,shelters1 ,shacks1 and ,shanties ,illustration3 ,hunter's cabin showing how projecting logs may be utilized4 ,shelters1 ,shacks1 and ,shanties ,by ,d4 ,c4 ,,beard ,with ,illustrations by the ,author ,,new ,,york ,charles ,scribner's ,sons #aiaf ,,copyright1 #aiad1 ,,by ,,charles ,,scribner',s ,,sons ,published ,september1 #aiad ,,dedicated ,,to ,,daniel ,,bartlett ,,beard ,,because ,,of ,,his ,,love ,,of ,,the ,,big ,,outdoors ,,foreword ,as this book is written for boys of all ages1 it has been divided under two general heads1 ,the ,tomahawk ,camps and ,the ,axe ,camps1 that is1 camps which may be built with no tool but a hatchet1 and camps that will need the aid of an axe4 ,the smallest boys can build some of the simple shelters and the older boys can build the more difficult ones4 ,the reader may1 if he likes1 begin with the first of the book1 build his way through it1 and graduate by building the log houses2 in doing this he will be closely following the history of the human race1 because ever since our arboreal ancestors with prehensile toes scampered among the branches of the pre-glacial forests and built nestlike shelters in the trees1 men have made themselves shacks for a temporary refuge4 ,but as one of the members of the ,camp-,fire ,club of ,america1 as one of the founders of the ,boy ,scouts of ,america1 and as the founder of the ,boy ,pioneers of ,america1 it would not be proper for the author to admit for one moment that there can be such a thing as a camp without a camp-fire1 and for that reason the tree folks and the missing link whose remains were found in ,java1 and to whom the scientists gave the awe-inspiring name of ,pithecanthropus erectus1 cannot be counted as campers1 because they did not know how to build a camp-fire2 neither can we admit the ancient maker of stone implements1 called eoliths1 to be one of us1 because he1 too1 knew not the joys of a camp-fire4 ,but there was another fellow1 called the ,neanderthal man1 who lived in the ice age in ,europe and he had to be a camp-fire man or freeze6 ,as far as we know1 he was the first man to build a camp-fire4 ,the cold weather made him hustle1 and hustling developed him4 ,true1 he did cook and eat his neighbors once in a while1 and even split their bones for the marrow2 but we will forget that part and just remember him as the first camper in ,europe4 ,recently a pygmy skeleton was discovered near ,los ,angeles which is claimed to be about twenty thousand years old1 but we do not know whether this man knew how to build a fire or not4 ,we do know1 however1 that the ,american camper was here on this continent when our ,bible was yet an unfinished manuscript and that he was building his fires1 toasting his venison1 and building sheds when the red-headed ,eric settled in ,greenland1 when ,thorwald fought with the ,skraelings1 and ,biarni's dragon ship made the trip down the coast of ,vineland about the dawn of the ,christian era4 ,we also know that the ,american camper was here when ,columbus with his comical toy ships was blundering around the ,west ,indies4 ,we also know that the ,american camper watched ,henry ,hudson steer the ,half ,moon around ,manhattan ,island4 ,it is this same ,american camper who has taught us to build many of the shacks to be found in the following pages4 ,the shacks1 sheds1 shanties1 and shelters described in the following pages are1 all of them1 similar to those used by the people on this continent or suggested by the ones in use and are typically ,american2 and the designs are suited to the arctics1 the tropics1 and temperate climes2 also to the plains1 the mountains1 the desert1 the bog1 and even the water4 ,it seems to be natural and proper to follow the camp as it grows until it develops into a somewhat pretentious log house1 but this book must not be considered as competing in any manner with professional architects4 ,the buildings here suggested require a woodsman more than an architect2 the work demands more the skill of the axeman than that of the carpenter and joiner4 ,the log houses are supposed to be buildings which any real outdoor man should be able to erect by himself and for himself4 ,many of the buildings have already been built in many parts of the country by ,boy ,pioneers and ,boy ,scouts4 ,this book is not intended as an encyclopedia or history of primitive architecture2 the bureaus at ,washington1 and the ,museum of ,natural ,history1 are better equipped for that purpose than the author4 ,the boys will undoubtedly acquire a dexterity and skill in building the shacks and shanties here described1 which will be of lasting benefit to them whether they acquire the skill by building camps just for the fun of the thing or in building them for the more practical purpose of furnishing shelter for overnight pleasure hikes1 for the wilderness trail1 or for permanent camps while living in the open4 ,it has been the writer's experience that the readers depend more upon his diagrams than they do upon the written matter in his books1 and so in this book he has again attempted to make the diagrams self-explanatory4 ,the book was written in answer to requests by many people interested in the ,boy ,scout movement and others interested in the general activities of boys1 and also in answer to the personal demands of hundreds of boys and many men4 ,the drawings are all original and many of them invented by the author himself and published here for the first time1 for the purpose of supplying all the boy readers1 the ,boy ,scouts1 and other older boys1 calling themselves ,scoutmasters and sportsmen1 with practical hints1 drawings1 and descriptions showing how to build suitable shelters for temporary or permanent camps4 ,,daniel ,,carter ,,beard4 ,,flushing1 ,,long ,,island1 ,,april #a1 #aiad4 ,,contents ,,chapter ,,page ,,foreword v ,i4 ,,where ,,to ,,find ,,mountain ,,goose4 ,,how ,,to ,,pick ,,and ,,use ,,its ,,feathers #a ,,ii4 ,,the ,,half-,,cave ,,shelter #g ,,iii4 ,,how ,,to ,,make ,,the ,,fallen-,,tree ,,shelter ,,and ,,the ,,scout-,,master #aa ,,iv4 ,,how ,,to ,,make ,,the ,,adirondack1 ,,the ,,wick-,,up1 ,,the ,,bark ,,teepee1 ,,the ,,pioneer1 ,,and ,,the ,,scout #ae ,v4 ,,how ,,to ,,make ,,beaver-,,mat ,,huts1 ,,or ,,fagot ,,shacks1 ,,without ,,injury ,,to ,,the ,,trees #ah ,,vi4 ,,indian ,,shacks ,,and ,,shelters #bb ,,vii4 ,,birch ,,bark ,,or ,,tar ,,paper ,,shack #bg ,,viii4 ,,indian ,,communal ,,houses #ca ,,ix4 ,,bark ,,and ,,tar ,,paper #cf ,x4 ,a ,,sawed-,,lumber ,,shanty #ci ,,xi4 ,a ,,sod ,,house ,,for ,,the ,,lawn #dg ,,xii4 ,,how ,,to ,,build ,,elevated ,,shacks1 ,,shanties1 ,,and ,,shelters #eb ,,xiii4 ,,the ,,bog ,,ken #ed ,,xiv4 ,,over-,,water ,,camps #fb ,,xv4 ,,signal-,,tower1 ,,game ,,lookout1 ,,and ,,rustic ,,observatory #fe ,,xvi4 ,,tree-,,top ,,houses #gb ,,xvii4 ,,caches #gg ,,xviii4 ,,how ,,to ,,use ,,an ,,axe #hc ,,xix4 ,,how ,,to ,,split ,,logs1 ,,make ,,shakes1 ,,splits1 ,,or ,,clapboards4 ,,how ,,to ,,chop ,a ,,log ,,in ,,half4 ,,how ,,to ,,flatten ,a ,,log4 ,,also ,,some ,,don',,ts #hg ,,xx4 ,,axemen',s ,,camps #ib ,,xxi4 ,,railroad-,,tie ,,shacks1 ,,barrel ,,shacks1 ,,and ,,chimehuevis #if ,,xxii4 ,,the ,,barabara #ajj ,,xxiii4 ,,the ,,navajo ,,hogan1 ,,hornaday ,,dugout1 ,,and ,,sod ,,house #ajd ,,xxiv4 ,,how ,,to ,,build ,,an ,,american ,,boy',s ,,hogan #ajg ,,xxv4 ,,how ,,to ,,cut ,,and ,,notch ,,logs #aae ,,xxvi4 ,,notched ,,log ,,ladders #aai ,,xxvii4 ,a ,,pole ,,house4 ,,how ,,to ,,use ,a ,,cross-,,cut ,,saw ,,and ,a ,,froe #abb ,,xxviii4 ,,log-,,rolling ,,and ,,other ,,building ,,stunts #abf ,,xxix4 ,,the ,,adirondack ,,open ,,log ,,camp ,,and ,a ,,one-,,room ,,cabin #abi ,,xxx4 ,,the ,,northland ,,tilt ,,and ,,indian ,,log ,,tent #acb ,,xxxi4 ,,how ,,to ,,build ,,the ,,red ,,jacket1 ,,the ,,new ,,brunswick1 ,,and ,,the ,,christopher ,,gist #ace ,,xxxii4 ,,cabin ,,doors ,,and ,,door-,,latches1 ,,thumb-,,latches ,,and ,,foot ,,latches ,,and ,,how ,,to ,,make ,,them #aci ,,xxxiii4 ,,secret ,,locks #ade ,,xxxiv4 ,,how ,,to ,,make ,,the ,,bow-,,arrow ,,cabin ,,door ,,and ,,latch ,,and ,,the ,,deming ,,twin ,,bolts1 ,,hall1 ,,and ,,billy #aea ,,xxxv4 ,,the ,,aures ,,lock ,,latch #aee ,,xxxvi4 ,,the ,,american ,,log ,,cabin #afa ,,xxxvii4 ,a ,,hunter',s ,,or ,,fisherman',s ,,cabin #afi ,,xxxviii4 ,,how ,,to ,,make ,a ,,wyoming ,,olebo1 ,a ,,hoko ,,river ,,olebo1 ,a ,,shake ,,cabin1 ,a ,,canadian ,,mossback1 ,,and ,a ,,two-,,pen ,,or ,,southern ,,saddle-,,bag ,,house #aga ,,xxxix4 ,,native ,,names ,,for ,,the ,,parts ,,of ,a ,,kanuck ,,log ,,cabin1 ,,and ,,how ,,to ,,build ,,one #agg ,,xl4 ,,how ,,to ,,make ,a ,,pole ,,house ,,and ,,how ,,to ,,make ,a ,,unique ,,but ,,thoroughly ,,american ,,totem ,,log ,,house #ahc ,,xli4 ,,how ,,to ,,build ,a ,,susitna ,,log ,,cabin ,,and ,,how ,,to ,,cut ,,trees ,,for ,,the ,,end ,,plates #aia ,,xlii4 ,,how ,,to ,,make ,a ,,fireplace ,,and ,,chimney ,,for ,a ,,simple ,,log ,,cabin #aie ,,xliii4 ,,hearthstones ,,and ,,fireplaces #bjj ,,xliv4 ,,more ,,hearths ,,and ,,fireplaces #bjc ,,xlv4 ,,fireplaces ,,and ,,the ,,art ,,of ,,tending ,,the ,,fire #bjf ,,xlvi4 ,,the ,,building ,,of ,,the ,,log ,,house #baa ,,xlvii4 ,,how ,,to ,,lay ,a ,,tar ,,paper1 ,,birch ,,bark1 ,,or ,,patent ,,roofing #bah ,,xlviii4 ,,how ,,to ,,make ,a ,,concealed ,,log ,,cabin ,,inside ,,of ,a ,,modern ,,house #bcj ,,xlix4 ,,how ,,to ,,build ,,appropriate ,,gateways ,,for ,,grounds ,,enclosing ,,log ,,houses1 ,,game ,,preserves1 ,,ranches1 ,,big ,,country ,,estates1 ,,and ,,last ,,but ,,not ,,least ,,boy ,,scouts' ,,camp ,,grounds #bcg ,shelters1 ,shacks1 and ,shanties ,,shelters1 ,,shacks1 ,,and ,,shanties ,i ,,where ,,to ,,find ,,mountain ,,goose4 ,,how ,,to ,,pick ,,and ,,use ,,its ,,feathers ,,it may be necessary for me to remind the boys that they must use the material at hand in building their shacks1 shelters1 sheds1 and shanties1 and that they are very fortunate if their camp is located in a country where the mountain goose is to be found4 ,the ,mountain ,goose ,from ,labrador down to the northwestern borders of ,new ,england and ,new ,york and from thence to southwestern ,virginia1 ,north ,carolina1 and ,tennessee1 the woodsman and camper may make their beds from the feathers of the mountain goose4 ,the mountain goose is also found inhabiting the frozen soil of ,alaska and following the ,pacific and the ,rocky ,mountains the ,abies make their dwelling-place as far south as ,guatemala4 ,consequently1 the ,abies1 or mountain goose1 should be a familiar friend of all the scouts who live in the mountainous country1 north1 south1 east1 and west4 ,sapin--,cho-kho-tung ,i forgot to say that the mountain goose 7,figs4 #a and #b7 is not a bird but a tree4 ,it is humorously called a goose by the woodsmen because they all make their beds of its feathers4 ,it is the sapin of the ,french-,canadians1 the cho-kho-tung of the ,new ,york ,indians1 the balsam of the tenderfoot1 the ,christmas-tree of the little folk1 and that particular ,conifer known by the dry-as-dust botanist as ,abies4 ,there is nothing in nature which has a wilder1 more sylvan and charming perfume than the balsam1 and the scout who has not slept in the woods on a balsam bed has a pleasure in store for him4 ,balsam ,the leaves of the balsam are blunt or rounded at the ends and some of them are even dented or notched in place of being sharp-pointed4 ,each spine or leaf is a scant one inch in length and very flat2 the upper part is grooved and of a dark bluish-green color4 ,the under-side is much lighter1 often almost silvery white4 ,the balsam blossoms in ,april or ,may1 and the fruit or cones stand upright on the branches4 ,these vary from two to four inches in length4 ,the balsam-trees are seldom large1 not many of them being over sixty feet high with trunks from one to less than three feet through4 ,the bark on the trunks is gray in color and marked with horizontal rows of blisters4 ,each of these contains a small1 sticky sap like glycerine4 ,fig4 #a shows the cone and leaves of one of the ,southern balsams known as the she-balsam1 and ,fig4 #b shows the celebrated balsam-fir tree of the north country1 cone and branch4 ,fig4 #a4 ,fig4 #b4 ,fig4 #c4 ,fig4 #d4 ,fig4 #e4 ,fig4 #f4 ,fig4 #g4 ,illustration3 ,showing the use of the mountain goose4 ,balsam ,beds ,the balsam bed is made of the small twigs of balsam-trees4 ,in gathering these1 collect twigs of different lengths1 from eighteen inches long 7to be used as the foundation of the bed7 to ten or twelve inches long 7for the top layer74 ,if you want to rest well1 do not economize on the amount you gather2 many a time ,i have had my bones ache as a result of being too tired to make my bed properly and attempting to sleep on a thin layer of boughs4 ,if you attempt to chop off the boughs of balsam they will resent your effort by springing back and slapping you in the face4 ,you can cut them with your knife1 but it is slow work and will blister your hands4 ,take twig by twig with the thumb and fingers 7the thumb on top1 pointing toward the tip of the bough1 and the two forefingers underneath72 press down with the thumb1 and with a twist of the wrist you can snap the twigs like pipe-stems4 ,fig4 #c shows two views of the hands in a proper position to snap off twigs easily and clean4 ,the one at the left shows the hand as it would appear looking down upon it2 the one at the right shows the view as you look at it from the side4 ,packing ,boughs ,after collecting a handful of boughs1 string them on a stick which you have previously prepared 7,fig4 #d74 ,this stick should be of strong1 green hardwood1 four or five feet long with a fork about six inches long left on it at the butt end to keep the boughs from sliding off1 and sharpened at the upper end so that it can be easily poked through a handful of boughs4 ,string the boughs on this stick as you would string fish1 but do it one handful at a time1 allowing the butts to point in different directions4 ,it is astonishing to see the amount of boughs you can carry when strung on a stick in this manner and thrown over your shoulder as in ,fig4 #e4 ,if you have a lash rope1 place the boughs on a loop of the rope1 as in ,fig4 #f1 then bring the two ends of the rope up through the loop and sling the bundle on your back4 ,clean ,your ,hands ,when you have finished gathering the material for your bed your hands will be covered with a sticky sap1 and1 although they will be a sorry sight1 a little lard or baking grease will soften the pitchy substance so that it may be washed off with soap and water4 ,how to ,make ,beds ,to make your bed1 spread a layer of the larger boughs on the ground2 commence at the head and shingle them down to the foot so that the tips point toward the head of the bed1 overlapping the butts 7,fig4 #g74 ,continue this until your mattress is thick enough to make a soft couch upon which you can sleep as comfortably as you do at home4 ,cover the couch with one blanket and use the bag containing your coat1 extra clothes1 and sweater for a pillow4 ,then if you do not sleep well1 you must blame the cook4 ,other ,bedding ,if you should happen to be camping in a country destitute of balsam1 hemlock1 or pine1 you can make a good spring mattress by collecting small green branches of any sort of tree which is springy and elastic4 ,build the mattress as already described4 ,on top of this put a thick layer of hay1 straw1 or dry leaves or even green material1 provided you have a rubber blanket or poncho to cover the latter4 ,in ,kentucky ,i have made a mattress of this description and covered the branches with a thick layer of the purple blossoms of ironweed2 over this ,i spread a rubber army blanket to keep out the moisture from the green stuff and on top of this made my bed with my other blankets4 ,it was as comfortable a couch as ,i have ever slept on2 in fact1 it was literally a bed of flowers4 ,,ii ,,the ,,half-,,cave ,,shelter ,,the first object of a roof of any kind is protection against the weather2 no shelter is necessary in fair weather unless the sun in the day or the dampness or coolness of the night cause discomfort4 ,in parts of the ,west there is so little rain that a tent is often an unnecessary burden1 but in the ,east and the other parts of the country some sort of shelter is necessary for health and comfort4 ,the original ,american was always quick to see the advantages offered by an overhanging cliff for a camp site 7,figs4 #i1 #aj74 ,his simple camps all through the arid ,southwest had gradually turned into carefully built houses long before we came here4 ,the overhanging cliffs protected the buildings from the rain and weather1 and the site was easily defended from enemies4 ,but while these cliff-dwellings had reached the dignity of castles in the ,southwest1 in the ,eastern ,states--,pennsylvania1 for instance--the ,iroquois ,indians were making primitive camps and using every available overhanging cliff for that purpose4 ,to-day any one may use a pointed stick on the floor of one of these half caves and unearth1 as ,i have done1 numerous potsherds1 mussel shells1 bone awls1 flint arrow-heads1 split bones of large game animals1 and the burnt wood of centuries of camp-fires which tell the tale of the first lean-to shelter used by camping man in ,america4 ,half ,caves ,the projecting ledges of bluestone that have horizontal seams form half caves from the falling apart of the lower layers of the cliff caused by rain and ice and often aided by the fine roots of the black birch1 rock oak1 and other plants1 until nature has worked long enough as a quarry-man and produced half caves large enough to shelter a stooping man 7,figs4 #h1 #i1 and #aj74 ,although not always necessary1 it is sometimes best to make a shelter for the open face of such a cave1 even if we only need it for a temporary camp 7,fig4 #aj72 this may be done by resting poles slanting against the face of the cliff and over these making a covering of balsam1 pine1 hemlock1 palmetto1 palm branches1 or any available material for thatch to shed the rain and prevent it driving under the cliff to wet our bedding4 ,walls ,it is not always necessary to thatch the wall2 a number of green boughs with leaves adhering may be rested against the cliffs and will answer for that purpose4 ,set the boughs upside down so that they will shed the rain and not hold it so as to drip into camp4 ,use your common sense and gumption1 which will teach you that all the boughs should point downward and not upward as most of them naturally grow4 ,i am careful to call your attention to this because ,i lately saw some men teaching ,boy ,scouts how to make camps and they were placing the boughs for the lads around the shelter with their branches pointing upward in such a manner that they could not shed the rain4 ,these instructors were city men and apparently thought that the boughs were for no other purpose than to give privacy to the occupants of the shelter1 forgetting that in the wilds the wilderness itself furnishes privacy4 ,fig4 #h4 ,fig4 #i4 ,fig4 #aj4 ,illustration3 ,the half-cave shelter4 ,the half cave was probably the first lean-to or shelter in this country1 but overhanging cliffs are not always found where we wish to make our camp and we must resort to other forms of shelter and the use of other material in such localities4 ,,iii ,,how ,,to ,,make ,,the ,,fallen-,,tree ,,shelter ,,and ,,the ,,scout-,,master ,,now that you know how to make a bed in a half cave1 we will take up the most simple and primitive manufactured shelters4 ,fallen-,tree ,shelter ,for a one-man one-night stand1 select a thick-foliaged fir-tree and cut it partly through the trunk so that it will fall as shown in ,fig4 #aa2 then trim off the branches on the under-side so as to leave room to make your bed beneath the branches2 next trim the branches off the top or roof of the trunk and with them thatch the roof4 ,do this by setting the branches with their butts up as shown in the right-hand shelter of ,fig4 #ac1 and then thatch with smaller browse as described in making the bed4 ,this will make a cosey one-night shelter4 ,the ,scout-,master ,or take three forked sticks 7,a1 ,b1 and ,c1 ,fig4 #ab71 and interlock the forked ends so that they will stand as shown in ,fig4 #ab4 ,over this framework rest branches with the butt ends up as shown in the right-hand shelter 7,fig4 #ac71 or lay a number of poles as shown in the left-hand figure 7,fig4 #ab7 and thatch this with browse as illustrated by the left-hand shelter in ,fig4 #ac1 or take elm1 spruce1 or birch bark and shingle as in ,fig4 #ad4 ,these shelters may be built for one boy or they may be made large enough for several men4 ,they may be thatched with balsam1 spruce1 pine1 or hemlock boughs1 or with cat-tails1 rushes 7see ,figs4 #ff and #fi7 or any kind of long-stemmed weeds or palmetto leaves4 ,to ,peel ,bark ,in the first place1 ,i trust that the reader has enough common sense and sufficient love of the woods to prevent him from killing or marring and disfiguring trees where trees are not plenty1 and this restriction includes all settled or partially settled parts of the country4 ,but in the real forests and wilderness1 miles and miles away from human habitation1 there are few campers and consequently there will be fewer trees injured1 and these few will not be missed4 ,selecting ,bark ,to get the birch bark1 select a tree with a smooth trunk devoid of branches and1 placing skids for the trunk to fall upon 7,fig4 #ch71 fell the tree 7see ,figs4 #aab1 #aac1 #aad1 #aae1 #aaf1 #aag1 and #aah71 and then cut a circle around the trunk at the two ends of the log and a slit from one circle clean up to the other circle 7,fig4 #ch72 next1 with a sharp stick shaped like a blunt-edged chisel1 pry off the bark carefully until you take the piece off in one whole section4 ,if it is spruce bark or any other bark you seek1 hunt through the woods for a comparatively smooth trunk and proceed in the same manner as with the birch4 ,to take it off a standing tree1 cut one circle down at the butt and another as high as you can reach 7,fig4 #aah7 and slit it along a perpendicular line connecting the two cuts as in ,fig4 #ch4 ,this will doubtless in time kill the tree1 but far from human habitations the few trees killed in this manner may do the forest good by giving more room for others to grow4 ,near town or where the forests are small use the bark from the old dead trees4 ,fig4 #aa4 ,fig4 #ab4 ,fig4 #ac4 ,fig4 #ad4 ,illustration3 ,one-night shelter4 ,the fallen tree and the scout-master4 ,using ,bark ,to shingle with bark1 cut the bark in convenient sections1 commence at the bottom1 place one piece of bark set on edge flat against the wall of your shelter1 place a piece of bark next to it in the same manner1 allowing the one edge to overlap the first piece a few inches1 and so on all the way around your shack2 then place a layer of bark above this in the same manner as the first one1 the end edges overlapping1 the bottom edges also overlapping the first row three or four inches or even more4 ,hold these pieces of bark in place by stakes driven in the ground against them or poles laid over them1 according to the shape or form of your shelter4 ,continue thus to the comb of the roof1 then over the part where the bark of the sides meets on the top lay another layer of bark covering the crown1 ridge1 comb1 or apex and protecting it from the rain4 ,in the wigwam-shaped shelters1 or rather ,i should say those of teepee form1 the point of the cone or pyramid is left open to serve as chimney for smoke to escape4 ,,iv ,,how ,,to ,,make ,,the ,,adirondack1 ,,the ,,wick-,,up1 ,,the ,,bark ,,teepee1 ,,the ,,pioneer1 ,,and ,,the ,,scout ,the ,adirondack ,,the next shelter is what is generally known as the ,adirondack shelter1 which is a lean-to open in the front like a ,baker or a ,dan ,beard tent4 ,although it is popularly called the ,adirondack camp1 it antedates the time when the ,adirondacks were first used as a fashionable resort4 ,daniel ,boone was wont to make such a camp in the forests of ,kentucky4 ,the lean-to or ,adirondack camp is easily made and very popular4 ,sometimes two of them are built facing each other with an open space between for the camp-fire4 ,but the usual manner is to set up two uprights as in ,fig4 #ae1 then lay a crosspiece through the crotches and rest poles against this crosspiece 7,fig4 #af74 ,over these poles other poles are laid horizontally and the roof thatched with browse by the method shown by ,fig4 #f1 but here the tips of the browse must point down and be held in place by other poles 7,fig4 #aj7 on top of it4 ,sometimes a log is put at the bottom of the slanting poles and sometimes more logs are placed as shown in ,figs4 #ae and #af and the space between them floored with balsam or browse4 ,the ,scout ,where birch bark is obtainable it is shingled with slabs of this bark as already described1 and as shown in ,fig4 #ag1 the bark being held in place on the roof by poles laid over it and on the side by stakes being driven in the ground outside of the bark to hold it in place as in ,fig4 #ag4 ,fig4 #ae4 ,fig4 #af4 ,fig4 #ag4 ,fig4 #ah4 ,fig4 #ai4 ,fig4 #bj4 ,fig4 #ba4 ,illustration3 ,the ,adirondack4 ,the scout1 the pioneer1 and the bark teepee4 ,the ,pioneer ,fig4 #ah shows the ,pioneer1 a tent form of shack1 and ,fig4 #ai shows how the bark is placed like shingles overlapping each other so as to shed the rain4 ,the doorway of the tent shack is made by leaning poles against forked sticks1 their butts forming a semicircle in front1 or rather the arc of a circle1 and by bracing them against the forked stick fore and aft they add stability to the structure4 ,bark ,teepee ,or you may1 if you choose1 lash three sticks together at the top ends1 spread them in the form of a tripod1 then lay other sticks against them1 their butts forming a circle in the form of a teepee 7,fig4 #bj74 ,commence at the bottom as you do in shingling a roof and place sections of birch bark around1 others above them overlapping them1 and hold them in place by resting poles against them4 ,if your camp is to be occupied for a week or so1 it may be convenient to build a wick-up shelter as a dining-room like the one shown in ,fig4 #ba4 ,this is made with six uprights1 two to hold the ridge-pole and two to hold the eaves1 and may be shingled over with browse or birch1 elm1 spruce1 or other bark2 shingle with the browse in the same manner as that described for the bark1 beginning at the eaves and allowing each row of browse to overlap the butts of the one below it4 ,v ,,how ,,to ,,make ,,beaver-,,mat ,,huts ,,or ,,fagot ,,shacks ,,without ,,injury ,,to ,,the ,,trees ,material ,,in building a shelter use every and any thing handy for the purpose2 ofttimes an uprooted tree will furnish a well-made adobe wall1 where the spreading roots have torn off the surface soil as the tree fell and what was the under-side is now an exposed wall of clay1 against which you may rest the poles for the roof of a lean-to4 ,or the side of the cliff 7,fig4 #bc7 may offer you the same opportunity4 ,maybe two or three trees will be found willing to act as uprights 7,fig4 #bd74 ,where you use a wall of any kind1 rock1 roots1 or bank1 it will1 of course1 be necessary to have your doorway at one side of the shack as in ,fig4 #bc4 ,the upright poles may be on stony ground where their butts cannot well be planted in the earth1 and there it will be necessary to brace them with slanting poles 7,fig4 #be74 ,each camp will offer problems of its own1 problems which add much to the interest and pleasure of camp making4 ,beaver ,mat ,the beaver-mat camp is a new one and1 under favorable conditions1 a good one4 ,cut your poles the length required for the framework of the sides1 lash them together with the green rootlets of the tamarack or strips of bark of the papaw1 elm1 cedar1 or the inside bark of the chestnut 7,a1 ,fig4 #bb72 then make a bed of browse of any kind handy1 but make it in the manner described for making balsam beds 7,fig4 #g74 ,you will1 of course1 thatch so that when the side is erected it is shingled like a house1 the upper rows overlapping the lower ones4 ,then lash a duplicate frame over the browse-padded frame and the side is complete 7,b1 ,fig4 #bb74 ,make the other side or sides and the roof 7,c1 ,fig4 #bb7 in the same manner1 after which it is a simple matter to erect your shack 7,fig4 #bb1 and ,e1 ,fig4 #bb74 ,fig4 #bb4 ,fig4 #bc4 ,fig4 #bd4 ,fig4 #be4 ,fig4 #bf4 ,fig4 #bg4 ,fig4 #bh4 ,illustration3 ,shelters adapted to conditions4 ,the beaver-mat and the fagot shack4 ,the great advantage of this sort of shelter is that it is much easier to do your thatching on the ground than on standing walls1 and also1 when done1 it is so compact as to be practically water-proof4 ,fagot ,shack ,the fagot shack is also a new style of camp and is intended for use in places where large timber cannot be cut1 but where dwarf willows1 bamboo cane1 alders1 or other small underbrush is more or less plentiful4 ,from this gather a plentiful supply of twigs and with improvised twine bind the twigs into bundles of equal size4 ,use these bundles as you would stones in building the wall and lay them so as to break joints1 that is1 so that the joints are never in a continuous line4 ,hold the wall in place by stakes as shown in ,fig4 #bf4 ,use the browse1 small twigs with the leaves adhering to them1 in place of mortar or cement so as to level your bundles and prevent their rocking on uneven surfaces4 ,the doorways and window openings offer no problem that a rank outsider cannot solve4 ,fig4 #bg shows the window opening1 also shows you how the window-sill can be made firm by laying rods over the top of the fagots4 ,rods are also used across the top of the doorway upon which to place the bundles of fagots or twigs4 ,twigs is probably the best term to use here1 as fagots might be thought to mean larger sticks1 which may be stiff and obstinate and hard to handle4 ,roofs ,after the walls are erected1 a beaver-mat roof may be placed upon them or a roof made on a frame such as shown in ,fig4 #bh and thatched with small sticks over which a thatch of straw1 hay1 rushes 7,figs4 #ff and #fi71 or browse may be used to shed the rain4 ,one great advantage which recommends the beaver-mat and fagot camp to lovers of nature and students of forestry lies in the fact that it is unnecessary to cut down or destroy a single large or valuable young tree in order to procure the material necessary to make the camp4 ,both of these camps can be made in forest lands by using the lower branches of the trees1 which1 when properly cut close to the trunk 7,fig4 #aba71 do not injure the standing timber4 ,the fagot hut may be made into a permanent camp by plastering the outside with soft mud or clay and treating the inside walls in the same manner1 thus transforming it into an adobe shack4 ,,vi ,,indian ,,shacks ,,and ,,shelters ,,while the ingenuity of the white man may make improvements upon the wick-ups1 arbors1 huts1 and shelters of the native red man1 we must not forget that these native shelters have been used with success by the ,indians for centuries1 also we must not forget that our principal objection to many of them lies in the fact that they are ill ventilated and dirty1 both of which defects may be remedied without materially departing from the lines laid down by the savage architects4 ,the making of windows will supply ventilation to ,indian huts1 but the form of the hut we must bear in mind is made to suit the locality in which we find it4 ,apache ,hogan ,the ,white ,mountain ,apache builds a tent-shaped shack 7,figs4 #bi and #cb7 which is practically the same as that already described and shown in ,figs4 #ah and #ai1 the difference being that the ,apache shack is not covered with birch bark1 a material peculiar to the ,north1 but the ,apache uses a thatch of the rank grass to be found where his shacks are located4 ,to-day1 however1 the ,white ,mountain ,apache has become so degenerate and so lost to the true sense of dignity as a savage that he stoops to use corn-stalks with which to thatch the long1 sloping sides of his shed-like house but by so doing he really shows good horse sense1 for corn-stalks and corn leaves make good material for the purpose4 ,fig4 #bi4 ,fig4 #cj4 ,fig4 #ca4 ,fig4 #cb4 ,fig4 #cc4 ,fig4 #cd4 ,fig4 #cd4 ,fig4 #ce4 ,illustration3 ,designs adapted from ,indian models4 ,san ,carlos ,shack ,the ,san ,carlos ,apache ,indians build a dome-shaped hut by making a framework of small saplings bent in arches as the boys did in ,kentucky when the writer was himself a lad1 and as shown in ,fig4 #cj4 ,the ends of the pole are sunk into the ground in the form of a circle1 while their tips are bent over and bound together thus forming a series of loops which overlap each other and give stability and support to the principal loops which run from the ground to the top of the dome4 ,the ,indians thatch these huts with bear-grass arranged in overlapping rows and held in place with strings 7see ,fig4 #fi7 made of yucca leaves 7,fig4 #ca74 ,chippewa ,shack ,much farther north ,i have seen the ,chippewa ,indians build a framework in practically the same manner as the ,san ,carlos ,apache1 but the ,chippewas covered their frame with layers of birch bark held in place by ropes stretched over it as shown in ,fig4 #cb4 ,the door to their huts consisted of a blanket portire4 ,in the same locality to-day it would be difficult if not impossible to procure such large strips of birch bark2 but the dome-shaped frame is a good one to be used in many localities and1 like all other frames1 it can be covered with the material at hand4 ,it may be shingled with smaller pieces of bark1 covered with brush and thatched with browse or with hay1 straw1 palmetto leaves1 palm leaves1 or rushes1 or it may be plastered over with mud and made an adobe hut4 ,pima ,lodge ,the ,pima ,indians make a flat-roofed lodge with slanting walls 7,fig4 #cc7 which may be adapted for our use in almost any section of the country4 ,it can be made warm and tight for the far ,north and cool and airy for the arid regions of the ,southwest4 ,the framework1 as you may see by referring to the diagram1 is similar to the wick-ups we men made when we were boys1 and which are described in the ,american ,boy's ,handy ,book1 consisting of four upright posts supporting in their crotches two crosspieces over which a flat roof is made by placing poles across4 ,but the sides of this shack are not upright but made by resting leaning poles against the eaves4 ,white ,man's ,walls ,the principal difference between a white man's architecture and the ,indian's lies in the fact that the white man1 with brick1 stone1 or frame house in his mind1 is possessed of a desire to build perpendicular walls--walls which are hard to thatch and difficult to cover with turf1 especially in the far ,north1 where there is no true sod such as we understand in the middle country1 where our grass grows thickly with interlacing roots4 ,boys will do well to remember this and imitate the ,indian in making slanting walls for their shacks1 shanties1 and shelters in the woods4 ,if they have boards or stone or brick or logs with which to build they may1 with propriety1 use a perpendicular wall4 ,the ,pima ,indians1 according to ,pliny ,earle ,goddard1 associate curator of anthropology of the ,american ,museum of ,natural ,history1 thatch their houses with arrow brush and not infrequently bank the sides of the shack with dirt4 ,adobe ,roof ,if you want to put a dirt roof on a shack of this description1 cover the poles with small boughs or browse1 green or dry leaves1 straw1 hay1 grass1 or rushes and put the sod over the top of this4 ,if in place of making the roof flat1 as shown in ,fig4 #cc1 you slant it so as to shed the rain1 this sort of shack will do for almost any climate1 but with a flat roof it is only fitted for the arid country or for a shelter from the sun when it is not expected to be used during the rain4 ,navajo ,the teepee-shaped hut used by the ,navajo ,indians will shed the rain4 ,to build this shack interlock three forked sticks as shown in the diagram1 then lay other poles up against the forks of these sticks so that the butts of the poles will form a circle on the ground 7,fig4 #cd74 ,thatch this with any material handy1 after which you may cover it with dirt as the ,navajos do1 in which case you had better build a hallway for entrance1 as shown in ,fig4 #ce4 ,this same teepee form is used by the ,california ,indians and thatched with wild hay 7,fig4 #cd74 ,,vii ,,birch ,,bark ,,or ,,tar ,,paper ,,shack ,a ,,description of the ,pontiac was first published in my ,field and ,forest ,handy ,book1 a book which contains several shelters similar to the ones here given1 most of which were originally made for ,caspar ,whitney while he was editor of ,outing4 ,the ,pontiac ,the ,pontiac1 as here given1 is my own design and invention 7,fig4 #cf74 ,it is supposed to be shingled with birch bark1 but1 as is the case with all these camps1 other bark may be substituted for the birch1 and1 if no bark is within reach and you are near enough to civilization1 tar paper makes an excellent substitute4 ,fig4 #cg shows the framework of a ,pontiac with a ridge-pole1 but the ridge-pole is not necessary and the shack may be built without it1 as shown in ,figs4 #cf and #ci1 where the rafter poles rest upon the two side-plates over which they project to form the apex of the roof4 ,in ,fig4 #ci1 although the side-plates are drawn1 the rafter or roof poles are not because the diagram is supposed to be a sort of ,x-ray affair to show the internal construction4 ,the opening for smoke need not be more than half as large as it is in ,fig4 #ci and it may be covered up in inclement weather with a piece of bark so as to keep out the rain4 ,cutting ,bark ,fig4 #ch shows a tree felled in order to procure bark4 ,you will note that the bark is cut round at the bottom and at the top and a slit is made connecting the two cuts as already described so that the bark may be peeled off by running a blunt instrument or a stick1 whittled to the shape of a paper-cutter or dull chisel1 under the edge of the bark and carefully peeling it back4 ,if it is necessary to tote the bark any distance over the trail1 ,fig4 #ch shows how to roll it up and how to bind the roll with cord or rope so that it may be slung on the back as the man is toting it in ,fig4 #cf4 ,building the ,pontiac ,to build a ,pontiac1 first erect the uprights ,e and ,e1 ,fig4 #cg1 then the other two similar uprights at the rear and lay the side-plates ,g in the forks of the uprights2 next erect the upright ,h and one in the rear to correspond1 and across this lay the ridge-pole4 ,next take a couple of logs and put them at the foot of the ,e poles1 or1 if you want more room1 further back toward where the roof poles ,f will come4 ,place one of these logs on top of the other as shown in ,figs4 #cf and #ci4 ,keep them in place by driving sticks on each side of them4 ,put two more logs upon the other side of the ,pontiac and then lay your roof poles or rafters up against the side-plates and over the logs as shown in diagrams #cf1 #cg1 and #ci4 ,fig4 #cf shows the roof partially shingled and the sides partially covered1 so that you may better understand how it is done4 ,shingling with ,bark ,commence at the bottom and lay the first row with the edges overlapping for walls2 for the roof you may lay one row of shingles from the bottom up to the ridge and hold them in place by resting a pole on them2 then lay the next row of shingles alongside by slipping the edges under the first4 ,when you have the two sides covered1 put bark over the ridge as shown in ,fig4 #cf4 ,this will make a beautiful and comfortable little camp4 ,fig4 #cf4 ,fig4 #cg4 ,fig4 #ch4 ,fig4 #ci4 ,illustration3 ,the ,pontiac of birch bark4 ,to ,keep ,out ,cold ,built as here described1 the cold wind might come through in the winter-time1 but if you can gather a lot of ,sphagnum moss from the nearest swamp and cover your roof with it and then shingle that over with another layer of birch bark1 the cold wind will not come through your roof4 ,if you treat your side walls in the same manner and heap dirt up around the edges of them1 you will have a comfortable winter camp4 ,in the winter-time you will find it very difficult to peel the birch bark or any other kind of bark1 but when the sap is flowing it is not so difficult to secure bark slabs from many varieties of trees4 ,,viii ,,indian ,,communal ,,houses ,,when the ,french ,communists were raising ,cain in ,europe they doubtless thought their idea was practically new1 but thousands of years before they bore the red banner through the streets of ,paris the ,american ,indians were living quiet and peaceful communal lives on this continent2 when ,i use the words quiet and peaceful1 ,i1 of course1 mean as regards their own particular commune and not taking into account their attitude toward their neighbors4 ,the ,pueblo ,indians built themselves adobe communal houses1 the ,nez ,percs built themselves houses of sticks and dry grass one hundred and fifty feet long sometimes1 containing forty-eight families1 while the ,nechecolles had houses two hundred and twenty-six feet in length6 ,but this is not a book of history2 all we want to know is how to build shacks for our own use2 so we will borrow one from the communal home of the ,iroquois4 ,it is not necessary for us to make this one hundred feet long1 as the ,iroquois ,indians did4 ,we can make a diminutive one as a playhouse for our children1 a moderate-sized one as a camp for our ,boy ,scouts1 or a good-sized one for a party of full-grown campers4 ,but first we must gather a number of long1 flexible saplings and plant them in two rows with their butt ends in the ground1 as shown in ,fig4 #dj1 after which we may bend their upper ends so that they will overlap each other and form equal-sized arches1 when they are lashed together1 with twine if we have it1 or with wire if it is handy2 but if we are real woodsmen1 we will bind them with rope made of fibres of bark or the flexible roots which we find in the forests4 ,then we bind horizontal poles or rods to the arches1 placing the poles about a foot or two apart according to the material with which we are to shingle it4 ,we make a simple doorway with upright posts at one end and bind the horizontal posts on as we did at the sides4 ,next we shingle it with bark or with strips of tar paper and hold the shingles in place by binding poles upon the outside1 as shown in ,fig4 #da4 ,a hole or holes are left in the roof over the fireplaces for openings for the smoke to escape4 ,in lieu of a chimney a wind-shield of bark is fastened at its lower edge by pieces of twine to the roof so as to shield the opening2 this wind-shield should be movable so that it may be shifted according to the wind4 ,the ,iroquois is an easily constructed shelter1 useful to man1 and one which will delight the heart of the ,boy ,scouts or any other set of boys4 ,the ,pawnee ,hogan ,the ,pawnee hogan is usually covered with sod or dirt1 but it may be covered with bark1 with canvas1 or thatched with straw or with browse1 as the camper may choose4 ,fig4 #db shows the framework in the skeleton form4 ,the rafter poles are placed wigwam fashion and should be very close together in the finished structure2 so also should be the short sticks forming the side walls and the walls to the hallway or entrance4 ,to build this hogan1 first erect a circle of short forked sticks1 setting their ends firmly in the ground4 ,inside of this erect four longer forked sticks1 then place across these four horizontal side-plates1 or maybe they might be more properly called purlins1 in which case the sticks laid on the forks of the circle of small uprights will properly correspond to the side-plates of a white man's dwelling4 ,after the circle and square 7,fig4 #db7 have been erected1 make your doorway with two short-forked sticks and your hallway by sticks running from the door to side-plates4 ,in thatching your roof or in covering it with any sort of material1 leave an opening at the top 7,fig4 #dc7 to act as a chimney for your centre camp-fire4 ,if the roof is to be covered with sod or adobe1 cover it first with browse1 hay1 straw1 or rushes1 making a thick mattress over the entire structure4 ,on top of this plaster your mud or sod 7,fig4 #dc74 ,if you intend to use this hogan as a more or less permanent camp you can put windows in the sides to admit light and air and use a hollow log or a barrel for a chimney as shown in ,fig4 #dd4 ,fig4 #dj4 ,fig4 #da4 ,fig4 #db4 ,fig4 #dc4 ,fig4 #dd4 ,fig4 #de4 ,illustration3 ,the ,iroquois1 the ,pawnee hogan1 the white man's hogan1 and the kolshian4 ,the ,kolshian ,the camps thus far described are supposed to be tomahawk camps1 that is1 camps which may be built without the use of a lumberman's axe4 ,the kolshian 7,fig4 #de7 of ,alaska1 when built by the natives1 is a large communal council-house1 but ,i have placed it here among the tomahawk camps on the supposition that some one might want to build one in miniature as a novelty on their place or as a council-room for their young scouts4 ,the ,alaskans hew all the timber out by hand1 but1 of course1 the reader may use sawed or milled lumber4 ,the proper entrance to a kolshian or rancheree1 as ,elliot calls it1 is through a doorway made in the huge totem-pole at the front of the building4 ,the roof is covered with splits or shakes held in place by poles laid across them1 the sides are made of hewn planks set upright1 and the front has two heavy planks at the eaves which run down through holes in two upright planks at the corners 7,fig4 #de74 ,these with the sill plank bind the upright wall planks in place4 ,the kolshian is undoubtedly a very ancient form of building and may be related to the houses built by the ancient cavemen of ,europe4 ,the first human house-builders are said to belong to the ,cro-,magnon race who lived in caves in the winter-time1 and on the walls of one of the caverns 7,dordogne cavern7 some ,cro-,magnon budding architect made a rough sketch of one of their houses 7middle sketch1 ,fig4 #de74 ,when you compare the house with the kolshian the resemblance is very striking1 and more so when we remember that the kolshian floor is underground1 indicating that it is related to or suggested by a natural cavern4 ,,ix ,,bark ,,and ,,tar ,,paper ,,to further illustrate the use of bark and tar paper1 ,i have made the sketches shown by ,figs4 #df1 #dg1 and #dh4 ,fig4 #dg is a log shack with an arched roof drawn from a photograph in my collection4 ,to keep the interior warm not only the roof but the sides of the house as well have been shingled with bark1 leaving only the ends of the logs protruding to tell of what material the house is really constructed4 ,fig4 #dg shows a fisherman's hut made with a few sticks and bark4 ,fig4 #dh shows a tar paper camp1 that is1 a camp where everything is covered with tar paper in place of bark4 ,the house is made with a skeleton of poles on which the tar paper is tacked1 the kitchen is an open shed with tar paper roof1 and even the table is made by covering the cross sticks shown in the diagram with sheets of tar paper in place of the birch bark usually used for that purpose4 ,personally ,i do not like tar paper2 it seems to rob the camp of a true flavor of the woods2 it knocks the sentiment out of it1 and1 except to sailors1 the odor of the tar is not nearly as delightful as that of the fragrant balsam boughs4 ,nevertheless1 tar paper is now used in all the lumber camps and is spreading farther and farther into the woods as the birch bark becomes scarce and the tote-roads are improved4 ,when one can enter the woods with an automobile1 you must expect to find tar paper camps1 because the paper is easily transported1 easily handled1 and easily applied for the purpose of the camper4 ,fig4 #df4 ,fig4 #dg4 ,fig4 #dh4 ,illustration3 ,showing use of bark and tar paper4 ,practically any form of tent may be reproduced by tacking tar paper to sticks arranged in the proper manner1 but if you make a wigwam of tar paper1 do paint it red1 green1 or yellow1 or whitewash it2 do anything which will take off the civilized1 funereal look of the affair4 ,x ,a ,,sawed-,,lumber ,,shanty ,,before we proceed any further it may be best to give the plan of a workshop1 a camp1 an outhouse1 or a shed to be made of sawed lumber1 the framework of which is made of what is known as two-by-fours1 that is1 pieces of lumber two inches thick by four inches wide4 ,the plans used here are from my book ,the ,jack of ,all ,trades1 but the dimensions may be altered to suit your convenience4 ,the sills1 which are four inches by four inches1 are also supposed to be made by nailing two two-by-fours together4 ,first stake out your foundation and see that the corners are square1 that is1 at right angles1 and test this with a tape or ruler by measuring six feet one way and eight feet the other from a corner along the proposed sides of the house marking these points4 ,if a ten-foot rod will reach exactly across from point to point1 the corner is square and you may dig your post-holes4 ,the ,foundation ,you may use a foundation of stones or a series of stone piles1 but if you use stones and expect your house to remain plumb where the winters are severe you must dig holes for them at least three feet deep in order to go below the frost-line4 ,fill these holes with broken stone1 on top of which you can make your pile of stones to act as support for the sills2 but the simplest method is to use posts of locust1 cedar1 or chestnut2 or1 if this is too much trouble1 pack the dirt tightly1 drain it well by making it slope away from the house in every direction1 and lay your foundation sills on the level earth4 ,in that case you had better use chestnut wood for the sills2 spruce will rot very quickly in contact with the damp earth and pine will not last long under the same circumstances4 ,all through certain sections of this country there are hundreds of humble dwellings built upon mudsills1 in other words1 with no foundation or floor but the bare ground4 ,we will suppose that you have secured some posts about two feet six inches long with good1 flat ends4 ,the better material you can obtain the trimmer and better will be the appearance of your house1 but a house which will protect you and your tools may be made of the roughest lumber4 ,the plans here drawn will answer for the rough or fine material1 but we suppose that medium material is to be used4 ,it will be taken for granted that the reader is able to procure enough two-by-four-inch timber to supply studs1 ribs1 purlins1 rafters1 beams1 and posts for the frame shown in ,fig4 #di4 ,two pieces of four-by-four-inch timber each fifteen feet long should be made for sills by nailing two-by-fours together4 ,add to this some tongue-and-grooved boarding or even rough boards for sides and roof1 some enthusiasm1 and good ,american pluck and the shop is almost as good as built4 ,first lay the foundation1 eight by fifteen feet1 and then you may proceed to dig your post-holes4 ,the outside of the posts should be flush or even with the outside edges of the sills and end beams of the house as shown in the diagram4 ,if there are four posts on each of the long sides they should be equal distances apart4 ,dig the holes three feet deep1 allowing six inches of the posts to protrude above ground4 ,if you drive two stakes a short distance beyond the foundation in line with your foundation lines and run a string from the top of one stake to the top of the other you can1 without much trouble1 get it upon a perfect level by testing it and adjusting until the string represents the level for your sill4 ,when this is done1 set your posts to correspond to the level of the string1 then place your sill on top of the posts and test that with your level4 ,if found to be correct1 fill in the dirt around the posts and pack it firmly1 then spike your sill to the posts and go through the same operation with opposite sets of posts and sill4 ,fig4 #di4 ,illustration3 ,frame of two-by-fours milled lumber1 with names of parts4 ,the first difficult work is now done and1 with the exception of the roof1 the rest only needs ordinary care4 ,it is supposed that you have already sawed off and prepared about nine two-by-four-inch beams each of which is exactly eight feet long4 ,set these on edge from sill to sill1 equal distances apart1 the edges of the end beams being exactly even with the ends of the sills as in ,fig4 #di4 ,see that the beams all cross the sills at right angles and toe-nail them in place4 ,you may now neatly floor the foundation with one-inch boards2 these boards must be laid lengthwise with the building and crosswise with the beams4 ,when this is finished you will have a beautiful platform on which to work1 where you will be in no danger of losing your tools1 and you may use the floor as a table on which to measure and plan the sides and roof4 ,ridge ,plank and ,rafters ,it is a good idea to make your ridge plank and rafters while the floor is clear of rubbish4 ,lay out and mark on the floor1 with a carpenter's soft pencil1 a straight line four feet long 7,a1 ,b1 ,fig4 #di74 ,at right angles to this draw another line three feet six inches long 7,a1 ,d1 ,fig4 #di74 ,connect these points 7,b1 ,d1 ,fig4 #di7 with a straight line1 then complete the figure ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 ,d 7,fig4 #di74 ,allow two inches at the top for the ridge plank at ,b and two by four for the end of the side-plate at ,d4 ,you then have a pattern for each rafter with a plumb edge at ,b and a bird's mouth at ,d4 ,the plumb edge must be parallel with ,b1 ,c and the two jaws of the bird's mouth parallel with ,d1 ,c and ,a1 ,d1 respectively4 ,make six rafters of two-by-fours and one ridge plank4 ,the purlins and collar can be made and fitted after the roof is raised4 ,set your roof timber carefully to one side and clear the floor for the studs1 ribs1 and plates4 ,first prepare the end posts and make them of two-by-fours4 ,each post is of two pieces4 ,there will be four outside pieces each five feet eight inches in length1 which rest on the end beams1 and four inside pieces each six feet in length2 this allows two inches at the top for the ends of the end plates to rest upon4 ,examine the corner posts and you will see that the outside two-by-four rests upon the top side of the end beam and the side-plate rests directly upon said two-by-four4 ,you will also observe that the inside two-by-four rests directly upon the sill1 which would make the former four inches longer than the outside piece if it is extended to the side-plate2 but you will also notice that there is a notch in the end plate for the outside corner piece to fit in and that the end of the end plate fits on top the inside piece of the corner posts1 taking off two inches1 which makes the inside piece just six feet long4 ,this is a very simple arrangement1 as may be seen by examining the diagram4 ,besides the corner posts1 each of which we have seen is made of two pieces of two-by-fours1 there are four studs for the front side1 each six feet two inches long4 ,the short studs shown in the diagram on the rear side are unnecessary and are only shown so that they may be put in as convenient attachments for shelves and tool racks4 ,the first stud on the front is placed two feet from the corner post and the second one about six feet six inches from the first1 to allow a space for a six-foot window2 the next two studs form the door-jambs and must be far enough from the corner to allow the door to open and swing out of the way4 ,if you make your door two and one half feet wide--a good size--you may set your last stud two feet from the corner post and leave a space of two feet six inches for the doorway4 ,now mark off on the floor the places where the studs will come1 and cut out the flooring at these points to allow the ends of the studs to enter and rest on the sill4 ,next make four ribs--one long one to go beneath the window1 one short one to fit between the corner post and the door stud not shown in diagram1 another to fit between the door stud and window stud1 and another to fit between the window stud and the first corner post 7the nearest corner in the diagram74 ,next make your side-plate exactly fifteen feet long4 ,fit the frame together on the floor and nail the pieces together1 toe-nailing the ribs in place4 ,get some help and raise the whole side frame and slip the ends of the studs into their respective slots4 ,make the end posts plumb and hold them in place temporarily by a board1 one end of which is nailed to the top end of the post and the other to the end beam4 ,such a diagonal board at each end will hold the side in place until the opposite side is raised and similarly supported4 ,it is now a simple thing to slip the end plates in place under the side-plates until their outside edges are even with the outside of the corner posts4 ,a long wire nail driven through the top-plates and end plates down into the posts at each corner will hold them securely4 ,toe-nail a rib between the two nearest end posts and make two window studs and three ribs for the opposite end4 ,the framing now only needs the roof timbers to complete the skeleton of your shop4 ,across from side-plate to side-plate lay some loose boards for a platform1 and standing on these boards let your assistant lift one end of the ridge plank while with one nail to each rafter you fasten the two end rafters onto the ridge plank1 fit the jaws of the bird's mouth over the ends of the side-plates1 and hold them temporarily in place with a stay lath--that is1 a piece of board temporarily nailed to rafter and end plate4 ,the other end of the ridge is now resting on the platform at the other end of the house and this may be lifted up1 for the single nails will allow movement4 ,the rafters are nailed in place with one nail each and a stay lath fastened on to hold them in place4 ,test the ends with your plumb-level and when they are found to be correct nail all the rafters securely in place and stiffen the centre pair with a piece called a collar4 ,add four purlins set at right angles to the rafters and take off your hat and give three cheers and do not forget to nail a green bough to your roof tree in accordance with the ancient and time-honored custom4 ,the sides of the house may be covered with tent-cloth1 oilcloth1 tin1 tar paper1 or the cheapest sort of lumber1 and the house may be roofed with the same material2 but if you can secure good lumber1 use thirteen by seven eighths by nine and one quarter inch1 tongue-and-grooved1 one side planed so that it may be painted2 you can make two sideboards out of each piece six feet six inches in length4 ,nail the sides on1 running the boards vertically1 leaving openings for windows and doors at the proper places4 ,if you have made a triangular edge to your ridge board1 it will add to the finish and the roof may be neatly and tightly laid with the upper edge of one side protruding a couple of inches over the opposite side and thus protecting the joint from rain4 ,additional security is gained by nailing what are called picket strips 7seven eighths by one and three quarter inches7 over each place where the planks join1 or the roof may be covered with sheathing boards and shingles4 ,it is not necessary here to give the many details such as the manufacture of the door and the arrangements of the windows1 as these small problems can be easily solved by examining doors and windows of similar structures4 ,,xi ,a ,,sod ,,house ,,for ,,the ,,lawn ,,the difference between this sod house and the ones used in the arid regions consists in the fact that the sod will be growing on the sod house1 which is intended for and is an ornamental building for the lawn4 ,possibly one might say that the sod house is an effete product of civilization where utility is sacrificed to display2 but it is pretty1 and beauty is always worth while2 besides which the same plans may be used in building ,a ,real ,adobe and practically are used in some of the desert ranches along the ,colorado ,river4 ,the principal difference in construction between the one shown in ,figs4 #ej1 #ec1 and #eg and the one in ,fig4 #ee is that in the sod house the sod is held in place by chicken-coop wire1 while in the ranch-house 7,fig4 #ee7 the dirt or adobe is held in place by a number of sticks4 ,fig4 #ej4 ,fig4 #ea4 ,fig4 #eb4 ,fig4 #ec4 ,fig4 #ed4 ,fig4 #ee4 ,fig4 #ef4 ,illustration3 ,a house of green growing sod and the ,colorado ,river adobe4 ,fig4 #ej shows how the double walls are made with a space of at least a foot between them2 these walls are covered with wire netting or chicken-coop wire1 as shown in ,fig4 #ec1 and the space between the walls filled in with mud or dirt of any kind4 ,the framework may be made of milled lumber1 as in ,fig4 #ej1 or it may be made of saplings cut on the river bank and squared at their ends1 as shown by detailed drawings between ,figs4 #ej and #eb4 ,the roof may be made flat1 like ,figs4 #ed and #ef1 and covered with poles1 as in ,fig4 #ed1 in which case the sod will have to be held in place by pegging other poles along the eaves as shown in the left-hand corner of ,fig4 #ed4 ,this will keep the sod from sliding off the roof4 ,or you may build a roof after the manner illustrated by ,fig4 #di and ,fig4 #ea1 that is1 if you want to make a neat1 workmanlike house2 but any of the ways shown by ,fig4 #eb will answer for the framework of the roof4 ,the steep roof1 however1 must necessarily be either shingled or thatched or the sod held in place by a covering of wire netting4 ,if you are building this for your lawn1 set green1 growing sod up edgewise against the wire netting1 after the latter has been tacked to your frame1 so arranging the sod that the green grass will face the outside4 ,if you wish to plaster the inside of your house with cement or concrete1 fill in behind with mud1 plaster the mud against the sod and put gravel and stones against the mud so that it will be next to the wire netting on the inside of the house over which you plaster the concrete4 ,if you make the roof shown in ,fig4 #ed1 cover it first with hay and then dirt and sod and hold the sod down with wire netting neatly tacked over it1 or cover it with gravel held in place by wire netting and spread concrete over the top as one does on a cellar floor4 ,if the walls are kept sprinkled by the help of the garden hose1 the grass will keep as green as that on your lawn1 and if you have a dirt roof you may allow purple asters and goldenrod to grow upon it 7,fig4 #fb7 or plant it with garden flowers4 ,thatch ,if you are going to make a thatched roof1 soak your thatch in water and straighten the bent straws2 build the roof steep like the one shown in ,fig4 #eg and make a wooden needle a foot long and pointed at both ends as shown in ,fig4 #ei2 tie your thatching twine to the middle of the needle1 then take your rye or wheat straw1 hay1 or bulrushes1 gather it into bundles four inches thick and one foot wide1 like those shown in ,fig4 #fj1 and lay them along next to the eaves of your house as in ,fig4 #eh4 ,sew them in place by running the needle up through the wire netting to the man on the outside who in turn pushes it back to the man on the inside4 ,make a knot at each wisp of the thatch until one layer is finished1 let the lower ends overhang the eaves1 then proceed as illustrated by ,fig4 #ff and described under the heading of the bog ken4 ,if in place of a simple ornament you want to make a real house of it and a pretty one at that1 fill up the space between the walls with mud and plaster it on the outside with cement or concrete and you will have a cheap concrete house4 ,the wire netting will hold the plaster or the concrete and consequently it is not necessary to make the covering of cement as thick as in ordinary buildings1 for after the mud is dried upon the inside it will1 with its crust of cement or plaster1 be practically as good as a solid concrete wall4 ,fig4 #eg4 ,fig4 #eh4 ,fig4 #ei4 ,fig4 #fj4 ,fig4 #fa4 ,fig4 #fb4 ,illustration3 ,ornamental sod house for the lawn4 ,,xii ,,how ,,to ,,build ,,elevated ,,shacks1 ,,shanties1 ,,and ,,shelters ,,for many reasons it is sometimes necessary or advisable to have one's camp on stilts1 so to speak4 ,especially is this true in the more tropical countries where noxious serpents and insects abound4 ,a simple form of stilted shack is shown by ,fig4 #fc4 ,to build this shack we must first erect an elevated platform 7,fig4 #fd74 ,this is made by setting four forked sticks of equal height in the ground and any height from the ground to suit the ideas of the camp builder4 ,if1 for some reason1 the uprights are wabbly the frame may be stiffened by lashing diagonal cross sticks to the frame4 ,after you have erected the four uprights1 lay two poles through the crotches1 as in ,fig4 #fd1 and make a platform by placing other poles across these1 after which a shelter may be made in the form of an open ,adirondack camp or any of the forms previously described4 ,fig4 #fe shows the framework for the open camp of ,adirondack style with the uprights lashed to the side bars2 if you have nails1 of course1 you can nail these together1 but these plans are made on the assumption that you have no nails for that purpose1 which will probably be true if you have been long in the woods4 ,fig4 #fc4 ,fig4 #fd4 ,fig4 #fe4 ,illustration3 ,a simple stilt camp4 ,,xiii ,,the ,,bog ,,ken ,,ken is a name now almost obsolete but the bog ken is a house built on stilts where the ground is marshy1 damp1 and unfit to sleep upon4 ,as you will see by the diagram 7,fig4 #ff71 the house is built upon a platform similar to the one last described2 in this instance1 however1 the shelter itself is formed by a series of arches similar to the ,iroquois 7,fig4 #da74 ,the uprights on the two sides have their ends bent over and lashed together1 forming arches for the roof4 ,over the arches are lashed horizontal poles the same as those described in the construction of the ,iroquois lodge4 ,fig4 #fg shows one way to prevent varmints of any kind from scaling the supporting poles and creeping into your camp4 ,the protection consists of a tin pan with a hole in the bottom slid over the supporting poles4 ,fig4 #ff shows how to lash the thatching on to the poles and ,fig4 #fh shows how to spring the sticks in place for a railing around your front porch or balcony4 ,the floor to this bog ken is a little more elaborate than that of the last described camp because the poles have all been halved before laying them for the floor4 ,these are supposed to be afterwards covered with browse1 hay1 or rushes and the roof shingled with bark or thatched4 ,thatching ,soak your straw or hay well in water and smooth it out flat and regular4 ,the steeper the roofs the longer the thatch will last4 ,in this bog ken our roof happens to be a rounded one1 an arched roof2 but it is sheltering a temporary house and the thatch will last as long as the shack4 ,while the real pioneer uses whatever material he finds at hand1 it does no harm for him to know that to make a really good thatch one should use only straw which is fully ripe and has been thrashed clean with an old-fashioned flail4 ,the straw must be clear of all seed or grain and kept straight1 not mussed up1 crumpled1 and broken4 ,if any grain is left in the straw it will attract field-mice1 birds1 domestic mice and rats1 domestic turkeys and chickens1 and these creatures in burrowing and scratching for food will play havoc with the roof4 ,fig4 #ff4 ,fig4 #fg4 ,fig4 #fh4 ,fig4 #fi4 ,illustration3 ,details of bog ken4 ,it is not necessary to have straight and even rafters1 because the humps1 bumps1 and hollows caused by crooked sticks are concealed by the mattress of straw4 ,take a bundle of thatch in your hands1 squeeze it together1 and place it so that the butt ends project about three inches beyond the floor 7,a1 ,fig4 #ff72 tie the thatch closely to the lower rafter and the one next above it1 using for the purpose twine1 marlin1 raffia1 or well-twisted white hickory bark4 ,this first row should be thus tied near both ends to prevent the wind from getting under it and lifting it up4 ,next put on another row of wisps of thatch over the first and the butt ends come even with the first1 but tie this one to the third row of rafters not shown in diagram4 ,the butts of the third row of thatch 7,b1 ,fig4 #ff7 should be about nine inches up on the front rows2 put this on as before and proceed the same way with ,c1 ,d1 ,e1 and ,f1 ,fig4 #ff1 until the roof is completed4 ,the thatch should be ten or twelve inches thick for a permanent hut but need not be so for a temporary shed4 ,as there is no comb to this roof the top must be protected where the thatches from each side join1 and to do this fasten a thatch over the top and bind it on both sides but not in the middle1 so that it covers the meeting of the thatches on both sides of the shack2 this top piece should be stitched or bound on with wire if you have it1 or fastened with willow withe or even wisps of straw if you are an expert4 ,a house1 twenty by thirty feet1 made of material found on the place and thatched with straw costs the builder only fifty cents for nails and four days' work for two persons4 ,a good thatched roof will last as long as a modern shingle roof1 for in olden days when shingles were good and split out of blocks1 not sawed1 and were well seasoned before using1 they were not expected to last much over fifteen years2 a well-made thatched roof will last fifteen or twenty years4 ,fig4 #gj4 ,illustration3 ,snow-shoe foundation for bog ken4 ,but a real bog ken is one that is built over boggy or marshy places too soft to support an ordinary structure4 ,to overcome this difficulty required considerable study and experiment1 but at length the author hit upon a simple plan which has proved effective4 ,if you wish to build a duck hunter's camp on the soft meadows1 or for any other reason you desire a camp on treacherous1 boggy ground1 you may build one by first making a thick mattress of twigs and sticks as shown by ,fig4 #gj4 ,this mattress acts on the principle of a snow-shoe and prevents your house from sinking by distributing the weight equally over a wide surface4 ,the mattress should be carefully made of sticks having their branches trimmed off sufficiently to allow them to lie in regular courses as in the diagram4 ,the first course should be laid one way and the next course at right angles to the first1 and so on1 until the mattress is sufficiently thick for the purpose4 ,standing on the mattress1 it will be an easy matter with your hands to force the sharpened ends of your upright posts ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 and ,d down into the yielding mud1 but be careful not to push them too far because in some of these marshes the mud is practically bottomless4 ,it is only necessary for the supports to sink in the mud far enough to make them stand upright4 ,fig4 #ga4 ,illustration3 ,framework of simple bog ken4 ,the next step is to lay1 at right angles to the top layer of brush1 a series of rods or poles between your uprights as shown in ,fig4 #gj2 then take two more poles1 place them at right angles to the last ones1 and press them down until they fit snugly on top of the other poles1 and there nail them fast to the uprights as shown in ,fig4 #gj1 after which to further bind them you may nail a diagonal from ,a to ,d and ,b to ,c1 but this may not be necessary4 ,when you have proceeded thus far you may erect a framework like that shown in ,fig4 #ga1 and build a platform by flooring the crosspieces or horizontal bars with halves of small logs1 ,fig4 #ga4 ,it is now a simple matter to erect a shack which may be roofed with bark as in ,fig4 #gb or thatched as in ,fig4 #gd4 ,fig4 #gb shows the unfinished shack in order that its construction may be easily seen2 this one is being roofed with birch bark4 ,a fireplace may be made by enclosing a bed of mud 7,fig4 #gc7 between or inside of the square formed by four logs4 ,on this clay or mud you can build your camp-fire or cooking fire or mosquito smudge with little or no danger of setting fire to your house4 ,the mosquito smudge will not be found necessary if there is any breeze blowing at all1 because these insects cling to the salt hay or bog-grass and do not rise above it except in close1 muggy weather where no breeze disturbs them4 ,i have slept a few feet over bog meadows without being disturbed by mosquitoes when every blade of grass on the meadows was black with these insects1 but there was a breeze blowing which kept the mosquitoes at home4 ,fig4 #gb4 ,fig4 #gc4 ,fig4 #gd4 ,illustration3 ,adaptation of a bark shack to the bog ken foundation4 ,,xiv ,,over-,,water ,,camps ,,now that we know how to camp on solid ground and on the quaking bog we cannot finish up the subject of stilt camps without including one over-water camp4 ,if the water has a muddy bottom it is a simple matter to force your supporting posts into the mud2 this may be done by driving them in with a wooden mallet made of a section of log or it may be done by fastening poles on each side of the post and having a crowd of men jump up and down on the poles until the posts are forced into the bottom4 ,if you are building a pretentious structure the piles may be driven with the ordinary pile-driver4 ,but if your camp on the water is over a hard bottom of rock or sand through which you cannot force your supports you may take a lot of old barrels 7,fig4 #ge71 knock the tops and bottoms out of them1 nail some cross planks on the ends of your spiles1 slide the barrels over the spiles1 then set them in place in the water and hold them there by filling the barrels with rocks1 stones1 or coarse gravel4 ,fig4 #gg shows a foundation made in this manner2 this method is also useful in building piers 7,fig4 #gh74 ,but if you are in the woods1 out of reach of barrels or other civilized lumber1 you can make yourself cribs by driving a square or a circle of sticks in the ground a short distance and then twining roots or pliable branches inside and outside the stakes1 basket fashion1 as shown in ,fig4 #gf4 ,when the crib is complete it may be carefully removed from the ground and used as the barrels were used by filling them with stones to support the uprights4 ,fig4 #gi shows an ordinary portable house such as are advertised in all the sportsmen's papers1 which has been erected upon a platform over the water4 ,fig4 #ge4 ,fig4 #gf4 ,fig4 #gg4 ,fig4 #gh4 ,fig4 #gi4 ,illustration3 ,showing how to make foundations for over-water camps4 ,my experience with this sort of work leads me to advise the use of piles upon which to build in place of piers of stones4 ,where ,i have used such piers upon small inland lakes the tremendous push of the freezing ice has upset them1 whereas the ice seems to slide around the piles without pushing them over4 ,the real danger with piles lies in the fact that if the water rises after the ice has frozen around the uprights the water will lift the ice up and the ice will sometimes pull the piles out of the bottom like a dentist pulls teeth4 ,nevertheless1 piles are much better for a foundation for a camp or pier than any crib of rocks1 and that is the reason ,i have shown the cribs in ,figs4 #ge and #gg1 made so as to rest upon the bottom supposedly below the level of the winter ice4 ,,xv ,,signal-,,tower1 ,,game ,,lookout1 ,,and ,,rustic ,,observatory ,,if my present reader happens to be a ,boy ,scout or a scout-master who wants the scouts to build a tower for exhibition purposes1 he can do so by following the directions here given1 but if there is real necessity for haste in the erection of this tower1 of course we cannot build one as tall as we might where we have more time4 ,with a small tower all the joints may be quickly lashed together with strong1 heavy twine1 rope1 or even wire2 and in the wilderness it will probably be necessary to bind the joints with pliable roots1 or cordage made of bark or withes2 but as this is not a book on woodcraft we will suppose that the reader has secured the proper material for fastening the joints of the frame of this signal-tower and he must now shoulder his axe and go to the woods in order to secure the necessary timber4 ,first let him cut eight straight poles--that is1 as straight as he can find them4 ,these poles should be about four and one half inches in diameter at their base and sixteen and one half feet long4 ,after all the branches are trimmed off the poles1 cut four more sticks each nine feet long and two and a half or three inches in diameter at the base2 when these are trimmed into shape one will need twenty six or seven more stout sticks each four and one half feet long for braces and for flooring for the platform4 ,kite ,frame ,it being supposed that your timber is now all in readiness at the spot where you are to erect the tower1 begin by laying out on the ground what we call the kite frame4 ,first take three of the four-and-one-half-foot sticks1 ,a1 ,b1 ,c 7,fig4 #hb71 and two of the nine-foot sticks ,d and ,e 7,fig4 #hb71 and1 placing them on a level stretch of ground1 arrange them in the form of a parallelogram4 ,put ,a for the top rail at the top of the parallelogram and ,c for the bottom of the parallelogram and let them rest upon the sides ,d and ,e1 but put ,b under the sides ,d and ,e4 ,in order to bind these together securely1 the ends of all the sticks must be allowed to project a few inches4 ,b should be far enough below ,a to give the proper height for a railing around the platform4 ,the platform itself rests upon ,b4 ,a forms the top railing to the fence around it4 ,now take two of your sixteen-and-one-half-foot poles and place them diagonally from corner to corner of the parallelogram with the small ends of the poles lying over the ends of ,a and the butt ends of the poles extending beyond ,c1 as in ,fig4 #hb4 ,lash these poles securely in place4 ,where the poles cross each other in the ,x1 or centre1 it is best to flatten them some by scoring and hewing with a hatchet1 but care must be taken not to weaken them by scoring too deep4 ,next take your lash rope1 double it1 run the loop down under the cross sticks1 bring it up on the other side1 as in ,fig4 #hc1 then pull the two loose ends through the loop4 ,when they are drawn taut 7,fig4 #hd71 bend them round in opposite directions--that is1 bend the right-hand end of the rope to the right1 down and under the cross sticks1 pull it out to the left1 as in ,fig4 #hd1 then bend the left-hand piece of rope to the left1 down and under1 pulling it out to the right1 as in ,fig4 #hd4 ,next bring those two pieces up over and tie them together in a square knot1 as shown in ,figs4 #he and #hf4 ,fig4 #hj4 ,fig4 #ha4 ,fig4 #hb4 ,fig4 #hc4 ,fig4 #hd4 ,fig4 #he4 ,fig4 #hf4 ,fig4 #hg4 ,illustration3 ,parts of tower for a wireless1 a game lookout1 an elevated camp or cache4 ,make a duplicate kite frame for the other side exactly as you made the first one1 and then arrange these two pieces on the ground with the cross sticks ,f and ,f on the under-side and with their butt ends opposite the butts of the similar poles on the other frame and about five feet apart4 ,fasten a long line to the point where the two ,f pieces cross each other and detail a couple of scouts to hold each of the butt ends from slipping by placing one of their feet against the butt1 as in ,fig4 #hb1 while two gangs of men or boys pull on the ropes and raise the kite frames to the positions shown in ,figs4 #ha and #hh4 ,be careful1 when raising the frames1 not to pull them too far so that they may fall on some unwary workman4 ,when the frames are once erected it is an easy matter to hold them in place by guy-ropes fastened to stones1 stakes1 or trees or held by men or boys1 while some of the shorter braces are fastened to hold the two kite frames together1 as in ,fig4 #ij1 wherein you may see these short braces at the top and bottom4 ,next1 the two other long sticks1 legs1 or braces 7,g1 ,g1 ,figs4 #hi and #ij7 should be held temporarily in position and the place marked where they cross each other in the centre of the parallelogram which should be the same as it is on the legs of the two kite frames4 ,the ,g sticks should now be lashed together at the crossing point1 as already described and shown by ,figs4 #hc1 #hd1 #he1 and #hf1 when they may be put up against the sides1 as in ,fig4 #hi1 in which diagram the ,g poles are made very dark and the kite frames indicated very lightly so as to better show their relative positions4 ,lash the ,g poles at the top and at the other points where they cross the other braces and secure the framework by adding short braces1 as indicated in ,fig4 #ij4 ,fig4 #hh4 ,fig4 #hi4 ,fig4 #ij4 ,fig4 #ij;,a4 ,illustration3 ,details of scout signal-tower or game lookout4 ,if all the parts are bound together with wire it will hold them more securely than nails1 with no danger of the poles splitting4 ,a permanent tower of this kind may be erected on which a camp may be built1 as shown in ,fig4 #hg4 ,it may be well to note that in the last diagram the tower is only indicated by a few lines of the frame in order to simplify it and prevent confusion caused by the multiplicity of poles4 ,boy-,scout ,tower ,if you desire to make a tower taller than the one described it would be best1 perhaps1 to take the regular ,boy-,scout dimensions as given by ,scout-master ,a4 ,g4 ,clarke3 ,eight pieces #bb feet long1 about #e or #f inches thick at the base2 #d pieces #f feet long1 about #c or #d inches thick at the base2 #ab pieces #f feet long1 about #b or #c inches thick at base2 #ab or #ae pieces for braces and platform about #f feet long4 ,when putting together this frame it may be nailed or spiked1 but care must be used not to split the timber where it is nailed4 ,with most wood this may be avoided by driving the spikes or nails several inches back of the ends of the sticks4 ,to erect a flagpole or a wireless pole1 cut the bottom of the pole wedge-shaped1 fit in the space between the cross poles1 as in ,fig4 #ij ,a1 then lash it fast to the ,b and ,a pole1 and1 to further secure it1 two other sticks may be nailed to the ,f poles1 one on each side1 between which the bottom of the flagpole is thrust1 as shown by ,fig4 #ij ,a4 ,the flooring of the platform must be securely nailed or lashed in place1 otherwise there may be some serious accident caused by the boys or men falling through1 a fall of about twenty and one half feet according to the last measurements given for the frame4 ,an observatory of this kind will add greatly to the interest of a mountain home or seaside home2 it is a practical tower for military men to be used in flag signalling and for improvised wireless2 it is also a practical tower for a lookout in the game fields and a delight to the ,boy ,scouts4 ,,xvi ,,tree-,,top ,,houses ,,by the natural process of evolution we have now arrived at the tree-top house4 ,it is interesting to the writer to see the popularity of this style of an outdoor building1 for1 while he cannot lay claim to originating it1 he was the first to publish the working drawings of a tree-house4 ,these plans first appeared in ,harper's ,round ,table2 afterward he made others for the ,ladies' ,home ,journal and later published them in ,the ,jack of ,all ,trades4 ,having occasion to travel across the continent shortly after the first plans were published1 he was amused to see all along the route1 here and there in back-yard fruit-trees1 shade-trees1 and in forest-trees1 queer little shanties built by the boys1 high up among the boughs4 ,in order to build a house one must make one's plans to fit the tree4 ,if it is to be a one-tree house1 spike on the trunk two quartered pieces of small log one on each side of the trunk 7,figs4 #ia and #ib74 ,across these lay a couple of poles and nail them to the trunk of the tree 7,fig4 #ia72 then at right angles to these lay another pair of poles1 as shown in the right-hand diagram 7,fig4 #ia74 ,nail these securely in place and support the ends of the four poles by braces nailed to the trunk of the tree below4 ,the four cross-sills will then 7,fig4 #ie7 serve as a foundation upon which to begin your work4 ,other joists can now be laid across these first and supported by braces running diagonally down to the trunk of the tree1 as shown in ,fig4 #ie4 ,after the floor is laid over the joist any form of shack1 from a rude1 open shed to a picturesque thatch-roofed cottage1 may be erected upon it4 ,it is well to support the two middle rafters of your roof by quartered pieces of logs1 as the middle rafters are supported in ,fig4 #ie2 by quartered logs shown in ,fig4 #ib4 ,fig4 #ia4 ,fig4 #ib4 ,fig4 #ic4 ,fig4 #id4 ,fig4 #ie4 ,fig4 #if4 ,fig4 #ig4 ,illustration3 ,details of tree-top houses4 ,if the house is a two-tree house1 run your cross-sill sticks from trunk to trunk1 as in ,fig4 #id2 then make two ,t-braces1 like the one in ,fig4 #id ,a1 of two-inch planks with braces secured by iron straps1 or use heavier timber1 and bolt the parts together securely 7,fig4 #ic71 or use logs and poles 7,fig4 #id71 after which hang these ,t's over the ends of your two cross sticks1 as in ,fig4 #id1 and spike the uprights of the ,t's securely to the tree trunks4 ,on top of the ,t you can rest a two-by-four and support the end by diagonals nailed to the tree trunk 7,fig4 #id7 after the manner of the diagonals in ,fig4 #ie4 ,you will note in ,fig4 #ie that cleats or blocks are spiked to the tree below the end of the diagonals in order to further secure them4 ,it is sometimes necessary in a two-tree house to allow for the movement of the tree trunks4 ,in ,florida a gentleman did this by building his tree-house on the ,b sills 7,fig4 #id7 and making them movable to allow for the play of the tree trunks4 ,fig4 #if shows a two-tree house and ,fig4 #ig shows a thatch-roofed cottage built among the top branches of a single tree4 ,it goes without saying that in a high wind one does not want to stay long in a tree-top house2 in fact1 during some winds that ,i have experienced ,i would have felt much safer had ,i been in a cyclone cellar2 but if the braces of a tree-house are securely made and the trees selected have good1 heavy trunks1 your tree-top house will stand all the ordinary summer blows and winter storms4 ,one must remember that even one's own home is not secure enough to stand some of those extraordinary gales1 tornadoes1 and hurricanes which occasionally visit parts of our country4 ,since ,i published the first plans of a tree-top house many people have adopted the idea and built quite expensive structures in the boughs of the trees4 ,probably all these buildings are intact at the present writing4 ,the boys at ,lynn1 ,mass41 built a very substantial house in the trees1 and the truant officer claimed that the lads hid away there so that they could play hookey from school2 but if this is true1 and there seems to be some doubt about it1 it must be remembered that the fault was probably with the schools and not the boys1 for boys who have ingenuity and grit enough to build a substantial house in a tree cannot be bad boys2 industry1 skill1 and laborious work are not the attributes of the bad boy4 ,some ,new ,york ,city boys built a house in the trees at ,one ,hundred and ,sixty-ninth ,street1 but here the police interfered1 claiming that it was against a city ordinance to build houses in shade-trees1 and maybe it is2 but1 fortunately for the boys1 there are other trees which may be used for this purpose4 ,there is now1 or was recently1 an interesting tree-house on ,flatbush ,avenue1 ,brooklyn2 a house so commodious that it was capable of accommodating as many as fifteen people2 but it was not as pretty and attractive a tree-house as the one located at the foot of ,mount ,tamalpais1 in ,mill ,valley1 ,san ,francisco1 which is built after the plan shown by ,fig4 #ie4 ,this ,california house is attached to the trunk of a big redwood tree and is reached by a picturesque bridge spanning a rocky canyon4 ,tree-houses are also used as health resorts1 and recently there was a gentleman of ,plainfield1 ,mass41 living in a tree-house because he found the pure air among the leaves beneficial2 while down in ,ecuador another man1 who feared malarial mosquitoes and objected to wild beasts and snakes1 built himself a house on top of an ibo-tree1 seventy feet from the ground4 ,this is quite a pretentious structure and completely hides and covers the top of the tree4 ,it is located on the banks of the ,escondido ,river2 and in this tropical country1 while it may be a safe retreat from the pests enumerated1 it might not be so safe from lightning in one of those violent tropical storms4 ,but it is probably as safe as any house in that country1 for one must take chances no matter what kind of a house one dwells in4 ,primitive and savage men all over the world for thousands of years have built dwellings in tree tops4 ,in the ,philippines many natives live in tree-top houses4 ,the ,kinnikars1 hill-tribesmen of ,travancore1 ,india1 are said to live in houses built in the trees1 but in ,new ,guinea it seems that such houses are only provided for the girls1 and every night the dusky lassies are sent to bed in shacks perched in the tree tops2 then1 to make safety doubly safe1 the watchful parents take away the ladders and their daughters cannot reach the ground until the ladders are replaced in the morning4 ,the most important thing about all this is that a tree-house is always a source of delight to the boys and young people1 and1 furthermore1 the boys have over and over again proved to the satisfaction of the author that they themselves are perfectly competent to build these shacks1 and not only to build them but to avoid accidents and serious falls while engaged in the work4 ,,xvii ,,caches ,,the difference between tomahawk shacks and axe houses reminds me of the difference between the ileum and the jejunum1 of which my classmate once said3 ,there is no way of telling the beginning of one or the ending of t'other 'cept by the pale-pinkish hue of the latter4 ,it must be confessed that some of the shacks described in the preceding pages are rather stout and massive to be classed as tomahawk shelters1 but1 as indicated by my reference to physiology1 this is not the writer's fault4 ,the trouble is owing to the fact that nature abhors the arbitrary division line which man loves to make for his own convenience4 ,the tomahawk shacks gradually evolve into axe camps and houses and there is no telling the beginning of one and the end of t'other4 ,hence1 when ,i say that all the previous shacks1 sheds1 shelters1 and shanties are fashioned with a hatchet1 the statement must be accepted as true only so far as it is possible to build them without an axe2 but in looking over the diagram it is evident at a glance that the logs are growing so thick that the necessity of the woodman's axe is more and more apparent2 nevertheless1 the accompanying caches have been classed with the tomahawk group and we will allow them to remain there4 ,wherever man travels in the wilderness he finds it necessary to cache--that is1 hide or secure some of his goods or provisions4 ,the security of these caches 7,figs4 #ih-aaa7 is considered sacred in the wilds and they are not disturbed by savages or whites2 but bears1 foxes1 husky dogs1 porcupines1 and wolverenes are devoid of any conscientious scruples and unless the cache is absolutely secure they will raid it4 ,fig4 #ih4 ,fig4 #ii4 ,fig4 #ajj4 ,fig4 #aja4 ,fig4 #ajb4 ,fig4 #ajc4 ,fig4 #ajd4 ,fig4 #aje4 ,illustration3 ,simple forms of caches4 ,the first cache 7,fig4 #ih7 is called the prospector's cache and consists simply of a stick lashed to two trees and another long pole laid across this to which the goods are hung1 swinging beneath like a hammock4 ,this cache is hung high enough to be out of reach of a standing bear4 ,the tripod cache 7,fig4 #ajj7 consists of three poles lashed at the top with the goods hung underneath4 ,another form of the prospector's cache is shown by ,fig4 #ajb1 where two poles are used in place of one and an open platform of sticks laid across the poles2 the goods are placed upon the platform4 ,the tenderfoot's cache 7,fig4 #aje7 is one used only for temporary purposes as it is too easily knocked over and would be of no use where animals as large as bears might wreck it4 ,it consists of two sticks lashed together at their small ends and with their butt ends buried in the earth2 their tops are secured by a rope to a near-by tree while the duffel is suspended from the top of the longest pole4 ,the ,montainais cache is an elevated platform upon which the goods are placed and covered with skins or tarpaulin or tent-cloth 7,fig4 #ii74 ,the ,andrew ,stone cache is a miniature log cabin placed on the ground and the top covered with halved logs usually weighted down with stones 7,fig4 #aja74 ,the ,belmore ,browne cache consists of a pole or a half of a log placed in the fork of the two trees on top of which the goods are held in place by a rope and the whole covered with a piece of canvas lashed together with eyelets1 like a shoe 7,fig4 #ajc74 ,the ,herschel ,parker cache is used where the articles to be cached are in a box4 ,for this cache two poles are lashed to two trees1 one on each side of the trees 7,fig4 #ajd71 and across the two poles the box is placed4 ,we now come to more pretentious caches1 the first of which is the ,susitna1 which is a little log cabin built on a table with four long legs4 ,the poles or logs composing the legs of the table are cut in a peculiar fashion1 as shown in the diagram to the left of ,fig4 #ajg2 this is intended to prevent animals from climbing to the top2 also1 as a further protection1 pieces of tin are sometimes tacked around the poles so as to give no foothold to the claws of the little animals4 ,fig4 #ajf shows two other methods sometimes adopted to protect small caches and ,fig4 #ajh is still another method of using logs which have the roots still attached to them for supports4 ,such logs can be used where the ground is too stony to dig holes for posts4 ,fig4 #aji shows another form of the ,susitna cache wherein the goods are packed in a box-like structure and covered with tent-cloth tightly lashed down4 ,the ,dillon ,wallace cache 7,fig4 #aaj7 is simply a tent erected over the goods and perched on an elevated platform4 ,the ,fred ,vreeland cache is a good1 solid1 practical storehouse4 ,it is built of small logs on a platform1 as shown by ,fig4 #aaa1 and the bottom of the building is smaller than it is at the eaves4 ,it is covered with a high thatched roof and is ornamental as well as useful4 ,fig4 #ajf4 ,fig4 #ajg4 ,fig4 #ajh4 ,fig4 #aji4 ,fig4 #aaj4 ,fig4 #aaa4 ,illustration3 ,cabin caches4 ,these caches might really belong to a book of woodcraft1 but it is another case of the ileum and jejunum1 and we will rule that they technically come under the head of shacks1 sheds1 shelters1 and shanties and so are included in this volume2 but there is another and a very good reason for publishing them in this book1 and that is because some of them1 like ,figs4 #ajg and #aaa1 suggest novel forms of ornamental houses on country estates1 houses which may be used for corn-cribs or other storage or1 like the tree-top houses1 used for pleasure and amusement4 ,,xviii ,,how ,,to ,,use ,,an ,,axe ,,the old backwoodsmen were as expert with their axes as they were with their rifles and they were just as careful in the selection of these tools as they were in the selection of their arms4 ,many a time ,i have seen them pick up a store axe1 sight along the handle1 and then cast it contemptuously aside2 they demanded of their axes that the cutting edge should be exactly in line with the point in the centre of the butt end of the handle4 ,they also kept their axes so sharp that they could whittle with them like one can with a good jack-knife2 furthermore1 they allowed no one but themselves to use their own particular axe4 ,in my log house in the mountains of ,pike ,county1 ,pa41 ,i have a table fashioned entirely with an axe2 even the ends of the boards which form the top of the table were cut off by ,siley ,rosencranz with his trusty axe because he had no saw4 ,both ,general ,grant and ,abraham ,lincoln were expert axemen1 and probably a number of other ,presidents were also skilful in the use of this tool2 but it is not expected that the modern vacation pioneer shall be an expert1 consequently a few simple rules and suggestions will be here given to guide the amateur and he must depend upon his own judgment and common sense to work out the minor problems which will beset him in the use of this tool4 ,dangers ,all edged tools are dangerous when in the hands of chumps1 dangerous to themselves and to any one else who is near them4 ,for instance1 only a chump will use an axe when its head is loose and is in danger of flying off the handle2 only a chump will use his best axe to cut roots or sticks lying flat on the ground where he is liable to strike stones and other objects and take the edge off the blade4 ,only a chump will leave an axe lying around on the ground for people to stumble over2 if there is a stump handy at your camp and you are through using the axe1 strike the blade into the top of the stump and leave the axe sticking there1 where it will be safe from injury4 ,remember1 before chopping down a tree or before using the axe at all1 to see that there is enough space above and around you to enable you to swing the axe clear 7,fig4 #aab7 without the danger of striking bushes or overhanging branches which may deflect the blade and cause accidents more or less serious4 ,do not stand behind a tree as it falls 7,fig4 #aae71 for the boughs may strike those of a standing tree1 causing the butt to shoot back or kick1 and many a woodsman has lost his life from the kick of a falling tree4 ,before chopping a tree down1 select the place where it is to fall1 a place where it will not be liable to lodge in another tree on its way down4 ,do not try to fell a tree against the wind4 ,cut a notch on the side of the tree facing the direction you wish it to fall 7,fig4 #aac7 and cut it half-way through the trunk4 ,make the notch1 or kerf1 large enough to avoid pinching your axe in it4 ,if you discover that the notch is going to be too small1 cut a new notch1 ,x 7,fig4 #aaf71 some inches above your first one1 then split off the piece ,x1 ,y between the two notches1 and again make the notch ,x1 ,z1 and split off the piece ,z1 ,w1 ,y 7,fig4 #aaf71 until you make room for the axe to continue your chopping4 ,when the first kerf is finished begin another one on the opposite side of the tree a little higher than the first one 7,fig4 #aad74 ,when the wood between the two notches becomes too small to support the weight of the tree1 the top of the tree will begin to tremble and waver and give you plenty of time to step to one side before it falls4 ,fig4 #aab4 ,fig4 #aac4 ,fig4 #aad4 ,fig4 #aae4 ,fig4 #aaf4 ,fig4 #aag4 ,fig4 #aah4 ,illustration3 ,how to fall a tree and how to take off the bark4 ,if the tree 7,fig4 #aag7 is inclined in the opposite direction from which you wish it to fall1 it is sometimes possible 7,fig4 #aag7 to block up the kerf on the inclined side and then by driving the wedge over the block force the tree to fall in the direction desired2 but if the tree inclines too far this cannot be done4 ,there was a chestnut-tree standing close to my log house and leaning toward the building4 ,under ordinary circumstances felling this tree would cause it to strike the house with all the weight of its trunk and branches4 ,when ,i told ,siley ,rosencranz ,i wanted that tree cut down he sighted up the tree1 took a chew of tobacco1 and walked away4 ,for several days he went through the same performance1 until at last one day he brought out his trusty axe and made the chips fly4 ,soon the chestnut was lying prone on the ground pointing away from the house4 ,what this old backwoodsman did was to wait until a strong wind had sprung up1 blowing in the direction that he wanted the tree to fall1 and his skilful chopping with the aid of the wind placed the tree exactly where he wished it4 ,fig4 #aah shows how to make the cuts on a standing tree in order to remove the bark1 which is done in the same manner as that described for removing the birch bark 7,fig4 #ch74 ,,xix ,,how ,,to ,,split ,,logs1 ,,make ,,shakes1 ,,splits1 ,,or ,,clapboards4 ,,how ,,to ,,chop ,a ,,log ,,in ,,half4 ,,how ,,to ,,flatten ,a ,,log4 ,,also ,,some ,,don',,ts ,,logs are usually split by the use of wedges1 but it is possible to split them by the use of two axes4 ,fig4 #aai shows both methods4 ,to split with the axe1 strike it smartly into the wood at the small end so as to start a crack1 then sink the axe in the crack1 ,a4 ,next take the second axe and strike it in line with the first one at ,b4 ,if this is done properly it should open the crack wide enough to release the first axe without trouble1 which may then be struck in the log at ,c4 ,in this manner it is possible to split a straight-grained piece of timber without the use of wedges4 ,the first axe should be struck in at the smaller or top end of the log4 ,to split a log with wedges1 take your axe in your left hand and a club in your right hand and1 by hammering the head of your axe with the club1 drive the blade into the small end of the log far enough to make a crack deep enough to hold the thin edge of your wedges4 ,make this crack all the way across the end of the log1 as in ,fig4 #aai4 ,put two wedges in the end of the log1 as in the diagram1 and drive them until the wood begins to split and crack along the sides of the log2 then follow up this crack with other wedges1 as shown at ,d and ,e1 until the log is split in half4 ,while ordinary wood splits easily enough with the grain1 it is very difficult to drive an axe through the wood at right angles to the grain1 as shown by diagram to the left 7,fig4 #abj72 hence1 if the amateur be chopping wood1 if he will strike a slanting blow1 like the one to the right in ,fig4 #abj1 he will discover that the blade of his axe will enter the wood2 whereas1 in the first position1 where he strikes the grain at right angles1 it will only make a dent in the wood and bounce the axe back2 but in striking a diagonal blow he must use care not to slant his axe too far or the blade of the axe may only scoop out a shallow chip and swing around1 seriously injuring the axeman or some one else4 ,if it is desired to cut off the limb of a tree1 do not disfigure the tree by tearing the bark down2 trees are becoming too scarce for us to injure them unnecessarily2 if you cut part way through the limb on the under-side 7see the right-hand diagram1 ,fig4 #aba7 and then cut partly through from the top side1 the limb will fall off without tearing the bark down the trunk2 but if you cut only from the top 7see left-hand diagram1 ,fig4 #aba71 sooner or later the weight of the limb will tear it off and make an ugly wound down the front of the tree1 which in time decays1 makes a hollow1 and ultimately destroys the tree4 ,a neatly cut branch1 on the other hand1 when the stub has been sheared off close to the bark1 will heal up1 leaving only an eye-mark on the bark to tell where the limb once grew4 ,if it is desired to chop a log up into shorter pieces1 remember to stand on the log to do your chopping1 as in ,fig4 #abb4 ,this will do away with the necessity of rolling the log over when you want to chop on the other side4 ,do not forget to make the kerf1 or notch1 ,c1 ,d the same as ,a1 ,b2 in other words1 the distance across the notch should equal the diameter of the log4 ,if you start with too narrow a kerf1 or notch1 before you finish you will be compelled to widen it4 ,fig4 #aai4 ,fig4 #abj4 ,fig4 #aba4 ,fig4 #abb4 ,fig4 #abc4 ,fig4 #abd4 ,fig4 #abe4 ,fig4 #abf4 ,fig4 #abg4 ,fig4 #abh4 ,fig4 #abi4 ,fig4 #acj4 ,fig4 #aca4 ,fig4 #aca;,a4 ,fig4 #aca;,b4 ,illustration3 ,how to split a log1 chop a log1 flatten a log1 and trim a tree4 ,to flatten a log you must score and hew it4 ,scoring consists in making a number of notches1 ,c1 ,d1 ,e1 ,f1 ,g1 ,h1 ,j1 etc41 to the depth of the line ,a1 ,b 7,figs4 #abc and #abd72 hewing it is the act of chopping off or splitting off the pieces ,a1 ,c and ,c1 ,d and ,d1 ,e1 etc41 leaving the surface flat1 as shown by ,fig4 #abe1 which was known among the pioneers as a puncheon and with which they floored their cabins before the advent of the saw-mill and milled lumber4 ,perhaps it will be advisable for the amateur to take a chalk-line and snap it from ,a to ,b 7,fig4 #abc71 so that he may be certain to have the flat surface level4 ,the expert axeman will do this by what he calls sensiation4 ,it might be well to say here that if you select for puncheons wood with a straight grain and wood that will split easily you will simplify your task1 but even mean1 stubborn wood may be flattened by scoring and hewing4 ,quoting from ,horace ,kephart's excellent book on woodcraft1 an experienced man can tell a straight-grained log by merely scanning the bark2 if the ridges and furrows of the bark run straight up and down the wood will have a corresponding straight grain1 but if they are spiral the wood will split waney or not at all4 ,waney is a good word1 almost as good as sensiation2 so when you try to quarter a log with which to chink your cabin or log house don't select a waney log4 ,to quarter a log split it as shown in ,fig4 #aai and split it along the dotted lines shown in the end view of ,fig4 #abf4 ,in the ,maine woods the woodsmen are adepts in making shakes1 splits1 clapboards1 or shingles by the use of only an axe and splitting them out of the billets of wood from four to six feet long4 ,the core of the log 7,fig4 #acj7 is first cut out and then the pieces are split out1 having wedge-shaped edges1 as shown by the lines marked on ,fig4 #abg4 ,they also split out boards after the manner shown by ,fig4 #abh4 ,in making either the boards or the shakes1 if it is found that the wood splinters down into the body of the log too far or into the board or shake too far1 you must commence at the other end of the billet or log and split it up to meet the first split1 or take hold of the split or board with your hands and deftly tear it from the log1 an art which only experience can teach4 ,i have seen two-story houses composed of nothing but a framework with sides and roof shingled over with these splits4 ,in the ,west they call these shake cabins4 ,it may be wise before we close this axeman's talk to caution the reader against chopping firewood by resting one end of the stick to be cut on a log and the other end on the ground1 as shown in ,fig4 #aca1 and then striking this stick a sharp blow with the axe in the middle4 ,the effect of this often is to send the broken piece or fragment gyrating through the air1 as is shown by the dotted lines1 and many a woodchopper has lost an eye from a blow inflicted by one of these flying pieces2 indeed1 ,i have had some of my friends meet with this serious and painful accident from the same cause1 and ,i have seen men in the lumber fields who have been blinded in a similar manner4 ,there are two sorts of axes in general use among the lumbermen2 but the double-bitted axe 7#aca ,a7 appears to be the most popular among lumberjacks4 ,my readers1 however1 are not lumberjacks but campers1 and a double-bitted axe is a nuisance around camps4 ,it is always dangerous and even when one blade is sunk into the tree the other blade is sticking out1 a menace to everybody and everything that comes near it4 ,but the real old-fashioned reliable axe 7#aca ,b7 is the one that is exceedingly useful in a camp1 around a country place1 or a farm4 ,i even have one now in my studio closet here in the city of ,new ,york1 but ,i keep it more for sentiment's sake than for any real use it may be to me here4 ,,xx ,,axemen',s ,,camps ,the ,stefansson ,sod ,shack ,,now that we know how to wield the axe we can begin on more ambitious structures than those preceding4 ,we may now build camps in which we use logs instead of poles4 ,most of these camps are intended to be covered with sod or earth and are nearly related to the old prairie dugout4 ,the sod house is used in the arctic regions because it is warm inside1 and it is used in the arid regions because it is cool inside4 ,you will note that the principle on which the ,stefansson is constructed 7,fig4 #ace7 is practically the same as that of the ,pontiac 7,fig4 #cf72 the ,stefansson frame1 however1 is made of larger timbers than the ,pontiac because it not only must support a roof and side of logs and sod but must also be able to sustain any quantity of snow4 ,first erect two forked upright sticks 7,fig4 #acb71 and then steady them by two braces4 ,next lay four more logs or sticks for the side-plates with their butt ends on the ridge-pole and their small ends on the ground as in ,fig4 #acc4 ,support these logs by a number of small uprights--as many as may be necessary for the purpose4 ,the uprights may have forks at the top or have the top ends cut wedge-shaped to fit in notches made for that purpose in the side-plates as shown by ,fig4 #acc ,a4 ,the shortest uprights at the end of the roof should be forked so that the projecting fork will tend to keep the roof logs from sliding down4 ,the roof is made by a number of straight rafters placed one with the butt in front1 next with the butt in the rear alternately1 so that they will fit snugly together until the whole roof is covered4 ,the sides are made by setting a number of sticks in a trench and slanting them against the roof2 both sides1 front1 and rear of the building should project six inches above the roof in order to hold the sod and dirt and keep it from sliding off4 ,fig4 #acb4 ,fig4 #acc4 ,fig4 #acc;,a ,fig4 #acd4 ,fig4 #ace4 ,illustration3 ,details of the ,stefansson sod shack4 ,up in the north country one must not expect to find green1 closely cropped lawns or even green fields of wild sod in all places4 ,although in some parts the grass grows taller than a man's head1 in other places the sod is only called so by courtesy2 it really consists of scraggy grass thinly distributed on gravelly and sandy1 loose soil1 and consequently we must secure the sod by having the walls project a little above the rafters all around the building4 ,of course1 in summer weather this roof will leak1 but then one may live in a tent2 but when cold weather comes and the sod is frozen hard and banked up with snow the ,stefansson makes a good1 warm dwelling4 ,the same style of a camp can be made in the temperate zone of smaller trees and shingled with browse1 or in the ,south of cane or bamboo and shingled with palmetto leaves1 or in the ,southwest of cottonwood where it may be covered with adobe or mud4 ,fig4 #acd shows a ,stefansson shack roofed with sod4 ,the front is left uncovered to show its construction and also to show how the doorway is made by simply leaving an opening like that in a tent4 ,in winter this may have a hallway built like the one described in the ,navajo earth lodge 7,fig4 #ce7 or in the ,pawnee hogan 7,figs4 #db and #dc71 and in milder weather the doorway may be protected with a skin4 ,an opening is left in the roof over the fireplace1 which answers the purpose of a chimney4 ,the author aims to take hints from all the primitive dwellings which may be of service to outdoor people2 the last one described was arbitrarily named the ,stefansson because that explorer built himself such shelters in the far ,north1 but he did not invent them4 ,he borrowed the general plan from the natives of the northern country and adapted it to his use1 thereby placing the official stamp on this shack as a useful building for outdoor people and1 consequently1 as deserving a place in this book4 ,,xxi ,,railroad-,,tie ,,shacks1 ,,barrel ,,shacks1 ,,and ,,chimehuevis ,,no observing person has travelled far upon the ,american railroads without noticing1 alongside the tracks1 the queer little houses built of railroad ties by ,italian laborers4 ,these shacks are known by the name of dagoes 7,fig4 #acf7 and are made in different forms1 according to the ingenuity of the builder4 ,the simplest form is the tent-shaped shown in ,fig4 #acf1 with the ends of the ties rested together in the form of a tent and with no other support but their own weight 7see the diagram to the right1 ,fig4 #acf74 ,i would not advise boys to build this style1 because it might make a trap to fall in upon them with serious results1 but if they use a ridge-pole like the one shown in ,fig4 #aci and against it rest the ties they will do away with the danger of being caught in a deadfall trap4 ,of course1 it is understood that the ridge-pole itself must first be secure4 ,railroad ties being flat 7,fig4 #acg71 they may be built up into solid walls 7,fig4 #acg7 and make neat sides for a little house2 or they may be set up on edge 7,fig4 #ach7 and secured in place by stakes driven upon each side of them2 or they may be made into the form of an open ,adirondack camp 7,figs4 #aci and #adj7 by resting the ties on a ridge-pole supported by a pair of shears at each end2 the shears1 as you will observe1 consist of two sticks bound together near the top and then spread apart to receive the ridge-pole in the crotch4 ,fig4 #acf4 ,fig4 #acg4 ,fig4 #ach4 ,fig4 #aci4 ,fig4 #adj4 ,fig4 #ada4 ,fig4 #adb4 ,fig4 #adc4 ,illustration3 ,railroad-tie shacks1 barrel shack1 and a ,chimehuevis4 ,all of these structures are usually covered with dirt and sod1 and they make very comfortable little camps4 ,in the ,southwest a simple shelter1 the ,chimehuevis1 is made by enclosing a room in upright poles 7,fig4 #ada7 and then surrounding it with a circle of poles supporting a log or pole roof covered with sod1 making a good camp for hot weather4 ,fig4 #adb shows a barrel dugout4 ,it is made by digging a place for it in the bank and1 after the floor is levelled off1 setting rows of barrels around the foundation1 filling these barrels with sand1 gravel1 or dirt1 then placing another row on top of the first1 leaving spaces for a window and a door1 after which the walls are roofed with logs and covered with sod1 in the same manner as the ones previously described4 ,the dirt is next filled around the sides1 except at the window opening1 as shown by ,fig4 #adb4 ,a barrel also does duty as a chimney4 ,shacks like this are used by homesteaders1 miners1 trappers1 and hunters2 in fact1 these people use any sort of material they have at hand4 ,when a mining-camp is near by the freight wagons are constantly bringing in supplies1 and these supplies are done up in packages of some kind4 ,boards are frequently worth more a yard than silk1 or were in the olden days1 and so the home builders used other material4 ,they built themselves houses of discarded beer bottles1 of kerosene cans1 of packing-boxes1 of any and every thing4 ,usually these houses were dugouts1 as is the barrel one shown in ,fig4 #adb4 ,in the big-tree country they not infrequently made a house of a hollow stump of a large redwood1 and one stone-mason hollowed out a huge bowlder for his dwelling2 but such shacks belong among the freak shelters4 ,the barrel one1 however1 being the more practical and one that can be used almost anywhere where timber is scarce but where goods are transported in barrels1 deserves a place here among our shacks1 shelters1 and shanties4 ,,xxii ,,the ,,barabara ,,the houses along the coast of the ,bering ,sea are called barabaras1 but the ones that we are going to build now are in form almost identical with the ,pawnee hogan 7,figs4 #db and #dc71 the real difference being in the peculiar log work of the barabara in place of the teepee-like rafters of the said hogan4 ,to build a barabara you will need eight short posts for the outside wall and six or eight longer posts for the inside supports 7,fig4 #ade74 ,the outside posts should stand about three feet above the ground after they have been planted in the holes dug for the purpose4 ,the top of the posts should be cut wedge-shaped1 as shown by ,fig4 #add1 in order to fit in the notch ,b 7,fig4 #add74 ,the cross logs1 where they cross each other1 should be notched like those of a log cabin 7,figs4 #afb and #afe7 or flattened at the points of contact4 ,plant your first four posts for the front of your barabara in a line1 two posts for the corners ,b and ,e 7,fig4 #ade ,a71 and two at the middle of the line ,c and ,d for door-jambs 7plan1 ,fig4 #ade ,a74 ,the tops of these posts should be level with each other so that if a straight log is placed over them the log will lie level4 ,next plant the two side-posts ,f and ,g 7,fig4 #ade ,a7 at equal distances from the two front posts and make them a few feet farther apart than are the front posts4 ,the sketch of the framework is drawn in very steep perspective1 that is1 it is made as if the spectator was on a hill looking down upon it4 ,it is drawn in this manner so as to better show the construction1 but the location of the posts may be seen in the small plan4 ,next set the two back posts1 ,h and ,k1 and place them much closer together1 so that the bottom frame when the rails are on the post will be very near the shape of a boy's hexagonal kite4 ,fig4 #add4 ,fig4 #ade4 ,fig4 #ade;,a4 ,fig4 #adf4 ,fig4 #adg4 ,fig4 #adh4 ,illustration3 ,the details of a ,barabara4 ,inside erect another set of posts1 setting each one opposite the outside ones and about a foot and a half or two feet farther in1 or maybe less distance1 according to the material one is using4 ,next set some posts for the hallway or entrance1 which will be the door-jambs1 and you are ready to build up the log roof4 ,do this by first setting the rail securely on the two side-posts on the right and left of the building2 then secure the back plate on the two back posts at the rear of the building1 next resting a long log over the side rails at the front of the building4 ,the door-posts1 of course1 must be enough taller than the two end posts to allow for the thickness of the log1 so that the front log will rest upon their top4 ,next put your two corner logs on1 and your outside rail is complete4 ,build the inside rail in the same manner2 then continue to build up with the logs as shown in the diagram until you have a frame like that in ,fig4 #ade4 ,fig4 #adg shows the inside of the house and the low doorway1 and ,fig4 #adh shows the slanting walls4 ,this frame is supposed to be covered with splits or shakes 7,figs4 #adg and #adh71 but1 as in all pioneer structures1 if shakes1 splits1 and clapboards are unobtainable1 use the material at hand--birch bark1 spruce bark1 tar paper1 old tin roofing1 tent-cloth1 or sticks1 brush1 ferns1 weeds1 or round sticks1 to cover it as you did with the ,pawnee hogan 7,figs4 #db and #dc74 ,then cover it with browse1 or thatch it with hay or straw and hold the thatch in place with poles or sticks1 as shown in ,fig4 #adf4 ,the barabara may also be covered with earth1 sod1 or mud4 ,this sort of a house1 if built with planks or boards nailed securely to the rafters and covered with earth and sod1 will make a splendid cave house for boys and a playhouse for children on the lawn1 and it may be covered with green growing sod so as to have the appearance of an ornamental mound4 ,the instinct of the cave-dweller is deeply implanted in the hearts of boys1 and every year we have a list of fatal accidents caused by the little fellows digging caves in sand-banks or banks of gravel which frequently fall in and bury the little troglodytes1 but they will be safe in a barabara4 ,the shack is ventilated by a chimney hole in the roof as shown by ,fig4 #adf4 ,this hole should be protected in a playhouse4 ,the framework is a good one to use in all parts of the country for more or less permanent camps1 but the long entrance and low doorway are unnecessary except in a cold climate or to add to the mystery of the cave house for children4 ,it is a good form for a dugout for a root house or cyclone cellar4 ,,xxiii ,,the ,,navajo ,,hogan1 ,,hornaday ,,dugout1 ,,and ,,sod ,,house ,,if the reader has ever built little log-cabin traps he knows just how to build a ,navajo hogan or at least the particular ,navajo hogan shown by ,figs4 #adh and #aej4 ,this one is six-sided and may be improved by notching the logs 7,figs4 #afb1 #afd1 #afe7 and building them up one on top of the other1 dome-shaped1 to the required height4 ,after laying some rafters for the roof and leaving a hole for the chimney the frame is complete4 ,in hot countries no chimney hole is left in the roof1 because the people there do not build fires inside the house2 they go indoors to keep cool and not to get warm2 but the ,navajo hogan also makes a good cold-country house in places where people really need a fire4 ,make the doorway by leaving an opening 7,fig4 #aej7 and chinking the logs along the opening to hold them in place until the door-jamb is nailed or pegged to them1 and then build a shed entranceway 7,fig4 #aec71 which is necessary because the slanting sides of the house with an unroofed doorway have no protection against the free entrance of dust and rain or snow1 and every section of this country is subject to visits from one of these elements4 ,the house is covered with brush1 browse1 or sod4 ,log ,dugout ,fig4 #aeb shows how to make a log dugout by building the walls of the log cabin in a level place dug for it in the bank4 ,among the log cabins proper 7,figs4 #afb and #aff7 we tell how to notch the logs for this purpose4 ,fig4 #adi4 ,fig4 #aej4 ,fig4 #aea4 ,fig4 #aeb4 ,fig4 #aec4 ,fig4 #aed4 ,illustration3 ,forms of dugouts and mound shacks4 ,fig4 #aea shows one of these log dugouts which ,i have named the ,hornaday from the fact that ,doctor ,william ,hornaday happens to be sitting in front of the one represented in the sketch4 ,fig4 #aed shows a dugout with walls made of sod which is piled up like stones in a stone wall4 ,the roofs of all these are very flat and made of logs 7,figs4 #ed1 #ee1 and #ef71 often with a log pegged to the rafters above the eaves to hold the sod4 ,all such houses are good in dry countries1 cold countries1 and countries frequented by tornadoes or by winds severe enough to blow down ordinary camps4 ,the ,navajo hogan is an easy sort of a house for boys to build because the lads may use small poles in place of logs with which to build the camp and thus make the labor light enough to suit their undeveloped muscles1 but the next illustration shows how to build an ,american boy's hogan of milled lumber such as one can procure in thickly settled parts of the country4 ,,xxiv ,,how ,,to ,,build ,,an ,,american ,,boy',s ,,hogan ,,the first time any working plans of an underground house for boys were published was when an article by the present writer on the subject appeared in the ,ladies' ,home ,journal4 ,afterward it was published with a lot of similar material in ,the ,jack of ,all ,trades4 ,since then other writers have not hesitated to use the author's sketches with very little alteration2 imitation is the sincerest compliment1 although it is not always fair1 but it does1 however1 show the popularity of the underground-house idea4 ,the ,american boy's hogan may be built like the preceding shacks of the material found in the woods or it may be constructed of old boards and waste material to be found in village back yards or on the farm1 or1 if the boys have the price or if they can interest their fathers or uncles in their scheme1 it may be built of milled lumber procured at the lumber-yard4 ,frame ,procure some good1 sound planks and some pieces of two by four with which to build your frame4 ,the hogan should be large enough to allow room for a table made of a packing-case1 some benches1 stools1 or chairs1 and the ceilings should be high enough for the tallest boy to stand erect without bumping his head4 ,furniture ,one funny thing about this house is that it must be furnished before it is built1 because the doorway and passageway will be too small to admit any furniture larger than a stool4 ,select or make your furniture and have it ready1 then decide upon the location of your hogan1 which should be1 like the ,western dugouts1 on the edge of some bank 7,fig4 #aeh74 ,in this diagram the dotted line shows how the bank originally sloped4 ,foundation ,the real hard work connected with this is the digging of the foundation2 one ,y4 ,m4 ,c4 ,a4 man started to build one of these hogans1 but he weakened before he had the foundation dug4 ,he wrote the author a long letter complaining of the hard work2 at the same time the author was receiving letters from boys telling how much fun they had in building and finishing their underground houses4 ,caves ,ever since ,robinson ,crusoe and ,swiss ,family ,robinson were written cave houses have been particularly attractive to boys2 no doubt they were just as attractive before these books were written1 and that may be the reason the books themselves are so popular2 at any rate1 when the author was a small boy he was always searching for natural caves1 or trying to dig them for himself1 and so were all of his companions4 ,one of the most charming features of the ,tom ,sawyer and ,huckleberry ,finn stories is that part connected with the cave4 ,fig4 #aee4 ,fig4 #aef4 ,fig4 #aeg4 ,fig4 #aeg4;,a4 ,fig4 #aeg4;,b4 ,fig4 #aeg4;,c4 ,fig4 #aeh4 ,fig4 #aei4 ,fig4 #afj4 ,fig4 #afa4 ,illustration3 ,the original ,american boy's hogan or underground house4 ,dangerous ,caves ,the trouble is that with caves which the boys dig for themselves there is always serious danger of the roof falling in and smothering the young troglodytes1 but a properly built underground hogan is perfectly safe from such accidents4 ,framing ,after you have levelled off the foundation erect the rear posts of two-by-fours ,a1 ,b and ,c1 ,d 7,fig4 #aef74 ,these posts should be of the same height and tall enough to allow the roof to slant toward the front as in ,fig4 #aee4 ,the front posts ,e1 ,f and ,g1 ,h1 although shorter than the back posts1 should be tall enough to allow headroom4 ,one1 two1 or three more posts may be erected between the post ,a1 ,b and the post ,c1 ,d if additional strength is required4 ,the same is true of the sides1 and in place of having only one post in the middle of each side 7,m1 ,n and ,o1 ,p1 ,fig4 #aef71 there may be two or three posts1 all according to the size of the house you are building2 the main point is to make a compact and strong box of your framework so that in the wet weather the banks surrounding it will not be tempted to push in the sides and spoil your house4 ,decaying ,wood ,locust1 chestnut1 and cedar will last longer than other varieties of wood when exposed to contact with damp earth1 but common wood1 which rots easily1 may be protected by preservatives1 one of which is boiled linseed-oil with pulverized charcoal stirred into it until a black paint is produced4 ,some people say that a coat of charcoal paint will preserve even a basswood fence post for a lifetime1 and if that is true a hogan protected by a coating upon the outside of paint made by stirring fine charcoal into boiled linseed-oil until it is as thick as paint will last longer than any of my readers will have occasion to use the hogan for a playhouse4 ,erect the frame 7,fig4 #aef7 by having some boys hold the uprights in place until they can be secured with temporary braces like those shown running diagonally across from ,b to ,e and ,a to ,f4 ,you may then proceed to board up the sides from the outside of the frame by slipping the planks between the frame and the bank and then nailing from the inside wherever you lack room upon the outside to swing your hammer4 ,the door-jambs ,i1 ,j and ,k1 ,l will help support the roof4 ,the ,roof ,the roof may be made of lumber1 as shown by ,fig4 #afj1 or it may be made of poles like those shown on the ,wyoming ,olebo 7,fig4 #bcf71 or it may be made of planks and covered with tar paper 7,figs4 #bif1 #big1 #bih1 and #bii71 or it may be shingled1 using barrel staves for shingles1 or covered with bits of old tin roofing tacked over the planking--or anything1 in fact1 which will keep out the water4 ,as for looks1 that will not count because the roof is to be afterward covered with sod4 ,cliff-,house ,roof ,if you wish to make the roof as the cliff-dwellers made theirs1 put your biggest logs crosswise from ,a1 ,m1 ,e to ,c1 ,o1 ,g of your house for rafters1 and across the larger logs lay a lot of small poles as close together as may be1 running from the back to the front of the house4 ,fill in the cracks between with moss or calk them with dry grass2 on them place a layer of brush1 browse1 or small sticks and over this a thick coating of clay1 hard-pan1 or ordinary mud and pack it down hard by tramping it with your feet until it becomes a smooth and tightly packed crust2 over this you can put your sod and weeds to conceal your secret4 ,passageway ,to make the frame for the underground hall or passageway 7,fig4 #aef71 first nail ,q1 ,s across the door-jambs to form the top to the doorway1 after which put in the supports ,q1 ,r and ,s1 ,t4 ,next build the frame ,u1 ,v1 ,x1 ,w and join it to ,q1 ,s by the two pieces ,q1 ,u and ,s1 ,v and put in the middle frame support marked ,,zzzz4 ,the passageway should be about six feet long and the front doorway 7,u1 ,v1 ,x1 ,w1 ,figs4 #aef and #aeg7 of sufficient size to enable you to creep through with comfort4 ,the bottom piece ,w1 ,x can be nailed to a couple of sticks driven in the ground for that purpose4 ,the next thing in order is the floor1 and to make this firm you must lay a number of two-by-fours parallel to ,b1 ,d and ,f1 ,h and see that they are level4 ,you will need a number of shorter pieces of the same material to run parallel to ,f1 ,h and ,w1 ,x for the hall floor1 as may be seen in ,fig4 #aeg4 ,across these nail your floor securely as shown in ,fig4 #aee4 ,there are no windows shown in the diagram1 but if the builders wish one it can be placed immediately over the entrance or hallway in the frame marked ,i1 ,k1 ,q1 ,s 7,fig4 #aef71 in which case the top covering of dirt must be shovelled away from it to admit the light in the same manner that it is in the dugout shown in ,fig4 #adb and also in the small sketch 7,fig4 #aed74 ,the ventilator shown in ,fig4 #aee may be replaced1 if thought desirable1 by a chimney for an open fire4 ,on account of the need of ventilation a stove would not be the proper thing for an underground house1 but an open fire would help the ventilation4 ,in the diagram the ventilator is set over a square hole in the roof2 it may be made of a barrel or barrels1 with the heads knocked out1 placed over the hole in the roof1 or kegs1 according to the size of the roof4 ,when your house is complete fill in the dirt around the edges1 pack it down good and hard by the use of a piece of scantling two by four or four by four as a rammer1 then cover the roof with small sticks and fine brush and sod it with growing weeds or grass4 ,the ,door ,you should have a good1 stout front door 7,fig4 #aeg7 and a padlock with which to secure it from trespassers4 ,aures ,hinge ,a rustic hinge may be made by splitting a forked branch 7,fig4 #aeg ,c7 and using the two pieces nailed to the sides of the door-jambs 7,fig4 #aeg ,a7 to hold the round ends of the rod 7,fig4 #aeg ,b7 run through them4 ,the middle of the ,b stick is flattened to fit on the surface of the door to which it is nailed4 ,this hinge was invented by ,scout ,victor ,aures of stockade #daadd of ,boy ,pioneers of ,america and a description with neat diagrams sent by the inventor to his chief4 ,when all is completed you can conceal the ventilator with dry brush or by planting weeds or shrubs around it1 which will not interfere with the ventilation but will conceal the suspicious-looking pipe protruding from the ground4 ,the top of the ventilator should be protected by slats1 as in ,fig4 #afa1 or by wire netting with about one-quarter-inch mesh in order to keep small animals from jumping or hopping down into your club-house4 ,of course1 a few toads and frogs1 field-mice and chipmunks1 or even some lizards and harmless snakes would not frighten any real boy1 but at the same time they do not want any such creatures living in the same house with them4 ,trap-,door ,in place of a ventilator or chimney a trap-door may be placed in the roof and used as a secret entrance1 access to inside being had by a ladder4 ,a description of an appropriate ladder follows 7,figs4 #afi and #agj74 ,fig4 #aei shows a rude way to make a chandelier1 and as long as your candles burn brightly you may know that the air in your little hogan is pure and fresh4 ,when such a chandelier is used pieces of tin should be nailed above the candles to prevent the heat from burning holes through the roof4 ,,xxv ,,how ,,to ,,cut ,,and ,,notch ,,logs ,,boys you have now passed through the grammar school of shack making1 you are older than you were when you began1 you have acquired more skill and more muscle1 and it is time to begin to handle the woodsman's axe1 to handle it skilfully and to use it as a tool with which to fashion anything from a table to a two-story house4 ,none of you is too young to learn to use the axe4 ,general ,grant1 ,george ,washington1 ,abraham ,lincoln1 ,billy ,sunday--all of them could wield an axe by the time they were eight or nine years old and do it without chopping off their toes or splitting any one else's head open4 ,remember that every time you hurt yourself with an axe ,i have a yellow ribbon for you to wear as a chump mark2 but1 joking aside1 we must now get down to serious work of preparing the logs in order to build us a little cabin of our own1 a log club-house for our gang1 or a log camp for our troop of scouts4 ,notching ,logs ,to make the logs hold together at the corners of our cabins it is necessary to lock them in some manner1 and the usual way is to notch them4 ,you may cut flat notches like those shown in ,fig4 #afb and this will hold the logs together1 as shown by #afb ,e or you may only flatten the ends1 making the ,general ,putnam joint shown in ,fig4 #afc4 ,this is called after ,general ,putnam because the log cabins at his old camp near my farm at ,redding1 ,conn41 are made in this manner4 ,or you may use the ,pike notch which has a wedge-shaped cut on the lower log1 as shown by ,fig4 #afd ,j1 made to fit into a triangular notch shown by #afd ,h4 ,when fitted together these logs look like the sketch marked #afd ,f which was drawn from a cabin built in this manner4 ,but the simplest notch is the rounded one shown by ,a1 ,b1 and ,c 7,fig4 #afe74 ,when these are locked together they will fit like those shown at ,fig4 #afe ,d4 ,away up ,north the people dovetail the ends of the logs 7,fig4 #aff7 so that their ends fit snugly together and are also securely locked by their dovetail shape4 ,to build a log house1 place the two sill logs on the ground or on the foundation made for them1 then two other logs across them1 as shown in ,fig4 #afh4 ,handling the ,logs ,that the logs may be more easily handled they should be piled up on a skidway which is made by resting the top ends of a number of poles upon a big log or some other sort of elevation and their lower ends upon the ground4 ,with this arrangement the logs may be rolled off without much trouble as they are used4 ,chinking ,a log cabin built with hardwood logs or with pitch-pine logs can seldom be made as tight as one built with the straight spruce logs of the virgin forests4 ,the latter will lie as close as the ones shown in ,fig4 #afb ,e1 while the former1 on account of their unevenness1 will have large cracks between them like those shown in ,fig4 #afe ,d4 ,these cracks may be stopped up by quartering small pieces of timber 7,y and ,w1 ,fig4 #afh7 and fitting these quartered pieces into the cracks between the logs where they are held by spikes4 ,this is called chinking the cabin4 ,fig4 #afb4 ,fig4 #afb;,e ,fig4 #afc4 ,fig4 #afd4 ,fig4 #afd;,f4 ,fig4 #afe4 ,fig4 #afe;,c4 ,fig4 #afe;,d4 ,fig4 #aff4 ,fig4 #afg4 ,fig4 #afh4 ,fig4 #afh4 ,illustration3 ,showing how the logs are notched4 ,to keep the cold and wind out1 the cracks may be mudded up on the inside with clay or ordinary lime mortar4 ,models ,study these diagrams carefully1 then sit down on the ground with a pile of little sticks alongside of you and a sharp jack-knife in your hand and proceed to experiment by building miniature log cabins4 ,really1 this is the best way to plan a large cabin if you intend to erect one4 ,from your model you can see at a glance just how to divide your cabin up into rooms1 where you want to place the fireplace1 windows1 and doors2 and ,i would advise you always to make a small model before building4 ,make the model about one foot three inches long by ten inches wide1 using sticks for logs a little less than one inch in diameter--that is1 one inch through or one inch thick4 ,i have taken these dimensions or measurements from a little model that ,i have before me here in my studio1 but1 of course1 you can vary them according to the plans of your cabin4 ,,xxvi ,,notched ,,log ,,ladders ,,ever since man learned to use edged tools he has made ladders or steps1 or whatever you may call them1 by notching logs 7,figs4 #afi and #agj74 ,fig4 #afi4 ,fig4 #agj4 ,illustration3 ,the pioneer log ladder4 ,a few years ago ,i took a splendid trip among the unnamed lakes and in what is known as the unexplored country--that is1 the unmapped country of northwestern ,quebec4 ,we travelled over trails that had not been changed by man since canoes were invented4 ,the forests were untouched by the axe of the white man4 ,there were no roads1 no houses1 no fences1 no people except a few wandering ,indians1 no cattle except caribou and moose1 no dogs except wolves1 and we slept at night on beds of balsam and paddled by day through rivers and lakes or carried our luggage and our canoes over the portages from one body of water to another over centuries-old trails4 ,at one place the trail led up the side of a mountain to the beetling face of a cliff--a cliff that we had to climb with all our canoes and luggage1 and we climbed it on a couple of notched logs1 as shown in ,fig4 #afi4 ,by the way1 boys1 the ,indian with the big load on his back is my old friend ,bow-,arrow1 formerly chief of the ,montainais1 and the load on his back was sketched from the real one he carried up that ladder portage4 ,this old man was then sixty years of age4 ,but all this talk is for the purpose of telling you the use of the notched log4 ,our pioneer ancestors used them to ascend to the loft over their cabins where they slept 7,fig4 #agj74 ,it is also a good ladder to use for tree-houses and a first-rate one for our underground hogans when we have an entrance through the top instead of one at the side shown by ,fig4 #aef4 ,since you have learned how to use the axe you may make one of these primitive ladders to reach the hay-loft in your barn1 if you have a barn4 ,you may make the ladder of one log if you set the pole or log upright and notch it on both sides so that you can clasp it with your hand and1 placing one foot on each side of it1 climb up in that manner4 ,,xxvii ,a ,,pole ,,house4 ,,how ,,to ,,use ,a ,,cross-,,cut ,,saw ,,and ,a ,,froe ,pole ,house ,,fig4 #aga shows a pole house--that is1 a house1 the walls of which are made by setting straight poles up on end with sides against each other and nailing a beam across the top 7,fig4 #agb7 and toe-nailing them 7,fig4 #agc72 that is1 driving the nails slantingly down through the poles to the sill beneath4 ,fig4 #agb shows how to nail them to the top beam or side-plate4 ,to build a pole house1 erect the four corner-posts and any intermediate posts which may be necessary1 nailing the plates on top of the posts to hold the frame together 7,fig4 #agb71 afterward fitting the other posts in place1 as shown in the sketch4 ,we have not yet arrived at the part of the book where we can build as extensive houses as the one shown here4 ,the drawing is only inserted at this place because it naturally comes with the use of the cross-cut saw4 ,you can1 however1 without much trouble1 build a small pole house without the veranda1 and after you have learned how to build the big log houses you can turn back to this page and try a pole house like ,fig4 #aga4 ,fig4 #aga4 ,fig4 #agb4 ,fig4 #agc4 ,fig4 #agd4 ,fig4 #age4 ,fig4 #agf4 ,fig4 #agg4 ,fig4 #agh4 ,fig4 #agi4 ,illustration3 ,the use of the saw in log work4 ,sawing on an ,angle ,fig4 #agd shows how to saw off poles on the bias1 as a woman would say1 or on an angle1 as a man would say4 ,suppose1 for instance1 you want to cut the poles to fit the dormer over the veranda shown in ,fig4 #aga4 ,measure off the height of the middle pole1 then the distance along the base from the middle pole to the corner at the eaves4 ,next fit the poles you are going to use closely together to cover that distance2 hold them in place by nailing a plank temporarily across the bottom ends2 then place another plank at the point marked for the height of the middle pole1 run it down to the bottom plank1 and nail it temporarily along this line4 ,now take hold of one end of the saw1 as the fellow does in ,fig4 #agd1 and let another boy take the other end of the saw2 then by working it back and forth along the line you may saw off the protruding ends of the poles4 ,proceed in the same manner along the base-board4 ,you will then have half the dormer poles all nicely tacked together and cut in the right shape so that they may be evenly fitted in place1 and after they are secured there the marking planks may be knocked off4 ,fig4 #age shows two boys at work pit-sawing4 ,they are sawing planks from a log1 which is rather hard work but not unpleasant4 ,i know1 for ,i have tried it when ,i was up among the moonshiners in the mountains of ,kentucky4 ,fig4 #agf is from a sketch ,i made up in ,michigan1 where two men were sawing down a tree as they frequently do nowadays in place of chopping it down with an axe2 this tree1 however1 was first notched with an axe so that it would fall in the right direction4 ,fig4 #agh shows the peculiar teeth of one of these two-handled saws4 ,it is not necessary for you to be expert on the sort of teeth a saw should have2 any saw that cuts well for your purpose is the sort of saw you need4 ,the ,froe ,fig4 #agi shows two forms of the froe1 an implement used for splitting shakes and shingles and clapboards like those on the roof of ,fig4 #aga4 ,the froe is held by the handle with the left hand and hammered on the top with a mallet held in the right hand4 ,fig4 #agg shows two boys sawing a log up into sections1 but for our work in cabin building the woodsman's axe is the real tool we need4 ,the saw is all right and may be used if you have it1 but it is a little too civilized for real woodcraft work4 ,you cannot throw one of these saws over your shoulder as you would an axe and go marching into the woods with any comfort4 ,the saw is also a more dangerous implement around camp than even a sharp axe4 ,,xxviii ,,log-,,rolling ,,and ,,other ,,building ,,stunts ,,of course my readers know all about geometry1 but if by the rarest of chances one of them should not it will not prevent him from using that science to square the corners of his log cabin4 ,builders always have a ten-foot measuring rod--that is1 a rod or straight stick ten feet long and marked with a line at each foot from end to end4 ,make your own ten-foot pole of as straight a piece of wood as you can find4 ,with it measure six feet carefully on the log ,c1 ,g 7,fig4 #ahj7 and mark the point at ,o 7,fig4 #ahj72 measure eight feet on the other log ,c1 ,a 7,fig4 #ahj7 and mark the point at ,n4 ,if these measurements have been carefully made from ,c to ,o and from ,c to ,n and your corner is square1 then your ten-foot pole will reach between the two points ,o and ,n with the tips of the pole exactly touching ,o and ,n4 ,if it does not exactly fit between ,n and ,o1 either the corner is not square or you have not marked off the distances accurately on the logs4 ,test the measurements and if they are not found true then push your logs one way or the other until it is exactly ten feet from ,o to ,n4 ,then test the corner at ,h in the same manner4 ,fig4 #ahj4 ,fig4 #aha4 ,fig4 #ahb4 ,fig4 #ahc4 ,illustration3 ,how to square the corners1 roll the logs of cabin1 and make log steps4 ,log-,rolling ,in the olden times log-rolling was always a great frolic and brought the people from far and near to lend a helping hand in building the new house4 ,in handling logs1 lumbermen have tools made for that purpose--cant-hooks1 peevy irons1 lannigans1 and numerous other implements with names as peculiar as their looks--but the old backwoodsmen and pioneers who lived in log houses owned no tools but their tomahawks1 their axes1 and their rifles1 and the logs of most of their houses were rolled in place by the men themselves pushing them up the skids laid against the cabin wall for that purpose2 later1 when the peddlers and traders brought ropes to the settlements1 they used these to pull their logs in place4 ,in building my log house in ,pennsylvania we used two methods2 one was hand power 7,fig4 #aha74 ,taking two ropes we fastened the ends securely inside the cabin4 ,we then passed the free ends of the ropes around the log1 first under it and then over the top of it1 then up to a group of men who1 by pulling on the free ends1 rolled the log 7,fig4 #aha7 up to the top of the cabin4 ,but when ,lafe ,jeems and ,nate ,tanner and ,jimmy ,rosencranz were supplied with some oxen they fastened a chain to each end of the log 7,fig4 #ahb71 then fastened a pulley-block to the other side of the cabin1 that is1 the side opposite the skids1 and ran the line through the pulley-block to the oxen as it is run to the three men in ,fig4 #ahb4 ,when the oxen were started the log slid up the skids to the loose rafters ,n1 ,o1 ,p and when once up there it was easily shoved and fitted into place4 ,log ,steps ,sometimes one wants front steps to one's log house and these may be made of flattened logs or puncheons1 as shown by ,fig4 #ahc4 ,,xxix ,,the ,,adirondack ,,open ,,log ,,camp ,,and ,a ,,one-,,room ,,cabin ,adirondack ,log ,camp ,,not satisfied with the open brush ,adirondack camp1 the men in those woods often build such camps of logs with a puncheon floor and a roof of real shingles4 ,the sketch 7,fig4 #ahd7 is made from such a camp4 ,at the rear the logs are notched and placed like those of a log house 7,figs4 #afb1 #afc1 #afd1 #aff71 but the front ends of the side logs are toe-nailed 7,fig4 #agc7 to the two upright supports4 ,in this particular camp the logs are also flattened on the inside in order to give a smoother finish1 as they often are in old ,virginia and ,kentucky log houses4 ,in ,virginia they formerly hewed the logs flat with broad axes after the walls were up1 but that required a workman of a different type than the ordinary woodsman4 ,the broadaxe is seldom used now and may be omitted from our kit4 ,cabin ,plan ,a one-room log cabin with double bunks at one end makes a good camp 7,fig4 #ahe7 with room for two or four sleepers according to the width of the bunk 7,fig4 #ahf74 ,fig4 #ahd4 ,fig4 #ahe4 ,fig4 #ahf4 ,illustration3 ,the lean-to and one-pen cabin plan4 ,the ,bunks ,the bunks are made by setting the ends of two poles into holes in the logs bored for that purpose 7,fig4 #ahe7 and nailing slats across the poles4 ,over this a bed of browse is laid and on this blankets are spread and all is then ready for bedtime4 ,,xxx ,,the ,,northland ,,tilt ,,and ,,indian ,,log ,,tent ,log ,tents ,,some years ago in the north country the ,indians built themselves log tents like the one shown in ,fig4 #ahg4 ,these were the winter houses in the north country4 ,a ridge-pole was set up on two forked sticks and the logs slanted up against each other and rested upon that pole4 ,smaller poles were then laid up against this frame1 both front and rear1 all of which could then be covered with sod or browse and made into a warm winter house4 ,my boy readers may build a similar house by using small poles instead of big logs1 or they may make a northland tilt 7,fig4 #ahi71 which is a modification of the ,indian's log tent and has two side-plates 7,fig4 #ahh7 instead of one ridge-pole4 ,the log chimney is also added1 and when this is connected with a generous fireplace the fire will brighten and warm the interior of the tilt and make things comfortable4 ,the chimney may be made by first building a fireplace of sod or stone1 as shown in ,figs4 #bfi and #bgj1 on top of which a chimney can be erected in the same manner that you build a log house4 ,fig4 #ahg4 ,fig4 #ahh4 ,fig4 #ahi4 ,illustration3 ,log tilts of the ,north4 ,the front of the northland tilt is faced in with small logs set on end1 as shown in the unfinished one 7,fig4 #ahi72 this makes a substantial1 warm winter camp4 ,if the logs fit close together on the roof they may be calked with moss and dry grass4 ,if the cracks are too wide on account of the unevenness of the log1 cover them first with grass1 fine brush1 or browse and over all place a coating of sod or mud and you will have a house fit for a king to live in4 ,to tell the truth1 it is much too good for a mere king and almost good enough for a real ,american boy--that is1 if anything is good enough for such a lad4 ,,chapter ,,xxxi ,,how ,,to ,,build ,,the ,,red ,,jacket1 ,,the ,,new ,,brunswick1 ,,and ,,the ,,christopher ,,gist ,,the ,red ,jacket is another camp2 but this1 you see1 has straight walls1 marking it as a white man's camp in form not apparently borrowed from the red men4 ,it is1 however1 a good1 comfortable1 rough camp and ,figs4 #aij and #aia show how it was evolved or grew4 ,to build the ,red ,jacket one will first have to know how to build the more simple forms which we call the ,new ,brunswick1 then the next step will be the ,christopher ,gist1 and last the ,red ,jacket4 ,we will now begin with the ,new ,brunswick4 ,the ,new ,brunswick ,by referring to ,fig4 #aij you will see that it is practically a deep1 ,adirondack1 open-face camp with a wind-shield built in front of it4 ,to build this camp1 make the plan about six feet by twelve on the ground2 of course the back logs must be something over six feet long to allow for six feet in the clear4 ,notch about four or five back logs with the plain1 rounded notch already described and illustrated by ,fig4 #afe4 ,then lay the side sill logs and erect two upright forked sticks for the front of your cabin to hold the cross stick which supports the roof rafter4 ,now build up your cabin as you would a log house1 notching only the small ends of the side logs and saving the larger ends for the front2 between each of these chink with other logs shaped to fit the spaces or with pieces of other logs so as to make the front higher than the rear4 ,when the logs meet the rafter pole all the cracks are chinked up with small pieces of wood and the crevices calked with moss4 ,then the roof of bark is put on1 shingled as described for the ,pontiac1 and illustrated by ,figs4 #cf and #aij ,a4 ,the bark is kept in place by laying sticks or poles over it to weight it down1 as may be seen by the plan of the roof 7,fig4 #aij ,a71 which is supposed to be the way the unfinished roof would look to you if you were looking down upon it from the branch of a tree or an aeroplane4 ,after you have your open-faced camp finished take some green logs from the fir-trees if they are handy and split them in half by one of the methods shown by ,fig4 #aai4 ,then leaving enough room for a passageway1 erect your wind-shield of green logs1 resting them against a pole laid between two forked sticks4 ,be sure you have the green1 split side of the log facing the camp and the bark side facing outdoors1 because the green wood will not burn readily2 and as the camp-fire is built close to the wind-shield1 if the shield is made of very inflammable material it will soon burn down4 ,some woods1 you know1 burn well when green and some woods must be made dry before we can use them for fuel2 but the wood we want for the fire-shield is the sort that will not burn readily2 the good-burning woods we save to use in our fire4 ,christopher ,gist ,the next camp is the ,christopher ,gist1 named after ,george ,washington's camping friend4 ,this camp1 as you may see by ,fig4 #aia1 is built like a ,new ,brunswick except that the side sill logs are much longer as is also the log which extends over the doorway4 ,then1 in place of having a wind-shield built by itself1 the wind-shield in ,fig4 #aia is the other end of the cabin built just the same as the rear end1 but it should be built of peeled logs as they are less liable to catch afire than the ones with the bark upon them4 ,if you feel real lazy it will only be necessary to peel the bark off from the inside half of the log4 ,above the door at the end of the roof of the ,adirondack camp part of the space is filled by logs running across1 with the lower one resting upon the top of the door-jamb2 this closes the shed above the wind-shield and leaves a little open yard in front wherein to build your camp-fire4 ,fig4 #aij4 ,fig4 #aij;,a4 ,fig4 #aia4 ,fig4 #aib4 ,illustration3 ,the stages in the evolution of a log cabin4 ,the ,red ,jacket ,the ,red ,jacket continues the suggestion offered by the ,christopher ,gist and extends the side walls all the way across to the wind-shield1 and the latter now becomes the true end of the log shack4 ,the side walls and end wall are built up from the top of the shack to form a big1 wide log chimney under which the open camp-fire is built on the ground4 ,the ,red ,jacket is roofed with bark in the same manner as the ,new ,brunswick and ,christopher ,gist and occupies the important position of the missing link between the true log cabin or log house and the rude log camp of the hunter4 ,if you will look at ,fig4 #ahd1 the open-faced log camp2 then ,fig4 #aij1 the camp with the wind-shield in front of it2 then ,fig4 #aia with the wind-shield enclosed but still open at the top2 then #aib where the wind-shield has turned into a fireplace with a chimney2 then ,figs4 #bga and #bgc1 showing the ends of the real log cabin1 you will have all the steps in the growth or evolution which has produced the ,american log house4 ,,xxxii ,,cabin ,,doors ,,and ,,door-,,latches1 ,,thumb-,,latches ,,and ,,foot ,,latches ,,and ,,how ,,to ,,make ,,them ,,perhaps my reader has noticed that1 although many of the descriptions of how to build the shacks1 shanties1 shelters1 camps1 sheds1 tilts1 and so forth are given with somewhat minute details1 little or nothing has been said regarding the doors and door-latches4 ,of course we have no doors on the open ,adirondack camp1 but we have passed the open camps now and are well into cabin work1 and all cabins have some sort of a door4 ,all doors have1 or should have1 some sort of a door-latch1 so the doors and door-latches have been saved for this place in the book1 where they are sandwiched between the log cabin and the log houses proper1 which is probably the best place for them4 ,the gummers who collect spruce gum in the north woods and the trappers and all of the hermit class of woodsmen frequently come home to their little shack with their hands full of traps or with game on their shoulders1 and consequently they want to have a door which may be opened without the necessity of dropping their load1 and so they use a foot latch4 ,foot ,latch ,one of the simplest of the foot latches consists of a piece of wood cut out by the aid of axe and hunting-knife to the form shown by ,fig4 #aii2 a hole in the door cut for that purpose admits the flattened and notched end and upon the inside it fits the round log sill4 ,the owner of the shack1 when reaching home1 steps upon the foot latch 7,fig4 #aii71 which lifts up the catch 7on the inside7 and allows the door to swing open4 ,trigger ,latch ,fig4 #bjj shows a more complicated form of latch with a trigger protruding from the lower part of the door1 which is hinged to a wooden shaft1 and the shaft in turn is connected with the latch4 ,the fastenings of the trigger to the shaft and the shaft to the latch are made with hardwood pegs or wire nails which move freely in their sockets4 ,the latch is the simplest form of a wooden bar fastened at one end with a screw or nail on which it can move up and down freely2 the other end is allowed to drop into the catch4 ,the latch itself is similar to the one shown in ,figs4 #aic and #aid4 ,the trigger is also fastened to a block on the outside of the door by a nail or peg upon which it moves freely1 so that when the weight of the foot is placed upon the trigger outside the door that end is forced down which pushed the end attached to the shaft up2 this pushes the shaft up and the shaft pushes the latch up2 thus the door is unfastened4 ,the diagram to the left in ,fig4 #bjj shows the edge of the door with the trigger on the outside1 the shaft upon the inside4 ,the diagram to the right in ,fig4 #bjj shows the inside of the door1 the end of the trigger1 the shaft1 the latch1 and the catch4 ,the ,latch-,string ,in the preceding locks and fastenings1 no matter how generous and hospitable the owner may be1 his latch-string never hangs on the outside1 but in this one the latch-string literally hangs outside and any one may enter by pulling it 7,figs4 #aic and #aid74 ,but when the owner is in and does not want to be interrupted he pulls the string in1 which tells the outsider that he must knock before he can be admitted4 ,this simplest form of latch has been here put upon the simplest form of a door1 a door with a wooden hinge made by nailing a round rod to the edge of the door and allowing the ends of the rod to project above and below the door4 ,in the sill log below the door a hole about two inches deep is bored to receive the short end of the hinge rod2 above a deeper hole is bored to receive the long end of the hinge rod4 ,to hang the door run the long end up in the top hole far enough to lift the door sufficiently to be able to drop the lower end of the hinge rod in the lower hole4 ,your door is then hung and may swing back and forth at your pleasure4 ,notwithstanding the fact that such a door admits plenty of cold air1 it is a very popular door for camps and is even used for log houses4 ,fig4 #aic4 ,fig4 #aid4 ,fig4 #aie4 ,fig4 #aif4 ,fig4 #aig4 ,fig4 #aih4 ,fig4 #aii4 ,fig4 #bjj4 ,illustration3 ,foot and thumb door-latches4 ,simple ,spring-,latch ,a simple form of spring-latch is shown by ,fig4 #aif1 as you may see1 ,a is a peg driven into the door-jamb4 ,it has a notch in it's outer end so that ,b1 a piece of hickory1 may be sprung into the notch2 ,b is fastened to the door by a couple of screws4 ,by pushing the door the latch will slide out of the rounded notch and the door opens4 ,when you pull the door to close it the end of the spring strikes the rounded end of the ,a peg and1 sliding over it1 drops naturally into the slot and holds the door closed4 ,this form of latch is also a good one for gates4 ,better ,spring-,latch ,figs4 #aig and #aih show more complicated spring-latches but this latch is not so difficult to make as it may appear in the diagram4 ,a and ,d 7#aig7 show1 respectively1 the wooden catch and the guard confining the latch4 ,c is another guard made1 as you may observe1 from a twig with a branch upon it2 the twig is split in half and fastened at the base with two screws1 and at the upper end1 where the branch is bent down1 is fastened with one screw4 ,a guard like the one shown by ,d 7,fig4 #aig7 would answer the purpose1 but ,i am taking the latch as it was made4 ,the lower diagram 7,fig4 #aih7 shows a side view of the edge of the door with two cotton spools fastened at each end of the stick which runs through a slot in the door4 ,e is the cotton spool on the outside of the door and ,f the cotton spool on the inside of the door4 ,the upper left-hand diagram 7,fig4 #aih7 shows the slot in the door and the spool as it appears from the outside4 ,b 7,fig4 #aig7 is the spring-latch which is held in place by the spool ,f4 ,the stick or peg which runs through the spools and the slot also runs through a hole made for that purpose in the spring-latch1 as shown at ,f 7,fig4 #aig74 ,after the stick with the ,e spool on it has been run through the slot from the outside of the door1 thence through the spring-latch ,b and into the spool ,f1 it is fastened there by driving around its end some thin wedges of wood or by allowing it to protrude and running a small peg through the protruding end1 as shown by ,f1 ,g 7,fig4 #aig1 lower diagram74 ,the thin1 springy end of your latch is now forced down by a peg or nail in the door at ,h 7,fig4 #aig7 and the tail end of it forced up by a peg or nail at ,k4 ,when this is done properly it will give considerable spring to the latch and impart a decided tendency to force the latch into the wooden catch1 a tendency which can only be overcome by lifting the spool up in the slot and thus lifting the latch and allowing the door to open4 ,fig4 #aig shows the inside of the door with the spring-latch1 catches and all complete2 it also gives details of the wooden catch ,a with guards ,d and ,c and the fastening of the stick in the spool by a peg driven through the end of the stick at ,f1 ,g4 ,this last one is a good jack-knife latch to make for your camp or cabin4 ,,xxxiii ,,secret ,,locks ,,secret locks are more useful than strong ones for a country house which is left alone during the winter months1 for it is not so much cupidity which causes such houses to be broken into as it is the curiosity of the native boys4 ,but while these lads often do not hesitate to force or pick a lock they will seldom go as far as to smash a door to effect an entrance2 hence1 if your lock is concealed your house is safe from all but professional thieves1 and such gentry seldom waste their time to break open a shack which contains nothing of value to them4 ,the latches shown by ,figs4 #aic1 #bjj1 and #bja may be made very heavy and strong1 and if the trigger in ,fig4 #bjj1 the latch-string hole in ,fig4 #aic1 and the peg hole in ,fig4 #bja are adroitly concealed they make the safest and most secure locks for summer camps1 shacks1 and houses4 ,if a large bar 7,fig4 #bja ,b7 be made of one-by-four-inch plank1 bolted in the middle of the plank with an iron bolt through the centre of the door and fastened on the inside by a nut screwed on to the bolt it will allow the bar to revolve freely on the inside of the door and bar the door when resting in the ,a and ,c catches4 ,but if a string is attached to one end it may be unfastened by pulling the string up through the gimlet hole in the door4 ,to conceal this lock1 draw the string through the gimlet hole and fasten a nail on the string4 ,when it is undrawn the door bar is horizontal and the door consequently barred4 ,then push the nail in the gimlet hole so that only the head appears on the outside and no one not in the secret will ever suppose that the innocent-appearing nail is the key to unfasten the door4 ,when you wish to open the door from the outside1 pluck out the nail1 pull the string1 and walk in4 ,there are a thousand other simple contrivances which will suggest themselves to the camper1 and he can find entertainment for rainy days in planning and enlarging on the ideas here given4 ,in the real wilderness1 however1 every camp is open to all comers--that is1 the latch-string hangs outside the door1 but the real woodsmen respect the hospitality of the absent owner and replace whatever food they may use with fresh material from their own packs1 wash all dishes they may use1 and sweep up and leave the shack in apple-pie order after their uninvited visit1 for this is the law of the wilderness which even horse thieves and bandits respect4 ,the ,tippecanoe ,the ,tippecanoe latch is worked with a wooden spring and when properly made1 of well-seasoned wood1 will probably outlast a metal one1 for wood will not rust and cannot rot unless subjected to moisture4 ,the position of the spring in ,fig4 #bja shows the latch with the bolt sprung back4 ,the fact that the bolt-hole in the catch is empty also tells the same story4 ,the drawing of the outside of the door 7,fig4 #bjc7 shows by the position of the peg that the door is fastened4 ,to open the door1 push back the bolt by sliding the peg to the opposite end of the slot4 ,from a view of the edge of the door 7,fig4 #bjb7 one may see how the peg protrudes on the outside of the door4 ,fig4 #bja4 ,fig4 #bja4 ,fig4 #bjb4 ,fig4 #bjc4 ,illustration3 ,the ,tippecanoe4 ,a jack door-latch4 ,although the ,tippecanoe latch is made of quite a number of parts1 it is really a very simple device1 but in order to display the simplicity of its construction to the ambitious jack-knife latch maker ,i have drawn all the parts but the spring stick natural size 7,figs4 #bjd to #bjg71 but since the original diagram is drawn too large for this page and was reduced by the engraver there is a scale of inches at the bottom to give the reader the proportions4 ,there are no fixed dimensions for this or any other lock1 latch1 or catch1 but the proportions here given are probably the ones that will fit your door4 ,the foundation block is shown by ,fig4 #bjd4 ,upon this the latch rests and is securely nailed or screwed to the door4 ,figs4 #bje and #bjf are two wooden clamps which are fastened to the door and also to the foundation block 7,fig4 #bjd74 ,these clamps must be notched as in the diagrams to allow for the movement of the bolt1 but since the bolt 7,fig4 #bjg7 is larger and thicker at the butt the notch in ,fig4 #bje is made just a trifle larger than the butt end of the bolt and in ,fig4 #bjf the notch is made a trifle smaller than the opposite end of the bolt4 ,the object of the offset on the bolt 7,fig4 #bjg7 forward of the peg is to make a shoulder to stop it from shooting too far when the spring is loosened4 ,fig4 #bjd4 ,fig4 #bjd4 ,fig4 #bje4 ,fig4 #bjf4 ,fig4 #bjg4 ,illustration3 ,detail parts of ,tippecanoe door-latch4 ,the ,catch ,figs4 #bja and #bjd show the catch which is to be securely fastened to the door-jamb4 ,the spring1 of course1 must be made of well-seasoned1 elastic wood4 ,hickory is the best4 ,this stick may be quite long1 say half again as long in proportion as the one shown in ,fig4 #bja4 ,it must be flattened at the upper end and secured by two nails and it must be flattened at right angles to the upper part and somewhat pointed at the lower end so as to fit in a notch in the bolt 7,fig4 #bja74 ,a well-made lock of this sort is a source of constant joy and pride to the maker and he will never tire of springing it back and forth and extolling its virtues to his guests4 ,,xxxiv ,,how ,,to ,,make ,,the ,,bow-,,arrow ,,cabin ,,door ,,and ,,latch ,,and ,,the ,,deming ,,twin ,,bolts1 ,,hall1 ,,and ,,billy ,,fig4 #bji shows the inside of the door with the wooden latch in place4 ,you may use planks from the sawmill for the door in place of splitting them from spruce logs1 as the ones here are supposed to be4 ,the battens 7,a1 ,b1 ,c7 are made of birch1 but you may use any material at hand for them4 ,the hinges 7,figs4 ,e1 #baa ,d1 #baj7 are made of birch sticks whittled off at the top so as to leave a peg 7,fig4 ,e1 #baa7 to work in a hole in the flattened end of the horizontal battens 7,a and ,c1 ,fig4 #bji74 ,the batten ,b is in two pieces4 ,the top piece serves as a brace for the spring 7,fig4 ,g1 #bji7 and the bottom piece as a support for the bolt 7,fig4 ,h1 #bji and #bab74 ,the battens may be made of a piece of board4 ,the bolt 7,fig4 ,h1 #bab7 works free upon a nail in the left-hand end and rests in the catch 7,fig4 ,k1 #bae7 on the door-jamb4 ,the guard 7,fig4 ,j1 #baf7 fits over the bolt and keeps it in place4 ,the notch in the guard must be long enough to give the bolt free play up and down4 ,the spring 7,fig4 ,g1 #bji7 is fastened with a nail to the door in such a manner that its thin end rests upon the top of the bolt with sufficient force to bend the spring and hold the bolt down in the catch 7,fig4 ,k1 #bae74 ,the thumb-latch 7,fig4 ,l1 #bac7 is whittled out in the form shown1 and fastened in a slot cut in the door by a nail driven through the edge of the door 7,fig4 ,m1 #bac7 and through a hole in the thumb-latch 7,fig4 ,l1 #bac74 ,on this nail the latch works up and down4 ,fig4 #bag shows the outside of the door and you can see that by pressing down the thumb-latch on the outside it will lift it up on the inside1 and with it the bolt lifts up the free end of the latch and thus unfastens the door4 ,the handle 7,figs4 #bag and #bad ,n7 is used in place of a door-knob4 ,it is made of yellow birch bent in hot water4 ,the ,deming ,twin ,lock ,e4 ,w4 ,deming1 the painter of ,indian pictures1 the mighty hunter1 and fellow member of the ,camp-,fire ,club of ,america1 is a great woodsman4 ,not only is he a great woodsman but he is the father of twins1 and so we have thought that he possesses all the characteristics necessary to entitle him to a place in this book1 and after him and his twins we have named the twin bolts shown by ,fig4 #bjh4 ,the lower or ,hall bolt is shot into a hole in the door-sill1 and the upper or ,billy bolt is shot into a hole in the door-jamb above the door4 ,the holes should be protected upon the surface of the wood by pieces of tin or sheet iron with holes cut in them to admit the bolt4 ,the tins may be tacked over the bolt-hole in the sill for the ,hall bolt and on the bolt-hole overhead for the ,billy bolt1 and it will prevent the splitting away of the wood around the holes4 ,guards ,two guards1 ,a and ,b 7,fig4 #bjh71 made as in ,fig4 #baf1 protect the bolts and act as guides to keep them from swinging out of position2 two springs ,c and ,d 7,fig4 #bjh71 made of well-seasoned hickory and attached to the battens on the door by nails or screws1 force the bolts down and up into the bolt-holes 7,fig4 #bjh74 ,to release the bolts1 the spring must be drawn back as shown by the dotted lines in ,fig4 #bjh4 ,this may be done by means of a string or picture wire1 which is fastened in the ends of the bolts and runs through a hole in the ends of the spring and is attached to the lever ,e 7,fig4 #bjh74 ,when the end of this lever is pushed down into the position shown by the dotted line and arrow-point1 it lifts up the ,hall bolt at the bottom of the door and pulls down the ,billy bolt overhead1 thus unfastening the door4 ,fig4 #bjh4 ,fig4 #bji4 ,fig4 #baj4 ,fig4 #baa4 ,fig4 #bab4 ,fig4 #bac4 ,fig4 #bad4 ,fig4 #bae4 ,fig4 #baf4 ,fig4 #bag4 ,illustration3 ,jack-knife latches suitable for ,canada and ,america4 ,but1 of course1 if one is outside the door one cannot reach the lever ,e2 so1 to overcome this difficulty1 a hole is bored through the central batten of the door and the latch-string is tied to the top end of the lever and the other end is run through the hole bored in the door 7,fig4 #bjh74 ,the end outside of the door is then tied to a nail2 by pulling the nail you pull down the lever ,e1 which undoes the bolts and opens the door4 ,when it is desired to leave the door locked1 after it is closed1 push the nail into the latch-string hole so that only the head will be visible from the outside4 ,when the nail and string are arranged in this manner1 a stranger will see no means of opening the door1 and1 as there are many nail-heads in all rough doors1 the one to which the latch-string is attached will not attract the attention of any one who is unacquainted with the ,deming twin bolt4 ,,xxxv ,,the ,,aures ,,lock ,,latch ,,the ,aures lock differs from the preceding ones in the use of metal springs1 but wooden ones may be substituted2 for instance1 a wooden spring like the one in ,fig4 #bji may be put under the bolt or latch shown in ,fig4 #bai1 which is practically the same latch2 that is1 if you turn the latch in ,fig4 #bji upside down it will make the latch shown in ,fig4 #bai2 also1 if you take the bolt or lock ,b in ,fig4 #bai and make it of one piece of wood with a spring to it1 like the one shown in ,fig4 #bjh or ,fig4 #bji1 or make it exactly like the one shown in ,fig4 #bja1 the ,aures lock can be made altogether of wood4 ,but with this lock1 as described below1 metal springs were used 7,figs4 #bai1 #bbj1 and #bba74 ,the ,door ,the door shows the two strings ,h and ,k coming through gimlet holes near the top4 ,fig4 #bah represents the outside of the door4 ,the strings may be concealed by covering their ends with a board as shown in this diagram1 but even if they are not concealed1 one unacquainted with the lock will not know how to work them in order to open the door4 ,a in ,figs4 #bai1 #bbj1 and #bba is the latch which is made of a piece of wood about eight or nine inches long by about one and one half inches wide by an inch or three quarters of an inch thick4 ,a hole is drilled near the centre of the latch and a screw placed through which is screwed into the door so that the latch will extend about two or three inches beyond the end of the door4 ,d 7,figs4 #bai1 #bbj1 and #bba7 is a catch or stop which is fastened to the door-jamb and keeps the end of the latch from flying too far up to lock the door4 ,b 7,fig4 #bai7 is the key which is made of the same sort of wood as the latch2 a hole is drilled in this also but it is here placed about one inch from the top4 ,a screw is run through this1 as in the hole in the latch1 and screwed into the door 7,fig4 #bai74 ,fig4 ,c1 #bai is a small block of wood on which a steel-band spring has been screwed to keep the key in its proper place4 ,the block is screwed to the door a short distance above the top of the key4 ,fig4 ,j1 #bai is a nail or peg placed in the door close beside the key when the key is vertical2 this is intended to prevent the key from being shoved over too far by the force of the band spring ,f4 ,fig4 #bai ,l is a steel wire spring 7a window-shade spring will answer the purpose71 fastened to the door at one end and to the latch at the other end1 and serves to keep the latch down and in place when locked4 ,fig4 #bai ,k is the latch-string1 one end of which is fastened to one end of the latch and the other end run through a hole near the top of the door and extending outside the same as the latch-string 7,fig4 #bah74 ,fig4 #bai shows the positions of the latch and key when the latch is locked2 to open the lock from the outside it is necessary to pull the key string first 7,h1 ,fig4 #bbj71 which releases the key2 then pull the latch-string1 thus lifting the latch while still holding the key string4 ,the key string is now let go2 the spring forcing the key into the position shown in ,fig4 #bba will keep the door unlocked4 ,when leaving the room1 all that is necessary is to pull the key string which lifts the key1 then let go the latch-string1 and the latch will spring back to its locked position and the key will also fly back into its position as in ,fig4 #bai4 ,any one not knowing the combination will be unable to open the door4 ,fig4 #bah4 ,fig4 #bai4 ,fig4 #bbj4 ,fig4 #bba4 ,fig4 #bbb4 ,fig4 #bbc4 ,fig4 #bbd4 ,fig4 #bbe4 ,fig4 #bbf4 ,fig4 #bbg4 ,fig4 #bbh4 ,illustration3 ,home-made cabin door-locks4 ,the ,compass ,lock ,this lock is made on the same principle as the combination safe lock1 but it is a lock any bright boy can make for himself4 ,in the first place1 instead of numbers1 use compass divisions2 that is1 use a disk with the points of the compass scratched on it and an ordinary door-knob with an index mark filed on its base1 as shown by ,fig4 #bbd where the finger is pointing4 ,hunt up three old door-knobs like those shown in ,figs4 #bbb1 #bbd1 and #bbe4 ,when you take one of the door-knobs off one end of the shaft you will find several small screw holes in the steel shaft 7,fig4 #bbb74 ,over this end you set a block of hardwood which you fashion out of a square block 7,fig4 #bbc7 by first cutting off the corners as shown by the dotted lines1 then whittling the angles off until it becomes rounded like a compass face2 after which saw off an arc1 that is1 part of a circle1 as shown in ,figs4 #bbd1 #bbf1 and #bbg4 ,next make a square hole through the centre of the circle to fit the square end of the steel shaft of the door-knob4 ,the square hole is not the centre of the block as it is now cut1 but it is the centre of the block as it was when it was round2 that is1 the centre of the circle4 ,insert the square end of the steel shaft into the square hole in the block1 and1 through a hole carefully drilled for the purpose1 put a screw down through the hole in the end of the steel shaft 7,fig4 #bbd72 this will firmly fix the block on the end of the knob4 ,of course1 the knob must be inserted through the door before the block is permanently fastened upon the end of the shaft4 ,fig4 #bbe shows the edge of the door with the three knobs in place4 ,if these knobs are so turned 7,fig4 #bbf7 that their flat edges are parallel with the crack of the door1 there is nothing to prevent you from opening the door2 but if the knobs are so turned 7,fig4 #bbg7 that the blocks overlap the crack of the door1 the door cannot be opened without breaking the lock4 ,it is evident that we must have some sort of a mark to tell us how to make the proper combination so that the door may be opened4 ,to do this1 take the metal washer of the door-knob 7the upper figure in ,fig4 #bbh7 or a circular piece or disk of tin and divide it up like a compass 7,fig4 #bbh74 ,fasten these disks securely on to the door with nails or screws2 place all of the disks with the north point pointing to the top of the door and in line with each other4 ,file in the circular base of each door-knob 7,fig4 #bbd7 a little notch at the black mark where the finger is pointing1 then put the door-knobs in place and fasten them there 7,fig4 #bbe7 by screwing the block on their ends 7,fig4 #bbd7 and securing the screws in the blocks by running them through the shaft4 ,carefully turn the knobs so that the block on the inside fits like those shown in ,fig4 #bbf4 ,jot down in your notebook the position of the index on each knob 7finger point1 #bbd72 one may read northeast1 another may read southwest1 and another may read south4 ,when one wants to open the door one must turn the knobs so that they will read according to the notes and the door may be opened2 but unless the indexes read as noted some of them will be turned as in ,fig4 #bbg1 locking the door1 and it may not be opened4 ,when the door is closed1 twist the knobs around and it will lock them so that no one else can open the door unless they know the combination4 ,the fact that there is a combination will not be suggested to a stranger by the compasses1 although it might be suggested if there were figures in place of compass points4 ,but even supposing they did suspect a combination it would take a long time for them to work it out1 and no one would do it but a thief4 ,a burglar1 however1 would not take the time2 he would pry open the door with his jimmy and1 as ,i have said before1 these locks are for the purpose of keeping out tramps1 vagrants1 and inquisitive boys4 ,we have no locks yet invented which will keep out a real1 professional burglar if he has reason to suppose there are valuables inside4 ,the safety of your log cabin depends principally upon the fact that valuables are not kept in such shacks1 and real burglars know it4 ,,xxxvi ,,the ,,american ,,log ,,cabin ,,now that we know how to make doors and door-latches1 locks1 bolts1 and bars1 we may busy ourselves with building an ,american log cabin4 ,it is all well enough to build our shacks and shanties and camps of logs with the bark on them1 but1 when one wishes to build a log cabin1 one wants a house that will last4 ,abraham ,lincoln's log cabin is still in existence1 but it was built of logs with no bark on them4 ,there is a two-story log house still standing in ,dayton1 ,o42 it is said to have been built before the town was there2 but there is no bark on the logs4 ,bark holds moisture and moisture creates decay by inviting fibrous and threadlike cousins of the toadstool to grow on the damp wood and work their way into its substance4 ,the bark also shelters all sorts of boring insects and the boring insects make holes through the logs which admit the rain and in the end cause decay1 so that the first thing to remember is to peel the logs of which you propose to build the cabin4 ,there is now1 or was lately1 a log cabin on ,hempstead ,plains1 ,l4 ,i41 near the road leading from ,mineola to ,manhassett2 it is supposed to have been built when the first white settlers began to arrive on ,long ,island1 but this was what was known as a blockhouse1 a small fort4 ,in #aijf ,mr4 ,i4 ,p4 ,sapington said3 ,i think that ,i am the only man now living who helped build ,general ,grant's log cabin4 ,grant's house was what is popularly known in the ,south as a saddle-bag log house1 or1 as the old ,southwestern settlers called it1 a two-pen1 the pens being two enclosures with a wide passageway or gallery between them1 one roof extending over both pens and the gallery4 ,general ,grant was not afraid of work1 and1 like a good scout1 was always willing to help a neighbor4 ,he had a team of big horses1 a gray and a bay1 and the loads of cord-wood he hauled to ,st4 ,louis were so big that they are still talked of by the old settlers4 ,in the summer of #ahed ,grant started his log cabin1 and all his neighbors turned in to help him build his house4 ,american ,log ,house ,the ,american log house differs from the ,canadian log house principally in the shape of the roof4 ,our old settlers made steep gambrel roofs to shed the rain4 ,gambrel6 ,gambrel8 ,let me beg ,you'll look at a horse's hinder leg2 ,first great angle above the hoof1 ,that's the gambrel1 hence the gambrel roof4 ,the ,canadians put very flat roofs on their log cabins1 usually composed of logs laid over the rafters1 making them strong enough to support the heavy weight of snow4 ,the ,american log cabins1 as a rule1 are built in a milder climate1 and the flat sod roof is peculiar to our ,northern boundary and the hot1 arid parts of our country4 ,we build the chimneys outside of our log cabins because1 as the old settlers would say1 thar's more room out thar 7see ,figs4 #bga1 #bgc74 ,one-,pen ,cabin ,fig4 #bbi is a one-pen cabin4 ,to build it we first snake our logs to a skid near the site of our proposed cabin 7,fig4 #afg71 from which we can roll our logs to our house as we need them4 ,lay out the corners and square them 7,fig4 #ahj72 notch the logs with a rounded or ,u-shaped notch 7,fig4 #afe74 ,remember that all the logs should be two or three feet longer than the walls of the proposed building1 but the notches must be the same distance apart in order to make even walls4 ,the protruding ends of the logs may be allowed to stick out as they happen to come1 no matter how irregular they may be1 until the cabin is erected2 then with a two-handed saw and a boy at each end they can be trimmed off evenly1 thus giving a neat finish to the house4 ,fig4 #bbi4 ,fig4 #bcj4 ,fig4 #bca4 ,fig4 #bcb4 ,fig4 #bcc4 ,fig4 #bcd4 ,illustration3 ,hints and suggestions in cabin construction4 ,sills ,the largest1 straightest1 and best logs should be saved for sills or foundations4 ,if you are building a mudsill1 that is1 a building upon the ground itself1 the sill logs will be subject to dampness which will cause them to rot unless they are protected by some wood preservative4 ,wood ,preservative ,if the logs are painted with two or three coats of creosote before they are laid upon the ground1 it will protect them for an indefinite time and prevent decay4 ,hugh ,p4 ,baker1 dean of the ,new ,york ,state ,college of ,forestry1 writes me that-- two or three applications of warm oil with a brush will be very helpful and will probably be all that the ordinary man can do4 ,creosote is the best preservative because of its penetrating power and the way it acts upon the fibres of wood1 and in the end is cheaper than a good many other things which have been used to preserve timber4 ,in fact1 various forms of creosote are best-known preservers of organic matter4 ,there is no advantage in using charcoal at all and ,i presume suggestions have been made for using it because we know that charred wood is more durable4 ,linseed-oil is good2 ordinary white-lead paint will be better1 but neither of them is as effective as creosote1 and both are more expensive4 ,you will find that carbolineum and other patent preparations are recommended very highly2 they are good but expensive and the difference in price between these patent preparations and ordinary creosote is much larger than is justified by their increased value4 ,creosote can be procured in large or small quantities from a number of concerns4 ,i think we have been getting it for about ten dollars per barrel of fifty or fifty-three gallons4 ,creosote may be purchased in large or small quantities from various manufacturing companies1 such as the ,barret ,manufacturing ,company1 #ag ,battery ,place1 ,new ,york ,city1 and the ,chattfield ,manufacturing ,company1 ,carthage1 ,o41 handle it in large quantities4 ,openings ,build the pen as if it were to have no openings1 either doors1 windows1 or fireplaces4 ,when you reach the point where the top of the door1 window1 or fireplace is to be 7,fig4 #bbi7 saw out a section of the log to mark the place and admit a saw when it is desired to finish the opening as shown in the diagram and continue building until you have enough logs in place to tack on cleats like those shown in ,figs4 #bbi1 #bcj1 and #bca1 after which the openings may be sawed out4 ,the cleats will hold the ends of the logs in place until the boards ,u 7,fig4 #bcb7 for the door-jambs1 window-frames1 or the framework over the fireplace can be nailed to the ends of the logs and thus hold them permanently in place4 ,if your house is a mudsill1 wet the floor until it becomes spongy1 then with the butt end of a log ram the dirt down hard until you have an even1 hard floor--such a floor as some of the greatest men of this nation first crept over when they were babies4 ,but if you want a board floor1 you must necessarily have floor-joists2 these are easily made of milled lumber or you may use the rustic material of which your house is built and select some straight logs for your joists4 ,of course1 these joists must have an even top surface1 which may be made by flattening the logs by scoring and hewing them as illustrated by ,figs4 #abc1 #abd1 and #abe and previously described4 ,it will then be necessary to cut the ends of the joist square and smaller than the rest of the log 7,fig4 ,a1 #bbi72 the square ends must be made to fit easily into the notches made in the sill logs 7,b1 ,fig4 #bbi7 so that they will all be even and ready for the flooring 7,c1 ,fig4 #bbi74 ,for a house ten feet wide the joists should be half a foot in diameter1 that is1 half a foot through from one side to the other2 for larger spans use larger logs for the joists4 ,foundation ,if your house is not a mudsill you may rest your sill logs upon posts or stone piles2 in either case1 in the ,northern ,states1 they should extend three feet below the ground1 so as to be below frost-line and prevent the upheaval of the spring thaw from throwing your house out of plumb4 ,roofing ,all the old-time log cabins were roofed with shakes1 splits1 clapboards1 or hand-rived shingles as already described and illustrated by ,figs4 #abf1 #abh1 #abi1 and #acj2 but to-day they are usually shingled with the machine-sawed shingle of commerce4 ,you may1 however1 cover the roof with planks as shown by ,fig4 #bcc or with bark weighted down with poles as shown by ,fig4 #bcd4 ,in covering it with board or plank nail the latter on as you would on a floor1 then lay another course of boards over the cracks which show between the boards on the first course4 ,gables ,the gable ends of the cabin should be built up of logs with the rafters of the roof running between the logs as they are in ,figs4 #bbi and #bcc1 but the roof may be built1 as it frequently is nowadays1 of mill lumber1 in which case it may be framed as shown by ,figs4 #di1 #ea1 and the gable end above the logs filled in with upright poles as shown in ,figs4 #agc and #bdg1 or planked up as shown in the ,southern saddle-bag 7,fig4 #bda71 or the ends may be boarded up and covered with tar paper as shown in ,fig4 #bdh1 or the gable end may be shingled with ordinary shingles 7,fig4 #gi74 ,steep ,roof ,remember that the steeper the roof is the longer the shingles will last1 because the water will run off readily and quickly on a steep surface and the shingles have an opportunity to dry quickly2 besides which the snow slides off a steep roof and the driving rains do not beat under the shingles4 ,if you are using milled lumber for the roof1 erect the rafters at the gable end first1 with the ridge board as shown in ,fig4 #bfc and in greater detail in ,fig4 #di4 ,put the other rafters two or three feet apart4 ,let your roof overhang the walls by at least seven or eight inches so as to keep the drip from the rain free of the wall4 ,it is much easier for the architect to draw a log house than it is for a builder to erect one1 for the simple reason that the draughtsman can make his logs as straight as he chooses1 also that he can put the uneven places where they fit best2 but except in well-forested countries the tree trunks do not grow as straight as the logs in my pictures and you must pick out the logs which will fit together4 ,run them alternately butt and head2 that is1 if you put the thick end of the log at the right-hand end of your house1 with the small end at the left1 put the next log with the small end at the right and thick end at the left2 otherwise1 if all the thick ends are put at one side and the small ends at the other1 your house will be taller at one end than at the other as is the case with some of our previous shacks and camps 7,figs4 #aij1 #aia1 and #aib7 which are purposely built that way4 ,if it is planned to have glass window lights1 make your window openings of the proper size to fit the window-frames which come with the sashes from the factory4 ,in any case1 if the cabin is to be left unoccupied you should have heavy shutters to fit in the window opening so as to keep out trespassers4 ,chinking ,if your logs are uneven and leave large spaces between them1 they may be chinked up by filling the spaces with mud plaster or cement1 and then forcing in quartered pieces of small logs and nailing them or spiking them in position4 ,if your logs are straight spruce logs and fit snugly1 the cracks may be calked up with swamp moss 7,sphagnum71 or like a boat1 with oakum1 or the larger spaces may be filled with flat stones and covered with mud4 ,this mud will last from one to seven or eight years2 ,i have some on my own log cabin that has been there even a longer time4 ,,xxxvii ,a ,,hunter',s ,,or ,,fisherman',s ,,cabin ,,in all the hilly and mountainous ,states there are tracts of forest lands and waste lands of no use to the farmer and of no use to settlers1 but such places offer ideal spots for summer camps for boys and naturalists1 for fishermen and sportsmen1 and here they may erect their cabins 7see ,frontispiece7 and enjoy themselves in a healthy1 natural manner4 ,these cabins will vary according to the wants of the owners1 according to the material at hand and the land upon which they are built4 ,by extending the rafters of the roof1 the latter may be extended 7see ,frontispiece7 to protect the front and make a sort of piazza which may be floored with puncheons4 ,the logs forming the sides of the house may be allowed to extend so as to make a wall or fence1 as they do on the right-hand side of the ,frontispiece1 thus preventing the danger of falling over the cliff upon which this cabin is perched and receiving injury or an unlooked-for ducking in the lake4 ,they may also be extended as they are on the left1 to make a shield behind which a wood-yard is concealed1 or to protect an enclosure for the storage of the larger camp utensils4 ,in fact1 this drawing is made as a suggestion and not to be copied exactly1 because every spot differs from every other spot1 and one wants to make one's house conform to the requirements of its location2 for instance1 the logs upon the right-hand side might be allowed to extend all the way up to the roof1 as they do at the bottom1 and thus make a cosey corner protected from the wind and storm4 ,the windows in such a cabin may be made very small1 for all work is supposed to be done outdoors1 and when more light is needed on the inside the door may be left open4 ,in a black-fly country or a mosquito country1 however1 when you are out of reach of screen doors1 mosquito-netting may be tacked over the windows and a portire of mosquito-netting over the doorway4 ,,xxxviii ,,how ,,to ,,make ,a ,,wyoming ,,olebo1 ,a ,,hoko ,,river ,,olebo1 ,a ,,shake ,,cabin1 ,a ,,canadian ,,mossback1 ,,and ,a ,,two-,,pen ,,or ,,southern ,,saddle-,,bag ,,house ,,one of the charms of a log-cabin building is the many possibilities of novelties suggested by the logs themselves4 ,in the hunter's cabin 7see ,frontispiece7 we have seen how the ends of the logs were allowed to stick out in front and form a rail for the front stoop2 the builders of the olebos have followed this idea still further4 ,the ,wyoming ,olebo ,in ,fig4 #bcf we see that the side walls of the pen are allowed to extend on each side so as to enclose a roofed-over open-air room1 or1 if you choose to so call it1 a front porch1 veranda1 stoop1 piazza1 or gallery1 according to the section of the country in which you live4 ,so as to better understand this cabin the plan is drawn in perspective1 with the cabin above and made to appear as if some one had lifted the cabin to show the ground-floor plan underneath4 ,the olebo roof is built upon the same plan as the ,kanuck 7,fig4 #bdd71 with this exception1 that in ,fig4 #bdd the rooftree or ridge-log is supported by cross logs which are a continuation of the side of the house 7,a1 ,a1 ,figs4 #bdb1 #bdd1 and #bde71 but in the olebo the ridge pole or log is supported by uprights 7,figs4 #bcf and #bcg74 ,to build the olebo lay the two side sill logs first 7,a1 ,b1 and ,c1 ,d1 ,fig4 #bcf71 then the two end logs ,e1 ,f1 and ,d1 ,b and proceed to build the cabin as already described1 allowing the irregular ends of the logs to extend beyond the cabin until the pen is completed and all is ready for the roof1 after which the protruding ends of the logs excepting the two top ones may be sawed off to suit the taste and convenience of the builder4 ,the olebo may be made of any size that the logs will permit and one's taste dictate4 ,after the walls are built1 erect the log columns at ,a and ,c 7,fig4 #bcf71 cut their tops wedge shape to fit in notches in the ends of the projecting side-plates 7,fig4 #add1 ,a and ,b72 next lay the end plate 7,g1 ,fig4 #bcf7 over the two top logs on the sides of your house which correspond to the side-plates of an ordinary house4 ,the end plate ,g is notched to fit on top of the side-plates1 and the tops of the side-plates have been scored and hewn and flattened1 thus making a ,general ,putnam joint like the one shown above 7,g1 ,fig4 #bcf72 but when the ends of the side logs of the cabin were trimmed off the side-plates or top side logs were allowed to protrude a foot or more beyond the others2 this was to give room for the supporting upright log columns at ,a and ,c 7see view of cabin1 ,fig4 #bcf and the front view1 ,fig4 #bcg74 ,h and ,j 7,fig4 #bcg7 are two more upright columns supporting the end plate which1 in turn1 supports the short uprights upon which the two purlins ,l and ,m rest2 the other purlins ,k and ,n rest directly upon the end plate 7,fig4 #bcg74 ,the rear end of the cabin can have the gable logged up as the front of the house is in ,fig4 #bdj1 or filled in with uprights as in ,fig4 #bdg4 ,the roof of the olebo is composed of logs1 but if one is building an olebo where it will not be subjected during the winter to a great weight of snow1 one may make the roof of any material handy4 ,fig4 #bcf4 ,fig4 #bcg4 ,fig4 #bch4 ,fig4 #bci4 ,fig4 #bdj4 ,fig4 #bda4 ,illustration3 ,some native ,american log houses4 ,hoko ,river ,olebo ,the ,hoko ,river olebo has logs only up to the ceiling of the first story 7,fig4 #bch71 or the half story as the case may be2 this part1 as you see1 is covered with shakes previously illustrated and described 7,figs4 #abg1 #abh1 #abi1 and #acj74 ,the logs supporting the front of the second story serve their purpose as pillars or supports only during the winter-time1 when the heavy load of snow might break off the unsupported front of the olebo4 ,in the summer-time they are taken away and set to one side1 leaving the overhang unsupported in front4 ,the shakes on the side are put on the same as shingles1 overlapping each other and breaking joints as shown in the illustration4 ,they are nailed to the side poles1 the ends of which you may see protruding in the sketch 7,fig4 #bch74 ,the ,mossback ,cabin ,in the north country1 where the lumbermen are at work1 the farmers or settlers are looked down upon by the lumberjacks much in the same manner as the civilians in a military government are looked down upon by the soldiers1 and hence the lumberjacks have1 in derision1 dubbed the settlers mossbacks4 ,mossback ,fig4 #bci shows a mossback's house or cabin in the lake lands of ,canada4 ,the same type of house ,i have seen in northern ,michigan4 ,this one is a two-pen house1 but the second pen is made like the front to the olebo1 by allowing the logs of the walls of the house itself to extend sufficient distance beyond to make another room1 pen1 or division4 ,in this particular case the settler has put a shed roof of boards upon the division1 but the main roof is made of logs in the form of tiles4 ,in ,canada these are called les auges 7pronounced oge71 a name given to them by the ,french settlers4 ,the back of this house has a steeper roof than the front1 which roof1 as you see1 extends above the ends of les auges to keep the rain from beating in at the ends of the wooden troughs4 ,above the logs on the front side of the small room1 pen1 or addition the front is covered with shakes4 ,fig4 #bdj shows a cabin in the ,olympic mountains1 but it is only the ordinary ,american log cabin with a shake roof and no windows4 ,a cooking-stove inside answers for heating apparatus and the stovepipe protrudes above the roof4 ,the ,southern ,saddle-,bag or ,two-,pen ,cabin ,now we come to the most delightful of all forms of a log house4 ,the one shown in ,fig4 #bda is a very simple one1 such as might be built by any group of boys1 but ,i have lived in such houses down ,south that were very much more elaborate4 ,frequently they have a second story which extends like the roof over the open gallery between the pens2 the chimneys are at the gable ends1 that is1 on the outside of the house1 and since we will have quite a space devoted to fireplaces and chimneys1 it is only necessary to say here that in many portions of the ,south the fireplaces1 while broad1 are often quite shallow and not nearly so deep as some found in the old houses on ,long ,island1 in ,new ,york1 and the ,eastern ,states4 ,the open gallery makes a delightful1 cool lounging place1 also a place for the ladies to sit and sew1 and serves as an open-air dining-room during the warm weather2 this sort of house is inappropriate and ill fitted for the climate which produced the olebo1 the mossback1 and the ,kanuck1 but exactly suited for our ,southern ,states and very pleasant even as far north as ,ohio1 ,indiana1 and ,illinois4 ,i have lived in one part of every summer for the last twenty-two years in the mountains of northern ,pennsylvania4 ,the saddle-bag may be built by boys with the two rooms ten by ten and a gallery six feet wide1 or the two rooms six by six and a gallery five feet wide2 the plan may be seen on the sketch below the house 7,fig4 #bda74 ,where you only expect to use the house in the summer months1 a two-pen or saddle-bag can be used with comfort even in the ,northern ,states1 but in the winter-time in such ,states as ,michigan and part of ,new ,york1 the gallery would be filled up with drifting snow4 ,,xxxix ,,native ,,names ,,for ,,the ,,parts ,,of ,a ,,kanuck ,,log ,,cabin1 ,,and ,,how ,,to ,,build ,,one ,,if the writer forgets himself once in a while and uses words not familiar to his boy readers1 he hopes they will forgive him and put all such slips down as the result of leaving boys' company once in a while and associating with men4 ,the reader knows that men dearly love big1 ungainly words and that just as soon as boys do something worth while the men get busy hunting up some top-heavy name for it4 ,when one is talking of foreign things1 however1 it is well to give the foreign names for those things1 and1 since the next house to be described is not a real ,american one but a native of ,canada1 the ,canadian names are given for its parts4 ,while in northern ,quebec1 making notes for the ,kanuck1 the writer enlisted the interest of a fellow member of the ,camp-,fire ,club of ,america1 ,doctor ,alexander ,lambert1 and through him secured the names of all parts of the ,canadian shack4 ,the author is not a ,french-,canadian1 and1 although1 like most of his readers1 he studied ,french at school1 what he learned of that great language is now securely locked up in one of the safe-deposit vaults of his brain and the key lost4 ,he owns up to his ignorance because he is a scout and would not try to deceive his readers1 also because if the reader's knowledge of ,french enables him to find some error1 the writer can sidestep the mistake and say1 ',tain't mine4 ,but1 joking aside1 these names are the ones used in the ,province of ,quebec and are here given not because they are good ,french but because they are the names used by the builders among the natives known by the ,indians as les habitants ,local ,names of ,parts of ,cabin spruce pinette balsam sapin to chop boucher1 ,figs4 #aac and #abb to cut couper logs les bois or les billots1 ,a1 ,a1 ,a1 ,figs4 #bdb1 #bde1 also #aai1 #abf1 etc4 square carr door porte1 ,figs4 #bdb1 #bdc window chssis1 ,fig4 #bdc window-glass les vitres1 #bdb the joist on which the floor is laid les traverses1 ,fig4 #di1 ,b1 ,b1 ,b1 ,b1 ,fig4 #bdd the floor itself plancher the purlins1 that is1 the two big logs used to support the roof les poudres1 ,c1 ,c1 ,fig4 #bdd the roof couverture1 ,fig4 #bdb bark corce birch bark bouleau the poles put on a birch-bark roof to keep the bark flat les pches1 ,figs4 #da1 #bcd1 #bdb the hollow half-logs sometimes used like tiling on a roof les auges1 ,fig4 #bdf piazza1 porch1 front stoop1 veranda galerie1 ,figs4 #bcf1 #bcg1 and #bda ,the only thing that needs explanation is the squaring of the round logs of the cabin4 ,for instance1 instead of leaving the logs absolutely round and untouched inside the camp1 after the logs are placed1 they are squared off so as to leave a flat surface 7,fig4 #abe74 ,they call this the carrage4 ,i do not know whether this is a local name or whether it is an expression peculiar to that ,quebec section of ,canada or whether it is simply a corruption of better ,french4 ,it is derived from the word carrer1 to square4 ,fig4 #bdb4 ,fig4 #bdc4 ,fig4 #bdd4 ,fig4 #bde4 ,fig4 #bdf4 ,fig4 #bdg4 ,fig4 #bdh4 ,fig4 #bdi4 ,illustration3 ,showing construction of the common ,canadian log house4 ,the perspective drawings 7,figs4 #bdb and #bdc7 show views of the cabin we call the ,kanuck4 ,the pen is built exactly as it is built in the houses already described4 ,the windows are placed where the builder desires1 as is also the doorway1 but when the side-plate logs1 that is ,les ,traverses or top side logs1 are put in place1 then the traverses logs 7,b1 ,b1 ,b1 ,b1 ,fig4 #bdd7 are laid across the pen from one side-plate to the other1 their ends resting on top of the side-plates over the traverses logs1 the two purlins ,les ,poudres 7,c1 ,c1 ,fig4 #bdd7 are notched and fitted1 and over their ends the two pieces ,d1 ,d are fitted1 and1 resting on the centres of the ,d logs1 the ridge log 7,e1 ,fig4 #bdd7 is placed4 ,couverture ,the roof is made of small logs flattened on the under-side or left in their rounded form 7,fig4 #bdb7 and laid from the ridge logs down1 extending over the eaves six or more inches4 ,les ,pches ,the roof logs are then held in place by poles pegged with wooden pegs to the roof 7,f1 ,g1 ,fig4 #bdb74 ,roofing ,material ,the roof is now covered with a thick layer of browse1 hay1 straw1 dry leaves1 or dry grass1 and on top of this moist blue clay1 yellow clay1 hard-pan1 or simple mud is spread and trampled down hard1 forcing the thatch underneath into all the cracks and crannies and forming a firm covering of clay several inches thick4 ,fireplace ,the fireplace and chimney may be built inside or outside the cabin1 or the house may be heated by a stove and the stovepipe allowed to protrude through a hole in the roof large enough to separate the pipe a safe distance from the wood and straw and amply protected by a piece of sheet iron or tin4 ,then1 after you have stored your butin 7luggage71 you can sit and sing3 ,you may pull the sourdine out ,you may push the rabat-joie in ,but the boucan goes up the chemine just the same ,just the same1 just the same1 ,but the boucan goes up the chemine just the same4 ,when l'habitant hears you sing this verse he will not know what your song is about1 but he will slap you on the back1 laugh1 and call you ,bon ,homme chez nous1 but do not get mad at this2 it is a compliment and not a bad name4 ,clay ,roof ,a clay roof should be as flat as possible with only pitch enough to shed the water2 a shingle roof should have a rise of at least one foot high to four feet wide and a thatched roof should have a rise of #de1 that is1 the rise of a line drawn from corner to corner of a square4 ,fig4 #bdg shows a gable filled with upright logs and ,fig4 #bdh shows a tar paper roof and a gable covered with tar paper4 ,since ,kanucks are cold-climate houses1 they frequently have novel means of keeping them warm2 one way that ,i have frequently seen used is to surround them with a log fence shown in ,fig4 #bdi1 and pack the space between with stable manure or dirt and rotten leaves4 ,,xl ,,how ,,to ,,make ,a ,,pole ,,house ,,and ,,how ,,to ,,make ,a ,,unique ,,but ,,thoroughly ,,american ,,totem ,,log ,,house ,a ,,pole house is a log house with the logs set upright4 ,we call it a pole house because1 usually1 the logs are smaller than those used for a log house4 ,the pole house 7,fig4 #bej7 is built in the manner shown by ,figs4 #aga1 #agb1 and #agc1 but in the present instance the ridge-pole is a log which is allowed to extend some distance beyond the house both in front and rear1 and the front end of the ridge-pole is carved in the shape of a grotesque or comical animal's head like those we see on totem-poles4 ,the roof is made of shakes 7see ,figs4 #abf to #acj7 and the shakes are held in place by poles pegged onto the roof in much the same manner as we have described and called les pches for the ,kanuck4 ,this pole cabin may have an old-fashioned ,dutch door which will add to its quaintness and may have but one room which will answer the many purposes of a living-room1 sleeping-room1 and dining-room4 ,a lean-to at the back can be used for a kitchen4 ,american ,totem ,log ,house ,but if you really want something unique1 build a log house on the general plan shown by ,figs4 #bea and #beb2 then carve the ends of all the extending logs to represent the heads of reptiles1 beasts1 or birds2 also carve the posts which support the end logs on the front gallery1 porch1 or veranda in the form of totem-poles4 ,you may add further to the quaint effect by placing small totem-posts where your steps begin on the walk 7,fig4 #bec7 and adding a tall totem-pole 7,fig4 #bee7 for your family totem or the totem of your clan4 ,fig4 #beb shows how to arrange and cut your logs for the pens4 ,the dining-room is supposed to be behind the half partition next to the kitchen2 the other half of this room being open1 with the front room1 it makes a large living-room4 ,the stairs lead up to the sleeping-rooms overhead2 the latter are made by dividing the space with partitions to suit your convenience4 ,before ,building ,take your jack-knife and a number of little sticks to represent the logs of your cabin2 call an inch a foot or a half inch a foot as will suit your convenience and measure all the sticks on this scale1 using inches or parts of inches for feet4 ,then sit down on the ground or on the floor and experiment in building a toy house or miniature model until you make one which is satisfactory4 ,next glue the little logs of the pen together2 but make the roof so that it may be taken off and put on like the lid to a box2 keep your model to use in place of an architect's drawing2 the backwoods workmen will understand it better than they will a set of plans and sections on paper4 ,fig4 #bea is a very simple plan and only put here as a suggestion4 ,you can put the kitchen at the back of the house instead of on one side of it or make any changes which suit your fancy2 the pen of the house may be ten by twelve or twenty by thirty feet1 a camp or a dwelling2 the main point is to finish your house up with totems as shown by ,fig4 #bec1 and then tell the other fellows where you got the idea4 ,fig4 #bej4 ,fig4 #bea4 ,fig4 #beb4 ,fig4 #bec4 ,fig4 #bed4 ,fig4 #bee4 ,illustration3 ,a totem motif4 ,an artistic and novel treatment for a log house4 ,peeled ,logs ,for any structure which is intended to be permanent never use the logs with bark on them2 use peeled logs4 ,when your house is finished it may look very fresh and new without bark1 but one season of exposure to the weather will tone it down so that it will be sufficiently rustic to please your fancy1 but if you leave the bark on the logs1 a few seasons will rot your house down1 making it too rustic to suit any one's fancy4 ,lay up the pen of this house as already described and illustrated by ,figs4 #bbi1 #bcc1 etc41 and when the sides and front walls have reached the desired height1 frame your roof after the manner shown by ,fig4 #di or any of the other methods described which may suit your fancy or convenience1 but in this case we use the ,susitna form for the end plates1 which are made by first severing the root of a tree and leaving an elbow or bend at the end of the trunk 7,fig4 #bfd74 ,this is flattened by scoring and hewing as is described and illustrated under the heading of the ,susitna house4 ,the elbows at the terminals of the end plate are carved to represent grotesque heads 7,fig4 #bec74 ,the house when built is something like the ,wyoming olebo 7,fig4 #bcf71 but with the difference which will appear after careful inspection of the diagram4 ,the ,wyoming olebo is a one-story house2 this is a two-story house4 ,the ,wyoming olebo has a roof built upon a modified plan of a ,kanuck2 this roof is built on the ,american log-cabin plan1 with the logs continued up to the top of the gable1 as are those in the ,olympic 7,fig4 #bdj74 ,but the present house is supposed to be very carefully built2 to be sure1 it is made of rude material but handled in a very neat and workmanlike manner4 ,great care must be used in notching and joining the logs1 and only the straightest logs which can be had should be used for the walls of the house4 ,the piazza may need some additional supports if there is a wide front to the house1 but with a narrow front half1 log puncheons will be sufficiently stiff to support themselves4 ,totems ,the most difficult part about these descriptions1 for the writer1 is where he attempts to tell you how to make your totems2 but remember that a totem1 in order to have a real totem look1 must be very crude and amateurish1 a quality that the reader should be able to give it without much instruction4 ,the next important thing is that when you make one side of a head1 be it a snake's1 a man's1 a beast's1 or a bird's1 make the other side like it4 ,do not make the head lopsided2 make both sides of the same proportions4 ,flatten the sides of the end of the log enough to give you a smooth surface1 then sketch the profile on each side of the log with charcoal or chalk1 carve out the head with a chisel1 drawing-knife1 and jack-knife1 and gouge until you have fashioned it into the shape desired4 ,in order to do this the end of the log should be free from the ground and a convenient distance above it4 ,the carving is best done after the house is practically finished2 but the two end plates had better be carved before they are hoisted into place4 ,totem-,poles ,when you carve out the totem-poles 7,fig4 #bef or #bfb71 the log had better be put on an elongated sawbuck arrangement which will hold it free from the ground and allow one to turn it over as the work may require4 ,fig4 #bei represents a peeled log4 ,on this log one may sketch1 with chalk1 the various figures here represented1 then begin by notching the log 7,fig4 #beh7 according to the notches which are necessary to carve out the totem4 ,figs4 #bfj1 #bfa1 and #bfb show different views of the same totem figures4 ,fig4 #beg shows how to make a variation of the totem-pole4 ,paint your totem heads and figures red1 blue1 and yellow1 and to suit your fancy2 the more startling they are the better will they imitate the ,indian totems4 ,the weather will eventually tone them down to the harmonious colors of a ,turkish rug4 ,in ,the ,boy ,pioneers ,i have told how to make various other forms of totems1 all of which have since been built by boys and men in different parts of the country4 ,mr4 ,stewart ,edward ,white1 a member of the ,camp-,fire ,club of ,america1 woodsman1 plainsman1 mountaineer1 and ,african hunter and explorer1 built himself a totem in the form of a huge bird twelve feet high from the plans published in ,the ,boy ,pioneers1 and ,i anticipate no great difficulty will be encountered by those who try to totemize a log cabin after the manner shown by ,fig4 #beh4 ,it will not1 however1 be a small boy's work1 but the small boys who started at the beginning of this book are older and more experienced now1 and1 even if they cannot handle the big logs themselves1 they are perfectly competent to teach their daddies and uncles and their big brothers how to do it1 so they may act as boss builders and architects and let the older men do the heavy work4 ,but however you proceed to build this house1 when it is finished you will have a typically native building1 and at the same time different from all others1 as quaint as any bungling bungalow1 and in better taste1 because it will fit in the landscape and become part of it and look as if it belonged there1 in place of appearing as if it had been blown by a tornado from some box factory and deposited in an unsuitable landscape4 ,fig4 #bef4 ,fig4 #beg4 ,fig4 #beh4 ,fig4 #bei4 ,fig4 #bfj4 ,fig4 #bfa4 ,fig4 #bfb4 ,illustration3 ,totem-poles and how to make them4 ,you must understand by this that unsuitable refers to the fact that a bungalow does not belong in the ,american landscape1 although many of the cottages and shacks1 miscalled bungalows1 may be thoroughly ,american and appropriate to the ,american surroundings despite the exotic name by which some people humble them4 ,,xli ,,how ,,to ,,build ,a ,,susitna ,,log ,,cabin ,,and ,,how ,,to ,,cut ,,trees ,,for ,,the ,,end ,,plates ,,standing on a hill overlooking the salt meadows at ,hunter's ,point1 ,l4 ,i41 there was an old farmhouse the roof of which projected over both sides of the house four or five feet4 ,the hill on which it stood has been cut away1 the meadows which it overlooked have been filled up with the dirt from the hill1 and only a surveyor with his transit and the old property-lines map before him could ever find the former location of this house1 but it is somewhere among the tracks of the ,long ,island ,railroad4 ,opposite the house1 on the other side of the railroad track1 in the section known as ,dutch ,kills of ,long ,island ,city1 two other houses of the same style of architecture stood2 they had double doors--that is1 doors which were cut in two half-way up so that you might open the top or bottom half or both halves to suit your fancy4 ,the upper panels of these doors had two drop-lights of glass set in on the bias1 and between them1 half-way down the upper half1 was a great brass knocker with a grip big enough to accommodate both hands in case you really wanted to make a noise4 ,there was another house of this same description in the outskirts of ,hoboken1 and ,i often wondered what the origin of that peculiar roof might be4 ,i found this type of house as far north toward the ,hudson ,bay as the settlements go1 and still farther north the ,susitna house explains the origin of the overhanging eaves 7,fig4 #bfh74 ,of course the ,susitna1 as here drawn1 is not exactly the same as that built by the natives on the ,susitna ,river1 but the end plates 7,fig4 #bfc7 are the same as those used in the primitive houses of the ,northwest4 ,how to ,cut the ,tree ,fig4 #bfd shows a standing fir-tree and also shows what cuts to make in order to get the right-shaped log for an end plate4 ,fig4 #bfe shows the method of scoring and hewing necessary in order to flatten the end of the log as it is in ,fig4 #bff4 ,fig4 #bfg shows the style in which the natives roof their ,susitnas with logs4 ,the elbows at the end of the plates 7,fig4 #bff7 serve to keep the logs of the roof 7,fig4 #bfg7 from rolling off1 but the ,susitna log cabin which we are building is expected to have a roof 7,fig4 #bfh7 of thatch or a roof of shingles1 because we have passed the rude shacks1 sheds1 and shelters used for camps and are now building real houses in which we may live4 ,the ,susitna may be built of round logs or of flattened logs 7le carrage71 in which case we can use the ,general ,putnam square notch 7,fig4 #bfc7 for joining the ends of our logs4 ,in raising the roof1 erect the ridge-pole first4 ,the ridge-pole may be set up on two uprights to which it is temporarily nailed1 and the upright props may be held in place by the two diagonal props or braces1 as shown in ,fig4 #bfc4 ,if the logs are squared1 cut a small bird's-mouth notch in the rafter where it extends over the side-plate logs of the pen and bevel the top end of your gable rafters to fit against the ridge-pole as in the diagrams4 ,the other rafters are now easily put in place1 but if the logs are round you must notch the rafters and side-plates as shown by the diagram between ,figs4 #bfc and #bfg2 the dotted lines show where the rafter and the logs come together4 ,nail your rafters to your ridge-pole and fasten them to the side-plate with wooden pegs or spikes4 ,the ridge-pole may be allowed to extend1 as in ,fig4 #bfh1 on each side of the cabin or the elbows 7,fig4 #bff7 may be attached to each end of the ridge-pole with noses turned up and painted or carved into a fanciful head as in ,fig4 #bfh4 ,if the roof is to be shingled1 collect a lot of poles about four inches in diameter1 flatten them on both sides1 and nail them to the rafters not more than two inches apart1 allowing the ends of the sticks to extend beyond the walls of the house at least six inches4 ,fig4 #bfc4 ,fig4 #bfd4 ,fig4 #bfe4 ,fig4 #bff4 ,fig4 #bfg4 ,fig4 #bfh4 ,illustration3 ,the ,susitna log house4 ,if you desire to make your own shingles1 saw up a hemlock1 pine1 or spruce log into billets of one foot four inches long1 then with a froe and a mall 7,fig4 #agi7 split the shingles from the billets of wood1 or use a broadaxe for the same purpose4 ,broadaxes are dangerous weapons in the hands of an amateur1 but the writer split shingles with a broadaxe upon the shores of ,lake ,erie when he was but seven years old and1 as near as he can count1 he still has ten toes and ten fingers4 ,if you intend to thatch the roof you need not flatten the poles which you fasten across the rafters1 because the thatch will hide all unevenness of the underpinning4 ,the poles may be laid at right angles to the rafters between six and eight inches apart and the roof thatched as described and illustrated by ,fig4 #ff4 ,the ,susitna form of house is the one from which the old ,long ,island farmhouses were evolved1 although the old ,long ,islanders copied theirs from the homes they left in ,holland1 but we must remember that even the effete civilization of ,europe once had a backwoods country a long1 long time ago1 and then they built their houses from the timbers hewn in the forests as our own ancestors did in this country2 consequently1 many of the characteristics of present-day houses which seem to us useless and unnecessary are survivals of the necessary characteristics of houses made of crude material4 ,,xlii ,,how ,,to ,,make ,a ,,fireplace ,,and ,,chimney ,,for ,a ,,simple ,,log ,,cabin ,,fig4 #bfi shows a simple form of fireplace which is practically the granddaddy of all the other fireplaces4 ,it consists of three walls for windbreaks1 laid up in stone or sod against some stakes driven in the ground for the purpose of supporting them4 ,the four-cornered stakes are notched or forked and small logs are laid horizontally in these forks and on top of this a pyramidal form of a log pen is built of small logs and billets1 and this answers the purpose of a chimney4 ,this style of fireplace is adapted to use in camps and rude shacks like those shown by ,figs4 #ahg1 #ahi1 #aia1 and #aib2 also for the most primitive log cabins1 but when we make a real log house we usually plan to have a more elaborate or more finished fireplace and chimney4 ,the ground-plan of ,fig4 #bfi is shown by ,fig4 #bgj4 ,mud ,hearth ,here you see there is a mud hearth1 a wall of clay plastered over the stones of the fireplace4 ,this will prevent the fire from cracking and chipping the stones1 but clay is not absolutely necessary in this fireplace4 ,when1 however1 you build the walls of your fireplace of logs and your chimney of sticks the clay is necessary to prevent the fire from igniting the woodwork and consuming it4 ,for a log-framed fireplace1 make a large opening in the wall of your house and against the ends of the logs where you sawed out the opening1 erect jamb pieces of planks two or three inches thick running up to the log over the fireplace and spiked to the round ends of the logs 7see plan1 ,fig4 #bgb74 ,next1 lay your foundation of sill logs on the fireplace1 first two side logs and then a back log1 neatly notched so as to look like the logs in the walls of the cabin4 ,build your fireplace walls as shown by ,fig4 #bga1 after which take your mud or clay and make the hearth by hammering the clay down hard until you have a firm1 smooth foundation4 ,the front hearth may be made1 as shown in the diagram1 of stones of any size from pebbles to flagstones1 with the surfaces levelled by sinking the under-part down into the clay until a uniform level is reached on top4 ,the fireplace may be built with bricks of moist clay and wet clay used for mortar4 ,make the clay walls of the fireplace at least one foot thick and pack it down hard and tight as you build it4 ,if you choose you may make a temporary inside wall of plank as they do when they make cement walls1 and then between the temporary board wall and the logs put in your moist clay and ram it down hard until the top of the fireplace is reached1 after which the boards may be removed and the inside of the fireplace smoothed off by wiping it with a wet cloth4 ,stick ,chimney ,after the walls of logs and clay are built to top of the fireplace proper1 split some sticks and make them about one inch wide by one and one half inch thick1 or use the round sticks in the form in which they grow1 but peel off the bark to render them less combustible2 then lay them up as shown by ,fig4 #bfa1 log-cabin style4 ,with the chimney we have four sides to the wall in place of three sides as in the fireplace4 ,the logs of the fireplace1 where they run next to the cabin1 may have to be chinked up so as to keep them level1 but the chimney should be built level as it has four sides to balance it4 ,leave a space between the chimney and the outside wall and plaster the sticks thickly with clay upon the outside and much thicker with clay upon the inside1 as shown by ,fig4 #bga ,a1 which is supposed to be a section of the chimney4 ,fig4 #bfi4 ,fig4 #bgj4 ,fig4 #bga4 ,fig4 #bga;,a4 ,fig4 #bgb4 ,fig4 #bgc4 ,illustration3 ,detail for fireplaces and flues4 ,durability ,all through the mountains of ,east ,tennessee and ,kentucky ,i have seen these stick chimneys1 some of them many1 many years old4 ,in these mountain countries the fireplaces are lined with stones1 but in ,illinois1 in the olden times1 stones were scarce and mud was plenty and the fireplaces were made like those just described and illustrated by ,fig4 #bgb4 ,the stone chimney is an advance and improvement upon the log chimney1 but ,i doubt if it requires any more skill to build4 ,chimney ,foundation ,dig your foundation for your fireplace and chimney at least three feet deep2 then fill the hole up with small cobblestones or broken bluestone until you have reached nearly the level of the ground2 upon this you can begin to lay your hearth and chimney foundation4 ,if you fail to dig this foundation the frost will work the ground under your chimney and the chimney will work with the ground1 causing it either to upset or to tilt to one side or the other and spoil the looks of your house1 even if it does not put your fireplace out of commission4 ,stone ,chimney ,in laying up the stones for your chimney1 remember that it makes no difference how rough and uneven it is upon the outside4 ,the more uneven the outside is the more picturesque it will appear1 but the smoother and more even the inside is the less will it collect soot and the less will be the danger of chimney fires4 ,lay your stones in mortar or cement4 ,see that each stone fits firmly in the bed and does not rock and that it breaks joints with the other stone below it4 ,by breaking joints ,i mean that the crack between the two stones on the upper tier should fit over the middle of the stone on the lower tier2 this1 with the aid of the cement1 locks the stones and prevents any accidental cracks which may open from extending any further than the two stones between which it started4 ,if1 however1 you do not break joints1 a crack might run from the top to the bottom of the chimney causing it to fall apart4 ,above the fireplace make four walls to your chimney1 as you did with your stick chimney 7,fig4 #bga71 and let the top of the chimney extend above the roof at least three feet2 this will not only help the draught but it will also lessen the danger of fire4 ,,xliii ,,hearthstones ,,and ,,fireplaces ,,in erecting the fireplace for your cabin the stone work should extend into the cabin itself1 thus protecting the ends of the logs from the fire4 ,the stone over the top of the fireplace 7,a1 ,b1 ,fig4 #bgd7 rests upon two iron bars2 these iron bars are necessary for safety because1 although the stone ,a1 ,b may bridge the fireplace successfully1 the settling of the chimney or the heat of the fire is liable to crack the stone1 in which case1 unless it is supported by two flat iron bars1 it will fall down and wreck your fireplace4 ,the stone ,a1 ,b in ,fig4 #bge1 has been cracked for fifteen years but1 as it rests upon the flat iron bars beneath1 the crack does no harm4 ,fig4 #bgd4 ,fig4 #bge4 ,illustration3 ,fireplace in author's cabin1 and suggestion for stone and wood mantel4 ,in ,fig4 #bgd 7the ends of the fireplace7 the two wing walls of it are built up inside the cabin to support a plank for a mantelpiece4 ,another plank ,c1 ,d is nailed under the mantelpiece against the log before the stone work is built up4 ,this is only for the purpose of giving a finish to your mantelpiece4 ,the hearth in ,fig4 #bgd is made of odd bits of flat stones laid in cement1 but the hearth in ,fig4 #bge is one big slab of bluestone just as it came from the quarry1 and the fireplace in ,fig4 #bge is lined with fire-brick4 ,the two three-legged stools which you see on each side were made by the woodsmen who built the cabin to use in their camp while the cabin was being erected4 ,the stools have occupied the position of honor on each side of the fireplace now for twenty-seven years4 ,the mantelpiece in this drawing is made of puncheons with the rounded side out on the two supports and the flat side against the wall2 of course1 for the mantel itself1 the rounded side must be down and the flat side up4 ,this fireplace has been used for cooking purposes and the crane is still hanging over the flames1 while up over the mantel you may see1 roughly indicated1 a wrought-iron broiler1 a toaster1 and a brazier4 ,the flat shovel hanging to the left of the fireplace is what is known as a peal1 used in olden times to slip under the pies or cakes in the old-fashioned ovens in order to remove them without burning one's fingers4 ,,xliv ,,more ,,hearths ,,and ,,fireplaces ,,sometimes it is desired to have a fireplace in the middle of the room4 ,personally1 such a fireplace does not appeal to me1 but there are other people who like the novelty of such a fireplace1 and ,fig4 #bgf shows one constructed of rough stones4 ,the fireplace is high so that one tending it does not have to stoop and get a backache4 ,the foundation should be built in the ground underneath the cabin and up through the floor4 ,a flat stone covers the top of the fireplace1 as in the other drawings4 ,fig4 #bgg shows a fireplace with a puncheon support for a plank mantel4 ,fig4 #bgf4 ,fig4 #bgg4 ,fig4 #bgh4 ,fig4 #bgi4 ,fig4 #bhj4 ,illustration3 ,fireplace and mantel of half logs4 ,also centre fireplaces for cabin4 ,a ,plank ,mantel ,a and ,b are two half logs1 or puncheons1 which run from the floor to the ceiling on each side of the fireplace4 ,s1 ,s1 ,s are the logs of the cabin walls4 ,c is the puncheon supporting the mantel and ,d is the mantel4 ,fig4 #bgi shows a section or a view of the mantel looking down on it from the top1 a topographical view of it4 ,fig4 #bgh is the same sort of a view showing the puncheon ,a at the other end of the mantel before the mantel is put in place between the two puncheons ,a and ,b4 ,in ,fig4 #bgi the reader may see that it will be necessary to cut the corners out of the mantel-board in order to fit it around the puncheons ,a and ,b2 also1 since ,a and ,b have rounded surfaces1 it will be necessary to so bevel the ends of the puncheon 7,c1 ,fig4 #bgg7 that they will fit on the rounded surfaces of ,a and ,b4 ,fig4 #bhj shows the end of ,c bevelled in a perspective view1 and also a profile view of it1 with the puncheon ,a indicating the manner in which ,c must be cut to fit upon the rounded surface4 ,this makes a simple mantelpiece but a very appropriate one for a log cabin4 ,,xlv ,,fireplaces ,,and ,,the ,,art ,,of ,,tending ,,the ,,fire ,,one of my readers has written to me asking what to do about a fireplace that smokes4 ,not knowing the fireplace in question1 ,i cannot prescribe for that particular invalid1 but ,i have a long acquaintance with many fireplaces that smoke and fireplaces that do not--in other words1 healthy fireplaces with a good digestion and diseased fireplaces functionally wrong with poor digestion--so perhaps the easiest way to answer these questions is to describe a few of my acquaintances among the fireplaces which ,i have studied4 ,there is an old fireplace in ,small ,acres1 ,binghamton1 ,n4 ,y41 of which ,i made sketches and took measurements which furnished me data by which ,i built the fireplaces in my own houses4 ,in ,binghamton fireplaces the side walls are on an angle and converge toward the back of the fireplace1 as in ,fig4 #bgd4 ,the back also pitches forward1 as in ,fig4 #bhb4 ,the great advantage of this is the reflecting of more heat into the room4 ,fig4 #bha shows the fireplace before which ,i am now working4 ,the fire was started in last ,november and is now 7,april #a7 still burning1 although it has not been rekindled since it was first lighted4 ,this fireplace is well constructed1 and on very cold days ,i have the fire burning out on the hearth fully a foot beyond the line of the mantel without any smoke coming into my studio4 ,fig4 #bhb shows a diagram with the dimensions of my studio fireplace and represents the vertical section of it4 ,i give these for the benefit of the people who want to know how to build a fireplace which will not smoke4 ,but1 of course1 even the best of fireplaces will smoke if the fire is not properly arranged4 ,with smoke the angle of reflection would be equal to the angle of incidence did not the constant tendency of smoke to ascend modify this rule4 ,throw a rubber ball against the wall and the direction from your hand to where it strikes the wall makes the angle of incidence2 when the ball bounces away from the wall it makes the angle of reflection4 ,management of the ,fire ,but1 before we enter into the question regarding the structure of the flue we will take up the management of the fire itself4 ,in the first place1 there is but one person who can manage a fire1 and that is yourself4 ,servants never did and never will learn the art1 and1 as ,i am writing for men1 and the ladies are not supposed to read this article1 ,i will state that the fair sex show a like deficiency in this line4 ,the first thing a woman wants to do with a fire is to make the logs roost on the andirons1 the next thing is to remove every speck of ashes from the hearth1 and then she wonders why the fire won't burn4 ,the ashes have not been removed from my studio fire since it was first lighted last fall4 ,ashes are absolutely essential to control a wood-fire and to keep the embers burning overnight4 ,fig4 #bhh shows the present state of the ashes in my studio fire4 ,you will see by this diagram that the logs are not resting on the andirons4 ,i only use the andirons as a safeguard to keep the logs from rolling out on the hearth4 ,if the fire has been replenished late in the evening with a fresh log1 before retiring ,i pull the front or the ornamental parts of the andirons to the hearth and then lay the shovel and poker across them horizontally4 ,when the burning log is covered with ashes and the andirons arranged in this manner you can retire at night with a feeling of security and the knowledge that if your house catches afire it will not be caused by the embers in your fireplace4 ,then in the morning all you have to do is to shovel out the ashes from the rear of the fireplace1 put in a new backlog1 and bed it in with ashes1 as shown in ,fig4 #bhf4 ,put your glowing embers next to the backlog and your fresh wood on top of that and sit down to your breakfast with the certainty that your fire will be blazing before you get up from the table4 ,don't make the mistake of poking a wood-fire1 with the idea1 by that means1 of making it burn more briskly1 or boosting up the logs to get a draught under them4 ,two logs placed edge to edge1 like those in ,fig4 #bhh1 with hot coals between them1 will make their own draught1 which comes in at each end of the log1 and1 what is essential in fire building1 they keep the heat between themselves1 constantly increasing it by reflecting it back from one to the other4 ,if you happen to be in great haste to make the flames start1 don't disturb the logs but use a pair of bellows4 ,fig4 #bhg shows a set of the logs which will make the best-constructed fireplace smoke4 ,the arrow-point shows the line of incidence or the natural direction which the smoke would take did not the heat carry it upward4 ,fig4 #bhe shows the same logs arranged so that the angle of incidence strikes the back of the chimney and the smoke ascends in the full and orderly manner4 ,but both ,figs4 #bhe and #bhg are clumsily arranged4 ,the ,b logs in each case should be the backlog and the small logs ,a and ,c should be in front of ,b4 ,fig4 #bha4 ,fig4 #bhb4 ,fig4 #bhc4 ,fig4 #bhd4 ,fig4 #bhe4 ,fig4 #bhf4 ,fig4 #bhg4 ,fig4 #bhh4 ,illustration3 ,proper and improper ways to build a fireplace and make a fire4 ,in all of the fireplaces which we have described you will note that the top front of the fireplace under the mantel extends down several inches below the angle of the chimney4 ,fig4 #bhc shows a fireplace that is improperly built4 ,this is from a fireplace in a palatial residence in ,new ,york ,city1 enclosed in an antique ,italian marble mantel1 yellow with age1 which cost a small fortune4 ,the fireplace was designed and built by a firm of the best architects1 composed of men famed throughout the whole of the ,united ,states and ,europe1 but the fireplace smoked because the angle of the chimney was below the opening of the fireplace and1 consequently1 sent the smoke out into the room4 ,this had to be remedied by setting a piece of thick plate glass over the top of the fireplace1 thus making the opening smaller and extending it below the angle of the chimney4 ,fig4 #bhd shows the most primitive form of fireplace and chimney4 ,one that a child may see will smoke unless the fire is kept in the extreme back of the hearth4 ,the advantages of ashes in your fireplace are manifold4 ,they retain the heat1 keep the hot coals glowing overnight1 and when the fire is too hot may be used to cover the logs and subdue the heat4 ,but1 of course1 if you want a clean hearthstone and the logs roosting upon the andirons1 and are devoid of all the camp-fire sentiment1 have some asbestos gas-logs4 ,there will be no dust or dirt1 no covering up at night with ashes1 no bill for cord-wood1 and it will look as stiff and prim as any ,new ,england old maid and be as devoid of sentiment and art as a department-store bargain picture frame4 ,,xlvi ,,the ,,building ,,of ,,the ,,log ,,house ,how a ,forty-,foot-,front1 ,two-,story ,pioneer ,log ,house ,was ,put ,up with the ,help of ,backwoods ,farmers--,making ,plans with a ,pocket ,knife4 ,,our log house on the shore of ,big ,tink ,pond1 ,pike ,county1 ,pa41 was built long before the general public had been educated to enjoy the subtle charms of wild nature1 at a time when nature-study was confined to scientists and children1 and long before it was fashionable to have wild fowl on one's lawn and wild flowers in one's garden4 ,at that time only a few unconventional souls spent their vacations out of sight of summer hotels1 camping on the mountain or forest trails4 ,the present state of the public mind in regard to outdoor life has only been developed within the last few years1 and when ,i first announced my intention of hunting up some accessible wild corner and there erecting a log house for a summer studio and home ,i found only unsympathetic listeners4 ,but ,i was young and rash at that time1 and without any previous experience in building or the aid of books to guide me and with only such help as ,i could find among backwoods farmers ,i built a forty-foot-front1 two-story log house that is probably the pioneer among log houses erected by city men for summer homes4 ,it gave ,mr4 ,charles ,wingate the suggestions from which he evolved ,twilight ,park in the ,catskills4 ,twilight ,park1 being the resort of literary people and their friends1 did much to popularize log houses with city people4 ,the deserted farms of ,new ,england offer charming possibilities for those whose taste is for nature with a shave1 hair cut1 and store clothes1 but for lovers of untamed nature the waste lands offer stronger inducements for summer-vacation days1 and there is no building which fits so naturally in a wild landscape as a good1 old-fashioned log cabin4 ,it looks as if it really belonged there and not like a windfall from some passing whirlwind4 ,when ,i make the claim that any ordinary man can build himself a summer home1 ,i do not mean to say that he will not make blunders and plenty of them2 only fools never make mistakes1 wise men profit by them1 and the reader may profit by mine1 for there is no lack of them in our log house at ,big ,tink4 ,but the house still stands on the bank overlooking the lake and is practically as sound as it was when the last spike was driven1 twenty-seven years ago4 ,almost all of the original log cabins that were once sprinkled through the eastern part of our country disappeared with the advent of the saw-mill1 and the few which still exist in the northern part of the country east of the ,alleghany ,mountains would not be recognized as log houses by the casual observer1 for the picturesque log exteriors have been concealed by a covering of clapboards4 ,to my surprise ,i discovered that even among the old mountaineers ,i could find none who had ever attended a log-rolling frolic or participated in the erection of a real log house4 ,most of these old fellows1 however1 could remember living in such houses in their youth1 but they could not understand why any sane man of to-day wanted to waste so much good lumber1 and in the quaint old ,american dialect still preserved in these regions they explained the wastefulness of my plans and pointed out to me the number of good planks which might be sawed from each log4 ,fig4 #bhi4 ,illustration3 ,wildlands1 the author's log house in ,pike ,county1 ,pa4 ,fig4 #bij1 ,b1 shows the plans of the house1 which will be seen to be a modification of the ,southern saddle-bag cabin--two houses under one roof4 ,by referring to ,fig4 #bhi it will be seen that above the gallery there is a portico1 which we called the afterthought because it did not appear upon the original plans4 ,we got the hint1 as ,jimmy called it1 when it was noticed that chance had ordained that the two ,a logs should protrude much farther than the others4 ,don't saw them off1 ,i exclaimed2 we will have a balcony2 and so the two ,a logs were left1 and this gave us room for a balcony over the gallery1 back of which is a ten-by-ten bedroom1 while the two large bedrooms on each side have doors opening on the six-foot passageway1 which is made still broader by the addition of the balcony4 ,it will be seen that there is a stairway marked out on the ground plan1 but there was none on the original plan1 for1 to tell the honest truth1 ,i did not know where to put the stairs until the logs were in place4 ,however1 it is just such problems that lend charm to the work of building your own house4 ,an architect or a professional builder would have the thing all cut and dried beforehand and leave nothing to chance and inspiration2 this takes the whole charm out of the work when one is building for recreation and the pleasure to be derived from the occupation4 ,when our house was finished we had no shutters to the windows and no way of closing up the open ends of the gallery1 and my helpers told me that ,i must not leave the house that way because stray cattle would use the house for a stable and break the windows with their horns as they swung their heads to drive away the flies4 ,so we nailed boards over these openings when we closed the house for the winter4 ,later we invented some shutters 7see ,c1 ,fig4 #bij7 which can be put up with little trouble and in a few moments4 ,fig4 #bij1 ,c1 shows how these shutters are put in place and locked on the inside by a movable sill that is slid up against the bottom of the shutters and fastened in place by iron pins let into holes bored for the purpose4 ,fig4 #bij4 ,illustration3 ,details of author's log house1 ,wildlands4 ,of course1 this forms no bar to a professional burglar1 but there is nothing inside to tempt cracksmen1 and these professional men seldom stray into the woods4 ,the shutters serve to keep out cattle1 small boys1 and stray fishermen whose idle curiosity might tempt them to meddle with the contents of a house less securely fastened4 ,a house is never really finished until one loses interest in it and stops tinkering and planning homely improvements4 ,this sort of work is a healthy1 wholesome occupation and just the kind necessary to people of sedentary occupations or those whose misfortune it is to be engaged in some of the nerve-racking business peculiar to life in big cities4 ,dwellers in our big cities do not seem to realize that there is any other life possible for them than a continuous nightmare existence amid monstrous buildings1 noisy traffic1 and the tainted air of unsanitary streets4 ,they seem to have forgotten that the same sun that in summer scorches the towering masonry and paved sidewalks until the canyon-like streets become unbearable also shines on green woods1 tumbling waters1 and mirror-like lakes2 or1 if they are dimly conscious of this fact1 they think such places are so far distant as to be practically out of their reach in every sense4 ,yet in reality the wilderness is almost knocking at our doors1 for within one hundred miles of ,new ,york bears1 spotted wildcats1 and timid deer live unconfined in their primitive wild condition4 ,fish caught in the streams can be cooked for dinner in ,new ,york the same day4 ,in #ahhg1 when the writer was himself a bachelor1 he went out into the wilderness on the shores of ,big ,tink ,pond1 upon which he built the log house shown in the sketch4 ,at first he kept bachelor hall there with some choice spirits1 not the kind you find in bottles on the bar-room shelf1 but the human kind who love the outdoor world and nature1 or he took his parents and near relatives with him for a vacation in the woods4 ,like all sensible men1 in course of time he married1 and then he took his bride out to the cabin in the woods4 ,at length the time came when he found it necessary to shoulder his axe and go to the woods to secure material for a new piece of furniture4 ,he cut the young chestnut-trees1 peeled them1 and with them constructed a crib2 and every year for the last eight years that crib has been occupied part of the season4 ,thus1 you see1 a camp of this kind becomes hallowed with the most sacred of human memories and becomes a joy not only to the builder thereof but also to the coming generation4 ,at the big1 open fire in the grill-room1 with the old-fashioned cooking utensils gathered from farmhouses on ,long ,island1 ,i have cooked venison steaks1 tenderloin of the great northern hare1 the plump1 white breasts of the ruffed grouse1 all broiled over the hot coals with slices of bacon1 and when done to a turn1 placed in a big platter with fresh butter and served to a crowd who watched the operation and sniffed the delicious odor until they literally drooled at the corners of their mouths4 ,as the house was built on a deer runway1 all these things were products of the surrounding country1 and on several occasions they have all been served at one meal4 ,,xlvii ,,how ,,to ,,lay ,a ,,tar ,,paper1 ,,birch ,,bark1 ,,or ,,patent ,,roofing ,preparing the ,roofing for ,laying ,,birch ,,bark and patent roofing are more pliable than tin or shingles1 consequently taking less time to lay and making it easier work4 ,in very cold weather put your patent roofing in a warm room a few hours before using it4 ,never try to cut birch bark1 tar paper1 or patent roofing with a dull knife4 ,roofing ,foundation ,no matter what sort of roofing material is used1 do not forget the great importance of the roofing foundation 7,figs4 #bif and #bih74 ,if the foundation is poor or uneven the roofing will be poor and uneven1 even if only the best roofing material is used4 ,the sheathing boards should be matched if possible and of uniform thickness1 laid close1 and free from nails1 protruding knots1 and sharp edges4 ,do not use green lumber2 the sun is almost certain to shrink and warp it4 ,sometimes it will even break the roofing material4 ,on very particular work1 where the rafters are wide apart1 the best builders recommend laying a course of boards over the planking at right angles to it4 ,valleys ,if there are valleys in the roof 7,fig4 #bih7 use a long strip of roofing and lay it up and down in the direction of the valleys4 ,press the strip into the hollow so that it takes the shape of the valley itself4 ,allow the edges of the roofing to overlap the strip in the valley an equal distance on both sides of the valley 7,fig4 #bih74 ,how to ,lay the ,roofing ,begin at the eaves to lay the roofing 7,fig4 #bii74 ,always lay the roll of patent roofing with the inside surface to the weather and in the same direction that the boards run--not at right angles to them4 ,begin nailing at the centre of the edges of the strips and work both ways to the ends--never the reverse1 as the roofing may become wrinkled1 twisted1 or crooked4 ,always set caps even with the edge of the laps about two inches apart between their centres4 ,gutters ,to finish gutters1 fasten and carefully cement with the pitch or tar or prepared composition the edge of the strip about half-way to the gutter4 ,bring the other edge onto the roof1 then lay the next strip over this strip so that it will overlap at least two inches4 ,proceed to lay the balance of the roofing in the same way4 ,never nail the middle of the strips2 nail only along the edges4 ,the end strips should always be lapped over the edges of the roof and fastened 7,figs4 #big and #bii74 ,before fastening laps paint a two-inch strip with the tar or pitch cement which comes with all patent roofing in order to stick it to the lower strip of roofing and to make a tight joint when put in place4 ,do not drive nails carelessly or with too much force and be sure the cap fits snugly against the roofing4 ,if nails go into holes or open cracks1 do not remove them but thoroughly cement around them4 ,allow six inches for overlaps for joints where one strip joins another 7,fig4 #bii1 ,b74 ,be sure that two strips of roofing never meet at the ridge leaving a joint to invite a leak over the ridge-pole4 ,examine the diagrams if you fail to understand the description4 ,how to ,patch a ,shingle ,roof ,the reader must not suppose that the roof of my camp was made of flannel because it shrank1 for the whole house1 which was made of logs1 diminished in size as the wood became seasoned2 so that now each log averages a quarter of an inch less in width than it did when the house was built twenty odd years ago4 ,there are just one hundred logs in the house1 which makes the house twenty-five inches smaller than it was when it was built1 but ,i cannot point out the exact spot where the two feet and one inch are missing4 ,neither do ,i know that this had anything to do with the opening in the roof about the chimney2 but ,i do know that the opening gradually became wider and wider until it not only admitted the entrance of numerous flying squirrels and other varmints but also let in the rain and snow and consequently it had to be remedied4 ,neither the flying squirrels nor the elements can now enter at that point4 ,the ,connecticut ,yankees stop the leaks around the big chimneys of the old farmhouses with mortar or concrete1 but at permanent camps cement is not always handy1 and even if one is living in a farmhouse it will probably necessitate quite a long drive to procure it4 ,if1 however1 there happens to be on hand some strips of the various tar roofing compounds1 some old tin1 or even a good piece of oilcloth--by which ,i mean a piece that may be so worn as to have been cast aside and yet not so perforated with holes that it will admit the rain--it may be used to stop the leak4 ,fig4 #bia4 ,fig4 #bib4 ,fig4 #bic4 ,fig4 #bid4 ,fig4 #bif4 ,fig4 #big4 ,fig4 #bih4 ,fig4 #bii4 ,illustration3 ,how to lay a composition roof and how to cover space around flue4 7,fig4 #bie is on next plate47 ,fixtures for ,applying ,roofing ,the complete roofing kit consists of cement1 caps1 and nails4 ,the galvanized caps and nails are the best to use2 they won't rust4 ,square caps have more binding surface than the ordinary round ones2 but we can mend with any old thing4 ,fig4 #bia shows a chimney from which the roof of the house is parted1 leaving a good-sized opening around the smoke-stack4 ,to cover this1 take a piece of roofing compound1 tin1 oilcloth1 tar paper1 or paroid and cut as is shown in the upper diagram 7,fig4 #bib74 ,make the slits in the two ends of the material of such a length that when the upper ends are bent back1 as in the lower diagram 7,fig4 #bib71 they will fit snugly around the chimney4 ,you will need one piece like this for each side of the chimney4 ,where the ends of the chimney butt against the ridge of the roof you will require pieces slit in the same manner as the first but bent differently4 ,the upper lobe in this case is bent on the bias to fit the chimney1 while the lower one is bent over the ridge of the roof 7,figs4 #bic and #bid74 ,to better illustrate how this is done1 ,fig4 #bic is supposed to show the chimney with the roof removed4 ,fig4 #bid is the same view of the chimney with the two pieces in place4 ,you will need four pieces1 two at each end of the chimney1 to cover the ridge of the roof4 ,with all the many varieties of tar paper and composition roofing there come tacks or wire nails supplied with round tin disks perforated in the centre1 which are used as washers to prevent the nail from pulling through the roofing4 ,fig4 #bie shows the chimney with the patches around it tacked in place1 and the protruding ends of the parts trimmed off according to the dotted lines4 ,fig4 #big shows the way the roofing people put flashing on2 but ,i like my own way1 as illustrated by ,figs4 #bia1 #bib1 #bic1 #bid1 and #bie4 ,it must not be taken for granted that every camp or farmhouse has a supply of tin washers1 but we know that every camp and farmhouse does have a supply of tin cans1 and the washers may be made from these1 as shown by ,figs4 #cjj and #cja4 ,knock the cans apart at their seams and cut the tin up into pieces like the rectangular one shown under the hand in ,fig4 #cja4 ,bend these pieces in their centres so as to make them into squares1 then place them on a piece of soft wood and punch holes in them by driving a wire nail through the tin and you will have better washers than those you can buy although they may not be so handsome4 ,patched ,roofs and ,new ,shingles ,any decent shingled roof should last fifteen years without repairing and many of them last nearly twice that time4 ,but there comes a time when the roof begins to leak and needs mending2 when that time comes1 with your jack-knife whittle a number of little wooden pegs or splints each about six inches long and a little thicker than a pipe-stem with which to ,mark the ,holes ,go up in the attic and wherever you see daylight through the roof push through the hole a wooden peg to mark the spot4 ,then1 when you have finished and are ready to climb on the roof1 take off your shoes1 put on a pair of woollen socks1 and there will be little danger of your slipping4 ,new india rubber shoes with corrugated soles are also good to wear when climbing on the roof4 ,in ,fig4 #bie you will see two of the pegs sticking through the roof marking the holes1 and below is a larger view of one of these pegs connected with the upper ones by dotted lines4 ,sheet-,iron ,shingles ,to mend simple cracks or holes like these it is only necessary to bend up bits of tin or sheet iron 7,fig4 #cjj7 and drive the metal shingle up underneath the shingle above the hole so that the weather part of the tin covers the leak1 or drive it under the leaking shingle itself1 or drive a new shingle up under or over the damaged one4 ,where there is a bad place in the roof it may be necessary to make a patch of a number of shingles like the one shown in the right-hand corner of ,fig4 #bie1 but even then it is not necessary to remove the old shingles unless the hole is very large4 ,these patches of old tin or new shingles do not look handsome on an old roof1 but they serve their purpose in keeping out the rain and snow and preventing moisture from rotting the timbers4 ,the weather will soon tone down the color of the new shingles so that they will not be noticeable and you will have the satisfaction of having a dry roof over your head4 ,there is only one thing worse than a leaky roof and that is a leaky boat4 ,practical ,patching ,in these days when everybody with a few hundred dollars in pocket is very sensibly using it to buy a farm and farmhouse so as to be able for a part of the year to return to the simple life of our ancestors it is very necessary that we should also know something of the simple economies of those days1 for when one finds oneself out on a farm there is no plumber around the corner and no tinsmith on the next block whom one may call upon to repair breaks and the damage done by time and weather on an old farmhouse4 ,the ordinary man under these conditions is helpless1 but some are inspired by novel ideas1 as1 for instance1 the man who mended the leaking roof with porous plasters4 ,fig4 #bie4 ,fig4 #bie4 ,fig4 #cjj4 ,fig4 #cja4 ,fig4 #cjb4 ,fig4 #cjc4 ,fig4 #cjd4 ,fig4 #cje4 ,fig4 #cjf4 ,illustration3 ,how to mend a shingle or tin roof4 ,but for the benefit of those who are not supplied with a stock of porous plasters ,i will tell how to do the plumbing and how to mend the tin roof with old bits of tin1 rags1 and white lead2 and to begin with ,i want to impress upon the reader's mind that this will be no bungling1 unsightly piece of work1 but much more durable and just as neat as any piece of work which the professionals would do for him4 ,in the first place1 if you have an old tin roof on one of the extensions of your house or on your house itself1 do not be in haste to replace it with a new one4 ,remember that most of the modern sheet tin is made by modern methods and its life is not an extended one4 ,the sheet steel they often use in place of sheet iron rapidly disintegrates and such a roof will not last you half the time that a properly patched old one will4 ,the roof of the house in which ,i am writing this article is made of tin and was made about sixty years ago2 it has been patched and mended but to no great extent1 and it bids fair to outlive me4 ,had it been made of sheet steel it would have been necessary to renew it many times since that period4 ,so1 if you find that the tin roof to your farmhouse1 bungalow1 or camp leaks in consequence of some splits at the seams and a few rust holes patch them yourself4 ,fig4 #cja shows the only material necessary for that purpose4 ,you do not even need a pair of shears to cut your tin1 for it is much better folded over and hammered into shape1 as shown by ,fig4 #cja4 ,fig4 #cjb shows a crack and some rust holes in the tin roof4 ,take your carpet-tacks and hammer and neatly tack down the edges of the opening1 as shown by ,fig4 #cjc4 ,if there is any difficulty in driving tacks through the tin roof1 use a small wire nail and hammer to first punch the holes4 ,put the tacks close together4 ,with your paint-brush thickly coat the mended parts with white lead1 as shown by ,fig4 #cjd4 ,cut a strip of a rag to fit over the holes and tack it at its four corners1 as shown by ,fig4 #cje4 ,now1 then1 cover the rag with a thick coat 7,fig4 #cjf7 of the white lead4 ,next tack the tin over the wounded spots1 putting the tacks close together1 as shown by ,fig4 #cjf4 ,afterward coat the tin with a covering of white lead and the patchwork is done4 ,the roof will not leak again at those spots in the next twenty years4 ,this will leave white1 unsightly blotches on the roof1 but after the white lead is dry a few dabs with the red roof paint will make the white patches the same color as the surrounding tin and effectually conceal them4 ,do not forget the importance of carefully going over your roof after it is mended and make sure that every joint is properly covered1 tacked1 and thoroughly coated with white lead4 ,cover all joints1 nails1 and caps with a coat of white lead4 ,water will not run through the tin roofing1 but it will find its way through nail holes1 rust holes1 and open seams if they are not made absolutely tight4 ,plumbing ,after ,i had finished doctoring up the kitchen roof of my farmhouse1 ,i discovered that the drain-pipe from the kitchen sink had a nasty leak where the pipe ran through the cellar4 ,of course1 there was no plumber handy--plumbers do not live in farming districts--so it was up to me and my helper to stop the leak as best we could4 ,a few blows on the lead with the hammer1 carefully administered1 almost closed the hole4 ,i then had recourse to the white lead which ,i had been using on the kitchen roof1 and ,i daubed the pipe with paint2 still the water oozed through2 but after ,i had applied a strip of linen to the leak and then neatly wrapped it round and painted the whole of it with white lead the leak was effectually stopped1 and the pipe is apparently as good now1 six years after the mending1 as it was when it was new4 ,in this sort of work it must be remembered that it is the white lead we depend upon1 and the other material which we use--the tin and the rags--are only for the purpose of protecting and holding the white lead in place4 ,of course1 a roof may be mended with tar1 but that is always unsightly and insists upon running when heated by a hot sun2 besides1 it is most difficult to conceal and does not come ready for use like white lead4 ,if the leak happens to be around the chimney it can be mended by bending pieces of tin up against the chimney according to the diagram shown for the tar paper and patent roofings 7,figs4 #bie and #big74 ,flashings1 ,chimneys1 ,walls1 ,etc4 ,lead or copper is best for flashings1 but in case metal is not convenient you will find that various patent roofing materials are good substitutes4 ,run the strips of roofing to the angle formed by the object to be flashed and extend the same up the object three or four inches4 ,fasten these strips to the roof in the usual way or by nailing cleats of wood over the top edges4 ,leaks in tubs1 barrels1 and tanks used about the farm can be mended with rags1 tin1 and white lead in the manner described for the roof and pipe4 ,also leaks in the leaders running from the roof may be treated in the same manner1 but if you must get new leaders for your house by no means replace the old ones with galvanized-steel tubes4 ,you can tell the difference between galvanized steel and galvanized iron by its appearance4 ,the steel is brighter and more silvery than the iron1 but my experience is that the steel will last only two or three years2 sometimes one season puts steel pipes out of commission1 whereas galvanized iron will last indefinitely4 ,after having three sets of galvanized-steel leaders on my town house1 ,i had them replaced with copper leaders2 for1 although the expense is greater1 ,i have found it more economical in the end4 ,for people having plenty of money to spend on their country houses ,i would advise the use of copper leaders1 but folks of limited means will save money patching up the old tin ones or old galvanized ones instead of replacing them with galvanized steel1 which is of little service for outdoor wear4 ,there are1 ,i believe1 only a few firms who now manufacture galvanized iron1 but your architect can find them if you insist upon it4 ,,xlviii ,,how ,,to ,,make ,a ,,concealed ,,log ,,cabin ,,inside ,,of ,a ,,modern ,,house ,,it was because the writer knew that a great many men and all the boys rebelled against the conventionalities and restrictions of a modern house that he first invented and suggested the surprise den and told how to make one years ago in the ,outing magazine4 ,since that article appeared the idea has been adopted by a number of people4 ,there is a beautiful one in ,toledo1 ,o41 where the writer was entertained during the floods1 and ,doctor ,root1 of ,hartford1 ,conn41 has even a better one in his home in that ,yankee city4 ,fig4 #cjh shows a rough sketch of a corner of ,doctor ,root's surprise den which he calls his loggery4 ,from the outside of the house there is no indication of anything upon the inside that may not be found in any conventional dwelling1 which is the proper way to build the surprise den4 ,figs4 #cjg1 #cji1 and #caj are sketches made as suggestions to those wishing to add the surprise den to their dwelling4 ,to fathers and mothers having sons anywhere from twelve to thirty years of age1 it is almost a necessity nowadays to give these boys a room of their own1 popularly known as the den1 a retreat where they can go and sit in a chair without having fancy embroidered tidies adhere to their coat collars1 where they can lean back in their chairs1 if they choose1 with no danger of ruining the valuable ,hepplewhite or breaking the claw feet off a rare ,chippendale--a place where they can relax4 ,the greater the contrast between this room and the rest of the house1 the greater will be the enjoyment derived by the boys to whom it belongs4 ,the only two surprise dens which ,i have personally visited are the pride of the lives of two gentlemen who are both long past the years generally accorded to youth1 but both of them are still boys in their hearts4 ,the truth is a surprise den appeals to any man with romance in his soul2 and the more grand1 stately1 and formal his house may be1 the greater will the contrast be and the greater the surprise of this den4 ,it is a unique idea and makes a delightful smoking-room for the gentlemen of the house as well as a den for the boys of the house4 ,fig4 #cjg4 ,fig4 #cjh4 ,fig4 #cji4 ,fig4 #caj4 ,illustration3 ,suggestions for interiors of surprise dens and sketch of ,dr4 ,root's surprise den4 ,if the reader's house is already built1 the surprise den may be erected as an addition2 it may be built as a log cabin after the manner of any of those previously described in this book1 or it may be made an imitation log cabin by using slabs and nailing them on the walls in place of real whole logs4 ,doctor ,root's surprise den1 or loggery1 is made of whole logs and chinked with moss4 ,fig4 #caj is supposed to be made of slabs1 half logs1 or puncheons nailed to the walls and ceiling and so arranged that the visitor cannot detect the deception4 ,personally1 however1 ,i do not like deception of any sort and would recommend that the house be made1 if possible1 of whole logs2 but whatever way you build it1 remember that it must have a generous1 wide fireplace1 a crane1 and a good hearthstone1 and that your furniture must either be made of the material to be found in the woods or selected from the antique furniture of some old farmhouse1 not mahogany furniture1 but ,windsor chairs1 three-legged stools1 and deal-wood tables--such furniture as might be found in an old pioneer's home4 ,fig4 #caa4 ,fig4 #cab4 ,fig4 #cac4 ,fig4 #cad4 ,fig4 #cae4 ,fig4 #caf4 ,fig4 #cag4 ,fig4 #cah4 ,fig4 #cai4 ,fig4 #cbj4 ,illustration3 ,details of combined door-knob and wooden latch4 ,the principal thing to the surprise den1 however1 is the doorway4 ,the outside of the door--that is1 the side seen from the main part of the house--should be as formal as its surroundings and give no indication of what might be on the other side4 ,if it opens from the most formal room in the house1 so much the better4 ,fig4 #cba shows the outside of the door of the surprise den2 ,i do not mean by this outside of the house but a doorway facing the dining-room1 library1 drawing-room1 or parlor4 ,fig4 #cba shows one side of the door and ,fig4 #cbb the other side of the same door4 ,in this instance one side of the door is supposed to have a bronze escutcheon and a glass knob 7,figs4 #cae and #caf74 ,of course1 any other sort of a knob 7,fig4 #cac7 will answer our purpose1 but the inside1 or the surprise-den side1 of the door must have ,a ,wooden ,latch ,after some experiments ,i discovered that this could be easily arranged by cutting a half-round piece of hardwood 7,f1 ,fig4 #cab7 to fit upon the square end ,g of the knob 7,figs4 #caa and #cac7 and be held in place with a small screw 7,fig4 #cad74 ,when this arrangement is made for the door and the knob put in place as it is in ,figs4 #cae and #caf1 a simple wooden latch 7,fig4 #cag7 with the catch ,k 7,fig4 #cai7 and the guard 7,fig4 #cbj7 may be fastened upon the den side of the door as shown by ,k1 ,l1 7,fig4 #cag74 ,when the door is latched the wooden piece ,f fits underneath the latch as shown by ,fig4 #cag4 ,when the knob is turned1 it turns the half disk and lifts the latch ,h as shown in ,fig4 #cah2 this1 of course1 opens the door1 and the visitor is struck with amazement upon being ushered into a pioneer backwoods log cabin1 where after-dinner coffee may be served1 where the gentlemen may retire to smoke their cigars1 where the master of the house may retire1 free from the noise of the children1 to go over his accounts1 write his private letters1 or simply sit before the fire and rest his tired brain by watching the smoke go up the chimney4 ,fig4 #cba4 ,fig4 #cbb4 ,illustration3 ,the surprise den4 ,a log house inside a modern mansion4 ,here also1 over the open fire1 fish1 game1 and chickens may be cooked1 as our grandams and granddaddies cooked them1 and quaint1 old-fashioned luncheons and suppers served on earthenware or tin dishes1 camp style4 ,in truth1 the surprise den possesses so many charming possibilities that it is destined to be an adjunct to almost every modern home4 ,it can be enclosed within the walls of a city house1 a suburban house1 or added as a wing to a country house1 but in all cases the outside of the surprise den should conform in material used and general appearance to the rest of the house so as not to betray the secret4 ,,xlix ,,how ,,to ,,build ,,appropriate ,,gateways ,,for ,,grounds ,,enclosing ,,log ,,houses1 ,,game ,,preserves1 ,,ranches1 ,,big ,,country ,,estates1 ,,and ,,last ,,but ,,not ,,least ,,boy ,,scouts' ,,camp ,,grounds ,,the great danger with rustic work is the temptation1 to which most builders yield1 to make it too fancy and intricate in place of practical and simple4 ,figs4 #cbc1 #cbd1 #cbe1 and #cbf are as ornamental as one can make them without incurring the danger of being overdone1 too ornate1 too fancy to be really appropriate4 ,fig4 #cbc4 ,fig4 #cbd4 ,fig4 #cbe4 ,fig4 #cbf4 ,illustration3 ,which would you rather do or go fishing8 ,suggestions for log gates4 ,which ,would ,you ,rather ,do or ,go ,fishing8 ,fig4 #cbh is a gate made of upright logs with bevelled tops protected by plank acting as a roof1 and a flattened log fitting across the top4 ,the gate and fence1 you may see1 are of simple construction2 horizontal logs for the lower part keep out small animals1 upright posts and rails for the upper part keep out larger animals and at the same time do not shut out the view from the outside or the inside of the enclosure4 ,fig4 #cbd shows a roof gateway designed and made for the purpose of supplying building sites for barn swallows or other useful birds4 ,the fence for this one is a different arrangement of logs1 practical and not too fancy4 ,fig4 #cbe shows a modification of the gate shown by ,fig4 #cbc2 in this one1 however1 in place of a plank protecting bevelled edges of the upright logs1 two flattened logs are spiked on like rafters to a roof1 the apex being surmounted by a bird-house4 ,fig4 #cbf shows another gateway composed of two upright logs with a cross log overhead in which holes have been excavated for the use of white-breasted swallows1 bluebirds1 woodpeckers1 or flickers4 ,fig4 #cbg is another simple but picturesque form of gateway1 where the cross log at the top has its two ends carved after the fashion of totem-poles4 ,in place of a wooden fence a stone wall is shown4 ,the ends of the logs 7,fig4 #cbg71 which are embedded in the earth1 should first be treated with two or three coats of creosote to prevent decay2 but since it is the moisture of the ground that causes the decay1 if you arrange your gate-posts like those shown in the vertical section 7,fig4 #cbh71 they will last practically forever4 ,note that the short gate-post rests upon several small stones with air spaces between them1 and pointed ends of the upright logs rest upon one big stone4 ,the gate-post is fastened to the logs by crosspieces of board running horizontally from log to the post1 and these are enclosed inside the stone pier so that they are concealed from view4 ,this arrangement allows all the water to drain from the wood1 leaving it dry and thus preventing decay4 ,fig4 #cbi shows another form of gate-post of more elaborate structure1 surmounted by the forked trunk of a tree2 these parts are supposed to be spiked together or secured in place by hardwood pegs4 ,never forget to add the bird-house or bird shelter to every gateway you make2 it is more important than the gate itself4 ,in my other books ,i have described and told how to make various forms of bird-houses1 including my invention of the woodpecker's house now being manufactured by many firms1 including one in ,germany1 but the reader should make his own bird-houses4 ,i am glad the manufacturers have taken up these ideas for the good they will do the birds1 but the ideas were published first solely for the use of the boys in the hopes of educating them both in the conservation of bird life and in the manual training necessary to construct bird-houses4 ,fig4 #cbg4 ,fig4 #cbh4 ,fig4 #cbi4 ,illustration3 ,gateways for game preserves1 camps1 etc4 ,fig4 #ccj4 ,fig4 #cca4 ,fig4 #ccb4 ,illustration3 ,log gate and details of same4 ,the reader must have1 no doubt1 noticed that the problems in this book have become more and more difficult as we approach the end1 but this is because everything grows2 as we acquire skill we naturally seek more and more difficult work on which to exercise our skill4 ,these gateways1 however1 are none of them too difficult for the boys to build themselves4 ,the main problem to overcome in building the picturesque log gateway shown by ,fig4 #cca is not in laying up the logs or constructing the roof--the reader has already learned how to do both in the forepart of this book--but it is in so laying the logs that the slant or incline on the two outsides will be exactly the same1 also in so building the sides that when you reach the top of the open way and place your first overhead log1 the log will be exactly horizontal1 exactly level1 as it must be to carry out the plan in a workmanlike manner4 ,fig4 #ccj shows you the framework of the roof1 the ridge-pole of which is a plank cut sway-backed1 that is1 lower in the centre than at either end4 ,the frame should be roofed with hand-rived shingles1 or at least hand-trimmed shingles1 if you use the manufactured article of commerce4 ,this gateway is appropriate for a common post-and-rail fence or any of the log fences illustrated in the previous diagrams4 ,fig4 #ccb shows how the fence here shown is constructed3 the ,a logs are bevelled to fit in diagonally1 the ,b and ,c logs are set in as shown by the dotted line in ,fig4 #ccb4 ,a gateway like the one shown here would make a splendid and imposing one for a permanent camp1 whether it be a ,boy ,scout1 a ,girl ,pioneer1 a private camp for boys1 or simply the entrance to a large private estate4 ,the writer has made these diagrams so that they may be used by men or boys2 the last one shows a gateway large enough to admit a four-in-hand stage-coach or an automobile1 but the boys may build it in miniature so that the opening is only large enough to admit a pedestrian4 ,the ,end ,,the ,,beard ,,books ,,for ,,boys ,by ,,dan ,c4 ,,beard ,shelters1 ,shacks1 and ,shanties ,illustrated by the ,author #a4be net ,he gives easily workable directions1 accompanied by very full illustration1 for over fifty shelters1 shacks1 and shanties1 ranging from the most primitive shelter to a fully equipped log cabin4 ,boys will find it an invaluable guide in constructing temporary or permanent shelters in their hikes or encampments4 ,boat-,building and ,boating ,a ,handy ,book for ,beginners ,illustrated by the ,author #a4jj net ,the directions for making boats are practical and illustrated by simple diagrams1 and the work is full of new and suggestive ideas for all kinds of craft4 ,the ,boy ,pioneers ,sons of ,daniel ,boone ,illustrated by the ,author #a4ej net ,a book that is truly fine and will probably have a wider influence on the lives of boys into whose hands it falls than almost any other book that comes their way4--,the ,interior4 ,the ,field and ,forest ,handy ,book ,or1 ,new ,ideas for ,out of ,doors ,illustrated by the ,author #a4ej net ,instructions as to ways to build boats and fire-engines1 make aquariums1 rafts and sleds1 to camp in a back-yard1 etc4 ,no better book of the kind exists4--,chicago ,record-,herald4 ,,the ,,beard ,,books ,,for ,,boys ,the ,jack of ,all ,trades ,or1 ,new ,ideas for ,american ,boys ,illustrated by the ,author #a4ej net ,every boy who is handy with tools of any sort will enjoy this book4--,youth's ,companion4 ,full of new ideas for active boys who like to use tools and see interesting things growing under their hands4--,new ,york ,tribune4 ,a perfect treasure-house of things that delight the soul of a boy4--,the ,interior4 ,the ,outdoor ,handy ,book ,for ,playground1 ,field and ,forest ,illustrated by the ,author #a4ej net ,it tells how to play all sorts of games with marbles1 how to make and spin more kinds of tops than most boys ever heard of1 how to make the latest things in plain and fancy kites1 where to dig bait and how to fish1 all about boats and sailing1 and a host of other things which can be done out of doors4 ,the volume is profusely illustrated and will be an unmixed delight to any boy4--,new ,york ,tribune4 ,the ,american ,boys ,handy ,book ,or1 ,what ,to ,do and ,how ,to ,do ,it ,illustrated by the ,author #a4ej net ,it tells boys how to make all kinds of things--boats1 traps1 toys1 puzzles1 aquariums1 fishing tackle2 how to tie knots1 splice ropes1 make bird calls1 sleds1 blow guns1 balloons2 how to rear wild birds1 to train dogs1 and do a thousand and one things that boys take delight in4 ,the book is illustrated in such a way that no mistake can be made2 and the boy who gets a copy of this book will consider himself set up in business4--,the ,indianapolis ,journal4 ,,charles ,,scribner',s ,,sons ,,the ,,beard ,,books ,,for ,,girls ,by ,,lina ,,beard and ,,adelia ,b4 ,,beard ,handicraft and ,recreation for ,girls ,with over #gjj illustrations by the ,authors #hvo4 #a4ej net ,an elaborate book for girls1 by ,lina and ,adelia ,beard whose former books on girls' sports have become classic1 which contains a mass of practical instruction on handicrafts and recreations4 ,so many and so various are the things it tells how to do and make that it will give occupation to any sort of girl in all seasons and all weathers4 ,the girl who gets this book will not lack for occupation and pleasure4--,chicago ,evening ,post4 ,what a ,girl ,can ,make and ,do ,new ,ideas for ,work and ,play ,with more than #cjj illustrations by the ,authors ,square #hvo4 #a4ej net ,this book is the result of the authors' earnest desire to encourage in their young friends the wish to do things for themselves4 ,its aim is to give suggestions that will help them to satisfy this wish4 ,within its covers are described a great variety of things useful1 instructive1 and entertaining1 suited for both indoors and out4 ,it would be a dull girl who could not make herself busy and happy following its precepts4--,chicago ,record-,herald4 ,,the ,,beard ,,books ,,for ,,girls ,the ,american ,girl's ,handy ,book ,how ,to ,amuse ,yourself and ,others ,with nearly #ejj illustrations #hvo4 #a4ej net ,in this book ,lina and ,adelia ,beard1 the authors1 tell everything the girls of to-day want to know about sports1 games1 and winter afternoon and evening amusements and work1 in a clear1 simple1 entertaining way4 ,eight new chapters have been added to the original forty-two that made the book famous4 ,it is a treasure which1 once possessed1 no practical girl would willingly part with4--,grace ,greenwood4 ,things ,worth ,doing and ,how ,to ,do ,them ,with some #fjj drawings by the ,authors that show exactly how they should be done #hvo4 #a4ej net ,this book by ,lina and ,adelia ,beard comprises an infinite variety of amusing things that are worth doing4 ,some of these things are3--,a ,wonderful ,circus at ,home1 ,the ,wild ,west on a ,table1 ,how to ,weave ,without a ,loom1 ,how to ,make ,friends with the ,stars1 ,a ,living ,christmas ,tree1 etc4 ,everything is so plainly set forth and so fully illustrated with drawings that the happy owners of the book should find it easy to follow its suggestions4--,new ,york ,tribune4 ,,charles ,,scribner',s ,,sons ,page #bjb fat side changed to flat side4 ,page #bcj numer changed to number4