4 ,one of these is rather more than #bej feet#ed above the lake4 ,a glance at the map will show that between ,lausanne and ,yverdun there is a low tract of land1 and the ,venoge1 which falls into the ,lake of ,geneva between ,lausanne and ,morges1 runs within about half a mile of the ,nozon1 which falls into the ,lake of ,neuchtel at ,yverdun1 the two being connected by the ,canal d',entreroches1 and the height of the watershed being only #gf metres 7#bej feet71 corresponding with the above mentioned lake terrace4 ,it is evident1 therefore1 that when the ,lake of ,geneva stood at the level of the #bej feet terrace the waters ran out1 not as now at ,geneva and by ,lyons to the ,mediterranean1 but near ,lausanne by ,cissonay and ,entreroches to ,yverdun1 and through the ,lake of ,neuchtel into the ,aar and the ,rhine4 ,but this is not the whole of the curious history4 ,at present the ,aar makes a sharp turn to the west at ,waldshut1 where it falls into the ,rhine1 but there is reason to believe that at a former period1 before the ,rhine had excavated its present bed1 the ,aar continued its course eastward to the ,lake of ,constance1 by the valley of the ,klettgau1 as is indicated by the presence of gravel beds containing pebbles which have been brought1 not by the ,rhine from the ,grisons1 but by the ,aar from the ,bernese ,oberland1 showing that the river which occupied the valley was not the ,rhine but the ,aar4 ,it would seem also that at an early period the ,lake of ,constance stood at a considerably higher level1 and that the outlet was1 perhaps1 from ,frederichshaven to ,ulm1 along what are now the valleys of the ,schussen and the ,ried1 into the ,danube4 ,thus the head-waters of the ,rhone appear to have originally run by ,lausanne and the ,lake of ,constance into the ,danube1 and so to the ,black ,sea4 ,then1 after the present valley was opened between ,waldshut and ,basle1 they flowed by ,basle and the present ,rhine1 and after joining the ,thames1 over the plain which now forms the ,german ,sea into the ,arctic ,ocean between ,scotland and ,norway4 ,finally1 after the opening of the passage at ,fort de l',ecluse1 by ,geneva1 ,lyons1 and the ,valley of the ,sane1 to the ,mediterranean4 ,it must not1 however1 be supposed that these changes in river courses are confined to the lower districts4 ,mountain streams have also their adventures and vicissitudes1 their wars and invasions4 ,take for instance the ,upper ,rhine1 of which we have a very interesting account by ,heim4 ,it is formed of three main branches1 the ,vorder ,rhine1 ,hinter ,rhine1 and the ,albula4 ,the two latter1 after meeting near ,thusis1 unite with the ,vorder ,rhine at ,reichenau1 and run by ,chur1 ,mayenfeld1 and ,sargans into the ,lake of ,constance at ,rheineck4 ,at some former period1 however1 the drainage of this district was very different1 as is shown in ,fig4 #dc4 ,the ,vorder and ,hinter ,rhine united then 7,fig4 #dc7 as they do now at ,reichenau1 but at a much higher level1 and ran to ,mayenfeld1 not by ,chur1 but by the ,kunckel ,pass to ,sargans1 and so on1 not to the ,lake of ,constance1 but to that of ,zurich4 ,the ,landwasser at that time rose in the ,schlappina ,joch1 and after receiving as tributaries the ,vereina and the ,sardasca1 joined the ,albula1 as it does now at ,tiefenkasten2 but instead of going round to meet the ,hinter ,rhine near ,thusis1 the two together travelled parallel with1 but at some distance from1 the ,hinter ,rhine1 by ,heide to ,chur1 and so to ,mayenfeld4 ,in the meanwhile1 however1 the ,landquart was stealthily creeping up the valley1 attacked the ridge which then united the ,casanna and the ,madrishorn1 and gradually forcing the passage1 invaded 7,fig4 #dd7 the valleys of the ,schlappina1 ,vereina1 and ,sardasca1 absorbed them as tributaries1 and1 detaching them from their allegiance to the ,landwasser1 annexed the whole of the upper province which had formerly belonged to that river4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dc4--,river system round ,chur1 as it used to be4 ,the ,schyn also gradually worked its way upwards from ,thusis till it succeeded in sapping the ,albula1 and carried it down the valley to join the ,vorder ,rhine near ,thusis4 ,in what is now the main valley of the ,rhine above ,chur another stream ate its way back1 and eventually tapped the main river at ,reichenau1 thus diverting it from the ,kunckel1 and carrying it round by ,chur4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dd4--,river system round ,chur1 as it is4 ,at ,sargans a somewhat similar process was repeated1 with the addition that the material brought down by the ,weisstannen1 or perhaps a rockfall1 deflected the ,rhine1 just as we see in ,fig4 #cj that the ,rhone was pushed on one side by the ,borgne4 ,the ,rhone1 however1 had no choice1 it was obliged to force1 and has forced its way over the cone deposited by the ,borgne4 ,the ,rhine1 on the contrary1 had the option of running down by ,vaduz to ,rheinach1 and has adopted this course4 ,the watershed between it and the ,weisstannen is1 however1 only about #bj feet in height1 and the people of ,zurich watch it carefully1 lest any slight change should enable the river to return to its old bed4 ,the result of all these changes is that the rivers have changed their courses from those shown in ,fig4 #dc to their present beds as shown in ,fig4 #dd4 ,another interesting case is that of the ,upper ,engadine 7,fig4 #de71 to which attention has been called by ,bonney and ,heim4 ,the fall of the ,val ,bregaglia is much steeper than that of the ,inn1 and the ,maira has carried off the head-waters of that river away into ,italy4 ,the ,col was formerly perhaps as far south as ,stampa3 the ,albegna1 the ,upper ,maira1 and the stream from the ,forgno ,glacier1 originally belonged to the ,inn1 but have been captured by the ,lower ,maira4 ,their direction still indicates this2 they seem as if they regretted the unwelcome change1 and yearned to rejoin their old companions4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #de4--,river system of the ,maloya4 ,moreover1 as rivers are continually cutting back their valleys they must of course sometimes meet4 ,in these cases when the valleys are at different levels the lower rivers have drained the upper ones1 and left dry1 deserted valleys4 ,in other cases1 especially in flatter districts1 we have bifurcations1 as1 for instance1 at ,sargans1 and several of the ,italian lakes4 ,every one must have been struck by the peculiar bifurcation of the ,lakes of ,como and ,lugano1 while a very slight depression would connect the ,lake ,varese with the ,maggiore1 and give it also a double southern end4 ,,on ,,lakes ,the problem of the origin of ,lakes is by no means identical with that of ,valleys4 ,the latter are due1 primarily as a rule to geological causes1 but so far as their present condition is concerned1 mainly to the action of rain and rivers4 ,flowing water1 however1 cannot give rise to lakes4 ,it is of course possible to have valleys without lakes1 and in fact the latter are1 now at least1 exceptional4 ,there can be no lakes if the slope of the valley is uniform4 ,to what then are lakes due8 ,professor ,ramsay divides ,lakes into three classes3-- #a4 ,those due to irregular accumulations of drift1 and which are generally quite shallow4 #b4 ,those formed by moraines4 #c4 ,those which occupy true basins scooped by glacier ice out of the solid rock4 ,to these must1 however1 ,i think be added at least one other great class and several minor ones1 namely1-- #d4 ,those due to inequalities of elevation or depression4 #e4 ,lakes in craters of extinct volcanoes1 for instance1 ,lake ,avernus4 #f4 ,those caused by subsidence due to the removal of underlying soluble rocks1 such as some of the ,cheshire ,meres4 #g4 ,loop lakes in deserted river courses1 of which there are many along the course of the ,rhine4 #h4 ,those due to rockfalls1 landslips1 or lava currents1 damming up the course of a river4 #i4 ,those caused by the advance of a glacier across a lateral valley1 such as the ,mergelen ,see1 or the ancient lake whose margins form the celebrated ,parallel ,roads of ,glen ,roy4 ,as regards the first class we find here and there on the earth's surface districts sprinkled with innumerable shallow lakes of all sizes1 down to mere pools4 ,such1 for instance1 occur in the district of ,le ,doubs between the ,rhone and the ,sane1 that of ,la ,sologne near ,orleans1 in parts of ,north ,america1 and in ,finland4 ,such lakes are1 as a rule1 quite shallow4 ,some geologists1 ,geikie1 for instance1 ascribe them to the fact of these regions having been covered by sheets of ice which strewed the land with irregular masses of clay1 gravel1 and sand1 lying on a stratum impervious to water1 either of hard rock such as granite or gneiss1 or of clay1 so that the rain cannot percolate through it1 and without sufficient inclination to throw it off4 #b4 ,to ,ramsay's second class of ,lakes belong those formed by moraines4 ,the materials forming moraines being1 however1 comparatively loose1 are easily cut through by streams4 ,there are in ,switzerland many cases of valleys crossed by old moraines1 but they have generally been long ago worn through by the rivers4 #c4 ,ramsay and ,tyndall attribute most of the great ,swiss and ,italian lakes to the action of glaciers1 and regard them as rock basins4 ,it is of course obvious that rivers cannot make basin-shaped hollows surrounded by rock on all sides4 ,the ,lake of ,geneva1 #abcj feet above the sea1 is over #ajjj feet deep2 the ,lake of ,brienz is #ahej feet above the sea1 and #bjjj feet deep1 so that its bottom is really below the sea level4 ,the ,italian ,lakes are even more remarkable4 ,the ,lake of ,como1 #gjj feet above the sea1 is #aibi feet deep4 ,lago ,maggiore1 #fhe feet above the sea1 is no less than #bfbe feet deep4 ,if the mind is at first staggered at the magnitude of the scale1 we must remember that the ice which is supposed to have scooped out the valley in which the ,lake of ,geneva now reposes1 was once at least #djjj feet thick2 while the moraines were also of gigantic magnitude1 that of ,ivrea1 for instance1 being no less than #aejj feet above the river1 and several miles long4 ,indeed it is obvious that a glacier many hundred1 or in some cases several thousand1 feet in thickness1 must exercise great pressure on the bed over which it travels4 ,we see this from the stri and grooves on the solid rocks1 and the fine mud which is carried down by glacial streams4 ,the deposit of glacial rivers1 the loess of the ,rhine itself1 is mainly the result of this ice-waste1 and that is why it is so fine1 so impalpable4 ,that glaciers do deepen their beds seems therefore unquestionable4 ,moreover1 though the depth of some of these lakes is great1 the true slope is very slight4 ,tyndall and ,ramsay do not deny that the original direction of valleys1 and consequently of lakes1 is due to cosmical causes and geological structure1 while even those who have most strenuously opposed the theory which attributes lakes to glacial erosion do not altogether deny the action of glaciers4 ,favre himself admits that it is impossible to deny that valleys1 after their formation1 have been swept out and perhaps enlarged by rivers and glaciers4 ,even ,ruskin admits that a glacier may be considered as a vast instrument of friction1 a white sand-paper applied slowly but irresistibly to all the roughness of the hill which it covers4 ,it is obvious that sand-paper applied irresistibly and long enough1 must gradually wear away and lower the surface4 ,i cannot therefore resist the conclusion that glaciers have taken an important part in the formation of lakes4 ,the question has sometimes been discussed as if the point at issue were whether rivers or glaciers were the most effective as excavators4 ,but this is not so4 ,those who believe that lakes are in many cases due to glaciers might yet admit that rivers have greater power of erosion4 ,there is1 however1 an essential difference in the mode of action4 ,rivers tend to regularise their beds2 they drain1 rather than form lakes4 ,their tendency is to cut through any projections so that finally their course assumes some such curve as that below1 from the source 7a7 to its entrance into the sea 7b74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #df4--;,final ,slope of a ,river4 ,glaciers1 however1 have in addition a scooping power1 so that if similarly a d b in ,fig4 #dg represent the course of a glacier1 starting at a and gradually thinning out to e1 it may scoop out the rock to a certain extent at d2 in that case if it subsequently retires say to c1 there would be a lake lying in the basin thus formed between c and e4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dg4 ,on the other hand ,i am not disposed to attribute the ,swiss lakes altogether to the action of glaciers4 ,in the first place it does not seem clear that they occupy true rock basins4 ,on this point more evidence is required4 ,that some lakes are due to unequal changes of level will hardly be denied4 ,no one1 for instance1 as ,bonney justly observes1#ee would attribute the ,dead ,sea to glacial erosion4 ,the ,alps1 as we have seen1 are a succession of great folds1 and there is reason to regard the central one as the oldest4 ,if then the same process continued1 and the outer fold was still further raised1 or a new one formed1 more quickly than the rivers could cut it back1 they would be dammed up1 and lakes would result4 ,moreover1 if the formation of a mountain region be due to subsidence1 and consequent crumpling1 as indicated on p4 #bag1 so that the strata which originally occupied the area ,a ,b ,c ,d are compressed into ,a' ,b' ,c' ,d'1 it is evident1 as already mentioned1 that while the line of least resistance1 and1 consequently1 the principal folds might be in the direction ,a' ,b'1 there must also be a tendency to the formation of similar folds at right angles1 or in the direction ,a' ,c'4 ,thus1 in the case of ,switzerland1 while the main folds run south-west by north-east there would also be others at right angles1 though the amount of folding might be much greater in the one direction than in the other4 ,to this cause the bosses1 for instance--at ,martigny1 the ,furca1 and the ,ober ,alp1--which intersect the great longitudinal valley of ,switzerland1 are perhaps due4 ,the great ,american lakes also are probably due to differences of elevation4 ,round ,lake ,ontario1 for instance1 there is a raised beach which at the western end of the lake is #cfc feet above the sea level1 but rises towards the ,east and ,north until near ,fine it reaches an elevation of #igb feet4 ,as this terrace must have been originally horizontal we have here a lake barrier1 due to a difference of elevation1 amounting to over #fjj feet4 ,in the same way we get a clue to the curious cruciform shape of the ,lake of ,lucerne as contrasted with the simple outline of such lakes as those of ,neuchtel or ,zurich4 ,that of ,lucerne is a complex lake4 ,soundings have shown that the bottom of the ,urner ,see is quite flat4 ,it is in fact the old bed of the ,reuss1 which originally ran1 not as now by ,lucerne1 but by ,schwytz and through the ,lake of ,zug4 ,in the same way the ,alpnach ,see is the old bed of the ,aa1 which likewise ran through the ,lake of ,zug4 ,the old river terraces of the ,reuss can be traced in places between ,brunnen and ,goldau4 ,now these terraces must have originally sloped from the upper part downwards1 from ,brunnen towards ,goldau4 ,but at present the slope is the other way1 i4e4 from ,goldau towards ,brunnen4 ,from this and other evidence we conclude that in the direction from ,lucerne towards ,rapperschwyl there has been an elevation of the land1 which has dammed up the valleys and thus turned parts of the ,aa and the ,reuss into lakes--the two branches of the ,lake of ,lucerne known as the ,alpnach ,see and ,urner ,see4 ,during the earthquakes of #ahai while part of the ,runn of ,cutch1 #bjjj square miles in area1 sunk several feet1 a ridge of land1 called by the natives the ,ulla-,bund or the wall of ,god1 thirty miles long1 and in parts sixteen miles wide1 was raised across an ancient arm of the ,indus1 and turned it temporarily into a lake4 ,in considering the great ,italian lakes1 which descend far below the sea level1 we must remember that the ,valley of the ,po is a continuation of the ,adriatic1 now filled up and converted into land1 by the materials brought down from the ,alps4 ,hence we are tempted to ask whether the lakes may not be remains of the ancient sea which once occupied the whole plain4 ,moreover just as the ,seals of ,lake ,baikal in ,siberia carry us back to the time when that great sheet of fresh water was in connection with the ,arctic ,ocean1 so there is in the character of the ,fauna of the ,italian lakes1 and especially the presence of a ,crab in the ,lake of ,garda1 some confirmation of such an idea4 ,further evidence1 however1 is necessary before these interesting questions can be definitely answered4 ,lastly1 some lakes and inland seas seem to be due to even greater cosmical causes4 ,thus a line inclined ten degrees to the pole beginning at ,gibraltar would pass through a great chain of inland waters--the ,mediterranean1 ,black ,sea1 ,caspian1 ,aral1 ,baikal1 and back again through the great ,american lakes4 ,but though many causes have contributed to the original formation and direction of ,valleys1 their present condition is mainly due to the action of water4 ,when we contemplate such a valley1 for example1 as that which is called par excellence the ,valais1 we can at first hardly bring ourselves to realise this2 but we can trace up valleys1 from the little water-course made by last night's rains up to the greatest valleys of all4 ,these considerations1 however1 do not of course apply to such depressions as those of the great oceans4 ,these were probably formed when the surface of the globe began to solidify1 and1 though with many modifications1 have maintained their main features ever since4 ,,on ,,the ,,configuration ,,of ,,valleys ,the conditions thus briefly described repeat themselves in river after river1 valley after valley1 and it adds1 ,i think1 very much to the interest with which we regard them if1 by studying the general causes to which they are due1 we can explain their origin1 and thus to some extent understand the story they have to tell us1 and the history they record4 ,what1 then1 has that history been8 ,the same valley may be of a very different character1 and due to very different causes1 in different parts of its course4 ,some valleys are due to folds 7see ,fig4 #da7 caused by subterranean changes1 but by far the greater number are1 in their present features1 mainly the result of erosion4 ,as soon as any tract of land rose out of the sea1 the rain which fell on the surface would trickle downwards in a thousand rills1 forming pools here and there 7see ,fig4 #cg71 and gradually collecting into larger and larger streams4 ,wherever the slope was sufficient the water would begin cutting into the soil and carrying it off to the sea4 ,this action would be the same in any case1 but1 of course1 would differ in rapidity according to the hardness of the ground4 ,on the other hand1 the character of the valley would depend greatly on the character of the strata1 being narrow where they were hard and tough2 broader1 on the contrary1 where they were soft1 so that they crumbled readily into the stream1 or where they were easily split by the weather4 ,gradually the stream would eat into its bed until it reached a certain slope1 the steepness of which would depend on the volume of water4 ,the erosive action would then cease1 but the weathering of the sides and consequent widening would continue1 and the river would wander from one part of its valley to another1 spreading the materials and forming a river plain4 ,at length1 as the rapidity still further diminished1 it would no longer have sufficient power even to carry off the materials brought down4 ,it would form1 therefore1 a cone or delta1 and instead of meandering1 would tend to divide into different branches4 ,these three stages1 we may call those of-- #a4 ,deepening and widening2 #b4 ,widening and levelling2 #c4 ,filling up2 and every place in the second stage has passed through the first2 every one in the third has passed through the second4 ,a velocity of #f inches per second will lift fine sand1 #h inches will move sand as coarse as linseed1 #ab inches will sweep along fine gravel1 #bd inches will roll along rounded pebbles an inch diameter1 and it requires #c feet per second at the bottom to sweep along angular stones of the size of an egg4 ,when a river has so adjusted its slope that it neither deepens its bed in the upper portion of its course1 nor deposits materials1 it is said to have acquired its regimen1 and in such a case if the character of the soil remains the same1 the velocity must also be uniform4 ,the enlargement of the bed of a river is not1 however1 in proportion to the increase of its waters as it approaches the sea4 ,if1 therefore1 the slope did not diminish1 the regimen would be destroyed1 and the river would again commence to eat out its bed4 ,hence as rivers enlarge1 the slope diminishes1 and consequently every river tends to assume some such regimen as that shown in ,fig4 #df4 ,now1 suppose that the fall of the river is again increased1 either by a fresh elevation1 or locally by the removal of a barrier4 ,then once more the river regains its energy4 ,again it cuts into its old bed1 deepening the valley1 and leaving the old plain as a terrace high above its new course4 ,in many valleys several such terraces may be seen1 one above the other4 ,in the case of a river running in a transverse valley1 that is to say of a valley lying at right angles to the strike or direction of the strata 7such1 for instance1 as the ,reuss71 the water acts more effectively than in longitudinal valleys running along the strike4 ,hence the lateral valleys have been less deeply excavated than that of the ,reuss itself1 and the streams from them enter the main valley by rapids or cascades4 ,again1 rivers running in transverse valleys cross rocks which in many cases differ in hardness1 and of course they cut down the softer strata more rapidly than the harder ones2 each ridge of harder rock will therefore form a dam and give rise to a rapid1 or cataract4 ,we often as we ascend a river1 after a comparatively flat plain1 find ourselves in a narrow defile1 down which the water rushes in an impetuous torrent1 but at the summit of which1 to our surprise1 we find another broad flat valley4 ,another lesson which we learn from the study of river valleys1 is that1 just as geological structure was shown by ,sir ,c4 ,lyell to be no evidence of cataclysms1 but the result of slow action2 so also the excavation of valleys is due mainly to the regular flow of rivers2 and floods1 though their effects are more sudden and striking1 have had1 after all1 comparatively little part in the result4 ,the mouths of rivers fall into two principal classes4 ,if we look at any map we cannot but be struck by the fact that some rivers terminate in a delta1 some in an estuary4 ,the ,thames1 for instance1 ends in a noble estuary1 to which ,london owes much of its wealth and power4 ,it is obvious that the ,thames could not have excavated this estuary while the coast was at its present level4 ,but we know that formerly the land stood higher1 that the ,german ,ocean was once dry land1 and the ,thames1 after joining the ,rhine1 ran northwards1 and fell eventually into the ,arctic ,ocean4 ,the estuary of the ,thames1 then1 dates back to a period when the south-east of ,england stood at a higher level than the present1 and even now the ancient course of the river can be traced by soundings under what is now sea4 ,the sites of present deltas1 say of the ,nile1 were also once under water1 and have been gradually reclaimed by the deposits of the river4 ,it would indeed be a great mistake to suppose that rivers always tend to deepen their valleys4 ,this is only the case when the slope exceeds a certain angle4 ,when the fall is but slight they tend on the contrary to raise their beds by depositing sand and mud brought down from higher levels4 ,hence in the lower part of their course many of the most celebrated rivers--the ,nile1 the ,po1 the ,mississippi1 the ,thames1 etc4--run upon embankments1 partly of their own creation4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dh4--;,diagrammatic section of a valley 7exaggerated7 ,r ,r1 rocky basis of valley2 ,a ,a1 sedimentary strata2 ,b1 ordinary level of river2 ,c1 flood level4 ,the ,reno1 the most dangerous of all the ,apennine rivers1 is in some places as much as #cj feet above the adjoining country4 ,rivers under such conditions1 when not interfered with by ,man1 sooner or later break through their banks1 and leaving their former bed1 take a new course along the lowest part of their valley1 which again they gradually raise above the rest4 ,hence1 unless they are kept in their own channels by human agency1 such rivers are continually changing their course4 ,if we imagine a river running down a regularly inclined plane in a more or less straight line2 any inequality or obstruction would produce an oscillation1 which when once started would go on increasing until the force of gravity drawing the water in a straight line downwards equals that of the force tending to divert its course4 ,hence the radius of the curves will follow a regular law depending on the volume of water and the angle of inclination of the bed4 ,if the fall is #aj feet per mile and the soil homogeneous1 the curves would be so much extended that the course would appear almost straight4 ,with a fall of #a foot per mile the length of the curve is1 according to ,fergusson1 about six times the width of the river1 so that a river #ajjj feet wide would oscillate once in #fjjj feet4 ,this is an important consideration1 and much labour has been lost in trying to prevent rivers from following their natural law of oscillation4 ,but rivers are very true to their own laws1 and a change at any part is continued both upwards and downwards1 so that a new oscillation in any place cuts its way through the whole plain of the river both above and below4 ,the curves of the ,mississippi are1 for instance1 for a considerable part of its course so regular that they are said to have been used by the ,indians as a measure of distance4 ,if the country is flat a river gradually raises the level on each side1 the water which overflows during floods being retarded by reeds1 bushes1 trees1 and a thousand other obstacles1 gradually deposits the solid matter which it contains1 and thus raising the surface1 becomes at length suspended1 as it were1 above the general level4 ,when this elevation has reached a certain point1 the river during some flood bursts its banks1 and deserting its old bed takes a new course along the lowest accessible level4 ,this then it gradually fills up1 and so on2 coming back from time to time if permitted1 after a long cycle of years1 to its first course4 ,in evidence of the vast quantity of sediment which rivers deposit1 ,i may mention that the river-deposits at ,calcutta are more than #djj feet in thickness4 ,in addition to temporary spates1 due to heavy rain1 most rivers are fuller at one time of year than another1 our rivers1 for instance1 in winter1 those of ,switzerland1 from the melting of the snow1 in summer4 ,the ,nile commences to rise towards the beginning of ,july2 from ,august to ,october it floods all the low lands1 and early in ,november it sinks again4 ,at its greatest height the volume of water sometimes reaches twenty times that when it is lowest1 and yet perhaps not a drop of rain may have fallen4 ,though we now know that this annual variation is due to the melting of the snow and the fall of rain on the high lands of ,central ,africa1 still when we consider that the phenomenon has been repeated annually for thousands of years it is impossible not to regard it with wonder4 ,in fact ,egypt itself may be said to be the bed of the ,nile in flood time4 ,some rivers1 on the other hand1 offer no such periodical differences4 ,the lower ,rhone1 for instance1 below the junction with the ,sane1 is nearly equal all through the year1 and yet we know that the upper portion is greatly derived from the melting of the ,swiss snows4 ,in this case1 however1 while the ,rhone itself is on this account highest in summer and lowest in winter1 the ,sane1 on the contrary1 is swollen by the winter's rain1 and falls during the fine weather of summer4 ,hence the two tend to counterbalance one another4 ,periodical differences are of course comparatively easy to deal with4 ,it is very different with floods due to irregular rainfall4 ,here also1 however1 the mere quantity of rain is by no means the only matter to be considered4 ,for instance a heavy rain in the watershed of the ,seine1 unless very prolonged1 causes less difference in the flow of the river1 say at ,paris1 than might at first have been expected1 because the height of the flood in the nearer affluents has passed down the river before that from the more distant streams has arrived4 ,the highest level is reached when the rain in the districts drained by the various affluents happens to be so timed that the different floods coincide in their arrival at ,paris4 ,,footnotes3 #eb ,darwin's ,voyage of a ,naturalist4 #ec ,geol4 ,jour41 #ahfc4 #ed ,favre1 ,rech4 ,geol4 de la ,savoie4 #ee ,growth and ,structure of the ,alps4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,the ,,sea ,there is a pleasure in the pathless woods1 ,there is a rapture on the lonely shore1 ,there is society1 where none intrudes1 ,by the deep ,sea1 and music in its roar3 ,i love not ,man the less1 but ,nature more1 ,from these our interviews1 in which ,i steal ,from all ,i may be1 or have been before1 ,to mingle with the ,universe1 and feel ,what ,i can ne'er express1 yet cannot all conceal4 ,roll on1 thou deep and dark-blue ,ocean--roll6 ,,byron4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,land',s ,,end4 ,to face page #ccg4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,the ,,sea ,when the glorious summer weather comes1 when we feel that by a year's honest work we have fairly won the prize of a good holiday1 how we turn instinctively to the ,sea4 ,we pine for the delicious smell of the sea air1 the murmur of the waves1 the rushing sound of the pebbles on the sloping shore1 the cries of the sea-birds2 and long to ,linger1 where the pebble-paven shore1 ,under the quick1 faint kisses of the ,sea1 ,trembles and sparkles as with ecstasy4#ef ,how beautiful the sea-coast is6 ,at the foot of a cliff1 perhaps of pure white chalk1 or rich red sandstone1 or stern grey granite1 lies the shore of gravel or sand1 with a few scattered plants of blue ,sea ,holly1 or yellow-flowered ,horned ,poppies1 ,sea-kale1 ,sea ,convolvulus1 ,saltwort1 ,artemisia1 and ,sea-grasses2 the waves roll leisurely in one by one1 and as they reach the beach1 each in turn rises up in an arch of clear1 cool1 transparent1 green water1 tipped with white or faintly pinkish foam1 and breaks lovingly on the sands2 while beyond lies the open ,sea sparkling in the sunshine4 444 ,o pleasant ,sea ,earth hath not a plain ,so boundless or so beautiful as thine4#eg ,the ,sea is indeed at times overpoweringly beautiful4 ,at morning and evening a sheet of living silver or gold1 at mid-day deep blue2 even ,too deeply blue2 too beautiful2 too bright2 ,oh1 that the shadow of a cloud might rest ,somewhere upon the splendour of thy breast ,in momentary gloom4#eh ,there are few prettier sights than the beach at a seaside town on a fine summer's day2 the waves sparkling in the sunshine1 the water and sky each bluer than the other1 while the sea seems as if it had nothing to do but to laugh and play with the children on the sands2 the children perseveringly making castles with spades and pails1 which the waves then run up to and wash away1 over and over and over again1 until evening comes and the children go home1 when the ,sea makes everything smooth and ready for the next day's play4 ,many are satisfied to admire the ,sea from shore1 others more ambitious or more free prefer a cruise4 ,they feel with ,tennyson's voyager3 ,we left behind the painted buoy ,that tosses at the harbour-mouth2 ,and madly danced our hearts with joy1 ,as fast we fleeted to the ,south3 ,how fresh was every sight and sound ,on open main or winding shore6 ,we knew the merry world was round1 ,and we might sail for evermore4 ,many appreciate both4 ,the long roll of the ,mediterranean on a fine day 7and ,i suppose even more of the ,atlantic1 which ,i have never enjoyed71 far from land in a good ship1 and with kind friends1 is a joy never to be forgotten4 ,to the ,gulf ,stream and the ,atlantic ,ocean ,northern ,europe owes its mild climate4 ,the same latitudes on the other side of the ,atlantic are much colder4 ,to find the same average temperature in the ,united ,states we must go far to the south4 ,immediately opposite us lies ,labrador1 with an average temperature the same as that of ,greenland2 a coast almost destitute of vegetation1 a country of snow and ice1 whose principal wealth consists in its furs1 and a scattered population1 mainly composed of ,indians and ,esquimaux4 ,but the ,atlantic would not alone produce so great an effect4 ,we owe our mild and genial climate mainly to the ,gulf ,stream--a river in the ocean1 twenty million times as great as the ,rhone--the greatest1 and for us the most important1 river in the world1 which brings to our shores the sunshine of the ,west ,indies4 ,the ,sea is outside time4 ,a thousand1 ten thousand1 or a million years ago it must have looked just as it does now1 and as it will ages hence4 ,with the land this is not so4 ,the mountains and hills1 rivers and valleys1 animals and plants are continually changing3 but the ,sea is always the same1 ,steadfast1 serene1 immovable1 the same ,year after year4 ,directly we see the coast1 or even a ship1 the case is altered4 ,boats may remain the same for centuries1 but ships are continually being changed4 ,the wooden walls of old ,england are things of the past1 and the ironclads of to-day will soon be themselves improved off the face of the ocean4 ,the great characteristic of ,lakes is peace1 that of the ,sea is energy1 somewhat restless1 perhaps1 but still movement without fatigue4 ,the ,earth lies quiet like a child asleep1 ,the deep heart of the ,heaven is calm and still1 ,must thou alone a restless vigil keep1 ,and with thy sobbing all the silence fill4#ei ,a ,lake in a storm rather gives us the impression of a beautiful ,water ,spirit tormented by some ,evil ,demon2 but a storm at ,sea is one of the grandest manifestations of ,nature4 ,yet more2 the billows and the depths have more2 ,high hearts and brave are gathered to thy breast2 ,they hear not now the booming waters roar1 ,the battle thunders will not break their rest4 ,keep thy red gold and gems1 thou stormy grave2 ,give back the true and brave4#fj ,the most vivid description of a storm at sea is1 ,i think1 the following passage from ,ruskin's ,modern ,painters3 ,few people1 comparatively1 have ever seen the effect on the sea of a powerful gale continued without intermission for three or four days and nights2 and to those who have not1 ,i believe it must be unimaginable1 not from the mere force or size of the surge1 but from the complete annihilation of the limit between sea and air4 ,the water from its prolonged agitation is beaten1 not into mere creaming foam1 but into masses of accumulated yeast1 which hangs in ropes and wreaths from wave to wave1 and1 where one curls over to break1 form a festoon like a drapery from its edge2 these are taken up by the wind1 not in dissipating dust1 but bodily1 in writhing1 hanging1 coiling masses1 which make the air white and thick as with snow1 only the flakes are a foot or two long each3 the surges themselves are full of foam in their very bodies underneath1 making them white all through1 as the water is under a great cataract2 and their masses1 being thus half water and half air1 are torn to pieces by the wind whenever they rise1 and carried away in roaring smoke1 which chokes and strangles like actual water4 ,add to this1 that when the air has been exhausted of its moisture by long rain1 the spray of the sea is caught by it as described above1 and covers its surface not merely with the smoke of finely divided water1 but with boiling mist2 imagine also the low rain-clouds brought down to the very level of the sea1 as ,i have often seen them1 whirling and flying in rags and fragments from wave to wave2 and finally1 conceive the surges themselves in their utmost pitch of power1 velocity1 vastness1 and madness1 lifting themselves in precipices and peaks1 furrowed with their whirl of ascent1 through all this chaos1 and you will understand that there is indeed no distinction left between the sea and air2 that no object1 nor horizon1 nor any landmark or natural evidence of position is left2 and the heaven is all spray1 and the ocean all cloud1 and that you can see no further in any direction than you see through a cataract4 ,,sea ,,life ,the ,sea teems with life4 ,the ,great ,sea ,serpent is1 indeed1 as much a myth as the ,kraken of ,pontoppidan1 but other monsters1 scarcely less marvellous1 are actual realities4 ,the ,giant ,cuttle ,fish of ,newfoundland1 though the body is comparatively small1 may measure #fj feet from the tip of one arm to that of another4 ,the ,whalebone ,whale reaches a length of over #gj feet1 but is timid and inoffensive4 ,the ,cachalot or ,sperm ,whale1 which almost alone among animals roams over the whole ocean1 is as large1 and much more formidable4 ,it is armed with powerful teeth1 and is said to feed mainly on ,cuttle ,fish1 but sometimes on true fishes1 or even ,seals4 ,when wounded it often attacks boats1 and its companions do not hesitate to come to the rescue4 ,in one case1 indeed1 an ,american ship was actually attacked1 stove in1 and sunk by a gigantic male ,cachalot4 ,the ,great ,roqual is still more formidable1 and has been said to attain a length of #abj feet1 but this is probably an exaggeration4 ,so far as we know1 the largest species of all is ,simmond's ,whale1 which reaches a maximum of #he to #ij feet4 ,in former times ,whales were frequent on our coasts1 so that1 as ,bishop ,pontoppidan said1 the sea sometimes appeared as if covered with smoking chimneys1 but they have been gradually driven further and further north1 and are still becoming rarer4 ,as they retreated man followed1 and to them we owe much of our progress in geography4 ,is it not1 however1 worth considering whether they might not also be allowed a truce of ,god1 whether some part of the ocean might not be allotted to them where they might be allowed to breed in peace8 ,as a mere mercantile arrangement the maritime nations would probably find this very remunerative4 ,the reckless slaughter of ,whales1 ,sea ,elephants1 ,seals1 and other marine animals is a sad blot1 not only on the character1 but on the common sense1 of man4 ,the monsters of the ocean require large quantities of food1 but they are supplied abundantly4 ,scoresby mentions cases in which the sea was for miles tinged of an olive green by a species of ,medusa4 ,he calculates that in a cubic mile there must have been #bc1hhh1jjj1jjj1jjj1jjj1 and though no doubt the living mass did not reach to any great depth1 still1 as he sailed through water thus discoloured for many miles1 the number must have been almost incalculable4 ,this is1 moreover1 no rare or exceptional case4 ,navigators often sail for leagues through shoals of creatures1 which alter the whole colour of the sea1 and actually change it1 as ,reclus says1 into une masse anime4 ,still1 though the whole ocean teems with life1 both animals and plants are most abundant near the coast4 ,air-breathing animals1 whether mammals or insects1 are naturally not well adapted to live far from dry land4 ,even ,seals1 though some of them make remarkable migrations1 remain habitually near the shore4 ,whales alone are specially modified so as to make the wide ocean their home4 ,of birds the greatest wanderer is the ,albatross1 which has such powers of flight that it is said even to sleep on the wing4 ,many ,pelagic animals--,jelly-fishes1 ,molluscs1 ,cuttle-fishes1 ,worms1 ,crustacea1 and some true fishes--are remarkable for having become perfectly transparent2 their shells1 muscles1 and even their blood have lost all colour1 or even undergone the further modification of having become blue1 often with beautiful opalescent reflections4 ,this obviously renders them less visible1 and less liable to danger4 ,the sea-shore1 wherever a firm hold can be obtained1 is covered with ,sea-weeds1 which fall roughly into two main divisions1 olive-green and red1 the latter colour having a special relation to light4 ,these ,sea-weeds afford food and shelter to innumerable animals4 ,the clear rocky pools left by the retiring tide are richly clothed with green sea-weeds1 while against the sides are tufts of beautiful filmy red alg1 interspersed with ,sea-anemones1--white1 creamy1 pink1 yellow1 purple1 with a coronet of blue beads1 and of many mixed colours2 ,sponges1 ,corallines1 ,starfish1 ,limpets1 ,barnacles1 and other shell-fish2 feathery ,zoophytes and ,annelides expand their pink or white disks1 while here and there a ,crab scuttles across2 little ,fish or ,shrimps timidly come out from crevices in the rocks1 or from among the fronds of the sea-weeds1 or hastily dart from shelter to shelter2 each little pool is1 in fact1 a miniature ocean in itself1 and the longer one looks the more and more one will see4 ,the dark green and brown sea-weeds do not live beyond a few--say about #ae--;fathoms in depth4 ,below them occur delicate scarlet species1 with ,corallines and a different set of shells1 ,sea-urchins1 etc4 ,down to about #ajj fathoms the animals and plants are still numerous and varied4 ,but they gradually diminish in numbers1 and are replaced by new forms4 ,to appreciate fully the extreme loveliness of marine animals they must be seen alive4 ,a tuft of ,sertularia1 laden with white1 or brilliantly tinted ,polypites1 says ,hincks1 like blossoms on some tropical tree1 is a perfect marvel of beauty4 ,the unfolding of a mass of ,plumularia1 taken from amongst the miscellaneous contents of the dredge1 and thrown into a bottle of clear sea-water1 is a sight which1 once seen1 no dredger will forget4 ,a tree of ,campanularia1 when each one of its thousand transparent calycles--itself a study of form--is crowned by a circlet of beaded arms1 drooping over its margin like the petals of a flower1 offers a rare combination of the elements of beauty4 ,the rocky wall of some deep tidal pool1 thickly studded with the long and slender stems of ,tubularia1 surmounted by the bright rose-coloured heads1 is like the gay parterre of a garden4 ,equally beautiful is the dense growth of ,campanularia1 covering 7as ,i have seen it in ,plymouth ,sound7 large tracts of the rock1 its delicate shoots swaying to and fro with each movement of the water1 like trees in a storm1 or the colony of ,obelia on the waving frond of the tangle looking almost ethereal in its grace1 transparency1 and delicacy1 as seen against the coarse dark surface that supports it4 ,few things are more beautiful than to look down from a boat into transparent water4 ,at the bottom wave graceful sea-weeds1 brown1 green1 or rose-coloured1 and of most varied forms2 on them and on the sands or rocks rest starfishes1 mollusca1 crustaceans1 ,sea-anemones1 and innumerable other animals of strange forms and varied colours2 in the clear water float or dart about endless creatures2 true fishes1 many of them brilliantly coloured2 ,cuttle-fishes like bad dreams2 ,lobsters and ,crabs with graceful1 transparent ,shrimps2 ,worms swimming about like living ribbons1 some with thousands of coloured eyes1 and ,medus like living glass of the richest and softest hues1 or glittering in the sunshine with all the colours of the rainbow4 ,and on calm1 cool nights how often have ,i stood on the deck of a ship watching with wonder and awe the stars overhead1 and the sea-fire below1 especially in the foaming1 silvery wake of the vessel1 where often suddenly appear globes of soft and lambent light1 given out perhaps from the surface of some large ,medusa4 ,a beautiful white cloud of foam1 says ,coleridge1 at momently intervals coursed by the side of the vessel with a roar1 and little stars of flame danced and sparkled and went out in it2 and every now and then light detachments of this white cloud-like foam darted off from the vessel's side1 each with its own small constellation1 over the sea1 and scoured out of sight like a ,tartar troop over a wilderness4 ,fish also are sometimes luminous4 ,the ,sun-fish has been seen to glow like a white-hot cannon-ball1 and in one species of ,shark 7,squalus fulgens7 the whole surface sometimes gives out a greenish lurid light which makes it a most ghastly object1 like some great ravenous spectre4 ,,the ,,ocean ,,depths ,the ,land bears a rich harvest of life1 but only at the surface4 ,the ,ocean1 on the contrary1 though more richly peopled in its upper layers1 which swarm with such innumerable multitudes of living creatures that they are1 so to say1 almost themselves alive--teems throughout with living beings4 ,the deepest abysses have a fauna of their own1 which makes up for the comparative scantiness of its numbers1 by the peculiarity and interest of their forms and organisation4 ,the middle waters are the home of various ,fishes1 ,medus1 and animalcules1 while the upper layers swarm with an inexhaustible variety of living creatures4 ,it used to be supposed that the depths of the ,ocean were destitute of animal life1 but recent researches1 and especially those made during our great national expedition in the ,challenger1 have shown that this is not the case1 but that the ,ocean depths have a wonderful and peculiar life of their own4 ,fish have been dredged up even from a depth of #bgej fathoms4 ,the conditions of life in the ,ocean depths are very peculiar4 ,the light of the sun cannot penetrate beyond about two hundred fathoms2 deeper than this complete darkness prevails4 ,hence in many species the eyes have more or less completely disappeared4 ,sir ,wyville ,thomson mentions a kind of ,crab 7,ethusa granulata71 which when living near the surface has well developed eyes2 in deeper water1 #ajj to #djj fathoms1 eyestalks are present1 but the animal is apparently blind1 the eyes themselves being absent2 while in specimens from a depth of #ejj-gjj fathoms the eyestalks themselves have lost their special character1 and have become fixed1 their terminations being combined into a strong1 pointed beak4 ,in other deep sea creatures1 on the contrary1 the eyes gradually become more and more developed1 so that while in some species the eyes gradually dwindle1 in others they become unusually large4 ,many of the latter species may be said to be a light to themselves1 being provided with a larger or smaller number of curious luminous organs4 ,the deep sea fish are either silvery1 pink1 or in many cases black1 sometimes relieved with scarlet1 and when the luminous organs flash out must present a very remarkable appearance4 ,we have still much to learn as to the structure and functions of these organs1 but there are cases in which their use can be surmised with some probability4 ,the light is evidently under the will of the fish4#fa ,it is easy to imagine a ,photichthys 7,light ,fish7 swimming in the black depths of the ,ocean1 suddenly flashing out light from its luminous organs1 and thus bringing into view any prey which may be near2 while1 if danger is disclosed1 the light is again at once extinguished4 ,it may be observed that the largest of these organs is in this species situated just under the eye1 so that the fish is actually provided with a bull's eye lantern4 ,in other cases the light may rather serve as a defence1 some having1 as1 for instance1 in the genus ,scopelus1 a pair of large ones in the tail1 so that a strong ray of light shot forth from the stern-chaser may dazzle and frighten an enemy4 ,in other cases they appear to serve as lures4 ,the ,sea-devil or ,angler of our coasts has on its head three long1 very flexible1 reddish filaments1 while all round its head are fringed appendages1 closely resembling fronds of sea-weed4 ,the fish conceals itself at the bottom1 in the sand or among sea-weed1 and dangles the long filaments in front of its mouth4 ,little fishes1 taking these filaments for worms1 unsuspectingly approach1 and thus fall victims4 ,several species of the same family live at great depths1 and have very similar habits4 ,a mere red filament would be invisible in the dark and therefore useless4 ,they have1 however1 developed a luminous organ1 a living glow-lamp1 at the end of the filament1 which doubtless proves a very effective lure4 ,in the great depths1 however1 fish are comparatively rare4 ,nor are ,molluscs much more abundant4 ,sea-urchins1 ,sea ,slugs1 and ,starfish are more numerous1 and on one occasion #bj1jjj specimens of an ,echinus were brought up at a single haul4 ,true corals are rare1 nor are ,hydrozoa frequent1 though a giant species1 allied to the little ,hydra of our ponds but upwards of #f feet in height1 has more than once been met with4 ,sponges are numerous1 and often very beautiful4 ,the now well known ,euplectella1 ,venus's ,flower-basket1 resembles an exquisitely delicate fabric woven in spun silk2 it is in the form of a gracefully curved tube1 expanding slightly upwards and ending in an elegant frill4 ,the wall is formed of parallel bands of glassy siliceous fibres1 crossed by others at right angles1 so as to form a square meshed net4 ,these sponges are anchored on the fine ooze by wisps of glassy filaments1 which often attain a considerable length4 ,many of these beautiful organisms1 moreover1 glow when alive with a soft diffused light1 flickering and sparkling at every touch4 ,what would one not give to be able to wander a while in these wonderful regions6 ,it is curious that no plants1 so far as we know1 grow in the depths of the ,ocean1 or1 indeed1 as far as our present information goes1 at a greater depth than about #ajj fathoms4 ,as regards the nature of the bottom itself1 it is in the neighbourhood of land mainly composed of materials1 brought down by rivers or washed from the shore1 coarser near the coast1 and tending to become finer and finer as the distance increases and the water deepens4 ,the bed of the ,atlantic from #djj to #bjjj fathoms is covered with an ooze1 or very fine chalky deposit1 consisting to a great extent of minute and more or less broken shells1 especially those of ,globigerina4 ,at still greater depths the carbonate of lime gradually disappears1 and the bottom consists of fine red clay1 with numerous minute particles1 some of volcanic1 some of meteoric1 origin1 fragments of shooting stars1 over #ajj1jjj1jjj of which are said to strike the surface of our earth every year4 ,how slow the process of deposition must be1 may be inferred from the fact that the trawl sometimes brings up many teeth of ,sharks and ear-bones of ,whales 7in one case no less than #fjj teeth and #ajj ear-bones71 often semi-fossil1 and which from their great density had remained intact for ages1 long after all the softer parts had perished and disappeared4 ,the greatest depth of the ,ocean appears to coincide roughly with the greatest height of the mountains4 ,there are indeed cases recorded in which it is said that no bottom was found even at #ci1jjj feet4 ,it is1 however1 by no means easy to sound at such great depths1 and it is now generally considered that these earlier observations are untrustworthy4 ,the greatest depth known in the ,atlantic is #chge fathoms--a little to the north of the ,virgin ,islands1 but the soundings as yet made in the deeper parts of the ,ocean are few in number1 and it is not to be supposed that the greatest depth has yet been ascertained4 ,,coral ,,islands ,in many parts of the world the geography itself has been modified by the enormous development of animal life4 ,most islands fall into one of three principal categories3 ,firstly1 ,those which are in reality a part of the continent near which they lie1 being connected by comparatively shallow water1 and standing to the continent somewhat in the relation of planets to the sun2 as1 for instance1 the ,cape de ,verde ,islands to ,africa1 ,ceylon to ,india1 or ,tasmania to ,australia4 ,secondly1 ,volcanic islands2 and ,thirdly1 ,those which owe their origin to the growth of ,coral reefs4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #di4--,whitsunday ,island4 ,coral islands are especially numerous in the ,indian and ,pacific ,oceans1 where there are innumerable islets1 in the form of rings1 or which together form rings1 the rings themselves being sometimes made up of ringlets4 ,these atolls contain a circular basin of yellowish green1 clear1 shallow water1 while outside is the dark blue deep water of the ,ocean4 ,the islands themselves are quite low1 with a beach of white sand rising but a few feet above the level of the water1 and bear generally groups of tufted ,cocoa ,palms4 ,it used to be supposed that these were the summits of submarine volcanoes on which the coral had grown4 ,but as the reef-making coral does not live at greater depths than about twenty-five fathoms1 the immense number of these reefs formed an almost insuperable objection to this theory4 ,the ,laccadives and ,maldives for instance--meaning literally the lac of or #ajj1jjj islands1 and the thousand islands--are a series of such atolls1 and it was impossible to imagine so great a number of craters1 all so nearly of the same altitude4 ,in shallow tracts of sea1 coral reefs no doubt tend to assume the well-known circular form1 but the difficulty was to account for the numerous atolls which rise to the surface from the abysses of the ocean1 while the coral-forming zoophytes can only live near the surface4 ,darwin showed that so far from the ring of corals resting on a corresponding ridge of rocks1 the lagoons1 on the contrary1 now occupy the place which was once the highest land4 ,he pointed out that some lagoons1 as for instance that of ,vanikoro1 contain an island in the middle2 while other islands1 such as ,tahiti1 are surrounded by a margin of smooth water separated from the ocean by a coral reef4 ,now if we suppose that ,tahiti were to sink slowly it would gradually approximate to the condition of ,vanikoro2 and if ,vanikoro gradually sank1 the central island would disappear1 while on the contrary the growth of the coral might neutralise the subsidence of the reef1 so that we should have simply an atoll with its lagoon4 ,the same considerations explain the origin of the barrier reefs1 such as that which runs for nearly a thousand miles1 along the north-east coast of ,australia4 ,thus ,darwin's theory explains the form and the approximate identity of altitude of these coral islands4 ,but it does more than this1 because it shows that there are great areas in process of subsidence1 which though slow1 is of great importance in physical geography4 ,the lagoon islands have received much attention2 which is not surprising1 for every one must be struck with astonishment1 when he first beholds one of these vast rings of coral-rock1 often many leagues in diameter1 here and there surmounted by a low verdant island with dazzling white shores1 bathed on the outside by the foaming breakers of the ocean1 and on the inside surrounding a calm expanse of water1 which1 from reflection is generally of a bright but pale green colour4 ,the naturalist will feel this astonishment more deeply after having examined the soft and almost gelatinous bodies of these apparently insignificant coral-polypifers1 and when he knows that the solid reef increases only on the outer edge1 which day and night is lashed by the breakers of an ocean never at rest4 ,well did ,franois ,pyrard de ,laval1 in the year #afje exclaim1 ',c'est une merveille de voir chacun de ces atollons1 environn d'un grand banc de pierre tout autour1 n'y ayant point d'artifice humain4'#fb ,of the enchanting beauty of the coral beds themselves we are assured that language conveys no adequate idea4 ,there were corals1 says ,prof4 ,ball1 which1 in their living state1 are of many shades of fawn1 buff1 pink1 and blue1 while some were tipped with a magenta-like bloom4 ,sponges which looked as hard as stone spread over wide areas1 while sprays of coralline added their graceful forms to the picture4 ,through the vistas so formed1 golden-banded and metallic-blue fish meandered1 while on the patches of sand here and there ,holothurias and various mollusca and crustaceans might be seen slowly crawling4 ,abercromby also gives a very graphic description of a ,coral reef4 ,as we approached1 he says1 the roaring surf on the outside1 fingery lumps of beautiful live coral began to appear of the palest lavender-blue colour2 and when at last we were almost within the spray1 the whole floor was one mass of living branches of coral4 ,but it is only when venturing as far as is prudent into the water1 over the outward edge of the great sea wall1 that the true character of the reef and all the beauties of the ocean can be really seen4 ,after walking over a flat uninteresting tract of nearly bare rock1 you look down and see a steep irregular wall1 expanding deeper into the ocean than the eye can follow1 and broken into lovely grottoes and holes and canals1 through which small resplendent fish of the brightest blue or gold flit fitfully between the lumps of coral4 ,the sides of these natural grottoes are entirely covered with endless forms of tender-coloured coral1 but all beautiful1 and all more or less of the fingery or branching species1 known as madrepores4 ,it is really impossible to draw or describe the sight1 which must be taken with all its surroundings as adjuncts4#fc ,the vegetation of these fairy lands is also very lovely2 the ,coral tree 7,erythrina7 with light green leaves and bunches of scarlet blossoms1 the ,cocoa-nut always beautiful1 the breadfruit1 the graceful tree ferns1 the ,barringtonia1 with large pink and white flowers1 several species of ,convolvulus1 and many others unknown to us even by name4 ,,the ,,southern ,,skies ,in considering these exquisite scenes1 the beauty of the ,southern skies must not be omitted4 ,from the time we entered the torrid zone1 says ,humboldt1 we were never wearied with admiring1 every night1 the beauty of the southern sky1 which1 as we advanced towards the south1 opened new constellations to our view4 ,we feel an indescribable sensation1 when1 on approaching the equator1 and particularly on passing from one hemisphere to the other1 we see those stars which we have contemplated from our infancy1 progressively sink1 and finally disappear4 ,nothing awakens in the traveller a livelier remembrance of the immense distance by which he is separated from his country1 than the aspect of an unknown firmament4 ,the grouping of the stars of the first magnitude1 some scattered nebul rivalling in splendour the milky way1 and tracts of space remarkable for their extreme blackness1 give a particular physiognomy to the southern sky4 ,this sight fills with admiration even those1 who1 uninstructed in the branches of accurate science1 feel the same emotions of delight in the contemplation of the heavenly vault1 as in the view of a beautiful landscape1 or a majestic river4 ,a traveller has no need of being a botanist to recognise the torrid zone on the mere aspect of its vegetation2 and1 without having acquired any notion of astronomy1 he feels he is not in ,europe1 when he sees the immense constellation of the ,ship1 or the phosphorescent clouds of ,magellan1 arise on the horizon4 ,the heaven and the earth1 in the equinoctial regions1 assume an exotic character4 ,the sunsets in the ,eastern ,archipelago1 says ,h4 ,o4 ,forbes1#fd were scenes to be remembered for a lifetime4 ,the tall cones of ,sibissie and ,krakatoa rose dark purple out of an unruffled golden sea1 which stretched away to the south-west1 where the sun went down2 over the horizon gray fleecy clouds lay in banks and streaks1 above them pale blue lanes of sky1 alternating with orange bands1 which higher up gave place to an expanse of red stretching round the whole heavens4 ,gradually as the sun retreated deeper and deeper1 the sky became a marvellous golden curtain1 in front of which the gray clouds coiled themselves into weird forms before dissolving into space4444 ,,the ,,poles ,the ,arctic and ,antarctic regions have always exercised a peculiar fascination over the human mind4 ,until now every attempt to reach the ,north ,pole has failed1 and the ,south has proved even more inaccessible4 ,in the north1 ,parry all but reached lat4 #hc2 in the south no one has penetrated beyond lat4 #ga4aa4 ,and yet1 while no one can say what there may be round the ,north ,pole1 and some still imagine that open water might be found there1 we can picture to ourselves the extreme ,south with somewhat more confidence4 ,whenever ships have sailed southwards1 except at a few places where land has been met with1 they have come at last to a wall of ice1 from fifty to four hundred feet high4 ,in those regions it snows1 if not incessantly1 at least very frequently1 and the snow melts but little4 ,as far as the eye can reach nothing is to be seen but snow4 ,now this snow must gradually accumulate1 and solidify into ice1 until it attains such a slope that it will move forward as a glacier4 ,the enormous ,icebergs of the ,southern ,ocean1 moreover1 show that it does so1 and that the snow of the extreme south1 after condensing into ice1 moves slowly outward and at length forms a wall of ice1 from which ,icebergs1 from time to time1 break away4 ,we do not exactly know what1 under such circumstances1 the slope would be2 but ,mr4 ,croll points out that if we take it at only half a degree1 and this seems quite a minimum1 the ,ice cap at the ,south ,pole must be no less than twelve miles in thickness4 ,it is indeed probably even more1 for some of the ,southern tabular icebergs attain a height of eight hundred1 or even a thousand feet above water1 indicating a total thickness of the ice sheet even at the edge1 of over a mile4 ,sir ,james ,ross mentions that--,whilst measuring some angles for the survey near ,mount ,lubbock an island suddenly appeared1 which he was quite sure was not to be seen two or three hours previously4 ,he was much astonished1 but it eventually turned out to be a large iceberg1 which had turned over1 and so exposed a new surface covered with earth and stones4 ,the condition of the ,arctic regions is quite different4 ,there is much more land1 and no such enormous solid cap of ice4 ,spitzbergen1 the land of pointed mountains1 is said to be very beautiful4 ,lord ,dufferin describes his first view of it as a forest of thin lilac peaks1 so faint1 so pale1 that had it not been for the gem-like distinctness of their outline one could have deemed them as unsubstantial as the spires of ,fairyland4 ,it is1 however1 very desolate2 scarcely any vegetation excepting a dark moss1 and even this goes but a little way up the mountain side4 ,scoresby ascended one of the hills near ,horn ,sound1 and describes the view as most extensive and grand4 ,a fine sheltered bay was seen to the east of us1 an arm of the same on the north-east1 and the sea1 whose glassy surface was unruffled by a breeze1 formed an immense expanse on the west2 the glaciers1 rearing their proud crests almost to the tops of mountains between which they were lodged1 and defying the power of the solar beams1 were scattered in various directions about the sea-coast and in the adjoining bays4 ,beds of snow and ice filling extensive hollows1 and giving an enamelled coat to adjoining valleys1 one of which1 commencing at the foot of the mountain where we stood1 extended in a continual line towards the north1 as far as the eye could reach--mountain rising above mountain1 until by distance they dwindled into insignificance1 the whole contrasted by a cloudless canopy of deepest azure1 and enlightened by the rays of a blazing sun1 and the effect1 aided by a feeling of danger1 seated as we were on the pinnacle of a rock almost surrounded by tremendous precipices--all united to constitute a picture singularly sublime4 ,one of the glaciers of ,spitzbergen is #aa miles in breadth when it reaches the sea-coast1 the highest part of the precipitous front adjoining the sea being over #djj feet1 and it extends far upwards towards the summit of the mountain4 ,the surface forms an inclined plane of smooth unsullied snow1 the beauty and brightness of which render it a conspicuous landmark on that inhospitable shore4 ,from the perpendicular face great masses of ice from time to time break away1 ,whose blocks of sapphire seem to mortal eye ,hewn from crulean quarries of the sky4#fe ,field ice is comparatively flat1 though it may be piled up perhaps as much as #ej feet4 ,it is from glaciers that true icebergs1 the beauty and brilliance of which ,arctic travellers are never tired of describing1 take their origin4 ,the attempts to reach the ,north ,pole have cost many valuable lives2 ,willoughby and ,hudson1 ,behring and ,franklin1 and many other brave mariners2 but yet there are few expeditions more popular than those to the ,arctic1 and we cannot but hope that it is still reserved for the ,british ,navy after so many gallant attempts at length to reach the ,north ,pole4 ,,footnotes3 #ef ,shelley4 #eg ,campbell4 #eh ,holmes4 #ei ,bell4 #fj ,hemans4 #fa ,gunther1 ,history of ,fishes4 #fb ,darwin1 ,coral ,reefs4 #fc ,abercromby1 ,seas and ,skies in many ,latitudes4 #fd ,a ,naturalist's ,wanderings in the ,eastern ,archipelago4 #fe ,montgomery4 ,,chapter ,x ,,the ,,starry ,,heavens ,a man can hardly lift up his eyes towards the heavens without wonder and veneration1 to see so many millions of radiant lights1 and to observe their courses and revolutions1 even without any respect to the common good of the ,universe4--,,seneca4 ,,chapter ,x ,,the ,,starry ,,heavens ,many years ago ,i paid a visit to ,naples1 and ascended ,vesuvius to see the sun rise from the top of the mountain4 ,we went up to the ,observatory in the evening and spent the night outside4 ,the sky was clear2 at our feet was the sea1 and round the bay the lights of ,naples formed a lovely semicircle4 ,far more beautiful1 however1 were the moon and the stars overhead2 the moon throwing a silver path over the water1 and the stars shining in that clear atmosphere with a brilliance which ,i shall never forget4 ,for ages and ages past men have admired the same glorious spectacle1 and yet neither the imagination of ,man nor the genius of ,poetry had risen to the truer and grander conceptions of the ,heavens for which we are indebted to astronomical ,science4 ,the mechanical contrivances by which it was attempted to explain the movements of the heavenly bodies were clumsy and prosaic when compared with the great discovery of ,newton4 ,ruskin is unjust ,i think when he says ,science teaches us that the clouds are a sleety mist2 ,art1 that they are a golden throne4 ,i should be the last to disparage the debt we owe to ,art1 but for our knowledge1 and even more1 for our appreciation1 feeble as even yet it is1 of the overwhelming grandeur of the ,heavens1 we are mainly indebted to ,science4 ,there is scarcely a form which the fancy of ,man has not sometimes detected in the clouds1--chains of mountains1 splendid cities1 storms at sea1 flights of birds1 groups of animals1 monsters of all kinds1--and our superstitious ancestors often terrified themselves by fantastic visions of arms and warriors and battles which they regarded as portents of coming calamities4 ,there is hardly a day on which ,clouds do not delight and surprise us by their forms and colours4 ,they belong1 however1 to our ,earth1 and ,i must now pass on to the heavenly bodies4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,moon4 ,to face page #cgg4 ,,the ,,moon ,the ,moon is the nearest1 and being the nearest1 appears to us1 with the single exception of the ,sun1 the largest1 although it is in reality one of the smallest1 of the heavenly bodies4 ,just as the ,earth goes round the ,sun1 and the period of revolution constitutes a year1 so the ,moon goes round the ,earth approximately in a period of one month4 ,but while we turn on our axis every twenty-four hours1 thus causing the alternation of light and darkness--day and night--the ,moon takes a month to revolve on hers1 so that she always presents the same1 or very nearly the same1 surface to us4 ,seeing her as we do1 not like the ,sun and ,stars1 by light of her own1 but by the reflected light of the ,sun1 her form appears to change1 because the side upon which the ,sun shines is not always that which we see4 ,hence the phases of the ,moon1 which add so much to her beauty and interest4 ,who is there who has not watched them with admiration8 ,we first see her as an exquisite crescent of pale light in the western sky after sunset4 ,night after night she moves further and further to the east1 until she becomes full1 and rises about the same time that the ,sun sets4 ,from the time of full moon the disc of light begins to diminish1 until the last quarter is reached4 ,then it is that the ,moon is seen high in the heavens in the morning4 ,as the days pass by1 the crescent shape is again assumed4 ,the crescent wanes thinner and thinner as the ,moon draws closer to the ,sun4 ,finally1 she becomes lost in the overpowering light of the ,sun1 again to emerge as the new moon1 and again to go through the same cycle of changes4#ff ,but although she is so small the ,moon is not only1 next to the ,sun1 by far the most beautiful1 but also for us the most important1 of the heavenly bodies4 ,her attraction1 aided by that of the ,sun1 causes the tides1 which are of such essential service to navigation4 ,they carry our vessels in and out of port1 and1 indeed1 but for them many of our ports would themselves cease to exist1 being silted up by the rivers running into them4 ,the ,moon is also of invaluable service to sailors by enabling them to determine where they are1 and guiding them over the pathless waters4 ,the geography of the ,moon1 so far as concerns the side turned towards us1 has been carefully mapped and studied1 and may almost be said to be as well known as that of our own earth4 ,the scenery is in a high degree weird and rugged2 it is a great wilderness of extinct volcanoes1 and1 seen with even a very moderate telescope1 is a most beautiful object4 ,the mountains are of great size4 ,our loftiest mountain1 ,mount ,everest1 is generally stated as about #bi1jjj feet in height4 ,the mountains of the ,moon reach an altitude of over #db1jjj1 but this reckons to the lowest depression1 and it must be remembered that we reckon the height of mountains to the sea level only4 ,several of the craters on the ,moon have a diameter of #dj or #ej--one of them even as much as #gh--miles4 ,many also have central cones1 closely resembling those in our own volcanic regions4 ,in some cases the craters are filled nearly to the brim with lava4 ,the volcanoes seem1 however1 to be all extinct2 and there is not a single case in which we have conclusive evidence of any change in a lunar mountain4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ej4--;,a group of ,lunar ,volcanoes4 ,the ,moon1 being so much smaller than the earth1 cooled1 of course1 much more rapidly1 and it is probable that these mountains are millions of years old--much older than many of our mountain chains4 ,yet no one can look at a map of the ,moon without being struck with the very rugged character of its mountain scenery4 ,this is mainly due to the absence of air and water4 ,to these two mighty agencies1 not merely the cloud-capped towers1 the gorgeous palaces1 the solemn temples1 but the very mountains themselves1 are inevitable victims4 ,not merely storms and hurricanes1 but every gentle shower1 every fall of snow1 tends to soften our scenery and lower the mountain peaks4 ,these agencies are absent from the ,moon1 and the mountains stand to-day just as they were formed millions of years ago4 ,but though we find on our own globe 7see1 for instance1 ,fig4 #ba7 volcanic regions closely resembling those of the ,moon1 there are other phenomena on the ,moon's surface for which our earth presents as yet no explanation4 ,from ,tycho1 for instance1 a crater #ag1jjj feet high and #ej miles across1 a number of rays or streaks diverge1 which for hundreds1 or in some cases two or three thousand1 miles pass straight across plains1 craters1 and mountains4 ,the true nature of these streaks is not yet understood4 ,,the ,,sun ,the ,sun is more than #djj times as distant as the ,moon2 a mighty glowing globe1 infinitely hotter than any earthly fiery furnace1 #cjj1jjj times as heavy1 and #a1jjj1jjj times as large as the earth4 ,its diameter is #hfe1jjj miles1 and it revolves on its axis in between #be and #bf days4 ,its distance is #ib1ejj1jjj miles4 ,and yet it is only a star1 and by no means one of the first magnitude4 ,the surface of the ,sun is the seat of violent storms and tempests4 ,from it gigantic flames1 consisting mainly of hydrogen1 flicker and leap4 ,professor ,young describes one as being1 when first observed1 #dj1jjj miles high4 ,suddenly it became very brilliant1 and in half an hour sprang up #dj1jjj more4 ,for another hour it soared higher and higher1 reaching finally an elevation of no less than #cej1jjj miles1 after which it slowly faded away1 and in a couple of hours had entirely disappeared4 ,this was no doubt an exceptional case1 but a height of #ajj1jjj miles is not unusual1 and the velocity frequently reaches #ajj miles in a second4 ,the proverbial spots on the ,sun in many respects resemble the appearances which would be presented if a comparatively dark central mass was here and there exposed by apertures through the more brilliant outer gases1 but their true nature is still a matter of discussion4 ,during total eclipses it is seen that the ,sun is surrounded by a corona1 or aureola of light1 consisting of radiant filaments1 beams1 and sheets of light1 which radiate in all directions1 and the true nature of which is still doubtful4 ,another stupendous problem connected with the ,sun is the fact that1 as geology teaches us1 it has given off nearly the same quantity of light and heat for millions of years4 ,how has this come to pass8 ,certainly not by any process of burning such as we are familiar with4 ,indeed1 if the heat of the ,sun were due to combustion it would be burnt up in #fjjj years4 ,it has been suggested that the meteors1 which fall in showers on to the ,sun1 replace the heat which is emitted4 ,to some slight extent perhaps they do so1 but the main cause seems to be the slow condensation of the ,sun itself4 ,mathematicians tell us that a contraction of about #bbj feet a year would account for the whole heat emitted1 and as the present diameter of the ,sun is about #hfj1jjj miles1 the potential store of heat is still enormous4 ,to the ,sun we owe our light and heat2 it is not only the centre of our planetary system1 it is the source and ruler of our lives4 ,it draws up water from the ocean1 and pours it down in rain to fill the rivers and refresh the plants2 it raises the winds1 which purify the air and waft our ships over the seas2 it draws our carriages and drives our steam-engines1 for coal is but the heat of former ages stored up for our use2 animals live and move by the ,sun's warmth2 it inspires the song of birds1 paints the flowers1 and ripens the fruit4 ,through it the trees grow4 ,for the beauties of nature1 for our food and drink1 for our clothing1 for our light and life1 for the very possibility of our existence1 we are indebted to the ,sun4 ,what is the ,sun made of8 ,comte mentioned as a problem1 which it was impossible that man could ever solve1 any attempt to determine the chemical composition of the heavenly bodies4 ,nous concevons1 he said1 la possibilit de dterminer leurs formes1 leurs distances1 leurs grandeurs1 et leurs mouvements1 tandis que nous ne saurions jamais tudier par aucun moyen leur composition chimique ou leur structure minralogique4 ,to do so might well have seemed hopeless1 and yet the possibility has been proved1 and a beginning has been made4 ,in the early part of this century ,wollaston observed that the bright band of colours thrown by a prism1 and known as the spectrum1 was traversed by dark lines1 which were also discovered1 and described more in detail1 by ,fraunhofer1 after whom they are generally called ,fraunhofer's lines4 ,the next step was made by ,wheatstone1 who showed that the spectrum formed by incandescent vapours was formed of bright lines1 which differed for each substance1 and might1 therefore1 be used as a convenient mode of analysis4 ,in fact1 by this process several new substances have actually been discovered4 ,these bright lines were found on comparison to coincide with the dark lines in the spectrum1 and to ,kirchhoff and ,bunsen is due the credit of applying this method of research to astronomical science4 ,they arranged their apparatus so that one-half was lighted by the ,sun1 the other by the incandescent gas they were examining4 ,when the vapour of sodium was treated in this way they found that the bright line in the flame of soda exactly coincided with a line in the ,sun's spectrum4 ,the conclusion was obvious2 there is sodium in the ,sun4 ,it must1 indeed1 have been a glorious moment when the thought flashed upon them2 and the discovery1 with its results1 is one of the greatest triumphs of human genius4 ,the ,sun has thus been proved to contain hydrogen1 sodium1 barium1 magnesium1 calcium1 aluminium1 chromium1 iron1 nickle1 manganese1 titanium1 cobalt1 lead1 zinc1 copper1 cadmium1 strontium1 cerium1 uranium1 potassium1 etc41 in all #cf of our terrestrial elements1 while as regards some others the evidence is not conclusive4 ,we cannot as yet say that any of our elements are absent1 nor though there are various lines which cannot as yet be certainly referred to any known substance1 have we clear proof that the ,sun contains any element which does not exist on our earth4 ,on the whole1 then1 the chemical composition of the ,sun appears closely to resemble that of our earth4 ,,the ,,planets ,the ,syrian shepherds watching their flocks by night long ago noticed--and they were probably not the first--that there were five stars which did not follow the regular course of the rest1 but1 apparently at least1 moved about irregularly4 ,these they appropriately named ,planets1 or wanderers4 ,further observations have shown that this irregularity of their path is only apparent1 and that1 like our own ,earth1 they really revolve round the ,sun4 ,to the five first observed--,mercury1 ,venus1 ,mars1 ,jupiter1 and ,saturn--two large ones1 ,uranus and ,neptune1 and a group of minor bodies1 have since been added4 ,the following two diagrams give the relative orbits of the ,planets4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ea4--,orbits of the inner ,planets4 ,,mercury ,it is possible1 perhaps probable1 that there may be an inner ,planet1 but1 so far as we know for certain1 ,mercury is the one nearest to the ,sun1 its average distance being #cf1jjj1jjj miles4 ,it is much smaller than the ,earth1 its weight being only about #a_/bdth of ours4 ,mercury is a shy though beautiful object1 for being so near the ,sun it is not easily visible2 it may1 however1 generally be seen at some time or other during the year as a morning or evening star4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eb4--,relative distances of the ,planets from the ,sun4 ,,venus ,the true morning or evening star1 however1 is ,venus--the peerless and capricious ,venus4 ,venus1 perhaps1 has not been noticed1 not been thought of1 for many months4 ,it is a beautifully clear evening2 the sun has just set4 ,the lover of nature turns to admire the sunset1 as every lover of nature will4 ,in the golden glory of the west a beauteous gem is seen to glisten2 it is the evening star1 the planet ,venus4 ,a week or two later another beautiful sunset is seen1 and now the planet is no longer a glistening point low down2 it has risen high above the horizon1 and continues a brilliant object long after the shades of night have descended4 ,again a little longer and ,venus has gained its full brilliancy and splendour4 ,all the heavenly host--even ,sirius and ,jupiter--must pale before the splendid lustre of ,venus1 the unrivalled queen of the firmament4#fg ,venus is about as large as our ,earth1 and when at her brightest outshines about fifty times the most brilliant star4 ,yet1 like all the other planets1 she glows only with the reflected light of the ,sun1 and consequently passes through phases like those of the ,moon1 though we cannot see them with the naked eye4 ,to ,venus also owe we mainly the power of determining the distance1 and consequently the magnitude1 of the ,sun4 ,,the ,,earth ,our own ,earth has formed the subject of previous chapters4 ,i will now1 therefore1 only call attention to her movements1 in which1 of course1 though unconsciously1 we participate4 ,in the first place1 the ,earth revolves on her axis in #bd hours4 ,her circumference at the tropics is #bd1jjj miles4 ,hence a person at the tropics is moving in this respect at the rate of #ajjj miles an hour1 or over #af miles a minute4 ,but more than this1 astronomers have ascertained that the whole solar system is engaged in a great voyage through space1 moving towards a point on the constellation of ,hercules at the rate of at least #bj1jjj miles an hour1 or over #cjj miles a minute4#fh ,but even more again1 we revolve annually round the ,sun in a mighty orbit #ehj1jjj1jjj miles in circumference4 ,in this respect we are moving at the rate of no less than #fj1jjj miles an hour1 or #ajjj miles a minute--a rate far exceeding of course1 in fact by some #ajj times1 that of a cannon ball4 ,how few of us know1 how little we any of us realise1 that we are rushing through space with such enormous velocity4 ,,mars ,to the naked eye ,mars appears like a ruddy star of the first magnitude4 ,it has two satellites1 which have been happily named ,phobos and ,deimos--,fear and ,dismay4 ,it is little more than half as large as the ,earth1 and1 though generally far more distant1 it sometimes approaches us within #ce1jjj1jjj miles4 ,this has enabled us to study its physical structure4 ,it seems very probable that there is water in ,mars1 and the two poles are tipped with white1 as if capped by ice and snow4 ,it presents also a series of remarkable parallel lines1 the true nature of which is not yet understood4 ,,the ,,minor ,,planets ,a glance at ,figs4 #ea and #eb will show that the distances of the ,planets from the ,sun follow a certain rule4 ,if we take the numbers #j1 #c1 #f1 #ab1 #bd1 #dh1 #if1 each one 7after the second7 the double of that preceding1 and add four1 we have the series4 #d #g #aj #af #bh #eb #ajj ,now the distances of the ,planets from the ,sun are as follow3-- ,mercury4 ,venus4 ,earth4 ,mars4 ,jupiter4 ,saturn4 #c4i #g4b #aj #ae4b #eb4i #ie4d ,for this sequence1 which was first noticed by ,bode1 and is known as ,bode's law1 no explanation can yet be given4 ,it was of course at once observed that between ,mars and ,jupiter one place is vacant1 and it has now been ascertained that this is occupied by a zone of ,minor ,planets1 the first of which was discovered by ,piazzi on ,january #a1 #ahja1 a worthy prelude to the succession of scientific discoveries which form the glory of our century4 ,at present over #cjj are known1 but certainly these are merely the larger among an immense number1 some of them doubtless mere dust4 ,,jupiter ,beyond the ,minor ,planets we come to the stupendous ,jupiter1 containing #cjj times the mass1 and being #abjj times the size of our ,earth--larger indeed than all the other planets put together4 ,it is probably not solid1 and from its great size still retains a large portion of the original heat1 if we may use such an expression4 ,jupiter usually shows a number of belts1 supposed to be due to clouds floating over the surface1 which have a tendency to arrange themselves in belts or bands1 owing to the rotation of the planet4 ,jupiter has four moons or satellites4 ,,saturn ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ec4--,saturn4 ,next to ,jupiter in size1 as in position1 comes ,saturn1 which1 though far inferior in dimensions1 is much superior in beauty4 ,to the naked eye ,saturn appears as a brilliant star1 but when ,galileo first saw it through a telescope it appeared to him to be composed of three bodies in a line1 a central globe with a small one on each side4 ,huyghens in #afee first showed that in reality ,saturn was surrounded by a series of rings 7see ,fig4 #ec74 ,of these there are three1 the inner one very faint1 and the outer one divided into two by a dark line4 ,these rings are really enormous shoals of minute bodies revolving round the planet1 and rendering it perhaps the most marvellous and beautiful of all the heavenly bodies4 ,while we have one ,moon1 ,mars two1 and ,jupiter four1 ,saturn has no less than eight satellites4 ,,uranus ,saturn was long supposed to be the outermost body belonging to the solar system4 ,in #agha1 however1 on the #acth ,march1 ,william ,herschel was examining the stars in the constellation of the ,twins4 ,one struck him because it presented a distinct disc1 while the true fixed stars1 however brilliant1 are1 even with the most powerful telescope1 mere points of light4 ,at first he thought it might be a comet1 but careful observations showed that it was really a new planet4 ,though thus discovered by ,herschel it had often been seen before1 but its true nature was unsuspected4 ,it has a diameter of about #ca1gjj miles4 ,four satellites of ,uranus have been discovered1 and they present the remarkable peculiarity that while all the other planets and their satellites revolve nearly in one plane1 the satellites of ,uranus are nearly at right angles1 indicating the presence of some local and exceptional influence4 ,,neptune ,the study of ,uranus soon showed that it followed a path which could not be accounted for by the influence of the ,sun and the other then known planets4 ,it was suspected1 therefore1 that this was due to some other body not yet discovered4 ,to calculate where such a body must be so as to account for these irregularities was a most complex and difficult1 and might have seemed almost a hopeless1 task4 ,it was1 however1 solved almost simultaneously and independently by ,adams in this country1 and ,le ,verrier in ,france4 ,neptune1 so far as we yet know the out-most of our companions1 is #ce1jjj miles in diameter1 and its mean distance from the ,sun is #b1ghj1jjj1jjj miles4 ,,origin ,,of ,,the ,,planetary ,,system ,the theory of the origin of the ,planetary ,system known as the ,nebular ,hypothesis1 which was first suggested by ,kant1 and developed by ,herschel and ,laplace1 may be fairly said to have attained a high degree of probability4 ,the space now occupied by the solar system is supposed to have been filled by a rotating spheroid of extreme tenuity and enormous heat1 due perhaps to the collision of two originally separate bodies4 ,the heat1 however1 having by degrees radiated into space1 the gas cooled and contracted towards a centre1 destined to become the ,sun4 ,through the action of centrifugal force the gaseous matter also flattened itself at the two poles1 taking somewhat the form of a disc4 ,for a certain time the tendency to contract1 and the centrifugal force1 counterbalanced one another1 but at length a time came when the latter prevailed and the outer zone detached itself from the rest of the sphere4 ,one after another similar rings were thrown off1 and then breaking up1 formed the planets and their satellites4 ,that each planet and satellite did form originally a ring we still have evidence in the wonderful and beautiful rings of ,saturn1 which1 however1 in all probability will eventually form spherical satellites like the rest4 ,thus then our ,earth was originally a part of the ,sun1 to which again it is destined one day to return4 ,m4 ,plateau has shown experimentally that by rotating a globe of oil in a mixture of water and spirit having the same density this process may be actually repeated in miniature4 ,this brilliant1 and yet simple1 hypothesis is consistent with1 and explains many other circumstances connected with the position1 magnitude1 and movements of the ,planets and their satellites4 ,the ,planets1 for instance1 lie more or less in the same plane1 they revolve round the ,sun and rotate on their own axis in the same direction--a series of coincidences which cannot be accidental1 and for which the theory would account4 ,again the rate of cooling would of course follow the size2 a small body cools more rapidly than a large one4 ,the ,moon is cold and rigid2 the ,earth is solid at the surface1 but intensely hot within2 ,jupiter and ,saturn1 which are immensely larger1 still retain much of their original heat1 and have a much lower density than the ,earth2 and astronomers tell us on other grounds that the ,sun itself is still contracting1 and that to this the maintenance of its temperature is due4 ,although1 therefore1 the ,nebular ,theory cannot be said to have been absolutely proved1 it has certainly been brought to a high state of probability1 and is1 in its main features1 generally accepted by astronomers4 ,the question has often been asked whether any of the heavenly bodies are inhabited1 and as yet it is impossible to give any certain answer4 ,it seems priori probable that the millions of suns which we see as stars must have satellites1 and that some at least of them may be inhabited4 ,so far as our own system is concerned the ,sun is of course too hot to serve as a dwelling-place for any beings with bodies such as ours4 ,the same may be said of ,mercury1 which is at times probably ten times as hot as our tropics4 ,the outer planets appear to be still in a state of vapour4 ,the ,moon has no air or water4 ,mars is in a condition which most nearly resembles ours4 ,all1 however1 that can be said is that1 so far as we can see1 the existence of living beings on ,mars is not impossible4 ,,comets ,the ,sun1 ,moon1 and ,stars1 glorious and wonderful as they are1 though regarded with great interest1 and in some cases worshipped as deities1 excited the imagination of our ancestors less than might have been expected1 and even now attract comparatively little attention1 from the fact that they are always with us4 ,comets1 on the other hand1 both as rare and occasional visitors1 from their large size and rapid changes1 were regarded in ancient times with dread and with amazement4 ,some ,comets revolve round the ,sun in ellipses1 but many1 if not the majority1 are visitors indeed1 for having once passed round the ,sun they pass away again into space1 never to return4 ,the appearance which is generally regarded as characteristic of a ,comet is that of a head with a central nucleus and a long tail4 ,many1 however1 of the smaller ones possess no tail1 and in fact ,comets present almost innumerable differences4 ,moreover the same ,comet changes rapidly1 so that when they return1 they are identified not in any way by their appearance1 but by the path they pursue4 ,comets may almost be regarded as the ghosts of heavenly bodies4 ,the heads1 in some cases1 may consist of separate solid fragments1 though on this astronomers are by no means agreed1 but the tails at any rate are in fact of almost inconceivable tenuity4 ,we know that a cloud a few hundred feet thick is sufficient to hide1 not only the stars1 but even the ,sun himself4 ,a ,comet is thousands of miles in thickness1 and yet even extremely minute stars can be seen through it with no appreciable diminution of brightness4 ,this extreme tenuity of comets is moreover shown by their small weight4 ,enormous as they are ,i remember ,sir ,g4 ,airy saying that there was probably more matter in a cricket ball than there is in a comet4 ,no one1 however1 now doubts that the weight must be measured in tons2 but it is so small1 in relation to the size1 as to be practically inappreciable4 ,if indeed they were comparable in mass even to the planets1 we should long ago have perished4 ,the security of our system is due to the fact that the planets revolve round the ,sun in one direction1 almost in circles1 and very nearly in the same plane4 ,comets1 however1 enter our system in all directions1 and at all angles2 they are so numerous that1 as ,kepler said1 there are probably more ,comets in the sky than there are fishes in the sea1 and but for their extreme tenuity they would long ago have driven us into the ,sun4 ,when they first come in sight ,comets have generally no tail2 it grows as they approach the ,sun1 from which it always points away4 ,it is no mere optical illusion2 but while the ,comet as a whole is attracted by the ,sun1 the tail1 how or why we know not1 is repelled4 ,when once driven off1 moreover1 the attraction of the ,comet is not sufficient to recall it1 and hence perhaps so many ,comets have now no tails4 ,donati's ,comet1 the great ,comet of #aheh1 was first noticed on the #b;d ,june as a faint nebulous spot4 ,for three months it remained quite inconspicuous1 and even at the end of ,august was scarcely visible to the naked eye4 ,in ,september it grew rapidly1 and by the middle of ,october the tail extended no less than #dj degrees1 after which it gradually disappeared4 ,faint as is the light emitted by ,comets1 it is yet their own1 and spectrum analysis has detected the presence in them of carbon1 hydrogen1 nitrogen1 sodium1 and probably of iron4 ,comets then remain as wonderful1 and almost as mysterious1 as ever1 but we need no longer regard a comet as a sign of impending calamity2 we may rather look upon it as an interesting and a beautiful visitor1 which comes to please us and to instruct us1 but never to threaten or to destroy4#fi ,we are free1 therefore1 to admire them in peace1 and beautiful1 indeed1 they are4 ,the most wonderful sight ,i remember1 says ,hamerton1 as an effect of calm1 was the inversion of ,donati's ,comet1 in the year #aheh1 during the nights when it was sufficiently near the horizon to approach the rugged outline of ,graiganunie1 and be reflected beneath it in ,loch ,awe4 ,in the sky was an enormous aigrette of diamond fire1 in the water a second aigrette1 scarcely less splendid1 with its brilliant point directed upwards1 and its broad1 shadowy extremity ending indefinitely in the deep4 ,to be out on the lake alone1 in a tiny boat1 and let it rest motionless on the glassy water1 with that incomparable spectacle before one1 was an experience to be remembered through a lifetime4 ,i have seen many a glorious sight since that now distant year1 but nothing to equal it in the association of solemnity with splendour4#gj ,,shooting ,,stars ,on almost any bright night1 if we watch a short time some star will suddenly seem to drop from its place1 and1 after a short plunge1 to disappear4 ,this appearance is1 however1 partly illusory4 ,while true stars are immense bodies at an enormous distance1 ,shooting ,stars are very small1 perhaps not larger than a paving stone1 and are not visible until they come within the limits of our atmosphere1 by the friction with which they are set on fire and dissipated4 ,they are much more numerous on some nights than others4 ,from the #ith to the #aath ,august we pass through one cluster which is known as the ,perseids2 and on the #acth and #adth ,november a still greater group called by astronomers the ,leonids4 ,the ,leonids revolve round the ,sun in a period of #cc years1 and in an elliptic orbit1 one focus of which is about at the same distance from the ,sun as we are1 the other at about that of ,uranus4 ,the shoal of stars is enormous2 its diameter cannot be less than #ajj1jjj miles1 and its length many hundreds of thousands4 ,there are1 indeed1 stragglers scattered over the whole orbit1 with some of which we come in contact every year1 but we pass through the main body three times in a century--last in #ahff--;capturing millions on each occasion4 ,one of these has been graphically described by ,humboldt3 ,from half after two in the morning the most extraordinary luminary meteors were seen in the direction of the east4 ,m4 ,bonpland1 who had risen to enjoy the freshness of the air1 perceived them first4 ,thousands of bodies and falling stars succeeded each other during the space of four hours4 ,their direction was very regular from north to south4 ,they filled a space in the sky extending from due east #cj to north and south4 ,in an amplitude of #fj the meteors were seen to rise above the horizon at east-north-east1 and at east1 to describe arcs more or less extended1 and to fall towards the south1 after having followed the direction of the meridian4 ,some of them attained a height of #dj1 and all exceeded #be or #cj4 ,no trace of clouds was to be seen4 ,m4 ,bonpland states that1 from the first appearance of the phenomenon1 there was not in the firmament a space equal in extent to three diameters of the moon which was not filled every instant with bolides and falling stars4 ,the first were fewer in number1 but as they were of different sizes it was impossible to fix the limit between these two classes of phenomena4 ,all these meteors left luminous traces from five to ten degrees in length1 as often happens in the equinoctial regions4 ,the phosphorescence of these traces1 or luminous bands1 lasted seven or eight seconds4 ,many of the falling stars had a very distinct nucleus1 as large as the disc of ,jupiter1 from which darted sparks of vivid light4 ,the bodies seemed to burst as by explosion2 but the largest1 those from #a to #a #ae' in diameter1 disappeared without scintillation1 leaving behind them phosphorescent bands 7trabes71 exceeding in breadth fifteen or twenty minutes4 ,the light of these meteors was white1 and not reddish1 which must doubtless be attributed to the absence of vapour and the extreme transparency of the air4#ga ,the past history of the ,leonids1 which ,le ,verrier has traced out with great probability1 if not proved1 is very interesting4 ,they did not1 he considers1 approach the ,sun until #abf ,a4,d41 when1 in their career through the heavens1 they chanced to come near to ,uranus4 ,but for the influence of that planet they would have passed round the ,sun1 and then departed again for ever4 ,by his attraction1 however1 their course was altered1 and they will now continue to revolve round the ,sun4 ,there is a remarkable connection between star showers and comets1 which1 however1 is not yet thoroughly understood4 ,several star showers follow paths which are also those of comets1 and the conclusion appears almost irresistible that these comets are made up of ,shooting ,stars4 ,we are told1 indeed1 that #aej1jjj1jjj of meteors1 including only those visible with a moderate telescope1 fall on the earth annually4 ,at any rate1 there can be no doubt that every year millions of them are captured by the earth1 thus constituting an appreciable1 and in the course of ages a constantly increasing1 part of the solid substance of the globe4 ,,the ,,stars ,we have been dealing in the earlier part of this chapter with figures and distances so enormous that it is quite impossible for us to realise them2 and yet we have still others to consider compared with which even the solar system is insignificant4 ,in the first place1 the number of the ,stars is enormous4 ,when we look at the sky at night they seem1 indeed1 almost innumerable2 so that1 like the sands of the sea1 the ,stars of heaven have ever been used as effective symbols of number4 ,the total number visible to the naked eye is1 however1 in reality only about #cjjj1 while that shown by the telescope is about #ajj1jjj1jjj4 ,photography1 however1 has revealed to us the existence of others which no telescope can show4 ,we cannot by looking long at the heavens see more than at first2 in fact1 the first glance is the keenest4 ,in photography1 on the contrary1 no light which falls on the plate1 however faint1 is lost2 it is taken in and stored up4 ,in an hour the effect is #cfjj times as great as in a second4 ,by exposing the photographic plate1 therefore1 for some hours1 and even on successive nights1 the effect of the light is as it were accumulated1 and stars are rendered visible1 the light of which is too feeble to be shown by any telescope4 ,the distances and magnitudes of the ,stars are as astonishing as their numbers1 ,sirius1 for instance1 being about twenty times as heavy as the ,sun itself1 #ej times as bright1 and no less than #a1jjj1jjj times as far away2 while1 though like other stars it seems to us stationary1 it is in reality sweeping through the heavens at the rate of #ajjj miles a minute2 ,maia1 ,electra1 and ,alcyone1 three of the ,pleiades1 are considered to be respectively #djj1 #dhj1 and #ajjj times as brilliant as the ,sun1 ,canopus #bejj times1 and ,arcturus1 incredible as it may seem1 even #hjjj times1 so that1 in fact1 the ,sun is by no means one of the largest ,stars4 ,even the minute ,stars not separately visible to the naked eye1 and the millions which make up the ,milky ,way1 are considered to be on an average fully equal to the ,sun in lustre4 ,arcturus is1 so far as we know at present1 the swiftest1 brightest1 and largest of all4 ,its speed is over #cjj miles a second1 it is said to be #hjjj times as bright as the ,sun1 and #hj times as large1 while its distance is so great that its light takes #bjj years in reaching us4 ,the distances of the heavenly bodies are ascertained by what is known as parallax4 ,suppose the ellipse 7,fig4 #ed71 marked ,jan41 ,apr41 ,july1 ,oct41 represents the course of the ,earth round the ,sun1 and that ,a ,b are two stars4 ,if in ,january we look at the star ,a1 we see it projected against the front of the sky marked #a4 ,three months later it would appear to be at #b1 and thus as we move round our orbit the star itself appears to move in the ellipse #a1 #b1 #c1 #d4 ,the more distant star ,b also appears to move in a similar1 but smaller1 ellipse2 the difference arising from the greater distance4 ,the size of the ellipse is inversely proportional to the distance1 and hence as we know the magnitude of the earth's orbit we can calculate the distance of the star4 ,the difficulty is that the apparent ellipses are so minute that it is in very few cases possible to measure them4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ed4--,the ,parallactic ,ellipse4 ,the distances of the ,fixed ,stars thus tested are found to be enormous1 and indeed generally incalculable2 so great that in most cases1 whether we look at them from one end of our orbit or the other--though the difference of our position1 corresponding to the points marked ,january and ,july in ,fig4 #ed1 is #ahe1jjj1jjj miles--no apparent change of position can be observed4 ,in some1 however1 the parallax1 though very minute1 is yet approximately measurable4 ,the first star to which this test was applied with success was that known as #fa ,cygni1 which is thus shown to be no less than #dj billions of miles away from us--many thousand times as far as we are from the ,sun4 ,the nearest of the ,stars1 so far as we yet know1 is ,greek3 alpha ,centauri1 the distance of which is about #be billions of miles4 ,the ,pleiades are considered to be at a distance of nearly #aejj billions of miles4 ,as regards the chemical composition of the ,stars1 it is1 moreover1 obvious that the powerful engine of investigation afforded us by the spectroscope is by no means confined to the substances which form part of our system4 ,the incandescent body can thus be examined1 no matter how great its distance1 so long only as the light is strong enough4 ,that this method was theoretically applicable to the light of the ,stars is indeed obvious1 but the practical difficulties are very great4 ,sirius1 the brightest of all1 is1 in round numbers1 a hundred millions of millions of miles from us2 and1 though as bright as fifty of our suns1 his light when it reaches us1 after a journey of sixteen years1 is at most one two-thousand-millionth part as bright4 ,nevertheless1 as long ago as #ahae ,fraunhofer recognised the fixed lines in the light of four of the ,stars2 in #ahfc ,miller and ,huggins in our own country1 and ,rutherford in ,america1 succeeded in determining the dark lines in the spectrum of some of the brighter ,stars1 thus showing that these beautiful and mysterious lights contain many of the material substances with which we are familiar4 ,in ,aldebaran1 for instance1 we may infer the presence of hydrogen1 sodium1 magnesium1 iron1 calcium1 tellurium1 antimony1 bismuth1 and mercury4 ,as might have been expected1 the composition of the ,stars is not uniform1 and it would appear that they may be arranged in a few well-marked classes1 indicating differences of temperature1 or perhaps of age4 ,thus we can make the ,stars teach us their own composition with light1 which started from its source years ago1 in many cases long before we were born4 ,spectrum analysis has also thrown an unexpected light on the movements of the ,stars4 ,ordinary observation1 of course1 is powerless to inform us whether they are moving towards or away from us4 ,spectrum analysis1 however1 enables us to solve the problem1 and we know that some are approaching1 some receding4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ee4--;,displacement of the hydrogen line in the spectrum of ,rigel4 ,if a star1 say for instance ,sirius1 were motionless1 or rather if it retained a constant distance from the earth1 ,fraunhofer's lines would occupy exactly the same position in the spectrum as they do in that of the ,sun4 ,on the contrary1 if ,sirius were approaching1 the lines would be slightly shifted towards the blue1 or if it were receding towards the red4 ,fig4 #ee shows the displacement of the hydrogen line in the spectrum of ,rigel1 due to the fact that it is receding from us at the rate of #ci miles a second4 ,the ,sun affords us an excellent test of this theory4 ,as it revolves on its axis one edge is always approaching and the other receding from us at a known rate1 and observation shows that the lines given by the light of the two edges differ accordingly4 ,so again as regards the ,stars1 we obtain a similar test derived from the ,earth's movement4 ,as we revolve in our orbit we approach or recede any given star1 and our rate of motion being known we thus obtain a second test4 ,the results thus examined have stood their ground satisfactorily1 and in ,huggins' opinion may be relied on within about an ,english mile a second4 ,the effect of this movement is1 moreover1 independent of the distance4 ,a lateral motion1 say of #bj miles a second1 which in a nearer object would appear to be a stupendous velocity1 becomes in the ,stars quite imperceptible4 ,a motion of the same rapidity1 on the other hand1 towards or away from us1 displaces the dark lines equally1 whatever the distance of the object may be4 ,we may then affirm that ,sirius1 for instance1 is receding from us at the rate of about #bj miles a second4 ,betelgeux1 ,rigel1 ,castor1 ,regulus1 and others are also moving away2 while some--,vega1 ,arcturus1 and ,pollux1 for example--are approaching us4 ,by the same process it is shown that some groups of stars are only apparently in relation to one another4 ,thus in ,charles' ,wain some of the stars are approaching1 others receding4 ,i have already mentioned that ,sirius1 though it seems1 like other stars1 so stationary that we speak of them as fixed1 is really sweeping along at the rate of #ajjj miles a minute4 ,even this enormous velocity is exceeded in other cases4 ,one1 which is numbered as #ahcj in ,groombridge's ,catalogue of the ,stars1 and is therefore known as ,groombridge's #ahcj1 moves no less than #ab1jjj miles a minute1 and ,arcturus #bb1jjj miles a minute1 or #cb1jjj1jjj of miles a day2 and yet the distances of the ,stars are so great that #ajjj years would make hardly any difference in the appearance of the heavens4 ,changes1 however1 there certainly would be4 ,even in the short time during which we have any observations1 some are already on record4 ,one of the most interesting is the fading of the #gth ,pleiad1 due1 according to ,ovid1 to grief at the taking of ,troy4 ,again1 the fiery ,dogstar1 as it used to be1 is now1 and has been for centuries1 a clear white4 ,the star known as ,nova ,cygni--the new star in the ,constellation of the ,swan--was first observed on the #bdth ,november #ahgf by ,dr4 ,schmidt of ,athens1 who had examined that part of the heavens only four days before1 and is sure that no such star was visible then4 ,at its brightest it was a brilliant star of the third magnitude1 but this only lasted for a few days2 in a week it had ceased to be a conspicuous object1 and in a fortnight became invisible without a telescope4 ,its sudden splendour was probably due to a collision between two bodies1 and was probably little1 if at all1 less than that of the ,sun itself4 ,it is still a mystery how so great a conflagration can have diminished so rapidly4 ,but though we speak of some stars as specially variable1 they are no doubt all undergoing slow change4 ,there was a time when they were not1 and one will come when they will cease to shine4 ,each1 indeed1 has a life-history of its own4 ,some1 doubtless1 represent now what others once were1 and what many will some day become4 ,for1 in addition to the luminous heavenly bodies1 we cannot doubt that there are countless others invisible to us1 some from their greater distance or smaller size1 but others1 doubtless1 from their feebler light2 indeed1 we know that there are many dark bodies which now emit no light1 or comparatively little4 ,thus in the case of ,procyon the existence of an invisible body is proved by the movement of the visible star4 ,again1 ,i may refer to the curious phenomena presented by ,algol1 a bright star in the head of ,medusa4 ,the star shines without change for two days and thirteen hours2 then in three hours and a half dwindles from a star of the second to one of the fourth magnitude2 and then1 in another three and a half hours1 reassumes its original brilliancy4 ,these changes led astronomers to infer the presence of an opaque body1 which intercepts at regular intervals a part of the light emitted by ,algol2 and ,vogel has now shown by the aid of the spectroscope that ,algol does in fact revolve round a dark1 and therefore invisible1 companion4 ,the spectroscope1 in fact1 makes known to us the presence of many stars which no telescope could reveal4 ,thus the floor of heaven is not only thick inlaid with patines of bright gold1 but studded also with extinct stars1 once probably as brilliant as our own ,sun1 but now dead and cold1 as ,helmholtz tells us that our ,sun itself will be some seventeen millions of years hence4 ,such dark bodies cannot of course be seen1 and their existence1 though we cannot doubt it1 is a matter of calculation4 ,in one case1 however1 the conclusion has received a most interesting confirmation4 ,the movements of ,sirius led mathematicians to conclude that it had also a mighty and massive neighbour1 the relative position of which they calculated1 though no such body had ever been seen4 ,in ,february #ahfb1 however1 the ,messrs4 ,alvan ,clark of ,cambridgeport were completing their #ah-;inch glass for the ,chicago ,observatory4 ',why1 father1' exclaimed the younger ,clark1 'the star has a companion4' ,the father looked1 and there was a faint star due east from the bright one1 and distant about ten seconds4 ,this was exactly the predicted direction for that time1 though the discoverers knew nothing of it4 ,as the news went round the world many observers turned their attention to ,sirius2 and it was then found that1 though it had never before been noticed1 the companion was really shown under favourable circumstances by any powerful telescope4 ,it is1 in fact1 one-half of the size of ,sirius1 though only #a_/ajjjjth of the brightness4#gb ,stars are1 we know1 of different magnitudes and different degrees of glory4 ,they are also of different colours4 ,most1 indeed1 are white1 but some reddish1 some ruddy1 some intensely red2 others1 but fewer1 green1 blue1 or violet4 ,it is possible that the comparative rarity of these colours is due to the fact that our atmosphere especially absorbs green and blue1 and it is remarkable that almost all of the green1 blue1 or violet stars are one of the pairs of a ,double ,star1 and in every case the smaller one of the two1 the larger being red1 orange1 or yellow4 ,one of the most exquisite of these is ,greek3 beta ,cygni1 a ,double ,star1 the larger one being golden yellow1 the smaller light blue4 ,with a telescope the effect is very beautiful1 but it must be magnificent if one could only see it from a lesser distance4 ,double ,stars occur in considerable numbers4 ,in some cases indeed the relation may only be apparent1 one being really far in front of the other4 ,in very many cases1 however1 the association is real1 and they revolve round one another4 ,in some cases the period may extend to thousands of years2 for the distance which separates them is enormous1 and1 even when with a powerful telescope it is indicated only by a narrow dark line1 amounts to hundreds of millions of miles4 ,the ,pole ,star itself is double4 ,andromeda is triple1 with perhaps a fourth dark and therefore invisible companion4 ,these dark bodies have a special interest1 since it is impossible not to ask ourselves whether some at any rate of them may not be inhabited4 ,in ,greek3 epsilon ,lyr there are two1 each again being itself double4 ,greek3 xi ,cancri1 and probably also ,greek3 theta ,orionis1 consist of six stars1 and from such a group we pass on to ,star ,clusters in which the number is very considerable4 ,the cluster in ,hercules consists of from #ajjj to #djjj4 ,a stellar swarm in the ,southern ,cross contains several hundred stars of various colours1 red1 green1 greenish blue1 and blue closely thronged together1 so that they have been compared to a superb piece of fancy jewellery4#gc ,the cluster in the ,sword ,handle of ,perseus contains innumerable stars1 many doubtless as brilliant as our ,sun4 ,we ourselves probably form a part of such a cluster4 ,the ,milky ,way itself1 as we know1 entirely surrounds us2 it is evident1 therefore1 that the ,sun1 and of course we ourselves1 actually lie in it4 ,it is1 therefore1 a ,star ,cluster1 one of countless numbers1 and containing our ,sun as a single unit4 ,it has as yet been found impossible to determine even approximately the distance of these ,star ,clusters4 ,,nebul ,from ,stars we pass insensibly to ,nebul1 which are so far away that their distance is at present quite immeasurable4 ,all that we can do is to fix a minimum1 and this is so great that it is useless to express it in miles4 ,astronomers1 therefore1 take the velocity of light as a unit4 ,it travels at the rate of #ahj1jjj miles a second1 and even at this enormous velocity it must have taken hundreds of years to reach us1 so that we see them not as they now are but as they were hundreds of years ago4 ,it is no wonder1 therefore1 that in many of these clusters it is impossible to distinguish the separate stars of which they are composed4 ,as1 however1 our telescopes are improved1 more and more clusters are being resolved4 ,photography also comes to our aid1 and1 as already mentioned1 by long exposure stars can be made visible which are quite imperceptible to the eye1 even with aid of the most powerful telescope4 ,spectrum analysis also seems to show that such a nebula as that in ,andromeda1 which with our most powerful instruments appears only as a mere cloud1 is really a vast cluster of stellar points4 ,this1 however1 by no means applies to all the nebul4 ,the spectrum of a star is a bright band of colour crossed by dark lines2 that of a gaseous nebula consists of bright lines4 ,this test has been made use of1 and indicates that some of the nebul are really immense masses of incandescent and very attenuated gas2 very possibly1 however1 in a condition of which we have no experience1 and arranged in discs1 bands1 rings1 chains1 wisps1 knots1 rays1 curves1 ovals1 spirals1 loops1 wreaths1 fans1 brushes1 sprays1 lace1 waves1 and clouds4 ,huggins has shown that many of them are really stupendous masses of glowing gas1 especially of hydrogen1 and perhaps of nitrogen1 while the spectrum also shows other lines which perhaps may indicate some of the elements which1 so far as our ,earth is concerned1 appear to be missing between hydrogen and lithium4 ,many of the nebul are exquisitely beautiful1 and their colour very varied4 ,in some cases1 moreover1 nebul seem to be gradually condensing into groups of stars1 and in many cases it is difficult to say whether we should consider a given group as a cluster of stars surrounded by nebulous matter or a gaseous nebula condensed here and there into stars4 ,besides the single ,sun1 says ,proctor1 the universe contains groups and systems and streams of primary suns2 there are galaxies of minor orbs2 there are clustering stellar aggregations showing every variety of richness1 of figure1 and of distribution2 there are all the various forms of star cloudlets1 resolvable and irresolvable1 circular1 elliptical1 and spiral2 and lastly1 there are irregular masses of luminous gas clinging in fantastic convolutions around stars and star systems4 ,nor is it unsafe to assert that other forms and varieties of structure will yet be discovered1 or that hundreds more exist which we may never hope to recognise4 ,nor is it only as regards the magnitude and distances of the heavenly bodies that we are lost in amazement and admiration4 ,the lapse of time is a grander element in ,astronomy even than in ,geology1 and dates back long before ,geology begins4 ,we must figure to ourselves a time when the solid matter which now composes our ,earth was part of a continuous and intensely heated gaseous body1 which extended from the centre of the ,sun to beyond the orbit of ,neptune1 and had1 therefore1 a diameter of more than #f1jjj1jjj1jjj miles4 ,as this slowly contracted1 ,neptune was detached1 first perhaps as a ring1 and then as a spherical body4 ,ages after this ,uranus broke away4 ,then after another incalculable period ,saturn followed suit1 and here the tendencies to coherence and disruption were so evenly balanced that to this day a portion circulates as rings round the main body instead of being broken up into satellites4 ,again after successive intervals ,jupiter1 ,mars1 the ,asteroids1 the ,earth1 ,venus1 and ,mercury all passed through the same marvellous phases4 ,the time which these changes would have required must have been incalculable1 and they all of course preceded1 and preceded again by another incalculable period1 the very commencement of that geological history which itself indicates a lapse of time greater than human imagination can realise4 ,thus1 then1 however far we penetrate in time or in space1 we find ourselves surrounded by mystery4 ,just as in time we can form no idea of a commencement1 no anticipation of an end1 so space also extends around us1 boundless in all directions4 ,our little ,earth revolves round the mighty ,sun2 the ,sun itself and the whole solar system are moving with inconceivable velocity towards a point in the constellation of ,hercules2 together with all the nearer stars it forms a cluster in the heavens1 which appears to our eyes as the ,milky ,way2 while outside our star cluster again are innumerable others1 which far transcend1 alike in magnitude1 in grandeur1 and in distance1 the feeble powers of our finite imagination4 ,,footnotes3 #ff ,ball1 ,story of the ,heavens4 #fg ,ball1 ,story of the ,heavens4 #fh ,some authorities estimate it even higher4 #fi ,ball4 #gj ,hamerton1 ,landscape4 #ga ,humboldt1 ,travels4 #gb ,clarke1 ,system of the ,stars4 #gc ,kosmos4