file which includes the original illustrations4 ,see #bhjig-;h4htm or #bhjig-;h4zip3 7https3_/_/www4gutenberg4org_/dirs_/#b_/ h_/j_/i_/bhjig_/bhjig-;h_/#bhjig-;h4htm7 or 7https3_/_/www4gutenberg4org_/dirs_/#b_/ h_/j_/i_/bhjig_/bhjig-;h4zip7 ,,english3 ,,composition ,,and ,,literature by ,w4 ,f4 ,,webster ,principal of the ,east ,high ,school ,minneapolis1 ,minnesota ,houghton ,mifflin ,company ,boston3 #d ,park ,street2 ,new ,york3 #he ,fifth ,avenue ,chicago3 #cgh-chh ,wabash ,avenue ,the ,riverside ,press ,cambridge ,copyright1 #aijj and #aijb1 by ,w4 ,f4 ,webster ,all ,rights ,reserved ,,preface ,in ,july1 #ahih1 ,i presented at the ,national ,educational ,association1 convened in ,washington1 a ,course of ,study in ,english4 ,at ,los ,angeles1 in #ahii1 the ,association indorsed the principles#a of this course1 and made it the basis of the ,course in ,english for ,high ,schools4 ,at the request of friends1 ,i have prepared this short text-book1 outlining the method of carrying forward the course1 and emphasizing the principles necessary for the intelligent communication of ideas4 ,it has not been the purpose to write a rhetoric4 ,the many fine distinctions and divisions1 the rarefied examples of very beautiful forms of language which a young pupil cannot possibly reproduce1 or even appreciate1 have been omitted4 ,to teach the methods of simple1 direct1 and accurate expression has been the purpose2 and this is all that can be expected of a high school course in ,english4 ,the teaching of composition differs from the teaching of ,latin or mathematics in this point3 whereas pupils can be compelled to solve a definite number of problems or to read a given number of lines1 it is not possible to compel expression of the full thought4 ,the full thought is made of an intellectual and an emotional element4 ,whatever is intellectual may be compelled by dint of sheer purpose2 whatever is emotional must spring undriven by outside authority1 and uncompelled by inside determination4 ,a boy saws a cord of wood because he has been commanded by his father2 but he cannot laugh or cry because directed to do so by the same authority4 ,there must be the conditions which call forth smiles or tears4 ,so there must be the conditions which call forth the full expression of thought1 both what is intellectual and what is emotional4 ,this means that the subject shall be one of which the writer knows something1 and in which he is interested2 that the demands in the composition shall not be made a discouragement2 and that the teacher shall be competent and enthusiastic1 inspiring in each pupil a desire to say truly and adequately the best he thinks and feels4 ,these conditions cannot be realized while working with dead fragments of language2 but they are realized while constructing living wholes of composition4 ,it is not two decades ago when the pupil in drawing was compelled to make straight lines until he made them all crooked4 ,the pupil in manual training began by drawing intersecting lines on two sides of a board2 then he drove nails into the intersections on one side1 hoping that they would hit the corresponding points on the other4 ,now no single line or exercise is an end in itself2 it contributes to some whole4 ,under the old method the pupil did not care or try to draw a straight line1 or to drive a nail straight2 but now1 in order that he may realize the idea that lies in his mind1 he does care and he does try3 so lines are drawn better and nails are driven straighter than before4 ,in all training that combines intellect and hand1 the principle has been recognized that the best work is done when the pupil's interest has been enlisted by making each exercise contribute directly to the construction of some whole4 ,only in the range of the spiritual are we twenty years behind time1 trying to get the best construction by compulsion4 ,it is quite time that we recognized that the best work in composition can be done1 not while the pupil is correcting errors in the use of language which he never dreamed of1 nor while he is writing ten similes or ten periodic sentences1 but when both intellect and feeling combine and work together to produce some whole4 ,then into the construction of this whole the pupil will throw all his strength1 using the most apt comparisons1 choosing the best words1 framing adequate sentences1 in order that the outward form may worthily present to others what to himself has appeared worthy of expression4 ,there are some persons who say that other languages are taught by the word and sentence method2 then why not ,english8 ,these persons overlook the fact that we are leaving that method as rapidly as possible1 and adopting a more rational method which at once uses a language to communicate thought4 ,and they overlook another fact of even greater importance3 the pupil entering the high school is by no means a beginner in ,english4 ,he has been using the language ten or twelve years1 and has a fluency of expression in ,english which he cannot attain in ,german throughout a high school and college course4 ,the conditions under which a pupil begins the study of ,german in a high school and the study of ,english composition are entirely dissimilar2 and a conclusion based upon a fancied analogy is worthless4 ,it is preferable1 then1 to practice the construction of wholes rather than the making of exercises2 and it is best at the beginning to study the different kinds of wholes1 one at a time1 rather than all together4 ,no one would attempt to teach elimination by addition and subtraction1 by comparison and by substitution1 all together2 nor would an instructor take up heat1 light1 and electricity together4 ,in algebra1 or physics1 certain great principles underlie the whole subject2 and these appear and reappear as the study progresses through its allied parts4 ,still the best results are obtained by taking up these several divisions of the whole one after another4 ,and in ,english the most certain and definite results are secured by studying the forms of discourse separately1 learning the method of applying to each the great principles that underlie all composition4 ,if the forms of discourse are to be studied one after another1 which shall be taken up first8 ,in general1 all composition may be separated into two divisions3 composition which deals with things1 including narration and description2 and composition which deals with ideas1 comprising exposition and argument4 ,it needs no argument to justify the position that an essay which deals with things seen and heard is easier for a beginner to construct than an essay which deals with ideas invisible and unheard4 ,whether narration or description should precede appears yet to be undetermined2 for many text-books treat one first1 and perhaps as many the other4 ,i have thought it wiser to begin with the short story1 because it is easier to gain free1 spontaneous expression with narration than with description4 ,to write a whole page of description is a task for a master1 and very few attempt it2 but for the uninitiated amateur about three sentences of description mark the limit of his ability to see and describe4 ,to get started1 to gain confidence in one's ability to say something1 to acquire freedom and spontaneity of expression1--this is the first step in the practice of composition4 ,afterward1 when the pupil has discovered that he really has something to say1--enough indeed to cover three or four pages of his tablet paper1--then it may be time to begin the study of description1 and to acquire more careful and accurate forms of expression4 ,spontaneity should be acquired first1--crude and unformed it may be1 but spontaneity first2 and this spontaneity is best gained while studying narration4 ,there can be but little question about the order of the other forms4 ,description1 still dealing with the concrete1 offers an admirable opportunity for shaping and forming the spontaneous expression gained in narration4 ,following description1 in order of difficulty1 come exposition and argument4 ,i should be quite misunderstood1 did any one gather from this that during the time in which wholes are being studied1 no attention is to be given to parts2 that is1 to paragraphs1 sentences1 and words4 ,all things cannot be learned at once and thoroughly2 there must be some order of succession4 ,in the beginning the primary object to be aimed at is the construction of wholes2 yet during their construction1 parts can also be incidentally studied4 ,during this time many errors which annoy and exasperate must be passed over with but a word1 in order that the weight of the criticism may be concentrated on the point then under consideration4 ,as a pupil advances1 he is more and more competent to appreciate and to form good paragraphs and well-turned sentences1 and to single out from the multitude of verbal signs the word that exactly presents his thought4 ,the appreciation and the use of the stronger as well as the finer and more delicate forms of language come only with much reading and writing2 and to demand everything at the very beginning is little less than sheer madness4 ,moreover there never comes a time when the construction of a paragraph1 the shaping of a phrase1 or the choice of a word becomes an end in itself4 ,paragraphs1 sentences1 and words are well chosen when they serve best the whole composition4 ,he who becomes enamored of one form of paragraph1 who always uses periodic sentences1 who chooses only common words1 has not yet recognized that the beauty of a phrase or a word is determined by its fitness1 and that it is most beautiful because it exactly suits the place it fills4 ,the graceful sweep of a line by ,praxiteles or the glorious radiancy of a color by ,angelico is most beautiful in the place it took from the master's hand4 ,so ,lowell's wealth of figurative language and ,stevenson's unerring choice of delicate words are most beautiful1 not when torn from their original setting to serve as examples in rhetorics1 but when fulfilling their part in a well-planned whole4 ,and it is only as the beauties of literature are born of the thought that they ever succeed4 ,no one can say to himself1 ,i will now make a good simile1 and straightway fulfill his promise4 ,if1 however1 the thought of a writer takes fire1 and instead of the cold1 unimpassioned phraseology of the logician1 glowing images crowd up1 and phrases tipped with fire1 then figurative language best suits the thought1--indeed1 it is the thought4 ,but imagery upon compulsion1--never4 ,so that at no time should one attempt to mould fine phrases for the sake of the phrases themselves1 but he should spare no pains with them when they spring from the whole1 when they harmonize with the whole1 and when they give to the whole added beauty and strength4 ,it is quite unnecessary at this day to urge the study of literature4 ,it is in the course of study for every secondary school4 ,yet a word may be said of the value of this study to the practice of composition4 ,there are two classes of artists3 geniuses and men of talent4 ,of geniuses in literature1 one can count the names on his fingers2 most authors are simply men of talent4 ,talent learns to do by doing1 and by observing how others have done4 ,when ,brunelleschi left ,rome for ,florence1 he had closely observed and had drawn every arch of the stupendous architecture in that ancient city2 and so he was adjudged by his fellow citizens to be the only man competent to lift the dome of their ,duomo4 ,his observation discovered the secret of ,rome's architectural grandeur2 and the slow accumulation of such secrets marks the development of every art and science4 ,milton had his method of writing prose1 ,macaulay his1 and ,arnold his1--all different and all excellent4 ,and just as the architect stands before the cathedrals of ,cologne1 ,milan1 and ,salisbury to learn the secret of each2 as the painter searches out the secret of ,raphael1 ,murillo1 and ,rembrandt2 so the author analyzes the masterpieces of literature to discover the secret of ,irving1 of ,eliot1 and of ,burke4 ,not that an author is to be a servile imitator of any man's manner2 but that1 having knowledge of all the secrets of composition1 he shall so be enabled to set forth for others his own thought in all the beauty and perfection in which he himself conceives it4 ,one thing further4 ,a landscape painter would not make a primary study of ,angelo's anatomical drawings2 a composer of lyric forms of music would not study ,sousa's marches2 nor would a person writing a story look for much assistance in the arguments of ,burke4 ,the most direct benefit is derived from studying the very thing one wishes to know about1 not from studying something else4 ,that the literature may give the greatest possible assistance to the composition1 the course has been so arranged that narration shall be taught by ,hawthorne and ,irving1 description by ,ruskin and ,stevenson1 exposition by ,macaulay and ,newman1 and argument by ,webster and ,burke4 ,literature1 arranged in this manner1 is not only a stimulus to renewed effort1 by showing what others have done2 it is also the most skillful instructor in the art of composition1 by showing how others have done4 ,it would be quite impossible for any one at the present time to write a text-book in ,english that would not repeat what has already been said by many others4 ,nor have ,i tried to4 ,my purpose has been rather to select from the whole literature of the subject just those principles which every author of a book on composition or rhetoric has thought essential1 and to omit minor matters and all those about which there is a difference of opinion4 ,this limits the contents to topics already familiar to every teacher4 ,it also makes it necessary to repeat what has been written before many times4 ,certain books1 however1 have treated special divisions of the whole subject in a thorough and exhaustive manner4 ,there is nothing new to say of ,unity1 ,mass1 and ,coherence2 ,mr4 ,wendell said all concerning these in his book entitled ,english ,composition4 ,so in paragraph development1 ,scott and ,denney hold the field4 ,other books which ,i have frequently used in the classroom are ,talks on ,writing ,english1 by ,arlo ,bates1 and ,genung's ,practical ,rhetoric4 ,these books ,i have found very helpful in teaching1 and ,i have drawn upon them often while writing this text-book4 ,if the field has been covered1 then why write a book at all8 ,the answer is that the principles which are here treated have not been put into one book4 ,they may be found in several4 ,these essentials ,i have repeated many times with the hope that they will be fixed by this frequent repetition4 ,the purpose has been to focus the attention upon these1 to apply them in the construction of the different forms of discourse1 paragraphs1 and sentences1 and to repeat them until it is impossible for a student to forget them4 ,if the book fulfils this purpose1 it was worth writing4 ,acknowledgments are due to ,messrs4 ,charles ,scribner's ,sons for their kind permission to use the selections from the writings of ,robert ,louis ,stevenson contained in this book2 also1 to ,messrs4 ,d4 ,appleton ,co41 ,the ,century ,co41 and ,doubleday ,mc,clure ,co4 for selections from the writings of ,rudyard ,kipling4 ,w4 ,f4 ,,webster4 ,,minneapolis1 #aijj4 ,,contents ,chapter ,i4--,forms of ,discourse ,composition #a ,english ,composition #a ,composition1 ,written and ,oral #b ,conventions of ,composition #b ,five ,forms of ,discourse #c ,definitions #d ,difficulty in distinguishing #d ,purpose of the ,author #f ,chapter ,,ii4--,choice of ,subject ,form and ,material #h ,author's ,individuality #h ,knowledge of ,subject #i ,common ,subjects #aj ,interest #aa ,the ,familiar #aa ,human ,life #ab ,the ,strange #ab ,chapter ,,iii4--,narration ,material of ,narration #ac ,in ,action #ad ,the ,commonest ,form of ,discourse #ad ,language as a ,means of ,expression #ae ,without ,plot #ae ,plot #af ,unity1 ,mass1 and ,coherence #bj ,main ,incident #bj ,its ,importance #ba ,unity #ba ,introductions and ,conclusions #bc ,tedious ,enumerations #bc ,what to include #bd ,consistency #be ,an ,actor as the ,story-teller #bf ,the ,omniscience of an ,author #bg ,the ,climax #bh ,who8 ,where8 ,when8 ,why8 #bi ,in what ,order8 #bi ,an ,outline #cb ,movement #cb ,rapidity #cb ,slowness #cc ,description and ,narration #cd ,characters few1 ,time short #ce ,simple ,plot #cf ,suggestive ,questions and ,exercises #ch ,chapter ,,iv4--,description ,difficulties of ,language for making ,pictures #di ,painting and ,sculpture #ej ,advantages of ,language #ej ,enumeration and ,suggestion #eb ,enumerative ,description #ed ,suggestive ,description #ee ,value of ,observation #ee ,the ,point of ,view #ef ,moving ,point of ,view #eh ,the ,point of ,view should be stated #eh ,mental ,point of ,view #ei ,length of ,descriptions #fc ,arrangement of ,details in ,description #fd ,the ,end of a ,description #gj ,proportion #gc ,arrangement must be natural #gd ,use ,familiar ,images #ge ,simile1 ,metaphor1 ,personification #gg ,choice of ,words4 ,adjectives and ,nouns #gh ,use of ,verbs #gi ,suggestive ,questions and ,exercises #ha ,chapter ,v4--,exposition ,general ,terms difficult #hi ,definition #ia ,exposition and ,description distinguished #ia ,logical ,definition #ia ,genus and ,differentia #ib ,requisites of a ,good ,definition #ic ,how do ,men explain8 ,first1 by ,repetition #id ,second1 by telling the obverse #ie ,third1 by ,details #if ,fourth1 by ,illustrations #ig ,fifth1 by ,comparisons #ih ,the ,subject #ii ,the ,subject should allow ,concrete ,treatment #ajj ,the ,theme #ajj ,the ,title #ajb ,selection of ,material #ajb ,scale of ,treatment #ajd ,arrangement #ajh ,use ,cards for ,subdivisions #ajh ,an ,outline #aji ,mass the ,end #aaj ,the ,beginning #aab ,proportion in ,treatment #aad ,emphasis of ,emotion #aae ,phrases indicating ,emphasis #aaf ,coherence #aaf ,transition ,phrases #aah ,summary and ,transition #aai ,suggestive ,questions and ,exercises #aba ,chapter ,,vi4--,argument ,induction and ,deduction #abi ,syllogism ,premises #abi ,terms #abi ,enthymeme #acj ,definition of ,terms #acj ,undistributed ,middle #aca ,false ,premises #aca ,method of ,induction #acb ,arguments from ,cause #acc ,arguments from ,sign #acd ,sequence and ,cause #ace ,arguments from ,example #acg ,selection of ,material #ach ,plan called ,the ,brief #ach ,climax #aci ,inductive precedes ,deductive #adj ,cause precedes ,sign #adj ,example follows ,sign #ada ,refutation #ada ,analysis of ,burke's ,oration #adb ,suggestive ,questions #adh ,chapter ,,vii4--,paragraphs ,definition #aea ,long and ,short ,paragraphs #aea ,topic ,sentence #aeg ,no ,topic ,sentence #afa ,the ,plan #afb ,kinds of ,paragraphs #afc ,details #afc ,comparisons #afe ,repetition #afg ,obverse #afi ,examples #aga ,combines ,two or ,more ,forms #agc ,unity #agc ,need of ,outline #agd ,mass #agd ,what begins and what ends a ,paragraph8 #age ,length of opening and closing ,sentences #agh ,proportion #agi ,coherence and ,clearness #ahj ,two ,arrangements of ,sentences in a ,paragraph #aha ,definite ,references #ahg ,use of ,pronouns #ahh ,of ,conjunctions #aij ,parallel ,constructions #aib ,summary #aie ,suggestive ,questions #aif ,chapter ,,viii4--,sentences ,definition and ,classification4 ,simple ,sentences #bjj ,compound ,sentences #bjj ,short ,sentences #bjd ,long ,sentences #bjd ,unity #bje ,mass #bjg ,end of a ,sentence #bjh ,effect of ,anti-climax #baj ,use of ,climax #baa ,loose and ,periodic #bab ,the ,period #bab ,periodic and ,loose combined #bad ,which shall be used8 #bae ,emphasis by ,change of ,order #bag ,subdue ,unimportant ,elements #bai ,the ,dynamic ,point of a ,sentence #bba ,good ,use #bbc ,clearness gained by ,coherence #bbd ,parallel ,construction #bbf ,balanced ,sentences #bbg ,use of ,connectives #bbh ,suggestive ,questions #bca ,chapter ,,ix4--,words ,need of a ,large ,vocabulary #bcf ,dictionary #bcg ,study of ,literature #bch ,vulgarisms are not reputable #bdj ,slang is not reputable #bdj ,words must be ,national4 ,provincialisms #bdb ,technical and ,bookish ,words #bdb ,foreign ,words #bdc ,words in ,present ,use #bdd ,words in their ,present ,meaning #bde ,words of ,latin and ,saxon ,origin #bde ,general and ,specific #bdh ,use ,words that suggest most #bdi ,synecdoche1 ,metonymy #bej ,care in ,choice of ,specific ,words #bej ,avoid ,hackneyed ,phrases #bec ,fine ,writing #bec ,in ,prose avoid ,poetical ,words #bed ,chapter ,x4--,figures of ,speech ,figurative ,language #beg ,figures based upon ,likeness #bei ,metaphor #bfj ,epithet #bfj ,personification #bfj ,apostrophe #bfa ,allegory #bfa ,simile #bfa ,figures based upon ,sentence ,structure #bfb ,inversion #bfb ,exclamation #bfb ,interrogation #bfb ,climax #bfb ,irony #bfb ,metonymy #bfc ,synecdoche #bfc ,allusion #bfc ,hyperbole #bfc ,exercises in ,figures #bfd ,chapter ,,xi4--,verse ,forms ,singing ,verse #bfi ,poetic ,feet #bgb ,kinds of ,metre #bgc ,stanzas #bge ,scansion #bgf ,variations in ,metres #bgf ,first and ,last ,foot #bha ,kinds of ,poetry #bhd ,exercises in ,metres #bhf ,,appendix ,a4 ,suggestions to ,teachers #bic ,b4 ,the ,form of a ,composition #bif ,c4 ,marks for ,correction of ,compositions #cjj ,d4 ,punctuation #cja ,e4 ,supplementary ,list of ,literature #cji ,a ,,course ,,of ,,study ,,in ,,literature ,,and ,,composition ,the ,course of ,study which follows is presented1 not because it is better than many others which might be made4 ,for the purposes of this book it was necessary that some course be adopted as the basis of the text4 ,the principles which guided in arranging this course ,i believe are sound2 but the preferences of teachers and the peculiarities of environment will often make it wise to use other selections from literature4 ,of this a large supplementary list is given at the back of the book4 ,it is now a generally accepted truth that the study of ,english should continue through the four years of a high-school course4 ,the division of time that seems best is to take ,narration and ,description in the first year4 ,in connection with ,description1 ,figures of ,speech should be studied4 ,the next year1 ,exposition and ,paragraphs form the major part of the work4 ,this may be pleasantly broken by a study of ,poetry1 following the outline in the chapter on ,verse ,forms4 ,in the third year1 while the work in literature is mainly the ,novel and the ,drama1 ,sentences and ,words should be studied in composition1 with a review of the chapters on ,narration and ,description4 ,towards the close of the year1 ,exposition should be reviewed and the study of ,argument taken up4 ,the fourth year should be devoted to the study of such ,college ,requirements as have not been taken in the course1 and to the study of the ,history of ,english ,literature as given in some good text book4 ,in some instances1 it will be found impossible to give so much time to the study of ,english4 ,in such cases1 the amount of literature to be studied should be decreased1 and the work in the text book should be more rapidly done4 ,the sequence of the parts should remain the same1 but the time should be modified to suit the needs of any special environment4 ,,narration4 ,composition4 ,to give ,spontaneity4 ,i4 ,external ,form of ,composition 7p4 #bif74 ,,ii4 ,marks for the ,correction of ,compositions 7p4 #cjj74 ,,iii4 ,simple ,rules for ,punctuation 7pp4 #cja-cji74 ,,iv4 ,forms of ,discourse4 ,definitions 7pp4 #a-g74 ,v4 ,choice of ,subject 7pp4 #h-ab74 ,,vi4 ,study of ,narration 7pp4 #ac-dh74 a4 ,definition and ,general ,discussion4 b4 ,narration without ,plot4 ,interest the ,essential ,feature4 c4 ,narration with ,plot4 #a4 ,selection of ,main ,incident of first ,importance4 ,it gives to the story ,unity1 ridding it of ,long ,introductions and ,conclusions1 ,tedious ,enumerations1 and ,irrelevant ,details4 #b4 ,arrangement of ,material4 ,close of ,story contains ,main ,incident4 ,opening of ,story contains ,characters1 ,place1 and ,time4 ,incidents generally follow in ,order of ,time4 #c4 ,movement4 #d4 ,use of ,description in ,narration4 #e4 ,some ,general ,considerations4 ,literature4 ,the ,great ,stone ,face1 ,the ,gentle ,boy1 ,the ,gray ,champion1 ,roger ,malvin's ,burial1 and other ,stories4 ,hawthorne4 ,tales of a ,wayside ,inn4 ,longfellow4 ,the ,gold ,bug4 ,poe4 ,marmion1 or ,the ,lady of the ,lake4 ,scott4 ,a ,christmas ,carol1 or ,the ,cricket on the ,hearth4 ,dickens4 ,the ,vision of ,sir ,launfal1 and other ,narrative ,poems4 ,lowell4 ,an ,incident of the ,french ,camp1 ,herve ,riel1 ,the ,pied ,piper1 ,how they brought the ,good ,news from ,ghent to ,aix4 ,browning4 ,meaning of the ,author1 calling for ,a ,study of ,words4 ,outline of ,story4 ,turning ,points in the ,story4 ,central ,idea1 or ,purpose of the ,story4 ,method of the ,author4 ,is there a ,main ,incident8 ,do all other ,incidents converge to it8 ,is the ,order a ,sequence of ,time alone8 ,is the ,interest centred in ,characters or ,plot8 ,style of the ,author4 ,compare the ,works of the ,author4 ,,description4 ,composition4 ,to secure ,accuracy of ,expression 7pp4 #di-hh74 ,i4 ,definition and ,general ,discussion4 ,difficulties in ,language as a ,means of ,picturing4 ,value of ,observation4 ,,ii4 ,structure of ,whole4 a4 ,to secure ,unity4 ,select a ,point of ,view4 b4 ,to secure ,coherence4 ,arrange ,details in ,natural ,order4 c4 ,to secure ,emphasis4 ,arrange and proportion ,treatment to effect your ,purpose4 ,,iii4 ,paragraph ,structure4 ,definition4 ,length of ,paragraphs4 ,development of ,paragraphs4 ,,iv4 ,words4 ,specific rather than ,general4 ,adjectives1 ,nouns1 and ,verbs4 ,v4 ,figures ,of ,speech 7pp4 #beg-bfh74 ,based on ,likeness4 ,based on ,sentence ,structure4 ,miscellaneous ,figures4 ,literature4 ,the ,old ,manse1 ,the ,old ,apple ,dealer4 ,hawthorne4 ,an ,indian-,summer ,reverie1 ,the ,dandelion1 ,the ,birch1 ,the ,oak1 and other ,descriptive ,poems4 ,lowell4 ,the ,fall of the ,house of ,usher4 ,poe4 ,the ,legend of ,sleepy ,hollow1 ,selections from the ,sketch ,book4 ,irving4 ,selections from ,childe ,harold4 ,byron4 ,the ,deserted ,village4 ,goldsmith4 ,julius ,caesar4 ,shakespeare4 ,poems selected from ,palgrave's ,golden ,treasury4 ,meaning of the ,author 7as under ,narration74 ,method of the ,author4 ,does the ,author keep his ,point of ,view8 ,are the ,details arranged in a ,natural ,order8 ,has any ,detail a ,supreme ,importance8 ,are the ,details treated in ,proper ,proportion8 ,has the ,whole a ,unity of ,effect8 ,do you see the ,picture distinctly8 ,for what ,purpose has the ,author used ,description8 ,does the ,author employ ,figures8 ,style of the ,author4 ,,exposition1 ,,paragraphs1 ,,verse ,,forms4 ,composition4 ,to encourage ,logical ,thinking and ,adequate ,expression 7pp4 #hi-abg74 ,exposition4 ,i4 ,definition and ,general ,considerations4 ,,ii4 ,exposition of ,terms4 ,definition4 ,,iii4 ,exposition of ,propositions4 a4 ,clear ,statement of the ,proposition in a ,key ,sentence4 ,this will limit b4 ,the ,discussion4 #a4 ,what shall be included8 #b4 ,what shall be excluded8 #c4 ,how shall ,important ,matters be emphasized8 ,mass and ,proportion4 ,expansion and ,condensation4 ,to effect these ends use an #d4 ,outline4 ,paragraphs 7pp4 #aea-aii74 ,i4 ,definition4 ,,ii4 ,length of ,paragraphs4 ,,iii4 ,development of ,paragraphs4 ,,iv4 ,principles of ,structure4 ,unity4 ,mass4 ,coherence4 ,verse ,forms 7pp4 #bfi-bia74 ,poetry ,defined4 ,kinds of ,feet4 ,number of ,feet in a ,verse4 ,substitutions and ,rests4 ,kinds of ,poetry4 ,literature4 ,essay on ,milton4 ,macaulay4 ,essay on ,addison4 ,macaulay4 ,commemoration ,ode4 ,lowell4 ,the ,rime of the ,ancient ,mariner4 ,coleridge4 ,intimations of ,immortality1 and other ,poems4 ,wordsworth4 ,selections from ,palgrave's ,golden ,treasury4 ,the ,bunker ,hill ,oration1 or ,adams and ,jefferson4 ,webster4 ,sesame and ,lilies4 ,ruskin4 ,meaning of the ,author4 ,outline showing the ,main ,thesis with the ,dependence of ,subordinate ,propositions4 ,method of the ,author4 ,does he hold to his ,point and so gain ,unity ,does he arrange his ,material so as to secure ,emphasis8 ,does one ,paragraph grow out of another8 ,does each ,paragraph treat a ,single ,topic8 ,are the ,sentences dovetailed together8 ,does the ,author use ,figures8 ,are the ,figures ,effective8 ,are his ,words ,general or ,specific8 ,style of the ,author4 ,is it ,clear8 ,has it ,force8 ,is the ,diction ,elegant8 ,how has he gained these ,ends8 ,,sentences1 ,,words1 ,,argument4 ,composition4 ,sentences 7pp4 #bjj-bcd74 ,i4 ,definition and ,classification4 ,,ii4 ,principles of ,structure4 a4 ,unity4 b4 ,mass4 #a4 ,prominent ,positions in a ,sentence4 #b4 ,periodic ,sentences4 #c4 ,loose ,sentences4 c4 ,coherence4 #a4 ,parallel ,constructions4 #b4 ,connectives4 ,words 7pp4 #bce-bef74 ,reputable ,words4 ,latin or ,saxon ,words4 ,general or ,specific4 ,figures of ,speech4 ,the ,one ,rule for the ,use of ,words4 ,narration and ,description ,reviewed4 ,exposition ,reviewed4 ,literature4 ,argument 7pp4 #abh-aej74 ,i4 ,kinds of ,argument4 ,,ii4 ,order of ,arguments4 ,,iii4 ,refutation4 ,sir ,roger de ,coverley ,papers4 ,addison4 ,the ,vicar of ,wakefield4 ,goldsmith4 ,silas ,marner4 ,eliot4 ,ivanhoe4 ,scott4 ,macbeth1 ,the ,merchant of ,venice1 ,a ,midsummer ,night's ,dream4 ,shakespeare4 ,conciliation with the ,colonies4 ,burke4 ,,composition4 ,in the last year of the course1 the compositions should be such as will test the maturer powers of the pupil4 ,they should be written under the careful supervision of the teacher4 ,they should be of all forms of discourse1 and the subjects should be drawn from the subjects of study in the high school1 especially from the literature4 ,,literature4 ,difficult ,selections4 ,l',allegro1 ,il ,penseroso1 ,comus1 and ,lycidas4 ,milton4 ,paradise ,lost4 ,two ,books4 ,milton4 ,essay on ,burns4 ,carlyle4 ,in ,memoriam1 ,the ,princess1 and other ,poems4 ,tennyson4 ,selections4 ,browning4 ,selections4 ,emerson4 ,a ,history of ,english ,literature 99 99 99 99 99 ,,english3 ,,composition ,,and ,,literature ,,chapter ,i ,,forms ,,of ,,discourse ,composition4 ,composition1 from the ,latin words con1 meaning together1 and ponere1 meaning to place1 signifies a placing together1 a grouping or arrangement of objects or of ideas4 ,this arrangement is generally made so that it will produce a desired result4 ,speaking accurately1 the putting together is the composition4 ,much of the desired result is gained by care in the selection of materials4 ,placing together a well-worn book1 a lamp1 and a pair of heavy bowed spectacles makes a suggestive picture4 ,the selection and grouping of these objects is spoken of as the composition of the picture4 ,so in music1 an author composes1 when he groups certain musical tones and phrases so that they produce a desired effect4 ,in literature1 too1 composition is1 strictly speaking1 the selection and arrangement of materials1 whether the incidents of a story or the details of a description1 to fulfill a definite purpose4 ,english ,composition4 ,in practice1 however1 ,english composition has come to include more than the selection and arrangement of the materials1--incidents1 objects1 or ideas1 as the case may be2 the term has been extended to include the means by which the speaker or writer seeks to convey this impression to other persons4 ,as a painter must understand drawing1 the value of lights and shades1 and the mixing of colors before he can successfully reproduce for others the idea he has to express1 so the artist in literature needs a knowledge of elementary grammar and of the simpler usages of language in order clearly to represent to others the idea which lies in his own mind4 ,as commonly understood1 then1 ,english composition may be defined as the art of selecting1 arranging1 and communicating ideas by means of the ,english language4 ,composition1 ,written and ,oral4 ,the term ,english composition is now generally understood to mean written composition1 and not oral composition4 ,at first thought they seem to be the same thing4 ,so far as the selection and arrangement of matter is concerned1 they are the same4 ,moreover1 both use words1 and both employ sentences2 but here the likeness ends4 ,if sentences should be put upon paper exactly as they were spoken1 in most instances they would not convey to a reader the same thought they conveyed to a listener4 ,it is much more exacting to express the truth one wishes to convey1 by silent1 featureless symbols than by that wonderful organ of communication1 the human voice4 ,now1 if to the human voice be added eyes1 features1 gestures1 and pose1 we easily understand the great advantage a speaker has over a writer4 ,conventions of ,composition4 ,moreover1 there are imposed upon a writer certain established rules which he must follow4 ,he must spell words correctly1 and he must use correctly marks of punctuation4 ,these things need not annoy a speaker2 yet they are conditions which must be obeyed by a writer4 ,a man who eats with a knife may succeed in getting his food to his mouth1 yet certain conventions exclude such a person from polite society4 ,so in composition1 it is possible for a person to make himself understood1 though he write alright instead of all right1 and never use a semicolon2 still1 such a person could hardly be considered a highly cultured writer4 ,to express one's thoughts correctly and with refinement requires absolute obedience to the common conventions of good literature4 ,the study of composition includes1 first1 the careful selection of materials and their effective arrangement2 and second1 a knowledge of the established conventions of literature3 of spelling2 of the common uses of the marks of punctuation1--period1 question mark1 exclamation point1 colon1 semicolon1 comma2 of the common idioms of our language2 and of the elements of its grammar4 ,from the beginning of the high school course1 the essay1 the paragraph1 the sentence1 the word1 are to be studied with special attention to the effective use of each in adequately communicating ideas4 ,five ,forms of ,discourse4 ,all written composition may be arranged in two classes1 or groups4 ,the first group will include all composition that deals with actual happenings and real things2 the second1 all that deals with abstract thoughts and spiritual ideas4 ,the first will include narration and description2 the second1 exposition1 argument1 and persuasion4 ,all literature1 then1 may be separated into five classes1--narration1 description1 exposition1 argument1 and persuasion4 ,narration tells what things do2 description tells how things look4 ,narration deals with occurrences2 description deals with appearances4 ,exposition defines a term1 or explains a proposition2 argument proves the truth or falsity of a proposition2 persuasion urges to action upon a proposition4 ,exposition explains2 argument convinces2 persuasion arouses4 ,these are the broad lines of distinction which separate the five forms of discourse4 ,definitions4 ,narration is that form of discourse which recounts events in a sequence4 ,it includes stories1 novels1 romances1 biographies1 some books of travel1 and some histories4 ,description is that form of discourse which aims to present a picture4 ,it seldom occurs alone1 but it is usually found in combination with the other forms of discourse4 ,exposition is that form of discourse which seeks to explain a term or a proposition4 ,text-books1 books of information1 theses1 most histories1 many magazine articles1 and newspaper leaders are of this class of literature4 ,argument is that form of discourse which has for its object the proof of the truth or falsity of a proposition4 ,persuasion is that form of discourse the purpose of which is to influence the will4 ,difficulty in distinguishing4 ,though these definitions seem to set apart the great classes of literature1 and to insure against any danger of confusion1 it is not always easy to place individual pieces of literature in one of these divisions4 ,whittier's ,barbara ,frietchie and ,stevenson's ,treasure ,island are narrative beyond any question2 but what about ,snow-,bound and ,travels with a ,donkey by the same authors8 ,are they narration or description8 ,in them the narrative and descriptive portions are so nearly equal that one hesitates to set them down to either class2 the reader is constantly called from beautiful pictures to delightful stories4 ,the narrative can easily be separated from the descriptive portions2 but when this has been done1 has it been decided whether the whole piece is narration or description8 ,when a person takes up the other forms of discourse1 the difficulty becomes still greater4 ,description and narration are frequently used in exposition4 ,if a boy should be asked to explain the working of a steam engine1 he would1 in all likelihood1 begin with a description of an engine4 ,if his purpose was to explain how an engine works1 and was not to tell how an engine looks1 the whole composition would be exposition4 ,so1 too1 it is often the easiest way to explain what one means by telling a story4 ,the expression of such thoughts would be exposition1 although it might contain a number of stories and descriptions4 ,narration and description may be found in a piece of exposition2 and all three may be employed in argument4 ,if a person should wish to prove the dangers of intemperance1 he might enforce his proof by a story1 or by a description of the condition of the nervous system after a drunken revel4 ,and one does not need to do more than explain the results of intemperance to a sensible man to prove to him that he should avoid all excesses4 ,the explanation alone is argument enough for such a person4 ,still1 is such an explanation exposition or argument8 ,if the man cared nothing about convincing another that there are dangers in intemperance1 did not wish to prove that the end of intemperance is death and dishonor1 the composition is as much exposition as the explanation of a steam engine4 ,if1 on the other hand1 he explained these results in order to convince another that he should avoid intemperance1 then the piece is argument4 ,persuasion introduces a new element into composition2 for1 while exposition and argument are directed to a man's reason1 persuasion is addressed to the emotions and the will4 ,its purpose is to arouse to action4 ,one can readily imagine that a simple explanation of the evils of intemperance might be quite enough to convince a man that its dangers are truly great1--so great that he would determine to fight these evils with all his strength4 ,in such a case explanation alone has convinced him2 and it has aroused him to do something4 ,is the piece exposition1 or argument1 or persuasion8 ,here1 as before1 the answer is found in the purpose of the author4 ,if he intended only to explain1 the piece is exposition2 if to convince1 it is argument2 if to arouse to action1 it belongs to the literature of persuasion4 ,it must now be plain that few pieces of literature are purely one form of discourse4 ,the forms are mingled in most of our literature4 ,hardly a story can be found that does not contain some descriptions2 and a description of any considerable length is sure to contain some narrative portions4 ,so1 too1 narration and description are often found in exposition1 argument1 and persuasion2 and these last three forms are frequently combined4 ,purpose of the ,author4 ,it must also be evident that the whole piece of literature will best be classified by discovering the purpose of the author4 ,if his purpose is simply to tell a good story1 his work is narration2 if the purpose is merely to place a picture before the reader's mind1 it is description2 if to explain conditions and nothing more1 it is exposition2 if to prove to the reason the truth or falsity of a proposition1 it is argument2 while1 if the writer addresses himself to the emotions and the will1 no matter whether he tells anecdotes or paints lurid pictures1 explains conditions or convinces of the dangers of the present course1--if he does all these to urge the reader to do something1 the composition belongs to the literature of persuasion4 ,the five forms of discourse are most easily distinguished by discovering the purpose of the author4 ,one addition should be made4 ,few novels are written in which there is nothing more than a story4 ,nearly all contain some teaching2 and it is a safe conclusion that the authors have taught on purpose4 ,in ,baa1 ,baa1 ,black ,sheep1 ,kipling has shown the imperative necessity of a real1 live1 lovely mamma2 in ,the ,legend of ,sleepy ,hollow1 ,irving has placed before us a charming picture of rural life in a dreamy ,dutch village on the ,hudson2 and in his ,christmas ,carol1 ,dickens shows plainly that happiness is not bought and sold even in ,london1 and that the only happy man is he who shares with another's need4 ,yet all of these1 and the hundreds of their kind1 whatever the purpose of the authors when writing them1 belong to the story or novel class4 ,the purpose in telling the story is secondary to the purpose to tell a story4 ,they are to be classified as narration4 ,english composition1 then1 is a study of the selection and arrangement of ideas1 and of the methods of using the ,english language to communicate them4 ,all composition is divided into five great classes4 ,these classes have broad lines of distinction1 which are most easily applied by determining the purpose of the author4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,choice ,,of ,,subject ,form and ,material4 ,from the considerations in the preceding chapter may be derived several principles regarding the choice of subject4 ,if the composition is to be narrative1 it should be upon a subject that readily lends itself to narrative form4 ,one can tell a story about ,a ,day's ,hunt or ,what ,we did ,hallowe'en2 but it would try one's powers of imagination to write a story of ,a ,tree or ,a ,chair4 ,the latter subjects do not lend themselves to narration1 but they may be described4 ,josiah ,p4 ,cooke has written a brilliant exposition of ,fire in ,the ,new ,chemistry2 yet a young person would be foolish to take ,fire as a subject for exposition1 though he might easily write a good description of ,how the ,fire looked from ,my ,window1 or narrate ,how a ,fireman rescued ,my ,sister4 ,so in all work in composition1 select a subject that readily lends itself to the form of discourse demanded2 or1 conversely1 select the form of discourse suitable for presenting most effectively your material4 ,author's ,individuality4 ,if an author is writing for other purposes than for conscious practice1 he should choose the form of discourse in which he can best work1 and to which he can best shape his material4 ,some men tell stories well2 others are debaters2 while yet others are wonderfully gifted with eloquence4 ,emerson understood life thoroughly4 ,he knew man's feelings1 his motives1 his hopes1 his strength1 his weakness2 yet one cannot imagine ,emerson shaping this material into a novel4 ,but just a little way down the road lived a wizard who could transmute the commonest events of this workaday world to the most beautiful shapes2 no one wishes that ,hawthorne had written essays4 ,the second principle guiding in the choice of a subject is this3 ,select a subject which is suited to your peculiar ability as an author4 ,knowledge of ,subject4 ,the form1 then1 should suit the matter2 and it should be the form in which the author can work4 ,there is a third principle that should guide in the choice of a subject4 ,it should be a subject of which the author knows something4 ,pupils often exclaim1 ,what can ,i write about6 as if they were expected to find something new to write4 ,an exercise in composition has not for its object the proclaiming of any new and unheard-of thing2 it is an exercise in the expression of things already known4 ,even when the subject is known1 the treatment offers difficulties enough4 ,it is not true that what is thoroughly understood is easily explained4 ,many excellent scholars have written very poor text-books because they had not learned the art of expression4 ,a necessary antecedent of all good composition is a full and accurate knowledge of the subject2 and even when one knows all about it1 the clear expression of the thought will be difficult enough4 ,to demand accurate knowledge of the subject before an author begins work upon it narrows the field from which themes may be drawn4 ,burroughs is an authority on all the tenants of our groves2 ,wake-,robin1 ,pepacton1 and his other books all show a master's certain hand4 ,so ,stedman is an authority in matters relating to literature4 ,but ,burroughs and ,stedman alike would find difficulty in writing an essay on ,electricity in the ,treatment of ,nervous ,diseases4 ,they do not know about it4 ,a boy in school probably knows something of fishing2 of this he can write4 ,a girl can tell of ,the ,last ,parlor ,concert4 ,both could write very entertainingly of their ,first ,algebra ,recitation2 neither could write a convincing essay on ,the ,advantages of ,free ,trade4 ,common ,subjects4 ,this will seem to limit the list of subjects to the commonplace4 ,the fact is that in a composition exercise the purpose is not to startle the world with some new thing2 it is to learn the art of expression4 ,and here in the region of common things1 things thoroughly understood1 every bit of effort can be given to the manner of expression4 ,the truth is1 it does not require much art to make a book containing new and interesting material popular2 the matter in the book carries it in spite of poor composition4 ,popular it may be1 but popularity is not immortality4 ,columns of poorly written articles upon ,dewey and ,the ,philippines have been eagerly read by thousands of ,americans2 it would require a literary artist of great power to write a one-column article on ,pigs so that it would be eagerly read by thousands4 ,real art in composition is much more manifest when an author takes a common subject and treats it in such a way that it glows with new life4 ,richard ,le ,gallienne has written about a drove of pigs so beautifully that one forgets all the traditions about these common animals4#b ,choose common subjects1 then1--subjects that allow every particle of your strength to go into the manner of saying what you already know4 ,the requirement that the subject shall be common does not mean that the subject shall be trivial4 ,sliding to ,first1 ,how ,billy won the ,game1 with all of this class of subjects1 at once put the writer into a trifling1 careless attitude toward his work4 ,the subjects themselves seem to call forth a cheap1 slangy vocabulary and the vulgar phrases of sporting life4 ,an equally common subject could be selected which would call forth serious1 earnest effort4 ,if a boy knew nothing except about ball games1 it would be advisable for him to write upon this subject4 ,such a condition is hardly possible in a high school4 ,choose common subjects1 but subjects that call for earnest thinking and dignified expression4 ,interest4 ,interest is another consideration in the choice of a subject4 ,it applies equally to writer and reader4 ,choose subjects that are interesting4 ,not only must an author know about the subject2 he must be interested in it4 ,a pupil may have accurate knowledge of the uses of a semicolon2 but he would not be likely to succeed in a paragraph about semicolons1 largely because he is not much interested in semicolons4 ,this matter of interest is so important that it is well to know what things all persons1 authors and readers alike1 are interested in4 ,what1 then1 is generally interesting8 ,the ,familiar4 ,first1 the familiar is interesting4 ,when reading a newspaper each one instinctively turns to the local column1 or glances down the general news columns to see if there is anything from his home town4 ,to a former resident1 ,jim ,benson's fence in ,annandale is more interesting than the bronze doors of the ,congressional ,library in ,washington4 ,for the same reason a physician lights upon a new cure for consumption1 a lawyer devours ,supreme ,court decisions1 while the dealer in silks is absorbed in the process of making silk without the aid of the silkworm4 ,each is interested in that which to him is most familiar4 ,human ,life4 ,second1 human life in all its phases is interesting4 ,the account of a fire or of a railroad accident takes on a new interest when1 in addition to the loss of property1 there has been a loss of life4 ,war is horribly fascinating1 not so much because there is a wanton destruction of property1 as because it involves the slaughter of men4 ,stories about trees and animals are usually failures1 unless handled by artists who breathe into them the life of man4 ,andersen's ,tannenbaum and ,kipling's ,jungle ,books are intensely interesting because in them trees and animals feel and act just as men do4 ,the ,strange4 ,third1 the romantic1 the unique1 and the impossible are interesting4 ,a new discovery1 a new invention1 a people of which little is known1--anything new is interesting4 ,the stories of ,rider ,haggard and ,jules ,verne have been popular because they deal with things which eye hath not seen4 ,this peculiar trait of man allows him to relish a good fish story1 or the latest news from the sea-serpent4 ,just for the same reason1 children love to hear of ,little ,red ,riding ,hood and ,cinderella4 ,children and their parents are equally interested in those things which are entirely outside of their own experience4 ,these1 then1 are the general conditions which govern the choice of a subject4 ,it shall easily lend itself to the form of discourse chosen2 it shall be suited to the peculiar ability of the author2 it shall be thoroughly understood by the author1--common1 but not trivial2 it shall be interesting to both reader and author4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,narration ,material of ,narration4 ,narration has been defined as the form of discourse which recounts events in a sequence4 ,it includes not only letters1 journals1 memoirs1 biographies1 and many histories1 but1 in addition1 that great body of literature which people generally include in the comprehensive term of stories4 ,if this body of literature be examined1 it will be found that it deals with things as opposed to ideas2 incidents as opposed to propositions4 ,sometimes1 it is true1 the author of a story is in reality dealing with ideas4 ,in the fable about ,the ,hare and the ,tortoise1 the tortoise stands for the idea of slow1 steady plodding2 while the hare is the representative of quick wits which depend on their ability to show a brilliant burst of speed when called upon4 ,the fable teaches better than an essay can that the dullness which perseveres will arrive at success sooner than brilliancy of mind which wastes its time in doing nothing to the purpose4 ,andersen's ,ugly ,duckling1 ,ruskin's ,king of the ,golden ,river1 and ,lowell's ,sir ,launfal stand for deep spiritual ideas1 which we understand better for this method of presentation4 ,in an allegory like ,pilgrim's ,progress1 the passions and emotions1 the sins and weaknesses of men are treated as if they were real persons4 ,ideas are represented by living1 breathing persons2 and we may say that all such narratives deal1 not with ideas1 but1 for want of a better word1 with things4 ,in ,action4 ,not only does narration deal with things1 but with things doing something4 ,things inactive might be written of1 but this would be description4 ,it is necessary in narration that the things be in an active mood2 that something be doing4 ,john struck ,james1 then1 is a narrative sentence2 it tells that ,john has been doing something4 ,still1 this one sentence would not ordinarily be accepted as narration4 ,for narration there must be a series1 a sequence of individual actions4 ,recounting events in a sequence is narration4 ,the ,commonest ,form of ,discourse4 ,narration is the most popular form of discourse4 ,between one fourth and one third of all books published are stories2 and more than one half of the books issued by public libraries belong to the narrative class4 ,such a computation does not include the large number of stories read in our papers and magazines4 ,in addition to being the most popular form of discourse1 it is the most natural4 ,it is the first form of connected discourse of the child2 it is the form employed by the uncultured in giving his impressions2 it is the form most used in conversation4 ,moreover1 narration is the first form found in great literatures3 the ,iliad and the ,odyssey1 the songs of the troubadours in ,france1 and the minnesingers in ,germany1 the chronicles and ballads of ,england1--all are narrative4 ,language as a ,means of ,expression4 ,narration is especially suited to the conditions imposed by language4 ,men do not think in single words1 but in groups of words1--phrases1 clauses1 and sentences4 ,in hearing1 too1 men do not consider the individual words2 the mind waits until a group of words1 a phrase1 or a simple sentence perhaps1--which expresses a unit of thought1 has been uttered4 ,in narration these groups of words follow in a sequence exactly as the actions which they represent do4 ,take this rather lurid bit from ,stevenson3-- ,he dropped his cutlass as he jumped1 and when he felt the pistol1 whipped straight round and laid hold of me1 roaring out an oath2 and at the same time either my courage came again1 or ,i grew so much afraid as came to the same thing2 for ,i gave a shriek and shot him in the midst of the body4 7,kidnapped47 ,each phrase or clause here is a unit of thought1 and each follows the others in the same order as the events they tell of occurred4 ,on the other hand1 when one attempts description1 and exposition too in many cases1 he realizes the great difficulties imposed by the language itself2 for in these forms of discourse the author not infrequently wishes to put the whole picture before the reader at once1 or to set out several propositions at the same time1 as belonging to one general truth4 ,in order that the reader may get the complete picture or the complete thought1 he must hold in mind often a whole paragraph before he unites it into the one conception the author intended4 ,in narration one action is completed2 it can be dropped4 ,then another follows1 which can also be dropped4 ,they need not be held in mind until the paragraph is finished4 ,narration is exactly suited to the means of its communication4 ,the events which are recorded1 and the sentences which record them1 both follow in a sequence4 ,without ,plot4 ,the sequence of events in narration may be a simple sequence of time1 in which case the narrative is without plot4 ,this is the form of narration employed in newspapers in giving the events of the day4 ,it is used in journals1 memoirs1 biographies1 and many elementary histories4 ,it makes little demand upon an author further than that he shall say clearly something that is interesting4 ,interesting it must be1 if the author wishes it to be read2 readers will not stay over dull material4 ,newspapers and magazines look out for interesting material1 and it is for the matter in them that they are read4 ,so memoirs and biographies are read1 not to find out what happens at last1--that is known1--but to pick up information concerning an interesting subject4 ,plot4 ,or the sequence may be a more subtle and binding relation of cause and effect4 ,this is the sequence employed in stories4 ,one thing happens because another thing has happened4 ,generally the sequence of time and the sequence of cause and effect correspond2 for effects come after causes4 ,when1 however1 more than one cause is introduced1 or when some cause is at work which the author hides until he can most advantageously produce it1 or when an effect is held back for purposes of creating interest1 the events may not be related exactly in the order in which they occurred4 ,when any sequence is introduced in addition to the simple sequence of time1 or when the time sequence is disturbed for the purpose of heightening interest1 there is an arrangement of the parts which is generally termed plot4 ,plot is a term difficult to define4 ,we feel1 however1 that ,grant's ,memoirs have no plot1 and we feel just as sure that ,king ,lear has a plot4 ,so1 too1 we say that ,robinson ,crusoe has little1 almost no plot2 that the plot is simple in ,treasure ,island1 and that ,les ,miserables has an intricate plot4 ,a plot seems to demand more than a mere succession of events4 ,any arrangement of the parts of a narrative so that the reader's interest is aroused concerning the result of the series of events detailed is a plot4 ,it often occurs that a book which1 as a whole1 is without a plot1 contains incidents which have a plot4 ,in ,travels with a ,donkey1 by ,stevenson1 no one cares for the plot of the whole book1--in fact there is none2 yet the reader is interested in the purchase of the neat and high bred ,modestine up to the last interview with ,father ,adam in a billiard-room at the witching hour of dawn1 when ,i administered the brandy4 ,this incident has a plot4 ,the following is a paragraph from ,an ,autumn ,effect by ,mr4 ,stevenson4 ,the simple events are perfectly ordered1 and there is a delightful surprise at the end4 ,this paragraph has a plot4 ,yet the thirty pages of ,an ,autumn ,effect could not be said to have a plot4 ,bidding good-morning to my fellow-traveler1 ,i left the road and struck across country4 ,it was rather a revelation to pass from between the hedgerows and find quite a bustle on the other side1 a great coming and going of school-children upon by-paths1 and1 in every second field1 lusty horses and stout country-folk a-ploughing4 ,the way ,i followed took me through many fields thus occupied1 and through many strips of plantation1 and then over a little space of smooth turf1 very pleasant to the feet1 set with tall fir-trees and clamorous with rooks1 making ready for the winter1 and so back again into the quiet road4 ,i was now not far from the end of my day's journey4 ,a few hundred yards farther1 and1 passing through a gap in the hedge1 ,i began to go down hill through a pretty extensive tract of young beeches4 ,i was soon in shadow myself1 but the afternoon sun still colored the upmost boughs of the wood1 and made a fire over my head in the autumnal foliage4 ,a little faint vapor lay among the slim tree-stems in the bottom of the hollow2 and from farther up ,i heard from time to time an outburst of gross laughter1 as though clowns were making merry in the bush4 ,there was something about the atmosphere that brought all sights and sounds home to one with a singular purity1 so that ,i felt as if my senses had been washed with water4 ,after ,i had crossed the little zone of mist1 the path began to remount the hill2 and just as ,i1 mounting along with it1 had got back again from the head downwards1 into the thin golden sunshine1 ,i saw in front of me a donkey tied to a tree4 ,now1 ,i have a certain liking for donkeys1 principally1 ,i believe1 because of the delightful things that ,sterne has written of them4 ,but this was not after the pattern of the ass at ,lyons4 ,he was of a white color1 that seemed to fit him rather for rare festal occasions than for constant drudgery4 ,besides1 he was very small1 and of the daintiest proportions you can imagine in a donkey4 ,and so1 sure enough1 you had only to look at him to see he had never worked4 ,there was something too roguish and wanton in his face1 a look too like that of a schoolboy or a street ,arab1 to have survived much cudgeling4 ,it was plain that these feet had kicked off sportive children oftener than they had plodded with freight through miry lanes4 ,he was altogether a fine-weather1 holiday sort of a donkey2 and though he was just then somewhat solemnized and rueful1 he still gave proof of the levity of his disposition by impudently wagging his ears at me as ,i drew near4 ,i say he was somewhat solemnized just then2 for with the admirable instinct of all men and animals under restraint1 he had so wound and wound the halter about the tree that he could go neither back nor forwards1 nor so much as put his head down to browse4 ,there he stood1 poor rogue1 part puzzled1 part angry1 part1 ,i believe1 amused4 ,he had not given up hope1 and dully revolved the problem in his head1 giving ever and again another jerk at the few inches of free rope that still remained unwound4 ,a humorous sort of sympathy for the creature took hold upon me4 ,i went up1 and1 not without some trouble on my part1 and much distrust and resistance on the part of ,neddy1 got him forced backwards until the whole length of the halter was set loose1 and he was once more as free a donkey as ,i dared to make him4 ,i was pleased 7as people are7 with this friendly action to a fellow-creature in tribulation1 and glanced back over my shoulder to see how he was profiting by his freedom4 ,the brute was looking after me2 and no sooner did he catch my eye than he put up his long white face into the air1 pulled an impudent mouth at me1 and began to bray derisively4 ,if ever any one person made a grimace at another1 that donkey made a grimace at me4 ,the hardened ingratitude of his behavior1 and the impertinence that inspired his whole face as he curled up his lip1 and showed his teeth and began to bray1 so tickled me and was so much in keeping with what ,i had imagined to myself of his character1 that ,i could not find it in my heart to be angry1 and burst into a peal of hearty laughter4 ,this seemed to strike the ass as a repartee1 so he brayed at me again by way of rejoinder2 and we went on for awhile1 braying and laughing1 until ,i began to grow a-weary of it1 and shouting a derisive farewell1 turned to pursue my way4 ,in so doing--it was like going suddenly into cold water--,i found myself face to face with a prim1 little old maid4 ,she was all in a flutter1 the poor old dear6 ,she had concluded beyond question that this must be a lunatic who stood laughing aloud at a white donkey in the placid beech-woods4 ,i was sure1 by her face1 that she had already recommended her spirit most religiously to ,heaven1 and prepared herself for the worst4 ,and so1 to reassure her1 ,i uncovered and besought her1 after a very staid fashion1 to put me on my way to ,great ,missenden4 ,her voice trembled a little1 to be sure1 but ,i think her mind was set at rest2 and she told me1 very explicitly1 to follow the path until ,i came to the end of the wood1 and then ,i should see the village below me in the bottom of the valley4 ,and1 with mutual courtesies1 the little old maid and ,i went on our respective ways4 ,books of travel1 memoirs1 and biographies1 as whole books1 are generally without any arrangement serious enough to be termed a plot2 yet a large part of the interest in such books would be lost were the incidents there collected not well told1 with a conscious attempt to set them out in the very best fashion2 indeed1 if each incident did not have a plot4 ,in ,vanity ,fair with its six hundred pages1 in ,silas ,marner with its two hundred pages1 in the short stories of our best magazines1 in the spicy little anecdotes in the ,youth's ,companion1--in the least bit of a good story as well as the three-volume novel1 the authors have used the means best suited to retain the interest to the end4 ,they have constructed plots4 ,unity1 ,mass1 and ,coherence4 ,in the construction of any piece of composition there are three principles of primary importance3 they are ,unity1 which is concerned with the material itself2 and ,mass and ,coherence1 which are concerned with the arrangement of the material4 ,a composition has unity when all the material has been so sifted and selected that each part contributes its share to the central thought of the whole4 ,whether of a sentence1 a paragraph1 or a whole composition1 all those parts must be excluded which do not bring something of value to the whole2 and everything must be included which is necessary to give a clear understanding of the whole4 ,mass1 the second principle of structure1 demands that those parts of a composition1 paragraph1 or sentence which are of most importance shall be so placed that they will arrest the attention4 ,by coherence is meant that principle of structure which1 in sentences1 paragraphs1 and whole compositions1 places those parts related in thought near together1 and keeps separate those parts which are separated in thought4 ,main ,incident4 ,for the construction of a story that will retain the reader's interest to the end1 for the selection of such material as will contribute to a central thought1 for the arrangement of this material so that the most important matter shall occupy the most important position in the theme1 one simple rule is of value4 ,it is this3 ,first choose the main incident towards which all the other incidents converge1 and for the accomplishment of which the preceding incidents are necessary4 ,a few pages will be given to the application of this rule1 and to the results of its application4 ,its ,importance4 ,there should be in each story1 however slight the plot1 some incident that is more important than the others1 and toward which all the others converge4 ,a reader is disappointed if1 after reading a story through1 he finds that there is no worthy ending1 that all the preparation was made for no purpose4 ,if1 in ,wee ,willie ,winkie1 ,kipling had stopped just before ,miss ,allardyce started across the river1 it would have been a poor story4 ,it would have had no ending4 ,it is because a story gets somewhere that we like it4 ,yet not just somewhere2 it must arrive at a place worthy of all the preparation that has preceded4 ,a very common fault with the compositions of young persons is that they begin big and end little4 ,it is not infrequent that the first paragraph promises well2 the second is not quite so good2 and the rest gradually fall off until the end is worthless4 ,the order should be changed4 ,have the first paragraph promise well1 make the second better1 and the last best of all4 ,the main incident should be more important than each incident that precedes it4 ,get the main incident in mind before beginning2 be sure it is the main incident2 then bend all your energies to make it the most important incident toward which all the other incidents converge4 ,unity4 ,the choice of a main incident will determine what incidents to exclude4 ,the world is full of incidents--enough to make volumes more than we now have4 ,a phonograph and a camera could gather enough any day at a busy corner in a city to fill a volume2 yet these pictures and these bits of conversation1 interesting as each in itself might be1 would not be a unit1--not one story1 but many4 ,few persons1 indeed1 would write anything so disjointed as the report made by this phonograph2 yet good writers are often led astray by the brilliancy of their own ideas4 ,they have so many good stories on hand which they would like to tell1 that they force some of them into their present story1 and so spoil two stories4 ,in the very popular ,david ,harum1 it would puzzle any one to know why the author has introduced the ladies from the city and the musical party at the lake4 ,the episode is good enough in itself2 but in this story it has not a shadow of excuse4 ,there is a phrase of ,kipling's that should ring in every story-teller's ears4 ,not once only1 but a number of times1 this prince of modern story-tellers catches himself--almost too late sometimes--and writes1 ,but that is another story4 ,one incident calls up another2 paragraph follows paragraph naturally4 ,it is easy enough to look back and trace the road by which the writer arrived at his present position2 yet it would be very hard to tell why he came hither1 or to see how the journey up to this point will at all put him toward his destination4 ,he has digressed2 he has left the road4 ,and he must get back to the road4 ,by this digression he has wasted just as much time as it has taken to come from the direct road to this point added to the time it will take to go back4 ,do not digress2 tell one story at a time2 let no incident into your story which cannot answer the question1 ,why are you here8 by ,i help2 keep your eye on the main incident2 things which do not unquestionably contribute something to the main incident should be excluded4 ,introductions and ,conclusions4 ,the choice of the main incident towards which all other incidents converge will rid compositions of worthless introductions and trailing conclusions4 ,a story should get under way at once2 and any explanations at the beginning1 the introduction of long descriptions or tedious paragraphs of fine writing1 will be headed off if the pupil keeps constantly in mind that it must all lead directly toward the main incident4 ,again1 if everything converges to the main incident1 when that has been told the story is finished4 ,after that there must be no explanations1 no moralizing1 nothing4 ,when the story has been told it is a good rule to stop4 ,an excellent example of a short story well told is ,an ,incident of the ,french ,camp1 by ,robert ,browning4 ,only the absolutely necessary has been introduced4 ,the incidents flash before the reader4 ,nothing can be said after the last line4 ,herve ,riel is a vivid piece of narrative too4 ,such an exhibition of manliness appeals to all4 ,was it necessary to attach the last stanza8 ,if this poem needed it1 why not the other8 ,if the story has no moral in it1 no man can tie it on2 if there is one1 the reader should be accounted intelligent enough to find it without any help4 ,tedious ,enumerations4 ,making all the incidents converge to one main incident will avoid tiresome enumerations of inconsequential events1 which frequently fill the compositions of young pupils4 ,such essays generally start with a bright1 clear morning1 and a party of four of us4 ,after recounting a dozen events of no consequence whatever1 we came home to a late supper1 well repaid for our day's outing4 ,these compositions may be quite correct in the choice of words1 sentences1 and paragraphs1 and with it all be flat4 ,there is nothing to them2 they get the reader nowhere4 ,pick out one of the many incidents4 ,work it up4 ,turn back to the paragraph from ,stevenson and notice how little there is to it when reduced to bare outline4 ,he has worked it up so that it is good4 ,always remember that a short anecdote well told is worth pages of aimless enumeration4 ,what to include4 ,the selection of the main incident will guide in determining what to include2 for every detail must be included that is necessary to make the main incident possible4 ,a young pupil wrote of a party in the woods4 ,the girls had found pleasant seats in a car and were chatting about their friends1 when they felt a sudden lurch1 and soon one of the party was besmeared by slippery1 sticky whites of eggs4 ,now1 if eggs were in the habit of clinging to the roofs of cars and breaking at unfortunate moments1 there would be no need of any explanation2 but as the cook forgot to boil the eggs and the girl had put them up into the rack herself1 some of this should have been told4 ,enough at least should be told to make the main incident a possibility4 ,stories are full of surprises1 but they can be understood easily from the preceding incidents2 or else the new element is one that happens frequently1 and of itself is nothing new4 ,in the paragraph from ,stevenson1 the entrance of the prim1 little old maid is a surprise1 but it is a very common thing for ladies to walk upon a public highway4 ,any surprise must be natural1--the result of causes at work in the story1 or of circumstances which are always occurring and by themselves no surprises4 ,if the story be a tangled web of incidents culminating in some horror1 as the death of the beautiful young wife in ,hawthorne's ,birthmark1 all the events must be told that are necessary to carry the reader from the first time he beholds her beauty until he sees her again1 her life ebbing away as the fairy hand fades from her cheek4 ,in ,baa1 ,baa1 ,black ,sheep it would be impossible to pass directly from the sweet boy of the first chapter to the little liar of the last2 something must be told of those miserable days that intervene1 and their telling effect on the little fellow4 ,so a reader could not harmonize his idea of old ,scrooge gained in the first chapter with generous ,mr4 ,scrooge of the last without the intermediate chapters4 ,keeping the main incident in mind1 include all that is necessary to make it possible4 ,consistency4 ,this same rule more than any other will make a story consistent4 ,if incidents are chosen with relation to the one main incident1 they will all have a common quality2 they can scarcely be inconsistent4 ,it is much more essential that a story be consistent than that it be a fact4 ,indeed1 facts are not necessary in stories1 and they are dangerous4 ,ian ,maclaren says that the only part of his stories that has been severely criticised is a drowning episode1 which was a fact1 and the only one he ever used4 ,yet to those who have read ,the ,bonnie ,brier ,bush1 the old doctor is as well known as any person who lives across the street2 he is real to us1 though he never lived4 ,old ,scrooge and ,brom ,bones are better known than ,john ,adams is4 ,a good character or a good story need not be drawn from facts4 ,indeed1 in literature as in actual life1 facts are stubborn things1 and will not accommodate themselves to new surroundings4 ,make the story consistent2 be not too careful about the facts4 ,a story may be good and be entirely contrary to all known facts4 ,the ,ugly ,duckling is as true as ,fiske's ,history of the ,united ,states1 and every whit as consistent4 ,alice in ,wonderland is an excellent story2 yet it contains no facts4 ,the introduction of a single fact would ruin the story2 for between the realm of fact and the region of fancy is a great gulf fixed1 and no man has successfully crossed it4 ,whatever conditions of life and action are assumed in one part of a story must be continued throughout4 ,if walruses talk and hens are reasonable in one part of the story1 to reduce them to every-day animals would be ruinous4 ,consistency1 that the parts stand together1 that the story seem probable1--this is more essential than facts4 ,and to gain this consistency the surest rule is to test the material by its relation to the main incident4 ,the choice of the main incident1 then1 will determine to a great degree what to exclude and what to include2 it will assist in ridding compositions of countless enumerations1 aimless wanderings1 and flat endings2 it will help the writer to get started1 and insure a stop when the story is told2 and it will give to the story the quality most essential for its success1 consistency4 ,an ,actor as the ,storyteller4 ,there is yet another condition that enters into the selection of materials3 it makes a difference who tells the story4 ,if the story be told in the first person1 that is1 if one of the actors tell the story1 he cannot be supposed to know all that the other persons do when out of sight and hearing1 nor can he know what they think4 ,to take an illustration from a pupil's essay4 ,a girl took her baby sister out upon the lake in a rowboat4 ,a violent storm arose1 lashing the lake into a fury4 ,the oars were wrenched from her hands4 ,helpless on the water1 how was she to be saved8 ,here the essayist recited an infinite amount of detail about the distress at home1 giving the conversation and the actions4 ,these things she could not have known in the character she had assumed at the beginning1 that of the chief actor4 ,all of that should have been excluded4 ,when ,stevenson tells of the fight in the round house1 though he knew what those old salts were doing outside1 matters of great interest to the reader1 he does not let ,david say anything except what he could see or hear1 and a very little of what he learned afterwards4 ,stevenson knew well who was telling the story2 ,david is too good a story-teller to tell what he could not know4 ,in the pupil's essay and in ,kidnapped1 all such matters would have a direct bearing on the main incident2 they could be included without destroying the unity of the story4 ,but they cannot be included when the story is told by one of the actors4 ,the ,omniscience of an ,author4 ,many stories1 probably most stories1 are told in the third person4 ,in this case the author assumes the position of an omniscient power who knows everything that is done1 said1 or thought by the characters in his story4 ,not only what happens in the next room1 but what is thought at the other side of the world1 is comprehended in his omniscience4 ,this is the position assumed by ,irving in ,the ,legend of ,sleepy ,hollow1 by ,kipling in the series of stories included with ,wee ,willie ,winkie1 by ,scott in ,marmion1 and by most great novelists4 ,omniscience is1 however1 a dangerous prerogative for a young person4 ,the power is so great that the person who has but recently come into possession of it becomes dizzy with it and uncertain in his movements4 ,a young person knows what he would do under certain conditions2 but to be able to know what some other person would do and think under a certain set of circumstances requires a sure knowledge of character1 and the capability of assuming entirely different and unaccustomed points of view4 ,it is much safer for the beginner to take the point of view of one of the actors1 and tell the story in the first person4 ,then when the grasp has become sure from this standpoint1 he may assume the more difficult role of the omniscient third person4 ,to sum up what has been said about the selection of materials3 only those materials should be admitted to a story which contribute to its main incident1 which are consistent with one another1 and which could have been known by the narrator4 ,the ,climax4 ,when the materials for a story have been selected1 the next consideration is their arrangement4 ,if the materials have been selected to contribute to the main incident and converge toward it1 it will follow that the main incident will come last in the story2 it will be the climax towards which the several parts of the story are directed4 ,moreover1 it should be last1 in order to retain the interest of the reader up to that time4 ,this is in accordance with the demands of the second great principle of structure1 ,mass4 ,an essay is well massed if the parts are so arranged that things of importance will arrest the attention4 ,in literature to be read1 to arrest the attention is almost equivalent to catching the eye4 ,the positions that catch the eye1 whether in sentence1 paragraph1 or essay1 are the beginning and the end4 ,were it not for another element which enters into the calculation1 these positions would be of nearly equal importance4 ,since1 however1 the mind retains the most vivid impression of the thing it received last1 the impression of the end of the sentence1 paragraph1 or essay is stronger than the impression made by its beginning4 ,the climax of a story should come at the end1 both because it is the result of preceding incidents1 and because by this position it receives the additional emphasis due to its position4 ,who8 ,where8 ,when8 ,why8 ,the beginning is the position of second importance4 ,what1 then1 shall stand in this place8 ,a story resembles a puzzle4 ,the solution of the puzzle is given at the end2 the thing of next importance is the conditions of the puzzle4 ,in ,baa1 ,baa1 ,black ,sheep the story culminates in the surprise of a devoted mother when she discovers that her boy is a secretive little liar1 who now deserves to be called ,black ,sheep4 ,this is the end2 what was the beginning1--the conditions necessary to bring about this deplorable result8 ,first1 they were the persons2 second1 the place2 third1 the time4 ,in many stories there is introduced the reason for telling the story4 ,these conditions1 answering the questions ,who8 ,where8 ,when8 and ,why8 are all1 or some of them1 introduced at the beginning of any narrative1 and as soon as it can be done1 they ought all to be given4 ,in a short essay1 they are in the first paragraph2 in a novel1 in the first chapters4 ,in ,marmion the time1 the place1 and the principal character are introduced into the first canto4 ,so ,irving begins ,the ,legend of ,sleepy ,hollow with the place and time1 then follow the characters4 ,in all stories the beginning is occupied in giving the conditions of the story2 that is1 the principal characters1 the time1 and the place4 ,in what ,order8 ,having the end and the beginning clearly in mind1 the next question is how best to get from one to the other4 ,shall the incidents be arranged in order of time8 or shall other considerations govern8 ,if it be any narrative of the journal form1 whether a diary or a biography1 the chronological arrangement will direct the sequence of events4 ,again1 if it be a simple story with a single series of events1 the time order will prevail4 ,if1 however1 it be a narrative which contains several series of events1 as a history or a novel1 it may be wise1 even necessary1 to deviate from the time sequence4 ,it would have been unwise for ,scott to hold strictly to the order of time in ,marmion2 after introducing the principal character1 giving the time and the setting1 it was necessary for him to bring in another element of the plot1 ,constance1 and to go backward in time to pick up this thread of the story4 ,the really essential order in any narrative is the order of cause and effect4 ,as causes precede effects1 the causal order and the time order generally coincide4 ,in a single series of events1 that is1 where one cause alone produces an effect1 which in turn becomes the cause of another effect1 the time order is the causal order4 ,in a novel1 or a short story frequently1 where there are more than one series of incidents contributing to and converging towards the main incident1 these causes must all be introduced before the effect1 and may break the chronological order of the story4 ,in ,roger ,malvin's ,burial1 it would be impossible to tell what the stricken father was doing and what the joyous mother was thinking at the same time4 ,hawthorne must leave one and go to the other until they meet in their awful desolation4 ,the only rule that can be given is1 introduce causes before effects4 ,in all stories1 short or long1 this will result in an approximation to the order of time2 in a simple story it will invariably give a time sequence4 ,there is one exception to this rule which should be noted4 ,it is necessary at the very beginning to have some incident that will arrest the attention4 ,this does not mean that persons1 place1 and time shall not come first4 ,they shall come first1 but they shall be so introduced as to make an interesting opening to the story4 ,the novels of some decades ago did not sufficiently recognize the principle4 ,one can frequently hear it said of ,scott's stories1 ,i can't get started with them2 they are too dry4 ,the introductory chapters are often uninteresting4 ,so much history is introduced1 so much scenery is described before the author sets out his characters2 and all this is done before he begins the story4 ,novelists of to-day realize that they must interest the reader at the beginning2 when they have caught him1 they are quite certain that he will bear with them while they bring up the other divisions of the story1 which now have become interesting because they throw light on what has already been told4 ,even more than novelists1 dramatists recognize this principle4 ,when the curtain rises on the first act1 something interesting is going on4 ,the action frequently begins far along in the time covered by the story2 then by cleverly arranged conversation all circumstances before the time of the opening that are necessary to the development of the plot are introduced4 ,the audience receives these minor yet essential details with no impatience1 since they explain in part a situation already interesting4 ,the time order may be broken in order to introduce at the beginning of the story some interesting situation which will immediately engage the reader's attention4 ,in arranging the materials of a story1 the main considerations are ,mass and ,coherence4 ,mass demands important matters at the beginning and at the end of a story4 ,coherence demands that events closely related shall stand close together3 that an effect shall immediately follow its cause4 ,beginning with some interesting situation that will also introduce the principal characters1 the time1 and the setting1 the story follows in the main the order of time1 and concludes with the main incident4 ,an ,outline4 ,one practical suggestion will assist in arranging the parts of a story4 ,use an outline4 ,it will guard against the omission of any detail that may afterward be found necessary1 and against the necessity of offering the apology1 inexcusable in prepared work1 of forgetting to say2 it will help the writer to see the best arrangement of the parts1 to know that causes have preceded effects4 ,the outline in narration should not be too much in detail1 nor should it be followed if1 as the story progresses1 new light comes and the writer sees a better way to proceed4 ,the writer should be above the outline1 not its slave2 but the outline is a most valuable servant of the writer4 ,movement4 ,movement is an essential quality of narrative2 a story must advance4 ,this does not mean that the story shall always go at the same rate1 though it does mean that it shall always go4 ,if a story always had the rapidity and intensity of a climax1 it would be intolerable4 ,music that is all rushing climaxes is unbearable2 a picture must not be a glare of high lights4 ,the quiet passages in music1 the grays and low tones in the background of the picture1 the slow chapters in a story1 are as necessary as their opposites2 indeed1 climaxes are dependent on contrasts in order to be climaxes4 ,rapidity4 ,the question of movement resolves itself into these two3 how is rapidity of movement obtained1 and how can the writer delay the movement4 ,rapidity is gained by the omission of all unnecessary details1 and the use of the shortest1 tersest sentences to express the absolutely essential4 ,dependent clauses disappear2 either the sentences are simple1 just one sharp statement1 or they are made of coordinate clauses with no connectives4 ,every weight that could clog the story is thrown away1 and it runs with the swiftness of the thought4 ,at such a time it would be a waste of good material to introduce beautiful descriptions or profound philosophy4 ,such things would be skipped by the reader4 ,everything must clear the way for the story4 ,slowness4 ,what has been said of rapidity will indicate the answer to the second question4 ,slowness of movement is obtained by introducing long descriptions1 analyses of characters1 and information regarding the history or customs of the time4 ,sentences become long and involved2 dependent clauses abound2 connective words and phrases are frequent4 ,needless details may be introduced until the story becomes wearisome2 it has almost no movement4 ,very closely connected with what has been said above is another fact concerning movement4 ,strip the sentences as you may1 there are still the verbs remaining4 ,verbs and derivatives from verbs are the words which denote action4 ,if other classes of words be taken out1 the ratio of verbs to the other words in the sentence is larger4 ,shorter sentences and an increased ratio of verbs mark the passages in which the movement is more rapid4 ,in ,baa1 ,baa1 ,black ,sheep the sentences average twenty-five words in the slower parts2 in the intenser paragraphs the sentences have an average of fifteen words4 ,poe's ,gold-,bug changes from thirty-eight to twenty-one4 ,again1 ,stevenson's essays have a verb to eight words1 while the fight at the round house has a verb to about five and a half words4 ,one of ,kipling's stories starts in with a verb to eight and a half words1 and the climax has a verb in every four words4 ,these figures mean that as the sentences are shortened1 adjectives1 adverbs1 phrases1 connectives1 disappear4 ,everything not absolutely necessary is thrown away when the passage is to express rapid movement4 ,no person should think that1 by eliminating all dependent clauses1 cutting away all unnecessary matters1 and putting in a verb to every four words1 he can gain intensity of expression4 ,these are only accompanying circumstances4 ,climaxes are in the thought4 ,when the thought moves rapidly1 when things are being done with a rush1 when the climax has been reached1 then the writer will find that he can approach the movement of the thought most nearly by using these means4 ,description and ,narration4 ,a valuable accessory to narration is description2 in truth1 description for its own sake is not frequently found4 ,the story must be somewhere2 and it is more real when we know in what kind of a place it occurs4 ,still it is not wise to do as ,scott so often has done1--give chapters of description at the beginning of the story4 ,rather the setting should be scattered through the story so that it is hardly perceptible4 ,at no time should the reader halt and realize that he is being treated to a description4 ,even in the beautiful descriptions by ,stevenson quoted in the next chapter1 the work is so intimately blended with the story that the reader unfortunately might pass over it4 ,a large part of the pleasure derived from the best stories is supplied by good descriptions1 giving a vivid picture of the setting of the story4 ,description has another use in narration beside giving the setting of the story2 it is often used to accent the mood of the action4 ,in ,the ,fall of the ,house of ,usher by ,poe1 much of the gloomy foreboding is caused by the weird descriptions4 ,hawthorne understood well the harmony between man's feelings and his surroundings4 ,the ,sylvan ,dance in ,the ,marble ,faun is wonderfully handled4 ,irving1 in ,the ,legend of ,sleepy ,hollow1 throws about the story a witching influence1 and long before the ,headless ,horseman appears1 the reader is quite sure that the region abounds in ghosts and goblins1 dwelling in its haunted fields1 and haunted brooks1 and haunted bridges1 and haunted houses4 ,the danger in the use of description for this purpose is in overdoing it4 ,the fact is1 as ,arlo ,bates says1 the villains no longer steal through smiling gardens whose snowy lilies1 all abloom1 and sending up perfume like incense from censers of silver1 seem to rebuke the wicked4 ,yet when handled as ,stevenson and ,irving handled it1 description assists in accenting the mood of the action4 ,characters few1 ,time short4 ,the number of characters should be few and the time of the action short4 ,pupils are not able to handle a large number of persons4 ,there is1 however1 a stronger reason for it than incapacity4 ,a young person would have great trouble in remembering the large number of persons introduced into ,little ,dorrit4 ,many of them would always remain entire strangers4 ,such a scattering of attention is unfavorable to a story4 ,to focus the interest upon a few1 to have the action centred in these few1 increases the movement and intensity of the narrative4 ,the writers of short stories in ,france 7perhaps the best story-tellers of the present71 ,kipling1 ,davis1 ,miss ,wilkins1 and some others of our best authors1 find few characters all that are necessary1 and they gain in intensity by limiting the number of characters4 ,for the same reason the time should be short4 ,if all the incidents chosen are crowded into a short period of time1 the action must be more rapid4 ,the reader does not like to know five years have elapsed between one event and the next1 even if the story-teller does not try to fill up the interim with matters of no consequence to the narrative4 ,one exception must be made to this rule4 ,in stories whose purpose is to portray a change of character1 a long time is necessary2 for the transformation is not usually the result of a day's experience1 but a gradual process of years4 ,silas ,marner and ,baa1 ,baa1 ,black ,sheep demand time to make naturally the great changes recounted4 ,in general1 however1 the time should be short4 ,simple ,plot4 ,moreover1 the plot should be simple4 ,this is not saying that the plot should be evident4 ,no one is quite satisfied if he knows just how the story will turn out4 ,there are1 however1 so many conditions in a story that the accentuation of one or the subordination of another may bring about something quite unexpected1 yet perfectly natural4 ,complicated plots have had their day2 simple plots are now in vogue4 ,they are as natural as life1 and quite as unfathomable4 ,in ,davis's ,gallegher there is nothing complicated2 one thing follows another in a perfectly natural way2 yet there are many questions in the reader's mind as to how the little rascal will turn out1 and whether he will accomplish his mission4 ,much more cleverness is shown by the sleight-of-hand trickster1 who1 unassisted and in the open1 with no accessories1 dupes his staring assembly1 than by him who1 on the stage1 with the aid of mirrors1 lights1 machines1 and a crowd of assistants1 manages to deceive your eyes4 ,a story that by its frank simplicity takes the reader into its confidence1 and brings him to a conclusion that is so natural that it should have been foreseen from the beginning1 has a good plot4 ,the conclusion of a story must be natural1--the result of the causes at work in the story4 ,it must be an expected surprise4 ,if it cannot be accounted for by the causes at work in the story1 the construction is faulty4 ,in the world of fiction there is not the liberty one experiences in the world of fact4 ,there things unexpected and unexplainable occur4 ,but the story-teller has no such privilege4 ,truth is stranger than fiction dare be4 ,a simple1 natural story1 with few characters and covering but a short period of time1 has three elements of success4 ,paragraph structure1 sentence structure1 and choice of words are taken up in subsequent chapters4 ,of paragraphs it may be wise to say that there will be as many as there are divisions in the outline2 and sometimes1 by reason of the length of topic1 a subdivision may be necessary4 ,the paragraph most common in narration is the paragraph of details1 the first form presented in the chapter on paragraphs4 ,what needs to be said of sentences has already been said when treating of movement4 ,of words one thing may be suggested4 ,choose live words1 specific words1 words that have go in them4 ,it should be remembered that everything cannot be learned at once4 ,the study of the whole is the principal occupation just now4 ,select the main incident2 choose other incidents to be consistent with it2 start out at once giving the conditions of the story2 proceed now fast1 now slow1 as the thought demands1 arriving at a conclusion that is an expected surprise1 the result of forces at work in the story4 ,,suggestive ,,questions ,,and ,,exercises ,the questions are only suggestive4 ,they indicate how literature can be made to teach composition4 ,some questions may seem hard1 and will provoke discussion4 ,to have even a false opinion1 backed by only a few facts1 is better than an entire absence of thought4 ,encourage discussion4 ,the answers to the questions have not been suggested in the questions themselves4 ,the object has been to throw the pupil upon his own thinking4 ,these questions upon the ,method of the ,author should not be considered until the far more important work of deriving the ,meaning of the ,author has been finished4 ,only after the whole piece has been carefully studied can the relation of the parts to the whole be understood4 ,reserve the questions for the review4 ,,questions4 ,,the ,,great ,,stone ,,face4 7,riverside ,literature ,series1 ,no4 #dj47 ,in what paragraphs is the main incident8 ,can you find one sentence on the second page of the story that foreshadows the result8 ,how many incidents or episodes contribute to the story8 ,do these help in the development of ,ernest's character8 ,if not1 what is the use of them8 ,why are they arranged in this order8 ,introduce into its proper place an incident of a scientist4 ,write it up4 ,do you think one of the incidents could be omitted8 ,which one8 ,are the incidents related in the order in which they occurred8 ,is one the cause of another8 ,has the story a plot8 ,why do you think so8 ,what is a plot8 ,where are introduced the time1 place1 and the principal character8 ,what is the use of the description of the great stone face8 ,why does the author tell only what was reported of the interior of ,mr4 ,gathergold's palace8 ,is it better so8 ,are the descriptions to accent the mood of the story8 or are they primarily to make concrete and real the persons and places8 ,is there any place where the movement of the story is rapid8 ,does the author begin at once1 and close when the story is told8 ,did you find any use of comparisons in the piece8 7,see top of p4 #f1 top of p4 #ai1 middle of p4 #bb47c ,of what value are they in composition8 ,,the ,,gentle ,,boy4 7,riverside ,literature ,series1 ,no4 #ade47 ,what is the main incident8 ,in relation to the whole story1 in what place does it stand8 ,do the other incidents serve to develop the character of the gentle boy8 or are they introduced to open up to the reader that character8 7,compare with ,wee ,willie ,winkie47 ,do you consider all the incidents necessary8 ,why has the author introduced the fact that ,ilbrahim gently cared for the little boy who fell from the tree8 ,what is the use of the first two pages of the story8 ,where does the story really begin8 ,how could you know the time1 if the first page were not there8 ,is it a delicate way of telling when8 ,notice that time1 place1 and principal characters all are introduced into the first paragraph of the real story4 ,why does the author note the change in ,tobias's circumstances8 ,does it add to the interest of the story8 ,would you omit it8 ,do you think this plot more complicated than that of ,the ,great ,stone ,face8 ,what is the use of the description on p4 #ca8 ,what do you note as the difference between 7a7 second line of p4 #ai1 sixth line of p4 #bg1 sixteenth line of p4 #bi1 and 7b7 fourth line of p4 #be1 the figure in the complete paragraph on p4 #dj8 ,,the ,,gray ,,champion4 7,riverside ,literature ,series1 ,no4 #ade47 ,note the successive stages by which the time is approached4 7,compare with the beginning of ,silas ,marner47 ,can you feel any difference between the movement of this story and the movement in ,the ,gentle ,boy8 ,is there any difference in the length of the sentences8 7,remember that the independent clauses of a compound sentence are very nearly the same as simple sentences47 ,is there any difference in the proportion of verbs and verbals8 ,what parts of speech have almost disappeared8 ,,roger ,,malvin',s ,,burial4 7,riverside ,literature ,series1 ,no4 #ade47 ,why is the first paragraph needed8 ,why could the incident in the first paragraph on p4 #ej not be omitted8 ,do you find it later8 ,how many chapters could you divide the story into8 ,what is the basis of division8 ,why did not ,hawthorne tell the result of the shot at once8 ,a plot is usually made by introducing more than one cause1 by hiding one of the causes1 or by holding back an effect4 ,which in this story8 ,is there a change of movement between the beginning and the end of the story8 ,look at the last two pages carefully4 ,how has the author expressed the intensity of the situation8 ,does the story end when it is finished8 ,,the ,,wedding ,,knell4 7,riverside ,literature ,series1 ,no4 #ade47 ,of the three common ways of giving uncertainty to a plot1 which has been used8 ,do you call this plot more complicated than those of the other tales studied8 ,why does the author say1 at the top of p4 #gb1 necessary preface8 ,could it not be omitted8 ,if not1 what principle of narrative construction would be violated by its omission8 ,why has he introduced the last paragraph on p4 #gd reaching over to p4 #ge8 ,,the ,,ambitious ,,guest4 7,riverside ,literature ,series1 ,no4 #dj47 ,in what order are the elements of the story introduced8 ,pick out phrases which prepare you for the catastrophe4 ,can you detect any difference in the movement of the different parts of the story8 ,what aids its expression8 ,,the ,,gold-,,bug4 7,riverside ,literature ,series1 ,no4 #abj47 ,would you have been satisfied if the story had stopped when the treasure was discovered8 ,what more do you want to know8 ,what1 then1 is the main incident8 ,was the main incident the last to occur in order of time8 ,why did ,poe delay telling it until the end8 ,do you see how relating the story in the first person helped him to throw the main incident last8 ,why could he not tell it before8 ,does ,poe tell any other stories in the first person8 ,in what person are ,treasure ,island and ,kidnapped told8 ,are they interesting8 ,if a friend is telling you a story1 do you care more for it if it is about a third party or about himself8 ,why8 ,what1 then1 is the advantage of making an actor the narrator8 ,what are some of the disadvantages8 ,do you think this plot as good as those of ,hawthorne's stories8 ,why was it necessary to have a day of remarkable chilliness 7p4 #c71 and a ,newfoundland dog rushing into the room 7p4 #f78 ,what principle would it violate to omit these little matters8 7,text-book1 p4 #bd47 ,what of the rapidity of movement when they are digging8 ,how has rapidity been gained8 ,what form of wit does ,poe attempt8 ,does he succeed8 ,do you think the conversation is natural8 ,if not1 what is the matter with it8 ,are negroes usually profane8 ,does ,jupiter's general character lead you to expect profanity from him8 ,is anything gained by his oaths8 ,is anything sacrificed8 ,in this story is profanity artistic8 7,to know what is meant by artistic1 read the last line of ,l',envoi on p4 #bec of the text-book47 ,,the ,,vision ,,of ,,sir ,,launfal4 7,riverside ,literature ,series1 ,no4 #cj47 ,what is the purpose of the first stanza8 ,what connection in thought is there between the second1 third1 and fourth stanzas8 ,what have these stanzas to do with the story8 ,if they have nothing to do with it1 what principle of structure do they violate8 ,would ,lowell be likely to do this8 ,what is the use of the description beginning ,and what is so rare as a day in ,june8 ,would the story be complete without the preludes8 ,would the teaching be understood without them8 ,are time and place definitely stated in the poem8 ,why should they be1 or not be8 ,why does so much time elapse between ,part ,i4 and ,part ,,ii4 of the story8 ,in what lines do you find the main incident8 ,in the first prelude is ,lowell describing a landscape of ,new ,england or ,old ,england8 ,where is the story laid8 ,what comment have you to make upon these facts8 ,pick out the figures4 ,are they useful8 ,can you find passages of exposition and description in this narrative8 ,why do you call it narration8 ,what is ,lowell's criticism upon himself8 7,see ,fable for ,critics47 ,a ,,christmas ,,carol4 7,riverside ,literature ,series1 ,no4 #eg47 ,is the opening such as to catch the attention8 ,what is the essential idea in the description of ,scrooge8 ,do all details enforce this idea8 ,do you know ,scrooge8 ,in what paragraph does ,dickens tell where the story occurs8 ,find places on p4 #ai and p4 #if where ,dickens has used in or into4 ,what advantage to the story is the appearance in ,scrooge's office of his nephew and the two gentlemen8 ,do they come into the story again8 ,are the details in the description of the apparition on p4 #da in the order in which they would be noted8 ,which is the most important detail8 ,where is it in the description8 ,is the description of ,mrs4 ,fezziwig on p4 #eb successful8 ,what helps express rapidity of movement in the paragraph at the bottom of p4 #ec8 7,see also paragraph on p4 #he47 ,examining the words used by ,dickens and ,hawthorne1 which are longer8 ,which are most effectual8 ,are you sure8 ,rewrite one of ,hawthorne's paragraphs with a ,dickens vocabulary4 ,what is the result8 ,what word is the topic of the last paragraph on p4 #gc8 ,recast the first sentence of the last paragraph on p4 #gg4 ,does ,dickens use slang8 7,do not consider conversation in the answer to this question47 ,what is the main incident8 ,is there one of the minor incidents that could be omitted8 ,which one could you most easily spare8 ,what is the need of the last chapter8 ,,marmion4 7,rolfe's ,student's ,series1 ,vol4 #b47 ,how do you know the time of ,marmion8 ,do you see any reason why stanza vi4 of ,canto ,i4 would better precede stanza v48 ,where is the first mention of ,de ,wilton8 the first intimation of ,clara de ,clare8 of ,constance8 ,what form of discourse in stanza vii4 of ,canto ,,ii48 ,what part in the development of the narrative does ,fitz-,eustace's song make8 ,does the tale related by the host break the unity of the whole8 ,is it another story8 ,what value has it8 ,why does ,scott not tell of ,marmion's encounter with the ,elfin ,knight in ,canto ,,iii48 ,where is it told8 ,why there8 ,why is ,canto ,,ii4 put after ,canto ,i48 ,did the events related in ,,ii4 occur after those related in ,i48 ,how many of the descriptions of persons in ,marmion begin with the face8 ,how many times are they of the face only8 ,try to write the incident related in stanzas xix41 xx41 xxi41 and xxii4 of ,canto ,,iii4 in fewer words than ,scott has done it without sacrificing any detail4 ,are you satisfied with the description of ,king ,james in stanza viii4 ,canto ,v48 ,do you see him8 ,write an outline of the plot of ,marmion in two hundred words4 ,why is the story of ,lady ,clare reserved until ,canto ,v48 ,what cantos contain the main incident8 ,were all that precedes omitted1 would ,the ,battle be as interesting8 ,do you think the plot good8 ,is it complicated8 ,what of the number of figures used in the last canto compared with those used in any other canto8 ,do you find more in narrative or descriptive passages8 ,why8 ,read stanza viii4 ,canto ,,iii4 ,can you describe a voice without using comparison8 ,do the introductions to the several cantos form any part of the story8 ,would they be just as good anywhere else8 ,would the story be better with them1 or without them8 ,what principle of structure do they violate8 ,,exercises4 ,the subjects for composition given below are not intended as a course to be followed1 but only to suggest a plan for the work4 ,the individual topics for essays may not be the best for all cases4 ,long lists of topics can be found in rhetorics4 ,bare subjects1 however1 are usually unsuggestive4 ,they should be adapted to the class4 ,put the subjects in such shape that there is something to get hold of4 ,give the pupils a fair start4 #a-d4 ,in order to place before the pupils good models for constructing stories1 read one like ,a ,piece of ,string in ,an ,odd ,number1 by ,maupassant4 ,stories for this purpose should not be long4 ,talk the story over with the pupils1 bringing out clearly the main incident and the several episodes which contribute to it4 ,have them notice how characters1 time1 and place are introduced2 and how each succeeding event is possible and natural4 ,then have it rewritten4 ,this will fix the idea of plan4 ,for this purpose some of ,miss ,wilkins's stories are excellent2 ,kenneth ,grahame's ,the ,golden ,age1 and ,miss ,jewett's short stories are good material4 ,some of the short stories in current magazines serve well4 #e1 #f4 ,read the first of a story and its close1--enough to indicate the main incident and the setting of the story4 ,have the pupils write it complete4 #g4 ,read the close of a story4 ,the pupils will then write the whole4 #h4 ,read the opening of a story4 ,have the pupils complete it4 #i4 ,finish ,the ,circus-,man's ,story 7,text-book1 p4 #big47 #aj4 ,my ,first ,algebra ,lesson4 ,remember that in composition a good story is worth more than a true one4 ,the basis may be a fact4 ,do not hesitate to fix it up4 #aa4 ,a delivery horse runs away4 ,no persons are in the wagon4 ,tell about it4 #ab4 ,write about a runaway in which you and your little sister are injured4 7,i have found it very helpful to use the same subject1 but having the relation of the narrator to the incident very different4 ,it serves to bring out a whole new vocabulary in order to express the difference in the feelings of the narrator47 #ac4 ,write the story suggested to your mind by these words3 ,digging in the sand ,i found a board much worn by the waves1 on which were cut1 in characters scarcely traceable1 these words3 ,dec4----#ah #i1 ,n4 ,j4 #ad4 ,a humorous incident in a street car1 in which the joke was on the other fellow4 #ae4 ,another in which the joke was on me4 ,the same incident may be used with good effect4 ,the choice of new words to express the difference of feelings makes an excellent exercise4 #af4 ,tell the story that ,doreas related to her neighbors about her husband's escape and her father's death4 #ag4 ,to bring out the fact that the language must be varied to suit the character of the reader or listener1 tell a fairy story to a sleepy five-year old so that he will not go to sleep4 ,do not hesitate at exaggerations4 ,only remember it must be consistent4 #ah4 ,have ,the ,gentle ,boy tell one of the incidents in which he was cruelly treated4 ,this may well be an incident of your own life adapted to its purpose4 #ai1 #bj4 ,jim was a mean boy4 ,meanness seemed to be in his blood4 ,he was all mean4 ,his hair was mean2 his freckles were mean2 his big1 chapped hands were mean4 ,and he was always mean4 ,he was mean to his pets2 he was meaner to small boys2 and he was as mean as he dared to be to his equals in size4 ,write one incident to show ,jim's meanness4 ,write another to show how ,jim met his match1 and learned a lesson4 #ba4 ,work up the following into a story4 ,it all occurs in one day at the present time4 ,place1 your own city4 ,characters1 a poor sewing girl1 her little sick brother1 and a wealthy society lady4 ,incidents3 a conversation between brother and sister about some fruit2 a conversation between the sewing girl and the lady about money due for sewing2 stealing apples2 arrest2 appearance of the lady4 ,title3 ,who was the ,criminal8 #bb4 ,a story of a modern ,sir ,launfal4 #bc4 ,the most thrilling moment of my life4 #bd4 ,tell the whole story suggested by the stanza of ,a ,nightingale in the ,study1 by ,lowell1 which begins1 ,cloaked shapes1 a twanging of guitars4 #be4 ,write a story which teaches a lesson4 ,remember that the lesson is in the story1 not at its end4 ,in the work at this time but little attention can be given to the teaching of paragraphs and sentences4 ,the pupil should learn what a paragraph is1 and should have his composition properly divided into paragraphs4 ,but the form and massing of paragraphs cannot be taken up at this time4 ,the same may be said of sentences4 ,he should have no sentences broken in two by periods2 nor should he have two sentences forced into one4 ,grammatical errors should be severely criticised4 ,however1 the present work is to get the pupils started2 and they cannot get started if there is a teacher holding them back by discouraging criticisms4 ,mark all mistakes of whatever kind2 but put the stress upon the whole composition3 its unity1 its coherence1 its mass1 and its movement4 ,everything cannot be done at once2 many distressing faults will have to be passed over until later4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,description ,difficulties of ,language for making ,pictures4 ,description has been defined as the form of literature which presents a picture by means of language4 ,in the preceding chapter1 it has been pointed out that the sequence of language is perfectly adapted to detail the sequence of action in a narrative4 ,for the purpose of constructing a picture1 the means has serious drawbacks4 ,the picture has to be presented in pieces2 and the difficulties are much as would be experienced if dissected maps and animals used for children's amusement were to be put together in the head4 ,it would not be easy to arrange the map of the ,united ,states from blocks1 each containing a small part of it1 taken one at a time from a box4 ,yet this closely resembles the method language forces us to adopt in constructing a picture4 ,each phrase is like one of the blocks1 and introduces a new element into the picture2 from these phrases the reader must reconstruct the whole4 ,this means not alone that he shall remember them all1 but there is a more serious trouble3 he must often rearrange them4 ,for example1 a description by ,ruskin begins1 ,nine years old4 ,either a boy or a girl1 the reader thinks1 as it may be in his own home4 ,in the case of this reader it is a boy1 rather tall of his age1 with brown hair and dark eyes4 ,but the next phrase reads1 ,neither tall nor short for her age4 ,now the reader knows it is a girl of common stature4 ,later on he learns that her eyes are deep blue2 her lips perfectly lovely in profile2 and so on through the details of the whole sketch4 ,many times in the course of the description the reader makes up a new picture2 he is continually reconstructing4 ,any one who will observe his own mind while reading a new description can prove that the picture is arranged and rearranged many times4 ,this is due to the means by which it is presented4 ,language presents only a phrase at a time1--a fragment1 not a whole1--and so fails in the instantaneous presentation of a complete picture4 ,painting and ,sculpture4 ,the painter or sculptor who upon canvas or in stone flashes the whole composition before us at the same instant of time1 has great advantages over the worker in words4 ,in these methods there is needed no reconstruction of previous images1 no piecing together of a number of fragments4 ,without any danger of mistakes which will have to be corrected later1 the spectator can take in the whole picture at once1--every relation1 every color1 every difference in values4 ,it is because pictures are the surest and quickest means of representing objects to the mind that books1 especially text-books1 and magazines are so profusely illustrated4 ,no magazine can claim popularity to-day that does not use illustrations where possible2 no text-book in science or history sells unless it contains pictures4 ,and this is because all persons accurately and quickly get the idea from a picture4 ,advantages of ,language4 ,whatever be the disadvantages of language1 there are some advantages4 ,who could paint this from ,hawthorne8 ,soon the smoke ascended among the trees1 impregnated with savory incense1 not heavy1 dull1 and surfeiting1 like the steam of cookery indoors1 but sprightly and piquant4 ,the smell of our feast was akin to the woodland odors with which it mingled4 7,mosses from an ,old ,manse47 ,or this from ,lowell8-- ,under the yaller-pines ,i house1 ,when sunshine makes 'em all sweet-scented1 ,an' hear among their furry boughs ,the baskin' west wind purr contented1 ,while 'way o'erhead1 ez sweet an' low ,ez distant bells thet ring for meetin'1 ,the wedged wil' geese their bugles blow1 ,further an' further ,south retreatin'4#d ,or cut this from marble8-- ,o mother ,ida1 many-fountained ,ida1 ,dear mother ,ida1 hearken ere ,i die4 ,for now the noonday quiet holds the hill2 ,the grasshopper is silent in the grass2 ,the lizard1 with his shadow on the stone1 ,rests like a shadow1 and the winds are dead4 ,the purple flower droops2 the golden bee ,is lily-cradled2 ,i alone awake4 ,my eyes are full of tears1 my heart of love1 ,my heart is breaking1 and my eyes are dim1 ,and ,i am all aweary of my life4#e ,the painter cannot put sounds upon a canvas1 nor can the sculptor carve from marble an odor or a taste4 ,we use the other senses in determining qualities of objects2 and words which describe effects produced by other senses beside sight are valuable in description4 ,as ,lowell says1 we may shut our eyes1 but we cannot help knowing a large number of beautiful things4 ,moreover1 language suggests hidden ideas that the representative arts cannot so well do4 ,the following from a ,song by ,lowell has in it suggestions which the picture could not present4 ,violet6 sweet violet6 ,thine eyes are full of tears2 ,are they wet ,even yet ,with the thought of other years8 ,or with gladness are they full1 ,for the night so beautiful1 ,and longing for those far-off spheres8 ,thy little heart1 that hath with love ,grown colored like the sky above1 ,on which thou lookest ever1-- ,can it know ,all the woe ,of hope for what returneth never1 ,all the sorrow and the longing ,to these hearts of ours belonging8 ,enumeration and ,suggestion ,description1 like narration1 has two large divisions3 one simply to give information or instruction2 the other to present a vivid picture4 ,one is representative or enumerative2 the other1 suggestive4 ,one may be illustrated by guide-books2 the other by the descriptions of ,stevenson or ,ruskin4 ,and in the most artistic fashion the two have been made to supplement each other in the following picture of bright and beautiful ,athens by ,cardinal ,newman4 ,from the first1 to the sentence beginning ,but what he would not think of1 there is simply an enumeration of features which a commercial agent might see2 the rest is what the artistic soul of the lover of beauty saw there4 ,one is enumeration2 the other a gloriously suggestive picture4 ,a confined triangle1 perhaps fifty miles its greatest length1 and thirty its greatest breadth2 two elevated rocky barriers1 meeting at an angle2 three prominent mountains1 commanding the plain1--,parnes1 ,pentelicus1 and ,hymettus2 an unsatisfactory soil2 some streams1 not always full2--such is about the report which the agent of a ,london company would have made of ,attica4 ,he would report that the climate was mild2 the hills were limestone2 there was plenty of good marble2 more pasture land than at first survey might have been expected1 sufficient1 certainly1 for sheep and goats2 fisheries productive2 silver mines once1 but long since worked out2 figs fair2 oil first-rate2 olives in profusion4 ,but what he would not think of noting down was that that olive-tree was so choice in nature and so noble in shape that it excited a religious veneration2 and that it took so kindly to the light soil as to expand into woods upon the open plain1 and to climb up and fringe the hills4 ,he would not think of writing word to his employers1 how that clear air1 of which ,i have spoken1 brought out1 yet blended and subdued1 the colors on the marble1 till they had a softness and harmony1 for all their richness1 which in a picture looks exaggerated1 yet is after all within the truth4 ,he would not tell how that same delicate and brilliant atmosphere freshened up the pale olive1 till the olive forgot its monotony1 and its cheek glowed like the arbutus or beech of the ,umbrian hills4 ,he would say nothing of the thyme and the thousand fragrant herbs which carpeted ,hymettus2 he would hear nothing of the hum of its bees2 nor take account of the rare flavor of its honey1 since ,gaza and ,minorca were sufficient for the ,english demand4 ,he would look over the ,aegean from the height he had ascended2 he would follow with his eyes the chain of islands1 which1 starting from the ,sunian headland1 seemed to offer the fabled divinities of ,attica1 when they would visit their ,ionian cousins1 a sort of viaduct thereto across the sea2 but that fancy would not occur to him1 nor any admiration of the dark violet billows with their white edges down below2 nor of those graceful1 fan-like jets of silver upon the rocks1 which slowly rise aloft like water spirits from the deep1 then shiver1 and break1 and spread1 and shroud themselves1 and disappear in a soft mist of foam2 nor of the gentle1 incessant heaving and panting of the whole liquid plain2 nor of the long waves1 keeping steady time1 like a line of soldiery as they resound upon the hollow shore1--he would not deign to notice the restless living element at all except to bless his stars that he was not upon it4 ,nor the distinct details1 nor the refined coloring1 nor the graceful outline and roseate golden hue of the jutting crags1 nor the bold shadows cast from ,otus or ,laurium by the declining sun2--our agent of a mercantile firm would not value these matters even at a low figure4 ,rather1 we must turn for the sympathy we seek to yon pilgrim student1 come from a semi-barbarous land to that small corner of the earth1 as to a shrine1 where he might take his fill of gazing on those emblems and coruscations of invisible unoriginate perfection4 ,it was the stranger from a remote province1 from ,britain or from ,mauritania1 who in a scene so different from that of his chilly1 woody swamps1 or of his fiery1 choking sands1 learned at once what a real ,university must be1 by coming to understand the sort of country which was its suitable home4#f ,enumerative ,description4 ,enumerative description has one point of great difference from suggestive description4 ,in the former everything is told2 in the latter the description is as fortunate in what it omits as in what it includes4 ,were an architect to give specifications for the building of a house1 every detail would have to be included2 but after all the pages of careful enumeration the reader would know less of how it looked than after these few words from ,irving4 ,a large1 rickety wooden building stood in its place1 with great gaping windows1 some of them broken and mended with old hats and petticoats1 and over the door was painted ',the ,union ,hotel1 by ,jonathan ,doolittle4' ,so the manual training student uses five hundred words to describe in detail a box which would be thrown off with but a few words in a piece of literature4 ,in enumerative description1 one element is of as much importance as another2 no special feature is made primary by the omission or subdual of other qualities4 ,it has value in giving exact details of objects1 as if for their construction1 and in including an object in a class4 ,suggestive ,description4 ,suggestive description1 description the aim of which is not information1 but the reproduction of a picture1 is the kind most employed in literature4 ,to present a picture1 not all the details should be given4 ,the mind cannot carry them all1 and1 much worse1 it cannot arrange them4 ,nor is there any need for a detailed enumeration4 ,a room has walls1 floor1 and ceiling2 a man naturally has ears1 arms1 and feet4 ,these things may be taken for granted4 ,it is not what is common to a class that describes2 it is what is individual1 what takes one object out of a class4 ,value of ,observation4 ,this leads to the suggestion that good description depends largely on accurate observation4 ,a selection frequently quoted1 but none the less valuable because often seen1 is in point here4 ,it is the last word on the value of observation4 ,talent is long patience4 ,it is a question of regarding whatever one desires to express long enough and with attention close enough to discover a side which no one has seen and which has been expressed by nobody4 ,in everything there is something of the unexplored1 because we are accustomed to use our eyes only with the thought of what has already been said concerning the thing we see4 ,the smallest thing has in it a grain of the unknown4 ,discover it4 ,in order to describe a fire that flames or a tree in the plain1 we must remain face to face with that fire or that tree until for us they no longer resemble any other tree or any other fire4 ,this is the way to become original4 ,having1 moreover1 impressed upon me the fact that there are not in the whole world two grains of sand1 two insects1 two hands1 or two noses absolutely alike1 he forced me to describe a being or an object in such a manner as to individualize it clearly1 to distinguish it from all other objects of the same kind4 ',when you pass1' he said to me1 'a grocer seated in his doorway1 a concierge smoking his pipe1 a row of cabs1 show me this grocer and this concierge1 their attitude1 all their physical appearance2 suggest by the skill of your image all their moral nature1 so that ,i shall not confound them with any other grocer or any other concierge2 make me see1 by a single word1 wherein a cab-horse differs from the fifty others that follow or precede him4'444 ,whatever may be the thing which one wishes to say1 there is but one word for expressing it2 only one verb to animate it1 but one adjective to qualify it4 ,it is essential to search for this verb1 for this adjective1 until they are discovered1 and never to be satisfied with anything else4#g ,the ,point of ,view4 ,with the closest observation1 an author gets into his own mind what he wishes to present to another2 but with this essential step taken1 he is only ready to begin the work of communication4 ,for the successful communication of a picture there are some considerations of value4 ,and first is the point of view4 ,it has much the same relation to description as the main incident has to narration4 ,in large measure it determines what to exclude and what to include4 ,when a writer has assumed his point of view1 he must stay there1 and tell not a thing more than he can see from there4 ,it would hardly be possible for a man1 telling only so much as he saw while gazing from ,eiffel ,tower into the streets below1 to say that the people looked like ,lilliputians and that their hands were dirty4 ,to one lying on the bank of a stream1 it does not look like a silver thread running through the landscape4 ,things do not look the same when they are near as when at a distance4 ,this fact has been acted upon more by the modern school of painting than ever before in art4 ,verboeckhoven painted sheep in a marvelous way4 ,the drawing is perfect1 giving the animal to the life4 ,still1 no matter how far away the artist was standing1 there are the same marvelously painted tufts of wool1 showing almost the individual fibres4 ,tufts of wool were on the sheep1 and made of fibres2 but no artist at twenty rods could see them4 ,the new school gives only what actually can be seen4 ,its first law is that each shall draw the thing as he sees it for the ,god of ,things as ,they ,are4 ,make no additions to what you can actually see because1 as a result of experience1 you know that there are some things not yet mentioned in your description2 the hands may be dirty1 but the man on the tower cannot see the dirt4 ,neither make an addition simply because it sounds well2 the silver thread through the landscape is beautiful1 but1 unfortunately1 it is not always true4 ,not only does distance cut out details from a picture2 the fact that man sees in a straight line and not around a corner eliminates some features4 ,in describing a house1 remember that as you stand across the street from it1 the back porch cannot be seen1 neither can the shrubbery in the back yard4 ,a writer would not be justified in speaking of a man's necktie1 if the man he was describing were walking in front of him4 ,in enumerative description the inside of a box may be told of2 a man may be turned around1 as it were2 but to present a picture1 only one side can be described1 just as it would be shown in a photograph4 ,any addition to what can actually be known from the point of view assumed by the author is a fault and a source of confusion4 ,choose your point of view2 stay there2 and tell only what is seen from that point4 ,moving ,point of ,view4 ,it has been said that the point of view should not be changed4 ,this requires one modification4 ,it may be changed1 if the reader is kept informed of the changes4 ,if a person wished to describe an interior1 he would be unable to see the whole from any one point of view4 ,as he passed from room to room he should inform his reader of his change of position4 ,then the description1 though a unit1 is a combination of several descriptions2 just as the house is one1 though made of dining-room1 sitting-rooms1 bedrooms1 and attic4 ,this kind of description is very common in books of travel1 in which the author tells what he sees in passing4 ,the thing to be remembered in writing this kind of description is to inform the reader where the author is when he writes the different parts of the description1--to give the points of view4 ,the ,point of ,view should be stated4 ,the point of view1 whether fixed or moving1 should be made clear4 ,either it should be definitely stated1 or it should be suggested by some phrase in the description4 ,in the many examples which are quoted in this chapter1 it would be well to see what it is that gives the point of view4 ,the picture gains in distinctness when the point of view is known4 ,the following sentences are from ,the ,old ,manse2 there is no mistake here4 ,the reader knows every move the author makes4 ,it opens with3-- ,between two tall gateposts of rough-hewn stone 7the gate itself having fallen from its hinges at some unknown epoch7 we beheld the gray front of the old parsonage terminating the vista of an avenue of black ash-trees4 ,from the street the reader is taken to the rear of the house1 where there was the most delightful little nook of a study that ever offered its snug seclusion to a scholar4 ,through its window the clergyman saw the opening of the deadly struggle between two nations4 ,he heard the rattle of musketry1 and there needed but a gentle wind to sweep the battle smoke around this quiet house4 ,perhaps the reader1 whom ,i cannot help considering as my guest in the ,old ,manse and entitled to all courtesy in the way of sight-showing1--perhaps he will choose to take a nearer view of the memorable spot4 ,we stand now on the river's brink4444 ,here we are1 at the point where the river was crossed by the old bridge4444 ,the ,old ,manse6 ,we had almost forgotten it1 but will return thither through the orchard4444 ,what with the river1 the battle-field1 the orchard1 and the garden1 the reader begins to despair of finding his way back into the ,old ,manse4 ,but in agreeable weather it is the truest hospitality to keep him out-of-doors4 ,i never grew quite acquainted with my habitation till a long spell of sulky rain had confined me beneath its roof4 ,there could not be a more sombre aspect of external nature than as then seen from the windows of my study4 ,and so ,hawthorne continues through this long and beautiful description of ,the ,old ,manse2 every change in the point of view is noted4 ,mental ,point of ,view4 ,closely connected with the physical point of view is the mood or purpose of the writer2 this might be called the mental point of view4 ,not everything should be told which the author could know from his position1 but only those things which at the time serve his purpose4 ,in the description already quoted from ,newman1 the mercantile gentleman notes a large number of features which are the commercial advantages of ,attica2 of these but three are worthy of mention by yon pilgrim student in giving his impression of ,athens as a shrine where he might take his fill of gazing on those emblems and coruscations of invisible unoriginate perfection4 ,the others--the soil1 the streams1 the climate1 the limestone1 the fisheries1 and the silver mines--do not serve his purpose4 ,hawthorne in the long description already mentioned has retained those features which suggest quiet and peace4 ,such a profusion of quiet1 half asleep1 peaceful1 unruffled1 unexcitable words and phrases never loitered through forty pages of dreamy and whispering description4 ,in the following bit from ,lear1 where ,edgar tells his blinded father how high the cliff is1 only those details are included which measure distance4 ,how fearful ,and dizzy 'tis to cast one's eyes so low6 ,the crows and choughs that wing the midway air ,show scarce so gross as beetles2 half way down ,hangs one that gathers samphire1--dreadful trade6 ,methinks he seems no bigger than his head3 ,the fishermen1 that walk upon the beach1 ,appear like mice2 and yond tall anchoring bark1 ,diminished to her cock2 her cock1 a buoy ,almost too small for sight3 the murmuring surge1 ,that on th' unnumbered idle pebbles chafes1 ,cannot be heard so high4--,i'll look no more1 ,lest my brain turn1 and the deficient sight ,topple down headlong4 ,the following is from ,kipling's ,the ,light that ,failed3-- ,what do you think of a big1 red1 dead city built of red sandstone1 with green aloes growing between the stones1 lying out neglected on honey-colored sands8 ,there are forty dead kings there1 ,maisie1 each in a gorgeous tomb finer than all the others4 ,you look at the palaces and streets and shops and tanks1 and think that men must live there1 till you find a wee gray squirrel rubbing its nose all alone in the marketplace1 and a jeweled peacock struts out of a carved doorway and spreads its tail against a marble screen as fine pierced as point-lace4 ,then a monkey--a little black monkey--walks through the main square to get a drink from a tank forty feet deep4 ,he slides down the creepers to the water's edge1 and a friend holds him by the tail1 in case he should fall in4 ,is all that true8 ,i have been there and seen4 ,then evening comes and the lights change till it's just as though you stood in the heart of a king-opal4 ,a little before sundown1 as punctually as clockwork1 a big bristly wild boar1 with all his family following1 trots through the city gate1 churning the foam on his tusks4 ,you climb on the shoulder of a big black stone god1 and watch that pig choose himself a palace for the night and stump in wagging his tail4 ,then the night-wind gets up1 and the sands move1 and you hear the desert outside the city singing1 ',now ,i lay me down to sleep1' and everything is dark till the moon rises4 ,note how every detail introduced serves to make the city dead4 ,dead kings1 a wee gray squirrel1 a little black monkey1 a bristly wild boar1 the night wind1 and the desert singing1--these could not be seen or heard in a live city with street cars2 but all serve to emphasize the fact that here is a big1 red1 dead city4 ,at the risk of over-emphasizing this point that the purpose of the author1 the mental point of view of the writer1 the feeling which the object gives him and which he wishes to convey to the reader1 the central thought in the description1 is primary1 and an element that cannot be overlooked in successful description1 ,i give another example4 ,this point really cannot be over-emphasized3 a writer cannot be too careful in selecting materials4 ,careless grouping of incongruous matters cannot make a picture4 ,nor does the artistic author leave the reader in doubt as to the purpose of the description2 its central thought is usually suggested in the first sentence4 ,in the quotations from ,shakespeare and ,kipling1 the opening sentences are the germ of what follows4 ,each detail seems to grow out of this sentence1 and serves to emphasize it4 ,in the following by ,stevenson1 the paragraphs spring from the opening sentence2 they explain it1 they elaborate it1 and they accent it4 ,night is a dead monotonous period under a roof2 but in the open world it passes lightly1 with its stars and dews and perfumes1 and the hours are marked by changes in the face of ,nature4 ,what seems a kind of temporal death to people choked between walls and curtains is only a light and living slumber to the man who sleeps afield4 ,all night long he can hear ,nature breathing deeply and freely2 even as she takes her rest she turns and smiles2 and there is one stirring hour unknown to those who dwell in houses1 when a wakeful influence goes abroad over the sleeping hemisphere1 and all the outdoor world are on their feet4 ,it is then that the first cock crows1 not this time to announce the dawn1 but like a cheerful watchman speeding the course of the night4 ,cattle awake on the meadows2 sheep break their fast on the dewy hillsides1 and change to a new lair among the ferns2 and houseless men1 who have lain down with the fowls1 open their dim eyes and behold the beauty of the night4 ,at what inaudible summons1 at what gentle touch of ,nature1 are all these sleepers thus recalled in the same hour to life8 ,do the stars rain down an influence1 or do we share some thrill of mother earth below our resting bodies8 ,even shepherds and old country-folk1 who are the deepest read in these arcana1 have not a guess as to the means or purpose of this nightly resurrection4 ,towards two in the morning they declare the thing takes place2 and neither know nor inquire further4 ,and at least it is a pleasant incident4 ,we are disturbed in our slumber only1 like the luxurious ,montaigne1 'that we may the better and more sensibly enjoy it4' ,we have a moment to look upon the stars4 ,and there is a special pleasure for some minds in the reflection that we share the impulse with all outdoor creatures in our neighborhood1 that we have escaped out of the ,bastille of civilization1 and are become1 for the time being1 a more kindly animal and a sheep of ,nature's flock4 7,travels with a ,donkey47 ,length of ,descriptions4 ,there is one more step in the exclusion of details4 ,this considers neither the point of view nor the purpose of the writer1 but it is what is due the reader4 ,stevenson says in one of his essays that a description which lasts longer than two minutes is never attempted in conversation4 ,the listener cannot hold the details enumerated4 ,the clearest statement regarding this comes from ,jules ,lemaitre in a criticism upon some descriptions by ,emile ,zola which the critic says are praised by persons who have never read them4 ,he says3-- ,it has been one of the greatest literary blunders of the time to suppose that an enumeration of parts is a picture1 to think that forever placing details side by side1 however picturesque they may be1 is able in the end to make a picture1 to give us any conception of the vast spectacles in the physical universe4 ,in reality1 a written description arranges its parts in our mind only when the impression of the first features of which it is formed are remembered sufficiently1 so that we can easily join the first to those which complete and end it4 ,in short1 a piece of description is ineffective if we cannot hold in mind all its details at one time4 ,it is necessary that all the details coexist in our memory just as the parts of a painting coexist under our eye4 ,this becomes next to impossible if the description of one definite object last over fifteen minutes of reading4 ,the longer it is1 the more obscure it becomes4 ,the individual features fade away in proportion to the number which are presented2 and for this reason one might say that we cannot see the forest for the trees4 ,every description which is over fifty lines ceases to be clear to a mind of ordinary vigor4 ,after that there is only a succession of fragmentary pictures which fatigues and overwhelms the reader4#h ,these1 then1 are the principles that guide in the choice of materials for a description4 ,first1 the point of view1 whether fixed or movable1 should be made clear to the reader2 it should be retained throughout the description1 or the change should be announced4 ,by regard for it the writer will be guided to the exclusion of matters that could not be observed1 and to the inclusion of such details as can be seen and are essential4 ,second1 the writer will keep out matters that do not contribute to his purpose1 and will select only those details which assist in producing the desired impression4 ,third1 the limitations of the reader's powers advise a writer to be brief3 five hundred words should be the outside2 two hundred are enough for most writers4 ,these principles will give to the whole that unity of materials and of structure which is the first requisite of an effective description4 ,the next matter for consideration is the arrangement of the materials4 ,the arrangement depends on the principles that guided in narration1 ,mass and ,coherence4 ,arrangement of ,details in ,description4 ,after we have looked at any object long enough to be able to write about it1 one feature comes to assume an importance that sets it far above all others4 ,to a writer who has looked long at a man1 he may shrink to a cringing piece of weakness1 or he may grow to a strong1 self-centred power whose presence alone inspires serenest trust4 ,hawthorne1 standing in ,st4 ,peter's1 saw only the gorgeous coloring2 proportions1 immensity1 and sacredness were as nothing to the harmonious brilliancy of this expanded jewel casket4#i ,stevenson1 thinking of the beast of burden best suited to carry his great sleeping sack1 discarded the horse1 for1 as he says1 she is a fine lady among animals4#aj ,the description of a horse which follows this statement emphasizes the fact that a horse is not intended for carrying burdens4 ,from the germinal impression of a description1 all the details grow2 to this primary impression they all contribute4 ,in the case of buildings1 or other things material1 this impression is generally one of form1 sometimes of the height of the object2 if striking1 it may be color4 ,the strongest impression of persons is a quality of character which shows itself either in the face or in the pose of a man4 ,an example of each may be found in the following paragraphs from ,david ,copperfield3-- ,at length we stopped before a very old house bulging out over the road2 a house with long1 low lattice-windows bulging out still farther1 and beams with carved heads on the ends bulging out too1 so that ,i fancied the whole house was leaning forward1 trying to see who was passing on the narrow pavement below4 ,it was quite spotless in its cleanliness4 ,the old-fashioned brass knocker on the low-arched door1 ornamented with carved garlands of fruits and flowers1 twinkled like a star2 the two stone steps descending to the door were as white as if they had been covered with fair linen2 and all the angles and corners1 and carvings and mouldings1 and quaint little panes of glass1 and quainter little windows1 though as old as the hills1 were as pure as any snow that ever fell upon the hills4 ,when the pony-chaise stopped at the door1 and my eyes were intent upon the house1 ,i saw a cadaverous face appear at a small window on the ground floor 7in a little round tower that formed one side of the house71 and quickly disappear4 ,the low arched door then opened1 and the face came out4 ,it was quite as cadaverous as it had looked in the window1 though in the grain of it there was that tinge of red which is sometimes to be observed in the skins of red-haired people4 ,it belonged to a red-haired person--a youth of fifteen1 as ,i take it now1 but looking much older whose hair was cropped as close as the closest stubble2 who had hardly any eyebrows1 and no eyelashes1 and eyes of a red-brown2 so unsheltered and unshaded that ,i remember wondering how he went to sleep4 ,he was high-shouldered and bony2 dressed in decent black1 with a white wisp of a neck cloth2 buttoned up to the throat2 and had a long1 lank1 skeleton hand1 which particularly attracted my attention1 as he stood at the pony's head1 rubbing his chin with it1 and looking up at us in the chaise4 ,hawthorne thus begins his description of ,the ,house of the ,seven ,gables3-- ,maule's ,lane1 or ,pyncheon ,street1 as it were now more decorous to call it1 was thronged1 at the appointed hour1 as with a congregation on its way to church4 ,all1 as they approached1 looked upward at the imposing edifice1 which was henceforth to assume its rank among the habitations of mankind4 ,and in the same volume his description of ,the ,pyncheon of ,to-day begins3-- ,as the child went down the steps1 a gentleman ascended them1 and made his entrance into the shop4 ,it was the portly1 and1 had it possessed the advantage of a little more height1 would have been the stately figure of a man1 considerably in the decline of life1 dressed in a black suit of some thin stuff1 resembling broadcloth as closely as possible4 ,if the description be long1 and the object will lend itself to such a treatment1 a definite1 tangible1 easily understood shape or form should be suggested at once4 ,notice ,newman's first sentence describing ,attica3 ,a confined triangle1 perhaps fifty miles its greatest length1 and thirty its greatest breadth4 ,like this is the beginning of the description of the battle of ,waterloo by ,victor ,hugo4 ,those who would get a clear idea of the battle of ,waterloo have only to lay down upon the ground in their mind a capital letter ,a4 ,the left stroke of the ,a is the road to ,nivelles1 the right stroke is the road from ,genappe1 the cross of the ,a is the sunken road from ,ohain to ,braine l',alleud4 ,the top of the ,a is ,mont ,saint ,jean1 ,wellington is there2 the left-hand lower point is ,hougomont1 ,reille is there with ,jerome ,bonaparte2 the right-hand lower point is ,la ,belle ,alliance1 ,napoleon is there4 ,a little below the point where the cross of the ,a meets and cuts the right stroke1 is ,la ,haie ,sainte4 ,at the middle of this cross is the precise point where the final battle word was spoken4 ,there the lion is placed1 the involuntary symbol of the supreme heroism of the ,imperial ,guard4 ,the triangle contained at the top of the ,a1 between the two strokes and the cross1 is the plateau of ,mont ,saint ,jean4 ,the struggle for this plateau was the whole of the battle4#aa ,in ,the ,vision of ,sir ,launfal ,lowell opens his beautiful description with the words1 ,and what is so rare as a day in ,june8 ,from this general and comprehensive sentence follow all the details which make a ,june day perfect4 ,hawthorne1 after telling how he happened to write of him1 begins his long description of ,the ,old ,apple ,dealer with the following paragraph3-- ,he is a small man1 with gray hair and gray stubble beard1 and is invariably clad in a shabby surtout of snuff color1 closely buttoned1 and half concealing a pair of gray pantaloons2 the whole dress1 though clean and entire1 being evidently flimsy with much wear4 ,his face1 thin1 withered1 furrowed1 and with features which even age has failed to render impressive1 has a frost-bitten aspect4 ,it is a moral frost which no physical warmth or comfortableness could counteract4 ,the summer sunshine may fling its white heat upon him1 or the good fire of the depot room may make him the focus of its blaze on a winter's day2 but all in vain2 for still the old man looks as if he were in a frosty atmosphere1 with scarcely warmth enough to keep life in the region about his heart4 ,it is a patient1 long-suffering1 quiet1 hopeless1 shivering aspect4 ,he is not desperate1--that1 though its etymology implies no more1 would be too positive an expression1--but merely devoid of hope4 ,as all his past life1 probably1 offers no spots of brightness to his memory1 so he takes his present poverty and discomfort as entirely a matter of course2 he thinks it the definition of existence1 so far as himself is concerned1 to be poor1 cold1 and uncomfortable4 ,it may be added1 that time has not thrown dignity as a mantle over the old man's figure3 there is nothing venerable about him3 you pity him without a scruple4 ,so this old apple dealer shivers all through this description of nine pages to the last sentences3-- ,god be praised1 were it only for your sake1 that the present shapes of human existence are not cast in iron nor hewn in everlasting adamant1 but moulded of the vapors that vanish away while the essence flits upward to the ,infinite4 ,there is a spiritual essence in this gray and lean old shape that shall flit upward too4 ,yes2 doubtless there is a region where the lifelong shiver will pass away from his being1 and that quiet sigh1 which it has taken him so many years to breathe1 will be brought to a close for good and all4 ,the prominent characteristic may be the feeling aroused by the object4 ,it may be horror1 as in a description of a haunted house or a murderer2 it may be love1 as in the picture of an old home or a sainted mother4 ,the emotion occasioned is often mentioned or suggested at once1 and the details are afterward given which have called forth the feeling4 ,poe uses this in the first paragraph of ,the ,house of ,usher4 ,during the whole of a dull1 dark1 and soundless day in the autumn of the year1 when the clouds hung oppressively low in the heavens1 ,i had been passing alone1 on horseback1 through a singularly dreary tract of country1 and at length found myself1 as the shades of evening drew on1 within view of the melancholy ,house of ,usher4 ,i know not how it was--but1 with the first glimpse of the building1 a sense of insufferable gloom pervaded my spirit4 ,i say insufferable2 for the feeling was unrelieved by any of that half-pleasurable1 because poetic1 sentiment with which the mind usually receives even the sternest natural images of the desolate or terrible4 ,i looked upon the scene before me--upon the mere house1 and the simple landscape features of the domain--upon the bleak walls--upon the vacant1 eye-like windows--upon a few rank sedges--and upon a few white trunks of decayed trees--with an utter depression of soul which ,i can compare to no earthly sensation more properly than to the after-dream of a reveler upon opium--the bitter lapse into every-day life--the hideous dropping off of the veil4 ,there was an iciness1 a sinking1 a sickening of the heart--an unredeemed dreariness of thought which no goading of the imagination could torture into aught of the sublime4444 ,it was1 possible1 ,i reflected1 that a mere different arrangement of the particulars of the scene1 of the details of the picture1 would be sufficient to modify1 or perhaps to annihilate1 its capacity for sorrowful impression2 and1 acting upon this idea1 ,i reined my horse to the precipitous brink of a black and lurid tarn that lay in unruffled lustre by the dwelling1 and gazed down--but with a shudder even more thrilling than before--upon the remodeled and inverted images of the gray sedge1 and the ghastly tree-stems1 and the vacant and eye-like windows4 ,and one may see from looking back at the illustrations given that the dominant impression which gives the character to the whole description1 this leading quality which is the essence of the whole1 usually stands at the very beginning1 and to it all the succeeding details cling4 ,the ,end of a ,description4 ,the end of a description is equally as important as the opening4 ,in most descriptions1 whether short or long1 the most important detail1 the detail that emphasizes most the general feeling of the whole1 stands at the end4 ,if the description be short1 the necessity of a comprehensive opening statement is not imperative1--indeed1 it may be made so formal and ostentatious when compared with the rest of the description as to be ridiculous2 yet even in the short description some important detail should close it4 ,in a long description the repetition of the opening statement in a new form sometimes stands at the end4 ,if the description be of movement or change1 the end will be the climax of the movement1 the result of the change4 ,in the examples already given there are illustrations of the methods of closing4 ,in each case1 there is an important detail or an artistic repetition of the general impression4 ,many examples of short characterization can be found in all narratives4 ,in ,irving's description of ,ichabod ,crane1 the next to the last sentence gives the significant detail1 and the last gives another general impression4 ,it reads3-- ,the cognomen of ,crane was not inapplicable to his person4 ,he was tall1 but exceedingly lank1 with narrow shoulders1 long arms and legs1 hands that dangled a mile out of his sleeves1 feet that might have served for shovels1 and his whole frame most loosely hung together4 ,his head was small1 and flat at top1 with huge ears1 large green glassy eyes1 and a long snipe nose1 so that it looked like a weather-cock perched upon his spindle neck to tell which way the wind blew4 7,the ,legend of ,sleepy ,hollow47 ,so far this is but an amplification of his likeness to a crane2 certainly a long snipe nose upon his spindle neck is the most important detail4 ,next the author gives another general impression3-- ,to see him striding along the profile of a hill on a windy day1 with his clothes bagging and fluttering about him1 one might have mistaken him for the genius of famine descending upon the earth1 or some scarecrow eloped from a cornfield4 ,the following is from ,the ,house of ,usher3-- ,shaking off from my spirit what must have been a dream1 ,i scanned more narrowly the real aspect of the building4 ,its principal feature seemed to be that of an excessive antiquity4 ,the discoloration of ages had been great4 ,minute fungi overspread the whole exterior1 hanging in a fine tangled web-work from the eaves4 ,yet all this was apart from any extraordinary dilapidation4 ,no portion of the masonry had fallen1 and there appeared to be a wild inconsistency between its still perfect adaptation of parts and the crumbling condition of the individual stones4 ,in this there was much that reminded me of the specious totality of old woodwork which has rotted for long years in some neglected vault with no disturbance from the breath of the external air4 ,beyond this indication of extensive decay1 however1 the fabric gave little token of instability4 ,perhaps the eye of a scrutinizing observer might have discovered a barely perceptible fissure1 which1 extending from the roof of the building in front1 made its way down the wall in a zigzag direction1 until it became lost in the sullen waters of the tarn4 ,in this every detail emphasizes the excessive antiquity of the house2 and on reading the story there is no question of the importance of the barely perceptible fissure4 ,thereby hangs the tale4 ,the two following are descriptions of dawn1 of change2 they have marked climaxes4 ,the first is by ,edward ,everett1 the second by ,stevenson4 ,the similarity in choice of words and in the feelings of the men is remarkable4 ,such was the glorious spectacle as ,i entered the train4 ,as we proceeded1 the timid approach of twilight became more perceptible2 the intense blue of the sky began to soften2 the smaller stars1 like little children1 went first to rest2 the sister-beams of the ,pleiades soon melted together2 but the bright constellations of the west and north remained unchanged4 ,steadily the wondrous transfiguration went on4 ,hands of angels1 hidden from mortal eyes1 shifted the scenery of the heavens2 the glories of night dissolved into the glories of dawn4 ,the blue sky now turned more softly gray2 the great watch-stars shut up their holy eyes2 the east began to kindle4 ,faint streaks of purple soon blushed along the sky2 the whole celestial concave was filled with the inflowing tides of the morning light1 which came pouring down from above in one great ocean of radiance1 till at length1 as we reached the ,blue ,hills1 a flash of purple blazed out from above the horizon1 and turned the dewy teardrops of flower and leaf into rubies and diamonds4 ,in a few seconds1 the everlasting gates of morning were thrown wide open1 and the lord of day1 arrayed in glories too severe for the gaze of man1 began his state4 7,the ,uses of ,astronomy47 ,at last she began to be aware of a wonderful revolution1 compared to which the fire of ,mittwalden ,palace was but a crack and flash of a percussion cap4 ,the countenance with which the pines regarded her began insensibly to change2 the grass1 too1 short as it was1 and the whole winding staircase of the brook's course1 began to wear a solemn freshness of appearance4 ,and this slow transfiguration reached her heart1 and played upon it1 and transpierced it with a serious thrill4 ,she looked all about2 the whole face of nature looked back1 brimful of meaning1 finger on lip1 leaking its glad secret4 ,she looked up4 ,heaven was almost emptied of stars4 ,such as still lingered shone with a changed and waning brightness1 and began to faint in their stations4 ,and the color of the sky itself was most wonderful2 for the rich blue of the night had now melted and softened and brightened2 and there had succeeded a hue that has no name1 and that is never seen but as the herald of the morning4 ',oh6' she cried1 joy catching at her voice1 ',oh6 it is the dawn6' ,in a breath she passed over the brook1 and looped up her skirts and fairly ran in the dim alleys4 ,as she ran1 her ears were aware of many pipings1 more beautiful than music2 in the small1 dish-shaped houses in the fork of giant arms1 where they had lain all night1 lover by lover1 warmly pressed1 the bright-eyed1 big-hearted singers began to awaken for the day4 ,her heart melted and flowed forth to them in kindness4 ,and they1 from their small and high perches in the clerestories of the wood cathedral1 peered down sidelong at the ragged ,princess as she flitted below them on the carpet of the moss and tassel4 ,soon she had struggled to a certain hilltop1 and saw far before her the silent inflooding of the day4 ,out of the ,east it welled and whitened2 the darkness trembled into light2 and the stars were extinguished like the street-lamps of a human city4 ,the whiteness brightened into silver2 the silver warmed into gold1 and the gold kindled into pure and living fire2 and the face of the ,east was barred with elemental scarlet4 ,the day drew its first long breath1 steady and chill2 and for leagues around the woods sighed and shivered4 ,and then1 at one bound the sun had floated up2 and her startled eyes received day's first arrow1 and quailed under the buffet4 ,on every side1 the shadows leaped from their ambush and fell prone4 ,the day was come1 plain and garish2 and up the steep and solitary eastern heaven1 the sun1 victorious over his competitors1 continued slowly and royally to mount4 7,prince ,otto47 ,proportion4 ,one thing further should be said regarding ,mass4 ,not everything can stand first or last2 some important details must be placed in the midst of a description4 ,these particulars will not be of equal importance4 ,the more important details may be given their proportionate emphasis by relatively increasing the length of their treatment4 ,if one detail is more important than another1 it requires more to be said about it2 unimportant matters should be passed over with a word4 ,proportion in the length of treatment is a guide to the relative importance of the matters introduced into a description4 ,in the description of ,the ,house of ,usher1 position emphasizes the barely perceptible fissure4 ,proportion singles out the crumbling condition of the individual stones and makes this detail more emphatic than either the discoloration or the fungi4 ,and in ,newman's description1 the olive-tree1 the brilliant atmosphere1 the thyme1 the bees1 all add to the charms of bright and beautiful ,athens2 but most of all the ,aegean1 with its chain of islands1 its dark violet billows1 its jets of silver1 the heaving and panting of its long waves1--the restless living element fascinates and enraptures yon pilgrim student4 ,position and proportion are the means of emphasis in a paragraph of description4 ,arrangement must be natural4 ,having settled the massing of the description1 the next matter for consideration is the arrangement4 ,in order that the parts of a description may be coherent1 hold together1 they should be arranged in the order in which they would naturally be perceived4 ,what strikes the eye of the beholder as most important1 often the general characteristic of the whole1 should be mentioned first2 and the details should follow as they are seen4 ,in a building1 the usual way of observing and describing is from foundation to turret stone4 ,a landscape may be described by beginning with what is near and extending the view2 this is common4 ,sometimes the very opposite plan is pursued2 or one may begin on either hand and advance toward the other4 ,of a person near by1 the face is the first thing observed2 for it is there that his character can be best discovered4 ,afterward details of clothing follow as they would naturally be noticed4 ,if a person be at a distance his pose and carriage would be about all that could be seen2 as he approaches1 the other details would be mentioned as they came into view4 ,to arrange details in the order in which they are naturally observed will result in an association in the description of the details that are contiguous in the objects4 ,jumping about in a description is a source of confusion4 ,how entirely it may ruin a paragraph can be estimated by the effect upon this single sentence1 ,he was tall1 with feet that might have served for shovels1 narrow shoulders1 hands that dangled a mile out of his sleeves1 long arms and legs1 and his whole frame most loosely hung together4 ,this rearrangement makes but a disjointed and feeble impression2 and the reason is entirely that an order in which no person ever observed a man has been substituted for the commonest order1--from head to foot4 ,arrange details so that the parts which are contiguous shall be associated in the description1 and proceed in the order in which the details are naturally observed4 ,the following is by ,irving2 he is describing the stage-coachman3-- ,he has commonly a broad1 full face1 curiously mottled with red1 as if the blood had been forced by hard feeding into every vessel of the skin2 he is swelled into jolly dimensions by frequent potations of malt liquors1 and his bulk is still further increased by a multiplicity of coats1 in which he is buried like a cauliflower1 the upper one reaching to his heels4 ,he wears a broad-brimmed1 low-crowned hat2 a huge roll of colored handkerchief about his neck1 knowingly knotted and tucked in at the bosom2 and has in summer time a large bouquet of flowers in his buttonhole1 the present1 most probably1 of some enamored country lass4 ,his waistcoat is commonly of some bright color1 striped1 and his small-clothes extend far below the knees1 to meet a pair of jockey boots which reach about half way up his legs4#ab ,use ,familiar ,images4 ,when the materials have been selected and arranged1 the hardest part of the work has been done4 ,it now remains to express in language the picture4 ,a few suggestions regarding the kind of language will be helpful4 ,the writer must always bear in mind the fact that in constructing a mental picture each reader does it from the images he already possesses4 ,quaint arabesques is without meaning to many persons2 and until the word has been looked up in the dictionary1 and the picture seen there1 the beautiful line of ,sir ,launfal suggests no image whatever4 ,so when ,stevenson speaks of the birds in the clerestories of the wood cathedral1 the image is not distinct in the mind of a young ,american4 ,supposing a pupil in ,california were asked to describe an orange to an ,esquimau4 ,he might say that it is a spheroid about the size of an apple1 and the color of one of ,lorraine's sunsets4 ,this would be absolutely worthless to a child of the frigid zone4 ,had he been told that an orange was about the size of a snowball1 much the color of the flame of a candle1 that the peeling came off like the skin from a seal1 and that the inside was good to eat1 he would have known more of this fruit4 ,the images which lie in our minds and from which we construct new pictures are much like the blocks that a child-builder rearranges in many different forms2 but the blocks do not change4 ,from them he may build a castle or a mill2 yet the only difference is a difference in arrangement4 ,so it is with the pictures we build up in imagination3 our castle in ,spain we have never seen1 but the individual elements which we associate to lift up this happy dwelling-place are the things we know and have seen4 ,a reader creates nothing new2 all he does is to rearrange in his own mind the images already familiar4 ,only so may he pass from the known to the unknown4 ,the fact that we construct pictures of what we read from those images already in our minds warns the writer against using materials which those for whom he writes could not understand4 ,it compels him to select definite images1 and it urges him to use the common and the concrete4 ,it frequently drives him to use comparisons4 ,use of ,comparisons4 ,to represent the extremely bare and unornamented appearance of a building1 one might write1 ,it looked like a great barn1 or ,it was a great barn4 ,in either case the image would be definite1 common1 and concrete4 ,in both cases there is a comparison4 ,in the first1 where the comparison is expressed1 there is a simile2 in the second1 where the comparison is only implied1 there is a metaphor4 ,these two figures of speech are very common in description1 and it is because they are of great value4 ,one other is sometimes used1--personification1 which ascribes to inanimate things the attributes of life which are the property of animate nature4 ,what could be happier than this by ,stevenson3 ,all night long he can hear ,nature breathing deeply and freely2 even as she takes her rest she turns and smiles8 or this1 ,a faint sound1 more like a moving coolness than a stream of air8 ,and at the end of the chapter which describes his night under the pines1 he speaks of the tapestries and the inimitable ceiling and the view which ,i command from the windows4 ,in this one chapter are personification1 simile1 metaphor1--all comparisons1 and doing what could hardly be done without them4 ,common1 distinct1 concrete images are surest4 ,choice of ,words4 ,adjectives and ,nouns4 ,to body forth these common1 distinct1 concrete images calls for a discriminating choice of words2 for in the choice of words lies a large part of the vividness of description4 ,if the thing described be unknown to the reader1 it requires the right word to place it before him2 if it be common1 still must the right word be found to set it apart from the thousand other objects of the same class4 ,the words that may justly be called describing words are adjectives and nouns2 and of these the adjective is the first descriptive word4 ,the rule that a writer should never use two adjectives where one will do1 and that he should not use one if a noun can be found that completely expresses the thought1 is a good one to follow4 ,one certain stroke of the crayon is worth a hundred lines1 each approaching the right one4 ,one word1 the only one1 will tell the truth more vividly than ten that approach its expression4 ,for it must be remembered that a description must be done quickly2 every word that is used and does nothing is not only a waste of time1 but is actually in the way4 ,in a description every word must count4 ,it may be a comparison1 an epithet1 personification1 or what not1 but whatever method is adopted1 the right word must do it quickly4 ,how much depends on the nice choice of words may be seen by a study of the selections already quoted2 and especially by a careful reading of those by ,stevenson and ,everett4 ,to show the use of adjectives and nouns in description1 the following from ,kipling is a good illustration4 ,toomai had just reached the elephants' ball-room when he saw-- white-tusked wild males1 with fallen leaves and nuts and twigs lying in the wrinkles of their necks and the folds of their ears2 fat1 slow-footed she-elephants1 with restless pinky-black calves only three or four feet high1 running under their stomachs2 young elephants with their tusks just beginning to show1 and very proud of them2 lanky1 scraggy1 old-maid elephants1 with their hollow1 anxious faces1 and trunks like rough bark2 savage old bull-elephants1 scarred from shoulder to flank with great weals and cuts of by-gone fights1 and the caked dirt of their solitary mud bath dropping from their shoulders2 and there was one with a broken tusk and the marks of the full-stroke1 the terrible drawing scrape of a tiger's claw on his side4#ac ,one third of the words in this paragraph are descriptive nouns and adjectives1 none of which the reader wishes to change4 ,use of ,verbs4 ,verbs also have a great value in description4 ,in the paragraph picturing the dawn1 ,stevenson has not neglected the verbs4 ,welled1 whitened1 trembled1 brightened1 warmed1 kindled1 and so on through the paragraph4 ,try to change them1 and it is apparent that something is lost by any substitution4 ,kaa1 the python1 pours himself along the ground4 ,if he is angry1 ,baloo and ,bagheera could see the big swallowing-muscles on either side of ,kaa's throat ripple and bulge4 ,yet in the choice of words1 one may search for the bizarre and unusual rather than for the truly picturesque4 ,stevenson at times seems to have lapsed4 ,when he says that ,modestine would feel a switch more tenderly than my cane2 that he must instantly maltreat this uncomplaining animal1 meaning constantly2 and at another place that he had to labor so consistently with his stick that the sweat ran into his eyes1 there is a suspicion of a desire for the sensational rather than the direct truth4 ,on the other hand1 the beginner finds himself using words that have lost1 their meaning through indiscriminate usage4 ,awful good1 awful pretty1 and awful sweet mean something less than good1 pretty1 and sweet4 ,lovely1 dear1 splendid1 unique1 and a large number of good words have been much dulled by the ignorant use of babblers4 ,superlatives and all words denoting comparison should be used with stinginess4 ,one cannot afford to part with this kind of coin frequently2 the cheaper coins should be used1 else he will find an empty purse when need arises4 ,thackeray has this3 ,her voice was the sweetest1 low song4 ,how much better this1 ,her voice was a sweet1 low song4 ,all the world is shut out from this1 while in the former he challenges the world by the comparison4 ,shakespeare was wiser when he made ,lear say1-- ,her voice was ever soft1 ,gentle1 and low1--an excellent thing in woman4 ,avoid words which have lost their meaning by indiscriminate use2 shun the sensational and the bizarre2 use superlatives with economy2 but in all you do1 whether in unadorned or figurative language1 choose the word that is quick and sure and vivid--the one word that exactly suggests the picture4 ,,suggestive ,,questions ,,and ,,exercises ,,questions4 ,,the ,,old ,,manse4 7,riverside ,literature ,series1 ,no4 #fi47 ,are there narrative portions in ,the ,old ,manse8 paragraphs of exposition8 ,do you term the whole narration1 description1 or exposition8 ,why8 ,frame a sentence which you think would be an adequate topic sentence for the whole piece4 ,what phrase in the first paragraph allows the author to begin the second with the words1 ,nor1 in truth1 had the ,old ,manse1 etc48 ,where in the second paragraph is found the words which are the source of my design1 mentioned in the third8 ,how does the author pass from the fourth paragraph to the fifth8 ,in the same way note the connections between the succeeding paragraphs4 ,they are most skillfully dovetailed together4 ,now make a list of the phrases in the first fifteen pages which introduce paragraphs1 telling from what in the preceding paragraph each new paragraph springs4 ,do you think that such a felicitous result just happened8 or did ,hawthorne plan it8 ,does ,hawthorne generally introduce his descriptions by giving the feeling aroused by the object described1 a method very common with ,poe8 ,in the paragraph beginning at the bottom of p4 #ah1 what do you think of the selection of material8 ,what have guided in the inclusion and exclusion of details8 ,write a paragraph upon this topic3 ,there could not be a more joyous aspect of external nature than as seen from the windows of my study just after the passing of a cooling shower4 ,be careful to select things that have been made happy1 and to use adjectives and nouns that are full of joy4 ,make a list of the words used to describe ,the ,old ,apple ,dealer4 ,has this description ,unity8 ,what relation to the whole has the first sentence of paragraph three8 the last8 ,do you think there is a grammatical error in the third sentence of this paragraph8 ,by contrasts to what has ,hawthorne brought out better the character of the ,apple ,dealer8 ,when can contrasts help8 ,,an ,,indian-,,summer ,,reverie1 ,,and ,,other ,,poems4 7,riverside ,literature ,series1 ,no4 #cj47 ,in this poem what purpose is served by the first two stanzas8 ,where in the landscape does the author begin8 ,which way does he progress8 ,quote stanzas in which other senses than sight are called upon4 ,make a list of the figures of speech4 ,how many similes8 metaphors8 examples of personification8 ,which seems most effective8 ,which instance of its use do you prefer8 ,has ,lowell used too many figures8 ,read ,the ,oak1 ,the ,dandelion1 and ,al ,fresco4 ,are they description or exposition8 ,do they bear out ,lowell's estimate of himself8 ,,the ,,sketch-,,book4 7,riverside ,literature ,series1 ,nos4 #ea1 #eb47 ,why has ,irving given four pages to the description of ,sleepy ,hollow before he introduces ,ichabod ,crane8 ,why1 then1 seven pages to ,ichabod before the story begins8 ,what gives the peculiar interest to this tale8 ,in the ,legend of ,sleepy ,hollow how many paragraphs of description close with an important detail8 ,in how many with a general characterization8 ,in all the descriptions of buildings by ,irving that you have read1 what are the first things mentioned1--size1 shape1 color1 or what8 ,make a list1 so as to be sure4 ,does ,irving use many comparisons8 ,are the likenesses to common things8 ,select the ten you think best4 ,are there more in narrative or descriptive passages8 ,what do you gather from this fact8 ,in ,christmas ,day1 on p4 #ea 7,r4 ,l4 ,s41 ,no4 #eb71 does ,irving proceed from far to near in the landscape8 ,is this common8 ,find another example4 ,how has ,irving emphasized the littleness of the minister described on p4 #ef 7,r4 ,l4 ,s41 ,no4 #eb78 ,,the ,,fall ,,of ,,the ,,house ,,of ,,usher4 7,riverside ,literature ,series1 ,no4 #aai47 ,is the arrangement of the details in the last two lines of the first paragraph stronger than the arrangement of the same details on p4 #fc8 ,why1 or why not8 ,in the description of the hall1 pp4 #fg and #fh1 do the details produce the effect upon you which they did upon ,poe8 ,find a description in this piece which closes with an important detail4 ,is ,usher described at all when ,poe says1 ,i gazed upon him with a feeling half of pity1 half of awe8 ,do the details enumerated arouse such feelings in you8 ,would the feeling have been called forth if it had not been suggested by ,poe8 ,is there1 then1 any advantage in this method of opening a description8 ,what good was done by describing ,usher as ,poe knew him in youth8 ,why is the parenthetical clause on p4 #gb necessary8 ,on p4 #hj1 should ,poe write previously to its final interment8 ,what do you think of the length of the sentence quoted on p4 #he8 ,does ,poe use description to accent the mood of the narrative1 or to make concrete the places and persons8 ,why is ,the ,haunted ,palace introduced into the story8 ,is this story as good as ,the ,gold-,bug8 ,,silas ,,marner4 7,riverside ,literature ,series1 ,no4 #hc47 ,why is not the early history of ,silas ,marner related first in the story8 ,by what steps has the author approached the definite time8 ,from the fragments about his appearance1 do you get a clear idea of how ,marner looks8 ,do you approve this method of scattering the description along through the story8 ,write a description of ,marner on the night he was going to the tavern4 ,could not the quarrel between ,godfrey and ,dunsey been omitted8 ,describe the interior of ,marner's cottage4 ,why should ,sally ,oates and her dropsy be admitted to the story8 ,do you know as well how ,george ,eliot's characters look as how they think and feel8 ,what do you think of the last sentence of ,chapter ,,iv48 ,why does not ,chapter ,v4 go on with ,dunsey's story8 ,why is ,chapter ,,vi4 introduced at all8 ,what of its close8 ,what figure in the last sentence of ,chapter ,x48 ,would you prefer to know how tall ,eppie was1 what kind of clothes she wore1 etc41 to the knowledge you gain of her on p4 #agh8 ,suppose that ,dunsey came home the night he staked ,wildfire1 recite the conversation between him and ,godfrey4 ,have ,dolly ,winthrop1 ,priscilla ,lammeter1 and ,mr4 ,macey talk over ,the ,new ,minister4 ,write on ,what ,i see in ,george ,eliot's ,face4 ,,the ,,deserted ,,village4 7,riverside ,literature ,series1 ,no4 #fh47 ,is this piece description or exposition8 ,in the first stanza where is the topic sentence8 ,the author has made two groups of charms4 ,would it be as well to change them about8 ,give your reasons4 ,where has he used the ear instead of the eye to suggest his picture8 ,is it clear8 ,what method is adopted in lines #abe-abh8 ,see also lines #bcg-bej4 ,can you unite the paragraphs on p4 #be8 ,why do you think so8 ,could you suggest a new arrangement of details in lines #cda-cfb that would be as good as the present8 ,what are the last four lines for8 ,,exercises4 ,enumerative ,description may well employ a few lessons4 ,in it accuracy of detail must be studied1 and every detail must be introduced4 #a4 ,the ,teacher's ,desk4 #b4 ,write a letter to a carpenter giving details for the construction of a small bookcase4 #c4 ,by telling how you made it1 describe a camp1 a kite1 a dress1 or a cake4 ,narration may be employed for the purpose of description4 ,a good example may be found in ,robinson ,crusoe in the chapter describing his home after the shipwreck4 #d4 ,describe an unfurnished room4 ,shape1 size1 position1 and number of windows1 the fireplace1 etc41 should be definite4 ,be sure to give the point of view4 ,to say ,on my right hand1 ,in front of me1 or any similar phrases means nothing unless the reader knows where you are4 ,in these exercises the pupil will doubtless employ the paragraph of particulars4 ,this is the most common in description4 ,other forms are valuable4 #e4 ,using a paragraph telling what it was not1 finish this3 ,i followed the great singer to her home4 ,imagine my surprise in finding that the house in which this lady lived was not a home of luxury and splendor1--not even a home of comfort4 ,go on with the details of a home of luxury which were not there4 ,finish with what you did see4 ,this is really a description of two houses set in artistic contrast to heighten the effect4 ,remember you are outside4 #f4 ,by the use of comparison finish this3 ,the home of my poor little friend was but little better than a barn4 ,choose only such details as emphasize the barn-like appearance of the home4 ,there is but one room4 ,remember where you are standing2 and keep in mind the effect you wish to produce4 #g4 ,using a moving point of view1 describe an interior4 ,do not have too many rooms4 #h4 ,furnish the room described in number four to suit your taste4 ,tell how it looks4 ,remember that a few things give character to a room4 #i4 ,describe your childhood's home as it would look to you after years of absence4 #aj4 ,using a paragraph of the obverse1 describe the appearance of the house from which you were driven by the cruelty of a drunken father4 #aa4 ,describe a single tree standing alone in a field4 ,it will be well for the teacher to read to the class some descriptions of trees1--,lowell's ,birch and ,oak1 ,under the ,willows1 and some stanzas from ,an ,indian ,summer ,reverie4 ,holmes has some good paragraphs on trees in ,the ,autocrat4 ,any good tree descriptions will help pupils to do it better than they can without suggestion4 ,they should describe their own tree1 however4 #ab4 ,describe some single flower growing wild4 ,read ,lowell's ,dandelion1 ,violet1 ,sweet ,violet1 ,wordsworth's ,daisy1 ,the ,daffodils1 ,the ,small ,celandine1 and ,burns's ,daisy4 ,these do not so much describe as they arouse a feeling of love for the flowers which will show itself in the composition4 #ac4 ,describe a view of a lake4 ,if possible1 have your point of view above the lake and use the paragraph of comparison4 #ad4 ,describe a landscape from a single point of view4 ,read ,curtis's ,my ,castles in ,spain from ,prue and ,i1 many descriptions in ,an ,inland ,voyage by ,stevenson1 and ,bay ,street by ,bliss ,carman in ,the ,atlantic ,monthly4 #ae4 ,describe your first view of a small cluster of houses or a small town4 #af4 ,approach the town1 describing its principal features4 ,keep the reader informed as to where you are4 #ag4 ,describe a dog of your own4 #ah4 ,describe a dog of your neighbor's4 ,before the description is undertaken read ,our ,dogs and ,rab by ,dr4 ,brown2 ,a ,dog of ,flanders by ,ouida4 ,scott has some noble fellows in his novels4 #ai4 ,describe a flock of chickens4 ,there are good descriptions of chickens in ,the ,house of the ,seven ,gables and in ,sketches by ,dickens4 #bj4 ,describe the burning of your own home4 ,be careful not to narrate4 #ba4 ,describe a stranger you met on the street to-day4 ,it is easier to describe a person if you and the person you describe move toward each other4 ,remember that you begin the description at a distance4 ,details should be mentioned as they actually come into view4 #bb4 ,describe your father in his favorite corner at home4 #bc4 ,describe a person you do not like1 by telling what he is not4 #bd4 ,describe a person you admire1 but are not acquainted with1 using the paragraph of comparisons4 #be4 ,describe a picture4 ,it would be well to have at the end of this year four or five stories written1 in which description plays a part4 ,its principal use is to give the setting to the story1 to give concreteness to the characters1 and to accent the mood of the story4 ,most passages of description are short4 ,rarely will any pupil write over three hundred words4 ,one hundred are often better4 ,the short composition gives an opportunity for the study of accuracy of expression4 ,what details to include2 in what order to arrange them that they produce the best effect1 both of vividness and naturalness2 and the influence of the point of view and the purpose of the author on the unity of description should be kept constantly present in the exercises4 ,careful attention should be paid to choice of words1 for on right words depends in a large degree the vividness of a description4 ,right words in well-massed paragraphs of vivid description should be the object this term4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,chapter ,v ,,exposition ,so far we have studied discourse which deals with things1--things active1 doing something1 considered under the head of narration2 and things at rest1 and pictured1 considered in description4 ,now we come to exposition1 which deals with ideas either separately or in combinations4 ,instead of ,mr4 ,smith's horse1 exposition treats of the general term1 horse4 ,the ,great ,stone ,face may have taught a lesson by its story1 but the discussion of the value of lofty ideals is a subject for exposition4 ,general ,terms ,difficult4 ,that general terms and propositions are harder to get hold of than concrete facts is readily apparent in the first reading of an author like ,emerson4 ,to a young person it means little4 ,yet when he puts in the place of the general terms some specific examples1 and so verifies the statements1 the general propositions have a mine of meaning1 and the sense of the author is as broad as the world4 ,this stanza from ,lowell is but little suggestive to young readers3-- ,such earnest natures are the fiery pith1 ,the compact nucleus1 round which systems grow6 ,mass after mass becomes inspired therewith1 ,and whirls impregnate with the central glow4#ad ,yet when ,columbus and ,luther and ,garrison are mentioned as illustrations of the meaning1 it becomes world-wide in its application4 ,still in order to get at the thought1 there is first the need of the specific and the concrete2 afterward we pass to the general and the abstract4 ,as abstract ideas are harder to get hold of than concrete facts1 so exposition has difficulties greater than those found in narration and description4 ,it is not so hard to tell what belongs in a story2 the events are all distinct4 ,nor is it so difficult to know what to include in a description2 one can look and see4 ,in exposition this is not so4 ,in most minds ideas do not have distinct limits2 the edges rather are indistinct4 ,it is hard to tell where the idea stops4 ,in writing of ,the ,uses of ,coal1 it is easy to wander over an indistinct boundary and to take a survey of ,the ,origin of ,coal4 ,not only may one include what unquestionably should be excluded1 but there is no definite guide to the arrangement of the materials1 such as was found in narration4 ,there a sequence of time was an almost infallible rule2 here the writer must search carefully how to arrange hazy ideas in some effective form4 ,as discourse comes to deal more with general ideas1 the difficulties of writing increase2 and the difficulties are not due to any new principles of structure which must be introduced4 ,when one says that the material should be selected according to the familiar law of ,unity1 he has given the guiding principle4 ,yet the real difficulty is still before an author3 it is to decide what stamp to put upon such elusive matter as ideas4 ,they cannot be kept long enough in the twilight of consciousness to analyze them2 and often ideas that have been marked accepted have1 upon reexamination1 to be rejected4 ,to examine ideas--the material used in this form of discourse--so thoroughly that they may be accurately1 definitely known in their backward relation and their bearing upon what follows1 this is the seat of the difficulty in exposition4 ,exposition may conveniently be classified into exposition of a term1 or definition2 and exposition of a proposition1 which is generally suggested by the term exposition4 ,definition4 ,definition of a word means giving its limits or boundaries4 ,of man it might be said that it is a living animal1 having a strong bony skeleton2 that this skeleton consists of a trunk from which extend four limbs1 called arms and legs1 and is surmounted by a bony cavity1 called a skull2 that the skeleton protects the vital organs1 and is itself covered by a muscular tissue which moves the bones and gives a rounded beauty to their ugliness2 that man has a highly developed nervous system1 the centre of which is the brain placed in the skull4 ,so a person might go on for pages1 enumerating the attributes which1 taken together1 make up the general idea of man4 ,exposition and ,description distinguished4 ,this sort of exposition is very near description2 indeed1 were the purpose different1 it would be description4 ,the purpose1 however1 is not to tell how an individual looks1 but to place the object in a class4 ,it is therefore not description1 but exposition4 ,moreover1 the method is different4 ,in description those characteristics are given that distinguish the object from the rest of the class2 while in exposition those qualities are selected which are common to all objects of its class4 ,logical ,definition4 ,on account of the length of the definition by an enumeration of all the attributes1 it is not frequently used except in long treatises4 ,for it there has been substituted what is called a logical definition4 ,instead of naming all the characteristics of an object1 a logical definition groups many attributes under one general term1 and then adds a quality which distinguishes the object from the others of the general class4 ,man has been defined as the reasoning animal4 ,in this definition a large number of attributes have been gathered together in the general term animal2 then man is separated from the whole class animal by the word reasoning4 ,a logical definition consists1 then1 of two parts3 the general term naming the genus1 and the limiting term naming the distinguishing attribute called the differentia4 ,genus and ,differentia4 ,genus and differentia are found in every good definition4 ,the genus should be a term more general than the term defined4 ,man is a person who reasons is a poor definition2 because person is no more general than man4 ,a canine is a dog that is wild is very bad1 because dog1 the general term in the definition1 is less general than the word defined4 ,however1 to say that a dog is a canine that has been domesticated1 is a definition in which the genus is more general than the term defined4 ,next1 the genus should be a term well understood4 ,man is a mammal who reasons is all right1 in having a genus more general than the term defined1 but the definition fails with many because mammal is not well understood4 ,botany is that branch of biology which treats of plant life has in it the same error4 ,biology is not so well understood as botany1 though it is a more general term4 ,in cases of this sort1 the writer should go farther toward the more general until he finds a term perfectly clear to all4 ,man is an animal that reasons1 botany is the branch of science that treats of plant life1 would both be easily understood4 ,the genus should be a term better understood than the term defined2 and it should be a term more general than the term defined4 ,a definition may be faulty in its differentia also4 ,the differentia is that part of a definition which names the difference between the term defined and the general class to which it belongs4 ,man is a reasoning animal4 ,animal names the general class1 and reasoning is the differentia which separates man from other animals4 ,on the selection of this limiting word depends the accuracy of the definition4 ,man is an animal that walks1 or that has hands1 or that talks1 are all faulty2 because bears walk1 monkeys have hands1 and parrots talk4 ,supposing the following definitions were given3 ,a cat is an animal that catches rats and mice2 ,a rose is a flower that bears thorns2 ,gold is a metal that is heavy2 all would be faulty because the differentia in each is faulty4 ,notice1 too1 the definitions of dog and canine already given4 ,even man is a reasoning animal may fail2 since many men declare that other animals reason4 ,the differentia should include all the members that the term denotes1 and it should exclude all that it does not denote4 ,requisites of a good ,definition4 ,the requisites of a good definition are3 first1 that it shall include or denote all the members of the class2 second1 that it shall exclude everything which does not belong to its class2 third1 that the words used in the definition shall be better understood than the word defined2 fourth1 that it shall be brief4 ,a definition may perfectly expound a term2 and because of the very qualities that make it a good definition1 accuracy and brevity1 it may be almost valueless to the ordinary reader4 ,for instance1 this definition1 ,an acid is a substance1 usually sour and sharp to the taste1 that changes vegetable blue colors to red1 and1 combining with an earth1 an alkali1 or a metallic oxide1 forms a salt1 would not generally be understood4 ,so it frequently becomes necessary to do more than give a definition in order to explain the meaning of a term4 ,this brings us to the study of exposition1 as it is generally understood1 in which all the resources of language are called into service to explain a term or a proposition4 ,how do ,men explain8 ,first1 by ,repetition4 ,what1 then1 are the methods of explaining a proposition8 ,first1 a proposition may be explained by the repetition of the thought in some other form4 ,to be effective1 repetition must add something to what has been said2 the words used may be more specific or they may be more general4 ,for example1 ,a strong partisan may not be a good citizen4 ,the stanchest ,republican may by reason of a blind adherence to party be working an injury to the country he loves4 ,indeed1 one can easily conceive a body of men so devoted to a theory1 beautiful though it may be in many respects1 that they stand in the way of the world's progress4 ,the second sentence repeats the thought of the first in more specific terms2 the third repeats it in more general terms4 ,the specific may be explained by the general2 more often the general is cleared up by the specific4 ,in either case1 the proposition must be brought one step nearer to the reader by the restatement1 or the repetition is not good4 ,speaking of written or printed words1 ,barrett ,wendell writes3-- ,in themselves1 these black marks are nothing but black marks more or less regular in appearance4 ,modern ,english type and script are rather simple to the eye4 ,old ,english and ,german are less so2 less so still1 ,hebrew and ,chinese4 ,but all alphabets present to the eye pretty obvious traces of regularity2 in a written or printed page the same mark will occur over and over again4 ,this is positively all we see1--a number of marks grouped together and occasionally repeated4 ,a glance at a mummy-case1 an old-fashioned tea-chest1 a ,hebrew ,bible1 will show us all that any eye can ever see in a written or printed document4 ,the outward and visible body of style consists of a limited number of marks which1 for all any reader is apt to know1 are purely arbitrary4 7,english ,composition47 ,in this paragraph every sentence is a repetition of some part of the opening or topic sentence1 and serves to explain it4 ,second1 by telling the obverse4 ,second1 a proposition may be explained by telling what it is not4 ,at times this is as valuable as telling what it is4 ,care should be taken that the thing excluded or denied have some likeness to the proposition or term being explained2 that the two be really in some danger of being confused4 ,unless to a hopelessly ignorant person1 it would not explain anything to say a horse is not a man2 but to assert that a whale is not a fish1 though they have many points in common1 would prepare the way for an explanation of what a whale is4 ,the obverse statement is nearly always followed by a repetition of what the thing is4 ,the following from ,newman illustrates the method3 ,now what is ,theology8 ,first1 ,i will tell you what it is not4 ,and here1 in the first place 7though of course ,i speak on the subject as a ,catholic71 observe that1 strictly speaking1 ,i am not assuming that ,catholicism is true1 while ,i make myself the champion of ,theology4 ,catholicism has not formally entered into my argument hitherto1 nor shall ,i just now assume any principle peculiar to it1 for reasons which will appear in the sequel1 though of course ,i shall use ,catholic language4 ,neither1 secondly1 will ,i fall into the fashion of the day1 of identifying ,natural ,theology with ,physical ,theology2 which said ,physical ,theology is a most jejune study1 considered as a science1 and really no science at all1 for it is ordinarily no more than a series of pious or polemical remarks upon the physical world viewed religiously1 whereas the word ',natural' comprehends man and society1 and all that is involved therein1 as the great ,protestant writer1 ,dr4 ,butler1 shows us4 ,nor1 in the third place1 do ,i mean by ,theology polemics of any kind2 for instance1 what are called ',evidences of ,religion1' or 'the ,christian ,evidences4'444 ,nor1 fourthly1 do ,i mean by ,theology that vague thing called ',christianity1' or 'our common ,christianity1' or ',christianity the law of the land1' if there is any man alive who can tell what it is4444 ,lastly1 ,i do not understand by ,theology1 acquaintance with the ,scriptures2 for1 though no person of religious feeling can read ,scripture but he will find those feelings roused1 and gain much knowledge of history into the bargain1 yet historical reading and religious feeling are not a science4 ,i mean none of these things by ,theology4 ,i simply mean the ,science of ,god1 or the truths we know about ,god put into a system2 just as we have a science of the stars1 and call it astronomy1 or of the crust of the earth1 and call it geology4#ae ,third1 by ,details4 ,third1 a common way of explaining a proposition is to go into particulars about it4 ,enough particulars should be given to furnish a reasonable explanation of the proposition4 ,macaulay1 writing of the muster-rolls of names which ,milton uses1 goes into details4 ,he says3-- ,they are charmed names4 ,every one of them is the first link in a long chain of associated ideas4 ,like the dwelling place of our infancy revisited in manhood1 like the song of our country heard in a strange land1 they produce upon us an effect wholly independent of their intrinsic value4 ,one transports us back to a remote period of history4 ,another places us among the novel scenes and manners of a distant region4 ,a third evokes all the dear classical recollections of childhood1--the schoolroom1 the dog-eared ,virgil1 the holiday1 and the prize4 ,a fourth brings before us the splendid phantoms of chivalrous romance1 the trophied lists1 the embroidered housings1 the quaint devices1 the haunted forests1 the enchanted gardens1 the achievements of enamoured knights1 and the smiles of rescued princesses4#af ,fourth1 by ,illustrations4 ,fourth1 a proposition may be explained by the use of a single example or illustration4 ,the value of this method depends on the choice of the example4 ,it must in no essential way differ from the general case it is intended to illustrate4 ,supposing this proposition were advanced by some woman-hater3 ,all women are1 by nature1 liars1 and it should be followed by this sentence1 ,for example1 take this lady of fashion4 ,such an illustration is worthless4 ,the individual chosen does not fairly represent the class4 ,if1 on the other hand1 a teacher in physics should announce that all bodies fall at the same rate in a vacuum1 and should illustrate by saying1 ,if ,i place a bullet and a feather in a tube from which the air has been exhausted1 they will be found to fall equally fast1 his example would be a fair one1 as the two objects differ in no manner essential to the experiment from all bodies4 ,here should be included anecdotes used as illustrations4 ,they are of value if they are of the same type as the general class they are intended to explain4 ,they may be of little value1 however4 ,it could safely be said that half the stories told in campaign speeches are not instances in point at all1 but are told only to amuse and deceive4 ,specific instances must be chosen with care if they are to serve a useful purpose in exposition4 ,this example is from ,newman3-- ,to know is one thing1 to do is another2 the two things are altogether distinct4 ,a man knows that he should get up in the morning1--he lies abed2 he knows that he should not lose his temper1 yet he cannot keep it4 ,a laboring man knows that he should not go to the ale-house1 and his wife knows that she should not filch when she goes out charing1 but1 nevertheless1 in these cases1 the consciousness of a duty is not all one with the performance of it4 ,there are1 then1 large families of instances1 to say the least1 in which men may become wiser1 without becoming better4#ag ,fifth1 by ,comparisons4 ,last1 a thing may be explained by telling what it is like1 or what it is not like4 ,this method of comparison is very frequently employed4 ,to liken a thing to something already known is a vivid way of explaining4 ,moreover in many cases it is easier than the method of repetition or that of details4 ,by this method ,macaulay explains his proposition that it is the character of such revolutions that we always see the worst of them first4 ,he says3-- ,a newly liberated people may be compared to a northern army encamped on the ,rhine or the ,xeres4 ,it is said that when soldiers in such a situation first find themselves able to indulge without restraint in such a rare and expensive luxury1 nothing is to be seen but intoxication4 ,soon1 however1 plenty teaches discretion1 and1 after wine has been for a few months their daily fare1 they become more temperate than they had ever been in their own country4 ,in the same manner1 the final and permanent fruits of liberty are wisdom1 moderation1 and mercy4 ,its immediate effects are often atrocious crimes1 conflicting errors1 skepticism on points the most clear1 dogmatism on points the most mysterious4#ah ,the comparison may be a simile or a metaphor1 as when ,huxley writes1 explaining the physical basis of life3-- ,protoplasm1 simple or nucleated1 is the formal basis of all life4 ,it is the clay of the potter3 which1 bake it and paint it as he will1 remains clay1 separated by artifice1 and not by nature1 from the commonest brick or sun-dried clod4#ai ,these1 then1 are the methods commonly adopted for explaining terms and propositions4 ,first1 by the use of definitions2 second1 by repeating the proposition either directly or obversely1 adding something to the thought by each repetition2 third1 by enumerating particulars which form the ground for the statement2 fourth1 by selecting an instance which fairly illustrates the proposition2 fifth1 by the use of comparisons and analogies4 ,the ,subject4 ,some general considerations regarding the choice of a subject have been given4 ,a subject should lend itself to the form of discourse employed2 next1 it should be a subject interesting to the readers2 and third1 it should be interesting to the writer and suited to his ability4 ,the last condition makes it advisable to limit the subject to a narrow field4 ,few persons have the ability to view a general subject in all its relations4 ,books everybody knows something of2 yet very few are able to treat this general subject in all its ramifications4 ,a person writing of the general topic books would not only be compelled to know what a book is1 what may truly be called a book1 and what is the value of books to readers1 and therefore the influence of the different kinds of literature2 he would also be driven to study the machinery for making books1 the history of printing1 illustrating1 and binding books1 and all the mechanical processes connected with the manufacture of books4 ,the subject might take quite another turn1 and be the development of fiction or drama2 it might be a discussion of the influences1 political or social1 that have moulded literature2 it might be a study of character as manifested in an author's works4 ,no one is well fitted to write on the general topic books4 ,a subject should be limited4 ,the ,subject should allow ,concrete ,treatment4 ,for young persons the subject should be so selected and stated that the treatment may be concrete4 ,as persons advance they make more generalizations2 few1 however1 go so far as to think in general terms4 ,macaulay says1 ,logicians may reason about abstractions1 but the great mass of men must have images4 ,that author depended largely for his glittering effects upon the use of common1 concrete things which the masses understand4 ,the subject should be such that it can be treated concretely4 ,love1 as a general proposition1 is beautiful2 but what more can a young writer say about it8 ,let him leave the whole horde of abstract subjects found in old rhetorics alone4 ,they are subjects for experience2 they cannot be handled by youth4 ,the ,theme4 ,after the subject has been chosen1 the writer next considers how he shall treat it4 ,he selects the attitude he will assume toward the proposition1 his point of view2 and this position he embodies in a short sentence1 called his theme4 ,for instance1 patriotism is the subject2 as it stands it is abstract and very general4 ,however1 this1 ,can a partisan be a patriot8 would be sufficiently concrete to be treated4 ,even yet there is no indication of the author's point of view4 ,should he write1 ,a real partisan is no patriot1 his theme is announced1 and his point of view known4 ,a theme1 either explicit or implicit1 is essential in exposition4 ,it is not necessary that it shall be stated to the reader1 but it must be clearly stated by the writer for his own guidance4 ,it is1 however1 usually announced at the opening of the essay4 ,whether announced or not1 it is most essential to the success of the essay4 ,it is the touchstone by which the author tries all the material which he has collected4 ,not everything on the subject of patriotism should be admitted to an essay that has for its theme1 ,a real partisan cannot be a true patriot4 ,it would save many a digression if the theme were always written in bold1 black letters1 and placed before the author as he writes4 ,every word in a theme should be there for a purpose1 expressing some important modification of the thought4 ,for instance1 the statement above regarding a partisan may be too sweeping2 perhaps the essayist would prefer to discuss the modified statement that a blind partisan cannot always be a true patriot4 ,the theme should state exactly what will be treated in the essay4 ,the statement of it should employ the hardest kind of thinking2 and when the theme is determined definitely and for all1 the essay is safe from the intrusion of foreign ideas which disturb the harmony of the whole4 ,another advantage in the theme is that1 when once chosen1 it will go far toward writing the essay4 ,one great trouble with the young writer is that he is not willing to rely on his theme to suggest his composition4 ,mr4 ,palmer well says3-- ,he examines his pen point1 the curtains1 his inkstand1 to see if perhaps ideas may not be had from these4 ,he wonders what the teacher will wish him to say1 and he tries to recall how the passage sounded in the ,third ,reader4 ,in every direction but one he turns1 and that is the direction where lies the prime mover of his toil1 his subject4 ,of that he is afraid4 ,now1 what ,i want to make evident is that his subject is not in reality the foe1 but the friend4 ,it is his only helper4 ,his composition is not to be1 as he seems to suppose1 a mass of laborious inventions1 but it is made up exclusively of what the subject dictates4 ,he has only to attend4 ,at present he stands in his own way1 making such a din with his private anxieties that he cannot hear the rich suggestions of his subject4 ,he is bothered with considering how he feels1 or what he or somebody else will like to see on his paper4 ,this is debilitating business4 ,he must lean on his subject1 if he would have his writing strong1 and busy himself with what it says1 rather than with what he would say4#bj ,the ,title4 ,having selected a subject1 and with care stated the theme1 it yet remains to give the essay a name4 ,there is something in a name1 and those authors who make a living by the pen are the shrewdest in displaying their wares under the most attractive titles4 ,the title should be attractive1 but it should not promise what the essay does not give4 ,newspaper headlines are usually attractive enough1 but shamefully untruthful4 ,next1 the title should indicate the scope of the essay4 ,when ,mr4 ,palmer calls his little book ,self-,cultivation in ,english1 it is evident that it is not a text-book1 and that it will not treat ,english as literature or as a science4 ,then1 the title should be short4 ,the theme can rarely be used as a title2 it is too long4 ,but the paramount idea developed in the essay should be embodied in the title4 ,partisanship and ,patriotism would be a good subject to give the essay we have spoken of4 ,the title1 then1 should be attractive2 it should be short2 and it should truthfully indicate the contents of the essay4 ,selection of ,material4 ,one of the important factors in the construction of an essay is the selection of material4 ,though theme and title have already been discussed1 it was not because they are the things for a writer to consider next after he has chosen his subject1 but because they are so intimately bound up in the subject that their consideration at that time was natural4 ,before a writer can decide upon the position he will assume toward a proposition1 he should have looked over the field in a general way2 for only with the facts before him is he competent to choose his point of view and to state his theme4 ,the title is not in the least essential to the writing of the essay2 it may be deferred until the essay is finished4 ,it is necessary1 however1 that the writer have much knowledge of his subject1 and that from this knowledge he be able to frame an opinion regarding the subject4 ,when this has been done he is ready to begin the work of constructing his essay2 and the first question in exposition1 as in narration and description1 is the selection of material to develop the theme he has chosen4 ,the selection of material is a more difficult matter in exposition than in narration and description4 ,it requires the shrewdest scrutiny to keep out matter that does not help the thought forward4 ,in narration we decided by the main incident2 in description by the purpose and the point of view2 in exposition we test all material by its relation to the theme4 ,does it help to explain the theme8 ,if not1 however good material it may be1 it has no business in the essay4 ,association of ideas is a law by which1 when one of two related ideas is mentioned1 the other is suggested4 ,to illustrate1 when ,manila is mentioned1 ,admiral ,dewey appears2 when treason is spoken of1 ,arnold is in the mind4 ,this law is of fundamental importance in arranging an essay2 one thing should suggest the next4 ,but valuable as it is1 even indispensable1 it may become the source of much mischief4 ,for instance1 a pupil has this for a topic1 ,reading gives pleasure to many4 ,he writes as his second sentence1 ,by pleasure ,i mean the opposite of pain1 and goes on4 ,all things are understood by their opposites4 ,if we did not know sickness1 we could not enjoy our health4 ,joy is understood through sorrow4 ,i remember my first sorrow4 ,my father had just given me a new knife1--my first knife1 and so on from one thing to another4 ,and not so unnaturally either2 each sentence has suggested the next1 but not one is on the topic4 ,the most anxious watch must be kept in the selection of material4 ,some will be admitted without any question2 some will be excluded with a brusqueness almost brutal4 ,there is a third class1 however1 that is allied with the subject1 yet it is not so easy to determine whether it should be admitted or rejected4 ,this class requires the closest questioning4 ,it must contribute to the strength of the essay1 not to its pages1 or it has no place there4 ,scale of ,treatment4 ,there is another condition which must be considered in the selection of material1 the scale of treatment4 ,if ,macaulay had been asked by a daily paper to contribute a paragraph of five hundred words on ,milton1 he could not have introduced all the numerous topics which have their place in his essay of one hundred pages4 ,he might have mentioned ,milton's poetry and his character1 the two main divisions of the present essay2 but ,dante and ,aeschylus1 ,puritan and ,royalist1 would scarcely have received notice4 ,the second consideration in selecting material is the purpose and length of the essay1 and the consequent thoroughness with which the subject is to be treated4 ,the exhaustiveness with which an author treats any subject depends1 first1 on his knowledge4 ,any person could write a paragraph on ,milton2 ,macaulay and ,lowell wrote delightful essays on the topic2 ,david ,masson has written volumes about him4 ,these would have been impossible except to a person who had been a special student of the subject4 ,second1 the thoroughness of the treatment depends on the knowledge of the readers4 ,for persons acquainted with the record of the momentous events of ,milton's time1 it would have been quite unnecessary1 it might be considered even an insult to intelligence1 to go into such details of history4 ,the shortest statement suffices when the reader is already familiar with the subject and needs only to know the application in this case4 ,third1 the scale of treatment depends on the purpose for which the essay is written4 ,if a newspaper paragraph1 it is one thing2 if for a magazine1 it is quite another2 if it is to be the final word on the subject1 it may reach to volumes4 ,an apt illustration of proportion in the scale of treatment has been given by ,scott and ,denny in their ,composition-,rhetoric4 ,they suggest that three maps of the ,united ,states1 one very large1 another half the size of the first1 and a third very small1 be hung side by side4 ,if a comparison be made1 it will be found that1 whereas a great number of cities are represented on the largest map1 only half as many appear on the middle-sized map4 ,if the smallest map be examined1 only the largest cities1 the longest rivers1 the greatest lakes1 and the highest mountains can be found2 all others must be omitted4 ,on all three maps the same relation of parts is maintained4 ,in proportion to the whole1 ,new ,york ,state will hold the same position in all of them4 ,the ,mississippi ,river will flow from ,minnesota to the ,gulf of ,mexico1 and the ,gulf will sweep in a curve from ,texas to ,florida4 ,the scale is different1 but the proportion does not change4 ,this principle applies in the construction of themes4 ,in a paragraph only very important topics will receive any mention4 ,in an essay these important topics retain their proper place and relation1 while many other points of subordinate rank will be introduced4 ,if the treatment be lengthened to a book1 a host of minor sub-topics will be considered1 each adding something to the development of the theme1 and each giving to its principal topic the relative importance which belongs to the main divisions of the essay4 ,the scale of treatment will have much to do with the selection of material4 ,using ,macaulay's ,milton as an illustration1 the analyses below will show how by increasing the size of the essay new subjects come into the field for notice4 ,the first is but a paragraph and has the two main divisions of the essay4 ,the second is an outline for an essay of two thousand words4 ,in the third only one of the sub-topics is analyzed1 as ,macaulay has discussed it4 ,it would take too much space to analyze minutely the whole essay4 ,,milton4 ,a4 ,milton's poetry has given him his position among great men4 ,b4 ,his conduct was such as was to be expected from a man of a spirit so high and of an intellect so powerful4 ,in the following outline the same main headings are retained1 and the sub-topics which explain them are introduced4 ,the numbers indicate the paragraphs in ,macaulay's essay given to each topic4 ,,introduction 7#a-h74 ,a4 ,milton's poetry has given him his position among men4 7#i-df47 ,i4 ,no poet has ever triumphed over greater difficulties than ,milton4 7#aj-ai47 ,,ii4 ,in his lesser works he shows his great power4 7#bj-ca47 ,,iii4 ,there is but one modern poem that can be compared with ,paradise ,lost2 ,dante's ,divine ,comedy has great power1 is upon a kindred subject1 but in style of treatment widely different4 7#cb-df47 ,transition4 7#dg-di47 ,b4 ,his conduct was such as was to be expected from a man of a spirit so high and of an intellect so powerful4 7#ej-ij47 ,i4 ,he lived at one of the most memorable eras in the history of mankind1 and his conduct must be judged as that of the people is judged4 7#ej-gh47 ,,ii4 ,there were some peculiarities which distinguished him from his contemporaries4 7#gi-ij47 ,conclusion4 7#ia-id47 ,again1 taking up but one section1 ,b1 ,,ii41 the analysis is as follows3-- ,,ii4 ,there were some peculiarities which distinguished him from his contemporaries4 7#gi-ij47 ,a4 ,milton adopted the noblest qualities of every party-- #a4 ,puritans4 7#hj-hd47 a4 ,they excited contempt4 ,however b4 ,they were no vulgar fanatics2 but c4 ,they derived their peculiarities from their daily contemplation of superior beings and eternal interests4 d4 ,thus the ,puritan was made up of two men1--the one all self-abasement1 the other all pride4 e4 ,resume of character of ,puritans4 #b4 ,heathens were passionate lovers of freedom4 7#he47 #c4 ,royalists had individual independence1 learning1 and polite manners of the ,court4 ,b4 ,but he alone fought the battle for the freedom of the mind4 7#hh47 #a4 ,this led him to discard parties2 and 7#hi7 #b4 ,to dare the boldest literary services4 7#ij47 ,the fundamental principle guiding in the selection of material is unity4 ,it decides what may with propriety be admitted to the essay1 and it determines in part what must be left out4 ,another principle1 secondary to this1 is scale of treatment4 ,if the essay is to be short1 only essentials may be used2 if long1 many related sub-topics must take their subordinate positions in the essay4 ,arrangement4 ,following the selection of material comes its arrangement4 ,here also there is greater difficulty than was experienced in narration or description4 ,though the same principles of ,coherence and ,mass guide1 they are more difficult to apply4 ,the seat of the difficulty is in the elusiveness of the material4 ,it is hard to picture distinctly the value and relation of the different topics of an essay4 ,suppose the subject is ,the ,evils of ,war4 ,the first paragraph might contain a general statement announcing the theme4 ,then these topics are to be discussed3-- #a4 ,the effect on the morale of a nation4 #b4 ,the suffering of friends and relatives4 #c4 ,the destruction of life4 #d4 ,the backward step in civilization4 #e4 ,the destruction of property4 ,the order could not be much worse4 ,how shall a better be obtained8 ,use ,cards for ,subdivisions4 ,the most helpful suggestion regarding a method of making the material in some degree visible1 capable of being grasped1 is that each subdivision be placed on a separate card1 and that1 as the material is gathered1 it be put upon the card containing the group to which it belongs4 ,by different arrangements of these cards the writer can find most easily the order that is natural and effective4 ,it is much like anagrams1 this ordering of matter in an essay4 ,take these letters1 s-l-y-w-a-r-e1 and in your head try to put them together to make a word2 you will have some trouble1 probably4 ,if1 however1 these same letters be put upon separate slips of paper1 you may with some arrangement get out the rather common word1 lawyers4 ,it is much the same with topic cards in exposition2 they can be moved and rearranged in all possible ways1 and at last an order distinctly better than any other will be found4 ,speaking of cards1 it might be well to say that the habit of putting down a fact or an idea bearing on a topic just as soon as it occurs to one is invaluable for a writer4 ,all men have good memories2 some persons have better ones than others4 ,but there is no one who does not forget2 and each catches himself very often saying1 ,i knew that1 but ,i forgot it4 ,it is a fact1 not perhaps complimentary1 that paper tablets are surer than the tablets of memory4 ,an ,outline4 ,in exposition1 where the whole attention of the reader should be given to the thought1 where more than ever the mind should be freed from every hindrance1 and its whole energy directed to getting the meaning1 the greatest care should be given to making a plan4 ,no person who has attained distinction in prose has worked without a plan4 ,any piece of literature1 even the most discursive1 has in it something of plan2 but in literature of the first rank the plan is easily discovered4 ,how clear it is in ,macaulay's essay has been seen4 ,in ,burke it is yet more logical and exact4 ,however beautiful a piece may be1 however naturally one thought grows out of another1 as though it were always so and could be no other way1 be sure it is so because of some man's thought1 on account of careful planning4 ,and it may be said without a chance of contradiction that when an essay has been well planned it is half done1 and that half by far the harder4 ,we can hardly at the present day understand what ,menander meant1 when he told a man who inquired as to the progress of his comedy that he had finished it1 not having yet written a single line1 because he had constructed the action of it in his mind4 ,a modern critic would have assured him that the merit of his piece depended on the brilliant things which arose under his pen as he went along4 ,the brilliant things are but the gargoyles and the scrolls1 the ornaments of the structure2 and when so brilliant as to attract especial attention1 they divert the mind from the total effect much as a series of beautiful marbles set between those perfect columns would have ruined the ,parthenon4 ,it was not in any single feature--not in pediment1 column1 or capital1 not in frieze1 architrave1 or tympanum--that its glorious beauty lay1 but in the simple strength and the harmonious symmetry of the whole1 in the general plan4 ,webster planned his orations1 ,newman planned his essays1 ,carlyle planned his ,frederick the ,great4 ,their works are not a momentary inspiration2 they are the result of forethought1 long and painstaking4 ,the absolute essential in the structure of an essay1 that without which it will fail to arrive anywhere1 that compared to which all ornament1 all fine writing1 is but sounding brass and a tinkling cymbal1 that absolute essential is the total effect secured by making a plan4 ,mass the ,end4 ,the principles governing the arrangement of material are ,mass and ,coherence4 ,both are equally essential1 but in practice some questions regarding ,mass are settled first4 ,the important positions in an essay are the beginning and the end2 of these the more important is the end4 ,in this place1 then1 there shall be those sentences or those paragraphs which deserve that distinction4 ,here frequently stands the theme1 the conclusion of the whole matter1 that for which the composition was constructed4 ,so that if one wished to know the theme of an essay1 he would be justified in looking at its conclusion to find it4 ,in the essay on ,milton1 it is evident from the last paragraph that ,macaulay never intended it to be only a criticism of his poetry1 though he has devoted many pages to this discussion4 ,here is just the last sentence3 ,nor do we envy the man who can study either the life or the writings of the great poet and patriot without aspiring to emulate1 not indeed the sublime works with which his genius has enriched our literature1 but the zeal with which he labored for the public good1 the fortitude with which he endured every private calamity1 the lofty disdain with which he looked down on temptations and dangers1 the deadly hatred which he bore to bigots and tyrants1 and the faith which he so sternly kept with his country and his fame4 ,notice the last sentence of a delightful essay by ,george ,william ,curtis2 one could easily guess the contents and the title4 ,fear of yourself1 fear of your own rebuke1 fear of betraying your consciousness of your duty and not doing it--that is the fear that ,lovelace loved better than ,lucasta2 that is the fear which ,francis1 having done his duty1 saved1 and justly called it honor4 ,examples of the ending in which the theme of the essay stands in the place of greatest distinction are so plentiful that there needs no collector to establish the assertion4 ,in a single paragraph of exposition not exceeding two or three hundred words1 it is a very safe rule for a beginner always to have the theme in the last sentence2 or if he has stated the theme in the opening1 to have a restatement of it in different form1 fuller and more explicit usually1 sometimes a shorter and more epigrammatic form1 in the conclusion4 ,if the pupil should obey this little rule to have at the end something worthy of the position1 a vast amount of time would be saved both to teacher and to pupil4 ,it can be safely said that not more than one half the essays end when the thought ends4 ,instead of quitting when he has finished1 the writer dribbles on1 repeating in diluted fashion what he has said with some force before1 and often introducing matters that are not within hailing distance of his theme4 ,when one has said what he started out to say1 it is time to stop4 ,if he stops then1 he will have something important in the place of distinction4 ,the ,beginning4 ,the position of second importance is the beginning4 ,if but a paragraph be written1 the topic is usually announced at the opening4 ,in short essays this is the most frequent beginning1 and it may safely be used at all times4 ,exposition is explanation2 the natural thing is to let the reader know at once what the writer is attempting to explain4 ,then the reader knows what the author is talking about and can relate every statement to the general proposition4 ,to delay the topic compels the reader to hold in mind all that has been said up to the time the real theme is uncovered2 this frequently results in inattention4 ,in the little book by ,mr4 ,palmer1 the first paragraph opens with these two sentences3 ,english as a study has four aims3 the mastery of our language as a science1 as a history1 as a joy1 and as a tool4 ,i am concerned with but one1 the mastery of it as a tool4 ,so1 too1 the essay of which the last sentence has been quoted begins3 ,these are very precious words of ,lovelace3-- ',i could not love thee1 dear1 so much1 ,loved ,i not honor more4' ,and ,francis ,first's message to his mother after ,pavia1 ',all is lost but honor1' is in the same key4 ,instead of announcing the theme at the very beginning1 in essays of some length there is sometimes an account of the occasion which led to the composition4 ,macaulay has used this opening in the essay on ,milton4 ,second1 the opening may be the clearing away of matters unrelated in reality1 but which people have commonly associated with the topic4 ,and third1 the essay may open with definitions of the terms that will be used in the discussion4 ,of these three1 only the first will be much used by young persons4 ,it makes an easy approach to the subject1 and avoids the unpleasant jar of an abrupt start4 ,it is common with ,macaulay1 ,lowell1 and many essayists that write in an easy1 almost conversational style4 ,there is one case in which the theme should not be announced at the opening4 ,if the proposition were distasteful1 if it were generally believed to be false1 it would not be policy to announce it at the beginning4 ,however reasonable men may be1 it is still true that reason is subject to emotions and beliefs to a greater degree than is praiseworthy4 ,if a man should open an address upon ,abraham ,lincoln by saying that he was a cringing coward1 he would have difficulty to get an audience to hear anything he said after that1 no matter how much truth he spoke4 ,the author of such a statement would be so disliked that nothing would win for him favor4 ,when an unwelcome theme is to be discussed1 it must be approached carefully by successive steps which prepare the reader for the reception of a truth that before seemed false to him4 ,in this case the theme will be stated at the end1 but not at the beginning of the essay4 ,get started as soon as you can1 and stop when you have finished2 by so doing you will have important matters in those places which will emphasize them4 ,shun the allurements of high-sounding introductions and conclusions4 ,professor ,marston used to tell his pupils to write the best introduction they could1 to fashion their most gorgeous peroration1 and to be sure to have the discussion clear1 logical1 and well expressed4 ,then he said that when he had cut off both ends1 he generally had left a good essay4 ,an essay should be done much as a business man does business4 ,he does not want the gentleman who calls on him during business hours to bow and scatter compliments before he takes up the matter which brought him there2 nor does he care to see him swaying on the doorknob after the business is finished4 ,to the business at once1 and leave off when you have done4 ,introductions1 exordiums1 perorations1 and conclusions are worthless unless they be in reality a part of the discussion and necessary to the understanding of the whole4 ,proportion in ,treatment4 ,everything1 however1 cannot occupy the first and last places4 ,how can other matters be emphasized8 ,to refer to the parallel of the map1 in order to make people see that the ,mississippi ,river is longer than the ,hudson1 the designer made it longer on the map4 ,that is exactly what is done in an essay4 ,if one matter is of greater importance than another1 it should take up a larger part of the essay4 ,when ,macaulay passes over ,milton's sonnets with a paragraph1 while he devotes sixteen paragraphs to ,paradise ,lost1 he indicates by the greater mass the greater value he ascribes to the epic4 ,so again1 a very good proof that he did not intend this essay to be a literary criticism primarily1 another evidence beside the closing paragraph1 is found in his division of the whole essay4 ,to ,milton's poetry he has given forty-one paragraphs1 and to his character fifty-two paragraphs4 ,the most common way of emphasizing important divisions of an essay is by increasing the length of treatment4 ,emphasis of ,emotion4 ,however1 there are times when this cannot be done3 a point may be so well known that it needs no amplification4 ,in such a case there may be an emphasis of emotion2 that is1 the statement may be made with an intensity that counterbalances the weight of the larger treatment4 ,it might be said that the one has great velocity and little mass1 while the other has great mass and little velocity4 ,by hurling forth the smaller mass at a higher velocity1 the momentum may be as great as when the larger mass moves with little velocity4 ,the dynamic force of burning words may give an emphasis to a paragraph out of all proportion to the length of treatment4 ,in one paragraph ,macaulay dashes aside all the defenses of ,charles4 ,he writes3-- ,the advocates of ,charles1 like the advocates of other malefactors against whom overwhelming evidence is produced1 generally decline all controversy about the facts1 and content themselves with calling testimony to character4 ,he had so many private virtues6 ,and had ,james ,,ii4 no private virtues8 ,was ,oliver ,cromwell1 his bitterest enemies themselves being the judges1 destitute of private virtues8 ,and what1 after all1 are the virtues ascribed to ,charles8 ,a religious zeal1 not more sincere than that of his son1 and fully as weak and narrow-minded1 and a few of the ordinary household decencies which half the tombstones in ,england claim for those who lie beneath them4 ,a good father6 ,a good husband6 ,ample apologies indeed for fifteen years of persecution1 tyranny1 and falsehood4 7,essay on ,milton47 ,phrases indicating ,emphasis4 ,moreover1 phrases and sentences may be introduced to show that a writer considers some topics of equal importance to others1 or even of greater importance1 though they do not demand the same length of treatment4 ,of equal importance1 not less weighty1 beyond question the most pertinent1 illustrate what is meant by phrases which indicate values4 ,these and many of their class which the occasion will call forth are necessary to give certain topics the rank they hold in the writer's conception of the whole subject4 ,in discussing the temper and character of the ,american people1 ,burke ascribes it to six powerful causes4 ,the relative value of these is indicated in the last three by phrases4 ,i quote only the opening sentences4 ,first1 the people of the colonies are descendants of ,englishmen4444 ,they were further confirmed in this pleasing error by the form of their provincial legislative assemblies4444 ,if anything were wanting to this necessary operation of the form of government1 religion would have given it a complete effect4444 ,there is a circumstance attending these southern colonies which makes the spirit of liberty still more high and haughty than in those to the northward4444 ,permit me1 ,sir1 to add another circumstance which contributes no mean part towards the growth and effect of this untractable spirit4444 ,the last cause of this disobedient spirit in the colonies is hardly less powerful than the rest4#ba ,emphasis is indicated1 then1 by position2 by the length of treatment2 by dynamic statement2 and by phrases denoting values4 ,coherence4 ,coherence is the second principle which modifies the internal structure of a composition4 ,that arrangement should be sought for that places in proximity one to another those ideas which are most closely related4 ,more than in composition dealing with things1 in those forms of discourse dealing with intangible1 invisible ideas1--with thoughts1 with speculations1--the greatest care is necessary to make one topic spring of necessity from a preceding topic4 ,and this is not impossible when the material has been carefully selected4 ,the principal divisions of the subject bear a necessary and logical relation to the whole theme1 and the subordinate divisions have a similar relation to their main topic4 ,in the essay on ,milton1 ,macaulay is seeking to commend his hero to the reader for two reasons3 first1 because his writings are powerful1 not only to delight1 but to elevate and purify2 second1 because the zeal with which he labored for the public good1 the fortitude with which he endured every private calamity1 the lofty disdain with which he looked down on temptations and dangers1 the deadly hatred which he bore to bigots and tyrants1 and the faith which he so sternly kept with his country and with his fame made him a patriot worthy of emulation4 ,we feel instinctively that this arrangement1 poetry first and character next1 and not the reverse1 is the right order4 ,to discuss character first and poetry last would have been ruinous to ,macaulay's purpose4 ,notice next the development of a sub-topic in the same essay4 ,only one sentence from a paragraph is given4 ,the defenders of ,charles do not choose to discuss the great points of the question1 but content themselves with exposing some of the crimes and follies to which public commotions necessarily give birth4 ,be it so4 ,many evils were produced by the ,civil ,war4 ,it is the character of such revolutions that we always see the worst of them first4 ,yet there is only one cure for the evils which newly acquired freedom produces1 and that cure is freedom4 ,therefore it is that we decidedly approve of the conduct of ,milton and the other wise and good men who1 in spite of much that was ridiculous and hateful in the conduct of their associates1 stood firmly by the cause of public liberty4 ,no other arrangement of these paragraphs seems possible4 ,to shift the sequence would break the chain4 ,each paragraph grows naturally from the paragraph preceding4 ,closely related topics stand together4 ,there is ,coherence4 ,transition ,phrases4 ,the logical connection between topics which have been well arranged may be made more evident by the skillful use of words and phrases that indicate the relation of what has been said to what is to be said4 ,these phrases are guideposts pointing the direction the next topic will take4 ,they advise the reader where he is and whither he is going4 ,cardinal ,newman1 who had the ability to write not only so that he could be understood1 but so that he could not be misunderstood1 made frequent use of these guides4 ,the question in one of his essays is whether knowledge1 that is1 acquirement1 is the real principle of enlargement1 or whether that is not rather something beyond it4 ,these fragments of sentences open a series of paragraphs4 #a4 ,for instance1 let a person 444 go for the first time where physical nature puts on her wilder and more awful forms1 etc4 #b4 ,again1 the view of the heavens which the telescope opens1 etc4 #c4 ,and so again1 the sight of beasts of prey and other foreign animals1 etc4 #d4 ,hence ,physical ,science generally1 etc4 #e4 ,again1 the study of history1 etc4 #f4 ,and in like manner1 what is called seeing the world1 etc4 #g4 ,and then again1 the first time the mind comes across the arguments and speculations of unbelievers1 etc4 #h4 ,on the other hand1 ,religion has its own enlargement1 etc4 #i4 ,now from these instances1 444 it is plain1 first1 that the communication of knowledge certainly is either a condition or a means of that sense of enlargement1 or enlightenment of which at this day we hear so much in certain quarters3 this cannot be denied2 but next1 it is equally plain1 that such communication is not the whole of the process4 ,how extremely valuable such phrases are may be realized from the fact that1 though the matter is entirely unknown1 any one can know the relation of the parts of this essay1 whither it tends1 and can almost supply ,newman's thoughts4 ,summary and ,transition4 ,to secure coherence between the main divisions of an essay1 instead of words and phrases1 there are employed sentences and paragraphs of summary and transition4 ,summaries gather up what has been said on the topic1 much like a conclusion to a theme2 transitions show the relation between the topic already discussed and the one next to be treated4 ,summaries at the conclusion of any division of the whole subject are like the seats on a mountain path which are conveniently arranged to give the climber a needed rest1 and to spread out at his feet the features of the landscape through which he has made his way4 ,summaries put the reader in possession of the situation up to that point1 and make him ready for the next stage of the advance4 ,at the end of the summary there is frequently a transition1 either a few sentences or sometimes a short paragraph4 ,the sentence or paragraph of transition is much more frequent than the paragraph which summarizes4 ,the examples of these summaries and transitions are so frequent in ,macaulay and ,burke that one transition is sufficient to indicate their use4 ,macaulay writes3-- ,there are several minor poems of ,milton on which we would willingly make a few remarks4444 ,our limits1 however1 prevent us from discussing the point at length4 ,we hasten on to that extraordinary production which the general suffrage of critics has placed in the highest class of human compositions4 7,essay on ,milton47 ,to conclude1 exposition embraces definition and explanation4 ,definition is usually too concise to be clear1 and needs an added explanation4 ,in any piece of exposition there must be unity1 and this principle will dispense with everything that is not essential to the theme2 there must be judicious massing1 that those parts of the essay deserving emphasis may receive it2 and there must be a coherence between the parts1 large and small1 so close and intimate that the progress from one topic to another shall be steady and without hindrance4 ,unity1 ,mass1 and ,coherence should be the main considerations in composition the aim of which is to explain a term or a proposition4 ,,suggestive ,,questions ,,and ,,exercises4 ,,questions4 ,,macaulay',s ,,essay ,,on ,,milton4 7,riverside ,literature ,series1 ,no4 #ajc47 ,what makes up the introduction of this essay8 ,does he use the same method in the ,essay on ,addison8 ,take a volume of his essays and see how many begin in similar fashion4 ,at what paragraph of this ,essay on ,milton does the introduction end8 ,would it be as well to omit it8 ,give reasons for your opinion4 ,make an analysis of his argument of the proposition1 ,no poet has ever triumphed over greater difficulties than ,milton4 ,does ,macaulay give a definition of poetry on page #ac1 or is it an exposition of the term8 ,what figure of speech do you find in the last sentence of the paragraph on page #dc8 ,when ,macaulay begins to discuss the public conduct of ,milton1 what method of introduction does he adopt8 ,what value is there in it8 ,do the trifles mentioned at the end of the paragraph on page #ee make an anticlimax8 ,what arrangement of sentences in the paragraph does he use most1 individual or serial8 ,does he close his paragraphs with a repetition of the topic more frequently than with a single detail emphasizing the topic8 ,is his last sentence1 in case it is a repetition of the topic1 longer or shorter than the topic sentence8 ,does ,macaulay frequently use epigrams8 antitheses8 ,find all transition paragraphs4 ,find ten full sentence transitions outside of the transition paragraphs4 ,where1 in such paragraphs1 is the topic sentence8 ,in this essay find examples of the five methods of expounding a proposition4 ,which method does ,macaulay use oftenest8 ,is his treatment of the subject concrete8 ,what advantage is there in such treatment8 ,,of ,,kings' ,,treasuries4 7,riverside ,literature ,series1 ,no4 #adb47 ,do you think the title good8 ,is ,ruskin wise in disclosing his subject at once8 ,in section #c what purpose does the first paragraph fulfill8 ,what method of exposition is adopted in the last paragraph8 ,what method in section #d8 ,for what purpose is the first paragraph of section #e introduced8 ,is the last paragraph of this section a digression8 ,do you think the last sentence of section #i upon the topic announced in the first sentence8 ,where does ,ruskin begin to treat the second topic8 ,should there be two paragraphs8 ,find the genus and differentia in the definition of a good book of the hour4 ,what is the use of the analogy in section #ac8 ,what figure do you find in section #ad8 ,do you think a large part of section #cj a digression8 ,what do you think of the structure of sentences #d and #h in section #cb8 ,could you improve it by a change of punctuation8 ,what is the effect of the supposed case at the end of section #cc8 ,is it a fair deduction8 ,is it at the right place in the paragraph1 and why8 ,where would you divide the paragraph in section #cg8 ,is the example in section #cf a fair one1 and does it prove the case8 ,what is a very common method with ,ruskin of connecting paragraphs8 ,could you break up the sixth sentence of section #ca so that it would be better8 ,if his audience had been hostile to him would he have been fortunate in some of his assertions8 ,make an analysis of the whole essay4 ,does he seem to you to have digressed from his topic8 ,at what point8 ,should it be two essays8 ,what led ,ruskin into this long criticism of ,english character8 ,could you include all the main topics that ,ruskin has included1 and by a change in proportion keep the essay on the subject8 ,,webster',s ,,bunker ,,hill ,,oration4 7,riverside ,literature ,series1 ,no4 #ef47 ,number the paragraphs in this oration4 ,why is paragraph #c introduced8 ,what method of development is used in paragraph #g8 ,in paragraph #h8 ,in how many paragraphs is the last sentence short8 ,in how many is the last sentence a repetition of the topic8 ,what purpose is served in paragraphs #h1 #i1 and #aj8 ,in paragraph #ab note the use of contrast4 ,what kind of development in paragraph #bg8 ,analyze the oration from paragraph #bh4 ,does he place the topic sentence near the beginning of the paragraphs8 ,does he frequently use transition sentences8 ,do you think the outline of this as distinct as that of ,macaulay's ,essay on ,milton8 ,should it be8 ,what figure of speech in the word axe in paragraph #cb1 and bayonet in paragraph #cf8 ,what figure at the end of paragraph #dj8 ,does he use figures as frequently as ,macaulay8 ,,exercises4 ,this year1 taking up the study of exposition1 offers especially good opportunities for exercises in paragraph and sentence construction4 ,during the first eight or ten weeks the pupils will write isolated paragraphs4 ,the unity and arrangement of these should be carefully criticised4 ,also the exercises should be arranged so that the pupils will employ all forms of paragraphs4 ,before he begins to write a paragraph1 the pupil should know what he is to include in it1 and in what order2 otherwise the paragraph will fail in unity and effective massing4 ,paragraphs are made by forethought1 not by inspiration4 ,following the writing of isolated paragraphs is the composition of the long essay4 ,the first thing is a study of outlines4 ,this will take up six or eight weeks4 ,to secure the view of the whole in different arrangements1 use the cards4 ,when the class has gained some grasp of outlines1 the writing of essays should be begun4 ,at the option of the pupils1 they may write some of the essays already outlined1 or study new themes4 ,two or three paragraphs are all that can be well done for a lesson4 ,good1 not much1 should be the ideal4 ,in this way a single essay may occupy a class from three to six weeks4 ,it should be remembered that these exercises are written consciously for practice4 ,they are exercises--no more4 ,their purpose is to give skill and judgment in composition4 ,it is because they are exercises that they may be somewhat stereotyped and artificial in form1 just as exercises in music may be artificially constructed to meet the difficulties the young musician will have to confront4 ,during the writing of these essays special attention should be given to sentence construction4 ,the inclusion of just the ideas needed in the sentence and no more2 the massing that makes prominent the thought that deserves prominence2 and the nice adjustment of one sentence to the next3 these objects should be striven for during this semester4 #a1 #b4 ,write definitions of such common terms as jingoism1 civil service1 gold standard1 the submerged tenth1 sweat shop1 internal revenue1 cyclonic area1 foreign policy1 imperialism1 free silver1 mugwump1 political pull1 ,monroe doctrine1 etc4 ,five or six terms which are not found in a dictionary will make a hard exercise2 and two or three lessons in definitions will set the pupils in the direction of accurate and adequate statements4 ,for isolated paragraphs write upon the following subjects3-- #c4 ,novel reading gives one a knowledge of the world not to be gained in any other way4 ,particulars4 #d4 ,novel reading unfits people for the actualities of life4 ,specific instances4 #e4 ,among the numerous uses of biography three stand forth preeminent1--it furnishes the material of history1 it lets us into the secrets of the good and great1 and it sets before us attainable ideals of noble humanity4 ,repetition4 #f4 ,it is beyond any possibility of successful contradiction that the examination system encourages cheating4 ,proofs4 #g4 ,electric cars and automobiles are driving horses out of the cities4 ,instances4 #h4 ,every great development in the culture of a nation has followed a great war4 ,proofs4 #i4 ,from the following general subjects have the pupils state definite themes4 ,write isolated paragraphs on a few of them4 ,political ,parties4 ,war4 ,books4 ,machines4 ,inventions4 ,great ,men4 ,planets4 ,civil ,service4 ,coeducation4 ,roads4 ,tramps4 ,boycotts4 #aj4 ,place another similar list on the board and have the pupils vote on what three they prefer4 ,use these in making outlines4 ,then select more4 ,supposing they had settled upon this theme3 ,the tramp is the logical result of our economic system2 have it outlined4 ,the result might be as follows3-- ,a4 ,what is a tramp8 #a4 ,who become tramps8 #b4 ,their number4 #c4 ,where are they8 ,b4 ,why is he a tramp8 #a4 ,inventions have increased the power of production more rapidly than the demand for products has grown4 a4 ,on the farm4 b4 ,transportation4 c4 ,factories4 d4 ,piecework4 #b4 ,women now do much work formerly done by men4 a4 ,as clerks4 b4 ,as typewriters1 stenographers1 and bookkeepers4 c4 ,in the professions4 #c4 ,the result of these causes is that many men willing to work are out of employment4 ,c4 ,what must be done8 #aa4 ,fill out the following outline4 ,subject3 ,the ,thermometer4 ,a4 ,its ,invention4 ,b4 ,its ,construction4 ,c4 ,its ,value and ,uses4 #ab4 ,outline six more themes4 #ac4 ,beginning the writing of long essays1 write essays in sections4 ,using ,tramps for an illustration1 as it is outlined it contains about twelve paragraphs4 ,all of section ,a may be included in one paragraph4 ,b1 #a may be a paragraph of repetition2 a1 b1 c1 d1 may each make a paragraph of particulars4 ,by stating ,b1 #b in the following way1 it may be a paragraph of what not3 ,it was once considered unladylike for women to engage in any occupation outside of the home4 ,men said that they could not retain1 etc4--,go on with the things woman could not do1 closing with a statement of what she does do4 ,b1 #b1 a4 ,on account of their fidelity1 honesty1 and courtesy1 women succeed as clerks4 ,repetition4 b4 ,the quickness of their intelligence and the accuracy of their work have made women more desirable for routine work in an office than men4 ,comparison and ,contrast4 c4 ,there are certain feminine qualities which especially fit women for the practice of teaching and medicine4 ,details4 ,b1 #c4 ,by ,combination of ,forms4 ,c4 ,by ,details4 ,it would be a pleasure to go on with this list of exercises1 but it is unnecessary and it is unwise4 ,these indicate the objects to be sought for in the exercises4 ,they are not a specific course1 though they might suit a certain environment4 ,each teacher knows her own pupils1--their attainments and their interests4 ,the subjects should be chosen to suit their special cases4 ,only make them interesting2 put them into such form that there is something to get hold of2 and adapt them so that all the topics to be studied will be illustrated in the work4 ,the pupils should be able to write any form of paragraph1 to arrange it so that any idea is made prominent1 and to make easy transitions4 ,arrange the exercises to accomplish definite results4 ,during the third year1 attention should be given to words and to the refinements of elegant composition4 ,these the pupils will best learn by careful watch of the literature4 ,the teacher should be quick to feel the strength and beauty of any passage and able to point out the means adopted to obtain the delightful effect4 ,clearness first is the thing to be desired2 if to this can be added force and a degree of elegance during the last two years1 the work of the instructor has been well done4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,argument ,argument has been defined as that form of discourse the purpose of which is to convince the reader of the truth or falsity of a proposition4 ,it is closely allied with exposition4 ,to convince a person1 it is first necessary that the proposition be explained to him4 ,this is all that is necessary in many cases4 ,did men decide all matters without prejudice1 and were they willing to accept the truth at any cost1 even to discard the beliefs that have been to them the source of greatest happiness1 the simple explanation would be sufficient4 ,however1 as men are not all-wise1 and as they are not always reasonable1 they are found to hold different opinions regarding the same subject2 and one person often wishes to convince another of the error of his beliefs4 ,men continually use the words because and therefore2 indeed1 a great deal of writing has in it an element of argument4 ,from the fact that argument and exposition are so nearly alike1 it follows that they will be governed by much the same principles4 ,as argument1 in addition to explaining1 seeks to convince1 it is necessary1 in addition to knowing how to explain1 to know what is considered convincing1--what are proofs2 and secondly1 what is the best order in which to arrange proofs4 ,induction and ,deduction4 ,arguments have been classified as inductive and deductive4#bb ,induction includes arguments that proceed from individual cases to establish a general truth4 ,deduction comprises arguments that proceed from a general truth to establish the proposition in specific instances1 or groups of instances4 ,syllogism4 ,premises4 ,if one should say ,socrates is mortal because he is a man1 or ,socrates will die because all men are mortal1 or ,socrates is a man1 therefore he will die1 by any of these he has expressed a truth which all men accept4 ,in any of these expressions are bound up two propositions1 called premises1 from which a third proposition1 called a conclusion1 is derived4 ,if expanded1 the three propositions assume this form3 ,all men are mortal4 ,socrates is a man4 ,therefore ,socrates is mortal4 ,this is termed a syllogism4 ,a syllogism consists of a major premise1 a predication about all the members of a general class of objects2 a minor premise1 a predication that includes an individual or a group of individuals in the general class named by the major premise2 and a conclusion1 the proposition which is derived from the relation existing between the other two propositions4 ,the propositions above would be classified as follows3-- ,major premise3 ,all men are mortal1 a predication about all men4 ,minor premise3 ,socrates is a man1 including an individual in the general class4 ,conclusion3 ,socrates is mortal4 ,terms4 ,in every syllogism there are three terms1--major1 minor1 and middle4 ,the middle term is found in both the premises1 but not in the conclusion4 ,it is the link connecting the major and minor terms4 ,the major term is usually the predicate of the major premise and the predicate of the conclusion4 ,the minor term is the subject of the minor premise and the subject of the conclusion4 ,men is the middle term1 are mortal the major term1 and ,socrates1 the minor term4 ,enthymeme4 ,it is rarely the case in literature that the syllogism is fully stated3 generally one of the premises is omitted4 ,such a form of statement is termed an enthymeme4 ,socrates will die because all men are mortal is an enthymeme4 ,the minor premise has been omitted4 ,socrates is mortal because he is a man is also an enthymeme1 because the major premise which states that all men are mortal has been omitted4 ,the conclusions arrived at by means of syllogisms are irresistible1 provided the form be correct and the premises be true4 ,it is impossible here to discuss the forms of syllogisms2 they are too many4 ,it will be of value1 however1 to call attention to a few of the commonest errors in syllogisms4 ,definition of ,terms4 ,the first error arises from a misunderstanding of terms4 ,it is often said that ,george ,eliot is a poet2 there are some who disagree4 ,certain it is that she wrote in verse form2 and it is true that she has embodied noble thoughts in verse2 but it is quite as true that she lacks the bird-note4 ,if this were reduced to a syllogism1 it would not be a discussion of whether ,george ,eliot be a poet1 but rather a discussion of what is a poet4 ,stated1 it reads3 ,all persons who embody noble thoughts in verse form are poets4 ,george ,eliot is a person who has embodied noble thoughts in verse form4 ,therefore ,george ,eliot is a poet4 ,if the major premise of this syllogism be granted1 the conclusion is unquestionable4 ,the terms should be defined at the beginning2 then this error1 springing from a misunderstanding of terms1 perhaps the most common1 would be avoided4 ,undistributed ,middle4 ,the second error arises from the fact that the middle term is not distributed2 that is1 the major premise makes no statement about all the members of a class4 ,the premises in the following are true1 but the conclusion is nonsense4 ,a horse is an animal4 ,man is an animal4 ,therefore1 man is a horse4 ,the middle term1 in this case animal1 must be distributed2 some statement must be made of all animals4 ,the following would be true3 ,all animals have life2 therefore man has life4 ,the major premise predicates life of all animals4 ,false ,premises4 ,a third error in a syllogism is in the premises themselves4 ,if either premise be false1 the conclusion is not necessarily true4 ,a parent might say to his son1 ,you are doing wrong1 and you will pay the penalty for it soon4 ,generally he would be right4 ,however1 if this were put into a syllogism1 it would read as follows3 ,all persons who do wrong pay the penalty soon4 ,you are such a person4 ,therefore1 etc4 ,admitting the son is breaking the law1 the fact is that the major premise is not always true1 and the conclusion holds the weakness of the weak premise4 ,again1 supposing everybody accepted the general truth1 ,all unrepentant sinners will be punished4 ,the minister might then say to a young man1 ,you will certainly be punished1 because all unrepentant sinners will be punished4 ,the young man might deny the suppressed minor premise1 which is1 ,you are an unrepentant sinner4 ,both premises must be true if they prove anything4 ,the conclusion contains the weakness of either premise4 ,in both of these examples note that the mistake is in the premise which does not appear4 ,in an enthymeme1 great care should be taken with the suppressed premise4 ,be sure it is true when you use this form of argument1 and be sure to look for it and state it in full when examining another's argument4 ,it is a common way of hiding a weak point to cover it in the suppressed premise of an enthymeme4 ,method of ,induction4 ,induction1 which proceeds directly opposite to the method of deduction1 is the method by which all our ultimate knowledge has been obtained4 ,by observing individual instances man has gathered a great store of general truths4 ,there was a time when the first man would not have been justified in saying1 ,the sun will rise in the east to-morrow4 ,the general law had not been established4 ,to-day it is practically certain that the sun will rise in the east to-morrow morning1 because it has done so for thousands of years2 the large number of instances establishes the general truth4 ,yet there may come a day when it will rise in the south1 or not rise at all4 ,until every case has been tried and found to conform to the law1 theoretically man cannot be absolutely certain of any general truth4 ,there may come an exception to the general rule that all men must die4 ,so far1 however1 there is no experience to justify any man in hoping to escape death4 ,as sure as death means in practice absolutely sure1 though this is not what is called a perfect induction2 that is1 an induction in which every possible case has been included4 ,all the other ,states are smaller than ,texas is a perfect induction1 but it forms no basis for argument4 ,all the cases must be known for a perfect induction2 there is no unknown to argue to4 ,this1 then1 is only a short statement of many individual truths1 and has but little of value4 ,induction that is imperfect is more valuable2 for with many cases the probability becomes so strong that it is a practical certainty4 ,it is the method of science4 ,more valuable for literature is another division of arguments into arguments from cause1 arguments from sign1 and arguments from example4 ,arguments from ,cause4 ,arguments from cause include those propositions which1 if they were granted1 would account for the fact or proposition maintained4 ,the decisive test is to suppose the proposition to be true2 then1 if it will account for the condition1 it is an argument from cause4 ,a child holds its finger in a flame2 therefore its finger is burned4 ,if the first proposition be supposed to be true1 it will account for a burned finger4 ,it is an argument from cause1 and it is conclusive4 ,again1 if a man severs his carotid artery1 he will die4 ,if the first proposition be supposed to be true1 it will account for the man's subsequent death4 ,now1 supposing a man takes strychnine1 he will die4 ,this is not quite so sure4 ,if a stomach-pump were used or an antidote given1 he might not die4 ,the cause has been hindered in its action1 or another cause has intervened to counterbalance the first4 ,if1 then1 a cause be adequate to produce the effect1 and if it act unhindered or unmodified1 the effect will certainly follow the active cause4 ,an argument that uses as a premise such a cause may predicate its effect as a conclusion with absolute certainty4 ,such an argument is conclusive4 ,the argument from cause is used more frequently to establish a probability than to prove a fact or proposition4 ,however strong the proofs of a statement may be1 men hesitate to accept either the statement or the proofs if the proposition is not plausible1 or1 as people say1 if they do not understand it1 or if it is not reasonable4 ,if a murder be done and circumstances all point to your friend1 you do not believe your friend to be the criminal until some fact is produced sufficient to cause your friend to commit the crime1--until some motive is established4 ,if it be shown that the friend hated the murdered man and would be benefited by his death1 a motive is established1--the proposition is made plausible4 ,a man could understand how he came to do it4 ,the hatred and the benefit being granted1 they would account for his deed4 ,it is an argument from cause1 used not as a proof1 but to establish a probability4 ,it makes the proposition ready for proof4 ,arguments from ,sign4 ,the second class of arguments1 arguments from sign1 is most often used for proof4 ,if two facts or conditions always occur together1 the presence of one is a sign of the presence of the other4 ,cause and effect are so related that if either be observed1 it is an indication of the other4 ,no cause acts without a consequent effect2 an effect is a sure sign of a preceding cause4 ,supposing one should say1 ,because the flowers are dead1 there was a frost1 or ,if ice has formed on the river1 it must have been cold1 in both instances the argument would be an argument from sign4 ,both also proceed from the effect to the cause4 ,only a low temperature forms ice on the river2 the argument from effect to cause is conclusive4 ,in the first case1 the argument is not conclusive1 because flowers may die from other causes4 ,in a case like this1 it is necessary to find all possible causes1 and then by testing each in succession to determine which could not have acted and leave the one that is the only actual cause4 ,a man is found dead2 death has resulted from natural causes1 from murder1 or from suicide4 ,each possible cause would be tested2 and by elimination of the other possible causes the one right cause would be left4 ,this method of elimination is frequently employed in arguments from effect to cause4 ,when this method is used the alternatives should be few1 else it gives rise to confusion and to lack of attention caused by the tediousness of the discussion4 ,and an enumeration of all possible causes must be made2 for if one be omitted it may be the one that is in fact the right one4 ,the relation between cause and effect is so intimate that the occurrence of one may be regarded as a sure sign of the presence of the other4 ,if an effect is produced by only one cause1 the presence of the effect is a certain indication of the cause4 ,if several causes produce the same effect1 some other methods must be used to determine the cause operating in this special case4 ,sequence and ,cause4 ,in reasoning from effect to cause1 one must be sure that he is dealing with a cause4 ,as effect follows cause1 there is danger that anything that follows another may be considered as caused by it4 ,because a man died just after eating1 it would not be quite reasonable to connect eating and death as cause and effect4 ,the fact is that death is surer to follow starvation4 ,the glow at evening is generally followed by fair weather the next day2 but the fair weather is not an effect of a clear sunset4 ,common sense must be used to determine whether the relation is one of cause and effect2 something more than a simple sequence is necessary4 ,another argument from sign associates conditions that frequently occur together1 though one is not the cause of the other4 ,james is near1 because there is his blind father1 means that ,james always accompanies his father2 where the father is1 the son is too4 ,if one had noticed that potatoes planted at the full of the moon grew well1 and potatoes planted at other times did not thrive1 he might say as a result of years of observation that a certain crop would be a failure because it was not planted at the right time4 ,this argument might have weight with ignorant people1 but intelligent persons do not consider it a sure sign4 ,all signs belong to this class of arguments2 they are of value or worthless as they come true more or less frequently4 ,every time there is an exception the argument is weakened2 another case of its working strengthens it4 ,where there is no sure relation like cause and effect1 the strength of the argument depends on the frequency of the recurrence of the associated conditions4 ,a third argument from sign associates two effects of the same cause4 ,a lad on waking exclaims1 ,the window is covered with frost2 ,i can go skating to-day4 ,the frost on the window is not the cause of the ice on the river4 ,rather1 both phenomena are results of the same cause4 ,this kind of argument is not necessarily conclusive2 yet with others it always strengthens a case4 ,testimony is usually called an argument from sign4 ,the assertion by some one that a thing occurred is not sure proof2 it is only a sign that it occurred4 ,people have said that they have seen witches1 ghosts1 and sea serpents1 and unquestionably believed it2 men generally do not accept their testimony4 ,in a criminal case1 it would be difficult to accept the testimony of both sides4 ,though testimony seems a strong argument1 it is or it is not1 according to the conditions under which it is given4 ,one would care little for the testimony of an ignorant man in a matter that called for wisdom2 he would hesitate to accept the testimony of a man who claimed he saw1 but upon cross-examination could not report what he saw2 and he would not think it fair to be condemned upon the testimony of his enemies4 ,books have been written upon evidence1 but three principles are all that are needed in ordinary arguments4 ,first1 the person giving testimony must be capable of observation2 second1 he must be able to report accurately what he has observed2 third1 he must have a desire to tell the exact truth4 ,arguments from ,example4 ,the third large division comprises arguments from example4 ,that is1 if a truth be asserted of an individual1 it can therefore be predicated of the class to which the individual belongs4 ,for instance1 if the first time a person saw a giraffe1 he observed that it was eating grass1 he would be justified in saying that giraffes are herbivorous4 ,all gold is yellow1 heavy1 and not corroded by acid1 though no one has tested it all4 ,however1 every giraffe does not have one ear brown and the other gray because the first one seen happened to be so marked2 neither is all gold in the shape of ten-dollar gold pieces4 ,only common sense will serve to pick out essential qualities2 but if essential and invariable qualities be selected1 the argument from the example of an individual to all members of its class is very powerful4 ,analogies resemble examples4 ,in exposition they are used for illustration2 in argument they are employed as proofs4 ,though two things belong to different classes of objects1 they may have some qualities that are similar1 and so an argument may be made from one to another4 ,natural ,law in the ,spiritual ,world is a book written to show how the physical laws hold true in the region of spirit4 ,it is not because an enemy sowed tares in a neighbor's field that there are wicked men in the world2 nor is it because a lover of jewels will sell everything that he has to buy the pearl of greatest price that men devote everything they have to the kingdom of heaven4 ,analogies prove nothing4 ,they clear up relations and often help the reader to appreciate other arguments4 ,they are valuable when the likeness is broad and easily traced4 ,they should never be used alone4 ,these1 then1 are the principal forms of argument3 deduction and induction2 arguments from cause1 from sign1 and from example4 ,upon these men depend when they wish to convince of truth or error4 ,selection of ,material4 ,in argument the material is selected with reference to its value as proof4 ,every particle of matter must be carefully tested4 ,while a piece of material that could be omitted without loss to the explanation may sometimes find a place in exposition1 such a thing must not occur in argument4 ,as soon as a reader discovers that the writer is off the track1 either he loses respect for the author's words1 or he suspects him of trying to hide the weakness of his position in a cloud of worthless and irrelevant matters4 ,every bit of material should advance the argument one step2 it should fill its niche in the well-planned structure2 it should contribute its part to the strength of the whole4 ,plan called ,the ,brief4 ,when the material has been selected1 it must be arranged4 ,an argument is a demonstration4 ,each of its parts is the natural result of what has preceded1 and1 up to the last step1 each part is the basis for the next step4 ,as in geometry a demonstration that omits one step in its development1 or1 which comes to the same thing1 puts the point out of its logical order1 is worthless as a demonstration1 so in argument not one essential step can be omitted1 nor can it be misplaced4 ,the plan in an argument may be more evident than in exposition4 ,we are a little offended if the framework shows too plainly in exposition2 but there is no offense in a well-articulated skeleton in an argument4 ,it is quite the rule that the general plan and the main divisions of the argument are announced at the very beginning4 ,any device that will make the relation of the parts clearer should be used4 ,over and over again the writer should arrange the cards with the topics until he is certain that no other order is so good4 ,the writing is a mere trifle compared with the outline1 called in argument the brief4 ,though the brief is so essential1 it is unfortunately a thing about which but few suggestions can be given4 ,the circumstances under which arguments are written--especially whether written to defend a position or to attack it--are so various that rules cannot be given4 ,still a few general principles may be of value4 ,climax4 ,proofs should be arranged in a climax4 ,this does not mean that the weakest argument should come first1 and the next stronger should follow1 and so on until the last and strongest is reached4 ,it is necessary to begin with something that will catch the attention2 and in argument it is frequently a proof strong enough to convince the reader that the writer knows what he is contending for1 and that he can strike a hard blow4 ,then again1 it is evident that in all arguments there are main points in the discussion that must be established by points of minor importance4 ,the main points should be arranged in a logical climax1 and the sub-topics which go to support one of the main divisions should have their climax4 ,at the end of the whole should be the strongest and the most comprehensive argument4 ,it should be a general advance of the whole line of argument1 including all the propositions that have previously been called into action1 sweeping everything before it4 ,inductive precedes ,deductive4 ,to gain this climax what kind of arguments should precede8 ,of inductive and deductive1 the inductive proofs generally go first4 ,the advance from particular instances to general truths is the best suited to catch the attention1 for men think with individual examples1 and general truths make little appeal to them4 ,moreover1 if one is addressing people of opposing views1--and in most cases he is1 else why is he arguing8--it is unwise to begin with bald statements of unwelcome truths4 ,they will be rejected without consideration4 ,they can with advantage be delayed until they are reached in the regular development1 and the reader has been prepared for their reception4 ,general truths and their application by deductive arguments usually stand late in the brief4 ,cause precedes ,sign4 ,of arguments from cause1 sign1 or example1 it is ordinarily wise to place arguments from cause first4 ,a person does not listen to any explanation of an unknown truth until he knows that the explanation is plausible2 that the cause assigned is adequate to produce the result4 ,after one knows that the cause is sufficient and may have brought about the result1 he is in a position to learn that it is the very cause that produced the effect4 ,arguments from cause are very rarely conclusive proofs of fact4 ,they only establish a probability4 ,and it would be unwise to prove that a thing might be a possibility after one had attempted to prove that it is a fact4 ,it would be a long step backward1 a retreat4 ,therefore arguments from cause1 unless absolutely conclusive proof of fact1 should not come last2 but by other arguments1--by testimony1 by example1 by analogy1--the possibility1 which has been reached by the argument from cause1 may be established as a fact4 ,example follows ,sign4 ,of the two1 sign and example1 example generally follows sign4 ,in arguments about human affairs1 examples seldom prove anything2 for under similar conditions one person may not act like another4 ,though this be true1 the argument from example is one of the most effective--it is not at all conclusive--in that class of cases where oratory is combined with argument to convince and persuade4 ,this is because men learn most readily from examples4 ,to reason about matters of conduct on abstract principles of morality convinces but few2 to point to a ,lincoln or a ,franklin has persuaded thousands4 ,examples are of most use in enforcing and illustrating and strengthening a point already established1 and they generally follow arguments from sign4 ,refutation4 ,one other class of arguments finds a place in debate3 namely1 indirect arguments4 ,it is often as much an advantage to a debater to dispose of objections as it is to establish his own case4 ,this is because a question usually has two alternatives4 ,if one can refute the arguments in favor of the opponent's position1 he has by that very process established his own4 ,if the points of the refutation are of minor importance and are related to any division of his own direct argument1 the refutation of such points should be taken up in connection with the related parts of the direct argument4 ,if1 however1 it is an argument of some weight and should be considered separate and apart from the direct argument1 it is generally wisest to proceed to its demolition at the end of the direct argument and before the conclusion of the whole4 ,for then the whole weight of the direct argument will be thrown into the refutation and will render every word so much the more destructive4 ,again1 if the opposing argument be very strong and have taken complete possession of the audience1 it must be attacked and disposed of at the very beginning4 ,otherwise it is impossible for the direct argument to make any advance4 ,from these suggestions one derives the general principle that each case must be considered by itself4 ,there will be cases of conflict among the rules1 and there must be a careful weighing of methods4 ,common sense and patient labor are the most valuable assistants in arranging a powerful argument4 ,it hardly needs to be said that the suggestions made in the chapter on ,exposition regarding ,mass and ,coherence should be observed here4 ,in argument as in exposition1 topics are emphasized by position1 and by proportion in the scale of treatment4 ,here as there1 matters that are closely related in thought should be connected in the discourse1 and matters that are not related in thought should not be associated in the essay4 ,it will be an advantage now to look through ,conciliation with the ,colonies and note its general plan of structure4 ,only the main divisions of this powerful oration can be given1 as to make a full brief would deprive this piece of literature of half its value for study4 ,analysis of ,burke's ,oration4 ,mr4 ,burke begins by saying that it is an awful subject or there is none this side of the grave4 ,he states that he has studied the question for years1 and while ,parliament has pursued a vacillating policy and one aggravating to the colonies1 he has a fixed policy and one sure to restore the former unsuspecting confidence in the ,mother ,country4 ,his policy is simple peace4 ,this by way of introduction4 ,he then divides the argument into two large divisions and proceeds4 ,i4 ,,ought ,,you ,,to ,,concede8 ,a4 ,what are the true nature and the peculiar circumstances of the object which we have before us8 ,i4 ,america has a rapidly growing population4 ,,ii4 ,it has a rapidly increasing commercial value1 shown by #a4 ,its demand for our goods4 #b4 ,the value of its agricultural products4 #c4 ,the value of the products of its fisheries4 ,,iii4 ,there is in the people a fierce spirit of liberty4 ,this is the result of #a4 ,their descent from ,englishmen4 #b4 ,their popular form of government4 #c4 ,religion in the ,north4 #d4 ,the haughty spirit of the ,south4 #e4 ,their education4 #f4 ,their remoteness from the governing body4 ,b4 ,you have before you the object4 ,what 444 shall we do with it8 ,there are but three ways of proceeding relative to this stubborn spirit in the colonies4 ,i4 ,to change it by removing the causes4 ,this is impracticable4 ,,ii4 ,to prosecute it as criminal4 ,this is inexpedient4 ,,iii4 ,to comply with it as necessary4 ,this is the answer to the first question4 ,,ii4 ,,of ,,what ,,nature ,,ought ,,the ,,concession ,,to ,,be8 ,a4 ,a concession that grants to any colony the satisfaction of the grievances it complains of brings about conciliation and peace4 ,this general proposition is established by the following examples4 ,it has done so in #a4 ,ireland1 #b4 ,wales1 #c4 ,durham1 and #d4 ,chester4 ,b4 ,the grievances complained of in ,america are unjust taxation and no representation4 ,c4 ,therefore these resolutions rehearsing facts and calculated to satisfy their grievances will bring about conciliation and peace4 ,i4 ,they are unrepresented4 ,,ii4 ,they are taxed4 ,,iii4 ,no method has been devised for procuring a representation in ,parliament for the said ,colonies4 ,,iv4 ,each colony has within itself a body with powers to raise1 levy1 and assess taxes4 ,v4 ,these assemblies have at sundry times granted large subsidies and aids to his ,majesty's service4 ,,vi4 ,experience teaches that it is expedient to follow their method rather than force payment4 ,d4 ,as a result of the adoption of these resolutions1 everything which has been made to enforce a contrary system must1 ,i take it for granted1 fall along with it4 ,on that ground1 ,i have drawn the following resolutions4 ,i4 ,it is proper to repeal certain legislation regarding taxes1 imports1 and administration of justice4 ,,ii4 ,to secure a fair and unbiased judiciary4 ,,iii4 ,to provide better for the ,courts of ,admiralty4 ,e4 ,he next considers objections4 ,conclusion4 ,notice first the introduction4 ,it goes straight to the question4 ,to tell a large opposition that it has vacillated on a great question is not calculated to win a kind hearing2 yet this point1 necessary to ,burke's argument1 is so delicately handled that no one could be seriously offended1 nor could any one charge him with weakness4 ,the introduction serves its purpose2 it gains the attention of the audience and it exactly states the proposition4 ,he then divides the whole argument into two parts4 ,the framework is visible1 and with intent4 ,these great divisions he takes up separately4 ,first1 that there may be a perfect understanding of the question1 he explains the true nature and the peculiar circumstances of the object which we have before us4 ,this illustrates the use of exposition in argument4 ,the descent and education did not prove that the ,americans had a fiery spirit2 that was acknowledged and needed no proof4 ,it simply sets forth the facts1--facts which he afterward uses as powerful instruments of conviction4 ,as long as a man can use exposition1 he can carry his readers with him2 it is when he begins to argue1 to force matters1 that he raises opposition4 ,so this use of exposition was fortunate4 ,america was an ,english colony4 ,her strength and riches were ,england's strength and wealth4 ,it would be pleasing to all ,englishmen to hear the recital of ,america's prosperity4 ,up to the time he asks1 ,what1 in the name of ,god1 shall we do with it1 the oration is not essentially argument2 it does nothing more than place before you the object4 ,in the section marked ,i4 ,b1 ,burke begins the real argument by the method of elimination4 ,he asserts that there are only three ways of dealing with this fierce spirit of liberty4 ,then he conclusively proves the first impracticable and the second inexpedient4 ,there is left but the one course1 concession4 ,this method of proof is absolutely conclusive if every possible contingency is stated and provided for4 ,notice that in this section ,b everything that was mentioned in the first section ,a is used1 and the whole is one solid mass moving forward irresistibly to the conclusion of the first and the most important part of this argument4 ,the second main division is devoted to the conclusion of the first4 ,if you must concede1--the conclusion of the first half1--what will be the nature of your concession8 ,a concession1 to be a concession1 must grant what the colonists wish1 not what the ministry thinks would be good for them4 ,then by the history of ,england's dealings with ,ireland1 ,wales1 ,chester1 and ,durham1 he proves that such a concession has been followed by peace4 ,this makes the major premise of his syllogism1 stated in ,,ii4 ,a4 ,the minor premise is a statement of the grievances of the colonies4 ,the conclusion is in the resolutions for the redress of the grievances of the colonies4 ,the second part is then one great syllogism1 the premises of which are established by ample proof1 the conclusion of which cannot well be disputed4 ,and here ,i should close1 says the orator2 the direct argument is finished4 ,there are some objections which demand dignified consideration4 ,at this point1 however1 it is easy to refute any objections1 for behind each word there is now the crushing weight of the whole argument4 ,the conclusion recites the advantages of ,burke's plan over all others1 and reasserts its value1 now proven at every point4 ,it is a powerful summary1 and a skillful plea for the adoption of a policy of conciliation with the colonies of ,america4 ,every kind of argument is used in this oration4 ,one would look long for a treasury better supplied with illustrations4 ,the great conclusions are reached by the certain methods of elimination and deduction4 ,in establishing the minor points ,burke has used arguments from sign1 cause1 example1 and induction4 ,he calls in testimony2 he quotes authority2 he illustrates4 ,not any device of sound argument that a man honest in his search for truth may use has been omitted4 ,it is worthy of patient study4 ,in conclusion1 the student of argument should learn well the value of different kinds of argument2 he should exercise the most careful scrutiny in selecting his material1 without any hesitation rejecting irrelevant matter2 he should state the proposition so that it cannot be misunderstood2 he must consider his readers1 guiding his course wisely with regard for all the conditions under which he produces his argument2 he should remember that the law in argument is climax1 and that coherence should be sought with infinite pains4 ,above all1 the man who takes up a debate must be fair and honest2 only so will he win favor from his readers1 and gain what is worth more than victory1--the distinction of being a servant of truth4 ,,suggestive ,,questions ,,questions4 ,,macaulay',s ,,essay ,,on ,,milton4 7,riverside ,literature ,series1 ,no4 #ajc47 ,put into a syllogism1 ,macaulay's opponents said1 ,an educated man living in an enlightened age has better facilities for writing poetry than an uneducated man at the dawn of civilization4 ,milton was an educated man1 living in an enlightened age2 therefore ,macaulay had better facilities1 etc4 ,which premise does ,macaulay attack8 ,does he demolish it8 ,what value is there in an analogy between experimental sciences and imitative arts8 ,between poetry and a magic-lantern8 ,is either an argument that is convincing8 ,are both effective in the essay8 ,what do you think of ,macaulay's estimate of ,wordsworth8 ,granting that this estimate is true1 what kind of a proof is it of the proposition that his very talents will be a hindrance to him8 ,is it a uniform phenomenon that as civilization advances1 poetry declines8 ,name some instances that prove it4 ,name some instances that disprove it4 ,what method of proof have you used in both8 ,is an uncivilized state of society the cause of good poetry1 or only an attendant circumstance8 ,what method of proof is adopted on pages #cd and #ce8 ,granting that you cannot conceive a good man and an unnatural father1 does that prove anything about the first sentence at the bottom of page #ee8 ,does the example of the prisoner on page #fj prove anything8 ,,burke',s ,,speech ,,on ,,conciliation ,,with ,,the ,,colonies4 7,riverside ,literature ,series1 ,no4 #ajj47 ,what argument does ,burke use to prove that hedging in the population is not practicable8 ,when he says that they will occupy territory because they have done so1 is that an inductive or deductive argument1 or is it an argument from sign8 ,if it is deductive1 what is the suppressed premise8 ,are the arguments from #dh to #fd more in the nature of direct or indirect proofs8 ,what value is there in an indirect argument8 ,americans speak the ,english language1 therefore they are ,english4 ,is the argument good8 ,where is the fault8 ,look for the suppressed premise4 ,is paragraph #ee direct or indirect argument8 ,does he prove that criminal procedure against the colonies would fail1 by sign or by deduction8 ,do the four precedents which he cites of ,ireland1 ,wales1 ,durham1 and ,chester prove that his plan will work in ,america8 ,upon what general principle do all arguments from example depend8 ,is paragraph #gi in itself exposition or argument8 ,what method is adopted in paragraph #hh to prove that the principle of concession is applicable to ,america8 ,how does he prove that ,americans were grieved by taxes8 ,how does he establish the competence of the colony assemblies8 ,how could the arguments have made the conclusion irresistible8 7,paragraph #aab47 ,what principle of argument is stated in paragraph #aad8 ,in paragraph #abg is the one example cited enough to prove the rule8 ,find an example of argument from sign4 ,is it a relation of cause and effect8 ,is it conclusive8 ,in paragraph #abi what does ,burke mention as arguments of value8 ,what kind of arguments in paragraphs #abh to #acf8 ,what is the conclusion8 ,whenever ,burke states a general truth it forms a part of what8 ,supply the other premise in five cases1 and derive a conclusion4 ,does he ever use an argument from cause to establish a probability8 ,to establish a fact8 ,does he use deduction more frequently than sign8 ,does he seek for a climax in the arrangement of the parts of his brief8 99 99 99 99 99 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,paragraphs ,definition4 ,so far we have been dealing with whole compositions2 we now take up the study of paragraphs1 sentences1 and words4 ,a paragraph in many respects resembles a whole composition4 ,it may be narrative1 descriptive1 expositive1 or argumentative4 ,it must have a beginning1 a middle1 and an end4 ,it is constructed with regard to ,unity1 ,mass1 and ,coherence4 ,and as a whole composition treats a single theme1 so a paragraph treats one division of a theme4 ,it has been defined as a composition in miniature4 ,a paragraph is a sentence or a group of sentences serving a single purpose in the development of a theme4 ,the purpose may be simply to announce the theme-subject1 to make a conclusion1 to indicate a transition2 but in the great majority of cases its purpose is to treat a single topic4 ,so true is this that many authors1 with good reason1 define a paragraph as a group of sentences treating a single topic4 ,long and ,short ,paragraphs4 ,nobody would have trouble in telling where on a page a paragraph began and where it ended4 ,the indention at the beginning1 and usually the incomplete line at the end1 mark its visible limits4 ,unfortunately there is no specified length after which the writer is to make a break in the lines and begin a new paragraph4 ,the length of a paragraph depends on something deeper than appearances2 as the topic requires a lengthy or but a short treatment1 as the paragraph may be a long summary or a short transition1 the length of a paragraph varies4 ,yet there is one circumstance which should counsel an author to keep his paragraphs within certain bounds3 he should always have regard for his readers4 ,readers shirk heavy labor4 ,if a book or an article looks hard1 it is passed by2 if it looks easy1 it is read4 ,if the paragraphs be long and the page solid1 the composition looks difficult2 if the paragraphs be short and the page broken1 the piece looks easy4 ,this fact should advise a writer to make the page attractive by using short paragraphs2 provided1 and the provision is important1 he can so make real paragraphs1 divisions of composition that fully treat one topic4 ,these divisions may in reality be but one sentence1 and they may just as unquestionably be two pages of hard reading4 ,successive paragraphs1 each more than a page of ordinary print in length1 repel as too hard2 and a series of paragraphs of less than a quarter of a page impresses a reader as scrappy1 and the work seems to lack the authority of complete treatment4 ,an author will serve his readers and himself best by so subdividing his subject that the paragraphs are within these limits4 ,the following paragraph is much too long and can with no difficulty be subdivided4 ,the paragraphs in the next group are too short1 and they are incomplete4 ,keating rode up now1 and the transaction became more complicated4 ,it ended in the purchase of the horse by ,bryce for a hundred and twenty1 to be paid on the delivery of ,wildfire1 safe and sound1 at the ,batherley stables4 ,it did occur to ,dunsey that it might be wise for him to give up the day's hunting1 proceed at once to ,batherley1 and1 having waited for ,bryce's return1 hire a horse to carry him home with the money in his pocket4 ,but the inclination for a run1 encouraged by confidence in his luck1 and by a draught of brandy from his pocket-pistol at the conclusion of the bargain1 was not easy to overcome1 especially with a horse under him that would take the fences to the admiration of the field4 ,dunstan1 however1 took one fence too many1 and got his horse pierced with a hedge-stake4 ,his own ill-favored person1 which was quite unmarketable1 escaped without injury2 but poor ,wildfire1 unconscious of his price1 turned on his flank1 and painfully panted his last4 ,it happened that ,dunstan1 a short time before1 having had to get down to arrange his stirrup1 had muttered a good many curses at this interruption1 which had thrown him in the rear of the hunt near the moment of glory1 and under this exasperation had taken the fences more blindly4 ,he would soon have been up with the hounds again1 when the fatal accident happened2 and hence he was between eager riders in advance1 not troubling themselves about what happened behind them1 and far-off stragglers1 who were as likely as not to pass quite aloof from the line of road in which ,wildfire had fallen4 ,dunstan1 whose nature it was to care more for immediate annoyances than for remote consequences1 no sooner recovered his legs1 and saw that it was all over with ,wildfire1 than he felt a satisfaction at the absence of witnesses to a position which no swaggering could make enviable4 ,reinforcing himself1 after his shake1 with a little brandy and much swearing1 he walked as fast as he could to a coppice on his right hand1 through which it occurred to him that he could make his way to ,batherley without danger of encountering any member of the hunt4 ,his first intention was to hire a horse there and ride home forthwith1 for to walk many miles without a gun in his hand1 and along an ordinary road1 was as much out of the question to him as to other spirited young men of his kind4 ,he did not much mind about taking the bad news to ,godfrey1 for he had to offer him at the same time the resource of ,marner's money2 and if ,godfrey kicked1 as he always did1 at the notion of making a fresh debt1 from which he himself got the smallest share of advantage1 why1 he wouldn't kick long3 ,dunstan felt sure he could worry ,godfrey into anything4 ,the idea of ,marner's money kept growing in vividness1 now the want of it had become immediate2 the prospect of having to make his appearance with the muddy boots of a pedestrian at ,batherley1 and to encounter the grinning queries of stablemen1 stood unpleasantly in the way of his impatience to be back at ,raveloe and carry out his felicitous plan2 and a casual visitation of his waistcoat-pocket1 as he was ruminating1 awakened his memory to the fact that the two or three small coins his fore-finger encountered there were of too pale a color to cover that small debt1 without payment of which the stable-keeper had declared he would never do any more business with ,dunsey ,cass4 ,after all1 according to the direction in which the run had brought him1 he was not so very much farther from home than he was from ,batherley2 but ,dunsey1 not being remarkable for clearness of head1 was only led to this conclusion by the gradual perception that there were other reasons for choosing the unprecedented course of walking home4 ,it was now nearly four o'clock1 and a mist was gathering3 the sooner he got into the road the better4 ,he remembered having crossed the road and seen the finger-post only a little while before ,wildfire broke down2 so1 buttoning his coat1 twisting the lash of his hunting-whip compactly round the handle1 and rapping the tops of his boots with a self-possessed air1 as if to assure himself that he was not at all taken by surprise1 he set off with the sense that he was undertaking a remarkable feat of bodily exertion1 which somehow1 and at some time1 he should be able to dress up and magnify to the admiration of a select circle at the ,rainbow4 ,when a young gentleman like ,dunsey is reduced to so exceptional a mode of locomotion as walking1 a whip in his hand is a desirable corrective to a too bewildering dreamy sense of unwontedness in his position2 and ,dunstan1 as he went along through the gathering mist1 was always rapping his whip somewhere4 ,it was ,godfrey's whip1 which he had chosen to take without leave because it had a gold handle2 of course no one could see1 when ,dunstan held it1 that the name ,godfrey ,cass was cut in deep letters on that gold handle--they could only see that it was a very handsome whip4 ,dunsey was not without fear that he might meet some acquaintance in whose eyes he would cut a pitiable figure1 for mist is no screen when people get close to each other2 but when he at last found himself in the well-known ,raveloe lanes without having met a soul1 he silently remarked that that was part of his usual good luck4 ,but now the mist1 helped by the evening darkness1 was more of a screen than he desired1 for it hid the ruts into which his feet were liable to slip--hid everything1 so that he had to guide his steps by dragging his whip along the low bushes in advance of the hedgerow4 ,he must soon1 he thought1 be getting near the opening at the ,stone-pits3 he should find it out by the break in the hedgerow4 ,he found it out1 however1 by another circumstance which he had not expected--namely1 by certain gleams of light1 which he presently guessed to proceed from ,silas ,marner's cottage4 ,that cottage and the money hidden within it had been in his mind continually during his walk1 and he had been imagining ways of cajoling and tempting the weaver to part with the immediate possession of his money for the sake of receiving interest4 ,dunstan felt as if there must be a little frightening added to the cajolery1 for his own arithmetical convictions were not clear enough to afford him any forcible demonstration as to the advantages of interest2 and as for security1 he regarded it vaguely as a means of cheating a man by making him believe that he would be paid4 ,altogether1 the operation on the miser's mind was a task that ,godfrey would be sure to hand over to his more daring and cunning brother3 ,dunstan had made up his mind to that2 and by the time he saw the light gleaming through the chinks of ,marner's shutters1 the idea of a dialogue with the weaver had become so familiar to him1 that it occurred to him as quite a natural thing to make the acquaintance forthwith4 ,there might be several conveniences attending this course3 the weaver had possibly got a lantern1 and ,dunstan was tired of feeling his way4 ,he was still nearly three quarters of a mile from home1 and the lane was becoming unpleasantly slippery1 for the mist was passing into rain4 ,he turned up the bank1 not without some fear lest he might miss the right way1 since he was not certain whether the light were in front or on the side of the cottage4 ,but he felt the ground before him cautiously with his whip-handle1 and at last arrived safely at the door4 ,he knocked loudly1 rather enjoying the idea that the old fellow would be frightened at the sudden noise4 ,he heard no movement in reply3 all was silence in the cottage4 ,was the weaver gone to bed1 then8 ,if so1 why had he left a light8 ,that was a strange forgetfulness in a miser4 ,dunstan knocked still more loudly1 and1 without pausing for a reply1 pushed his fingers through the latch-hole1 intending to shake the door and pull the latch-string up and down1 not doubting that the door was fastened4 ,but1 to his surprise1 at this double motion the door opened1 and he found himself in front of a bright fire1 which lit up every corner of the cottage--the bed1 the loom1 the three chairs1 and the table--and showed him that ,marner was not there4#bc ,the country1 all white1 lit up by the fire1 shone like a cloth of silver tinted with red4 ,a bell1 far off1 began to toll4 ,the old ',sauvage' remained standing before her ruined dwelling1 armed with her gun1 her son's gun1 for fear lest one of those men might escape4 ,when she saw that it was ended1 she threw her weapon into the brasier4 ,a loud report rang back4 ,people were coming1 the peasants1 the ,prussians4 ,they found the woman seated on the trunk of a tree1 calm and satisfied4 ,a ,german officer1 who spoke ,french like a son of ,france1 demanded of her3-- ',where are your soldiers8' ,she extended her thin arm towards the red heap of fire which was gradually going out1 and she answered with a strong voice3-- ',there6' ,they crowded round her4 ,the ,prussian asked3-- ',how did it take fire8' ,she said3-- ',it was ,i who set it on fire4'#bd ,topic ,sentence4 ,paragraphs are developments of a definite topic2 and this topic is generally announced at the beginning of the paragraph4 ,in isolated paragraphs1 paragraphs that are indeed compositions in miniature1 the topic-sentence is the first sentence4 ,the reader is then advised of the subject of the discussion2 and as sentence after sentence passes him1 he can relate it to the topic1 and the thought is a cumulative whole4 ,if the subject be not announced1 the individual sentences must be held in mind until the reader catches the drift of the discussion1 or the author at last presents the topic4 ,below are four paragraphs1 from different forms of discourse1 all having the topic-sentence at the beginning4 ,but success or defeat was a minor matter to them1 who had only thought for the safety of those they loved4 ,amelia1 at the news of the victory1 became still more agitated even than before4 ,she was for going that moment to the army4 ,she besought her brother with tears to conduct her thither4 ,her doubts and terrors reached their paroxysm2 and the poor girl1 who for many hours had been plunged into stupor1 raved and ran hither and thither in hysteric insanity1--a piteous sight4 ,no man writhing in pain in the hard-fought field fifteen miles off1 where lay1 after their struggles1 so many of the brave--no man suffered more keenly than this poor harmless victim of the war4 ,jos could not bear the sight of her pain4 ,he left his sister in the charge of her stouter female companion and descended once more to the threshold of the hotel1 where everybody still lingered1 and talked1 and waited for more news4#be ,yet the fact remains that the honey-bee is essentially a wild creature1 and never has been and cannot be thoroughly domesticated4 ,its proper home is the woods1 and thither every new swarm counts on going2 and thither many do go in spite of the care and watchfulness of the bee-keeper4 ,if the woods in any given locality are deficient in trees with suitable cavities1 the bees resort to all kinds of makeshifts2 they go into chimneys1 into barns and outhouses1 under stones1 into rocks1 and so forth4 ,several chimneys in my locality with disused flues are taken possession of by colonies of bees nearly every season4 ,one day1 while bee-hunting1 ,i developed a line that went toward a farmhouse where ,i had reason to believe no bees were kept4 ,i followed it up and questioned the farmer about his bees4 ,he said he kept no bees1 but that a swarm had taken possession of his chimney1 and another had gone under the clapboards in the gable end of his house4 ,he had taken a large lot of honey out of both places the year before4 ,another farmer told me that one day his family had seen a number of bees examining a knot-hole in the side of his house2 the next day as they were sitting down to dinner their attention was attracted by a loud humming noise1 when they discovered a swarm of bees settling upon the side of the house and pouring into the knot-hole4 ,in subsequent years other swarms came to the same place4#bf ,it is important1 therefore1 to hold fast to this3 that poetry is at bottom a criticism of life2 that the greatness of a poet lies in his powerful and beautiful application of ideas to life1--to the question3 ,how to live4 ,morals are often treated in a narrow and false fashion2 they are bound up with systems of thought and belief which have had their day2 they have fallen into the hands of pedants and professional dealers2 they grow tiresome to some of us4 ,we find attraction1 at times1 even in a poetry of revolt against them2 in a poetry which might take for its motto ,omar ,khayyam's words3 ',let us make up in the tavern for the time which we have wasted in the mosque4' ,or we find attractions in a poetry indifferent to them2 in a poetry where the contents may be what they will1 but where the form is studied and exquisite4 ,we delude ourselves in either case2 and the best cure for our delusion is to let our minds rest upon that great and inexhaustible word life1 until we learn to enter into its meaning4 ,a poetry of revolt against moral ideas is a poetry of revolt against life2 a poetry of indifference toward moral ideas is a poetry of indifference toward life4#bg ,the advantages arising from a system of copyright are obvious4 ,it is desirable that we should have a supply of good books3 we cannot have such a supply unless men of letters are liberally remunerated2 and the least objectionable way of remunerating them is by means of copyright4 ,you cannot depend for literary instruction and amusement on the leisure of men occupied in the pursuits of active life4 ,such men may occasionally produce compositions of great merit4 ,but you must not look to such men for works which require deep meditation and long research4 ,works of that kind you can expect only from persons who make literature the business of their lives4 ,of these persons few will be found among the rich and the noble4 ,the rich and the noble are not impelled to intellectual exertion by necessity4 ,they may be impelled to intellectual exertion by the desire of distinguishing themselves1 or by the desire of benefiting the community4 ,but it is generally within these walls that they seek to signalize themselves and to serve their fellow-creatures4 ,both their ambition and their public spirit1 in a country like this1 naturally take a political turn4 ,it is then on men whose profession is literature1 and whose private means are not ample1 that you must rely for a supply of valuable books4 ,such men must be remunerated for their literary labor4 ,and there are only two ways in which they can be remunerated4 ,one of those ways is patronage2 the other is copyright4#bh ,frequently the topic-sentence is delayed until after the connection between what was said in the preceding paragraph and what will be said has been made4 ,to establish this relation requires sometimes but a word or a short phrase1 and sometimes sentences4 ,in these cases the topic-sentence follows the transition1 and it may come as late as the middle of the paragraph4 ,the crows we have always with us1 but it is not every day or every season that one sees an eagle4 ,hence ,i must preserve the memory of one ,i saw the last day ,i went bee-hunting4 ,as ,i was laboring up the side of a mountain at the head of a valley1 the noble bird sprang from the top of a dry tree above me and came sailing directly over my head4 ,i saw him bend his eye down upon me1 and ,i could hear the low hum of his plumage1 as if the web of every quill in his great wings vibrated in his strong1 level flight4 ,i watched him as long as my eye could hold him4 ,when he was fairly clear of the mountain he began that sweeping spiral movement in which he climbs the sky4 ,up and up he went without once breaking his majestic poise till he appeared to sight some far-off alien geography1 when he bent his course thitherward1 and gradually vanished in the blue depths4 ,the eagle is a bird of large ideas1 he embraces long distances2 the continent is his home4 ,i never look upon one without emotion2 ,i follow him with my eye as long as ,i can4 ,i think of ,canada1 of the ,great ,lakes1 of the ,rocky ,mountains1 of the wild and sounding sea-coast4 ,the waters are his1 and the woods and the inaccessible cliffs4 ,he pierces behind the veil of the storm1 and his joy is height and depth and vast spaces4#bi ,now these insinuations and questions shall be answered in their proper places2 here ,i will but say that ,i scorn and detest lying1 and quibbling1 and double-tongued practice1 and slyness1 and cunning1 and smoothness1 and cant1 and pretence1 quite as much as any ,protestants hate them2 and ,i pray to be kept from the snare of them4 ,but all this is just now by the bye2 my present subject is my ,accuser2 what ,i insist upon here is this unmanly attempt of his1 in his concluding pages1 to cut the ground from under my feet2--to poison by anticipation the public mind against me1 ,john ,henry ,newman1 and to infuse into the imaginations of my readers suspicion and mistrust of everything that ,i may say in reply to him4 ,this ,i call poisoning the wells4 7,apologia47 ,in exposition and argument1 and sometimes in the other forms of discourse1 the topic-sentence may be at the end of the paragraph4 ,this is for emphasis in narration and description4 ,in exposition and argument it is better to lead up to an unwelcome truth than to announce it at once4 ,thus the matter of life1 so far as we know it 7and we have no right to speculate on any other71 breaks up1 in consequence of that continual death which is the condition of its manifesting vitality1 into carbonic acid1 water1 and nitrogenous compounds which certainly possess no properties but those of ordinary matter4 ,and out of these same forms of ordinary matter1 and from none which are simpler1 the vegetable world builds up all the protoplasm which keeps the animal world a-going4 ,plants are the accumulators of the power which animals distribute and disperse4#cj ,no ,topic-,sentence4 ,sometimes no topic-sentence appears in the paragraph4 ,in such a case it is easily discovered2 or at times it is too fragile to be compressed into any definite shape--a feeling1 or a sentiment too delicate1 too volatile for expression4 ,a paragraph with no topic-sentence is most common in narration and description4 ,the tide of color has ebbed from the upper sky4 ,in the west the sea of sunken fire draws back2 and the stars leap forth1 and tremble1 and retire before the advancing moon1 who slips the silver train of cloud from her shoulders1 and1 with her foot upon the pine-tops1 surveys heaven4 7,richard ,feverel1 by ,george ,meredith47 ,the ,plan4 ,whether the topic form a part of the paragraph or not1 it should be distinctly before the writer1 and he should write upon the topic4 ,nothing contributes so much to the success of paragraphs as a definite treatment of one single topic4 ,the paragraph is the development1 the growth of this topic1 as the plant is the development of its seed4 ,moreover1 the development is according to a definite plan4 ,the different steps are not usually laid out1 as was done in the outline of a theme4 ,genung1 in the ,practical ,elements of ,rhetoric1 presents what he calls a typical form for a paragraph4 ,it shows that a paragraph which is fully developed is in reality a miniature theme4 ,it is as follows3-- ,the ,subject proposed4 ,i4 ,whatever is needed to explain the subject4 ,repetition4 ,obverse4 ,definition4 ,,ii4 ,whatever is needed to establish the subject4 ,exemplification or detail4 ,illustration4 ,proof4 ,,iii4 ,whatever is needed to apply the subject4 ,result or consequence4 ,enforcement4 ,summary or recapitulation4 ,kinds of ,paragraphs4 ,this typical form of a paragraph embodies all that paragraphs may do1 and it is the logical arrangement4 ,however1 it is rare1 perhaps it never occurs1 that a paragraph is found having all these elements developed4 ,the purpose determines which part of a paragraph should receive the amplification4 ,if it be narrative or descriptive1 there is no definition or proof2 but the development by details will predominate4 ,in an argument1 definition and proof will form the large part of the paragraphs4 ,again1 the position in the theme determines what kind of a paragraph should be used4 ,in exposition the first paragraphs would be devoted to stating the proposition1 and would therefore be largely given up to definition and repetition2 the body would be especially paragraphs of detail and illustration2 while the closing paragraph would be taken up with results and a summary4 ,as one of the elements of a paragraph has been especially developed1 paragraphs have been named paragraphs of repetition1#ca of the obverse1 of details1 of instances or examples1 and of comparisons4 ,such a division is somewhat mechanical2 but for purposes of study and for conscious practice in construction it has value4 ,details4 ,the paragraph of details is by far the most common4 ,it is found in all kinds of discourse4 ,it originates from the fact that persons generally give the general truth first and follow this statement with the details or particulars4 ,whether the storyteller begins by saying1 ,now ,i'll tell you just how they happened to be there2 or the traveler writes1 ,from the ,place de la ,concorde one has about him magnificent views1 or ,there were many unfortunate circumstances about the ,dreyfus affair2 in each case he will follow the general statement of the opening sentence with sentences going into particulars or details4 ,all was now bustle and hubbub in the late quiet schoolroom4 ,the scholars were hurried through their lessons without stopping at trifles2 those who were nimble skipped over half with impunity1 and those who were tardy had a smart application now and then in the rear1 to quicken their speed or help them over a tall word4 ,books were flung aside without being put away on the shelves1 inkstands were overturned1 benches thrown down1 and the whole school was turned loose an hour before the usual time1 bursting forth like a legion of young imps1 yelping and racketing about the green in joy at their early emancipation4#cb ,it was toward evening that ,ichabod arrived at the castle of the ,heer ,van ,tassel1 which he found thronged with the pride and flower of the adjacent country4 ,old farmers1 a spare leathern-faced race1 in homespun coats and breeches1 blue stocking1 huge shoes1 and magnificent pewter buckles4 ,their brisk1 withered little dames1 in close crimped caps1 long-waisted short-gowns1 homespun petticoats1 with scissors and pincushions1 and gay calico pockets hanging on the outside4 ,buxom lasses1 almost as antiquated as their mothers1 excepting where a straw hat1 a fine ribbon1 or perhaps a white frock gave symptoms of city innovation4 ,the sons1 in short square-skirted coats1 with rows of stupendous brass buttons1 and their hair generally queued in the fashion of the times1 especially if they could procure an eelskin for the purpose1 it being esteemed throughout the country as a potent nourisher and strengthener of the hair4#cb ,the enemies of the ,parliament1 indeed1 rarely choose to take issue in the great points of the question4 ,they content themselves with exposing some of the crimes and follies to which public commotions necessarily give birth4 ,they bewail the unmerited fate of ,strafford4 ,they execrate the lawless violence of the army4 ,they laugh at the scriptural names of the preachers4 ,major-generals fleecing their districts2 soldiers reveling on the spoils of a ruined peasantry2 upstarts1 enriched by the public plunder1 taking possession of the hospitable firesides and hereditary trees of the old gentry2 boys smashing the beautiful windows of cathedrals2 ,quakers riding naked through the market-place2 ,fifth-monarchy men shouting for ,king ,jesus2 agitators lecturing from the tops of tubs on the fate of ,agag1--all these1 they tell us1 were the offspring of the great ,rebellion4#cc ,in narration and in a short paragraph of description this paragraph of details is frequently without a topic-sentence4 ,the circumstances that make up a transaction are grouped1 but there is no need of writing1 ,i will now detail this4 ,in the following1 since the paragraph is plainly about the preparation for the fight1 it is unnecessary to say so4 ,such a patent statement would hinder the movement of the story4 ,alan drew a dirk1 which he held in his left hand in case they should run in under his sword4 ,i1 on my part1 clambered up into the berth with an armful of pistols and something of a heavy heart1 and set open the window where ,i was to watch4 ,it was a small part of the deck that ,i could overlook1 but enough for our purpose4 ,the sea had gone down1 and the wind was steady and kept the sails quiet2 so that there was a great stillness on the ship1 in which ,i made sure ,i heard the sound of muttering voices4 ,a little after1 and there came a clash of steel upon the deck1 by which ,i knew they were dealing out the cutlasses1 and one had been let fall2 and after that silence again4#cd ,comparisons4 ,the paragraph of comparisons tells what a thing is like and what a thing is not like4 ,it is much used in description and exposition4 ,it is often the clearest way to describe an object or to explain a proposition4 ,one thing may be likened to a number of things1 drawing from each a quality that more definitely pictures it2 or it may be compared with but one1 and the likeness may be followed out to the limit of its value4 ,in the same manner it is often of value to tell what a thing or a proposition does not resemble1 to contrast it with one or more ideas1 and by this means exclude what might otherwise be confusing4 ,note that after the negative comparison the paragraph closes with what it is like1 or what it is4 ,from ,macaulay's long comparison of the writings of ,milton and ,dante1 one paragraph is enough to illustrate the use of contrast4 ,now let us compare with the exact details of ,dante the dim intimations of ,milton4 ,we will cite a few examples4 ,the ,english poet has never thought of taking the measure of ,satan4 ,he gives us merely a vague idea of vast bulk4 ,in one passage the fiend lies stretched out1 huge in length1 floating many a rood1 equal in size to the earth-born enemies of ,jove1 or to the sea monster which the mariner mistakes for an island4 ,when he addresses himself to battle against the guardian angels1 he stands like ,teneriffe or ,atlas2 his stature reaches the sky4 ,contrast with these descriptions the lines in which ,dante has described the gigantic spectre of ,nimrod3 ',his face seemed to me as long and as broad as the ball of ,st4 ,peter's at ,rome1 and his other limbs were in proportion2 so that the bank1 which concealed him from the waist downwards1 nevertheless showed so much of him that three tall ,germans would in vain have attempted to reach to his hair4' 7,essay on ,milton47 ,the following indicates the use of similarity4 ,it is the character of such revolutions that we always see the worst of them at first4 ,till men have been some time free1 they know not how to use their freedom4 ,the natives of wine countries are generally sober4 ,in climates where wine is a rarity intemperance abounds4 ,a newly liberated people may be compared to a northern army encamped on the ,rhine or the ,xeres4 ,it is said that1 when soldiers in such a situation first find themselves able to indulge without restraint in such a rare and expensive luxury1 nothing is to be seen but intoxication4 ,soon1 however1 plenty teaches discretion1 and1 after wine has been for a few months their daily fare1 they become more temperate than they had ever been in their own country4 ,in the same manner1 the final and permanent fruits of liberty are wisdom1 moderation1 and mercy4 ,its immediate effects are often atrocious crimes1 conflicting errors1 skepticism on points the most clear1 dogmatism on points the most mysterious4 ,it is just at this crisis that its enemies love to exhibit it4 ,they pull down the scaffolding from the half-finished edifice2 they point to the flying dust1 the falling bricks1 the comfortless rooms1 the frightful irregularity of the whole appearance1 and then ask in scorn where the promised splendor and comfort is to be found4 ,if such miserable sophisms were to prevail1 there would never be a good house or a good government in the world4 7,essay on ,milton1 by ,lord ,macaulay47 ,repetition4 ,a third method of developing a paragraph from a topic-sentence is by repetition4 ,simply to repeat in other words would be useless redundancy2 but so to repeat that with each repetition the thought broadens or deepens is valuable in proposing a subject or explaining it4 ,no person has attained greater skill in repetition than ,matthew ,arnold1 and much of his clearness comes from his repetition1 often of the very same phrases4 ,wordsworth has been in his grave for some thirty years1 and certainly his lovers and admirers cannot flatter themselves that this great and steady light of glory as yet shines over him4 ,he is not fully recognized at home2 he is not recognized at all abroad4 ,yet ,i firmly believe that the poetical performance of ,wordsworth is1 after that of ,shakespeare and ,milton1 of which all the world now recognizes the worth1 undoubtedly the most considerable in our language from the ,elizabethan age to the present time4 ,chaucer is anterior2 and on other grounds1 too1 he cannot well be brought into the comparison4 ,but taking the roll of our chief poetical names1 besides ,shakespeare and ,milton1 from the age of ,elizabeth downwards1 and going through it1--,spenser1 ,dryden1 ,pope1 ,gray1 ,goldsmith1 ,cowper1 ,burns1 ,coleridge1 ,scott1 ,campbell1 ,moore1 ,byron1 ,shelley1 ,keats 7,i mention those only who are dead71--,i think it certain that ,wordsworth's name deserves to stand1 and will finally stand1 above them all4 ,several of the poets named have gifts and excellencies which ,wordsworth has not4 ,but taking the performance of each as a whole1 ,i say that ,wordsworth seems to me to have left a body of poetical work superior in power1 in interest1 in the qualities which give enduring freshness1 to that which any one of the others has left4 7,essay on ,wordsworth1 by ,matthew ,arnold47 ,perhaps no person can be a poet1 or can even enjoy poetry1 without a certain unsoundness of mind1 if anything which gives so much pleasure ought to be called unsoundness4 ,by poetry we mean not all writing in verse1 nor even all good writing in verse4 ,our definition excludes many metrical compositions which1 on other grounds1 deserve the highest praise4 ,by poetry1 we mean the art of employing words in such a manner as to produce an illusion on the imagination1 the art of doing by means of words what the painter does by means of colors4 ,thus the greatest of the poets has described it1 in lines universally admired for the vigor and felicity of their diction1 and still more valuable on account of the just notion which they convey of the art in which he excelled3-- ',as imagination bodies forth ,the forms of things unknown1 the poet's pen ,turns them to shapes1 and gives to airy nothing ,a local habitation and a name4' ,these are the fruits of the 'fine frenzy' which he ascribes to the poet1--a fine frenzy1 doubtless1 but still a frenzy4 ,truth1 indeed1 is essential to poetry1 but it is the truth of madness4 ,the reasonings are just1 but the premises are false4 ,after the first suppositions have been made1 everything ought to be consistent2 but those first suppositions require a degree of credulity which almost amounts to a partial and temporary derangement of the intellect4 ,hence1 of all people1 children are the most imaginative4 ,they abandon themselves without reserve to every illusion4 ,every image which is strongly presented to their mental eye produces in them the effect of reality4 ,no man1 whatever his sensibility may be1 is ever affected by ,hamlet or ,lear as a little girl is affected by the story of poor ,red ,riding ,hood4 ,she knows it is all false1 that wolves cannot speak1 that there are no wolves in ,england4 ,yet in spite of her knowledge she believes2 she weeps2 she trembles2 she dares not go into a dark room lest she should feel the teeth of the monster at her throat4 ,such is the despotism of the imagination over uncultivated minds4 7,essay on ,milton1 by ,macaulay47 ,obverse4 ,a fourth method of building up a paragraph from a topic-sentence consists in telling what it is not2 that is1 giving the obverse4 ,this is very effective in argument1 and is employed in exposition and description4 ,the obverse usually follows a positive statement1 and again is followed by the affirmative2 that is1 first what it is1 then what it is not1 and last1 what it is again4 ,in the following description by ,ruskin1 the method appears and reappears4 ,notice the nots and buts1 indicating the change from the negative to the positive statement4 ,it would be a sacrilege to omit the last paragraph1 though it does not illustrate this manner of development4 ,for all other rivers there is a surface1 and an underneath1 and a vaguely displeasing idea of the bottom4 ,but the ,rhone flows like one lambent jewel2 its surface is nowhere1 its ethereal self is everywhere1 the iridescent rush and translucent strength of it blue to the shore1 and radiant to the depth4 ,fifteen feet thick1 not of flowing1 but flying water2 not water1 neither--melted glacier1 rather1 one should call it2 the force of the ice is with it1 and the wreathing of the clouds1 the gladness of the sky1 and the continuance of ,time4 ,waves of clear sea are1 indeed1 lovely to watch1 but they are always coming or gone1 never in any taken shape to be seen for a second4 ,but here was one mighty wave that was always itself1 and every fluted swirl of it1 constant as the wreathing of a shell4 ,no wasting away of the fallen foam1 no pause for gathering of power1 no helpless ebb of discouraged recoil2 but alike through bright day and lulling night1 the never-pausing plunge1 and never-fading flash1 and never-hushing whisper1 and1 while the sun was up1 the ever-answering glow of unearthly aquamarine1 ultramarine1 violet-blue1 gentian-blue1 peacock-blue1 river-of-paradise blue1 glass of a painted window melted in the sun1 and the witch of the ,alps flinging the spun tresses of it forever from her snow4 ,the innocent way1 too1 in which the river used to stop to look into every little corner4 ,great torrents always seem angry1 and great rivers are often too sullen2 but there is no anger1 no disdain in the ,rhone4 ,it seemed as if the mountain stream was in mere bliss at recovering itself again out of the lake-sleep1 and raced because it rejoiced in racing1 fain yet to return and stay4 ,there were pieces of wave that danced all day1 as if ,perdita were looking on to learn2 there were little streams that skipped like lambs and leaped like chamois2 there were pools that shook the sunshine all through them1 and were rippled in layers of overlaid ripples1 like crystal sand2 there were currents that twisted the light into golden braids1 and inlaid the threads with turquoise enamel2 there were strips of stream that had certainly above the lake been mill-stream1 and were looking busily for mills to turn again2 and there were shoots of stream that had once shot fearfully into the air1 and now sprang up again1 laughing1 that they had only fallen a foot or two2--and in the midst of all the gay glittering and eddied lingering1 the noble bearing by of the midmost depth1 so mighty1 yet so terrorless and harmless1 with its swallows skimming in spite of petrels1 and the dear old decrepit town as safe in the embracing sweep of it as if it were set in a brooch of sapphires4#ce ,this extract from ,burke's speech is a good example of the same method4 ,i put this consideration of the present and the growing numbers in the front of our deliberation1 because1 ,sir1 this consideration will make it evident to a blunter discernment than yours1 that no partial1 narrow1 contracted1 pinched1 occasional system will be at all suitable to such an object4 ,it will show you that it is not to be considered as one of those minima which are out of the eye and consideration of the law2 not a paltry excrescence of the state2 not a mean dependent1 who may be neglected with little damage and provoked with little danger4 ,it will prove that some degree of care and caution is required in the handling such an object2 it will show that you ought not1 in reason1 to trifle with so large a mass of the interests and feelings of the human race4 ,you could at no time do so without guilt2 and be assured you will not be able to do it long with impunity4#cf ,examples4 ,a fifth method of expanding a topic is by means of illustrations and examples4 ,it is used largely in establishing or enforcing a proposition4 ,the author selects one example1 or perhaps more than one1 to illustrate his proposition4 ,note the words that may introduce specific instances3 for example1 for instance1 to illustrate1 a case in point1 and so forth4 ,in the first of the following quotations1 ,cardinal ,newman is showing that simply to acquire is not true mental enlargement4 ,the paragraph is made up of a series of instances4 ,the second paragraph is by ,macaulay4 ,the case is the same still more strikingly when the persons in question are beyond dispute men of inferior powers and deficient education4 ,perhaps they have been much in foreign countries1 and they receive1 in a passive1 otiose1 unfruitful way1 the various facts which are forced upon them there4 ,seafaring men1 for example1 range from one end of the earth to the other2 but the multiplicity of external objects which they have encountered forms no symmetrical and consistent picture upon their imagination2 they see the tapestry of human life1 as it were1 on the wrong side1 and it tells no story4 ,they sleep1 and they rise up1 and they find themselves1 now in ,europe1 now in ,asia2 they see visions of great cities and wild regions2 they are in the marts of commerce1 or amid the islands of the ,south2 they gaze on ,pompey's ,pillar1 or on the ,andes2 and nothing which meets them carries them forward or backward1 to any idea beyond itself4 ,nothing has a drift or relation2 nothing has a history or a promise4 ,everything stands by itself and comes and goes in its turn1 like the shifting scenes of a show1 which leave the spectator where he was4 ,perhaps you are near such a man on a particular occasion1 and expect him to be shocked or perplexed at something which occurs2 but one thing is much the same to him as another2 or1 if he is perplexed1 it is as not knowing what to say1 whether it is right to admire1 or to ridicule1 or to disapprove1 while conscious that some expression of opinion is expected from him2 for in fact he has no standard of judgment at all1 and no landmarks to guide him to a conclusion4 ,such is mere acquisition1 and1 ,i repeat1 no one would dream of calling it philosophy4 7,idea of a ,university1 by ,cardinal ,newman47 ,i will give another instance4 ,one of the most instructive1 interesting1 and delightful books in our language is ,boswell's ',life of ,johnson4' ,now it is well known that ,boswell's eldest son considered this book1 considered the whole relation of ,boswell to ,johnson1 as a blot in the escutcheon of the family4 ,he thought1 not perhaps altogether without reason1 that his father had exhibited himself in a ludicrous and degrading light4 ,and thus he became so sore and irritable that at last he could not bear to hear the ',life of ,johnson' mentioned4 ,suppose that the law had been what my honorable and learned friend wishes to make it4 ,suppose that the copyright of ,boswell's ',life of ,johnson' had belonged1 as it well might1 during sixty years1 to ,boswell's eldest son4 ,what would have been the consequence8 ,an unadulterated copy of the finest biographical work in the world would have been as scarce as the first edition of ,camden's ',britannia4' 7,speech1 ,copyright1 by ,macaulay47 ,combines ,two or ,more ,forms4 ,as was said at the beginning1 a paragraph is seldom made exclusively of one form4 ,one part of the typical paragraph is usually developed more than any other and gives to the paragraph its character and its name4 ,by far the most common variety of paragraph is that which combines two or more of the other forms4 ,it is not necessary to cite examples2 they are everywhere4 ,though combination is the commonest method of development1 it should be guarded4 ,it is a poor paragraph that combines the forms indiscriminately4 ,it should follow some plan2 and the best plan is the one already given in the typical paragraph4 ,all paragraphs1 whatever be the special method of development1 are governed by the three principles which have guided in the structure of whole compositions4 ,whether the purpose be to prove or to narrate1 to enforce a conclusion or to illustrate1 if a paragraph is to produce its greatest effect1 it should have unity1 it should be well massed1 and it should be coherent4 ,it is not necessary now to define unity in a paragraph2 the need is rather to notice the offenses against it that frequently occur4 ,they are manifestly two3 too much may be included1 and not all may be included4 ,the accompanying circumstance of the one1 not necessarily the cause1 however1 is often a very long paragraph1 and of the other a short paragraph4 ,unity4 ,violations of the unity of a paragraph most frequently result from including more than belongs there4 ,the theme has been selected2 it is narrow and concise4 ,when one begins to write1 many things crowd in pell-mell4 ,impressions1 which come and go1 we hardly know how or why1 are the only products of most minds4 ,impressions1 not shaped and logical thoughts1 make up the mixed confusion frequently called a theme4 ,the writer puts down enough of these impressions to make a paragraph1 and then goes on to do it again1 fancying that so he is really paragraphing4 ,even should he keep within the limits of his theme1 he cannot in this way paragraph4 ,as everything upon a subject does not belong in a theme1 so everything in a theme may not be introduced indiscriminately into any paragraph4 ,the other danger lies in the short paragraph4 ,it does not allow a writer room to say all he has to say upon the topic1 so it runs over into the next paragraph4 ,all of the thought-paragraph should appear in one division on the page4 ,this error is not so common as the former4 ,examples of each are to be found on pages #aeb-aeg4 ,need of ,outline4 ,the remedy for this confusion clearly is hard thinking2 and a great assistance is the outline4 ,before a word is written1 think through the theme2 get clearly the purpose of each paragraph in the development of the whole4 ,then write just what the paragraph was intended to include1 and no more4 ,more will be suggested because the parts of a whole theme are all closely related1 but that more belongs somewhere else4 ,make a sharp outline1 and follow it4 ,mass4 ,a paragraph should be so arranged that the parts which arrest the eye will be important4#cg ,when a person glances down a page1 his eye rests upon the beginning and the end of each paragraph4 ,a reader going rapidly through an article to get what he wants of it does not read religiously every word2 he knows that he will be directed to the contents of each paragraph by the first and last sentences4 ,if a writer considers his readers1 if he desires to arrange his paragraph so that it will be most effective1 he will have at these points such sentences as will accurately indicate its contents and the trend of the discussion2 and he will form these sentences so well that they will deserve the attention which is given them by reason of their position in the paragraph4 ,what begins and what ends a ,paragraph8 ,what are the words that deserve the distinction of opening and closing a paragraph8 ,as in the theme1 so in a paragraph1 the first thing is to announce the subject of discussion4 ,when the subject is simply announced without giving any indication as to the drift of the discussion1 the conclusion of the discussion is generally stated in the last sentence4 ,burke says1 ,the first thing we have to consider with regard to the nature of the object is the number of people in the colonies4 ,he concludes the paragraph with1 ,whilst we are discussing any given magnitude1 they are grown to it4 ,whilst we spend our time in deliberating on the mode of governing two millions1 we shall find we have millions more to manage4 ,your children do not grow faster from infancy to manhood than they spread from families to communities1 and from villages to nations4 ,in other cases the opening sentence states the conclusion at which the paragraph will arrive4 ,then the closing sentence may be a repetition of the opening or topic sentence2 or it may be one of the points used to exemplify or establish the proposition which opens the paragraph4 ,again1 in a short paragraph the topic need not be announced at the beginning2 in this case it should be given in the concluding sentence4 ,or1 should the topic be given in the opening sentence of a short paragraph1 it is unnecessary to repeat it at the end4 ,in any case1 whether the paragraph opens with a simple announcement of the topic to be discussed1 or with the conclusion which the paragraph aims to explain1 establish1 or illustrate1 or whether it closes with the conclusion of the whole matter1 or with one of the main points in the development1 the sentences at the beginning and the end of a paragraph should be strong sentences worthy of their distinguished position4 ,in the first paragraph below1 there is a proposition in the first sentence and its repetition in the last4 ,in the two following1 though they close with no general statement1 the specific assertions used to substantiate and illustrate the first sentences are strong and carry in themselves the truth of the topic-sentence4 ,the eloquence of ,mr4 ,adams resembled his general character1 and formed1 indeed1 a part of it4 ,it was bold1 manly1 and energetic2 and such the crisis required4 ,when public bodies are to be addressed on momentous occasions1 when great interests are at stake1 and strong passions excited1 nothing is valuable in speech farther than as it is connected with high intellectual and moral endowments4 ,clearness1 force1 and earnestness are the qualities which produce conviction4 ,true eloquence1 indeed1 does not consist in speech4 ,it cannot be brought from far4 ,labor and learning may toil for it1 but they will toil in vain4 ,words and phrases may be marshaled in every way1 but they cannot compass it4 ,it must exist in the man1 in the subject1 and in the occasion4 ,affected passion1 intense expression1 the pomp of declamation1 all may aspire to it2 they cannot reach it4 ,it comes1 if it come at all1 like the outbreaking of a fountain from the earth1 or the bursting forth of volcanic fires1 with spontaneous1 original1 native force4 ,the graces taught in the schools1 the costly ornaments and studied contrivances of speech1 shock and disgust men when their own lives and the fate of their wives1 their children1 and their country hang on the decision of the hour4 ,then words have lost their power1 rhetoric is vain1 and all elaborate oratory contemptible4 ,even genius itself then feels rebuked and subdued1 as in the presence of higher qualities4 ,then patriotism is eloquent2 then self-devotion is eloquent4 ,the clear conception1 outrunning the deductions of logic1 the high purpose1 the firm resolve1 the dauntless spirit1 speaking on the tongue1 beaming from the eye1 informing every feature1 and urging the whole man onward1 right onward to his object--this1 this is eloquence3 or rather it is something greater and higher than all eloquence2 it is action1 noble1 sublime1 godlike action4#ch ,the prejudiced man travels1 and then everything he sees in ,catholic countries only serves to make him more thankful that his notions are so true2 and the more he sees of ,popery1 the more abominable he feels it to be4 ,if there is any sin1 any evil in a foreign population1 though it be found among ,protestants also1 still ,popery is clearly the cause of it4 ,if great cities are the schools of vice1 it is owing to ,popery4 ,if ,sunday is profaned1 if there is a carnival1 it is the fault of the ,catholic ,church4 ,then1 there are no private houses1 as in ,england2 families live in staircases2 see what it is to belong to a ,popish country4 ,why do the ,roman laborers wheel their barrows so slow in the ,forum8 why do the ,lazzaroni of ,naples lie so listlessly on the beach8 why1 but because they are under the malaria of a false religion4 ,rage1 as is well known1 is in the ,roman like a falling sickness1 almost as if his will had no part in it and he had no responsibility2 see what it is to be a ,papist4 ,bloodletting is as frequent and as much a matter of course in the ,south as hair-cutting in ,england2 it is a trick borrowed from the convents1 when they wish to tame down refractory spirits4#ci ,excuse me1 ,sir1 if turning from such thoughts ,i resume this comparative view once more4 ,you have seen it on a large scale2 look at it on a small one4 ,i will point out to your attention a particular instance of it in the single province of ,pennsylvania4 ,in the year #agjd that province called for ,l#aa1dei in value of your commodities1 native and foreign4 ,this was the whole4 ,what did it demand in #aggb8 ,why1 nearly fifty times as much2 for in that year the export to ,pennsylvania was ,l#ejg1iji1 nearly equal to the export to all the colonies together in the first period4#dj ,the following illustrates the weakness of closing with a specific instance when it does not rise to the level of the remainder of a paragraph4 ,the last sentence would better be omitted4 ,we often hear of the magical influence of poetry4 ,the expression in general means nothing2 but1 applied to the writings of ,milton1 it is most appropriate4 ,his poetry acts like an incantation4 ,its merit lies less in its obvious meaning than in its occult power4 ,there would seem1 at first sight1 to be no more in his words than in other words4 ,but they are words of enchantment4 ,no sooner are they pronounced than the past is present and the distant near4 ,new forms of beauty start at once into existence1 and all the burial-places of memory give up their dead4 ,change the structure of the sentence1 substitute one synonym for another1 and the whole effect is destroyed4 ,the spell loses its power2 and he who should then hope to conjure with it would find himself as much mistaken as ,cassim in the ,arabian tale1 when he stood crying1 ',open ,wheat1' ',open ,barley1' to the door which obeyed no sound but ',open ,sesame4' ,in the miserable failure of ,dryden in his attempt to translate into his own diction some parts of the ',paradise ,lost' is a remarkable instance of this4 7,essay on ,milton1 by ,macaulay47 ,length of opening and closing ,sentences4 ,by examination1 one finds that the first sentence of a paragraph of exposition and of argument is usually a terse statement of the proposition2 and that after the proposition has been established there follows a longer sentence gathering up all the points of the discussion into a full1 rounded period which forms a suitable climax and conclusion of the paragraph4 ,of ,macaulay's ,milton one is quite inside the truth when he says that of those paragraphs containing an opening topic-sentence and its restatement as a conclusion1 the closing sentence is the longer in the ratio of two to one4 ,in ,burke's ,conciliation1 the ratio rises as high as four to one4 ,there are1 however1 exceptions to the rule4 ,paragraphs sometimes close with a shorter statement of the proposition1 a sort of aphorism or epigram4 ,as this kind of sentence is fascinating1 some books have said that paragraphs should close so2 that it is like cracking a whip1 and gives a snap to the paragraph not gained in any other way4 ,even if readers enjoyed having paragraphs close in this cracking manner1 it must be borne in mind that not all conclusions are capable of such a statement1 and1 what is worse1 that the tendency to seek for epigrams leads to untruth and a degenerated form of witticism4 ,such forced sentences are only half truths1 or they are a bit of cheap repartee4 ,such a close is effective1 if the whole truth can be so expressed2 but to seek for such sentences is dangerous4 ,the best rule is the one already stated2 it applies to the long sentence and the short sentence alike4 ,it is that a paragraph should close with words that deserve distinction4 ,proportion4 ,the body of a paragraph should have the matter so proportioned that the more important points shall receive the longer treatment4 ,in a paragraph of proof1 details1 or comparison1 that point in the proof1 that particular1 that part of the comparison1 which for the specific purpose has most significance1 should have proportionately fuller treatment4 ,it is the same principle already noticed in exposition4 ,indicate the relative importance of topics in a paragraph by the relative number of words used in their treatment4 ,for mass in a paragraph1 then1 keep in mind that the last sentence should contain matter and form worthy of the position it occupies2 that the position of next importance is at the beginning2 and that the relative importance of the matters in the body of a paragraph is pretty correctly indicated by the relative length of treatment4 ,coherence and ,clearness4 ,coherence1 the third principle of structure1 is the most important2 and it is the most difficult to apply4 ,for one can make a beginning and an end1 he can select his materials so that there is unity1 but to make all the parts stick together1 to arrange the sentences so that one grows naturally from the preceding and leads into the next1 requires nice adjustment of parts1 and rewriting many times4 ,how essential coherence in a paragraph is1 simply to make the thought easy to grasp1 may be seen by taking a paragraph to pieces and mixing up its sentences1 and at the same time removing all words that bind its parts together4 ,the following can hardly be understood at all1 but in its original condition it is so clear that it cannot be misunderstood4 ,if the sentences be arranged in the following order1 the original paragraph will appear3 #a1 #e1 #c1 #i1 #h1 #f1 #b1 #d1 #g1 #aj4 #a4 ,the first question which obviously suggests itself is how these wonderful moral effects are to be wrought under the instrumentality of the physical sciences4 #b4 ,to know is one thing1 to do is another2 the two things are altogether distinct4 #c4 ,does ,sir ,robert ,peel mean to say1 that whatever be the occult reasons for the result1 so it is2 you have but to drench the popular mind with physics1 and moral and religious advancement follows on the whole1 in spite of individual failures8 #d4 ,a man knows he should get up in the morning1--he lies abed2 he knows he should not lose his temper1 yet he cannot keep it4 #e4 ,can the process be analyzed and drawn out1 or does it act like a dose or a charm which comes into general use empirically8 #f4 ,it is natural and becoming to seek for some clear idea of the meaning of so dark an oracle4 #g4 ,a laboring man knows he should not go to the ale-house1 and his wife knows she should not filch when she goes out charing1 but1 nevertheless1 in these cases1 the consciousness of a duty is not all one with the performance of it4 #h4 ,or rather1 does he mean1 that1 from the nature of the case1 he who is imbued with science and literature1 unless adverse influences interfere1 cannot but be a better man8 #i4 ,yet when has the experiment been tried on so large a scale as to justify such anticipations8 #aj4 ,there are1 then1 large families of instances1 to say the least1 in which men may become wiser1 without becoming better2 what1 then1 is the meaning of this great maxim in the mouth of its promulgators8 ,coherence1 so necessary to the easy understanding of a paragraph1 is gained in three ways3 by the order in which the sentences are arranged2 by the use of parallel constructions for parallel ideas2 and by the use of connectives4 ,two ,arrangements of ,sentences in a ,paragraph4 ,material which has been selected with regard to the principle of unity is all informed with one idea4 ,yet though one thought runs through it all and unites it1 the parts do not stand in an equally close relation to the conclusion1 nor is each part equally related to every other part4 ,had they been1 the last paragraph quoted would have been as well in one order as another4 ,rather the sentences seem to fall into groups of more closely related matters2 or at times one sentence seems to follow as the direct consequence of the preceding sentence4 ,with respect to the way in which the sentences contribute to the topic of the paragraph1 whether the topic be announced first or last1 sentences may be said to contribute directly to the proposition or indirectly4 ,if directly1 the paragraph is a collection of sentences1 each having a common purpose1 each having a similar relation to the topic1 arranged1 as it were1 side by side1 and advancing as one body to the conclusion4 ,this may be termed an individual arrangement of sentences1 since as individuals they each contribute to the topic4 ,the conclusion derives its force from the combined mass of all4 ,if indirectly1 the paragraph is a series of sentences1 each growing out of the one preceding it1 each receiving a push from the sentence before1 and the last having the combined force of all4 ,this may be styled a serial arrangement of sentences1 since in such a case each contributes to the topic only as one in a chain4 ,the former overcomes by its mass2 the latter strikes by reason of its velocity4 ,the one advances in rank2 the other advances in single file4 ,an illustration of each will help to an understanding of this4 ,in the following paragraph from ,macaulay's essay on ,milton1 each of the details mentioned points directly to those days when the race became a byword and a shaking of the head to the nations4 ,their aggregate mass enforces the topic of the paragraph4 ,they are all one body equally informed with the common principle which is the topic4 ,notice that one sentence is not the source of the next1 but that all the sentences stand in a similar relation to the conclusion4 ,this arrangement is common in description4 ,in the second paragraph1 from ,irving's ,legend of ,sleepy ,hollow1 each detail contributes to the appearance of ,ichabod1 not through some other sentence1 but directly4 ,then came those days1 never to be recalled without a blush1 the days of servitude without loyalty and sensuality without love2 of dwarfish talents and gigantic vices2 the paradise of cold hearts and narrow minds2 the golden age of the coward1 the bigot1 and the slave4 ,the king cringed to his rival that he might trample on his people2 sank into a viceroy of ,france1 and pocketed with complacent infamy her degrading insults and her more degrading gold4 ,the caresses of harlots and the jests of buffoons regulated the policy of the state4 ,the government had just ability enough to deceive1 and just religion enough to persecute4 ,the principles of liberty were the scoff of every grinning courtier1 and the ,anathema ,maranatha of every fawning dean4 ,in every high place1 worship was paid to ,charles and ,james1 ,belial and ,moloch2 and ,england propitiated those obscene and cruel idols with the blood of her best and bravest children4 ,crime succeeded to crime1 and disgrace to disgrace1 till the race1 accursed of ,god and man1 was a second time driven forth to wander on the face of the earth1 and to be a byword and a shaking of the head to the nations4 ,ichabod was a suitable figure for such a steed4 ,he rode with short stirrups1 which brought his knees nearly up to the pommel of the saddle2 his sharp elbows stuck out like grasshoppers'2 he carried his whip perpendicularly in his hand1 like a sceptre1 and as his horse jogged on1 the motion of his arms was not unlike the flapping of a pair of wings4 ,a small wool hat rested on the top of his nose1 for so his scanty strip of forehead might be called1 and the skirts of his black coat fluttered out almost to the horse's tail4 ,such was the appearance of ,ichabod and his steed as they shambled out of the gate of ,hans ,van ,ripper1 and it was altogether such an apparition as is seldom to be met with in broad daylight4 ,the following paragraph in the essay on ,milton contains an example of the second method of arrangement4 ,each sentence is the result of the one before it4 ,the sentences advance in single file4 ,notice that each sentence does not contribute directly to the conclusion1 but that it acts through the succeeding sentence4 ,the phrases from which a succeeding sentence springs are in small capitals2 and the phrases which refer back are in italics4 ,most of the remarks which we have hitherto made on the public character of ,milton apply to him only as one of ,a ,,large ,,body4 ,,we ,,shall ,,proceed to notice some of the peculiarities which distinguished him from his contemporaries4 ,and for that purpose it is necessary to take a short survey of ,,the ,,parties into which the political world was at that time divided4 ,we must premise that our observations are intended to apply only to ,,those ,,who ,,adhered1 from a sincere preference1 to one or to the other side4 ,in days of public commotion1 every faction1 like an ,oriental army1 is attended by a crowd of camp-followers1 a useless and heartless ,,rabble1 who prowl round its line of march in the hope of picking up something under its protection1 but desert it in the day of battle1 and often join to exterminate it after defeat4 ,england1 at the time of which we are treating1 abounded with fickle and selfish politicians1 who transferred their support to every government as it rose2 who kissed the hand of the king in #afdj1 and spat in his face in #afdi2 who shouted with equal glee when ,cromwell was inaugurated in ,westminster ,hall1 and when he was dug up to be hanged at ,tyburn2 who dined on calves' heads or broiled rumps1 and cut down oak branches or stuck them up1 as circumstances altered1 without the slightest shame or repugnance4 ,these we leave out of account4 ,we take our estimate of parties from those who really deserve to be called partisans4 7,for other examples of the same arrangement see the next quotation1 and also a paragraph quoted on page #bbb47 ,paragraphs are most frequently found to combine the two methods4 ,in the following1 notice that the second sentence grows out of the first1 the third from the second1 and so the serial arrangement is maintained until the eighth is reached4 ,sentences nine1 ten1 eleven1 and twelve give body to sentence eight4 ,then begins again the regular succession4 ,sentences sixteen to twenty are the outgrowth of the phrase on his account4 #a4 ,the ,puritans were men whose minds had derived a peculiar character from the daily contemplation of superior beings and eternal interests4 #b4 ,not content with acknowledging in general terms an overruling ,providence1 they habitually ascribed every event to the will of the ,great ,being1 for whose power nothing was too vast1 for whose inspection nothing was too minute4 #c4 ,to know ,him1 to serve ,him1 to enjoy ,him1 was with them the great end of existence4 #d4 ,they rejected with contempt the ceremonious homage which other sects substituted for the pure worship of the soul4 #e4 ,instead of catching occasional glimpses of the ,deity through an obscuring veil1 they aspired to gaze full on the intolerable brightness1 and to commune with ,him face to face4 #f4 ,hence originated their contempt for terrestrial distinctions4 #g4 ,the difference between the greatest and the meanest of mankind seemed to vanish when compared with the boundless interval which separated the whole race from ,him on whom their own eyes were constantly fixed4 #h4 ,they recognized no title to superiority but ,his favor2 and1 confident of that favor1 they despised all the accomplishments and all the dignities of the world4 #i4 ,if they were unacquainted with the works of philosophers and poets1 they were deeply read in the oracles of ,god4 #aj4 ,if their names were not found in the registers of heralds1 they were recorded in the ,book of ,life4 #aa4 ,if their steps were not accompanied by a splendid train of menials1 legions of ministering angels had charge over them4 #ab4 ,their palaces were houses not made with hands2 their diadems1 crowns of glory which should never fade away4 #ac4 ,on the rich and the eloquent1 on nobles and priests1 they looked down with contempt2 for they esteemed themselves rich in a more precious treasure1 and eloquent in a more sublime language1 nobles by the right of an earlier creation1 and priests by the imposition of a mightier hand4 #ad4 ,the very meanest of them was a being to whose fate a mysterious and terrible importance belonged1 on whose slightest action the spirits of light and darkness looked with anxious interest2 who had been destined1 before heaven and earth were created1 to enjoy a felicity which should continue when heaven and earth should have passed away4 #ae4 ,events which short-sighted politicians ascribed to earthly causes had been ordained on his account4 #af4 ,for his sake empires had risen1 and flourished1 and decayed4 #ag4 ,for his sake the ,almighty had proclaimed ,his will by the pen of the ,evangelist and the harp of the prophet4 #ah4 ,he had been wrested by no common deliverer from the grasp of no common foe4 #ai4 ,he had been ransomed by the sweat of no vulgar agony1 by the blood of no earthly sacrifice4 #bj4 ,it was for him that the sun had been darkened1 that the rocks had been rent1 that the dead had risen1 that all nature had shuddered at the sufferings of her expiring ,god4 ,this division has been made because by its aid an approach can be made toward rules for arrangement4 ,in the paragraph quoted on page #ahc1 the different sentences are equally related to the topic4 ,is there1 then1 no reason why one should be first rather than another8 ,notice the topics of the sentences and the order becomes a necessity4 ,king1 state policy1 government1 liberty1 religion1--it is an ascending scale4 ,on page #if is a paragraph on the charmed names used by ,milton4 ,one1 another1 a third1 a fourth1--for all one can see as to the relation of each to the topic1 a fourth might as well have been one as fourth4 ,but upon reading the paragraph it is evident that ,macaulay thought the last more important than the first4 ,so in the paragraph just quoted about the ,puritans1 when the arrangement of the first eight sentences changes in sentences nine through eleven1 and again in sentences sixteen to twenty1 the order is a climax4 ,moreover1 those topics are associated which are more closely related in thought4 ,king is more closely related to government than to religion1 and religion is more intimately associated with the idea of liberty than with king4 ,the order1 then1 is the natural order of association4 ,from these examples we derive the first principle of arrangement4 ,in a paragraph where several sentences contribute individually to the topic1 they must be arranged in the order in which the thoughts are associated and follow each other2 and1 when possible1 they should take the order of a climax4 ,definite ,references4 ,in the paragraph made up of sentences in a series1 each linked to the sentence before and after1 the difficulty is in transmitting the force of one sentence to the next one undiminished4 ,this is done by binding the sentences so closely together that one cannot slip on the other4 ,in the paragraph about the ,puritans1 of the second sentence the ,great ,being goes back to superior beings of the first2 and ,him in the next springs from ,great ,being4 ,to know ,him1 to serve ,him1 to enjoy ,him1--what is it but the pure worship of the fourth8 while ceremonious homage of the fourth is the occasional glimpses of the ,deity through an obscuring veil of the fifth4 ,one sentence grows out of some phrase of the preceding sentence2 the sentences are firmly locked together by the repetition1 a little modified1 of the thought of a preceding phrase4 ,there is no slipping4 ,to get this result there must be no question of the thought-sequence in the sentences4 ,each sentence must be a consequence of a preceding sentence4 ,and there must be attention to the choice and position of the words from which the following sentence is to spring4 ,such words cannot be indefinite1 mushy words2 they must be definite1 firm words4 ,moreover1 they must not be buried out of sight by a mass of unimportant matters2 they must be so placed that they are unhindered1 free to push forward the thought toward its ultimate conclusion4 ,this often requires inversion in the sentence4 ,that phrase which is the source of the next sentence must be thrown up into a prominent position2 and it is usually pressed toward the end of the sentence1 nearer to the sentence which is its consequence4 ,in a paragraph quoted on page #bbb1 where this same subject is taken up in connection with sentences1 there is an excellent illustration of this4 ,slow and obscure1 inadequate ideas1 small circle1 and the numerous phrases which repeat the thought1 though not the words1 are firm words binding the sentences together indissolubly4 ,use of ,pronouns4 ,not all sentences permit such clear reference as this4 ,still it must be said that where the thought is logical and clear1 the reference is never missed3 the binding words are important words and they occupy prominent positions4 ,there is1 however1 a whole group of words whose function is to make the references sure4 ,they are pronouns4 ,pronouns refer back1 and they point forward4 ,their careful use is the commonest method of making sure of references1 and so of binding sentences together4 ,the ones in common use are this1 that1 the former1 the latter2 the relatives who1 which1 and that2 and the personal pronouns he1 she1 it4 ,to these may be added some adverbs3 here1 there1 hence1 whence1 now1 then1 when1 and while4 ,the binding force of these words is manifest in every paragraph of composition4 ,the following paragraph1 from ,burke's speech on ,conciliation with the ,colonies1 illustrates the use of pronouns as words referring back1 and binding the whole into one inseparable unit4 ,as to the wealth which the colonies have drawn from the sea by their fisheries1 you had all that matter fully opened at your bar4 ,you surely thought those acquisitions of value1 for they seemed even to excite your envy2 and yet the spirit by which that enterprising employment has been exercised ought rather1 in my opinion1 to have raised your esteem and admiration4 ,and pray1 ,sir1 what in the world is equal to it8 ,pass by the other parts1 and look at the manner in which the people of ,new ,england have of late carried on the whale fishery4 ,whilst we follow them among the tumbling mountains of ice1 and behold them penetrating into the deepest frozen recesses of ,hudson's ,bay and ,davis's ,straits1 whilst we are looking for them beneath the arctic circle1 we hear that they have pierced into the opposite region of polar cold1 that they are at the antipodes1 and engaged under the frozen ,serpent of the south4 ,falkland ,island1 which seemed too remote and romantic an object for the grasp of national ambition1 is but a stage and resting-place in the progress of their victorious industry4 ,nor is the equinoctial heat more discouraging to them than the accumulated winter of both the poles4 ,we know that whilst some of them draw the line and strike the harpoon on the coast of ,africa1 others run the longitude and pursue their gigantic game along the coast of ,brazil4 ,no sea but what is vexed by their fisheries2 no climate that is not witness to their toils4 ,neither the perseverance of ,holland1 nor the activity of ,france1 nor the dexterous and firm sagacity of ,english enterprise ever carried this most perilous mode of hardy industry to the extent to which it has been pushed by this recent people2 a people who are still1 as it were1 but in the gristle1 and not yet hardened into the bone of manhood4 ,when ,i contemplate these things2 when ,i know that the colonies in general owe little or nothing to any care of ours1 and that they are not squeezed into this happy form by the constraints of watchful and suspicious government1 but that1 through a wise and salutary neglect1 a generous nature has been suffered to take her own way to perfection2 when ,i reflect upon these effects1 when ,i see how profitable they have been to us1 ,i feel all the pride of power sink1 and all presumption in the wisdom of human contrivances melt and die away within me4 ,my rigor relents4 ,i pardon something to the spirit of liberty4 ,of ,conjunctions4 ,another group of words which give coherence to a paragraph is conjunctions4 ,they indicate the relations between sentences1 and they point the direction of the new sentence4 ,the common relations between sentences indicated by conjunctions are coordinative1 subordinative1 adversative1 concessive1 and illative4 ,each young writer has usually but one word1 at the most two words1 in his vocabulary to express each of these relations4 ,he knows and1 but1 if1 although1 and therefore4 ,each person should learn from a grammar the whole list1 for no class of words indicates clear thinking so unmistakably as conjunctions4 ,two words of advice should be given regarding the use of conjunctions4 ,if the thought all bends one way1 if this direction is perfectly clear1 there is no need of conjunctions4 ,it is when the course of the discussion is tortuous1 when the road is not direct1 when the reader may lose the way without these guides1 that conjunctions should be used4 ,on the other hand1 conjunctions are an annoyance when not needed4 ,just as guideposts along a road where there is no chance to leave the direct path are useless1 and their recurrence is a cause of aggravation1 so it is with unnecessary conjunctions4 ,they attract attention to themselves1 and so draw it from the thought4 ,the first caution is1 ,do not use conjunctions unless needed4 ,in the following1 the repetition of and is unnecessary and annoying4 ,six shillings a week does not keep body and soul together very unitedly4 ,they want to get away from each other when there is only such a very slight bond as that between them2 and one day1 ,i suppose1 the pain and the dull monotony of it all had stood before her eyes plainer than usual1 and the mocking spectre had frightened her4 ,she had made one last appeal to friends1 but1 against the chill wall of their respectability1 the voice of the erring outcast fell unheeded2 and then she had gone to see her child--had held it in her arms and kissed it1 in a weary1 dull sort of way1 and without betraying any particular emotion of any kind1 and had left it1 after putting into its hand a penny box of chocolate she had bought it1 and afterwards1 with her last few shillings1 had taken a ticket and come down to ,goring4 ,it seemed that the bitterest thoughts of her life must have centred about the wooded reaches and the bright green meadows around ,goring2 but women strangely hug the knife that stabs them1 and1 perhaps1 amidst the gall1 there may have mingled also sunny memories of sweetest hours1 spent upon those shadowed deeps over which the great trees bend their branches down so low4 ,she had wandered about the woods by the river's brink all day1 and then1 when evening fell and the gray twilight spread its dusky robe upon the waters1 she stretched out her arms to the silent river that had known her sorrow and her joy4 ,and the old river had taken her into its gentle arms1 and had laid her weary head upon its bosom1 and had hushed away the pain4 ,the other word is3 ,when possible put the conjunction that connects two sentences into the body of the sentence1 rather than at its beginning4 ,in this way its binding power is increased4 ,this principle should limit the use of and and but at the beginning of a sentence4 ,rarely is and needed in such a place4 ,if the thought goes straight forward--and it must do so if and correctly expresses the relation--there is usually no gain in its use4 ,at times when the reader might be led to expect some change of direction from some phrase in the preceding sentence1 then it would be wise to set him right by the use of and4 ,moreover1 there are times when coordinate thoughts are so important1 and the expression of the coordination is so important1 that a sentence beginning with and is the only adequate means of expressing it4 ,however1 be very sure that there is need for every and that you use4 ,the same caution may be given about but4 ,but indicates an abrupt turn in the thought4 ,is such a contrast in the thought8 ,if so1 is there no other word to express the thought8 ,some persons go so far as to say that these words should never begin a sentence4 ,this is too pedantic and not true4 ,when coordinative and adversative relations are to be expressed1 however1 it is certainly more elegant if some variety can be obtained1 and the union is closer if the conjunction be placed in the body of the sentence4 ,this requires the use of other words besides and and but4 ,also1 in like manner1 besides1 too1 nevertheless1 however1 after all1 for all that1 should be as familiar as the two overworked words and and but4 ,look for ways to bind sentences in the middle rather than at the end4 ,it is more elegant and it is much safer4 ,parallel ,constructions4 ,a third principle of arrangement is the use of parallel constructions for parallel thoughts4 ,by parallel structure is meant that the principal elements of the sentences shall be arranged in the same order4 ,if subordinate clauses precede principal clauses in one sentence1 they shall in the other2 if they follow in one1 they shall follow in the other4 ,if an active voice be used in one1 it shall be used in the other2 if the predicate go before the subject in one1 it shall in the other4 ,the use of parallel structure frequently demands repetition of forms and even of identical words and phrases4 ,it is very effective in giving clearness to a paragraph and in securing coherence of its parts4 ,in the first of the two illustrations below1 read one sentence this way and observe the ruin that is wrought4 ,the ,north ,american colonies made such a struggle against the mother country4 ,in the second paragraph1 change two of the sentences to the passive voice4 ,the effect is evident loss in clearness and strength4 ,all history is full of revolutions1 produced by causes similar to those which are now operating in ,england4 ,a portion of the community which had been of no account1 expands and becomes strong4 ,it demands a place in the system1 suited1 not to its former weakness1 but to its present power4 ,if this is granted1 all is well4 ,if this is refused1 then comes the struggle between the young energy of one class and the ancient privileges of another4 ,such was the struggle between the ,plebeians and ,patricians of ,rome4 ,such was the struggle of the ,italian allies for admission to the full rights of ,roman citizens4 ,such was the struggle of our ,north ,american colonies against the mother country4 ,such was the struggle which the ,third ,estate of ,france maintained against the aristocracy of birth4 ,such was the struggle which the ,roman ,catholics of ,ireland maintained against the aristocracy of creed4 ,such is the struggle which the free people of color in ,jamaica are now maintaining against the aristocracy of skin4 ,such1 finally1 is the struggle which the middle classes in ,england are maintaining against an aristocracy of mere locality1 against an aristocracy1 the principle of which is to invest a hundred drunken pot-wallopers in one place1 or the owner of a ruined hovel in another1 with powers which are withheld from cities renowned to the furthest ends of the earth for the marvels of their wealth and of their industry4#da ,man is a being of genius1 passion1 intellect1 conscience1 power4 ,he exercises these various gifts in various ways1 in great deeds1 in great thoughts1 in heroic acts1 in hateful crimes4 ,he founds states1 he fights battles1 he builds cities1 he ploughs the forest1 he subdues the elements1 he rules his kind4 ,he creates vast ideas1 and influences many generations4 ,he takes a thousand shapes1 and undergoes a thousand fortunes4 ,literature records them all to the life4444 ,he pours out his fervid soul in poetry2 he sways to and fro1 he soars1 he dives1 in his restless speculations2 his lips drop eloquence2 he touches the canvas1 and it glows with beauty2 he sweeps the strings1 and they thrill with an ecstatic meaning4 ,he looks back into himself1 and he reads his own thoughts1 and notes them down2 he looks out into the universe1 and tells over and celebrates the elements and principles of which it is the product4#db 7,the principles of ,mass and ,coherence in paragraphs are closely allied with these same principles regarding sentences4 ,some further discussion of these important matters1 as well as more illustrations1 will be found in the next chapter47 ,good sense must be exercised in the use of parallel constructions4 ,although a short series of sentences containing parallel thoughts is common and demands this treatment1 it is not at all frequent that one has such a long series as these paragraphs contain4 ,in these paragraphs the parallel is in the thought2 it has not been searched out4 ,because one is pleased with these effects of parallel construction1 he should not be led to seek for opportunities where he can force sentences into similar shapes4 ,the thoughts must be parallel4 ,if the thought is actually parallel1 a parallel treatment may be adopted with great advantage to clearness and force2 if it is not parallel1 any attempt to treat it as such is detected as a shallow trick4 ,to search for thoughts to trail along in a series results in thinnest bombast4 ,as everywhere else in composition1 so here a writer must rely on his good taste and good sense4 ,summary4 ,whatever may be the special mode of development1 of whatever form of discourse it is to be a part1 the three fundamental principles which guide in making a paragraph are ,unity1 ,mass1 and ,coherence4 ,the unity of the paragraph is secured by referring all of the material to the topic1 including what contributes to the main thought and excluding what has no value4 ,paragraphs excessively long or very short may lead to offenses against unity4 ,mass in a paragraph is gained by placing worthy words in the positions of distinction2 by treating the more important matters at greater length2 and1 when possible without disturbing coherence1 by arranging the material in a climax4 ,coherence is secured by keeping together matters related in thought2 by a wise choice and placing of all words which bind sentences together2 and by the use of parallel constructions for parallel ideas4 ,carefully chosen material1 arranged so that worthy words occupy the positions of distinction1 and all so skillfully knit together that every sentence1 every phrase1 every word1 takes the reader one step toward the conclusion1--this constitutes a good paragraph4 ,,suggestive ,,questions ,,the ,,old ,,manse4 7,riverside ,literature ,series1 ,no4 #fi47 ,in the paragraph beginning at the bottom of page #ai1 what do you think of the selection of material8 ,does the last detail give the finishing touch to the paragraph8 ,is it a real climax8 ,on page #be a paragraph begins1 ,lightly as1 etc4 ,in the second sentence bound volume goes back to what words in the first sentence8 he1 of the third1 to what of the second8 thus it was to what before8 ,now take the paragraph on pages #cd and #ce and trace the connection of the sentences1 drawing two lines under the phrase from which a succeeding sentence springs1 and one line under words that refer back to a preceding phrase2 also trace out the dovetailing in the sentences on pages #f and #g4 ,in the paragraph on pages #ah and #ai the development is not so4 ,each sentence emphasizes the sombre aspect of external nature4 ,what is the law of their arrangement8 7,see text-book1 pages #aha-ahg47 ,find other paragraphs arranged in this way4 7,see pages #ce1 #cf47 ,what is the topic of the second paragraph8 ,can you divide the paragraph filling the middle of page #h8 ,where8 ,what is the relation between the first sentence and the last in the paragraph at the bottom of page #aa8 ,give the words that join the sentences of the paragraph together4 ,in the paragraph beginning on page #ac1 what is the purpose of the first two sentences8 ,on page #ad1 does it seem to you that ,hawthorne had forgotten the ,old ,manse enough so that it could be called a digression8 or do you think that the delightful1 rambling character of the essay permits it8 ,can you divide this paragraph on pages #ad and #ae8 ,where8 ,what figure at the bottom of page #ae8 ,is it the custom to use a capital letter in such a case8 ,has the paragraph in which the figure occurs unity8 ,where could you divide it8 ,give the topic of both new paragraphs4 ,of the paragraph on pages #af and #ag1 what is the relation of the last three sentences to the topic8 ,what comment would you make upon the last sentence of the paragraph ending at the top of page #be8 ,at the opening of the paragraph beginning on page #bi1 do you like the figure8 ,trace the relation between the first and second sentences2 between the second and the third4 ,could this paragraph be divided8 ,,rip ,,van ,,winkle ,,and ,,the ,,legend ,,of ,,sleepy ,,hollow4 7,riverside ,literature ,series1 ,no4 #ea47 ,in the paragraph on page #aa1 what is the relation between the first and last sentences8 ,why is the middle of the paragraph introduced8 ,is it effective8 ,what method of development is adopted in the next paragraph8 ,trace out the connection of the paragraphs in the first five pages of this essay4 ,what words at the beginning of each paragraph are especially helpful in joining the parts8 ,on page #ac ,irving writes1 ,times grew worse and worse for ,rip ,van ,winkle1 etc4 ,how many paragraphs are given to this topic8 ,could all of them be put into one8 ,should they8 ,what is the last part of the first sentence of this paragraph8 ,why are there so few topic sentences in this essay8 ,how did ,irving know where to paragraph8 ,give topics of the paragraphs on pages #af1 #ag1 #ah4 ,in the paragraph beginning at the bottom of p4 #ag1 why are the clothes of the man mentioned first8 ,what method of paragraph development is adopted in the paragraph beginning in the middle of page #bc8 ,is the last detail important8 ,from the use on pages #bd and #be1 what do you gather as to the rule for paragraphing where dialogue is reported8 ,in the paragraph on page #dj1 what reason has ,irving for saying therefore8 ,from what sentence does the last of this paragraph arise8 ,do you think the specific closing of the paragraph worthy of the position8 ,when ,irving says on page #da that he was an odd mixture of small shrewdness and simple credulity1 did he mean that he was shrewd1 or that he was not shrewd8 ,can you find anything in the paragraphs to develop the thought that he was shrewd8 ,how many paragraphs are given to his simple credulity8 ,why so many8 ,in the paragraph beginning at the bottom of page #db1 what advantage is there in the exclamatory sentences8 ,would it be as well to divide the next paragraph into three sentences8 ,give your reasons4 ,as the paragraph stands1 is the sentence loose or periodic8 ,in the paragraph beginning at the bottom of page #de1 what is the method of development8 ,why is the chanticleer mentioned last8 ,are ,irving's sentences long8 ,do they seem long8 ,why1 or why not8 ,what is the relation of the first sentence of the first paragraph on page #ee to the last8 ,what is the topic of the next paragraph8 ,do you think it would be just as well to put the second sentence of this paragraph last8 ,in the paragraph beginning at the bottom of page #ee1 what method of development has been used8 ,why is the blue jay mentioned last8 ,,the ,,fall ,,of ,,the ,,house ,,of ,,usher4 7,riverside ,literature ,series1 ,no4 #aai47 ,do you think the first paragraph too long8 ,where can you divide it8 ,what is the test of the length of a paragraph8 ,at the bottom of page #fg1 do you think the first sentence of the paragraph the topic8 or is it the last sentence8 ,give reasons4 ,is the detail at the end of the paragraph beginning on the middle of page #ga upon the topic of the paragraph8 ,is it good there8 ,how do you know that ,usher did not say him8 ,of the paragraph on page #gc1 what sentence is the topic8 ,what proportion of the paragraphs have topic sentences8 ,have the others topics8 ,give them for the paragraphs on the first five pages4 ,what method of paragraph development has ,poe adopted in the paragraph beginning in the middle of page #ha8 ,what is the relation between the opening and the close of the paragraph8 ,why is the middle needed8 ,do you like the second sentence of the next paragraph8 ,what is there disagreeable in it8 ,as you read along do the paragraphs run into one another8 ,is such a condition good8 ,,silas ,,marner4 7,riverside ,literature ,series1 ,no4 #hc47 ,divide paragraphs on pages #aj and #aa4 ,what is the topic of each of the new paragraphs8 ,in the first paragraph of chapter two each sentence grows out of the one preceding4 ,put two lines under the words in each sentence which are the source of the next sentence4 ,draw one line under the words in each sentence which refer back to the preceding sentence4 ,in the paragraph beginning at the bottom of page #id1 what is the topic sentence8 ,what relation has the last sentence to the first8 ,what method of development in the paragraph8 ,can the paragraphs of exposition usually be divided8 ,do they violate unity8 ,if not1 upon what principle can you divide them8 ,what is the tendency in regard to the length of paragraphs in recent literature8 99 99 99 99 99 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,sentences ,definition and ,classification4 ,simple ,sentences4 ,a sentence is a group of words expressing a complete thought4 ,sentences have been classified as simple1 complex1 and compound4 ,in reality there are but two classes of sentences1--simple and compound4 ,it is not material to the construction of a sentence whether a modifier be a word1 a phrase1 or a clause2 it still remains an adjective1 adverb1 or noun modifier1 and the method in which the subject and predicate are developed is the same4 ,by means of modifiers1 a subject and predicate of but two words may grow to the size of a paragraph1 and yet be a group of words expressing one complete thought4 ,in the sentence below1 the subject and predicate are we are free4 ,this does not1 however1 express ,burke's complete thought4 ,it is not what he meant4 ,free to do what8 ,how free8 ,when may it be done8 ,why now8 ,what bill8 ,all these introduce modifications to the simple assertion1 we are free1 modifications which are essential to the completeness of the thought4 ,by the return of this bill1 which seemed to have taken its flight forever1 we are at this very instant nearly as free to choose a plan for our ,american government as we were on the first day of the session4 ,compound ,sentences4 ,on the other hand1 the compound sentence is usually said to consist of at least two independent clauses2 and the very fact of their independence1 which is only a grammatical independence1 to be sure1 makes the clauses very nearly independent sentences4 ,so near to sentences may the clauses be in their independence that some writers would make them so4 ,the following group of sentences ,kipling certainly could have handled in another way4 ,the reason for her wandering was simple enough4 ,coppy1 in a tone of too hastily assumed authority1 had told her over night that she must not ride out by the river4 ,and she had gone to prove her own spirit and teach ,coppy a lesson4 ,certainly the last two sentences could be united into a compound sentence1 nor would it be straining the structure to put all three sentences into one4 ,this example is not exceptional4 ,many similar cases may be found in all prose writers2 and in ,macaulay's writings there are certainly occasions when it would be better to unite independent sentences4 ,if the fundamental ideas of the two clauses bear certain definite and evident relations to each other1 they should stand in one compound sentence4 ,these evident relations are3 first1 an assertion and its repetition in some other form2 second1 an assertion and its contrast2 third1 an assertion and its consequence2 and fourth1 an assertion and an example4 ,if the clauses do not bear one of these evident relations to each other1 they should receive special attention2 for they may be two separate1 independent thoughts requiring for their expression two sentences4 ,the following sentences illustrate the common relations that may exist between the clauses of a compound sentence4 ,repetition4 ,nothing has a drift or relation2 nothing has a promise or history4 ,but the religion most prevalent in our northern colonies is a refinement on the principle of resistance2 it is the dissidence of dissent1 and the protestantism of the ,protestant religion4 ,contrast4 ,if the people approve the way in which these authorities are interpreting and using the ,constitution1 they go on2 if the people disapprove1 they pause1 or at least slacken their pace4 ,every court is equally bound to pronounce1 and competent to pronounce1 on such questions1 a ,state court no less than a ,federal court2 but as all the more important questions are carried by appeal to the supreme ,federal court1 it is practically that court whose opinion determines them4 ,consequence4 ,the ,british and ,american line had run near it during the war2 it had1 therefore1 been the scene of marauding1 and infested with refugees1 cow-boys1 and all kinds of border chivalry4 ,example4 ,he found favor in the eyes of the mothers by petting the children1 particularly the youngest2 and like the lion bold1 which whilom so magnanimously the lamb did hold1 he would sit with a child on one knee1 and rock a cradle with his foot for whole hours together4 ,there is another condition which masses many details into one compound sentence4 ,if in narration a writer wishes to give the impression that many things are done in a moment of time1 and together form one incident1 he may group many circumstances1 nearly independent except for the matter of time1 into one compound sentence4 ,in description he may present groups of details hastily in one sentence1 and so give the impression of unity4 ,the same thing may be done in exposition4 ,many independent ideas may bear a common relation to another idea1 either expressed or understood2 and in order to get them before the reader as one whole1 the author may group them in a single sentence4 ,the examples below illustrate this method of sentence development4 ,narration4 ,for a moment the terror of ,hans ,van ,ripper's wrath passed across his mind1 for it was his ,sunday saddle2 but this was no time for petty fears2 the goblin was hard on his haunches2 and 7unskillful rider that he was67 he had much ado to maintain his seat2 sometimes slipping on one side1 sometimes on another1 and sometimes jolted on the high ridge of his horse's backbone1 with a violence that he verily feared would cleave him asunder4#dc ,description4 ,in one corner stood a huge bag of wool1 ready to be spun2 in another1 a quantity of linsey-woolsey just from the loom2 ears of ,indian corn1 and strings of dried apples and peaches1 hung in gay festoons along the walls1 mingled with the gaud of red peppers2 and a door left ajar gave him a peep into the best parlor1 where the claw-footed chairs and dark mahogany tables shone like mirrors2 andirons1 with their accompanying shovel and tongs1 glistened from their covert of asparagus tops2 mock oranges and conch shells decorated the mantelpiece2 strings of various-colored birds' eggs were suspended above it2 a great ostrich egg was hung from the centre of the room1 and a corner cupboard1 knowingly left open1 displayed immense treasures of old silver and well-mended china4#dc ,exposition4 ,that perfection of the ,intellect1 which is the result of ,education1 and its beau ideal1 to be imparted to individuals in their respective measures1 is the clear1 calm1 accurate vision and comprehension of all things1 as far as the finite mind can embrace them1 each in its place1 and with its own characteristics upon it4 ,it is almost prophetic from its knowledge of history2 it is almost heart-searching from its knowledge of human nature2 it has almost supernatural charity from its freedom from littleness and prejudice2 it has almost the repose of faith1 because nothing can startle it2 it has almost the beauty and harmony of heavenly contemplation1 so intimate is it with the eternal order of things and the music of the spheres4#dd 7,notice the use of the semicolon in the last two groups of sentences4 ,the parts of compound sentences such as these should be separated by semicolons47 ,short ,sentences4 ,having determined approximately what relations may be grouped in a single sentence1 the first question for consideration is whether sentences should be long or short4 ,this cannot be definitely answered4 ,since they should be concise1 the short sentence is well suited for definitions4 ,since a proposition should be announced in as few words as can be used1 without sacrificing brevity to clearness1 short sentences serve best for this purpose4 ,as changes in the direction of the development of a thought should be quickly indicated1 a short sentence is generally used for transition4 ,and as at times when the mind is under a stress of strong feeling1 or the action of a story is rapid1 all explanatory matters are cut away1 the barest statements in shortest sentences serve best to express strong emotion and rapid action4 ,long ,sentences4 ,long sentences have the very opposite uses4 ,to amplify a topic1 to develop a proposition by repetition1 by details1 by proofs1 or by example1 long sentences are serviceable2 by them the finer modifications of a thought can be expressed4 ,so1 too1 a summary of a paragraph or a chapter frequently employs long sentences to express the whole thought with precision and with proper subordination of parts4 ,again1 as short sentences best express haste and intensity1 so long sentences give the feeling of quiet deliberation and dignified calm4 ,illustrations of definitions1 propositions1 transitions1 and exemplifications are to be found everywhere4 ,slow movement expressed by long sentences is well illustrated in ,irving and ,hawthorne4 ,one selection from ,george ,meredith1 to show the peculiar adaptation of the short sentence to express intensity of feeling1 is given4 ,richard ,feverel has just learned that the wife whom he had deserted has borne him a son4 ,description and narration are mingled4 ,the short1 nervous sentences express both the vividness of his impressions and the intensity of his emotions4 ,a pale gray light on the skirts of the flying tempest displayed the dawn4 ,richard was walking hurriedly4 ,the green drenched woods lay all about his path1 bent thick1 and the forest drooped glimmeringly4 ,impelled as a man who feels a revelation mounting obscurely to his brain1 ,richard was passing one of those little forest-chapels1 hung with votive wreaths1 where the peasants halt to kneel and pray4 ,cold1 still1 in the twilight it stood1 rain-drops pattering round it4 ,he looked within1 and saw the ,virgin holding her ,child4 ,he moved not by4 ,but not many steps had he gone before the strength went out of him1 and he shuddered4 ,what was it8 ,he asked not4 ,he was in other hands4 ,vivid as lightning the ,spirit of ,life illumined him4 ,he felt in his heart the cry of his child1 his darling's touch4 ,with shut eyes he saw them both4 ,they drew him from the depths2 they led him a blind and tottering man4 ,and as they led him he had a sense of purification so sweet he shuddered again and again4 ,unity4 ,in a sentence1 as in a theme or a paragraph1 the first question regarding its structure is what to put into it4 ,the germ of a paragraph is usually a sentence2 of the sentence it is one word or but very few words4 ,this kernel of a sentence may be developed through the many modifications of the thought2 but always the additions must be distinctly related to the germ words4 ,if this relation of parts to the kernel of the sentence be unmistakable1 the sentence has unity2 if there are parts whose connection with the germ of the sentence cannot be easily traced1 they should be rejected as belonging to another sentence4 ,the pith of the whole sentence can be stated in a few words1 if the sentence has unity4 ,long sentences should be watched4 ,one thing easily suggests another1 interesting too1 it may be2 and when an essay is to be written1 anything1--especially if it have so worthy a quality as interest to recommend it1--anything is allowed to go in4 ,such a sentence as the following can be explained on no other principle3 ,just then ,james came rushing downstairs like mad to find the fellow who had punched a hole in the tire of his bicycle1 which was a ,columbia which he got two years before at a second-hand store1 paying for it in work at fifteen cents an hour4 ,plainly everything after bicycle is nothing to the present purpose and should be excluded4 ,the following from a description of ,cologne ,cathedral is as bad1 in some respects1 worse2 for there is one point where the break is so abrupt that a child would detect it4 ,the superintendence was intrusted to ,mr4 ,ahlert1 whose ideas were not well adapted to inspire him for his grand task1 under his direction much of the former beauty and artistical skill was lost sight of1 but at all events it was a great satisfaction to see the work go on and to have the expenses defrayed by the ,state4 ,in this case the writer1 beyond doubt1 thinks long sentences the correct thing4 ,long sentences are necessary at times2 but the desire simply to write long sentences or to fill up space should never lead one to forget that a sentence is the expression of one--not more--of one complete thought4 ,on the other hand1 sentences should contain the whole of one thought2 none of it should run over into another sentence4 ,strange as it may seem1 sentences are sometimes found like the following3 ,james was on the whole a bad boy4 ,but he had some redeeming qualities4 ,the first day at school was all new to me4 ,while it was interesting as well4 ,he said that he was going4 ,and that ,i might go with him4 ,there is no ground for an explanation of such errors as these except laziness and grossest illiteracy4 ,it is by no device so simple as the insertion of a period that man can separate what has been joined in thought4 ,and and but rarely begin sentences2 in nearly all cases it will be found that the sentences they purport to connect are but the independent clauses of one compound sentence4 ,while or any other subordinating conjunction introduces a dependent clause2 a dependent clause is not a sentence2 it can never stand alone4 ,the offenses against the unity of a sentence are including too much and including too little4 ,both are the result of carelessness or inability to think4 ,the purpose1 the kernel1 the germ of the sentence1 should be so clearly in mind that every necessary modification of the thought shall be included and every unnecessary phrase be excluded4 ,some further suggestions concerning unity are found in the paragraphs treating primarily of mass and coherence4 ,mass4 ,as advance is made in the ability to grasp quickly the thought of a book1 it becomes more and more evident that the eye must be taken into account when arranging the parts of a composition4 ,the eye sees the headings of the chapters2 it catches the last words of one paragraph and the first words of the next2 it lights upon the words near the periods2 so the parts of a composition should be arranged so that these points shall contain worthy words4 ,moreover1 within the sentence the colon marks the greatest independence of the parts2 the semicolon comes next2 and the comma marks the smallest division of thought4 ,following the guidance of the eye1 then1 the words before a period should be the most important2 those near a colon1 a semicolon1 and a comma will have a descending scale of value4 ,a speaker has no difficulty with punctuation2 unconsciously he pauses with the thought4 ,so true is this1 that one is inclined to say that if the writer will read aloud his own composition1 and punctuate where he pauses in the reading1 always remembering the rank of the marks of punctuation1 he will not be far from right4 ,it will be noticed that he has paused in the reading after important words1 as if the thought stayed a moment there for the help of the reader4 ,naturally we pause after important words2 and conversely1 the places of importance in a sentence are near the marks of punctuation1 increasing from the comma to the period4 ,end of a ,sentence4 ,the end of a sentence is more important than the beginning2 and the difference in value is greater than in a paragraph4 ,in a paragraph the opening is very important1 generally containing the topic4 ,in a sentence1 however1 the beginning more often has some phrase of transition1 or some modifier2 while it is the end that contains the gist of the sentence4 ,this fact makes it imperative that no unworthy matter stand at the end4 ,how important a position it is1 and how much is expected of the final words of a sentence1 is evident from the effect of failure produced by a sentence that closes with weak words4 ,in the following sentences1 phrases have been moved from their places2 the weakness is apparent4 ,abstract liberty is not to be found2 and this is true of other mere abstractions4 ,this is a persuasion built upon liberty1 and not only favorable to it4 ,i pass1 therefore1 to their agriculture1 another point of view4 ,of course ,burke never wrote such sentences as these4 ,however1 sentences like them can be found in school compositions4 ,lincoln's character is worthy to be any young man's ideal2 having in it much to admire4 ,euclid ,avenue1 with its broad lawns1 and with ,wade ,park as the fitting climax of its spacious beauty1 is the most attractive driveway in the ,united ,states1 which is saying a good deal4 ,minnesota has many beautiful lakes2 ,mille ,lacs1 fringed with dark pines2 ,osakis1 with its beach of glistening sand2 ,minnetonka1 skirted by a lovely boulevard bordered by cool lawns and cosy cottages2 and many others not so big4 ,such sentences as these are not uncommon4 ,their ruin is wrought by the closing words4 ,watch for trailing relatives1 dangling participles1 and straggling generalities at the end of sentences4 ,the end of a sentence is a position of distinction2 it should be held by words of distinction4 ,so influential is position in a sentence that by virtue of it a word or a clause of equal rank with others can be made to take on a certain added authority4 ,by observing the end of a sentence1 a reader can determine what was uppermost in the mind of an author careful of these things4 ,in the following sentence as it was written by ,burke the emphasis is on the duration of the time2 but by a change of position it is put upon the fact4 ,refined policy ever has been the parent of confusion2 and ever will be so1 as long as the world endures4 ,changing the last clause it reads1 and1 as long as the world endures1 ever will be so4 ,this is not weak2 but the stress is not where ,burke placed it4 ,the position of the words gives them an importance that does not inhere in the words themselves4 ,effect of ,anti-climax4 ,still1 as the tenure of a place of distinction cannot save a fool from the reputation of folly1 position in a sentence cannot redeem empty words from their truly insipid character4 ,indeed1 as the imbecility of a shallow pate is made all the more apparent by a position of distinction1 so is the utter unfitness of certain words for their position painfully manifest4 ,this is the secret of anti-climax4 ,by reason of its very position in a sentence1 the last phrase should be distinguished2 instead the position is held by a silly nothing4 ,disappointing anti-climaxes1 like those already cited1 are frequently made by young writers2 and they are sometimes met with in the works of the best authors4 ,the following sentence is from ,newman3 from the point of view of an ardent churchman1 it may be a climax2 but from the point of view of the general reader who considers the whole greater than any of its parts1 in spite of all the sense preceding the final phrase1 that is absurd and disappointing nonsense4 ,i protest to you1 gentlemen1 that if ,i had to choose between a so-called university1 which dispensed with residence and tutorial superintendence1 and gave its degrees to any person who passed an examination in a wide range of subjects1 and a university which had no professors and examinations at all1 but merely brought a number of young men together for three or four years1 and then sent them away as the ,university of ,oxford is said to have done some sixty years since1 if ,i were asked which of these methods was the better discipline of the intellect1--mind1 ,i do not say which is morally the better1 for it is plain that compulsory study must be a good and idleness an intolerable mischief1--but if ,i must determine which of the two courses was the more successful in training1 moulding1 and enlarging the mind1 which sent out men the more fitted for their secular duties1 which produced better public men1 men of the world1 men whose names would descend to posterity1 ,i have no hesitation in giving the preference to that university which did nothing1 over that which exacted an acquaintance with every science under the sun4 ,and1 paradox as this may seem1 still if results be the test of systems1 the influence of the public schools and colleges of ,england1 in the course of the last century1 at least will bear out one side of the contrast as ,i have drawn it4 ,what could come1 on the other hand1 of the ideal systems of education which have fascinated the imagination of this age1 could they ever take effect1 and whether they would not produce a generation frivolous1 narrow-minded1 and resourceless1 intellectually considered1 is a fair subject for debate2 but so far is certain1 that the universities and scholastic establishments1 to which ,i refer1 and which did little more than bring together first boys and then youths in large numbers1 these institutions1 with miserable deformities on the side of morals1 with a hollow profession of ,christianity1 and a heathen code of ethics1--,i say1 at least1 they can boast of a succession of heroes and statesmen1 of literary men and philosophers1 of men conspicuous for great natural virtues1 for habits of business1 for knowledge of life1 for practical judgment1 for cultivated tastes1 for accomplishments1 who have made ,england what it is1--able to subdue the earth1 able to domineer over ,catholics4#de ,use of ,climax4 ,from what has been said1 it is evident that the parts of a sentence1 as far as may be1 should be arranged in a climax4 ,the climax should be in the thought1 with a corresponding increase in the weight of the phrases4 ,if the thoughts increase in importance1 the words that express them should increase in number4 ,the number of words in the treatment bears a pretty constant ratio to the importance of the subject treated4 ,the paragraph quoted from ,newman is an excellent illustration of the use of climax1--until it comes to that last phrase4 ,note in the first sentence the repetition of the condition1 three times repeated4 ,change the second to the third and see how different it is4 ,then he has public men1 men of the world1 men whose names would descend to posterity1--a steady increase in the thought1 and a corresponding increase in the length of phrases4 ,the last sentence contains a fine example of climax4 ,of heroes and statesmen1 of literary men and philosophers1 of men conspicuous for great natural virtues1 for habits of business1 for knowledge of life1 for practical judgment1 for cultivated tastes1 for accomplishments1 who have made ,england what it is1--able to subdue the earth4 ,climax is the arrangement that produces the effect of vigorous strength4 ,in arranging a succession of modifiers1 so far as possible without breaking some other more important principle1 a writer will gain in force if he seeks for climax4 ,loose and ,periodic4 ,sentences are divided into two classes3 loose and periodic4 ,a loose sentence may be broken at some point before the end1 and up to that point be grammatically a complete sentence4 ,an arrangement of the parts of a sentence that suspends the meaning until the close is called periodic4 ,the periodic sentence is generally so massed that the end contains words of distinction1 and the sentence forms a climax4 ,not all climaxes are periods2 but nearly all periods are climaxes4 ,the ,period4 ,the philosophy of the periodic sentence has been best stated by ,herbert ,spencer4 ,he starts with the axiom that the whole amount of attention a reader can give at any moment is limited and fixed4 ,a reader must give a part of it to merely acquiring the meaning2 the remainder of his attention he can give to the thought itself4 ,in reading ,cicero the pupil has to put a large part of his attention upon the vocabulary1 upon the order and construction of the words2 the barest fragment of attention he can bestow upon the thought of the great orator4 ,so when the reader attacks one of ,browning's most involved and obscure passages1 he is kept from the thought by the difficulties in the language4 ,as it is the purpose of language to convey thought1 and as it is usually the wish of an author to be understood1 he should use up as little as possible of the reader's limited attention for the mere acquisition of the thought1 and leave the reader as much as he can to put upon the meaning4 ,in applying this to sentences1 the question is1 which form of sentence demands least effort to get at its meaning3 the periodic sentence1 which suspends the meaning to the end2 or the loose sentence1 which may be broken at several points and gives its meaning in installments8 ,the old example is as good as any3 shall we say as the ,french do1 a horse black2 or shall we say as the ,english do1 a black horse8 for in the arrangement of these three words there lies the difference between a loose and a periodic sentence4 ,consider the ,french order first4 ,when a person hears the words a horse1 he at once thinks of the horse he knows best2 that is1 generally1 a bay horse4 ,when the word black follows1 the whole image has to be changed from the bay horse he knows to the black horse he has occasionally seen4 ,there has been a waste of attention4 ,on the other hand1 when the words a black are heard1 the mind constructs no image2 it waits until the noun modified is spoken4 ,then the whole image springs up at once2 it is correct and it needs no remodeling4 ,the following sentence illustrates the point4 ,i am wasting time is the beginning4 ,it would be difficult to enumerate the many thoughts suggested by these words2 each person has his own idea of wasting time4 ,when the rest of the sentence is added1 trying to learn my geometry lesson1 the whole has to be reconstructed4 ,on the other hand the periodic statement suspends the meaning to the end4 ,there is no place where1 without additions to the words used1 the mind can rest4 ,trying to learn a geometry lesson is for me a waste of time4 ,theoretically the periodic sentence is better than the loose sentence2 for it economizes attention4 ,there is another side to the question1 however4 ,if the details be many1 and if each be long1 they would be more than the mind could carry without great effort2 and instead of economy of attention1 there is improvident waste4 ,the mind will carry a long1 carefully arranged period at intervals2 but a succession of periods is sure to result in its absolute refusal to do so any longer4 ,there is a limit to the length of a period that economizes attention2 and there is a limit to the number of successive periods which a reader can endure4 ,periodic and ,loose combined4 ,there is another form of sentence1 which combines the loose and the periodic4 ,it generally begins with the periodic form and sustains this until it is better to relieve the mind of the stress1 when the period ends or the loose structure begins2 and the sentence may as a whole be periodic while containing parts that are loose4 ,this kind of sentence is a common form for long sentences4 ,it gives to prose much of the dignity of the period1 together with the familiarity of the loose sentence4 ,the sentence below may be changed1 by putting the last clause first1 to a loose sentence2 and by placing it after the word subject it becomes mixed4 ,by all persons who have written of the subject1 for the grandeur of its mountains and the deep quiet of its green valleys for the leaping torrents of its foaming rivers and blue calm of its crag-walled lakes1 ,switzerland has been named 'the ,paradise of ,europe4' ,the following paragraph from ,burke contains examples of loose1 periodic1 and mixed sentences3-- ,to restore order and repose to an empire so great and so distracted as1 ours1 is1 merely in the attempt1 an undertaking that would ennoble the flights of the highest genius1 and obtain pardon for the efforts of the meanest understanding4 ,struggling a good while with these thoughts1 by degrees ,i felt myself more firm4 ,i derived1 at length1 some confidence from what in other circumstances usually produces timidity4 ,i grew less anxious1 even from the idea of my own insignificance4 ,for1 judging of what you are by what you ought to be1 ,i persuaded myself that you would not reject a reasonable proposition because it had nothing but its reason to recommend it4 ,on the other hand1 being totally destitute of all shadow of influence1 natural or adventitious1 ,i was very sure that1 if my proposition were futile or dangerous--if it were weakly conceived1 or improperly timed1--there was nothing exterior to it of power to awe1 dazzle1 or delude you4 ,you will see it just as it is2 and you will treat it just as it deserves4#df ,which shall be used8 ,which shall be used1 loose sentences or periodic8 ,in literature the loose more frequently occur4 ,they are informal and conversational1 and are especially suited to letter-writing1 story-telling1 and the light essay4 ,the period is formal2 it has the air of preparation4 ,the oration1 the formal essay1 well-wrought argument1--forms of literature where preparation is expected1--may use the period with good effect4 ,it has a finish1 a scholarly refinement1 not found in the loose sentence2 and yet a series of periods would be as much out of place in a letter as a court regalia at a downtown restaurant4 ,the loose sentence is easy1 informal1 and familiar2 the periodic is stiff1 artificial1 and aristocratic4 ,to use none but loose sentences gives a composition an air of familiarity even to the verge of vulgarity2 to employ only periodic sentences induces a feeling of stiff artificiality bordering on bombast4 ,the fitness of each for its purpose is the guide for its use4 ,there is1 however1 a reason why young persons should be encouraged to use periodic sentences4 ,usually they compose short sentences1 so there is little danger of overburdening the reader's attention4 ,with this danger removed1 the result of the generous use of periodic sentences will be nothing worse than a too obvious preparation4 ,the sentences will all be finished to a degree1 and unquestionably will give a feeling of artificiality4 ,however1 the attention to sentence-structure necessary in order to make it periodic is a thing devoutly to be wished at this stage of growth4 ,no other fault is so common in sentence-construction as carelessness4 ,a theme will be logically outlined1 a paragraph carefully planned1 but a sentence1--anybody standing on one foot can make a sentence4 ,a well-turned sentence is a work of art1 and it is never made in moments when the writer didn't think4 ,the end must be seen at the beginning3 else it does not end2 it plays out4 ,there is no other remedy for careless1 slipshod sentence-making so effective as the construction of many periodic sentences4 ,not only will there be care in the arrangement of the material1 but when all details must be introduced before the principal thought1 there will be little chance of any phrase slipping into the sentence that does not in truth belong there4 ,dangling participles1 trailing relatives1 and straggling generalities can find no chance to hang on to a periodic sentence4 ,every detail must be a real and necessary modification of the germ thought of the sentence1 else it can hardly be forced in4 ,periodic sentences1 then1 besides insuring a careful finish to the work1 are also a safeguard against the introduction of irrelevant material1--the commonest offense against sentence-unity4 ,emphasis by ,change of ,order4 ,closely connected with the emphasis gained by the periodic arrangement of the parts of a sentence is the emphasis gained by forcing words out of their natural order4 ,in a sentence the points which arrest the eye and the attention are the beginning and the end4 ,however1 if the subject stands first and the words of the predicate in their natural order1 there is no more emphasis upon them than these important elements of a sentence ordinarily deserve4 ,to emphasize either it is necessary to force it out of its natural position4 ,george next went to ,boston1 is the natural order of this sentence4 ,supposing1 however1 that a writer wished to emphasize the fact that it was ,george who went next1 not ,james or ,fred1 he could do it by forcing the word ,george from its present natural position to a position unnatural4 ,he could write1 ,it was ,george who next went to ,boston1 or1 ,the next to go to ,boston was ,george4 ,forcing the subject toward the position usually occupied by the predicate emphasizes the subject4 ,this is similar to the emphasis given by the period4 ,it was ,george is so far periodic1 followed by the loose structure2 and the last arrangement is quite periodic4 ,every device for throwing the subject back into the sentence makes the sentence up to the point where the subject is introduced periodic2 this arrangement throws the emphasis forward to the word that closes the period4 ,other parts of a sentence may be emphasized by being placed out of their natural order4 ,in the natural order1 adjectives and adverbs precede the words they modify2 conditional and concessive clauses precede the clauses they modify2 an object follows a verb2 and prepositional phrases and adjective clauses follow the words they modify4 ,these rules are general4 ,moving a part of a sentence from this general order usually emphasizes it4 ,george went to ,boston next emphasizes a little the time2 but ,next ,george went to ,boston places great emphasis on the time4 ,so ,it was to ,boston that ,george went next emphasizes the place4 ,went cannot be so dealt with4 ,it seems irrevocably fixed that in a prose declarative sentence the verb shall never stand first4 ,it is not allowed by good use4 ,the rearrangement of the following sentence illustrates the emphasis given by putting words out of their natural order3-- ,the strong and swarthy sailors of the ,patria slowly rowed the party to the shore4 ,the sailors of the ,patria1 strong and swarthy1 slowly rowed the party to the shore4 ,slowly the strong and swarthy sailors of the ,patria rowed the party to the shore4 ,of the steamer ,patria1 the sailors1 strong and swarthy1 rowed the party to the shore4 ,to show the arrangement of clauses the following will be sufficient3-- ,he cannot make advancement1 even if he studies hard4 ,even if he studies hard1 he cannot make advancement4 ,your ,irish pensioners would starve1 if they had no other fund to live on than the taxes granted by ,english authority4 ,if they had no other fund to live on than the taxes granted by ,english authority1 your ,irish pensioners would starve4 ,the latter arrangement emphasizes the conclusion much more than the former2 at the same time it subordinates the condition4 ,burke wished the emphasis to be upon the condition2 he placed it after the conclusion4 ,subdue ,unimportant ,elements4 ,emphasis is gained by placing words in important positions in a sentence by arranging the parts to form a climax2 by the use of the period2 by forcing words out of their natural order4 ,it is also gained by the subdual of parts not important4 ,this emphasis is a matter of relative intensity4 ,the beauty and strength of any artistic product depend as much upon the subdual of the accessories as upon the intensifying of the necessaries4 ,in order to get the emphasis upon certain phrases1 it is necessary to subordinate other phrases4 ,in the talk of a child every thought phrases itself as a simple sentence4 ,not until it grows to youth does the child recognize that there is a difference in values1 and adopt means for expressing it4 ,to grasp firmly the principal idea and then subdue all other ideas is an elegant way of emphasizing4 ,the subdual of parts is accomplished by reducing to subordinate clauses1 to phrases1 to words1 some of the ideas which in a child's talk would be expressed in sentences4 ,a thought of barely enough importance to be mentioned should be squeezed into a word4 ,if it deserves more notice1 perhaps a prepositional phrase will express it4 ,a participial phrase will often serve for a clause or a sentence4 ,a subordinate clause may be needed if the thought is of great importance4 ,and last1 if it deserves such a distinction1 the thought may demand an independent clause or a sentence for itself4 ,if the following sentence be broken into bits as a child would tell it1 the nice effects of emphasis which ,irving has given it are ruined3-- ,when the dance was at an end1 ,ichabod was attracted to a knot of the sager folks1 who1 with old ,van ,tassel1 sat smoking at one end of the piazza1 gossiping over former times1 and drawing out long stories about the war4#dg ,put into simple sentences1 it would be like this3 ,the dance was at an end4 ,ichabod was attracted to a knot of folks4 ,the folks were older4 ,they sat at the end of the piazza4 ,old ,van ,tassel was with them4 ,they were smoking1 etc4 ,in such sentences1 nothing is emphatic2 it is all alike4 ,in ,irving's sentences1 where ideas are reduced to clause1 phrase1 even a word1 there is no question about what is important and what is unimportant4 ,he has secured an exquisite emphasis by a discriminating subdual of subordinate ideas4 ,this brings up the sentences by ,kipling already quoted on page #bja4 ,the author has used three independent sentences4 ,they can be written as one1 thus3 ,the reason of her wandering was simple enough2 for ,coppy1 in a tone of too-hastily-assumed authority1 had told her over night that she must not ride out by the river1 and she had gone to prove her own spirit and teach ,coppy a lesson4 ,there is a reason1 however1 why ,kipling wished that last sentence to stand alone4 ,subordinated as it is here rewritten1 it does not half express the spiteful independence she assumed to teach ,coppy a lesson4 ,it needs the independent construction4 ,just as surely as ,kipling is right in putting the reasons into two sharp1 independent sentences1 is ,irving right when he puts the reason in the following sentence into a subordinate clause4 ,it is not important enough to deserve a sentence all by itself4 ,he was1 moreover1 esteemed by the women as a man of great erudition1 for he had read several books quite through1 and was a perfect master of ,cotton ,mather's ',history of ,new ,england ,witchcraft1' in which1 by the way1 he most firmly and potently believed4 ,in the following sentence the effect of subordination is unmistakable3-- ,he had a name in the village for brutally misusing the ass2 yet it is certain that he shed a tear which made a clean mark down one cheek4 ,now read it again3-- ,he had a name in the village for brutally misusing the ass2 yet it is certain that he shed a tear1 and the tear made a clean mark down one cheek4 ,the last clause has burst away from its former submission1 and in its independence has made the most important announcement of the sentence1--the witty climax4 ,emphasis is1 to a large degree1 a matter of position1 but position cannot emancipate any clause from the thralldom of subordination4 ,to emphasize one idea1 subordinate ancillary ideas2 make them take their proper rank in the sentence4 ,reduce them to a clause or to a phrase2 and if a word justly expresses the relative importance of the thought1 reduce its expression to a single word4 ,the ,dynamic ,point of a ,sentence4 ,in the chapter on paragraphs it was said that one sentence is often the source of the succeeding sentence2 that such a sentence seemed to be charged like a ,leyden jar1 and to discharge its whole power through a single word or phrase2 and further1 that this word or phrase should be left free to act1--it should be uncovered4 ,how a sentence can be arranged so that this word or phrase shall have the prominence it deserves1 and can unhindered transmit the undiminished force of one sentence to the next1 has now been explained4 ,first1 such words can be made dynamic by placing them at the beginning or the end of a sentence2 second1 by placing them near the major marks of punctuation2 third1 by forcing them from their natural order2 and fourth1 by the subdual of the other parts of the sentence4 ,the greatest care in massing sentences so that none of their power be lost in transmission is one of the secrets of the literature that carries the reader irresistibly forward4 ,sometimes he may be annoyed by the repetition of phrases2 but he cannot get away2 he must go forward4 ,in the paragraph below1 quoted from ,matthew ,arnold1 every phrase that is the point from which the next sentence springs is in a position where it can act untrammeled4 ,through it the whole force of the sentence passes3-- ,it will be said that it is a very subtle and indirect action which ,i am thus prescribing for criticism1 and that1 by embracing in this manner the ,indian virtue of detachment and abandoning the sphere of practical life1 it condemns itself as a slow and obscure work4 ,slow and obscure it may be1 but it is the only proper work of criticism4 ,the mass of mankind will never have any ardent zeal for seeing things as they are2 very inadequate ideas will satisfy them4 ,on these inadequate ideas reposes1 and must repose1 the general practice of the world4 ,that is as much as saying that whoever sets himself to see things as they are will find himself one of a very small circle2 but it is only by this small circle resolutely doing its own work that adequate ideas will ever get current at all4 ,the rush and uproar of practical life will always have a dizzying and attracting effect upon the most collected spectator1 and tend to draw him into its vortex2 most of all will this be the case where that life is so powerful as it is in ,england4 ,but it is only by remaining collected1 and refusing to lend himself to the point of view of the practical man1 that the critic can do the practical man any service2 and it is only by the greatest sincerity in pursuing his own course1 and by at last convincing even the practical man of his sincerity1 that he can escape misunderstandings which perpetually threaten him4#dh ,good ,use4 ,good use has been mentioned4 ,in massing the parts of a sentence for the purpose of emphasizing some idea1 a writer has not entire freedom4 ,good use1 which is the use of acknowledged masters1 decides what may be done4 ,there are certain arrangements of words to which we are accustomed2 and the disregard of them leads to obscurity or downright contrariety in the thought4 ,brutus stabbed ,caesar is the common order2 ,brutus ,caesar stabbed1 or ,stabbed ,brutus ,caesar1 is obscure2 while ,caesar stabbed ,brutus is the very opposite of the truth4 ,those who have studied ,latin know that as far as understanding the sentence is concerned1 it would make no difference in which order the three ,latin words should be arranged2 though it would make a mighty difference in the emphasis4 ,in ,latin the case endings determine the construction of the words4 ,in an inflected language the words may be massed almost to suit the writer2 in an uninflected language1 within certain limits the order determines the relation between groups of words4 ,though for emphasis it might be advisable to have the object first1 for the sake of clearness in a short sentence the object cannot stand first4 ,the primary consideration in making any piece of literature is that it may be understood4 ,to be understood1 the sentence must be arranged in the order to which we are accustomed4 ,the order to which we are accustomed has been determined by good use4 ,the variety in the arrangement of the parts of a sentence that has been sanctioned by good usage is great1 yet there are limits4 ,grammar is based upon the usage of the best writers4 ,any offense against the grammar of our language is a sin against good use4 ,browning may use constructions so erratic that the ordinary reader does not know what he is reading about2 ,carlyle may forge a new word rather than take the trouble to find one that other people have used4 ,but the young writer1 at least1 is far safer while keeping within the limits of good use4 ,clearness gained by ,coherence4 ,coherence in a sentence is that principle of structure by which its parts are best arranged to stick together4 ,the parts of a sentence containing related ideas should be so associated that there can be no mistake regarding the reference or the modification4 ,such a sentence as the following cannot be understood2 the reference is obscure4 ,james told him that he did not see what he was to do in the matter4 ,if the reader were sure of the first he1 he could not come nearer than a guess at the reference of the second he4 ,the third personal pronoun--he1 she1 it--in all its cases is especially uncertain in its references4 ,the first sentence below is from an ,english grammar4 ,the second is from a recently published biography4 ,both are obscure in the reference of the pronouns4 ,when 'self' is added to a pronoun of the ,first and ,second person1 it is preceded by the ,possessive case4 ,but when it is added to a pronoun of the ,third person1 it is preceded by a pronoun in the ,objective case4 ,i am reminded of ,swinburne's view of ,providence when he said that he never saw an old gentleman give a sixpence to a beggar1 but he was straightway run over by a 'bus4 ,the relative pronoun is also uncertain in its references4 ,some ,southerners were among the ship's passengers1 of whom a few had served in the ,rebellion4 7,obscure reference47 ,red lights were displayed in a peculiar succession1 which warned of impending storm4 7,no antecedent47 ,to make the reference of pronouns1 personal and relative1 distinct1 the antecedent must be made prominent2 sometimes the only way out of the difficulty is a repetition of the antecedent4 ,and the pronoun should stand near the word to which it refers4 ,keep associated ideas together4 ,like pronouns in the uncertainty of their reference are participles4 ,either the subject is not expressed1 or it is uncertain4 ,hastening up the steps1 the door opened4 7,none47 ,coming from the spring1 with a pail of water in either hand1 he saw her for the first time4 7,uncertain47 ,adverbs are sometimes placed so that they make a sentence ridiculous2 and frequently their meaning is lost by being separated from the words they modify4 ,only is a word to be watched4 ,like adverbs are correlative conjunctions4 ,they are frequently so placed that they do not join the elements they were intended to unite4 ,he seized the young girl as she rose from the water almost roughly4 ,i think ,i hardly shall4 ,i only went as far as the gate4 ,who shall say1 of us who know only of rest and peace by toil and strife8 ,he not only learned algebra readily but also ,latin4 ,phrases and clauses may lose their reference by being removed from the words they modify4 ,toiling up the hill1 he arrived at ,hotel ,bellevue through a drizzling rain4 ,addison rose to a post which dukes1 the heads of the great houses of ,talbot1 ,russell1 and ,bentinck1 have thought it an honor to fill without high birth1 and with little property4 ,fred was liked well2 but he had the habit of that class that cannot get the ,english ,language in the right order when a little excited4 ,all the classes of errors which have been exemplified here are due to the infringement of one rule3 things that belong together in thought should stand together in composition4 ,nothing should be allowed to come between a pronoun1 an adjective1 an adverb1 a correlative1 a phrase1 or a clause1 and the word it modifies4 ,sometimes other modifiers have to be taken into account3 where more than one word or phrase modifies the same word1 a trial will have to be made to arrange them so that there shall be no obscurity or absurdity4 ,keep related ideas together2 keep unrelated ideas apart4 ,parallel ,construction4 ,the second principle which helps to make the relation of parts clear is parallel construction4 ,it has already been explained in paragraphs4 ,in sentences the commonest errors are in linking an infinitive with a gerund1 a participle with a verb1 an active with a passive voice1 a phrase with a clause4 ,the result is sentences like the following3-- ,you cannot persuade him to go and into buying what he does not want4 ,thus he spoke1 and turning to the door4 ,the king began to force the collection of duties1 and an army was sent by him to execute his wishes4 ,he was resolved to use patience and that he would often exercise charity4 ,such sentences are offensive to the ear2 and were they as long as the ones below1 they would not be clear4 ,you cannot persuade them to burn their books of curious science2 to banish their lawyers from their courts of laws2 or to quench the lights of their assemblies by refusing to choose those persons who are best read in their privileges4 ,for though rebellion is declared1 it is not proceeded against as such1 nor have any steps been taken towards the apprehension or conviction of any individual offender1 either on our late or our former ,address2 but modes of public coercion have been adopted1 and such as have much more resemblance to a sort of qualified hostility towards an independent power than the punishment of rebellious subjects4 ,my ,resolutions therefore mean ,,to ,,establish the equity and justice of a taxation of ,america by grant and not by imposition2 ,,to ,,mark the legal competency of the colony ,assemblies for the support of their government in peace1 and for public aids in time of war2 ,,to ,,acknowledge that this legal competency has had a dutiful and beneficial exercise2 and that experience has shown the benefit of their grants1 and the futility of ,parliamentary taxation as a method of supply4#di ,in the second sentence ,burke has used a passive voice when it would certainly be more elegant to change to the active4 ,is proceeded against is surely awkward1 but for uniformity and resulting clearness he has retained the passive4 ,in the last sentence the infinitives to establish1 to mark1 and to acknowledge are in the same construction2 they are objects of mean4 ,then comes a change of form to show that the clauses that this legal competency has had1 etc41 and that experience has shown1 etc41 are in a like relation to the infinitive to acknowledge4 ,though the last clause by reason of the punctuation looks correlative with the others1 it is not related as object to the verb mean1 as the others are1 but it is the object of to acknowledge4 ,there could hardly be a better example of the value of parallel constructions for the purpose of avoiding confusion1 and linking together parts that are related4 ,balanced ,sentences4 ,parallel constructions are used in balanced sentences4 ,in balanced sentences one part is balanced against another1--a noun and a noun1 an adjective and an adjective1 phrase and phrase4 ,balanced sentences are especially suited to express antithesis1 the figure of speech where two ideas are sharply opposed to each other4 ,in the following from ,newman1 the balancing is admirable3 ,inebriated with the cup of insanity1 and flung upon the stream of recklessness1 she dashes down the cataract of nonsense and whirls amid the pools of confusion4 ,this is not antithesis1 however2 but the following from ,macaulay is3 ,she seems to have written about the ,elizabethan age1 because she had read much about it2 she seems1 on the other hand1 to have read a little about the age of ,addison1 because she had determined to write about it4 ,the danger in the use of balanced sentences is excess4 ,macaulay is very fond of brilliant contrasts4 ,but is a very common word with him4 ,in some cases the reader feels that for the sake of the figure he has forced the truth4 ,balanced sentences are palpably artificial1 and should be used but sparingly4 ,there is1 however1 but little danger of overdoing the parallel construction where there is no antithesis4 ,the parts of succeeding sentences do not resemble each other so much in thought that there is great danger of resulting monotony in its expression4 ,however1 should the difficulty arise1 the monotony may be broken up by a trifling variation4 ,macaulay has done this well in the sentences quoted on page #ahf1 beginning with the words1 ,for his sake empires had risen1 and flourished1 and decayed1 and continuing to the end of the paragraph4 ,use of ,connectives4 ,the third method of securing coherence in a sentence is by the use of connectives4 ,the skillful use of prepositions and conjunctions indicates a master of words4 ,the use of connectives has been discussed when treating of emphasis secured by subdual of unimportant details4 ,such parts are connected1 and in a very definite way4 ,the relations are evident4 ,two examples will illustrate4 ,the first group of sentences are the fragments of but one of ,irving's4 ,he did not look to the right or left4 ,he did not notice the scene4 ,the scene was of rural wealth4 ,he had often gloated on this scene4 ,he went straight to the stable4 ,he kicked and cuffed his steed several times1 and so forth4 ,now note the value of prepositions in giving these separate sentences coherence4 ,without looking to the right or left to notice the scene of rural wealth1 on which he had so often gloated1 he went straight to the stable1 and with several hearty cuffs and kicks roused his steed most unceremoniously from the comfortable quarters in which he was soundly sleeping1 dreaming of mountains of corn and oats1 and whole valleys of timothy and clover4 ,the next also is from ,irving1 and shows the skillful use of conjunctions to point out unerringly the relation of the clauses in a sentence4 ,what seemed particularly odd to ,rip was that1 though these folks were evidently amusing themselves1 yet they maintained the gravest faces1 the most mysterious silence1 and were1 withal1 the most melancholy party of pleasure he had ever witnessed4 ,coherence1 the principle of structure that surely holds the parts of a sentence together1 is of greater importance than ,mass4 ,upon ,coherence depends the meaning of a sentence2 upon ,mass the force with which the meaning is expressed4 ,that the meaning may be clear1 it is necessary that the relation of the parts shall be perfectly evident4 ,this lucidity is gained by placing related parts near together1 and conversely1 by separating unrelated ideas2 by using parallel constructions for parallel thoughts2 and by indicating relations by the correct use of prepositions and conjunctions4 ,to summarize1 sentences are the elements of discourse4 ,the ability of a sentence to effect with certainty its purpose depends upon ,unity1 ,mass1 and ,coherence4 ,a sentence must contain all that is needed to express the whole thought1 but it must contain no more4 ,a sentence must be arranged so that its important parts shall be prominent4 ,position and proportion are the means of emphasis in a sentence4 ,by placing the important words near the major marks of punctuation1 by arranging the parts in a climax or a period1 by forcing words out of the natural order1 and by subduing unimportant details1 a sentence is massed to give the important elements their relative emphasis4 ,last1 the parts of a sentence should be arranged so that their relations shall be clear and unmistakable4 ,proximity of related parts1 parallel construction for parallel ideas1 and connectives are the surest means of securing ,coherence in a sentence4 ,,suggestive ,,questions ,,silas ,,marner4 7,riverside ,literature ,series1 ,no4 #hc47 ,on page #ah put together the sentence beginning ,every man's work1 etc41 with the next4 ,what connective and what punctuation will you use8 ,what is the difference in effect8 ,what one of the relations of a compound sentence does the second part bear to the first8 ,on page #bf could you make two sentences of the sentence beginning1 ,raveloe lay low among the bushy trees8 ,would it be as well8 ,would it be better8 ,on page #ce do the three parts of the compound sentence beginning1 ,he would have liked1 etc41 belong to one sentence8 ,which one8 ,is it right to say1 ,he would have liked to spring1 or would it be better to say1 ,he would have liked to have sprung8 ,do you think colons are used too frequently in ,silas ,marner8 ,compare their use with their use in ,hawthorne's ,stories and ,irving's ,sketches4 ,in the sentence beginning1 ,let him live1 etc41 at the bottom of page #id1 is a possible state of mind in some possible person not yet forthcoming1 a climax or an anti-climax8 ,why8 ,at the bottom of page #ahc why was it necessary to crowd so much into one sentence8 ,,macaulay',s ,,essay ,,on ,,milton4 7,riverside ,literature ,series1 ,no4 #ajc47 ,re-write the sentence on page #cc beginning1 ,of all poets1 etc41 making it loose4 ,is it better or worse8 ,why does here stand first in the next sentence8 ,what poets with whom you are familiar have philosophized too much8 ,is the first sentence of the paragraph beginning in the middle of page #cf periodic or loose8 ,how many periodic sentences in this paragraph8 ,in the paragraph on pages #cg and #ch trace the relation of the succeeding sentences4 ,at the bottom of page #de what is the reason for putting first in the sentence1 of those principles8 ,what do you think of the massing of the whole sentence8 ,what has been made emphatic8 ,note the last two sentences at the end of the paragraph on page #eh4 ,is their arrangement effective8 ,change one4 ,what is the effect8 7,see also the middle of page #fd47 ,on page #fj why did he not say1 ,she grovels like a beast1 she hisses like a serpent1 she stings like a scorpion8 ,what arrangement of clauses in the first sentence in the paragraph beginning at the bottom of page #ff8 ,does it add clearness8 ,in the same paragraph find a balanced sentence4 ,what advantage is there in the short sentences on page #fh8 ,in the first sentence of the paragraph1 beginning on page #ga1 read one of the clauses1 by whom king1 church1 and aristocracy were trampled down4 ,what is the effect of the change8 ,is the parallel construction in the last sentence beginning on page #gg good8 ,is it good in the last sentence of this paragraph8 ,in the next paragraph1 why is ,macaulay's way better than this3 ,he was neither ,puritan1 free thinker1 nor royalist8 ,when a sentence is introduced by a participial phrase or a dependent clause it is in part or wholly periodic4 ,does ,macaulay frequently use this introduction8 ,what is the effect upon his style8 ,can you find examples of sentences beginning with a loose structure1 and having within them examples of the periodic structure8 ,in the paragraph filling pages #gi and #hj there are many examples of periodic and parallel structure4 ,contrast this paragraph with some of ,lamb's paragraphs4 ,what is the effect of position upon the phrase1 ,even in his hands1 on page #fg8 ,when ,macaulay inverts the order of a sentence does he usually do it for emphasis or to secure coherence8 ,does he use many pronouns and conjunctions8 ,does he repeat words8 ,,burke',s ,,speech ,,on ,,conciliation ,,with ,,the ,,colonies4 7,riverside ,literature ,series1 ,no4 #ajj47 ,how many sentences in the first paragraph are periodic8 ,what kind of sentences in paragraph #aj8 ,what is the effect of this paragraph8 ,notice the arrangement of loose and periodic clauses in the last sentence in paragraph #ab4 ,make this sentence entirely loose4 ,in the long sentence in paragraph #be do the he's and him's all refer to the same person8 ,what would you say of ,burke's use of pronouns8 ,find examples of balanced sentences in this oration4 ,are you ever astray regarding ,burke's meaning8 ,what has he done to gain clearness8 ,for what purpose does he frequently use questions8 ,,webster',s ,,bunker ,,hill ,,oration4 7,riverside ,literature ,series1 ,no4 #ef47 ,what relation has the second sentence of paragraph #a to the first8 ,is the last sentence in paragraph #c clear8 ,how has he made it so8 ,compare this sentence with the one beginning at the bottom of page #ab4 ,in the last sentence of paragraph #f where does loose structure change to the periodic8 ,in paragraph #g why would it be a blemish to write1 ,that we may keep alive similar sentiments8 ,why does he repeat ,we wish so many times8 ,why did he not substitute synonyms8 ,in paragraph #ah why has he used the word interest more than once8 ,if the thought is to be repeated1 why not some other word8 ,in the eighth sentence of paragraph #ba is the structure periodic or loose8 ,reverse the order of clauses in the last sentence of paragraph #bh4 ,what is the effect8 99 99 99 99 99 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,words ,a word is the sign of an idea4 ,whether the idea be an object1 a quality1 an action1 simple existence1 or a relation1 if it be communicated to another1 it must have some sign2 in language these signs are words4 ,infinitely varied are the ideas man has to express4 ,each day1 each moment1 has its new combination of circumstances2 yet by the common person the effect of the novel situation is described as horrid or awful or perfectly lovely4 ,three adjectives to describe all creation6 ,no wonder that people are constantly misunderstood2 that others do not get their ideas4 ,how can they8 ,do the best the master can1 the thought will not pass from him to his reader without considerable deflection4 ,he cannot say exactly what he would4 ,his words do not hold the same meaning for him as for others4 ,mother to him is a dear woman with a gentle voice1 always dressed in black1 sitting by the window of home2 to another she is a shrieking termagant1 whose phrases are punctuated by blows4 ,there is not a word that means exactly the same to two persons2 yet with words men must express their thoughts1 their feelings1 their hopes1 their purposes1--always changing1 ever new1--and for all this shall they use but a few score of words8 ,words are the last1 least elements of language2 without these least elements1 these atoms of language1 no sentence1 however simple1 can be made2 by means of them1 the master drives mobs to frenzy or soothes the pain of eternal loss4 ,the calm and peace which ,emerson knew1 we know2 the perpetual benediction of past years which ,wordsworth felt1 all may feel4 ,these thoughts masters have expressed in words1 but not in three words4 ,thousands are not enough accurately to transfer their visions of this changing universe from them to us4 ,ideas infinite in their variety demand for their expression all the means which our language has placed at the disposal of the master4 ,for this true expression the whole dictionary with its thousands of words is all too small4 ,need of a ,large ,vocabulary4 ,whoever hopes to be understood must acquire a full1 rich vocabulary4 ,however clearly he may think1 however much he may feel1 until he has words1 the thought1 the emotion1 must remain his alone4 ,to get a vocabulary1 then1 is a person's business4 ,he who has it can command him who has it not4 ,not in literature alone1 but in business1--in medicine1 in law1 behind the accountant's desk or the salesman's counter1--he is master who can say what he means so that the person to whom he speaks must know just what he means4 ,now it is a singular truth that when we read any great author1 the words which we do not understand are remarkably few4 ,even in ,shakespeare there are not many2 and the few are unknown by reason of a constantly changing vocabulary4 ,it was probably true then1 as it would certainly be to-day1 that the large majority of audiences lost not a word of his fifteen thousand1 while they themselves used less than eight hundred4 ,we know what others say2 yet we say nothing ourselves4 ,what a vocabulary one could accumulate1 if from six to eighteen he added only two words a day6 ,twelve years1 and each year more than seven hundred words6 ,it does not look a difficult task4 ,children do more1 and never realize the superiority of their achievement4 ,nine thousand words at eighteen6 ,shakespeare alone used more4 ,macaulay needed scarcely six thousand4 ,dictionary4 ,how shall a vocabulary be accumulated8 ,one method is by the use of a dictionary2 and many persons find it a source of great pleasure4 ,the genealogy and biography of words are as fascinating to a devoted philologist as stamps to a philatelist or cathedrals to an architect4 ,canteen is quite an unassuming little word4 ,yet imperious ,caesar knew it in its childhood4 ,the ,roman camp was laid out like a small city1 with regular streets and avenues4 ,on one of these streets called the ,via ,quintana all the supplies were kept4 ,when the word passed into the ,italian1 it became cantina2 and cantinas may be found among all nations who have drawn their language from the ,latin4 ,there is this difference1 however3 that whereas eatables were to be had in the ,roman quintana1 only drinkables can be found in the ,italian cantina4 ,when the ,english adopted the word1 the middle meaning1 a place where wines are stored1 a wine-cellar1 came to be a small flask especially fitted for the rough usage of a soldier's life1 in which a necessary supply of some sort of liquid may be carried4 ,so the name of a street has become the much-berated canteen of the sutler and the much needed canteen of the soldier4 ,the dictionary is full of such fascinating biographies4 ,still its fascination is not the reason why most people study the dictionary3 it is because such a study is necessary for the person who hopes for an accurate knowledge of the words he reads4 ,it is not impossible to know pretty nearly what it means from the context2 but no master uses words without knowing exactly what they mean4 ,certainty of meaning precedes frequency of use2 and this necessary confidence is gained from a study of the dictionary4 ,in a general way we know all the words of ,macaulay's vocabulary2 but the average man uses only eight hundred of them4 ,his knowledge of words is no more than an indistinct1 mumbling knowledge4 ,to lift each word out of its context1 to make it a distinct1 living entity1 capable of serving1 the definition must be studied4 ,then the student knows just what service the word is fitted for1 and finds a pleasure in being competent to command that service4 ,the dictionary is a necessity to the person who hopes to use words4 ,study of ,literature4 ,yet the knowledge of words that the student derives from the dictionary is not sufficient4 ,when one hears an educated foreigner speak1 he detects little errors in his use of words1--errors which are not the fault of definition1 but errors in the idiomatic use of words4 ,this use cannot be learned from a dictionary1 where words are studied individually1 but only by studying them in combination with other words where the influence of one word upon another may be noted4 ,there is little difference in the size of a pile of stones1 whether we say a great pile of stones or a large pile of stones2 but a great man is of much more consequence than a large man4 ,a dictionary could hardly have told a foreigner this4 ,a man may pursue or chase a robber1 as the author wishes2 but he may not chase a course4 ,prepositions are especially liable to be misused1 and their correct use comes from a study of literature1 not of the dictionary4 ,the nice and discriminating refinements in the use of words are learned by careful reading4 ,when a phrase is met1 such as the steep and solitary eastern heaven1 where each word has been born to a new beauty2 or this1 ,and the sweet city with her dreaming spires1 where the adjectives sweet and dreaming have a richer content1 they should be regarded with great care and greeted with even more delight than words entirely new4 ,how to read that we may gain this complete mastery of words1 ,mr4 ,ruskin has best told us in ,sesame and ,lilies4 ,every person should know ,of ,kings' ,treasuries by reading and re-reading4 ,literature1 the way masters have used words1 will furnish a knowledge of the nicer discriminations in their use4 ,the dictionary and literature are the sources of a full and refined vocabulary4 ,but the vocabulary which may be perfectly understood is not entirely in one's possession until it is used4 ,seek the first opportunity to use the newly acquired word4 ,it will be hard to utter it2 you will feel an effort in getting it out4 ,only once1 however2 after that it rises as easily as any old familiar word4 ,because the companion with whom you speak is always just as mad as she can be1 is no reason why you may not at times be vexed1 annoyed1 aggravated1 exasperated1 or angry4 ,men are not always either perfectly lovely or awful2 neither are all ladies jewels4 ,there are degrees of villainy and nobility2 and all jewels have not the same lustre4 ,know what you want to say1 and find the one word that will exactly say it4 ,this costs work1 it is true2 but what is there worth having which has not cost some one work8 ,do the work2 search for the word2 then use it4 ,in this way a vocabulary becomes a real possession4 ,the words which a person may use are generally described as reputable1 national1 and present4 ,words must be reputable2 that is1 sanctioned by the authority of the creators of ,english literature4 ,they must be national2 words that are the property of the mass of the people1 not of a clique or a district4 ,and they must be of the present2 ,chaucer's vocabulary1 though it be the source of ,english1 will not satisfy the conditions of to-day4 ,vulgarisms are not reputable4 ,first1 words must be of reputable use4 ,no person would consider vulgarisms reputable4 ,when a person says ,i hain't got none1 he has reached about the acme of vulgarisms1 the language of the illiterate4 ,grammar has been disregarded2 a word has been used which is not a word2 and another word has no reason for its appearance in the sentence4 ,yet sometimes this expression is heard2 seldom seen written4 ,it is always set down to the account of an illiterate home2 for no one can reach a high school without knowing its grammatical errors4 ,the unerring use of don't1 me1 ,i1 lie1 lay1 set1 and sit1 is not so assured that the list can be omitted4 ,adjectives are used for adverbs2 real good is not yet forgotten4 ,nouns are called upon to do the work of verbs4 ,this is the language of the illiterate1 and it should be avoided2 for vulgarisms are not reputable4 ,slang is not reputable4 ,neither is slang reputable4 ,he would be a prude who would not recognize that slang is sometimes right to the point2 and that many of our strongest idioms were originally slang4 ,still1 although many phrases which to-day are called slang were at one time reputable1 the fact of their respectable birth cannot save them from the slight imputation that now they are slang4 ,notwithstanding the fact that we owe some of our strongest idioms to slang1 the free use of slang always vulgarizes4 ,it generally is called upon to supply a deficiency either in thought or in the power of expression4 ,people too lazy to think1 too indolent to read1 with little to say1 and but a few slang phrases to say it with1 may be allowed to practice this vulgarity2 but cultured persons in cultured conversation will eschew all acquaintance with it4 ,to find it in the serious composition of educated persons always raises a question of their refinement4 ,it is the stock in trade of the lazy and the uncultured4 ,it is used to divert attention from poverty of thought and a threadbare vocabulary4 ,it is unnecessary for the complete expression of thought by the scholar and man of refinement4 ,it is a real misfortune that many good words have been tarnished by the handling of the illiterate4 ,awful1 horrid1 and lovely are good words2 but they have been sullied by common use4 ,so common have they become that they approach slang4 ,they may be rescued from that charge in each person's writing1 if he shows by accurate use of them that he is master of their secret strength4 ,milton wrote in ,paradise ,lost3-- ,no6 let us rather choose1 ,armed with ,hell-flames and fury1 all at once ,o'er ,heav'n's high towers to force resistless way1 ,turning our tortures into horrid arms ,against the ,torturer4 ,lord ,lytton makes ,richelieu exclaim3-- ,look where she stands6 ,around her form ,i draw ,the awful circle of our solemn church4 ,and in the ,new ,testament we read3-- ,finally1 brethren1 whatsoever things are true1 whatsoever things are honest1 whatsoever things are just1 whatsoever things are pure1 whatsoever things are lovely1 whatsoever things are of good report2 if there be any virtue1 and if there be any praise1 think on these things4 ,there is no question here of the words2 they have all the freshness and vigor of their youth4 ,do not hesitate to use such words exactly4 ,when the thought calls for them1 they say with certainty what can be expressed only doubtfully by other words4 ,words must be national4 ,provincialisms4 ,second1 words must be of national use4 ,they cannot be words confined to a locality4 ,when ,morris talks of a house that has been gammoned1 he deprives a large number of readers of his meaning4 ,gums and brasses may be good in certain districts of ,england1 but in literature they should not be used1 for they would not generally be understood4 ,for the same reason much of the common conversation of the ,south is foreign to a native of ,new ,york4 ,whoever employs the language of a locality limits his circle of readers to that locality4 ,to write for all he must use the language of all2 he must avoid provincialisms4 ,technical and ,bookish ,words4 ,like words that are used by a small region are words which are understood by a clique of persons4 ,scholars are inclined to use a scholarly vocabulary4 ,the biologist has one2 the chemist another2 the philosopher a third4 ,this technical vocabulary may be a necessity at times2 but when a specialist addresses the public1 his words must be the words which an average cultured man can understand4 ,such words can be found if the writer will look for them2 if he does not1 his work can scarcely be called literature4 ,technical words and bookish terms are not words of national use4 ,the following by ,josiah ,royce illustrates how clearly a most abstruse topic can be handled by a man willing to take the trouble3#ej-- ,if you ask what sort of thing this substance is1 the first answer is1 that it is something eternal2 and that means1 not that it lasts a good while1 but that no possible temporal view of it could exhaust its nature4 ,all things that happen result from the one substance4 ,this surely means that what happens now and what happened millions of years ago are1 for the substance1 equally present and necessary results4 ,to illustrate once more in my own way3 ,a spider creeping back and forth across a circle could1 if she were geometrically disposed1 measure out in temporal succession first this diameter1 and then that4 ,crawling first over one diameter1 she would say1 ',i now find this so long4' ,afterwards examining another diameter1 she would say1 ',it has now happened that what ,i have just measured proves to be precisely as long as what ,i measured some time since1 and no longer4' ,the toil of such a spider might last many hours1 and be full of such successive measurements1 each marked by a spun thread of web4 ,but the true circle itself within which the web was spun1 the circle in actual space as the geometer knows it1 would its nature be thus a series of events1 a mere succession of spun threads8 ,no1 the true circle would be timeless1 a truth founded in the nature of space1 outlasting1 preceding1 determining all the weary web-spinning of this time-worn spider4 ,even so we1 spinning our web of experience in all its dreary complications in the midst of the eternal nature of the world-embracing substance1 imagine that our lives somehow contain true novelty1 discover for the substance what it never knew before1 invent new forms of being4 ,we fancy our past wholly past1 and our future wholly unmade4 ,we think that where we have yet spun no web1 there is nothing1 and that what we long ago spun has vanished1 broken by the winds of time into nothingness4 ,it is not so4 ,for the eternal substance there is no before and after2 all truth is truth4 ',far and forgot to me is near1' it says4 ,in the unvarying precision of its mathematical universe1 all is eternally written4 ',not all your piety nor wit ,can lure it back to cancel half a line1 ,nor all your tears wash out one word of it4' ,foreign ,words4 ,words and phrases from a foreign language should be used only as a last resort4 ,bon mot1 sine qua non1 and dolce far niente are all very apt1 and to a person like ,mr4 ,lowell1 who was intimately acquainted with many languages1 they may come as soon as their ,english equivalents4 ,in the case of such a person1 the reason why they should not be used is that the reader cannot understand them4 ,but when a young smatterer uses them to advertise his calling acquaintance with a language1 he is but proclaiming his own lack of good taste4 ,in his composition they are as ineffective to make it respectable as a large diamond on a gamester's finger to make him an honored gentleman4 ,use the ,english language when writing for ,english-speaking people4 ,it has the fullest1 richest vocabulary in the world4 ,it will not be found unequal to the task of expressing your thoughts4 ,words in ,present ,use4 ,third1 words should be in present use4 ,words may be so new that people do not know them2 they may have passed out of use after years of good service4 ,of new words1 but little can be said4 ,the language constantly changes4 ,new discoveries and inventions demand new words4 ,what ones will be more than temporary cannot be prophesied4 ,blizzard and mugwump were new but a short time ago3 the latter is dying from disuse1 the former has come to stay4 ,in this uncertainty one thing can be said1 however4 ,no word which has not secured recognition should be used by a young person1 if by reputable words already in the language he can express his meaning4 ,and just as he should not be the first to take up an untried word1 so the young writer should not be the last to drop a dead one4 ,there is at present a sort of fad for old ,english4 ,a large number of words that have been resting quietly in their graves for centuries have been called forth4 ,some may enjoy a second life2 most of them will feel only the weakness of a second obsolescence4 ,foreword and inwit were good once2 but preface and conscience mean as much and have the advantage of being alive4 ,to be understood use the words of the present4 ,words in their ,present ,meaning4 ,use words in their present signification4 ,not only has language cast out many words2 it has changed many others so that they are hardly recognized4 ,when ,chaucer wrote1 ,ther may no man ,mercury mortify ,but hit be with his brother knowleching1 mortify meant to make dead1 to kill4 ,to-day a lady may say she was mortified to death2 but that is hyperbole4 ,in ,paradise ,lost ,satan may ,through the palpable obscure find out ,his uncouth way4 ,but a person to-day is not justified in using uncouth for unknown4 ,the works of ,shakespeare and ,milton abound in words whose life has been prolonged to the present1 but whose signification has been changed4 ,the writer who seeks to use words with these old meanings is standing in his own light4 ,such use always attracts attention to the words themselves1 and by so much subtracts attention from the thought4 ,words of ,latin and ,saxon ,origin4 ,words that are in good use have been divided into two classes1 as they have been drawn from two sources4 ,some differences between ,anglo-,saxon and ,latin words are marked4 ,saxon words are generally short2 ,latin words long4 ,the first are the words of home and are concerned with the necessities of life2 the second are the words of the court and the adornments of polite society4 ,the former made the foundation of our language and gave to it its idiomatic strength2 the latter came later1 and added to the strength of the language its grace and refinement4 ,in our speech there can be no doubt that short words are used when the purpose is to be understood quickly1 even harshly1 while the longer words are frequently employed for saying unpleasant things pleasantly4 ,euphemism1 the choice of words not harsh for harsh ideas1 has its uses4 ,it is not always wrong to say1 ,he was taken away for ,he was killed4 ,but when the plain truth is to be spoken1 when1 as in most composition1 the object is to be understood1 the words should be chosen which exactly express the thought1 be those words ,latin or ,saxon4 ,for any one to say1 ,was launched into eternity for ,was hanged1 or ,when the fatal noose was adjusted about the neck of the unfortunate victim of his own unbridled passions for ,when the halter was put around his neck1 is a useless parade of vocabulary4#ea ,one knows that such phrases are made by a writer who is ignorant of the value of words1 or by a penny-a-liner1 willing to sacrifice every effect of language to the immediate needs of his purse4 ,such writing has no power4 ,the words are dictated by too low a motive to have any force in them4 ,let a writer go straight to the point as directly as the hindrances of language will allow4 ,even then his expression will lag behind his thought4 ,this does not mean that one is to use ,saxon words always4 ,it means that one shall use the words that say exactly what is to be said1 so that the reader can get the exact thought with the least outlay of attention to the words4 ,latin words are as common as ,saxon words4 ,to search out a ,saxon word because it is ,saxon and short is as reprehensible as to use the indirection of ,latin words where directness is wanted4 ,latin words have a place2 they express the finer distinctions and gradations of thought4 ,in the discussion of any question requiring nice precision of statement ,latin words are necessary4 ,in the following from ,newman1 it would be difficult1 perhaps impossible1 to substitute words of ,anglo-,saxon origin for the words of ,latin origin1 and could it be done1 the passage would not then have the clearness it now has from his use of common words1 though they be ,latin3-- ,i mean then by the ,supreme ,being1 one who is simply self-dependent1 and the only ,being who is such2 moreover1 that ,he is without beginning or ,eternal1 and the only ,eternal2 that in consequence ,he has lived a whole eternity by ,himself2 and hence that ,he is all-sufficient1 sufficient for his own blessedness1 and all-blessed1 and ever-blessed4 ,further1 ,i mean a ,being who1 having these prerogatives1 has the ,supreme ,good1 or rather is the ,supreme ,good1 or has all the attributes of good in infinite intenseness2 all wisdom1 all truth1 all justice1 all love1 all holiness1 all beautifulness2 who is omnipotent1 omniscient1 omnipresent2 ineffably one1 absolutely perfect2 and such that what we do not know of ,him is far more wonderful than what we do and can4#eb ,latin words1 moreover1 have a fullness of sound which gives them an added weight and dignity4 ,one would hesitate long before changing one of ,milton's big-sounding phrases1 even if he were not compelled to sacrifice the metre4 ,in ,webster's orations there is a dignity1 a sublimity1 gained by the use of full-mouthed polysyllables4 ,supposing he had said at the beginning of his eulogy of ,adams and ,jefferson1 ,this is a new sight instead of ,this is an unaccustomed spectacle1 the whole effect of dignified utterance commensurate with the occasion would have been lost4 ,the oration abounds in examples of reverberating cadences4 ,milton's sentences are a stately procession of gorgeous words3 the dignified pomp of the advance is occasioned by the wealth of essential beauty and historical association in the individual words3-- ,that proud honor claimed ,azazel as his right1 a ,cherube tall3 ,who forthwith from the glittering staff unfurl'd ,th' imperial ensign1 which1 full high advanc't ,shon like a meteor streaming to the wind1 ,with gemms and golden lustre rich emblaz'd ,seraphic arms and trophies2 all the while ,sonorous metall blowing martial sounds3 ,at which the universal host up-sent ,a shout that tore ,hell's concave1 and beyond ,frighted the reign of ,chaos and old ,night4 ,all in a moment through the gloom were seen ,ten thousand banners rise into the air1 ,with orient colours waving2 with them rose ,a forrest huge of spears2 and thronging helms ,appear'd1 and serried shields in thick array ,of depth immeasurable4 7,paradise ,lost47 ,the choice of words does not depend on whether they are of ,latin or of ,saxon origin4 ,in use it will be found that short words1 like short sentences1 give more directness and force to the composition2 while long words have a dignified elegance and refinement of discrimination not the property of monosyllables4 ,no one should think1 however1 that short words cause the force or long words cause the dignity4 ,these qualities belong to the thought2 the completeness of its expression is approached by a choice in words4 ,choose words for their fitness to say what you think1 or feel1 or purpose1 having no regard for their origin4 ,general and specific4 ,words are also classified as general and specific4 ,by a general word is meant a word common to or denoting a large number of ideas4 ,by specific is meant a word that denotes or specifies a single idea4 ,man1 move1 bad1 are general and denote a large number of ideas2 while ,whittier1 glide1 thieving1 are specific1 denoting but one man1 one movement1 one kind of badness4 ,man denotes the whole human race1 while it implies a feeling1 thinking1 speaking1 willing animal4 ,whittier denotes but a single person1 but beside all the common qualities implied by the1 word man1 ,whittier suggests1 among other things1 a homely face1 serious and kind1 a poet1 and an anti-slavery worker4 ,use ,words that suggest most4 ,as a principle in composition1 it may be said that the more a word or phrase can be made to imply or suggest1 while at the same time expressing all that the writer wishes to say1 the more valuable does that word or phrase become4 ,yet it should be remembered that words may be so specific that they do not include all that the author wishes to include4 ,for instance1 if instead of ,blessed are the peacemakers1 the beatitude should be made to read ,blessed are the ,quakers1 though this organized body of persons labor for the blessings of peace1 yet the meaning would be restricted by the limited denotation of the term4 ,it does not include enough4 ,so in almost all of ,emerson's writing1 it would not be possible to express his entire thought with more specific words4 ,therefore regard must always be had for the thought1--that it may be expressed in its perfect fullness and entirety4 ,keeping this full expression in view1 those words are strongest1 truest1 richest1 which suggest most4 ,to say of a person that he is a bad man is one thing2 that he is a traitor is quite another2 but when one writes that he is a veritable ,judas1 words fail to keep pace with suggestions1 and reason yields to emotion4 ,specific words1 if they denote the whole idea1 are as much better than general terms as their suggestion exceeds the suggestion of general terms4 ,synecdoche1 ,metonymy4 ,much of the force of figures of speech is derived from the suggestive quality of the specific words employed4 ,when a man calls another a dog1 he has used a metaphor4 ,he has availed himself of a term that gathers up all the snarling qualities of the worst of the dog species4 ,the figure has high suggestive power4 ,synecdoche1 too1 that figure of speech in which a part is used for the whole or the whole for a part1 employs a term of higher suggestive power for one of lower connoting force4 ,all hands took hold is better than ,all persons went to work4 ,metonymy is the substitution of the name of one thing for that of another to which the former bears a known and close relation4 ,the most common of these known and close relations are those of cause and its effects1 of container and the thing contained1 and of sign and the thing signified4 ,he has read ,shakespeare1 ,he was addicted to the use of the bottle1 ,all patriots fight for the flag1 are examples of metonymy4 ,all these figures depend in large degree for their power upon the greater suggestiveness of specific words2 and their use gives to composition an efficiency and directness commensurate with the greater connoting value of the specific words4 ,care in ,choice of ,specific ,words4 ,a writer should keep in mind the fact that the same word may mean widely different things to two persons4 ,for this reason the specific word that appeals to him most may be of no value in addressing others4 ,free silver means to one set of men the withdrawal of money from investment1 consequent stagnation in business1 followed by the closing of factories and penury among laborers4 ,to others it means three dollars a day for unskilled labor1 fire1 clothes1 and something to eat4 ,again1 if one wished to present the horrors of devastating disease1 in the ,south he would mention yellow fever1 in the ,north smallpox2 but to a lady who saw six little brothers and sisters dead from it in one week1 three carried to the graveyard on the hillside one chill ,november morning1 all the terrors of contagious disease are suggested by the word diphtheria4 ,words are weighted with our experiences4 ,they are laden with what we have lived into them4 ,as persons have different experiences1 each word carries to each person a different meaning4 ,the wise writer chooses those specific words which suggest most to the men he addresses1--in general1 to the average man4 ,there are many words that carry some of the same suggestions to all4 ,these words are connected with the common things of life3 such words as home1 death1 mother1 and the many more that have been with all people from childhood4 ,they are simple little words crowded with experiences4 ,such words carry a weight of suggestion not found in strange new words4 ,it is for this reason that simple language goes straight to the heart2 it is so loaded with life4 ,of two expressions that convey the thought with equal accuracy1 always choose the simpler4 ,the following poems--one by ,tennyson1#ec steeped in pain1 perfect in its phrasing2 the other by ,kipling1 rising to a conception of a true artist's work1 never before so simply expressed--are both written in home words1 little words1 but words all know1 words that carry to all a common meaning3-- ,tears1 idle tears1 ,i know not what they mean3 ,tears from the depth of some divine despair ,rise in the heart and gather to the eyes1 ,in looking on the happy autumn fields1 ,and thinking of the days that are no more4 ,fresh as the first beam glittering on a sail ,that brings our friends up from the underworld2 ,sad as the last which reddens over one ,that sinks with all we love below the verge2 ,so sad1 so fresh1 the days that are no more4 ,ah6 sad and strange as in dark summer dawns ,the earliest pipe of half-awakened birds ,to dying ears1 when unto dying eyes ,the casement slowly grows a glimmering square2 ,so sad1 so strange1 the days that are no more4 ,dear as remembered kisses after death1 ,and sweet as those by hopeless fancy feigned ,on lips that are for others2 deep as love1 ,deep as first love1 and wild with all regret2 ,o ,death in ,life1 the days that are no more6 ,l',,envoi4#ed ,when ,earth's last picture is painted and the tubes are twisted and dried1 ,when the oldest colors have faded1 and the youngest critic has died1 ,we shall rest1 and1 faith1 we shall need it-- lie down for an aeon or two1 ,till the ,master of ,all ,good ,workmen shall put us to work anew6 ,and those that were good shall be happy3 they shall sit in a golden chair2 ,they shall splash at a ten-league canvas with brushes of comets' hair2 ,they shall find real saints to draw from-- ,magdalene1 ,peter1 and ,paul2 ,they shall work for an age at a sitting and never be tired at all6 ,and only the ,master shall praise us1 and only the ,master shall blame2 ,and no one shall work for money1 and no one shall work for fame2 ,but each for the joy of the working1 and each1 in his separate star1 ,shall draw the ,thing as he sees ,it for the ,god of ,things as ,they ,are6 ,avoid ,hackneyed ,phrases4 ,much like general terms1 which mean something or nothing1 are expressions that have become trite and hackneyed4 ,at some time they were accurate phrases1 saying just what was needed4 ,by being used for all sorts of purposes1 they have lost the original thought of which they were the accurate expression4 ,they have no freshness4 ,the sounding phrases repeated in the pulpit1 or the equally empty phrases of the scientist1 however good they were at their inception1 are1 in the writing of many persons1 but theological and scientific cant relied upon by ignorant people to cover up the vacuity of their thought4 ,one's own expression1 even though it be not so elegant and graceful1 is better than any worn-out1 hackneyed phrase4 ,think for yourself2 then say what you have thought in the best language you can find yourself4 ,fine ,writing4 ,fine writing1 the subjection of noble words to ignoble service1 is to be avoided4 ,mr4 ,micawber was addicted to this pomposity of language2 and ,dickens1 by the creation of this character1 has done literature a real service1 by showing how absurd it is1 how valueless for anything more than humor4 ',under the impression1' said ,mr4 ,micawber1 'that your peregrinations in this metropolis have not as yet been extensive1 and that you might have some difficulty in penetrating the arcana of the ,modern ,babylon in the direction of the ,city ,road--in short1' said ,mr4 ,micawber1 in another burst of confidence1 'that you might lose yourself--,i shall be happy to call this evening1 and install you in the knowledge of the nearest way4' ,here are great words in profusion to dress out a little thought4 ,fine writing is as much out of taste as over-dressing4 ,when the thought calls for noble expression1 then all one's energies should be bent to finding noble phrases2 but for common things common expressions are the only ones in good taste4 ,in ,prose avoid ,poetical ,words4 ,much like fine writing is the use of poetical words in prose4 ,enow1 erstwhile1 besprent1 methinks1 agone1 and thine are examples of a large class of words which1 though in perfectly good taste in poetry1 are in extremely poor taste in prose4 ,they are out of place2 and so attract attention to themselves1 not to the thought they express4 ,when writing prose1 avoid poetical words4 ,all of this comes at last to one rule3 be exact1 be accurate in the choice of words4 ,not a word that half expresses the thought1 not even one that is pretty near1 but the only word that exactly expresses the meaning1 that word must be used4 ,it is not a question of long or short1 of ,latin or ,saxon1 of general or specific2 it is a question of accuracy or inaccuracy1 the whole or a part1 the whole or too much1 of just right or about right4 ,no one would entirely misunderstand the following sentence2 and just as certainly no one would derive from these words the impression the author had when he wrote it4 ,he has phrased it as follows3 ,another direction in which free education is most valuable to society1 is the way in which it removes the gulf affixed between the rich and poor4 ,the boy wanted the opening sentence to sound big1 and forgot that the first use of words is accurately to express the thought4 ,in this sentence are the commonest errors in the choice of words4 ,most valuable says more than truth2 direction says less than truth2 and affixed does not say anything4 ,had the boy studied the dictionary1 had he been familiar with the ,bible1 had he carefully considered the figure he introduced with the word gulf1 he would not have written this incongruous sentence2 he would not have been inaccurate4 ,spare no pains in your effort to be exact4 ,search through the words of your own vocabulary2 if these fall short1 find others in the dictionary4 ,get the word that exactly expresses the thought4 ,let no fine-sounding or high-born word trick you into saying what you do not mean4 ,be master of your words2 never let fine expressions enslave you4 ,in a word1 be accurate4 ,such painstaking labor has its reward not alone in the increased power of expression2 there is also a corresponding growth in the ability to observe accurately and to think clearly4 ,no man can write such descriptions as ,ruskin and ,stevenson have written without seeing accurately2 nor can a man speak with the definite certainty of ,burke without thinking clearly4 ,the desire to be accurate in expression drives a writer to be accurate in thinking4 ,to think is the highest that man can hope from education4 ,anything that contributes to this highest attainment should be undertaken with joy4 ,whether planning a story or constructing an argument2 whether excluding irrelevant matter or including what contributes to the perfection of the whole2 whether massing the material so that all the parts shall receive their due emphasis2 whether relating the parts so that the thought advances steadily and there can be no misunderstanding1--in all this the student will find arduous labor4 ,yet after all this is done1--when the theme1 the paragraphs1 and the sentences contain exactly what is needed1 are properly massed1 and are set in perfect order1--then comes the long labor of revision1 which does not stop until the exact word is hunted out4 ,for upon words1 at last1 we are dependent for the expression of our observation and thought4 ,he is most entirely master of his thoughts who can accurately express them3 clearly1 that he cannot be misunderstood2 forcefully1 that he will not be unread2 and elegantly1 that he give the reader joy4 ,and this mastery he evinces in a finely discriminating choice of words4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,chapter ,x ,,figures ,,of ,,speech ,figurative ,language4 ,there is a generally accepted division of language into literal and figurative4 ,language that is literal uses words in their accepted and accurate meaning4 ,figurative language employs words with meanings not strictly literal1 but varying from their ordinary definitions4 ,much of our language is figurative4 ,when a person says1 ,he is a bright boy1 he has used the word bright in a sense that is not literal2 the use is figurative4 ,in the following there is hardly a sentence that has not some variation from literal language4 ,down by the river there is1 as yet1 little sign of spring4 ,its bed is all choked with last year's reeds1 trampled about like a manger4 ,yet its running seems to have caught a happier note1 and here and there along its banks flash silvery wands of palm4 ,right down among the shabby burnt-out underwood moves the sordid figure of a man4 ,his hat is battered1 and he wears no collar4 ,i don't like staring at his face1 for he has been unfortunate4 ,yet a glimpse tells me that he is far down the hill of life1 old and drink-corroded at fifty4 7,le ,gallienne47 ,in the second sentence there are at least three figurative expressions4 ,bed1 choked1 and trampled like a manger are not literal4 ,so1 too1 in the next sentence there are two beautiful variations from literal expression4 ,going on through the selection the reader will find frequently some happy change from literalness1--sometimes just a word1 sometimes a phrase4 ,figurative language is of great value4 ,it adds clearness to our speech2 it gives it more force2 or it imparts to literature beauty4 ,the last use is the most common2 indeed1 it is so common that sometimes the other uses are overlooked4 ,however1 when such a sentence as the following is read1 the comparison is of value in giving clearness to the thought1 although it does not state the literal truth4 ,in the early history of our planet1 the moon was flung off into space1 as mud is thrown from a turning wagon wheel4 ,force is often gained by the use of figurative language4 ,the following is a good illustration3-- ,neither the perseverance of ,holland1 nor the activity of ,france1 nor the dextrous and firm sagacity of ,english enterprise1 ever carried this most perilous mode of hardy industry to the extent to which it has been pushed by these people ,americans2 a people who are still1 as it were1 but in the gristle1 and not yet hardened into the bone of manhood4 ,the next is an illustration of a figure used for beauty3-- ,two of the fairest stars in all the heaven1 ,having some business1 do entreat her eyes ,to twinkle in their spheres till they return4 ,a figure of speech is any use of words with a sense varying from their literal definition1 to secure clearness1 force1 or beauty of expression4 ,figures add so much to the attractiveness of literature1 that every one would like to use them4 ,yet figures should never be sought for4 ,when they come of themselves1 when they insist on being used1 and are a part of the thought itself1 and seem to be its only adequate expression1 then they should be used4 ,in most cases figures are ornaments of literature2 it must be remembered that ornament is always secondary1 and that no ornament is good unless it is in entire harmony with the thing it is to beautify4 7,see ,preface1 p4 viii47 ,when a figure suggests itself1 it must be so clearly seen that there can be no mixing of images4 ,some people are determined to use figures1 and they force them into every possible place4 ,the result is that there is often a confusion of comparisons4 ,the following is bad3 ,his name went resounding in golden letters through the corridors of time4 ,just how a name could resound in golden letters is a difficult question4 ,longfellow used the last phrase beautifully3-- ,not from the grand old masters1 ,not from the bards sublime1 ,whose distant footsteps echo ,through the corridors of time4 ,of the two hundred or more figures of speech which have been named and defined1 only a few need be mentioned here4 ,and the purpose is not that you shall use them more1 but that you may recognize them when you meet them in literature4 ,figures based upon ,likeness4 ,there is a large group of figures of speech based upon likeness4 ,one thing is so much like another that it is spoken of as like it1 or1 more frequently1 one is said to be the other4 ,yet if the things compared are very much alike1 there is no figure4 ,to say that a cat is like a panther is not considered figurative4 ,it is when in objects essentially different we detect and name some likeness that we say there is a figure of speech4 ,there is at first thought no likeness between hope and a nurse2 yet were it not for hope most persons would die4 ,thackeray was right when he said that ,hope is the nurse of life4 ,the principal figures based upon likeness are metaphor1 epithet1 personification1 apostrophe1 allegory1 and simile4 ,a metaphor is an implied comparison between things essentially different1 but having some common quality4 ,metaphor is by far the most common figure of speech2 indeed1 so common is it that figurative language is often called metaphorical4 ,tombs are the clothes of the dead2 a grave is but a plain suit1 and a rich monument is one embroidered4 ,let me choose2 ,for as ,i am1 ,i live upon the rack4 ,the cataracts blow their trumpets from the steep4 ,only a little removed from metaphor is epithet4 ,an epithet is a word1 generally a descriptive adjective or a noun1 used1 not to give information1 but to impart strength or ornament to diction4 ,it is like a shortened metaphor4 ,it is very often found in impassioned prose or verse4 ,notice that in each epithet there is a comparison2 that the figure is based on likeness4 ,here are sever'd lips ,parted with sugar breath4 ,base dog6 why shouldst thou stand here8 ,personification is a figure that ascribes to inanimate things1 abstract ideas1 and the lower animals the attributes of human beings4 ,it is plain that there must be some resemblance of the lower to the higher1 else this figure could not be used4 ,personification1 like the epithet1 is a modification of the metaphor4 ,indeed1 in every personification there is also a metaphor4 ,when the sweet wind did gently kiss the trees ,and they did make no noise4 ,but ever heaves and moans the restless ,deep4 ,apostrophe is an address to the dead as if living2 to abstract ideas or inanimate objects as if they were persons4 ,it is a variety of personification4 ,o ,caledonia6 stern and wild1 ,meet nurse for a poetic child6 ,wee1 modest1 crimson-tipped flower1 ,thou's met me in an evil hour2 ,for ,i maun crush amang the stoure ,thy slender stem4 ,milton6 thou shouldst be living at this hour4 ,allegory is a narrative in which material things and circumstances are used to illustrate and enforce high spiritual truths4 ,it is a continued personification4 ,bunyan's ,pilgrim's ,progress and ,spenser's ,faerie ,queene are good examples of allegory4 ,all these figures are varieties of metaphor4 ,in them there is always an implied1 not an expressed1 comparison4 ,a simile is an expressed comparison between unlike things that have some common quality4 ,this comparison is usually indicated by like or as4 ,ilbrahim was like a domesticated sunbeam1 brightening moody countenances1 and chasing away the gloom from the dark corners of the cottage4 7,does this figure change to another in its course87 ,how far that little candle throws its beams6 ,so shines a good deed in a naughty world4 ,of retired ,dutch valleys1 ,irving wrote3-- ,they are like those little nooks of still water which border a rapid stream2 where we may see the straw and bubble riding quietly at anchor1 or slowly revolving in their mimic harbor1 undisturbed by the rush of the passing current4 ,figures based upon ,sentence ,structure4 ,there are a number of figures that express emotion by simply changing the normal order of the sentence4 ,among these are inversion1 exclamation1 interrogation1 climax1 and irony4 ,inversion is a figure intended to give emphasis to the thought by a change from the natural order of the words in a sentence4 ,thine be the glory6 ,few were the words they said4 ,he saved others2 himself he cannot save4 ,exclamation is an expression of strong emotion in abrupt1 inverted1 or elliptical phrases4 ,it is among sentences what the interjection is among words4 ,how far that little candle throws its beams6 ,oh1 what a rogue and peasant slave am ,i6 ,interrogation is a figure in which a question is asked1 not to get an answer1 but for the sake of emphasis4 ,do men gather grapes from thorns1 or figs from thistles8 ,fear ye foes who kill for hire8 ,will ye to your homes retire8 ,am ,i a coward8 ,climax is a figure in which the intensity of the thought and emotion gradually increases with the successive groups of words or phrases4 7,see p4 #baa47 ,your children do not grow faster from infancy to manhood than they the ,american colonists spread from families to communities1 from villages to nations4 ,irony is a figure in which one thing is said and the opposite is meant4 ,and ,job answered and said1 ,no doubt but ye are the people1 and wisdom shall die with you4 ,o ,jew1 an upright judge1 a learned judge6 ,four other figures should be mentioned3 metonymy1 synecdoche1 allusion1 and hyperbole4 ,metonymy calls one thing by the name of another which is closely related to the first4 ,the most common relations are cause and effect1 container and thing contained1 and sign and the thing signified4 ,from the cradle to the grave is but a day4 ,i did dream of money-bags to-night4 ,synecdoche is that figure of speech in which a part is put for the whole1 or the whole for a part4 ,fifty sail came into harbor4 ,the redcoats are marching4 ,allusion is a reference to something in history or literature with which every one is supposed to be acquainted4 ,a ,daniel come to judgment6 yea1 a ,daniel6 ,men still sigh for the flesh pots of ,egypt2 still worship the golden calf4 ,there is no ,open ,sesame to the treasures of learning2 they must be acquired by hard study4 ,milton and ,shakespeare are full of allusions to the classic literature of ,greece and ,rome4 ,hyperbole is an exaggerated statement made for effect4 ,he was tall1 but exceedingly lank1 with narrow shoulders1 long arms and legs1 hands that dangled a mile out of his sleeves1 feet that might have served for shovels1 and his whole frame most loosely hung together4 ,and1 if thou prate of mountains1 let them throw ,millions of acres on us1 till our ground1 ,singeing his pate against the burning zone1 ,make ,ossa like a wart6 ,exercises in ,figures4 ,name the following figures4 ,of those that are based upon likeness1 tell in what the similarity consists4 ,in many of the selections more than one figure will be found4#ee #a4 ,the long1 hard winter of his youth had ended2 the spring-time of his manhood was turning green like the woods4 #b4 ,a pig came up to a horse and said1 ,your feet are crooked1 and your hair is worth nothing4 #c4 ,the words of his mouth were smoother than butter1 but war was in his heart2 his words were softer than oil1 but they were drawn swords4 #d4 ,the lily maid of ,astolat4 #e4 ,o ,truth6 ,o ,freedom6 how are ye still born ,in the rude stable1 in the manger nursed6 #f4 ,the birch1 most shy and ladylike of trees1 ,her poverty1 as best she may1 retrieves1 ,and hints at her foregone gentilities ,with some saved relics of her wealth of leaves4 #g4 ,o friend1 never strike sail to a fear6 ,come into port grandly1 or sail with ,god the seas6 #h4 ,primroses smile and daisies cannot frown4 #i4 ,how deeply and warmly and spotlessly ,earth's nakedness is clothed6--the 'wool' of the ,psalmist nearly two feet deep4 ,and as far as warmth and protection are concerned1 there is a good deal of the virtue of wool in such a snow-fall4 ,it is a veritable fleece1 beneath which the shivering earth 7'the frozen hills ached with pain1' says one of our young poets7 is restored to warmth4 #aj4 ,we can win no laurels in a war for independence4 ,earlier and worthier hands have gathered them all4 ,nor are there places for us by the side of ,solon and ,alfred and other founders of ,states4 ,our fathers have filled them4 #aa4 ,i put on righteousness1 and it clothed me2 my judgment was as a robe and diadem4 ,i was eyes to the blind1 and feet was ,i to the lame4 ,i was father to the poor2 and the cause which ,i knew not ,i searched out4 ,and ,i brake the jaws of the wicked1 and plucked the spoil out of his teeth4 #ab4 ,his head and his heart were so well combined that he could not avoid becoming a power in his community4 ,spenser1 writing of honor1 says3-- #ac4 ,in woods1 in waves1 in wars1 she wonts to dwell1 ,and will be found with peril and with pain2 ,nor can the man that moulds an idle cell ,unto her happy mansion attain3 ,before her gate high ,god did ,sweat ordain1 ,and wakeful watches ever to abide2 ,but easy is the way and passage plain ,to pleasure's palace3 it may soon be spied1 ,and day and night her doors to all stand open wide4 #ad4 ,over the vast green sea of the wilderness1 the moon swung her silvery lamp4 #ae4 ,the peace of the golden sunshine was supreme4 ,even a tiny cloudlet anchored in the limitless sky would not sail to-day4 #af4 ,a short way further along1 ,i come across a boy gathering palm4 ,he is a town boy1 and has come all the way from ,whitechapel thus early4 ,he has already gathered a great bundle--worth five shillings to him1 he says4 ,this same palm will to-morrow be distributed over ,london1 and those who buy sprigs of it by the ,bank will know nothing of the blue-eyed boy who gathered it1 and the murmuring river by which it grew4 ,and the lad1 once more lost in some squalid court1 will be a sort of ,sir ,john ,mandeville to his companions--a ,sir ,john ,mandeville of the fields1 with their water-rats1 their birds' eggs1 and many other wonders4 ,and one can imagine him saying1 ',and the sparrows there fly right up into the sun1 and sing like angels4' ,but he won't get his comrades to believe that4 #ag4 ,we wandered to the ,pine ,forest ,that skirts the ,ocean's foam2 ,the lightest wind was in its nest1 ,the tempest in its home4 ,the whispering waves were half asleep1 ,the clouds were gone to play1 ,and on the bosom of the deep ,the smile of heaven lay2 ,it seemed as if the hour were one ,sent from beyond the skies ,which scattered from above the sun ,the light of ,paradise4 ,we paused amid the pines that stood ,the giants of the waste1 ,tortured by storms to shapes as rude ,as serpents interlaced1-- ,and soothed by every azure breath ,that under heaven is blown1 ,to harmonies and hues beneath1 ,as tender as its own3 ,now all the tree-tops lay asleep ,like green waves on the sea1 ,as still as in the silent deep ,the ocean woods may be4 #ah4 ,when a bee brings pollen into the hive1 he advances to the cell in which it is to be deposited and kicks it off as one might his overalls or rubber boots1 making one foot help the other2 then he walks off without ever looking behind him2 another bee1 one of the indoor hands1 comes along and rams it down with his head and packs it in the cell as the dairy-maid packs butter into a firkin4 #ai4 ,for thy desires ,are wolfish1 bloody1 starved1 and ravenous4 #bj4 ,what a piece of work is man6 how noble in reason6 how infinite in faculty6 in form and moving how express and admirable6 in action how like an angel6 in apprehension how like a god6 the beauty of the world6 the paragon of animals6 #ba4 ,and in her cheeks the vermeil red did shew ,like roses in a bed of lilies shed4 #bb4 ,he betrayed his friend with a ,judas kiss4 #bc4 ,a true poet is not one whom they can hire by money and flattery to be a minister of their pleasures1 their writer of occasional verses1 their purveyor of table wit2 he cannot be their menial1 he cannot even be their partisan4 ,at the peril of both parties let no such union be attempted4 ,will a ,courser of the ,sun work softly in the harness of a ,dray-horse8 ,his hoofs are of fire1 and his path is through the heavens1 bringing light to all lands2 will he lumber on mud highways1 dragging ale for earthly appetites from door to door8 #bd4 ,hath a dog money8 is it possible ,a cur can lend three thousand ducats8 #be4 ,kind hearts are more than coronets1 ,and simple faith than ,norman blood4 #bf4 ,they sleep together1--the gray and the blue4 #bg4 ,have not the ,indians been kindly and justly treated8 ,have not the temporal things--the vain baubles and filthy lucre of this world--which were apt to engage their worldly and selfish thoughts1 been benevolently taken from them8 ,and have they not1 instead thereof1 been taught to set their affections on things above8 7,quoted from ,meiklejohn's ,the ,art of ,writing ,english47 #bh4 ,poetry is truth in its ,sunday clothes4 #bi4 ,his words were shed softer than leaves from the pine1 ,and they fell on ,sir ,launfal as snows on the brine1 ,that mingle their softness and quiet in one ,with the shaggy unrest they float down upon4 #cj4 ,too much red tape caused a great amount of suffering in the beginning of the war4 #ca4 ,roll on1 thou deep and dark blue ocean1 roll6 ,ten thousand fleets sweep over thee in vain4 #cb4 ,the old ,mountain has thrown a stone at us for fear we should forget him4 ,he sometimes nods his head1 and threatens to come down4 #cc4 ,but pleasures are like poppies spread3 ,you seize the flow'r1 its bloom is shed2 ,or like the snow falls in the river1 ,a moment white--then melts for ever2 ,or like the borealis race1 ,that flit ere you can point their place2 ,or like the rainbow's lovely form ,evanishing amid the storm4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,chapter ,,xi ,,verse ,,forms#ef ,preparer's note3 ,in this chapter1 the rhythms of the sample poetry lines were indicated with musical notes and rests4 ,in this text version1 an eighth note is indicated by e1 a quarter note by q1 and an eighth rest by r4 ,no pupil has passed through the graded schools without being told that he should not sing verses1 though no one is inclined to sing prose4 ,one can scarcely help singing verse1 and one cannot well sing prose4 ,what is there about the form that leads a person to sing verses of poetry8 ,for example1 when a person reads the first lines of ,the ,lady of the ,lake1 he falls naturally into a sing-song which can be represented by musical notation as follows3-- e q e q e q e q ,the stag at eve had drunk his fill1 e q e q e q e q ,where danced the moon on ,mon an's rill1 e q e q e q e q ,and deep his mid night lair had made e q e q e q e q ,in lone ,glenart ney's ha zel shade4 ,the second1 fourth1 sixth1 and eighth syllables in each of these lines are naturally accented in reading1 while the other syllables are read without stress4 ,the eight syllables of each line fall naturally into groups of two1 an unaccented syllable followed by an accented syllable1 just as in the musical notation given1 an unaccented eighth note is followed by an accented quarter4 ,in ,hiawatha the accented syllable comes first1 and the unaccented follows it4 q e q e q e q e ,by the shores of ,gitchee ,gumee1 q e q e q e q e ,by the shining ,big-,sea-,water1 q e q e q e q e ,stood the wigwam of ,no komis1 q e q e q e q e ,daughter of the ,moon1 ,no komis4 ,so1 too1 there are groups in which there are three syllables4 ,the accent may fall on any one of the three4 ,in the following stanza from ,the ,bridge of ,sighs1 the accent falls on the first syllable of each group4 e e e e e e ,touch her not scornfully2 e e e e e e ,think of her mournfully1 e e e e e e ,gently and humanly1 e e e e e e ,not of the stains of her2 e e e e e e ,all that re mains of her e e e e e e ,now is pure womanly4 ,the accent may be upon the second syllable of the group4 ,this is not common4 ,the following is from ,the ,three ,fishers4 e e e e e e e e e e q ,three fishers went sailing out into the ,west1 e e e e e e e q e q ,out into the ,west as the sun went down2 e e e e e e e e e e q ,each thought on the woman that loved him the best2 e e e e e e e e e e e q ,and the children stood watching them out of the town4 ,or the accent may be upon the last syllable of the group4 ,this form is very common4 ,it is found in the poem entitled ,annabel ,lee4 e e e e e e e e e e q ,it was man y and man y a year ago1 e e e e q e q ,in a king dom by the sea1 e e e e e e e q e q ,that a maid en there lived whom you may know e e e e q e e e ,by the name of ,an nabel ,lee2 e e e e e e e q e e e ,and this maid en she lived with no other thought e e e e e e e q ,than to love and be loved by me4 ,poetic ,feet4 ,if all these verses be observed carefully1 it will be seen that in each group of syllables there is one accented syllable combined with one or two unaccented4 ,such a group of syllables is called a foot4 ,the foot is the basis of the verse2 and from the prevailing kind of foot that is found in any verse1 the verse derives its name4 ,a foot is a group of syllables composed of one accented syllable combined with one or more unaccented4 ,it will be noticed further that if musical notation be used1 all of these forms are but variations of the one form1 represented by the standard measure #c_/h4 ,they are3-- e q 2 q e 2 e e e 2 e e e 2 and e e e 4 ,accordingly there are five forms of poetic feet made of this musical rhythm4 ,of these1 four are in common use4 ,an ,iambus is a two-syllable foot accented on the last syllable4 ,verse made of this kind of feet is called iambic4 ,it is the most common form found in ,english poetry4 ,example3-- ,the stag at eve had drunk his fill4 ,a ,trochee is a two-syllable foot accented on the first syllable4 ,verse made of this kind of feet is called trochaic4 ,example3-- ,stood the wigwam of ,nokomis4 ,a ,dactyl is a three-syllable foot accented on the first syllable4 ,such verse is called dactylic4 ,example3-- ,touch her not scornfully4 ,an ,amphibrach is a three-syllable foot accented on the middle syllable4 ,it is uncommon4 ,example3-- ,three fishers went sailing out into the ,west4 ,an ,anapest is a three-syllable foot accented on the last syllable4 ,example3-- ,it was many and many a year ago4 ,a ,spondee is a very uncommon foot in ,english4 ,it consists of two long syllables accented about equally4 ,it occurs as an occasional foot in a four-syllable rhythm4 ,no ,english poem is entirely spondaic4 ,the four-syllable foot and the spondee are so uncommon that there is little use in the pupil's knowing more than that there are such things4 ,the example below is quoted from ,lanier's ,the ,science of ,english ,verse4 e e e e q e e q q ,ah1 the autumn days fade out1 and the nights grow chill e e e e e e e e q q ,and we walk no more to gether as we used of yore ,when the rose was new in blossom and the sun was on the hill1 ,and the eves were sweetly vocal with the happy whippoorwill1 ,and the land-breeze piped its sweetest by the ocean shore4 ,kinds of ,metre4 ,a verse is a single line of poetry4 ,it may contain from one foot to eight feet4 ,a line made of one foot is called monometer4 ,it is never used throughout a poem1 except as a joke1 but it sometimes occurs as an occasional verse in a poem that is made of longer lines4 ,the two lines which follow are from the song of ,winter in ,shakespeare's ,love's ,labour's ,lost4 ,the last is monometer4 ,then nightly sings the staring owl ,tu-whit4 ,a line containing two feet is called dimeter4 ,it also is uncommon2 but it does sometimes make up a whole poem2 as1 ,the ,bridge of ,sighs1 already mentioned4 ,another example is3-- ,i'm wearing awa'1 ,jean1 ,like snaw when it's thaw1 ,jean1 ,i'm wearing awa' ,to the land o' the leal4 ,it is frequently met as an occasional line in a poem4 ,wordsworth's ,daisy shows it4 ,bright ,flower6 for by that name at last1 ,when all my reveries are past1 ,i call thee1 and to that cleave fast1 ,sweet1 silent creature6 ,that breath'st with me in sun and air1 ,do thou1 as thou art wont1 repair ,my heart with gladness1 and a share ,of thy meek nature6 ,a line containing three feet is called trimeter4 ,example3-- ,the snow had begun in the gloaming1 ,and busily all the night ,had been heaping field and highway ,with a silence deep and white4 ,a line containing four feet is called tetrameter4 ,marmion is written in tetrameters4 ,see the extract on p4 #bgf4 ,a line containing five feet is called pentameter4 ,this line is very common in ,english poetry4 ,it gives room enough for the poet to say something1 and is not so long that it breaks down with its own weight4 ,shakespeare's ,plays1 ,milton's ,paradise ,lost1 ,tennyson's ,idylls of the ,king1--indeed1 most of the great1 serious work of the master-poets has been done in this verse4 ,a line containing six feet is called hexameter4 ,this is the form adopted in the ,iliad and the ,odyssey of the ,greeks1 and the ,aeneid of the ,romans2 it has been used sometimes by ,english writers in treating dignified subjects4 ,the ,courtship of ,miles ,standish and ,evangeline are written in hexameter4 ,verses of seven and eight feet are rare2 they are called heptameter and octameter1 respectively4 ,the heptameter is usually divided into a tetrameter and a trimeter2 the octameter1 into two tetrameters4 ,poe's ,raven and ,tennyson's ,locksley ,hall are in octameters1 and ,bryant's ,the ,death of the ,flowers is in heptameters4 ,a verse is named from its prevailing kind of foot and the number of feet4 ,for example1 ,the ,merchant of ,venice is in iambic pentameter1 and ,the ,courtship of ,miles ,standish is in dactylic hexameter4 ,stanzas4 ,a stanza is a group of verses1 but these verses are not necessarily of the same length4 ,monometer1 dimeter1 and trimeter are not often used for a whole stanza2 but they are frequently found in a stanza1 introducing variety into it4 ,a stanza made up of tetrameter alternating with trimeter is very common4 ,the stanzas from ,annabel ,lee and ,the ,village ,blacksmith1 found on pages #bgh and #bgi1 are excellent examples4 ,scansion4 ,scansion is the separation of a verse of poetry into its component feet4 ,poetry was originally sung or chanted by bards and troubadours4 ,the accompaniment was a simple strumming on a harp of very few strings1 and was hardly more than the beating of time4 ,the chanting must have been much like the sing-song that some people fall into when reading verses now4 ,the first thing in scanning a line of poetry is to drop into its rhythm1--to let it sing itself4 ,when the regular accent is felt1 the lines can easily be separated into their metrical feet4 ,read these lines from ,marmion1 and mark only the accented syllables4 ,and there she stood so calm and pale1 ,that but her breathing did not fail1 ,and motion slight of eyes and head1 ,and of her bosom1 warranted ,that neither sense nor pulse she lacks1 ,you might have thought a form of wax ,wrought to the very life was there2 ,so still she was1 so pale1 so fair4 ,the marked verses have an accented syllable preceded by an unaccented syllable4 ,such a foot is iambic4 ,there are four feet in each verse2 so the poem is written in iambic tetrameter4 ,in the same way1 one decides that ,the ,song of ,hiawatha is written in trochaic tetrameter4 ,variations in ,metres4 ,in music the bar or measure is not always filled with exactly the same kind of notes arranged in the same order4 ,if the signature reads #c_/h1 the measure may be filled by any notes that added together equal three eighth notes4 ,it may be a quarter and an eighth1 an eighth and a quarter1 a dotted quarter1 or three eighth notes4 ,so1 in poetry the verses are not always as regular as in ,marmion and ,hiawatha1 although poetry is more regular than music and there are usually few variations of metre in any one poem4 ,a knowledge of the most common forms of variation is necessary to correct scansion4 ,the commonest variation in verse is the substitution of three eighths for the quarter and the eighth1 or the eighth and the quarter4 ,and the very opposite of this often occurs2 that is1 the substitution of the two-syllable foot for the three-syllable foot4 ,the following1 from ,the ,burial of ,sir ,john ,moore1 illustrates what is done4 ,notice1 however1 that the beat is quite regular1 and the lines lilt along as if there were no change4 e e e e q e e e e e e ,not a drum was heard1 not a fun eral note1 e e e e e e e e e e ,as his corse to the ram part we hurried2 e e e e e e e q e q ,not a sol dier discharged his fare well shot e e e e e e e e e e ,o'er the grave where our he ro we buried4 ,in reading this the first time1 a person is not likely to notice that there are three feet in it containing but two syllables4 ,the rhythm is perfectly smooth1 and cannot be called irregular4 ,the accent remains on the last syllable of the foot4 ,in the following selection from ,evangeline1 trochees are substituted for dactyls1 yet there is no break in the rhythm4 ,it does not seem in the least irregular4 q e e e e q e ,be hind them followed the watch-dog1 q e e e e e e e e e e e e e q e ,patient1 full of im portance1 and grand in the pride of his instinct1 ,walking from side to side with a lordly air1 and superbly ,waving his bushy tail1 and urging forward the stragglers4 ,these examples are enough to illustrate the fact that one kind of foot may be substituted for another and not make the rhythm feel irregular4 ,so long as the accent is not changed from the first syllable to the last1 or from the last to the first1 there is no jar in the flow of the lines4 ,the trochee and the dactyl are interchangeable2 and the iambus and the anapest are interchangeable4 ,we may take a step further4 ,there are many times when some sudden change of thought1 some strong emotion forces a poet to break the smooth rhythm1 that the verses may harmonize with his feeling4 ,such a variation is like an exclamation or a dash thrown into prose4 ,the following is taken from ,annabel ,lee4 ,the regular foot has the accent on the last syllable4 ,it is anapestic1 in tetrameters and trimeters4 ,but note the shudder in the third line when the accent is changed on the word chilling4 ,the music and the thought are in perfect harmony4 ,and this was the reason that1 long ago1 ,in this kingdom by the sea1 e q e q e e e q e ,a wind blew out of a cloud1 chilling ,my beautiful ,annabel ,lee2 ,so that her highborn kinsman came ,and bore her away from me ,to shut her up in a sepulchre ,in this kingdom by the sea4 ,another beautiful example is found in the last stanza of the same poem4 ,it is in the first two feet of the fifth line4 ,here the regular accent has yielded to an accent on the middle syllable and there are two amphibrachs4 ,notice1 too1 how it is almost impossible to tell in the next foot whether the accent goes upon the second or upon the third syllable4 ,it is hovering between the form of the first two feet and the anapest of the last foot4 ,for the moon never beams1 without bringing me dreams ,of the beautiful ,annabel ,lee2 ,and the stars never rise1 but ,i feel the bright eyes ,of the beautiful ,annabel ,lee2 e e e e e e e e e e e e ,and so1 all the night-tide1 ,i lie down by the side ,of my darling--my darling--my life and my bride1 ,in her sepulchre there by the sea ,in her tomb by the sounding sea4 ,as has already been said1 the iambus is the common foot of ,english verse4 ,it is made of a short and a long syllable4 ,at the beginning of a poem an unaccented syllable seems weak2 and so very frequently the first foot of a poem is trochaic2 often the first two or three feet are of this kind4 ,at such a place the irregularity does not strike one4 ,the following is an illustration3-- q e e q e q e q ,under a spread ing chest nut tree e q e q e q ,the vil lage smith y stands2 ,the smith1 a mighty man is he1 ,with large and sinewy hands2 ,and the muscles of his brawny arms ,are strong as iron bands4 ,in this stanza the prevailing foot is iambic1 but the first foot is trochaic4 ,in the following beautiful lines by ,ben ,jonson1 there is the same thing3-- q e e qe q e q ,drink to me on ly with thine eyes ,and ,i will pledge with mine2 ,or leave a kiss but in the cup ,and ,i'll not look for wine4 ,the thirst that from the soul doth rise ,doth ask a drink divine2 ,but might ,i of ,jove's nectar sup1 ,i would not change for thine4 ,a similar substitution may occur in any other verse of the stanza2 but we feel the change more than when it is found in the first verse4 ,the second stanza of ,jonson's song furnishes an example of the substitution of a trochee for an iambus3-- ,i sent thee late a rosy wreath1 q e e q e e e ,not so much hon oring thee ,as giving it a hope that there ,it could not withered be1 ,but thou thereon didst only breathe ,and sent'st it back to me2 ,since when it grows and smells1 ,i swear1 ,not of itself1 but thee4 ,of all the great poets1 but few have been such masters of the art of making musical verse as ,spenser4 ,the following stanza is from ,the ,faerie ,queene2 and the delicate changes from one foot to another are so skillfully made that one has to look twice before he finds them4 ,a little lowly hermitage it was1 ,down in a dale1 hard by a forest's side1 ,far from resort of people that did pass ,in travel to and fro2 a little wide ,there was a holy chapel edified1 ,wherein a hermit duly wont to say ,his holy things each morn and eventide2 ,thereby a crystal stream did gently play1 ,which from a sacred fountain welled forth alway4 ,first and ,last ,foot4 ,from the lines on ,the ,burial of ,sir ,john ,moore1 another fact about metres may be derived4 ,the second and fourth lines apparently have one too many syllables4 ,this may occur when the accent is upon the last syllable of the foot2 that is1 when the foot is an iambus or an anapest4 ,again1 the last foot of each line may be one syllable short4 ,this may occur when the accent is on the first syllable of a foot2 that is1 when the foot is trochaic or dactylic4 ,the scheme is like this3 q e q e q e q e ,tell me not in mournful numbers q e q e q e q r ,life is but an empty dream4 ,the last foot of a verse of poetry1 then1 may have more or fewer syllables than the regular number2 still the foot takes up the regular time and cannot be deemed unrhythmical4 ,the first foot of a line1 too1 may contain an extra syllable2 a good example has been given in the lines on page #bgc1 beginning1-- ,ah1 the autumn days fade out1 and the nights grow chill4 ,and the first foot of a line may lack a syllable1 as in the first line of ,break1 ,break1 ,break1 by ,tennyson4 ,in a line like the following1 it is sometimes difficult to tell whether the syllable is omitted from the first or the last foot4 ,if from the first1 the verse is iambic1 and is scanned like this3-- r q e q e q e e e ,proud and low ly1 beg gar and lord4 ,if the last foot is not full1 the line is trochaic4 q e q e e e e q r ,proud and low ly1 beg gar and lord4 ,now if the whole of ,london ,bridge1 from which this line is quoted1 be read1 there will be found several lines that are trochaic beyond question2 and the last line of the chorus is iambic4 ,the majority of trochaic lines leads us to decide that the verse is trochaic4 ,from this example one learns to appreciate how nearly alike are trochaic and iambic verses4 ,both are composed of alternating accented and unaccented syllables2 and the kind of metre depends upon which comes first in the foot4 ,in ,blake's ,tiger1 ,tiger1 there is not a line that clearly shows what kind of verse the poet used4 ,if the unaccented syllable is supplied at the beginning the poem is iambic2 if at the end1 it is trochaic4 ,tiger1 ,tiger1 burning bright ,in the forests of the night1 ,what immortal hand or eye ,framed thy fearful symmetry8 ,silences may occur in the middle of a verse of poetry as well as at the beginning or the end4 ,in the following nursery rhyme it is clear that the prevailing foot is anapestic1 though several feet are iambic1 and in the first two lines and the last line a single syllable makes a foot4 ,silences are introduced here as rests are in music4 r q r q r q ,three blind mice6 r q r q e q ,see how they run6 ,hurrah1 hurrah for the farm er's wife6 ,she cut off their tails with a carv ing knife6 ,did you ev er see such a sight in your life e q r q r q ,as three blind mice6 ,like this is the scansion of ,tennyson's ,break1 ,break1 ,break4 r q r q r q ,break1 break1 break6 ,on thy cold gray stones1 ,o sea6 ,and ,i would that my tongue could utter ,the thoughts that arise in me4 ,in scanning1 then1 it is necessary-- ,first4 ,to determine by reading a number of verses the kind of foot that predominates1 and to make this the basis of the metrical scheme4 ,second4 ,to remember that one kind of foot may be substituted for another1 at the will of the poet1 introducing into the poem a delicate variety of rhythm4 ,third4 ,to keep in mind that the first foot of a verse and the last foot may have more or fewer syllables than the regular foot of the poem4 ,fourth4 ,that silences1 like rests in music1 may be introduced into a verse and give to it a perfect smoothness of rhythm4 ,kinds of ,poetry4 ,it is a difficult thing to give a definition of poetry4 ,many have done so1 yet no one has been fortunate enough to have his definition go without criticism4 ,in general1 it may be said that poetry deals with serious subjects1 that it appeals to the feelings rather than to the reason1 that it employs beautiful language1 and that it is written in some metrical form4 ,poetry has been divided into three great classes3 narrative1 lyric1 and dramatic4 ,narrative poetry deals with events1 real or imaginary4 ,it includes1 among other varieties1 the epic1 the metrical romance1 the tale1 and the ballad4 ,the epic is a narrative poem of elevated character telling generally of the exploits of heroes4 ,the ,iliad of the ,greeks1 the ,aeneid of the ,romans1 the ,nibelungen ,lied of the ,germans1 ,beowulf of the ,anglo-,saxons1 and ,paradise ,lost are good examples of the epic4 ,the metrical romance is any fictitious narrative of heroic1 marvelous1 or supernatural incidents derived from history or legend1 and told at considerable length4 ,the ,idylls of the ,king are romances4 ,the tale is but little different from the romance4 ,it leaves the field of legend and occupies the place in poetry that a story or a novel does in prose4 ,marmion and ,enoch ,arden are tales4 ,a ballad is a short narrative poem1 generally rehearsing but one incident4 ,it is usually vigorous in style1 and gives but little thought to elegance4 ,sir ,patrick ,spens1 ,the ,battle of ,otterburne1 and ,chevy ,chase are examples4 ,lyric poetry finds its source in the author's feelings and emotions4 ,in this it differs from narrative poems1 which find their material in external events and circumstances4 ,epic poetry is written in a grand style1 generally in pentameter1 or hexameter2 while the lyric adopts any verse that suits the emotion4 ,the principal classes of lyric poetry are the song1 the ode1 the elegy1 and the sonnet4 ,the song is a short poem intended to be sung4 ,it has great variety of metres and is generally divided into stanzas4 ,sweet and ,low1 ,ye ,banks and ,braes o' ,bonnie ,doon1 ,john ,anderson1 ,my ,jo1 ,john1 are songs4 ,an ode is a lyric expressing exalted emotion2 it usually has a complex and irregular metrical form4 ,collins's ,the ,passions1 ,wordsworth's ,intimations of ,immortality1 and ,lowell's ,commemoration ,ode1 are well known4 ,an elegy is a serious poem pervaded by a feeling of melancholy4 ,it is generally written to commemorate the death of some friend4 ,milton's ,lycidas and ,gray's ,elegy in a ,country ,churchyard are examples of this form of lyric4 ,a sonnet is a lyric that deals with a single thought1 idea1 or sentiment in a fixed metrical form4 ,the sonnet always contains fourteen lines4 ,it has1 too1 a very definite rhyme scheme4 ,some of the best ,english sonnets have been written by ,shakespeare1 ,wordsworth1 and ,mrs4 ,browning4 ,dramatic poetry presents a course of human events1 and is generally designed to be spoken on the stage4 ,because such poetry presents human character in action1 the term dramatic has come to be applied to any poetry having this quality4 ,many of ,browning's poems are dramatic in this sense4 ,in the first sense of the word1 dramatic poetry includes tragedy and comedy4 ,tragedy is a drama in which the diction is dignified1 the movement impressive1 and the ending unhappy4 ,comedy is a drama of a light and amusing character1 with a happy conclusion to its plot4 ,exercises in ,metres4 ,enough of each poem is given below so that the kind of metre can be determined4 ,always name the verse form and write the verse scheme4 ,some hard work will be necessary to work out the irregular lines1 but it is only by work on these that any ability in scanning can be gained4 ,always read a stanza two or three times to get the swing of the rhythm4 ,remember the silences1 and the substitutions that may be made4 #a4 ,i stood on the bridge at midnight ,as the clocks were striking the hour1 ,and the moon rose over the city1 ,behind the dark church tower4 ,among the long black rafters ,the wavering shadows lay1 ,and the current that came from the ocean ,seemed to lift and bear them away4 #b4 ,all things are new2--the buds1 the leaves1 ,that gild the elm-tree's nodding crest1 ,and even the nest beneath the eaves2-- ,there are no birds in last year's nest6 #c4 ,meanwhile we did our nightly chores1-- ,brought in the wood from out of doors1 ,littered the stalls1 and from the mows ,raked down the herd's-grass for the cows2 ,heard the horse whinnying for his corn2 ,and1 sharply clashing horn on horn1 ,impatient down the stanchion rows ,the cattle shake their walnut bows2 ,while1 peering from his early perch ,upon the scaffold's pole of birch1 ,the cock his crested helmet bent ,and down his querulous challenge sent4 #d4 ,you know1 we ,french stormed ,ratisbon3 ,a mile or so away1 ,on a little mound1 ,napoleon ,stood on our storming day2 ,with neck out-thrust1 you fancy how1 ,legs wide1 arms locked behind1 ,as if to balance the prone brow ,oppressive with its mind4 #e4 ,come1 read to me some poem1 ,some simple and heartfelt lay1 ,that shall soothe this restless feeling1 ,and banish the thoughts of day4 ,not from the grand old masters1 ,not from the bards sublime1 ,whose distant footsteps echo ,through the corridors of ,time4 ,for1 like strains of martial music1 ,their mighty thoughts suggest ,life's endless toil and endeavor2 ,and to-night ,i long for rest4 ,read from some humbler poet ,whose songs gushed from his heart1 ,as showers from the clouds of summer1 ,or tears from the eyelids start2 ,who through long days of labor1 ,and nights devoid of ease1 ,still heard in his soul the music ,of the wonderful melodies4 #f4 ,hickory1 dickery1 dock1 ,the mouse ran up the clock2 ,the clock struck one1 ,and the mouse ran down2 ,hickory1 dickery1 dock4 #g4 ,two brothers had the maiden1 and she thought1 ,within herself3 ',i would ,i were like them2 ,for then ,i might go forth alone1 to trace ,the mighty rivers downward to the sea1 ,and upward to the brooks that1 through the year1 ,prattle to the cool valleys4 ,i would know ,what races drink their waters2 how their chiefs ,bear rule1 and how men worship there1 and how ,they build1 and to what quaint device they frame1 ,where sea and river meet1 their stately ships2 ,what flowers are in their gardens1 and what trees ,bear fruit within their orchards2 in what garb ,their bowmen meet on holidays1 and how ,their maidens bind the waist and braid the hair4' 7,in this quotation we have blank verse2 that is1 verse that does not rhyme4 ,it is iambic pentameter1--the most common verse in great ,english poetry4 ,what poems are you familiar with that use this verse-form87 #h4 ,a wet sheet and a flowing sea1 ,a wind that follows fast ,and fills the rustling sails ,and bends the gallant mast2 ,and bends the gallant mast1 my boys1 ,while like the eagle free ,away the good ship flies1 and leaves ,old ,england on the lee4 ,o for a soft and gentle wind2 ,i heard a fair one cry2 ,but give to me the snoring breeze ,and white waves heaving high2 ,and white waves heaving high1 my lads1 ,the good ship tight and free-- ,the world of waters is our home1 ,and merry men are we4 ,there's tempest in yon horned moon1 ,and lightning in yon cloud2 ,but hark the music1 mariners6 ,the wind is piping loud2 ,the wind is piping loud1 my boys1 ,the lightning flashes free-- ,while the hollow oak our palace is1 ,our heritage the sea4 #i4 ,once upon a midnight dreary1 while ,i pondered1 weak and weary1 ,over many a quaint and curious volume of forgotten lore1 ,while ,i nodded1 nearly napping1 suddenly there came a tapping1 ,as of some one gently rapping1 rapping at my chamber door-- '',t is some visitor1' ,i muttered1 'tapping at my chamber door-- ,only this1 and nothing more4' #aj4 ,somewhat back from the village street ,stands the old-fashioned country-seat1 ,across its antique portico ,tall poplar trees their shadows throw2 ,and from its station in the hall ,an ancient timepiece says to all1-- ',forever--never6 ,never--forever6' #aa4 ,listen1 my children1 and you shall hear ,of the midnight ride of ,paul ,revere1 ,on the eighteenth of ,april1 in seventy-five2 ,hardly a man is now alive ,who remembers that famous day and year4 #ab4 ,sweet and low1 sweet and low1 ,wind of the western sea1 ,low1 low1 breathe and blow1 ,wind of the western sea6 ,over the rolling waters go1 ,come from the dying moon1 and blow1 ,blow him again to me2 ,while my little one1 while my pretty one1 sleeps4 ,sleep and rest1 sleep and rest1 ,father will come to thee soon2 ,rest1 rest1 on mother's breast1 ,father will come to thee soon2 ,father will come to his babe in the nest-- ,silver sails all out of the west ,under the silver moon3 ,sleep1 my little one1 sleep1 my pretty one1 sleep4 #ac4 ,see what a lovely shell1 ,small and pure as a pearl1 ,lying close to my foot1 ,frail1 but a work divine1 ,made so fairily well ,with delicate spire and whorl1 ,how exquisitely minute1 ,a miracle of design6 7,if the pupils have ,palgrave's ,golden ,treasury of ,songs and ,lyrics1 they have a great fund of excellent material illustrating all varieties of metrical variation4 ,there are very few pieces of literature that illustrate so many varieties of metre as ,wordsworth's ,ode on the ,intimations of ,immortality47 99 99 99 99 99 ,,appendix ,a4 ,,suggestions ,,to ,,teachers4 ,the ,course of ,study on pages xx-xxvi contemplates five days a week for the study of ,english4 ,the text which is to be the subject of the term's work should first be studied for a few weeks4 ,after it has been mastered1 three days of each week should be given to literature and two to composition4 ,in practice ,i have found it best to have the study of literature occupy three consecutive days1--for example1 ,tuesday1 ,wednesday1 and ,thursday4 ,this arrangement leaves ,monday and ,friday for composition4 ,friday is used for the study of the text-book and for general criticism and suggestion4 ,on ,monday the compositions should be written in the classroom4 ,to have them so written is1 at least during the first year1 distinctly better4 ,the first draft of the composition should be brought to class ready for amendment and copying4 ,during the writing the teacher should be among the pupils offering assistance1 and insisting upon good penmanship4 ,care at the beginning will form a habit of neatness1 and keep the penmanship up to a high standard4 ,the arrangement suggested is only one plan4 ,this works well4 ,many others may be adopted4 ,but no plan should be accepted which makes the number of essays fewer than one a week2 nor should the number of days given to literature be smaller than three a week4 ,during the second year1 if the instructor thinks it can be done without loss1 the compositions may be written outside of school hours and brought to class on a definite day4 ,a pupil should not be allowed to put off the writing of a composition any more than a lesson in geometry4 ,on ,monday of each week a composition should be handed in2 irregularity only makes the work displeasing and leads to shirking4 ,writing out of school gives more time for criticism and study of composition1 and during the second year this extra time is much needed4 ,by the third year the pupils certainly can do the work out of school4 ,as the compositions increase in length1 more time will be necessary for their preparation4 ,the teacher should1 however1 know exactly what progress has been made each week2 and by individual criticisms and by wise suggestions she should help the pupil to meet the difficulties of his special case4 ,in order that the instructor may have time for individual criticism1 she should have two periods each day vacant in which to meet pupils for consultation4 ,to make this clear1 suppose that a teacher of ,english has one hundred pupils in her classes4 ,she should have no more1 for one hundred essays a week are enough for any person to correct4 ,if there be six recitation periods daily1 place twenty-five pupils in each of four sections for the study of literature1 composition1 and general criticism4 ,this leaves two periods each day to meet individuals1 giving ten pupils for each period4 ,these should come on scheduled days1 with the same regularity as for class recitation4 ,the pupil's work should have been handed in on the second day before he comes up for consultation1 in order that the teacher may be competent to give criticisms of any value4 ,the inspiration of the first reading cannot be depended upon to suggest any help1 nor is there time for such a reading during the recitation4 ,there will be need of class recitation in argument4 ,ten days or two weeks are all that is necessary for text-book work4 ,this should be done before pupils read the ,conciliation4 ,in the reading constantly keep before the pupils the methods of the author4 ,every teacher should be able to do what she asks of the pupils4 ,no person would dare to offer herself as a teacher of ,latin or algebra until she could write all the translations of the one and solve all the problems of the other4 ,yet there are persons who have the audacity to offer their services as teachers of ,english1 when they cannot write a letter correctly1 to say nothing of a more formal piece of composition4 ,if an instructor in physics1 who had asked his pupils to solve a problem in electricity1 should say to each unfortunate person as he handed in his solution1 ,no1 that isn't right2 you'll have to try again1 without offering any help or suggestion1 and should continue this discouraging process until some bright pupil worked it out1 or perhaps some one guessed it1 we should say that such a person was no instructor at all4 ,we might go so far as to question his intellectual competency4 ,we certainly should think him quite deserving of dismissal4 ,still many teachers of ,english do nothing more than say1 ,it isn't right4 ,make it so4 ,if the teacher does not know how to do the thing she asks the pupils to do1 she should not be teaching4 ,and even when she can do it1 she will often benefit herself and the pupils by actually writing the composition4 ,in this way not only does she gain command of her own powers of expression1 but she finds out the difficulties with which the pupils have to contend4 ,every teacher of ,english composition should be able to do some creditable work in ,english2 and every teacher of ,english should put this talent into actual use4 ,numerous examples of correct paragraphs1 well-made sentences1 and apt words have not been included in the text4 ,they have been omitted because they can be found in the literature study4 ,it is better for pupils to find these for themselves4 ,it will put them in the way of reading with the senses always alert for something good2 and all good paragraphs and sentences lose something of their beautiful adaptation when torn from the place of their birth and growth4 ,so1 too1 there are no long lists of errors4 ,one hundred pupils in a term make enough to fill a volume4 ,when a teacher knows that ,sentences is to be her next subject she should begin three months in advance to get a good collection of specimens4 ,these should be classified so that they may be most usable4 ,by the time the class comes to the study of ,sentences some new1 live material will be on hand for illustration4 ,in the pupils' exercises each week those errors should be singled out and dwelt upon which are the special subject of text-book work4 ,if the pupils are studying ,coherence in sentence structure1 select all violations of this principle in the week's exercises1 and by means of them nail that one principle down instead of trying to lay down the whole set of principles given in the chapter on ,sentences4 ,alongside of this collection of mistakes in ,coherence of sentences show the pupils the best examples of tight-jointed sentences to be found in the literature they are studying4 ,point out how these sentences have been made to hold together1 and how their own shambling creations can be corrected4 ,some teachers will fear the amount of literature required4 ,it may seem large1 especially in the first two years4 ,it certainly would be quite impossible to read aloud in class all of this4 ,however1 that is not intended4 ,there would be but sorry progress either in the course of study or in the power to analyze literature if the class time were taken up with oral reading of narration and description4 ,the whole of a short story or one or two chapters of a novel are not too much for a lesson4 ,the discussion of the meaning and the method of the author should take up the largest part of the time4 ,then such portions should be read aloud as are especially suited to an exercise in oral reading4 ,in this way the apparently large list will be easily covered within the time4 ,moreover1 there is distinct gain in reading much4 ,if only three or four pages be given for a lesson1 the study of literature degenerates into a study of words4 ,a study of words is necessary1 but it is only a part of the study of literature4 ,such a method of study gives the pupil no sense of values4 ,he does not get out into the wide spaces of the author's thought1 but is eternally hedged about by the dwarfing barriers of etymology and grammar4 ,b4 ,,the ,,form ,,of ,a ,,composition4 ,,the ,,margin4 ,it is the custom to leave a margin of about an inch at the left side of the page4 ,in this margin the corrections should be written1 not in the composition4 ,there should be no margin at the right4 ,the device of writing incomplete lines1 or of making each sentence a paragraph1 is sometimes adopted by young persons in the hope of deceiving the teacher as to the length of the composition4 ,remember that pages do not count for literature any more than yards of hideous advertising boards count as art4 ,write a full page with a straight-lined margin at the left4 ,,indention4 ,to designate the beginning of a new paragraph1 it is customary to have the first line begin an inch farther in than the other lines4 ,this indention of the margin and the incomplete line at the end mark the visible limits of the paragraph4 ,,the ,,heading4 ,the heading or title of the composition should be written about an inch and a half from the top of the page1 and well placed in the middle from left to right4 ,there should be a blank line between the title and the beginning of the composition4 ,some persons prefer1 in addition to the title1 the name of the writer and the date of writing1--an unnecessary addition1 it seems to me4 ,if they are to appear1 the name should be at the left and the date at the right1 both on one line4 ,the title will be on the next line below4 ,jay ,phillips4 ,jan4 #bg1 #aijj4 ,the ,circus-,man's ,story4 ,there was once an old man whom they called a wizard1 and who lived in a great cave by the sea and raised dragons4 ,now when ,i was a very little boy1 ,i had read a great deal about this old man and felt as if he were quite a friend of mine4 ,i had planned for a long time to pay him a visit1 although ,i had not decided just when ,i should start4 ,but the day ,jim ,white's father brought him that camel1 ,i was crazy to be after my dragon at once4 ,when bedtime came1 ,i had made all my plans2 and scarcely had ,nurse turned her back when ,i was on my way4 ,it was really very far1 but ,i traveled so swiftly that ,i arrived in a remarkably short time at the wizard's house4 ,when ,i rapped1 he opened the door and asked me in4 ',i came to see if you had any dragons left1' ,i told him4 ',i should like a very good1 gentle dragon1' ,i added1 'that would not scare ,nurse2 and if it is isn't too much trouble1 ,i should want one that ,i could ride4' ,,the ,,indorsement4 ,when the composition is finished1 it should be folded but once up and down the middle of the page4 ,the indorsement upon the back is generally written toward the edges of the leaves1 not toward the folded edge4 ,i prefer the other way1 however2 and for this reason4 ,if in a bunch of essays a teacher is searching for a particular one1 she generally holds them in the left hand and with the fingers of the right lifts one essay after another4 ,indorsing toward the folded edge insures lifting a whole essay every time2 while if the edges of the leaves be toward the right hand1 too many or too few may be lifted4 ,the indorsement should contain3 first1 the name of the writer2 second1 the term and period of his recitation2 third1 the title of the essay2 and fourth1 the date4 ,in describing the class and period1 it is well to use a ,roman numeral for the term1 counting two terms in each year1 and an ,arabic numeral to denote the period of his recitation4 ,jay ,phillips4 ,,ii1 #c4 ,the ,circus-,man's ,story4 ,jan4 #bg1 #aijj4 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,,penmanship4 ,the penmanship should be neat and legible4 ,not all persons can write elegantly2 but all can write so that their work can be easily read1 and all can make a clean page4 ,scribbling is due to carelessness4 ,a scribbled page points to a scribbling mind2 clean-cut handwriting1 perhaps not ,spencerian1 but a clear1 legible handwriting is not only an indication of clear-cut thinking but a means and promoter of accurate thought4 ,moreover1 as a business proposition1 one cannot afford to become a slovenly penman4 ,every composition should be a lesson in penmanship1 and by so much improve one's chances in the business world4 ,and last1 the teacher who has to read and correct the compositions of from one hundred to two hundred persons each week demands some consideration4 ,no one but a teacher knows the drudgery of this work2 it can be much lightened if each pupil writes so that the composition can be read without difficulty4 ,by doing this1 the pupil is sure of better criticism2 for the teacher can give all her attention to the composition1 none being demanded for the penmanship4 ,c4 ,,marks ,,for ,,correction ,,of ,,compositions4 ,in correcting compositions certain abbreviations will save a teacher much time4 ,some of the common ones are given below4 ,underscore the element that needs correcting1 and put the abbreviation in the margin4 ,in case the whole paragraph needs remodeling1 draw a line at its side and note the correction in the margin4 ,cap4 ,use a capital letter4 l4 c4 ,use a small letter4 ,d4 ,see the dictionary for the correct use of the word4 ,sp4 ,spelling4 ,gr4 ,a mistake in grammatical use of language4 ,cnst4 ,the construction of the sentence is awkward or unidiomatic4 ,cl4 ,not clear4 ,the remedy may be suggested by reference to certain pages of the text4 ,w4 ,weak4 ,as above1 point out the trouble by a page reference4 ,rep4 ,repetition is monotonous2 or it may be necessary for clearness4 p4 ,punctuation4 ,cond4 ,condense4 ,exp4 ,expand4 ,tr4 ,transpose4 8 ,some fault not designated4 ,it is well to use page reference4 ,p ,make a new paragraph4 ,no ,p ,unite into one paragraph4 ,greek lower-case delta ,cut out4 ,there is something omitted4 ,transcriber's note3 ,the paragraph symbol cannot be displayed with ascii characters4 ,it is best described as a reversed ,p with two vertical lines4 ,we have substituted an upper case ,p4 ,in addition to the above very common corrections1 many others should be made4 ,instead of abbreviations1 it will be better to refer the pupil to the page of the book which treats of the special fault4 ,for instance1 if there be an unexpected change of construction1 underscore it1 and write in the margin #bbf2 on this page is found parallel construction of sentences4 ,it may be well to use the letters ,u41 ,c41 and ,m41 in connection with the page numbers to indicate that the fault is in the unity1 coherence1 or mass of the element to be corrected4 ,the constant reference to the fuller statement of the principles violated will serve to fix them in the mind4 ,d4 ,,punctuation4 ,punctuation seeks to do for written composition what inflections and pauses accomplish in vocal expression4 ,it makes clear what kind of an expression the whole sentence is3 whether declarative1 exclamatory1 or interrogative4 ,and it assists in indicating the relations of the different parts within a sentence4 ,while there is practically uniformity in the method of punctuation at the end of a sentence1 within a sentence punctuation shows much variety of method4 ,where one person uses a comma1 another inserts a semicolon2 and where one finds a semicolon sufficient1 another requires a colon4 ,it should be remembered that the parts of a sentence have not equal rank2 and that the difference in rank should1 as far as possible1 be indicated by the marks of punctuation4 ,keeping in mind1 also1 the fact that the internal marks of punctuation1--the colon1 the semicolon1 and the comma1--have a rank in the order mentioned1 from the greatest to the least1 a writer will use the stronger marks when the rank of the parts of a sentence demands them1 and the weaker marks to separate the lesser elements of the sentence4 ,the sentences below illustrate the variety which may be practiced1 and the use of punctuation to show the relation and rank of the elements of a sentence4 #a4 ,internal punctuation is largely a matter of taste but there are definite rules for final punctuation4 #b4 ,internal punctuation is largely a matter of taste2 there are1 however1 definite rules for final punctuation4 #c4 ,internal punctuation1 the purpose of which is to group phrases and clauses which belong together and to separate those which do not belong together1 and to indicate the relative rank of the parts separated1 is1 to a great extent1 a matter of taste3 on the other hand1 there are definite rules for final punctuation1 the object of which is to separate sentences1 and also to assist in telling what kind of a sentence precedes it2 that is1 whether it be declarative1 interrogative1 or exclamatory4 ,looking at the first sentence1 we find two elements of equal rank separated by a comma4 ,some authors would prefer no punctuation at all in a sentence as short as this4 ,again1 if one wished to make the two elements very independent1 he would use a semicolon4 ,there would be but little difference in meaning between no punctuation and a comma2 but there is a wide difference in meaning between no punctuation and a semicolon4 ,the independence caused by the use of the semicolon is felt in the second sentence1 where the words are the same except one4 ,in this sentence a colon might be used2 and one might go so far as to make two sentences of it4 ,notice that in these two sentences the question is how independent you wish the elements to be1 and it is also a question of taste4 ,in the third sentence1 there are elements of different rank4 ,to indicate the rank1 punctuation of different value must be introduced4 ,the two independent elements are separated by a colon4 ,a semicolon might be used1 if a semicolon were not used within the second independent element4 ,this renders the greater mark necessary4 ,look at the commas in the first independent element4 ,the assertion is that internal punctuation is a matter of taste4 ,this is too sweeping4 ,it is modified by an explanatory phrase1 to a large extent2 and this phrase is inclosed by commas4 ,moreover1 the long clause indicating the purpose of internal punctuation is inclosed by commas4 ,the use of a semicolon in the second part falls under the third rule for the semicolon4 ,if one should substitute for this semicolon a comma and a dash1 he could use a semicolon instead of a colon for separating the two main divisions of the sentence4 ,however1 the method in which they are first punctuated is in accord with the rules generally accepted4 ,the simplest of these rules are given below but one must never be surprised to find a piece of literature in which the internal punctuation is at variance with these rules4 ,,capital ,,letters4 #a4 ,a capital letter begins every new sentence4 #b4 ,a capital letter begins every line of poetry4 #c4 ,all names of ,deity begin with a capital letter4 #d4 ,all proper names begin with capital letters4 #e4 ,all adjectives derived from proper nouns begin with capital letters4 #f4 ,the first word of every direct quotation begins with a capital letter4 #g4 ,most abbreviations use capital letters4 ,,commas4 #h4 ,a series of words or a series of phrases1 performing similar functions in a sentence1 are separated from each other by commas1 unless all the connectives are expressed4 ,her voice was ever soft1 ,gentle1 and low1--an excellent thing in woman4 ,good my lord1 ,you have begot me1 bred me1 loved me3 ,i ,return those duties back as are right fit1 ,obey you1 love you1 and most honor you4 ,but1 shining and tall and fair and straight1 because all the connectives are expressed4 #i4 ,words out of their natural order are separated from the rest of the sentence by commas4 ,to the unlearned1 punctuation is a matter of chance4 #aj4 ,words and phrases1 either explanatory or slightly parenthetical1 are separated from the rest of the sentence by commas4 ,then poor ,cordelia6 ,and yet not so2 since1 ,i am sure1 my love 's ,more richer than my tongue4 ,however when phrases and clauses are quite parenthetic1 they are separated from the remainder of the sentence by parentheses1 or by commas and dashes4 ,the comma and dash is more common1 and generally indicates a lesser independence of the inclosed element4 ,then ,miss ,gunns smiled stiffly1 and thought what a pity it was that these rich country people1 who could afford to buy such good clothes 7really ,miss ,nancy's lace and silk were very costly71 should be brought up in utter ignorance and vulgarity4 #aa4 ,the nominative of direct address1 and phrases in the nominative absolute construction are cut off by commas4 ,goneril1 ,our eldest born1 speak first4 ,the ridges being taken1 the troops advanced a thousand yards4 #ab4 ,appositive words and phrases are separated from the remainder of the sentence by commas4 ,in the early years of this century1 such a linen weaver1 named ,silas ,marner1 worked at his vocation1 in a stone cottage that stood among the nutty hedgerows near the village of ,raveloe1 and not far from the edge of a deserted stone-pit4 #ac4 ,when words are omitted1 the omission is indicated by the use of a comma4 ,fairest ,cordelia1 that art most rich1 being poor2 ,most choice1 forsaken2 and most loved1 despis'd6 #ad4 ,a comma is used before a short and informal quotation4 ,in the bitterness of his wounded spirit1 he said to himself1 ',she will cast me off too4' #ae4 ,a comma is used to separate the independent clauses of a compound sentence sufficiently involved to necessitate some mark of punctuation1 and yet not involved enough to require marks of different ranks4 ,but about the ,christmas of the fifteenth year a second great change came over ,marner's life1 and his history became blent in a singular manner with the life of his neighbors4 #f4 ,small groups of more closely related words are inclosed by commas to indicate their near relation and to separate them from words they might otherwise be thought to modify4 ,in this strange world1 made a hopeless riddle to him1 he might1 if he had had a less intense nature1 have sat weaving1 weaving--looking towards the end of his pattern1 or towards the end of his web1 till he forgot the riddle1 and everything else but his immediate sensations2 but the money had come to mark off his weaving into periods1 and the money not only grew1 but it remained with him4 ,,semicolons4 #ag4 ,a semicolon is used to separate the parts of a compound sentence if they are involved1 or contain commas4 ,it is also used to give independence to the members of a compound sentence when not very complex4 ,the meadow was searched in vain2 and he got over the stile into the next field1 looking with dying hope towards a small pond which was now reduced to its summer shallowness1 so as to leave a wide margin of good adhesive mud4 ,as for the child1 he would see that it was cared for2 he would never forsake it2 he would do everything but own it4 #ah4 ,semicolons are used to separate a series of clauses in much the same way as commas are used to separate a series of words4 ,i love you more than words can wield the matter2 ,dearer than eyesight1 space1 and liberty2 ,beyond what can be valued1 rich or rare2 ,no less than life1 with grace1 health1 beauty1 honor2 ,as much as child e'er loved1 or father found2 ,a love that makes breath poor1 and speech unable2 ,beyond all manner of so much ,i love thee4 #ai4 ,a semicolon is generally used to introduce a clause of repetition1 a clause stating the obverse1 and a clause stating an inference4 7,many examples of the last two rules will be found in the discussion of compound sentences on pages #bjb1 #bjc47 ,,colons4 #bj4 ,a colon is used to introduce a formal quotation4 ,it is frequently followed by a dash4 ,under date of ,november #bh1 #ahfj1 she wrote to a friend3-- ',i am engaged now in writing a story--the idea of which came to me after our arrival in this house1 and which has thrust itself between me and the other book ,i was meditating4 ,it is ,silas ,manner1 the ,weaver of ,raveloe4' ,on the last day of the same year she wrote3 ',i am writing a story which came across my other plans by a sudden inspiration1 etc4' #ba4 ,a colon is used to introduce a series of particulars1 either appositional or explanatory1 which the reader has been led to expect by the first clause of the sentence4 ,these particulars are separated from each other by semicolons4 ,the study of the principles of composition should include the following subjects3 a study of words as to their origin and meaning2 a study of the structure of the sentence and of the larger elements of discourse--in other words1 of concrete logic2 a study of the principles of effective literary composition1 as illustrated in the various divisions of literature2 and also a study of the aesthetics of literature4 ,what ,john ,morley once said of literature as a whole is even more accurate when applied to fiction alone3 its purpose is 'to bring sunshine into our hearts and to drive moonshine out of our heads4' #bb4 ,a colon is used to separate the major parts of a very complex and involved sentence1 if the major parts1 or either of them1 contain within themselves semicolons4 ,for four years he had thought of ,nancy ,lammeter1 and wooed her with a tacit patient worship1 as the woman who made him think of the future with joy3 she would be his wife1 and would make home lovely to him1 as his father's home had never been2 and it would be easy1 when she was always near1 to shake off those foolish habits that were no pleasures1 but only a feverish way of annulling vacancy4 #bc4 ,a colon is sometimes used to mark a strong independence in the parts of a compound sentence4 ,he didn't want to give ,godfrey that pleasure3 he preferred that ,master ,godfrey should be vexed4 ,,the ,,dash4 #bd4 ,a dash is frequently used with a colon to introduce a formal quotation4 ,the quotation then begins a new paragraph4 7,example under colon47 #be4 ,a dash is used alone or with a comma to inclose a phrase or clause which is parenthetic or explanatory4 ',but as for being ugly1 look at me1 child1 in this silver-colored silk--,i told you how it 'ud be--,i look as yallow as a daffadil4' 7,example under comma47 #bf4 ,a dash is used to denote a sudden turn of the thought4 ,i've no opinion of the men1 ,miss ,gunn--,i don't know what you have4 ',it does make her look funny1 though--partly like a short-necked bottle wi' a long quill in it4 #bg4 ,a dash is frequently used when the composition should be interrupted to indicate the intensity of the emotion4 ,no--no--,i can't part with it1 ,i can't let it go1' said ,silas abruptly4 ',it's come to me--,i've a right to keep it4' ,and my poor fool is hang'd6 ,no1 no1 no life6 ,why should a dog1 a horse1 a rat1 have life1 ,and thou no breath at all8 ,thou'lt come no more1 ,never1 never1 never1 never1 never6-- ,pray you1 undo this button3--thank you1 sir4-- ,do you see this8 ,look on her1--look1--her lips1-- ,look there1 look there6-- #bh4 ,a dash is sometimes used alone before an appositive phrase or clause4 ,for the first time he determined to try the coal-hole--a small closet near the hearth4 ,,period1 ,,exclamation ,,point1 ,,interrogation ,,mark4 #bi4 ,a period closes every declarative sentence4 #cj4 ,a period is used after abbreviations4 #ca4 ,an exclamation point follows an expression of strong emotion4 #cb4 ,an interrogation mark follows a direct question4 #cc4 ,an interrogation mark is sometimes used in the body of a sentence1 when the writer wishes to make the assertion forceful and uses a rhetorical question for the purpose4 ,the shepherd's dog barked fiercely when one of these alien-looking men appeared on the upland1 dark against the early winter sunset2 for what dog likes a figure bent under a heavy bag8--and these pale men rarely stirred abroad without that mysterious burden4 #cd4 ,quotation marks inclose every quotation of the exact words of another4 ,when one quotation is made within another1 the inner or secondary quotation is inclosed with single marks1 the main or outer quotation is included within the double marks4 7,examples of both may be found above47 ,,suggestions ,,for ,,teaching ,,punctuation4 ,at the time the pupils are studying the rules for punctuation they are reading ,hawthorne or some other author equally careful of his punctuation4 ,in his writing they will find numerous examples of the rules for punctuation4 ,let them take five rules for the comma1 finding all the examples in five pages of text4 ,in the same way furnish semicolons1 colons1 and dashes4 ,when the rules have all been learned1 they should be able to give the reason for every mark they find in literature4 ,next place upon the board paragraphs not punctuated1 and have the pupils punctuate them4 ,remember that there is not absolute uniformity in the use of the comma1 semicolon1 and colon2 though in each author there is a general adherence to the principles he adopts4 ,punctuation should be consistent4 ,insist that the pupil punctuate his written work consistently4 ,e4 ,,supplementary ,,list ,,of ,,literature4#eg ,,hawthorne 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,a ,wonder-,book for ,girls and ,boys4 ,,tennyson4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,enoch ,arden4 ,,longfellow4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,tales of a ,wayside ,inn4 ,,whittier4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,the ,tent on the ,beach4 ,,macaulay4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,lays of ,ancient ,rome4 ,,dickens 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,a ,christmas ,carol4 ,,kipling 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,wee ,willie ,winkie1 and ,other ,stories4 ,,kipling 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,the ,jungle ,books4 ,,hawthorne 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,twice-,told ,tales4 ,,hawthorne 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,mosses from an ,old ,manse4 ,,dickens 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,the ,cricket on the ,hearth4 ,,brown 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,rab and his ,friends4 ,,ouida 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,a ,dog of ,flanders4 ,,hale4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,the ,man without a ,country4 ,,defoe 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,robinson ,crusoe4 ,,poe 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,the ,gold-,bug4 ,,scott 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,marmion4 ,,scott 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,the ,lady of the ,lake4 ,,browning4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,herve ,riel1 an ,incident of the ,french ,camp1 and other ,narrative ,poems4 ,,franklin4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,autobiography4 ,,cooper4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,the ,last of the ,mohicans4 ,,longfellow4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,evangeline4 ,,longfellow4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,miles ,standish4 ,,davis 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,gallegher1 and ,other ,stories4 ,,maupassant4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,number ,thirteen4 ,,miss ,,wilkins4 4 4 4 4 4 ,short ,stories4 ,,miss ,,jewett 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,short ,stories4 ,,pope4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,the ,iliad4 ,,aldrich 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,marjorie ,daw4 ,,lowell4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,the ,vision of ,sir ,launfal1 and ,other ,poems4 ,,irving4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,tales of a ,traveller4 ,,irving4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,the ,sketch ,book4 ,,poe 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,the ,fall of the ,house of ,usher4 ,,whittier4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,snow-,bound4 ,,burroughs 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,sharp ,eyes2 ,birds and ,bees2 ,pepacton4 ,,goldsmith 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,the ,deserted ,village4 ,,scott 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,ivanhoe4 ,,dickens 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,david ,copperfield4 ,,shakespeare 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,julius ,caesar4 ,,shakespeare 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,the ,merchant of ,venice4 ,,irving4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,rip ,van ,winkle4 ,,irving4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,the ,legend of ,sleepy ,hollow4 ,,bryant4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,selected ,poems4 ,,gray4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,an ,elegy in a ,country ,churchyard4 ,,tennyson4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,the ,princess2 ,idylls of the ,king4 ,,dickens 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,the ,pickwick ,papers4 ,,burns 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,selected ,poems4 ,,dryden4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,alexander's ,feast4 ,,byron 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,childe ,harold4 ,,george ,,eliot4 4 4 4 4 4 ,silas ,marner4 ,,coleridge 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,the ,rime of the ,ancient ,mariner4 ,,macaulay4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,essay on ,milton4 ,,ruskin4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,sesame and ,lilies4 ,,emerson 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,friendship2 ,self-,reliance2 ,fortune of the ,republic2 ,the ,american ,scholar4 ,,arnold4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,on the ,study of ,poetry2 ,wordsworth and ,keats4 ,,lowell4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,emerson1 the ,lecturer2 ,milton2 ,books and ,libraries4 ,,holmes4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,the ,autocrat of the ,breakfast-,table4 ,,addison 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,the ,sir ,roger de ,coverley ,papers4 ,,wordsworth4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,intimations of ,immortality1 and ,other ,poems4 ,,keats 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,selected ,poems4 ,,shelley 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,selected ,poems4 ,,shakespeare 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,macbeth4 ,,shakespeare 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,a ,midsummer ,night's ,dream4 ,,shakespeare 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,as ,you ,like ,it4 ,,webster 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,bunker ,hill ,monument ,oration2 ,adams and ,jefferson4 ,,goldsmith 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,the ,vicar of ,wakefield4 ,,milton4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,l',allegro2 ,il ,penseroso2 ,comus2 ,lycidas4 ,,de ,,quincey4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,confessions of an ,english ,opium ,eater1 and ,other ,papers4 ,,john ,,henry ,,newman 4 4 4 ,selected ,essays4 ,,thackeray 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,henry ,esmond4 ,,stevenson 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,virginibus ,puerisque4 ,,stevenson 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,memories and ,portraits4 ,,schurz4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,abraham ,lincoln4 ,,george ,,william ,,curtis 4 ,selected ,addresses4 ,,charles ,,lamb4 4 4 4 4 4 ,essays of ,elia4 ,,stevenson 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,travels with a ,donkey4 ,,stevenson 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,an ,inland ,voyage4 ,,burke 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,conciliation with the ,colonies4 ,,lincoln 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,cooper ,union ,address2 ,gettysburg ,speech4 ,,chaucer 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,prologue1 and ,two ,canterbury ,tales4 ,,milton4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,paradise ,lost1 and ,sonnets4 ,,carlyle 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,essay on ,burns4 ,,tennyson4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,in ,memoriam1 and ,lyrics4 ,,browning4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,rabbi ,ben ,ezra2 ,saul2 ,a ,grammarian's ,funeral4 ,,thoreau 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,walden4 ,,austen4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,pride and ,prejudice4 ,,george ,,eliot4 4 4 4 4 4 ,romola4 ,,shakespeare 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,king ,lear4 ,,shakespeare 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,hamlet4 ,,macaulay4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,essay on ,johnson4 ,,thackeray 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,vanity ,fair4 ,,lowell4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,democracy2 ,lincoln4 ,,stevenson 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,lantern ,bearers2 ,a ,humble ,remonstrance2 ,gossip about ,romance4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,index ,abstract vs4 concrete1 #hi1 #ij4 ,adams and ,jefferson1 ,webster's1 quotation from1 #agf4 ,adjectives1 #gh4 ,alice in ,wonderland1 a story without facts1 #be4 ,allegory1 #bfa4 ,allusion1 #bfc4 ,amphibrach1 #bgc4 ,analogy1 use of1 #acg4 ,anapest1 defined1 #bgc2 interchangeable with iambus1 #bgh4 ,and1 use of1 #aib4 ,andersen1 ,hans ,christian1 his ,tannenbaum1 #ab4 ,anecdotes in exposition1 #ig4 ,annabel ,lee1 quotations from1 #bga1 #bgh1 #bgi4 ,anti-climax1 #baj4 ,antithesis1 #bbg4 ,apologia1 ,newman's1 quotation from1 #afj4 ,apostrophe1 #bfa4 ,argument1 #d1 #abh-acg2 from cause1 #acc2 sign1 #acc-acg2 example1 #acg4 ,arnold1 ,matthew1 quotation from1 #aei2 quotation to illustrate repetition1 #afg2 to illustrate sentence structure1 #bbb4 ,arrangement1 in narration1 #bi-cb2 description1 #gd1 #ge2 exposition1 #ajh-aad2 argument1 #ach-ada2 sentence1 #bbb1 #bbc4 ,association of ideas1 #ajc4 ,autumn ,effect1 ,an1 quotation from1 #ag4 ,baa1 ,baa1 ,black ,sheep1 its purpose1 #g2 beginning1 #bi2 length of sentences in1 #cc2 time for the action1 #cf4 ,balanced sentences1 #bbg1 #bbh4 ,ballad1 defined1 #bhe4 ,barbara ,frietchie1 a narrative poem1 #d4 ,bates1 ,arlo1 quoted1 #ce4 ,beauty1 gained by use of figurative language1 #beh4 ,beginning of a story1 #bi4 ,bellamy1 ,edward1 his ,looking ,backward1 #g4 ,biglow ,papers1 quotation from1 #ea4 ,birthmark1 ,hawthorne's1 #bd4 ,blake1 ,william1 ,tiger1 ,tiger1 quoted1 #bhb1 #bhc4 ,bonnie ,brier ,bush1 ,beside the1 #be4 ,bookish words1 #bdb4 ,break1 ,break1 ,break1 quotation from1 #bhc4 ,bridge of ,sighs1 ,the1 quotation from1 #bgj4 ,brief in argument1 #ach1 #aci4 ,browning1 ,robert1 vivid narration of1 #bc4 ,burial of ,sir ,john ,moore1 ,the1 quotation from1 #bgg4 ,burke1 ,edmund1 quotation from his speech on ,conciliation with the ,colonies1 #aaf2 that speech analyzed1 #adb-adg2 quotations to illustrate paragraph structure1 #aga1 #age1 #agg1 #ahh2 quotations to show sentence structure1 #bjj1 #bji1 #bad1 #bbf4 ,burroughs1 ,john1 his knowledge of his field1 #i2 quotations from1 #aeh1 #afj4 ,but1 use of1 #aib4 ,capital letters1 #cjc4 ,cause and effect1 #acc-acf4 ,characters1 number of1 #ce4 ,chaucer1 ,geoffrey1 quotation from1 #bde4 ,choice of subject1 #h-ab4 ,choice of words1 #gh-hj1 #bci-bee4 ,cinderella1 #ab4 ,clearness and coherence1 #ahj-aic1 #bbd1 #bbe4 ,clearness gained by use of figurative language1 #beh4 ,climax1 #aci-ada1 #baa1 #bah2 defined1 #bfb4 ,coherence1 #bj2 in narration1 #ca1 #cb2 in description1 #gd1 #ge2 in exposition1 #aaf-aah2 in paragraphs1 #ahj-aic2 in sentences1 #bbd1 #bbe4 ,colons1 #cjf1 #cjg4 ,comedy1 #bhf4 ,commas1 #cjc1 #cjd4 ,comparisons1 use of1 #gg1 #ih2 paragraph of1 #afe2 confusion of1 #bei4 ,composition1 #a2 oral and written1 #b2 conventions of1 #b4 ,conciliation with the ,colonies1 ,burke's speech on1 quoted1 #aaf1 #aga1 #age1 #agg1 #ahh1 #bad1 #bbf2 analyzed1 #adb-adg4 ,conclusion of a story1 #bc4 ,concrete facts1 use of1 #hi1 #ij4 ,conjunctions1 use of1 #aij1 #aia4 ,connectives in sentences1 #bbh1 #bbi4 ,consistency1 #be4 ,cooke1 ,josiah ,p41 his essay on ,fire1 #h4 ,copyright1 quotations from ,macaulay's speech on1 #aei1 #agb4 ,correction1 marks for1 #cjj4 ,curtis1 ,george ,william1 quoted1 #aaa4 ,dactyl1 defined1 #bgb2 interchangeable with trochee1 #bgh4 ,daisy1 ,the1 ,wordsworth's quotation from1 #bgd4 ,darkness and ,dawn1 #h4 ,dash1 #cjg1 #cjh4 ,david ,copperfield1 description quoted from1 #fe4 ,david ,harum1 its construction criticised1 #bb4 ,davis1 ,richard ,harding1 small number of characters in his books1 #ce2 simple plot in his ,gallegher1 #cf4 ,deduction1 #abi4 ,definition1 a1 #ia-id4 ,description1 #d1 #di-hj2 an aid to narration1 #cd2 and exposition1 #ia4 ,description and painting1 #ej4 ,details1 in narration1 #bb-be2 paragraph of1 #afc4 ,dickens1 ,charles1 his ,nicholas ,nickleby as an exposition1 #e2 description from his ,david ,copperfield quoted1 #fe2 quotations from ,mr4 ,micawber's conversation1 #bec4 ,dictionary1 use of1 #bcg4 ,differentia1 #ib1 #ic4 ,digression1 #bb4 ,dimeter1 #bgd4 ,discourse1 forms of1 #c-g4 ,discussions and ,arguments1 ,newman's1 quotation from1 #ig4 ,dramatic poetry1 #bhf4 ,dynamic point of sentence1 #bba4 ,elegy1 the1 #bhe4 ,eliot1 ,george1 her ,silas ,marner1 #ac2 quotation from1 #aeb-aef4 ,emerson1 ,ralph ,waldo1 primarily an essayist1 #i4 ,emotional statement1 #aae4 ,emphasis1 how secured1 #aaj-aab1 #aae1 #aaf1 #bag-bai4 ,end of a paragraph1 #age-agi2 of a sentence1 #bjh-bab4 ,english ,composition1 ,wendell's1 quotation from1 #id4 ,enthymeme1 #acj4 ,enumeration vs4 suggestion1 #eb4 ,enumerative description1 #ed4 ,epic1 the1 #bhd4 ,epithet1 #bfj4 ,evangeline1 quotation from1 #bgg1 #bgh4 ,events1 order of1 #bi1 #cj4 ,everett1 ,edward1 description from1 quoted1 #ga4 ,examples1 paragraph of1 #aga4 ,exclamation1 #bfb4 ,exclamation point1 #cjh4 ,exclusion of details1 #bb1 #bc1 #bf4 ,exposition1 #d1 #hi-abj2 and description1 #ia4 ,facts in stories1 #be4 ,faerie ,queene1 ,the1 quotation from1 #bha4 ,fall of the ,house of ,usher1 ,the1 descriptions in1 #cd2 quotation from1 #fi1 #ga4 ,familiar images1 #gf4 ,farrar1 ,canon1 as a writer of sermons1 #h4 ,feathertop1 #ac4 ,figurative language1 #beg2 value of1 #beh4 ,figures of speech1 #gg1 #bej1 #beg-bfh4 ,fine writing1 #bec4 ,first ,snow-,fall1 ,the1 quotation from1 #bgd4 ,fiske1 ,john1 his ,history of the ,united ,states1 #be4 ,foot1 a1 in poetry1 #bgb2 one kind may be substituted for another1 #bgg-bha2 first and last foot of a verse may be irregular1 #bha1 #bhb4 ,force1 gained by use of figurative language1 #beh4 ,foreign words1 #bdc4 ,francis ,i4 quoted1 #aac4 ,function of ,criticism at the ,present ,time1 ,arnold's1 quotation from1 #bbb4 ,gallegher1 simple plot of1 #cf4 ,general terms1 #hi1 #bdh-beb4 ,genung1 ,j4 ,f41 on paragraph structure1 #afb4 ,genus and differentia1 #ib1 #ic4 ,gold ,bug1 length of sentences in1 #cc4 ,good usage1 #bbb1 #bbc1 #bci-bde4 ,grant1 ,u4 ,s41 his ,memoirs have no plot1 #af4 ,hackneyed phrases1 #bec4 ,haggard1 ,rider1 #ab4 ,hawthorne1 ,nathaniel1 a story writer1 #i2 his ,feathertop1 #ac2 his descriptions in ,the ,marble ,faun1 #cd2 quoted1 #ej2 quotations from1 about ,the ,old ,manse1 #eh1 #ei2 descriptions from his ,house of the ,seven ,gables quoted1 #ff2 from ,the ,old ,apple ,dealer1 #fg4 ,heading of essay1 #big4 ,heptameter1 #bge4 ,herve ,riel as a piece of narrative1 #bc4 ,hexameter1 #bge4 ,hiawatha1 quotation from1 #bgj4 ,historical ,sketches1 ,newman's1 quotation from1 #eb-ed4 ,hood1 ,thomas1 ,the ,bridge of ,sighs quoted1 #bgj4 ,house of the ,seven ,gables1 descriptions quoted from1 #ff4 ,hugo1 ,victor1 his description of ,waterloo quoted1 #fg4 ,huxley1 ,thomas1 example of his use of comparison1 #ih2 quotation from1 to illustrate paragraph structure1 #afa4 ,hyperbole1 #bfc4 ,iambus1 defined1 #bgb2 the common foot of ,english verse1 #bgb1 #bgi2 interchangeable with anapest1 #bgh4 ,idea of a ,university1 quotations from1 #ie1 #aga1 #aic1 #bjc1 #baj1 #bdg4 ,illustrations1 their value1 #ig4 ,impressions de ,theatre1 quotation from1 #fc4 ,incident of a ,french ,camp1 ,an1 as an example of a short story1 #bc4 ,incident1 the main1 #bj1 #ba4 ,incidents1 order of1 #bi1 #cj4 ,inclusion of material1 #bd4 ,indention of paragraph1 #big4 ,individual arrangement of paragraph1 #aha-ahh4 ,individuality of author1 #h4 ,indorsement of essay1 #bih4 ,induction1 #abh1 #acb4 ,interest1 #aa1 #ab4 ,interrogation1 #bfb4 ,interrogation point1 #cjh4 ,introduction of story1 #bc4 ,inversion1 #bfb4 ,irony1 #bfb4 ,irrelevant matter1 #bb1 #bc4 ,irving1 ,washington1 as a story writer in the third person1 #bg2 description from1 quoted1 #ed2 short characterization quoted1 #gj2 description of a coachman quoted1 #ge2 quotations to illustrate paragraph structure1 #afd1 #ahc2 to illustrate sentence construction1 #bjb1 #bjc1 #bai1 #bbj1 #bbi4 ,jonson1 ,ben1 quotation from1 #bhj4 ,jungle ,books1 #ab2 quotation from1 #gh4 ,kidnapped1 quotations from1 #ae1 #afe2 its unity1 #bg4 ,king ,lear1 its plot1 #af2 quotation from1 #fj4 ,kingsley1 ,charles1 ,the ,three ,fishers quoted1 #bga4 ,kipling1 ,rudyard1 his ,baa1 ,baa1 ,black ,sheep1 #g2 his ,jungle ,books1 #ab2 his use of climax1 #ba2 as a story-teller1 #bb1 #bg2 small number of characters in his stories1 #ce2 quotation from his ,light that ,failed1 #fj2 description quoted from his ,jungle ,books1 #gh2 quotation to illustrate sentence construction1 #bja2 his ,l',envoi quoted1 #beb4 ,lady of the ,lake1 ,the1 quotation from1 #bfi4 ,language vs4 painting1 #di-eb4 ,lanier1 ,sidney1 ,the ,science of ,english ,verse1 cited1 #bfi2 quoted1 #bgc4 ,latin words1 #bde-bdh4 ,le ,gallienne1 ,richard1 his essay on pigs1 #aj2 quoted1 #beg4 ,legend of ,sleepy ,hollow1 ,the1 #bg1 #bi2 description in1 #cd2 quotation from to show paragraph structure1 #afc1 #ahc2 to show sentence structure1 #bjb1 #bai4 ,lemaitre1 ,jules1 criticism of ,zola quoted1 #fc4 ,length1 of a description1 #fc1 #fd2 of a paragraph1 #aea-aef2 of a sentence1 #agh1 #agi1 #bjd1 #bje4 ,l',envoi to ,the ,seven ,seas1 quoted1 #beb4 ,les ,miserables1 its intricate plot1 #af2 quotation from1 #fg4 ,light that ,failed1 ,the1 quotation from1 #fj4 ,little ,dorrit1 large number of characters in1 #ce4 ,little ,red ,riding ,hood1 #ab4 ,logical definition1 #ia4 ,london ,bridge1 quotation from1 #bhb4 ,longfellow1 ,henry ,wadsworth1 ,hiawatha quoted1 #bgj2 ,evangeline quoted1 #bgg1 #bgh2 ,the ,village ,blacksmith quoted1 #bgi1 #bhj4 ,looking ,backward1 as a novel with a purpose1 #g4 ,loose sentences1 #bab1 #bad1 #bae4 ,lovelace1 ,richard1 quoted1 #aab4 ,lowell1 ,james ,russell1 his ,sir ,launfal1 #ac2 quotation from ,biglow ,papers1 #ea2 from a ,song1 #eb2 from ,to ,w4 ,l4 ,garrison1 #hi2 from ,the ,first ,snow-,fall1 #bgd4 ,lyric poetry1 #bhe4 ,lytton1 ,lord1 quotation from1 #bda4 ,macaulay1 ,lord1 quotation on ,milton from1 #if2 quotation to illustrate comparison1 #ih2 his essay on ,milton analyzed1 #ajf2 last sentence of that essay quoted1 #aaa2 that essay as an example of proportion in treatment1 #aad2 his denunciation of ,charles ,i4 quoted1 #aae2 further quotations from his ,milton1 #aag2 his speeches on ,copyright and the ,reform ,bill quoted1 #aei1 #agb1 #aic2 quotations from the ,milton to illustrate paragraph structure1 #afd1 #aff1 #afh1 #agh1 #ahb1 #ahd4 ,macbeth1 #ac4 ,maclaren1 ,ian1 #be4 ,main incident1 #bj-bf4 ,major term1 #abi4 ,marble ,faun1 ,the1 description in1 #cd4 ,margin of composition1 #bif4 ,marmion1 #bg1 #bi2 quoted1 #bgf4 ,mass1 #bj2 in description1 #fd-ge2 in exposition1 #ajh-aad2 in paragraphs1 #agd-agh2 in sentences1 #bjg-bab4 ,masson1 ,david1 #ajd4 ,maupassant1 ,guy de1 quotation from his ,pierre et ,jean1 #ef2 from his ,odd ,number1 #aef4 ,meredith1 ,george1 quotation from1 to illustrate paragraph structure1 #afa2 sentence structure1 #bje4 ,metaphor1 #gg1 #bfj4 ,metonymy1 #bej1 #bfc4 ,metre1 kinds of1 #bgc-bge2 variations in1 #bgf4 ,metrical romance1 the1 #bhd4 ,middle term1 #acj4 ,milton1 ,macaulay's essay on1 quotations from1 #if1 #ih1 #aaa1 #aae1 #aag1 #aai1 #afd1 #aff-afh1 #agh1 #ahd2 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,modern ,philosophy1 by ,josiah ,royce4 #ea4 ,see ,lowell's ,biglow ,papers1 ,introduction to ,second ,series4 #eb4 ,idea of a ,university1 by ,cardinal ,newman4 #ec4 ,from ,the ,princess3 a ,medley1 ,part ,,iv4 #ed4 ,from ,the ,seven ,seas1 published by ,d4 ,appleton ,co41 ,new ,york4 ,copyright1 #ahif1 by ,rudyard ,kipling4 #ee4 ,in any piece of literature there are many figures4 ,the following should be used only to make pupils familiar with varieties of figures4 ,they will find many more in the literature they read4 #ef4 ,the treatment of this subject is based upon ,lanier's ,the ,science of ,english ,verse4 #eg4 ,see p4 xix4