file was produced from images produced by ,core ,historical ,literature in ,agriculture 7,,chla71 ,cornell ,university7 ,,tomato ,,culture ,a ,,practical ,,treatise ,,on ,,the ,,tomato1 ,,its ,,history1 ,,characteristics1 ,,planting1 ,,fertilization1 ,,cultivation ,,in ,,field1 ,,garden1 ,,and ,,greenhouse1 ,,harvesting1 ,,packing1 ,,storing1 ,,marketing1 ,,insect ,,enemies ,,and ,,diseases1 ,,with ,,methods ,,of ,,control ,,and ,,remedies1 ,,etc41 ,,etc4 ,by ,,will ,w4 ,,tracy ,bureau of ,plant ,industry1 ,united ,states ,department of ,agriculture ,,illustrated ,,new ,,york ,,orange ,,judd ,,company #aijg ,to ,dr4 ,f4 ,m4 ,hexamer ,,in ,,honor ,,of ,,his ,,lifelong ,,efforts ,,for ,,the ,,betterment ,,of ,,american ,,horticultural ,,practice ,copyright1 #aijg1 by ,,orange ,,judd ,,company ,all rights reserved ,illustration3 ,,where ,,new ,,varieties ,,of ,,tomatoes ,,are ,,developed ,,and ,,tested 7,by courtesy ,american ,agriculturist4 ,photo by ,prof4 ,w4 ,g4 ,johnson7 ,,preface ,this little book has been written in fulfilment of a promise made many years ago4 ,again and again ,i have undertaken the work1 only to lay it aside because ,i felt the need of greater experience and wider knowledge4 ,i do not now feel that this deficiency has been by any means fully supplied1 but in some directions it has been removed through the kindness of ,dr4 ,f4 ,h4 ,chittenden of the ,bureau of ,entomology1 who wrote the chapter on insect enemies1 and of ,w4 ,a4 ,orton of the ,bureau of ,plant ,industry1 ,united ,states ,department of ,agriculture1 who wrote the chapter on diseases of tomatoes4 ,i have made free use of1 without special credit1 and am largely indebted to1 the writings of ,doctor ,sturtevant and ,professor ,goff1 ,professor ,munson of ,maine1 ,professor ,halsted of ,new ,jersey1 ,professor ,corbett of ,washington1 ,professor ,rolfs of ,florida1 ,professor ,bailey of ,new ,york1 ,professor ,green of ,ohio1 and many others4 ,i have also found a vast amount of valuable information in the agricultural press of this country in general4 ,i am also indebted to ,l4 ,b4 ,coulter and ,prof4 ,w4 ,g4 ,johnson for many photographs4 ,my thanks are also due ,b4 ,f4 ,williamson1 who made the excellent drawings for this book under ,professor ,johnson's direction4 ,tomatoes are among the most generally used and popular vegetables4 ,they are grown not only in gardens1 but in large areas in every state from ,maine to ,california and ,washington to ,florida1 and under very different conditions of climate1 soil and cultural facilities1 as well as of requirements as to character of fruit4 ,the methods which will give the best results under one set of conditions are entirely unsuited to others4 ,i have tried to give the nature and requirements of the plant and the effect of conditions as seen in my own experience1 a knowledge of which may enable the reader to follow the methods most suited to his own conditions and requirements1 rather than to recommend the exact methods which have given me the best results4 ,,will ,w4 ,,tracy4 ,washington1 ,april1 #aijg4 ,,contents ,,page ,,preface v ,,chapter ,i ,,botany ,,of ,,the ,,tomato #a ,,chapter ,,ii ,,history #ad ,,chapter ,,iii ,,general ,,characteristics ,,of ,,the ,,plant #bj ,,chapter ,,iv ,,essentials ,,for ,,development #bh ,,chapter ,v ,,selection ,,of ,,soil ,,for ,,maximum ,,crop #cc ,,chapter ,,vi ,,exposure ,,and ,,location #ch ,,chapter ,,vii ,,fertilizers #dc ,,chapter ,,viii ,,preparation ,,of ,,the ,,soil #df ,,chapter ,,ix ,,hotbeds ,,and ,,cold-,,frames #ea ,,chapter ,x ,,starting ,,plants #ei ,,chapter ,,xi ,,proper ,,distance ,,for ,,planting #fh ,,chapter ,,xii ,,cultivation #gf ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,staking1 ,,training ,,and ,,pruning #gi ,,chapter ,,xiv ,,ripening1 ,,gathering1 ,,handling ,,and ,,marketing #ij ,,the ,,fruit ,,chapter ,,xv ,,adaptation ,,of ,,varieties #ig ,,chapter ,,xvi ,,seed ,,breeding ,,and ,,growing #aab ,,chapter ,,xvii ,,production ,,for ,,canning #aag ,,chapter ,,xviii ,,cost ,,of ,,production #aba ,,chapter ,,xix ,,insects ,,injurious ,,to ,,the ,,tomato #abc ,,chapter ,,xx ,,tomato ,,diseases #aca ,,index #adh ,,illustrations ,,figure ,,page #a4 ,where new varieties of tomatoes are developed and tested ,frontispiece #b4 ,tomato flowers #b #c4 ,two-celled tomato #c #d4 ,three-celled tomato #c #e4 ,currant tomato and characteristic clusters #e #f4 ,red cherry tomato #f #g4 ,pear-shaped tomato #h #h4 ,yellow plum tomato #i #i4 ,one of the first illustrations of the tomato #aa #aj4 ,an early illustration of the tomato #ab #aa4 ,typical bunch of modern tomatoes #bg #ab4 ,tomatoes trained to stakes in the ,south #ce #ac4 ,three-sash hotbed #eb #ad4 ,cross-section of hotbed #ec #ae4 ,cold-frames on hill-side #ed #af4 ,transplanting tomatoes under cloth-covered frames #ef #ag4 ,spotting-board for use in cold-frames #fa #ah4 ,spotting-board for use on flat #fb #ai4 ,tomatoes sown and allowed to grow in hotbeds #fi #bj4 ,planting tomatoes on a ,delaware farm #ge #ba4 ,training tomatoes in ,florida to single stake #ha #bb4 ,tomato plant trained to single stake #hb #bc4 ,method of training to three stems in forcing-house and out of doors #hc #bd4 ,training on line in greenhouse #hd #be4 ,ready to transplant in greenhouse #he #bf4 ,training young tomatoes in greenhouse at ,new ,york experiment station #hf #bg4 ,tomatoes in greenhouse at the ,ohio experiment station #hg #bh4 ,forcing tomatoes in greenhouse at ,new ,hampshire experiment station #hh #bi4 ,florida tomatoes properly wrapped for long shipment #ic #cj4 ,greenhouse tomatoes packed for market #ie #ca4 ,buckeye ,state1 showing long nodes and distance between fruit clusters #ih #cb4 ,stone1 and characteristic foliage #ii #cc4 ,atlantic ,prize1 and its normal foliage #aja #cd4 ,dwarf ,champion #ajc #ce4 ,a cutworm and parent moth #abd #cf4 ,flea-beetle #abe #cg4 ,margined blister beetle #abe #ch4 ,tomato worm #abf #ci4 ,tomato stalk-borer #abg #dj4 ,characteristic work of the tomato fruit worm #abh #da4 ,adult moth1 or parent of tomato fruit worm #abi #db4 ,proper way to make ,bordeaux #acg #dc4 ,point-rot disease of the tomato #adj ,,tomato ,,culture ,,chapter ,i ,botany of the ,tomato ,the common tomato of our gardens belongs to the natural order ,solanaceae and the genus ,lycopersicum4 ,the name from lykos1 a wolf1 and persica1 a peach1 is given it because of the supposed aphrodisiacal qualities1 and the beauty of the fruit4 ,the genus comprises a few species of ,south ,american annual or short-lived perennial1 herbaceous1 rank-smelling plants in which the many branches are spreading1 procumbent1 or feebly ascendent and commonly #b to #f feet in length1 though under some conditions1 particularly in the ,south and in ,california1 they grow much longer4 ,they are covered with resinous viscid secretions and are round1 soft1 brittle and hairy1 when young1 but become furrowed1 angular1 hard and almost woody with enlarged joints1 when old4 ,the leaves are irregularly alternate1 #e to #ae inches long1 petioled1 odd pinnate1 with seven to nine short-stemmed leaflets1 often with much smaller and stemless ones between them4 ,the larger leaflets are sometimes entire1 but more generally notched1 cut1 or even divided1 particularly at the base4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b--,,tomato ,,flowers ,,enlarged ,,about #b-a_/b ,,times4 ,,section ,,of ,,flower ,,shown ,,at ,,right 7,drawn from a photograph by courtesy of ,prof4 ,l4 ,c4 ,corbett7 ,the flowers are pendant and borne in more or less branched clusters1 located on the stem on the opposite side and usually a little below the leaves2 the first cluster on the sixth to twelfth internode from the ground1 with one on each second to sixth succeeding one4 ,the flowers 7,fig4 #b7 are small1 consisting of a yellow1 deeply five-cleft1 wheel-shaped corolla1 with a very short tube and broadly lanceolate1 recurving petals4 ,the calyx consists of five long linear or lanceolate sepals1 which are shorter than the petals at first1 but are persistent1 and increase in size as the fruits mature4 ,the stamens1 five in number1 are borne on the throat of the corolla1 and consist of long1 large anthers1 borne on short filaments1 loosely joined into a tube and opening by a longitudinal slit on the inside1 and this is the chief botanical distinction between this genus and ,solanum to which the potato1 pepper1 night shade and tobacco belong4 ,the anthers in the latter genus open at the tip only4 ,the two genera1 however1 are closely related and plants belonging to them are readily united by grafting4 ,the ,physalis1 ,husk tomato or ,ground cherry is quite distinct1 botanically4 ,the pistils of the true tomato are short at first1 but the style elongates so as to push the capitate stigma through the tube formed by the anthers1 this usually occurring before the anthers open for the discharge of the pollen4 ,the fruit is a two to many-celled berry with central fleshy placenta and many small kidney-shaped seeds which are densely covered with short1 stiff hairs1 as seen in ,figs4 #c and #d4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c--,,two-,,celled ,,tomato ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d--,,three-,,celled ,,tomato ,it is comparatively easy to define the genus with which the tomato should be classed botanically1 but it is by no means so easy to classify our cultivated varieties into botanical species4 ,we have in cultivation varieties which are known to have originated in gardens and from the same parentage1 but which differ from each other so much in habit of growth1 character of leaf and fruit and other respects1 that if they had been found growing wild they would unhesitatingly be pronounced different species1 and botanists are not agreed as to how our many and very different garden varieties should be classified botanically4 ,some contend that all of our cultivated sorts are varieties of but two distinct species1 while others think they have originated from several4 ,classification4--,the author suggests the following classification1 differing somewhat from that sometimes given1 as he believes that the large1 deep-sutured fruit of our cultivated varieties and the distinct pear-shaped sorts come from original species rather than from variations of ,lycopersicum cerasiforme3 ,currant tomato1 ,grape tomato1 ,german or ,raisin tomato 7,lycopersicum pimpinellifolium1 ,l4 racemiforme7 7,fig4 #e74--,universally regarded as a distinct species4 ,plant strong1 growing with many long1 slender1 weak branches which are not so hairy1 viscid1 or ill-smelling1 and never become so hard or woody as those of the other species4 ,the numerous leaves are very bright green in color1 leaflets small1 nearly entire1 with many small stemless ones between the others4 ,fruit produced continuously and in great quantity on long racemes like those of the currant1 though they are often branched4 ,they continue to elongate and blossom until the fruit at the upper end is fully ripened4 ,fruit small1 less than #a_/b inch in diameter1 spherical1 smooth and of a particularly bright1 beautiful red color which contrasts well with the bright green leaves1 and this abundance of beautifully colored and gracefully poised fruit makes the plant worthy of more general cultivation as an ornament1 though the fruit is of little value for culinary use4 ,this species1 when pure1 has not varied under cultivation1 but it readily crosses with other species and with our garden varieties1 and many of these owe their bright red color to the influence of crosses with the above species4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e--;,,currant ,,tomato ,,and ,,characteristic ,,clusters ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f--,,red ,,cherry ,,tomato ,cherry tomato 7,l4 cerasiforme7 7,fig4 #f74--,plant vigorous1 with stout branches which are distinctly trailing in habit4 ,leaves flat or but slightly curled4 ,fruit very abundant1 borne in short1 branched clusters1 globular1 perfectly smooth1 with no apparent sutures4 ,from #a_/b to #c_/d inch in diameter and either red or yellow in color1 two-celled with numerous comparatively small1 kidney-shaped seeds4 ,many of our garden varieties show evidence of crosses with this species1 and by many it is regarded as the original wild form of all of our cultivated sorts4 ,these1 when they escape from cultivation and become wild plants1 as they often do1 from ,new ,jersey southward1 produce fruit which1 in many respects1 resembles that of this species in size and form2 but they are generally more flattened1 globe-shaped1 with more or less distinct sutures on the upper side1 and ,i have never seen any fruit of these wild plants which could not be readily distinguished from that of the true ,cherry tomato4 ,prof4 ,p4 ,h4 ,rolfs1 ,director of the ,florida experiment station1 reports that among the millions of volunteer1 or wild1 tomatoes he has seen growing in the abandoned tomato fields in ,florida1 he has never seen a plant with fruit which could not be easily distinguished from that of the true ,cherry tomato4 ,again1 one can1 by selection and cultivation1 easily develop from these wild forms plants producing fruit as large and often practically identical with that of our cultivated varieties1 while ,i have given a true stock of ,cherry tomato most careful cultivation on the best of soil for #bj consecutive generations without any increase in size or change in character of the fruit4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g--,,pear-,,shaped ,,tomato ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #h--,,yellow ,,plum ,,tomato1 ,,showing ,,most ,,usual ,,form ,,of ,,cluster ,pear 7not ,plum7 tomato 7,l4 pyriforme7 7,fig4 #g74--,plant exceptionally vigorous1 with comparatively few long1 stout stems inclined to ascend4 ,leaves numerous1 broad1 flat1 with a distinct bluish-green color noticeable1 even in the cotyledons4 ,fruit abundant1 borne in short branched or straight clusters of five to ten fruits4 ,it is perfectly smooth1 without sutures1 and of the shape of a long1 slender-necked pear1 not over an inch in transverse by #a-a_/b inches in longitudinal diameter4 ,when the stock is pure the fruit retains this form very persistently4 ,the production of egg-shaped or other forms is a sure indication of impure stock4 ,they are bright red1 dark yellow1 or light yellowish white in color1 two-celled1 with very distinct central placenta and comparatively few and large seeds4 ,the fruit is inclined to ripen unevenly1 the neck remaining green when the rest of the fruit is quite ripe4 ,it is less juicy than that of most of our garden sorts but of a mild and pleasant flavor4 ,this is considered1 by many1 to be simply a garden variety1 but ,i am inclined to the belief that it is a distinct species and that the contrary view comes from the study of the impure and crossed stocks resulting from crosses between the true ,pear tomato and garden sorts which are frequently sold by seedsmen as pear-shaped4 ,many garden sorts--like the ,plum 7,fig4 #h71 the ,egg1 the ,golden ,nugget1 ,vick's ,criterion1 etc4--are known to have originated from crosses of the ,pear and ,i think that most1 if not all1 the garden sorts in which the longitudinal diameter of the fruit is greater than its transverse diameter owe this form to crosses with ,l4 pyriforme4 ,cultivated varieties 7,l4 esculentum74--,this is commonly used as the botanical name of our cultivated varieties1 rather than as the name of a distinct species4 ,in western ,south ,america1 however1 there is found growing a wild plant of ,lycopersicum which differs from the other recognized species in being more compact in growth1 with fewer branches and larger leaves1 and carrying an immense burden of fruit borne in large clusters4 ,the fruit is larger than that of the other species but much smaller than that of our cultivated sorts2 is very irregular in shape1 always with distinct sutures1 and often deeply corrugated and bright red in color4 ,the walls are thin2 the flesh is soft1 with a distinct sharp1 acid flavor much less agreeable than that of our cultivated forms of garden tomatoes4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #i--,,one ,,of ,,the ,,first ,,illustrations ,,of ,,the ,,tomato ,poma amoris1 7,pomum aureum71 7,lycopersicum71 #aeha ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aj--;,,an ,,early ,,illustration ,,of ,,the ,,tomato 7,from ,morrison's ,historia ,universalis1 #afhj7 ,this has commonly been regarded by botanists as a degenerate form of our garden tomatoes1 rather than as an original species1 but ,i find that1 like ,l4 cerasiforme and ,l4 pyriforme1 it is quite fixed under cultivation1 except as crossed with other species or with our garden varieties1 and ,i believe it to be the original species from which our cultured sorts have been developed1 by crossing and selection4 ,such crosses probably were made either naturally or by natives before the tomato was discovered by ,europeans4 ,the earliest prints we have of the tomato 7,figs4 #i and #aj7 are far more like the fruit of this plant than that of ,l4 cerasiforme1 and the prints of many of the earliest garden varieties and of some sorts which are still cultivated in southern ,europe1 for use in soups1 are like it not only in size and form1 but in flavor4 ,these facts make it seem far more probable that our cultivated sorts have come1 by crossing1 between this and other species rather than by simple development from ,l4 cerasiforme4 ,prof4 ,e4 ,s4 ,goff1 of ,wisconsin1 who has made a most careful study of the tomato1 expressed the same opinion1 writing that it seemed to him that our cultivated sorts must have come from the crossing of a small1 round1 smooth1 sutureless type1 with a larger1 deep-sutured1 corrugated fruit1 like that of the ,mammoth ,chihuahua1 but smaller4 ,however this may be1 ,i think that it is wise to throw all of our cultivated garden sorts1 except the ,pear1 the ,cherry1 and the ,grape--which ,i regard as distinct species--together under the name of ,l4 esculentum1 even when we know they have originated by direct crosses with the other species2 and it is well to classify the upright growing sorts under the varietal names1 ,l4 validum1 and the larger1 heavier sorts1 as ,l4 grandifolium1 as has been done by ,bailey4 7,cyclopedia of ,horticulture47 ,,chapter ,,ii ,history ,the garden vegetable known in this country as tomato and generally as tomate in continental ,europe1 is also known as ,wolf-peach and ,love ,apple in ,england and ,america1 and ,liebesapfel in ,germany1 ,pomme d',amour in ,france1 ,pomo d'oro in ,italy1 ,pomidor in ,poland4 ,origin of name4--,the name tomato is of ,south ,american origin1 and is derived from the ,aztec word xitomate1 or zitotomate1 which is given the fruit of both the ,common tomato and that of the ,husk or ,strawberry tomato or ,physalis4 ,both vegetables were highly prized and extensively cultivated by the natives long before the discovery of the country by ,europeans1 and there is little doubt that many of the plants first seen and described by ,europeans as wild species were really garden varieties originated with the native ,americans by the variation or crossing of the original wild species4 ,different types now common1 according to ,sturtevant1 have become known to1 and been described by ,europeans in about the following order3 #a4 ,large yellow1 described by ,matthiolus in #aeed and called ,golden apple4 #b4 ,large red1 described by ,matthiolus in #aeed and called ,love apple4 #c4 ,purple red1 described by ,d'el ,obel in #aegj4 #d4 ,white-fleshed1 described by ,dodoens in #aehf4 #e4 ,red cherry1 described by ,bauhin in #afbj4 #f4 ,yellow cherry1 described by ,bauhin in #afbj4 #g4 ,ochre yellow1 described by ,bauhin in #afea4 #h4 ,striped1 blotched or visi-colored1 described by ,bauhin in #afea4 #i4 ,pale red1 described by ,tournefort in #agjj4 #aj4 ,large smooth1 or ribless red1 described by ,tournefort in #agjj4 #aa4 ,bronzed-leaved1 described by ,blacknell in #agej4 #ab4 ,deep orange1 described by ,bryant in #aghc4 #ac4 ,pear-shaped1 described by ,dunal in #ahje4 #ad4 ,tree tomato1 described by ,vilmorin in #ahee4 #ae4 ,broad-leaved1 introduced about #ahfj4 ,the special description of ,no4 #aj by ,tournefort in #agjj would indicate that large smooth sorts1 like ,livingston's ,stone1 were in existence fully #bjj years ago1 instead of being modern improvements1 as is sometimes claimed2 and a careful study of old descriptions and cuts and comparing them with the best examples of modern varieties led ,doctor ,sturtevant in #ahhi to express the opinion that they had fruit as large and smooth as those we now grow1 before the tomato came into general use in ,america1 and possibly before the fruit was generally known to ,europeans4 ,even the production of fine fruit under glass is not so modern as many suppose4 ,in transactions of the ,london ,horticultural ,society for #ahbj1 ,john ,wilmot is reported to have cultivated under glass in #ahah some #fjj plants and gathered from his entire plantings under glass and in borders some #acj bushels of ripe fruit4 ,it is stated that the growth that year exceeded the demand1 and that the fruit obtained was of extraordinary size1 some exceeding #ab inches in circumference and weighing #ab ounces each4 ,thomas ,meehan states in ,gardeners' ,monthly for ,february1 #ahhj1 that on ,january #h1 of that year1 he saw growing in the greenhouses on ,senator ,cannon's place near ,harrisburg1 ,pa41 at least #a bushel of ripe fruits1 none of which were less than #aj inches in circumference1--a showing which compares with the best to be seen to-day4 ,throughout southern ,europe the value of the fruit for use in soups and as a salad seems to have been at once recognized1 and it came into quite general use1 especially in ,spain and ,italy1 during the #agth century2 but in northern ,europe and ,england1 though the plant was grown in botanical gardens and in a few private places as a curiosity and for the beauty of its fruit1 this was seldom eaten1 being commonly regarded as unhealthy and even poisonous1 and on this account1 and probably because of its supposed aphrodisiacal qualities1 it did not come into general use in those northern countries until early in the #aith century4 ,first mention in ,america1 ,i find of its being grown for culinary use1 was in ,virginia in #agha4 ,in #aghh a ,frenchman in ,philadelphia made most earnest efforts to get people to use the fruit1 but with little success1 and similar efforts by an ,italian in ,salem1 ,mass41 in #ahjb1 were no more successful4 ,the first record ,i can find of the fruit being regularly quoted in the market was in ,new ,orleans in #ahab1 and the earliest records ,i have been able to find of the seed being offered by seedsmen1 as that of an edible vegetable1 was by ,gardener and ,hipburn in #ahah1 and by ,landreth in #ahbj4 ,buist's ,kitchen ,gardener says3 ,in #ahbh-i it 7the tomato7 was almost detested and commonly considered poisonous4 ,ten years later every variety of pill and panacea was 'extract of tomatoes1' and now 7#ahdg7 almost as much ground is devoted to its culture as to the cabbage4 ,in #ahcd ,professor ,dunglison1 of the ,university of ,virginia1 said3 ,the tomato may be looked upon as one of the most wholesome and valuable esculents of the garden4 ,yet1 though the fruit has always received similar commendation from medical men1 there has been constant recurring superstition that it is unhealthy4 ,only a few years ago there was in general circulation a statement that an eminent physician had discovered that eating tomatoes tended to develop cancer4 ,this has been definitely traced to the playful question1 asked as a joke by ,dr4 ,dio ,lewis1 ,didn't you know that eating bright red tomatoes caused cancer8 ,in more recent years an equally unfounded claim has been made that tomato seeds were responsible for many cases of appendicitis and that it was consequently dangerous to eat the fruit4 ,i give some quotations for tomatoes in ,quincy ,hall ,market1 ,boston1 with some for other vegetables1 for comparison4 ,the records show that during the week ending ,july #bb1 #ahce1 tomatoes were quoted at #ej cents per dozen1 cabbage at #ej cents per dozen4 ,for the week ending ,september #bb1 #ahce1 tomatoes were quoted at #be cents per peck1 lima beans1 #ab-a_/b cents per quart shelled1 with comment that tomatoes are in much demand and a far greater quantity has been sold than in previous years4 ,during the week ending ,july #bb1 #ahcg1 tomatoes were quoted at #be and #ej cents per peck1 and the note that they are of good size and were well ripened and came from gardens in the vicinity would indicate that they had at that time early maturing varieties and knew how to grow them4 ,from about #ahce till the present time the cultivation and use of tomatoes have constantly increased both in this country and in ,europe1 so that now they are one of the most largely grown of our garden vegetables4 ,a suggestion as to the extent they are now grown in ,america is the fact that a single seed grower saved in #aijc over #bj1jjj pounds of tomato seed--an amount sufficient to furnish plants for from #hj1jjj to #cbj1jjj acres1 according to the care used in raising them1 the larger quantity not requiring more care than the best growers commonly use4 ,a careful estimate made by the ,american ,grocer shows that in #aijc the packing of tomatoes by canners in the ,united ,states amounted to #bdf1gge1dbf three-pound cans4 ,in addition to the canned tomato1 between #bjj1jjj and #bej1jjj barrels of catsup stock is put up annually1 requiring the product of at least #bj1jjj acres4 ,it is probable that the area required to produce the fruit that is used fresh at least equals that devoted to the production for preserving1 which give us from #djj1jjj to #ejj1jjj acres devoted to this crop each year in ,america alone4 ,the fruit is perhaps in more general use in ,america than elsewhere1 but its cultivation and use have increased rapidly in other countries1 particularly with the ,english speaking races4 ,large quantities are grown in ,australia1 and immense and constantly increasing quantities are grown under glass in ,england and adjacent islands1 while ,the ,gardeners' ,chronicle states that in #aijc between #fjj1jjj and #hjj1jjj pounds of fresh fruit were imported into ,england from other countries4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,general ,characteristics of the ,plant ,in the native home of the tomato1 in ,south ,america1 the conditions of the soil1 both as regards composition and mechanical condition1 of the moisture both in soil and air1 and those of temperature and sunlight1 are throughout the growing season not only very favorable for rapid growth1 but are uniformly and constantly so4 ,under such conditions there has been developed a plant which1 while vigorous1 tenacious of life1 capable of rapid growth and enormously productive1 is not at all hardy in the sense of ability to endure untoward conditions either in the character of soil1 of water supply1 or of temperature4 ,a check in the development because of any unfavorable condition is never fully recovered from1 but will inevitably affect the total quantity and quality of the fruit produced1 even if subsequent favorable conditions result in the rapid and vigorous growth of the plant4 ,i know of an instance where two adjoining fields belonging to ,a and ,b were set with tomatoes1 using plants started in the same hotbed from the same lot of seed4 ,the soil was of equal natural fertility and each field received about the same quantity of manure1 though that given ,a's was all well decomposed and worked into the soil1 while that given ,b's was fresh and raw and simply plowed in4 ,a's field was put into the best possible tilth before setting the plants1 and the management of the plants and their cultivation were such as to secure unchecked growth from the time they were pricked out into cold-frames and set in the field until the crop was matured4 ,as long as the plants would permit1 the soil was cultivated every few days and kept in a state of perfect tilth4 ,b's field when the plants were set out was a mass of clods1 as it had been plowed1 when wet1 some time before and never harrowed but once4 ,the plants had been crowded forward as rapidly as possible in the cold-frame1 and when set in the field were much higher than ,a's1 but so soft that they were badly checked in transplanting and a great many of them died and had to be reset4 ,the field received but one or two cultivations during the entire season4 ,the growth of the plants in ,b's field was irregular and uneven instead of steady and uniform as in ,a's1 and though some of the fruits were quite as large1 they were not as uniform as ,a's while the yield per acre was not more than half as much nor the fruit of as good general quality4 ,b had difficulty in disposing of his crop and often had to sell below the market1 while ,a had no trouble in disposing of his at the highest prices for the day4 ,b's crop was a financial loss1 while ,a's returned a most satisfactory profit4 ,the key to the most successful culture of the tomato is the securing1 from the start to finish1 of an unchecked uniform growth1 though it need not necessarily be a rapid one4 ,the failure to do this is1 in my opinion1 the principal reason for the comparatively small yield usually obtained1 which is very much less than it would be with better cultural management4 ,the tomato under conditions which ,i have repeatedly found it practicable to secure1 not only in small plantings but in large fields1 has proved capable of producing from #a1jjj to #a1bjj or even more bushels to the acre1 and the possible yield per plant is enormous4 ,as early as #ahah the ,royal ,horticultural ,society of ,london reports the obtaining of over #dj pounds of fruit of marketable character from a single vine4 ,an acre of such plants would give a yield of over #a1hjj bushels of fruit1 and many similar yields1 and even greater ones1 have been recorded for single plants4 ,the yield commonly obtained1 even in favorable locations1 and by men who have grown tomatoes all their lives1 is more often less than #bjj bushels to the acre than more4 ,the way to secure a better yield is to study carefully the nature and requirements of the plants and the adaptation of our cultural practice to them4 ,life habit of the plant4--,the tomato could be described as a short-lived perennial1 but its span of life is somewhat variable4 ,under favorable conditions it will develop from starting seed to first ripe fruit in from #he to #abj days of full sunshine with a constant day temperature of from #ge to #ij ,f41 and with one from #ae to #bj ,f4 lower at night4 ,the plants will ordinarily continue in full fruit for about #ej to #fj days1 after which they generally become so exhausted by excessive production of fruit and the effects of diseases to which they are usually subject that their root action and sap circulation become weaker and weaker until they die from starvation4 ,from ,philadelphia southward gardeners expect that spring set plants will thus exhaust themselves and die by late summer1 and they sow seed in late spring or early summer for plants on which they depend for late summer and fall crops4 ,under some conditions1 particularly in the ,gulf states and in ,california1 tomato plants will not only grow to a much greater size than normal1 but will continue to thrive and bear fruit for a longer time4 ,such a plant grown in ,pasadena1 ,cal41 was said to have been in constant bearing for over #aj months4 ,again1 sometimes plants that have produced a full crop of fruits will start new sets of roots and leaves and produce a second and even a third crop1 each1 however1 being produced on new branches and as a result of a fresh set of roots1 those which produced the preceding crop having died and disappeared4 ,the period of development1 #he to #abj days of full sunshine at a temperature above #ge ,f41 has been given4 ,the full sunshine and high temperature are essential to such rapid development1 and in so far as there is a lack of sunshine from clouds or shade1 or the day temperature falls below #ge ,f4 the period will be lengthened1 so that in the greater part of the ,united ,states the elapsed time between starting seed to ripened fruit is usually as much as from #abj to #aej days and often even longer4 ,characteristics of the root4--,the roots of the tomato plant1 while abundant in number1 are short and can only gather food and water from a limited area4 ,a plant of garden bean1 for instance1 is not more than half the size of one of the tomato1 but its roots extend through the soil to a greater distance1 gather plant food from a greater bulk of soil1 seem better able to search out and gather the particular food element which the plant needs than do those of the tomato4 ,this characteristic of the latter plant makes the composition of the soil as to the proportion of easily available food elements of great importance4 ,tomato roots are also exceedingly tender and incapable of penetrating a hard and compact soil1 so that the condition of the soil as to tilth is of greater importance with regard to tomatoes than with most garden vegetables4 ,another characteristic of the tomato roots is that the period of their active life is short4 ,when young they are capable of transmitting water and nutritive material very rapidly1 but they soon become clogged and inefficient to such an extent as to result in the starvation and death of the plant4 ,if the branches of such an exhausted plant be bent over and covered with earth they will frequently start new roots and produce a fresh crop of fruit1 or if plants which have made a crop in the greenhouse be transplanted to the garden and cut back1 a new set of roots will often develop and the plant will produce a second crop of fruit which1 in amount1 often equals or exceeds the first one4 ,but such growths come only from new roots springing from the stem--never from an extension of the old root system4 ,characteristics of the stem and leaves4--,the growth of the stem1 and leaves of the young tomato plant is very rapid and1 the cellular structure coarse1 loose and open4 ,a young branch is easily broken and when this is done it shows scarcely any fibrous structure--simply a mass of coarse cellular matter which while capable1 when young1 of transmitting nutritive matter rapidly1 soon becomes dogged and inert4 ,this structure not only makes the active life of the leaves short1 like that of the roots1 but necessitates a fresh growth in order to continue the fruitfulness of the plant and renders the leaves very susceptible to injury from bacterial and fungous diseases4 ,the rapid growth also necessitates an abundance of sunlight4 ,characteristics of the blossom4--,the inflorescence of the tomato is usually abundant and it is rare that a plant does not produce sufficient blooms for a full crop4 ,the flowers are perfect as far as parts are concerned 7,fig4 #b7 and in bright1 sunny weather there is an abundance of pollen1 but sunlight and warmth are essential to its maturing into a condition in which it can easily reach the stigma4 ,the structure and development of the flower are such that while occasionally1 particularly in healthy plants out of doors1 the stigma becomes receptive and takes the pollen as it is pushed out through the stamen tube by the elongating style1 it is more often pushed beyond them before the pollen matures1 so that the pollen has to reach the stigma through some other means4 ,usually this is accomplished by the wind1 either directly or through the motion of the plants4 ,under glass it is generally necessary to assist the fertilization either directly by application or by motion of the plant1 this latter only being effective in the middle of a bright sunny day4 ,in the open ground in cold1 damp weather the flowers often fail of fertilization1 in which case they drop1 and this is often the first indication of a failing of the crop on large1 strong vines4 ,i have known of many cases where the yield of fruit from large and seemingly very healthy vines was very light because continual rains prevented the pollenization of the flowers4 ,such failures1 however1 do not always come from a want of pollen but may result from an over or irregular supply of water either at the root or in the air1 imperfectly balanced food supply1 a sapping of the vitality of the plants when young1 or from other causes4 ,insects rarely visit tomato flowers and are seldom the means of their fertilization4 ,characteristics of the fruit4--,the fruit of the original species from which our cultivated tomatoes have developed was doubtless a comparatively small two to many-celled berry1 with comparatively dry central placenta and thin walls4 ,in some species the cells were indicated by distinct sutures1 forming a rough or corrugated fruit4 ,it has improved under cultivation by increase in size1 the material thickening of the cell walls1 the development of greater juiciness and richer flavor and a decrease in the size and dryness of the placenta1 as well as the breaking up of the cells by fleshy partitions resulting in the disappearance of the deep sutures and an improvement in the smoothness and beauty of the fruit4 7,fig4 #aa47 ,the quality of the fruit is largely dependent upon varietal differences1 to be spoken of later1 but it is also influenced by conditions of growth--such as the proportion of the nutritive elements found in the soil1 the proper supply of moisture1 the degree and uniformity of temperature and1 most of all1 the amount of sunlight4 ,sudden changes of temperature and moisture often result in cracks and fissures in the skin and flesh1 which not only injure the appearance but affect the flavor of the fruit4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aa--,,typical ,,bunch ,,of ,,modern ,,tomatoes ,contrast with ,figs4 #i and #aj ,,chapter ,,iv ,essentials for ,development ,sunlight4--,abundant and unobstructed sunlight is the most essential condition for the healthy growth of the tomato4 ,it is a native of the sunny ,south and will not thrive except in full and abundant sunlight4 ,i have never been able to grow good tomatoes in the shade even where it is only partial4 ,the entire plant needs the sunlight4 ,the blossoms often fail to set and the fruit is lacking in flavor because of shade1 from excessive leaf growth1 or other obstruction4 ,the great difficulty in winter forcing tomatoes under glass in the ,north comes from the want of sunlight during the short days of the winter months4 ,were it not for the short winter days of the higher latitudes limiting the hours of sunshine1 tomatoes could be grown under glass in the northern states to compete in price1 when the better quality of vine-ripened fruits is considered1 with those from the ,gulf states4 ,growers are learning that tomatoes can be profitably grown under glass during the longer spring days1 and consumers are beginning to appreciate the superior quality of fruit ripened on the vine over that picked green and ripened in transit4 ,at no time is this need of abundance of light of greater importance than when the plants are young and1 if they fail to receive it1 no subsequent favorable conditions will enable them to recover fully from its ill effects4 ,it is not so much the want of room for the roots as of light for the leaves that makes the plants which have been crowded in the seed-beds so weak and unprofitable4 ,i once divided #ajj young tomato plants1 about #b inches high1 into four lots of #be each1 numbering them #a1 #b1 #c and #d4 ,the plants of lots ,no4 #a and #b were set equal distance apart in box ,a1 and those of lots ,no4 #c and #d in the same way in box ,b2 both boxes being about #af inches wide1 #dj inches long and #d inches deep4 ,the two boxes were set together across the side bench of a greenhouse with the outer edge against a board wall some #b-a_/b feet high1 so that the plants at the end of the box near the wall received much less light than those at the other end4 ,they remained there about five weeks and then were taken out and the plants set in the open ground4 ,during the five weeks box ,a1 containing lots ,no4 #a and #b1 was changed1 end for end1 every day so that those two lots of plants received nearly an equal amount of sunlight1 but box ,b was not changed so that lot ,no4 #c1 at one end of the box1 was constantly near the walk and in the full light1 while lot ,no4 #d1 at the other end of the box1 was constantly near the wall and in partial shade4 ,the effect on the growth of the plants was very marked4 ,the plants of lot ,no4 #d were nearly twice as high1 but with much softer stems and leaves than those of lot ,no4 #c4 ,the plants received equal care when set side by side in the open ground and at the time the first fruit was gathered seemed of equal size and vigor1 but the total yield of fruit of lots ,no4 #a1 #b and #c was very nearly the same and in each case at the rate of over #ajj bushels an acre more than that from lot ,no4 #d4 ,this is but one of the scores of experiences which have led me to appreciate1 in some degree1 the necessity of plenty of sunlight for the best development of the tomato4 ,heat4--,the plant thrives best out of doors in a dry temperature of #ge to #he ,f41 or even up to #ie ,f41 if the air is not too dry and is in gentle circulation4 ,the rate of growth diminishes as the temperature falls below #ge until at #ej there is practically no growth2 the plant is simply living at a poor dying rate and if the growth1 particularly in young plants1 is checked in this way for any considerable time they will never produce a full crop of fruit1 even if the plants reach full size and are seemingly vigorous and healthy4 ,the plant is generally killed by exposure for even a short time to freezing temperature1 though young volunteer plants in the spring are frequently so hardened by exposure that they will survive a frost that crusts the ground they stand in2 but such exposure affects the productiveness of the plant1 even if it subsequently makes a seemingly vigorous and healthy growth4 ,under glass1 plants usually do best in a temperature somewhat lower than is most desirable out of doors4 ,i think this is due to the inevitable obstruction of the sunlight and the lack of perfect ventilation4 ,moisture4--,although the tomato is not a desert plant and needs a plentiful supply of water1 it suffers far more frequently1 particularly when the plants are young1 from an over-supply than from the want of water4 ,good drainage at the root and warm1 dry1 sunny air1 in gentle motion1 are what it delights in4 ,good drainage is essential not only to the best growth of the plant but to the production of any fruit of good quality4 ,so important is this feature that though it can be readily proved that1 other things being equal1 the tomato will give larger yield and better fruit on well drained clay loam than on sandy soil1 yet it is more generally and more successfully planted on sandy lands simply because they are usually better drained and on this account give better crops4 ,while excess of water in the soil is most injurious to the young and growing plant1 an abundance of it at the time the fruit swells and ripens is very essential1 and a want of it at that time results in small and imperfect fruit of poor flavor4 ,excessive moisture in the air is just as injurious as at the root4 ,in my personal experience ,i have known of more failures in tomato crops1 at least in the northern states1 to come from a season of persistent rains and damp atmosphere at the time when the plants should be in bloom and setting fruit than from any other climatic cause4 ,food supply4--,the tomato is not a gross feeder nor is the crop an exhaustive one1 but the plant is very particular as to its food supply4 ,it is an epicure among plants and demands that its food shall not only be to its taste in quality but that it be well served4 ,in order for the plant to do its best1 or even well1 it is essential that the food elements be in the right proportions and readily available4 ,if there is a deficiency of any single element there will be but a meager crop of fruit1 no matter how abundant the supply of the others4 ,an over-supply of an element1 especially nitrogen1 is hardly less injurious and will actually lessen the yield of fruit though it may increase the size of the vine4 ,not only must the food be in right proportions but in such condition as to be readily available4 ,tomato roots have little power to wrest plant food from the soil4 ,the use of coarse1 unfermented manure is even more unsatisfactory with this than with other crops4 ,the enormous yields sometimes obtained by ,english gardeners from plants grown under glass result from a supply of food of the right proportions and in solution1 instead of incorporating it in a crude condition with the soil4 ,cultivation4--,the tomato is grown in all parts of the ,united ,states and under very different conditions1 not only as to climate and soil but as to the facilities for growing and handling the crop and the way in which it is done4 ,what would be ideal conditions of soil and the most advantageous methods under some conditions would not be at all desirable in others4 ,in some cases the largest possible yield an acre1 in others fruit at the lowest cost a bushel1 or at the earliest possible date1 or in a continuous supply and of the best quality1 is the greatest desideratum4 ,it is impossible to give specific instructions which would be applicable to all these varying conditions and requirements2 so ,i give general cultural directions for maximum crops with variations suggested for special conditions and requirements1 and then the reader may follow those which seem best suited to his individual conditions4 ,,chapter ,v ,selection of ,soil for ,maximum ,crop ,large yields of tomatoes have been1 and can be1 obtained from soils of varying composition1 from a gumbo prairie1 a black marsh muck1 or a stiff1 tenacious clay1 to one of light drifting sand1 provided other conditions1 such as drainage1 tilth and fertility are favorable4 ,the ,connecticut experiment station and others have secured good results from plants grown under glass in a soil of sifted coal ashes and muck1 or even from coal ashes alone1 the requisite plant food being supplied in solution4 ,but a maximum crop could never1 and a full one very seldom1 be produced on a soil1 no matter what its composition1 which could not be1 or was not put into and kept in a good state of tilth1 or on one which was poorly drained1 sodden or sour1 or which was so leachy that it was impossible to retain a fair supply of moisture and of plant food4 ,of the #aj largest yields of which ,i have personal knowledge and which ran from #a1jjj to #a1bjj bushels of fruit 7acceptable for canning and at least two-thirds of it of prime market quality7 an acre1 four were grown on soils classed as clay loam1 two on heavy clay--one of which was so heavy that clay for making brick was subsequently taken from the very spot which yielded the most and best fruit--one on what had been a black ash swamp1 one on a sandy muck1 two on a sandy loam and one on a light sand made very rich by heavy1 annual manuring for several years4 ,they were all perfectly watered and drained1 in good heart1 liberally fertilized with manures of proved right proportions for each field1 and above all1 the fields were put into and kept in perfect tilth by methods suited to each case2 while the plants used were of good stock and so grown1 set and cultivated that their growth was never stopped or hardly checked for even a day4 ,these conditions as to soil and culture1 together with seasons of exceptionally favorable weather1 resulted in uniformly large crops on these widely different soils4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ab--,,tomatoes ,,trained ,,to ,,stakes ,,on ,a ,,georgia ,,farm ,the composition of the soil1 then1 as to its proportions of sand or clay is of minor importance as regards a maximum yield or as to quality of the fruit1 except as it affects our ability to put and keep the soil in good physical condition4 ,the tomato crop1 however1 particularly when the plants are trimmed and trained to stakes1 as is the usual practice in the ,south1 as seen in ,fig4 #ab1 with crops grown for early shipment1 necessitates in the trimming and training of the plants and the gathering of the fruit when it is in the right degree of maturity for shipment a great deal of trampling of the surface regardless of whether it is wet or dry4 ,consequently if the surface soil has any considerable proportion of clay there is danger of compacting and even puddling it by working when wet1 to the great detriment of the crop4 ,again1 a more or less sandy surface soil can be much more easily worked than one with a large proportion of clay4 ,for these reasons our choice of a soil for the lowest cost a bushel and probably for a maximum yield should be a rich sandy or sandy loam surface soil overlying a well-drained clay sub-soil4 ,i would prefer one which was originally covered with a heavy growth of beech and maple timber1 though ,i should want it to be old land at the time4 ,tomatoes do not succeed as well on prairie soils1 particularly if they are at all heavy1 as they do on timbered lands1 but one need not despair of a profitable crop of tomatoes on any soil which would give a fair crop of corn or of cotton4 ,for early-ripening fruit4--,sometimes the profit and satisfaction from a tomato crop depend more largely upon the earliness of ripening than upon the amount of yield or cost of growing4 ,in such cases a warm1 sandy loam1 or even a distinctly sandy soil1 is to be preferred1 as this is apt to be warmer and the fruit will be matured much earlier on it than on a heavier soil4 ,it is essential1 however1 that it be well drained and warm4 ,often lands classed as sandy are really colder than some of those classed as clay1 and such soils should be carefully avoided if early maturity is important4 ,for the home garden4--,here we seldom have a choice1 but no one need despair and abandon effort1 no matter what the soil may be1 for it is quite possible to raise an abundant home supply on any soil and that1 too1 without inordinate cost and labor4 ,some of the most prolific plants and the finest fruits ,i have ever seen were grown in a village lot which five years before had been filled in to a depth of #c to #aj feet with clay1 coal ashes and refuse from a brick and coal yard4 ,in another instance magnificent fruit was grown in a garden where the soil was originally made up chiefly of sawdust mixed with sand1 drawn on a foundation of sawmill edgings so as to raise it above the water of a swamp4 ,where one has to contend with such conditions he should make an effort to create a friable soil with a supply of humus by adding the material needed4 ,a very few loads1 sometimes even a single load1 of clay or sand will greatly change the character of the soil of a sufficient area to grow the one or two dozen plants necessary for a family supply4 ,in the two cases mentioned1 the owner of the first named garden used both sand and sawdust to lighten his soil1 while the second drew a great many loads of clay on his4 ,growing under glass4--,i would make up a soil composed of about three parts rotted sod1 two or three parts of well-rotted stable manure 7and it is very important that it be well decomposed7 and one part either of coarse1 sharp sand1 sandy loam or clay loam1 according as the sod soil is light or heavy1 the aim being to form a rich1 light1 open soil rather than one which is as heavy and compact as desirable for some plants4 ,if sod soil is not available1 of course1 garden loam can be substituted1 but it is very important that the soil be thoroughly mixed1 and desirable that it be prepared sometime before it is to be used4 ,some growers use the same soil for several crops1 simply adding some fresh manure2 but1 if so used1 it is important that it be stirred and thoroughly re-mixed and sterilized4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,exposure and ,location ,in sections where there is danger of the plants being killed by early fall frosts before they have ripened their entire crop1 exposure of the field is sometimes of importance in determining the marketable yield4 ,a gentle inclination to the south1 with a protection of higher land or timber on the sides from which frost or high winds are most likely to come1 is the best4 ,a steep descent to the south1 shut in by high land to the east and west1 so as to form a hot pocket1 is not favorable for a maximum crop although it may give a smaller yield of early ripening fruit2 nor is a small field entirely surrounded by forest desirable4 ,i once knew of a field1 of about two acres1 sloping to the south and entirely surrounded by heavy timber1 on which two or three tomato crops were failures when other fields on the same farm gave large yields1 but after the timber on the south and east had been cut away this field generally gave the largest yield in the neighborhood4 ,location4--,while exposure is in some cases an important factor in determining the total yield an acre1 and so the cost1 the location of the field as regards distance from marketing point and the character of the roads between them is of far greater importance in determining the cost and profit of crop1 but one which is very often disregarded4 ,the marketable product of an acre of tomatoes weighs from #c to #cj tons1 which is not only more than that of most farm crops1 but the product is of such character that its value is easily destroyed by long hauls over ordinary roads4 ,it has to be marketed within a day or two of the time it is in prime condition1 regardless of the conditions of the roads or weather2 so that it is quite deceptive to estimate the cost of delivery at the same rate a ton1 as for potatoes or wheat1 for it always costs more1 and sometimes several times more1 to deliver tomatoes than it would to deliver the same weight of less perishable crops4 ,in most cases the cost of picking and delivery is one of the most important factors in determining profit and loss1 particularly when the crop is grown for canning factories1 where one often has to wait for hours for his team to unload4 ,these conditions make it very important that the field be located within a short distance of1 and connected by good roads with the point of delivery4 ,early maturing fruit4--,where early maturity is the great desideratum the exposure of the field is often very important4 ,it should1 first of all1 be such as to secure comparative freedom from spring frosts so as to permit of early setting of the plants and the full benefit of the sunshine as well as protection from cold winds4 ,there is often a great difference in these respects between fields quite near each other4 ,professor ,rolfs1 of ,florida1 mentions a case where the tomatoes in a field sloping to the southeast and protected on the north and west by a strip of oak timber were uninjured by a spring frost that killed not only all the plants in neighboring fields1 but those in the same field farther away from the protecting timber4 ,such spots should be sought out and utilized1 as often they can be used to great advantage4 ,immediate proximity to large bodies of water is sometimes advantageous in the ,south1 but in the ,north it is often disadvantageous for early fruit because of the chilling of the air and the increased danger of spring frosts1 although affording protection from those of early fall4 ,here1 too1 proximity of field to shipping point and distance and transportation rate to market are very important factors affecting profit on the crop4 ,the home garden4--,the south side of buildings or of tight fences and walls often furnishes a most desirable place for garden tomatoes1 but the plants should be set at least #f to #aj feet from the protection and not so as to be trained upon or much shaded by them1 as the disadvantage of shutting off the light and circulation of the air1 even from the north1 would more than overbalance anything gained by the protection4 ,growing under glass4--,in this country tomatoes are seldom grown under glass except during the darker winter months and the exposure of the house2 the form of the roof and the method of glazing which will give the greatest possible light1 are of importance1 for tomatoes can not be profitably grown in a dark house4 ,just how the greatest amount of light may be made available in any particular case will depend upon local conditions1 but every effort should be made to secure the most unobstructed sunlight possible and for the greatest number of hours each day4 ,previous crop and condition4--,in field culture tomatoes should not follow tomatoes or potatoes4 ,both of these crops make use of large quantities of potash1 and although a small part of that used by the plants is taken from the field in the crop1 they inevitably reduce the proportion of this element in the soil--that is1 in such condition as to be readily available for the succeeding crop4 ,it is true that the deficiency in potash may be supplied1 but it is not so easy to supply it in a condition in which it is possible for the roots of the tomato to take it in4 ,unlike potatoes1 tomatoes do not do well on new land1 whether it be newly cleared timber lands or new breaking of prairie4 ,clover leaves the land in better condition for tomatoes than any other of the commonly grown farm crops1 while for second choice ,i prefer one of peas1 beans1 corn1 or wheat in the order named4 ,one of the most successful tomato growers ,i know of1 whose soil is a rich1 dark clay loam1 prepares for the crop1 as follows3 ,very late in the fall or early in the spring he gives a clover sod a heavy dressing of manure and plows it under4 ,in the spring he prepares the ground by frequent cultivation and plants it with early sweet corn or summer squash4 ,at the time of the last cultivation of these crops he sows clover seed1 covering it with a cultivator having many small teeth1 and rarely fails to get a good stand and a good growth of young clover before the ground freezes4 ,in the spring he plows this under1 running the plow as deep as possible and following in the furrow with a sub-soiler which stirs1 but does not bring the sub-soil to the surface4 ,he then gives the field a heavy dressing with wood ashes and puts it into the best possible tilth before planting his tomatoes4 ,this grown usually harvests at least #ejj bushels to the acre and has made a crop of over #a1jjj bushels4 ,early market4--,in some sections of the ,south where the soil is light and the growers depend almost wholly on the use of large quantities of commercial fertilizer1 they seem to meet with the best success by using the same field for several successive crops1 but in some places they succeed best with plantings following a crop of cowpeas or other green soiling crops plowed under1 with a good dressing of lime4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,fertilizers ,the experiences and opinions of different gardeners and writers vary greatly as to the amount and kind of fertilizer necessary for the production of the maximum crop of tomatoes4 ,if the question were as to the growth of vine all would agree that the more fertilizer used and the richer the soil1 the better4 ,some growers act as if this were equally true as to fruit1 while others declare that one can easily use too much fertilizer and get the ground too rich not only for a maximum but for a profitable crop of fruit4 ,i find that the amount an acre recommended by successful growers varies from #dj tons of well-rotted stable manure1 supplemented by #a1jjj pounds of complete fertilizer and #a1jjj pounds of unleached ashes1 to one of only #cjj pounds of potato fertilizer4 ,in my own experience the largest yield that ,i can recall was produced on what would be called rich land1 and the application of fertilizer for the tomato crop was not in excess 7unless possibly of potash7 of that of the usual annual dressing4 ,i think that in preparing a soil for tomatoes1 as in selecting social acquaintances1 the new rich are to be avoided4 ,a soil which is rich because of judicious manuring and careful cropping for many years can scarcely be too rich1 while one that is made rich by a single application of fertilizer1 no matter how well proportioned1 may give even a smaller yield of fruit because of its excessive use4 ,again1 the proportions of the various food elements vary greatly in different locations4 ,professor ,halstead finds that in his section of ,new ,jersey the liberal use of nitrate of soda increases the yield and improves the quality1 while in some localities of ,new ,york1 ,ohio1 and the ,west1 growers find that the yield of first-class fruit was actually lessened by its use4 ,in some sections of the ,south liberality in the use of phosphates determines the amount and the quality of the crop1 while at other points it seems to be of little value4 ,in my own experience the liberal application of potash1 particularly in the form of wood ashes1 has more often given good results than the application of any other special fertilizer4 ,if called upon to name the exact quantity and kind of manure for tomatoes1 without any knowledge of the soil or its previous condition1 ,i would say #h to #aj tons of good stable manure worked into the soil as late as possible in the fall or during the winter and early spring and #cjj to #fjj pounds of commercial fertilizer1 of such composition as to furnish #b per cent4 nitrogen1 #f per cent4 phosphoric acid and #h per cent4 potash scattered and worked into the row about the time that the plants are set4 ,the use of a large proportion of nitrogen tends to rank growth of vine and soft1 watery fruit4 ,the use of a large proportion of phosphoric acid tends to produce soft fruit with less distinctly acid flavor2 of potash1 to smaller growth of vine and firm but more acid fruit4 ,i think that even more than with most crops it will be well for the farmer to experiment to determine the best and most economical fertilizer for his soil1 setting aside five to ten plots of #a to #d square rods each and apply nitrate of soda1 muriate of potash1 wood1 ashes1 and phosphate alone and in different combinations4 ,the results will suggest the combination which he can use to best advantage4 ,in the majority of cases1 however1 where the soil is reasonably rich1 expenditures for putting the ground in the best possible state of tilth will give larger returns than those for manures in excess of that which the land has usually received in the regular rotation for ordinary farm crops4 ,for the home garden4--,usually a dressing of wood ashes up to a rate of #a bushel to the square rod1 well worked into the soil before the plants are set1 and occasionally watering with liquid manure1 will generally give the best returns of any special fertilization1 it being assumed that the garden has been well enriched with stable manure4 ,tomatoes under glass4--,some growers recommend frequent waterings with liquid manure2 others a surface dressing of sheep manure2 still others a mulch of moderately well decayed stable manure4 ,plants growing under glass1 particularly in pots or boxes1 seem to be benefitted by so heavy a dressing that if applied to plants growing outside it would be likely to give excessive growth of vine with but little fruit4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,preparation of the ,soil ,the proper preparation of the soil before setting the plants is one of the most essential points in successful tomato culture4 ,the soil should be put into the best possible physical condition and to the greatest practicable depth4 ,how this can be best accomplished will vary greatly with different soils and the facilities at the command of the planter4 ,my practice on a heavy1 dry soil is to plow shallow as early in the spring as the ground is fit to work1 and then work and re-work the surface so as to make it as fine as possible4 ,if ,i am to use any manure which is at all coarse1 it is well worked in at this time4 ,a week or #aj days before ,i expect to set the plants ,i again plow1 and to as great a depth as practicable1 without turning up much of the sub-soil1 and if this has not been done within two years1 follow in the furrows with a sub-soil plow which loosens1 but does not bring the sub-soil to the surface4 ,then ,i work and re-work the surface1 at the same time working in any dressing of well-rotted manure1 ashes or commercial fertilizer that ,i want to use4 ,i never regret going over the field again1 if by so doing ,i can improve its condition in the least4 ,on a lighter soil it might be better to compact rather than loosen as much as would give the best results with clay1 but always and everywhere the soil should be made fine1 friable and uniform in condition1 to the greatest depth possible4 ,one of the most successful growers has said that if he could afford to spend but two days' time on a patch of tomatoes he would use a day and a half of the two days in fitting the ground before he set the plants4 ,it is my opinion that any working of the ground that serves to get it into better mechanical condition1 if done economically1 will not only increase the yield1 but to such an extent as to lower the cost a bushel4 ,t4 ,b4 ,terry's teaching of the necessity for working and re-working the soil1 if one would have the largest crops of potatoes of the best quality1 is even more applicable to the culture of tomatoes4 ,home garden4--,here there is no excuse for setting plants in hard1 lumpy soil4 ,it should be worked and re-worked1 not simply once or twice1 but once or twice after it has been thoroughly worked4 ,in short1 the tomato bed should be made as friable as it is possible to make it and to as great a depth as the character of the sub-soil will permit4 ,under glass4--,i would strongly advise that soil for tomatoes1 whether it is to be used in solid beds or in pots or boxes1 be thoroughly sterilized by piling it not over #ae inches deep or wide over iron pipes perforated with two lines of holes about one-sixteenth inch in diameter and #b inches apart and filled with steam for at least a half hour4 ,it can be sterilized1 but far less effectively1 by thorough wetting with boiling water4 ,it should always be well stirred and aired before the plants are set in it4 ,starting plants4--,from about the latitude of ,new ,york city southward1 it is possible to secure large yields from plants grown from seed sown in place in the field1 and one often sees volunteer plants which have sprung up as weeds carrying as much or more fruit than most carefully grown transplanted ones beside them4 ,in many sections tomatoes are grown in large areas for canning factories1 and as a farm rather than a market garden crop1 individual farmers planting from #aj to #ajj acres2 and to start and transplant to the field the #be1jjj to #cj1jjj plants necessary for a ten-acre field seems a great undertaking4 ,tomato plants1 however1 when young1 are of rather weak and tender growth1 and need more careful culture than can be readily given in the open field2 and1 again1 the demand of the market1 even at the canning factories1 is for delivery of the crop earlier than it can be produced by sowing the seed in the field4 ,for these reasons it is almost the universal custom of successful growers to use plants started under glass or in seed-beds where conditions of heat and moisture can be somewhat under control4 ,i believe1 however1 that the failure to secure a maximum yield is more often due to defective methods of starting1 handling and setting the plants than to any other single cause4 ,in sections where tomatoes are largely grown there are usually men who make a business of starting plants and offering them for sale at prices running from #a or even as low as #dj cents1 up to #h and #aj a #a1jjj1 according to their age and the way they are grown2 but generally1 it will be found more advantageous for the planter to start his plants on or near the field where they are to be grown4 ,tomato plants from cuttings may be easily grown1 but such plants1 when planted in the open ground1 do not yield as much fruit as seedlings nor is this apt to be of so good quality2 so that1 in practice1 seedlings only are used for outside crops4 ,under glass1 plants from cuttings do relatively better and some growers prefer them1 as they commence to fruit earlier and do not make so rank a growth4 ,seedlings can be most easily started and grown1 at least up to the time of pricking out1 in light1 well-ventilated greenhouses1 and many large growers have them for this specific purpose4 ,houses for starting tomato plants should be so situated as to be fully exposed to the sun and not shaded in any way2 be provided with heating apparatus by which a night temperature of #fj and up to one of #hj ,f4 in the day can be maintained even in the coldest weather and darkest days likely to occur for #fj to #ij days before the plants can be safely set out in the open field2 and the houses should be well glazed and ventilated4 ,houses well suited for this purpose are often built of hotbed sash with no frame but a simple ridge-board and sides #a or #b feet high1 head room being gained by a central sunken path and the sash so fastened in place that they may be easily lifted to give ventilation or entirely removed to give full exposure to sunshine1 or for storing when the house is not needed4 ,hotbed sash #cf feet with side-bars projecting at the ends to facilitate fastening them in place are usually kept by dealers1 who offer them at from #a4ej to #c each1 according to the quality of the material used4 ,a hot water heating apparatus is the best1 but often one can use a brick furnace or an iron heating stove1 connected with a flue of sewer or drain-pipe that will answer very well and cost much less4 ,it requires but #f to #aj square feet of bench to start plants enough for an acre1 and a house costing only from #be to #ej will enable one to grow plants enough for #bj acres up to the stage when they can be pricked out into sash or cloth-covered cold-frames in which they can be grown on to the size best suited for setting in the field4 ,when a grower plants less than #e acres it is often better for him to sow his seed in flats or shallow boxes and arrange to have these cared for in some neighboring greenhouse for the #aj to #bj days before they can be pricked out4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,hotbeds and ,cold-frames ,plants can be advantageously started and even grown on to the size for setting in open ground in hotbeds4 ,in building these of manure it is important to select a spot where there is no danger of standing water1 even after the heaviest rains1 and it is well to remove the soil to a depth of #f inches or #a foot from a space about #b feet larger each way than the bed and to build the manure up squarely to a hight of #b to #c feet4 ,it is also very important that the bed of manure be of uniform composition as regards mixture of straw and also as to age1 density and moisture1 so as to secure uniformity in heating4 ,this can be accomplished by shaking out and evenly spreading each forkful and repeatedly and evenly tramping down as the bed is built up4 ,unless this work is well and carefully done the bed will heat and settle unevenly1 making it impossible to secure uniformity of growth in different parts4 ,hotbed frames should be of a size to carry four to six #cf-;foot sash1 and made of lumber so fastened together that they can be easily knocked apart and stored when not in use4 ,they should be about #aj inches high in front and #af or #ah inches at the back1 care being taken that if the back is made of two boards one of them be narrow and at the bottom so that the crack between them can be covered by banking up with manure or earth4 ,in placing them on the manure short pieces of board should be laid under the corners to prevent their settling in the manure unevenly4 ,i prefer to sow the seed in flats or shallow boxes filled with rich but sandy and very friable soil1 and set these on a layer of sifted coal ashes covering the manure and made perfectly level1 but many growers sow on soil resting directly on the manure2 if this is done the soil should be light and friable and made perfectly level4 ,a perspective view of a three-sash hotbed is given in ,fig4 #ac1 and of a cross-section in ,fig4 #ad4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ac--,,three-,,sash ,,hotbed ,in some sections1 particularly in the ,south1 it is not always easy to procure suitable manure for making hotbeds1 so these are built to be warmed by flues under ground1 but ,i think it much better where a fire is to be used that the sash be built into the form of a house4 ,a hotbed of manure is preferred to a house by some because of its supplying uniform and moist bottom heat--and one can easily give abundant air2 but the sash can be built into the form of a house at but little more expense1 and it has the great advantage of enabling one to work among the plants in any weather1 while1 if properly built1 any desired degree of heat and ventilation can be easily secured4 ,except when very early ripening fruit is the desideratum1 plants started with heat but pricked out and grown in cold-frames without it1 but where they can be protected during cold nights and storms1 will give better results than those grown to full size for the field in artificial heat4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ad--;,,cross-,,section ,,of ,,hotbed ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ae--;,,cold-,,frames ,,on ,,hill-,,side ,cold-frames4--,in locations where tomatoes are much grown large areas are devoted to cold-frames covered either by sash or cloth curtains4 ,sash give much better protection from cold and on this account are more desirable1 particularly where very early fruiting is wanted1 but their first cost is much greater and the labor of attending to beds covered by them is much more than where cloth is used4 ,sash-covered beds should be of single width and run east and west1 but if the beds are covered with cloth it is better that they be double width 7#ab feet7 and run north and south4 ,the front of the single and the sides of the double width beds should be #h to #aj inches high1 held firmly erect by stakes and perfectly parallel1 both horizontally and vertically1 with the back or with the central support4 ,this should be #f inches higher than the front4 ,the cross strips1 when sash are used1 should be made of a #c-;inch horizontal and a #a-a_/b-;inch vertical strip of #a-;inch lumber nailed together very firmly in the form of an inverted ,t1 the vertical pieces projecting #a inch at each end and resting on the front and back of the bed and forming supports and guides for the sash4 ,some growers use vertical strips as heavy as #bc or #d inches for stepping across the beds4 ,when the plants are to be taken to the field1 the sash and guides can be easily removed4 7,fig4 #ae47 ,ground to be covered with cold-frames should be made very friable and rich by repeated plowing and working in of a liberal dressing of well-rotted stable manure and wood ashes4 ,in southwestern ,new ,jersey1 where immense areas of early tomatoes are grown1 the soil of the beds for a depth of about #f inches is removed and a layer #c to #e inches deep of well-rotted stable manure is placed in4 ,that made of a mixture of manure from horses1 cattle and hogs is preferred4 ,it is important that the manure be so well rotted that it will not heat1 and so dry that it will not become pasty when tramped into a firm1 level layer4 ,on this they place a layer of nearly #c inches deep of rich1 friable1 moderately compact soil and prick out the plants into this4 ,the roots soon bind the manure and soil together and by cutting through the manure so as to form blocks one can carry the plants to the fields with but very little disturbance of the root4 ,cloth covers for beds should be made of heavy1 unbleached sheeting or light duck1 and it is better that the selvage run up and down the bed rather than lengthwise4 ,the cloth is torn into lengths of about #ac feet and then sewn together with a narrow double-stitched flat seam so as to form a sheet #ac feet wide and about #h inches longer than the bed4 ,the edges are tacked every foot to the strips about #b inches wide by #g_/h inch thick with beveled outside edges and laid perfectly in line4 ,a second line of strips is then nailed to the first so as to break joints with it and so that the two will form a continuous roller about a foot longer than the bed with the edge of the curtain firmly fastened in its center4 ,the center of the curtain is secured to the central ridge of the bed by strips of lath4 ,when rolled up1 the rollers are held in place by loops of rope around their ends and when they are down they are held by similar loops to the notched tent-pins driven into the ground or to wooden buttons fastened to the sides and ends of the frame as shown in ,fig4 #af4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #af--,,transplanting ,,tomatoes ,,under ,,cloth-,,covered ,,frames 7,photo by ,prof4 ,w4 ,g4 ,johnson7 ,cloth covers are sometimes dressed with oil1 but this is not to be recommended1 though it is an advantage to have them wet occasionally with a weak solution of copper sulphate or with sea water as a preservative and to prevent mildew4 ,such covers1 well cared for1 may last five years or be of little use after the first1 depending upon the care given them4 ,they can be made from #ej to #bjj feet long and two men can roll them up or down very quickly4 ,when cloth covers are used the supporting cross-strips should not be over #c inches wide nor more than #c feet apart2 sometimes the strips are made to bind the sideboard and ridge together by means of short pieces of hoop iron or of barrel hoop4 ,these are so placed and nailed as to hold the upper edge of sideboards and of the central ridge flush with the cross-strips1 thus forming a smooth surface for cloth to rest on and enabling one easily to knock down and remove the frames to facilitate the taking of the plants from the bed to the field and the storing of the frames for another season4 ,flats for starting seeds4--,any shallow box may be used or the plants sown directly in the beds without them1 but flats of a uniform size are to be preferred--these will pack well on the greenhouse shelves2 or in the hotbed we make them with #g_/h inch thick ends and #a_/b inch thick sides and bottom1 the latter if of a single board having four half-inch holes for drainage and in any case having two narrow strips about #a_/d inch thick nailed across their bottoms so as to allow drainage water to escape freely when the boxes are set on hard1 cool floors4 ,two or three such boxes1 #ce-a_/b inches long1 #ab inches wide and #c inches deep1 will be sufficient to start plants enough for an acre4 ,i like to use similar boxes only #d inches deep for growing the plants after they are pricked out1 particularly if this is to be done in a greenhouse1 as by turning them we can equalize exposure to light and thus distribute the plants in the field where they are to be set with the least possible disturbance4 ,one would need nearly #fj such boxes for plants enough for an acre4 ,on account of the lessened necessity for watering when plants are set in beds rather than in boxes1 many growers prefer to grow their plants in that way4 ,,chapter ,x ,starting ,plants ,this has been the subject of a vast amount of horticultural writing1 and the practice of different growers1 and in different sections1 varies greatly4 ,i give the methods ,i have used successfully1 together with reasons for following them1 but it may be well for the reader to modify them to suit his own conditions and requirements4 ,largest yield4--,some #de to #ej days before plants can be safely set in the open field the flats in which the seed is to be sown should be filled with light1 rich1 friable soil1 it being important that its surface be made perfectly level1 and that it be compact and quite moist1 but not so wet as to pack under pressure4 ,sow the seed in drills #c_/h inch deep and #b to #c inches apart at the rate of #aj to #bj to the inch2 press the soil evenly over them1 water and place in the shade in an even temperature of #hj to #ij ,f4 ,as soon as the seeds begin to break soil1 which they should do in three to four days1 place in full light and temperature of #ge to #hj1 keeping the air rather close so as to avoid necessity of watering4 ,after a few days reduce the temperature to about #fe and give as much air as possible4 ,some growers press a short piece of #b-;inch joist into the soil of the benches1 so as to form trenches #b inches wide and about #c_/h inch deep1 and so spaced as to be under the center of each row of glass1 their sash being mostly made of five-inch glass4 ,in this1 by using a little tin box with holes in the top1 like those of a pepper-box1 they scatter seeds so that they will be nearly #a_/h to #a_/d inch apart1 over the bottom of the #b-;inch wide trench1 and then cover4 ,this has the advantage of evenly spacing the plants and so locating the rows that the plants will be little liable to injury from drip4 ,young tomato plants are very sensitive to over-supply of water and some of the most successful growers do not water at all until the plants are quite large and then only when necessary to prevent wilting4 ,in #aj to #ae days1 or as soon as the central bud is well started1 the plants should be pricked out1 setting them #c to #f inches apart1 according to the size we expect them to reach before they go into the field2 #e inches is the most common distance used4 ,i think it better to set the full distance apart at first1 not to transplant a second time4 ,it is very important that this pricking out should be done when the plants are young and small1 though many successful growers wait until they are larger4 ,the soil in which they are set1 whether it be in boxes or beds1 should be composed of about three parts garden loam1 two parts well-rotted stable manure and one part of an equal mixture of sand and leaf mold1 though the proportion of sand used should be increased if the garden loam is clayey4 ,the soil in the seed-boxes or in the beds1 when the seedlings are taken up1 should be in such condition1 and the plants be handled in such a way that nearly all the roots1 carrying with them many particles of soil1 are saved4 ,the plants should be set a little1 and but a little1 deeper than they stood in the seed-box and the soil so pressed about the roots1 particularly at their lower end1 that the plants can not be easily pulled out4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ag--,,spotting-,,board ,,for ,,use ,,in ,,cold-,,frames ,where plants are set in beds the work can be facilitated by the use of a spotting-board 7,fig4 #ag74 ,this should be about #a foot in width1 and have pegs about #c inches long1 #c_/d inch in diameter at the base and tapering to a point1 fastened into the board the distance apart the plants are to be set4 ,it should also have narrow projections carrying a single peg nailed to the top of board at each end1 so that when these pegs are placed in the end holes of the last row the first row of pegs in the spotting board will be the right distance from the last row of holes or plants4 ,by standing on this1 while setting plants in one set of holes1 holes for another set are formed4 ,if the conditions of soil1 air and plants are right and the work is well done1 the plants will show little tendency to wilt1 and it is better to prevent their doing so by shading1 rather than by watering1 though the latter should be resorted to if necessary4 ,when plants are set in beds1 some growers remove the soil to a depth of about #f inches and put in a layer of about #b inches of sifted coal ashes1 made perfectly level1 and then replace the soil4 ,this confines the roots to the surface and enables one to secure nearly all of them when transplanting4 ,the plants should be well established in #bd hours and after this the more light and air that can be given1 without the temperature falling below #dj ,f4 or subjecting the plants to cold1 dry wind1 the better4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ah--,,spotting-,,board ,,for ,,use ,,on ,,flat 7,from ,w4 ,g4 ,johnson7 ,one can hardly overstate the importance to the healthy growth of the young tomato plant of abundant sunshine1 a uniform day temperature of from #fj to #hj ,f41 or of the ill effects of a variable temperature1 particularly if it be the result of cold1 dry winds1 or of a wet1 soggy soil1 the effect of over-watering4 ,these points should be kept in mind in caring for the plants1 and every effort made to secure1 as far as possible1 the first named conditions and to avoid the latter4 ,the frames1 whether they be covered with sash or cloth1 but more particularly if with sash in sunshine and with curtains in dull days1 should be opened so as to prevent their becoming too hot1 and so as to admit air4 ,and in a greenhouse full ventilation should be given whenever it is possible to do so without exposure to too low a temperature4 ,if the plants are in boxes and on greenhouse shelves1 it is important that these be turned end for end every few days to equalize exposure to light and give full exposure to the sun4 ,the plants should be watered only when necessary to prevent wilting1 and the beds should be covered during heavy rains4 ,a spotting-board for use on flats is seen in ,fig4 #ah4 ,the most unfavorable weather conditions are bright sun combined with a cold wind1 and cold storms of drizzling rain and frosty nights4 ,loss from the latter cause may often be prevented by covering the beds with coarse straw1 which should always be provided for use in an emergency4 ,many growers provide a second curtain--an old one answers very well--to throw over the straw-covered beds4 ,beds so covered will protect the plants from frost in quite severe weather4 ,watering should especially be avoided for nearly three days before setting in fields2 but six to twelve hours before it is well to water thoroughly1 though not so as to make the soil at all muddy4 ,about five days after pricking out and again about five days before the plants are to go into the field and five days after they are set1 they should be sprayed with ,bordeaux mixture4 ,early ripening fruit4--,here the aim is to secure1 by the time they can be set in the field1 plants which have come by an unchecked but comparatively slow rate of growth to the greatest size and maturity consistent with the transplanting to the field without too serious a check4 ,the methods by which this is accomplished vary greatly and generally differ materially from those given above4 ,the seed is planted much earlier and #fj to #ij days before it is at all safe to set plants in the open field2 while a steady rate of growth is desirable1 it should be slow and the plants kept small by a second and even third and fourth transplanting1 and especial care taken to avoid the soft and irregular growth resulting from over-watering or over-heating4 ,any side shoots which may appear should be pinched out and a full pollination of the first cluster of the blossoms secured1 either by direct application of pollen or by staking or jarring the plants on bright days2 and finally1 special efforts made to set the plants in the field as early and with as little check as possible4 ,growers are often willing to run considerable risk of frost for the sake of early setting4 ,when one has sandy land a very profitable crop can sometimes be secured by sowing the seed very early1 and growing the plants on in beds until the first cluster of fruit is set1 then heeling them in1 much as nursery trees are1 but so close that they can be quickly covered in case of frost4 ,as soon as it is at all safe to do so1 they are set in the open ground1 very closely1 on the south side of ridges1 so that only the upper one-third of the plant is exposed1 the remainder being laid nearly level and covered with earth4 ,so treated the plants will ripen the upper one or two clusters very early but will yield little more until late in the season1 and it is generally more profitable to plow them up and put in some other crop as soon as the first clusters of fruit have ripened4 ,others pinch out the central bud as soon as it is well formed1 usually within #aj days from the sowing of the seed4 ,when this is done a great proportion of the plants will start branches from the axils of the cotyledons2 these usually develop blossoms in the third to the fifth node and produce fruit much lower than in a normal plant4 ,it is questionable if there is any gain in time from seed to fruit by this method1 but it enables one to get older plants of a size which it is practicable to transplant to the field4 ,in most cases it will be found more profitable and satisfactory so to grow the plants that by the time they can be safely set out of doors they will be in vigorous condition1 about #f to #aj inches tall1 stout1 healthy and well hardened off4 ,such plants will ripen fruit nearly1 and often quite as early as older ones and will produce a constant succession of fruit1 instead of ripening a single cluster or two and then no more until they have made a new growth4 ,for late summer and early fall4--,it is generally true in the ,south and often equally so in the ,north1 that there is a more eager local demand for tomatoes in the late summer and fall months1 after most of the spring set plants have ceased bearing1 than in early summer4 ,in ,michigan ,i have often been able to get more for choice fruit in late ,october and in ,november than the best ,floridas were sold for in ,may or early ,june1 and certainly in the ,south the home use of fresh tomatoes should not be confined to spring set plants4 ,for the fall crop in the ,south seed may be sown in late spring or up to the middle of ,july1 in beds shaded with frames1 covered with lath nailed #c to #d inches apart and the plants set in the field about #dj days from sowing1 the same care being taken to put the ground into good condition as is recommended for the spring planted crop4 ,a second plan1 which has sometimes given most excellent results1 is to cut back spring set plants which have ripened some fruit but which are not completely exhausted1 to mere stubs1 and spade up the ground about them so as to cut most of the roots1 water thoroughly and cover the ground with a mulch of straw4 ,most of the plants so treated will start a new and vigorous growth and give most satisfactory returns4 ,fruit at least expenditure of labor4--,when this is the great desideratum1 many growers omit the hotbed and even the pricking out1 sowing the seed as early as they judge the plants will be safe from frost1 and broadcast1 either in cold-frames or in uncovered beds1 at the rate of #ej to #aej to the square foot and transplanting directly to the field4 ,or they may be advantageously sown in broad drills either by the use of the pepper-box arrangement suggested on page #fj1 or a garden drill adjusted to sow a broad row4 ,in ,maryland and the adjoining states1 as well as in some places in the ,west1 most of the plants for crops for the canners are grown in this way and at a cost of #dj cents or even less a #a1jjj4 ,the seed should be sown so that it will be from #a_/d to #a_/b inch apart and the plants thinned as soon as they are up so that they will be at least #a_/b inch apart4 ,where seed is sown early with no provision for protection from the frost it is always well to make other sowings as soon as the last begins to break ground in order to furnish reserve plants1 if the earlier sown lots be destroyed by frost4 ,others even sow the seed in place in the field1 thinning out to a single one in a hill when the plants are about #b inches high4 ,some of the largest yields ,i have ever known have been raised in this way1 but the fruit is late in maturing and generally the method is not so satisfactory as starting the plants where they can be given some protection1 and transplanting them to the field4 ,plants for the home garden4--,these may be grown in pots or boxes set in the sunniest spot available and treated as has been described4 ,in this way plants1 equal to any1 may be grown without the aid of either hotbed or greenhouse4 ,it will generally be more satisfactory1 however1 to secure the dozen or two plants needed from some one who has grown them in quantity than to grow so small a lot by themselves4 ,in selecting plants1 take those which are short1 stiff1 hard1 and dark green in color with some purple color on the lower part of the stem rather than those which are softer and of a brighter green1 or those in which the foliage is of a yellowish green2 but in selection it must be remembered that varieties differ as to the color of foliage1 so that there may be a difference in shade which is not due to conditions4 ,plants under glass4--,if to be grown in pots or boxes1 prick out1 when small1 into three-inch pots and as they grow re-pot several times so that when set in the pots or beds in which they are to fruit1 they are stout plants #ab to #af inches high4 ,plants propagated from cuttings give much better returns relatively under glass than out of doors4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,proper ,distance for ,planting ,the best distance apart for the plants to be set in the field varies greatly with the soil1 the variety1 the methods of cultivation and other conditions4 ,plants set as close in rich clay soil as would give the best results in a warm1 sandy one1 or those of a strong growing sort1 like ,buckeye ,state1 set as close as would be desirable for sorts1 like ,atlantic ,prize or ,dwarf ,champion1 would give little but leaves and inferior fruit4 ,in field culture ,i like to space the plants so as to facilitate gathering the fruit1 and recommend the following arrangement3 ,set the plants according to soil and the variety #b-a_/b to #d feet apart in the row1 omitting two or three in every #ge or #ajj plants so as to form driveways across the rows4 ,set the first and second and the third and fourth rows1 etc41 #b-a_/b to #c-a_/b and the second and third and the fourth and fifth rows #e-a_/b to #f feet apart4 ,as the plants grow1 those of the first and second and those of the third and fourth rows1 etc41 are thrown together and in many cases it will pay to have a pair of narrow horizontal strips or wires nearly #ah inches from the ground upon which they can be thrown4 ,this arrangement of the plants allows us to continue to cultivate the wider spaces between the second and third and fourth and fifth1 etc41 rows1 much longer1 and tends to confine the necessary tramping and packing of the soil when gathering the fruit chiefly to these rows--an important point in case the soil is wet4 ,the rows can be marked out the day before1 but it is better to set the plants in the cross-rows and that these be marked out just ahead of the setters4 ,in this arrangement the distances are equivalent to from #b-a_/bd feet1 requiring #d1cjj plants to the acre1 to #de feet1 requiring but about #b1ajj plants4 ,the latter distance is that most commonly used by ,new ,jersey growers4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ai--,,tomatoes ,,sown ,,and ,,allowed ,,to ,,grow ,,in ,,hotbeds ,in the home garden4--,it will usually be more satisfactory to give each plant plenty of space1 setting them #e or #f feet apart each way1 except in the case of the dwarf sorts1 which should be from #c-a_/b to #c feet apart4 ,a few plants at these distances will usually be much more satisfactory than more set nearer together1 but the larger growing sorts should have at least #c feet and the dwarf sorts #b feet4 ,when one has a hotbed or cold-frame it is often an advantage to set a row of tomato plants nearly #ah inches apart at the back end much earlier than they could be safely set in the open ground1 and if these are allowed to grow on in place1 as shown in ,fig4 #ai1 being pruned and tied to stakes1 they will give some very early fruit4 ,in the greenhouse4--,experience and practice differ as to the most desirable distance apart for plants under glass4 ,but #b feet apart1 where quality is the main consideration1 and #ah inches when quantity1 if fair1 is of more importance than extra quality4 ,setting plants in the field4--,the economical and successful setting of plants in the field is an important element of successful tomato culture and is very dependent upon soil and weather conditions4 ,it is assumed that the soil of the field has been put into the best possible condition of tilth1 but its condition as to moisture is also very important4 ,the worst condition is when it is wet and muddy1 especially if it is at all clayey--not only is the cost of setting greatly increased1 but plants set in such soil can seldom1 by any amount of care1 be made to do well1 especially if a heavy beating rain or dry windy weather follows immediately2 the condition is less unfavorable if a warm gentle rain or still moist weather follows4 ,a dry cold wind1 even if the day is cloudy and the soil in good condition1 is also unfavorable1 particularly if the roots of the plants are exposed4 ,wet soil1 cold1 dry air and wind are the conditions to be avoided4 ,moist1 not wet1 soil and still1 warm air are to be desired2 whether the day is sunny or not is less important4 ,there is a certain definite time1 which does not usually extend beyond a few days1 when any lot of plants is in the best condition for setting in the field4 ,it is hardly possible to describe this condition more than to say it is when the plants are as large as they can be without crowding and are in a state where they can best stand the shock of removal4 ,it will always be a matter of judgment as to how long it is best to hold plants1 which are in condition for setting1 for favorable weather conditions4 ,they can sometimes be held a few days1 by scant watering and full exposure1 or in some cases by taking from the bed and heeling in1 as nurserymen do trees2 but it is better to set when the weather is unfavorable or to run some risk from frost rather than to hold them in this way too long4 ,the wise selection of time for setting is an important factor in securing a good and profitable crop4 ,the ,south ,jersey growers1 to whom early ripening fruit is the great desideratum and who have a very warm soil1 and grow plants so they are quite hardy and can be transplanted with little check1 set them in the field very early1 some seasons by the last of ,april2 and if the plants can be got out so as to have two or three days of favorable weather to get established before it comes1 they seem to be little hurt even by a quite severe frost4 ,the first essential to successful transplanting is to have well-grown1 healthy1 hardy plants2 the second is that they be in good condition for setting1 which can be secured by giving them1 for a few days before planting1 a scant supply of water and fullest possible exposure to air and sun1 and then a thorough wetting a few hours before they are to be set4 ,the ,south ,jersey plan of growing and setting plants gets them into the field in the best condition of any method ,i know4 ,two to five days before they expect to plant1 the growers go over the beds and1 by means of a hoe that has been straightened and sharpened to form a sort of spade1 they cut through the soil and manure so as to divide the plants into blocks of six4 ,a few hours before they are to plant1 they saturate the bed with water4 ,by means of a flattened shovel they can take up the blocks of plants and place them in a cart or low wagon so the soil is scarcely disturbed at all1 the roots in the manure serving to bind the whole together4 ,in the meantime furrows are opened along the rows and the cart driven to the field2 the plants in the blocks are cut apart with a butcher knife placed in the furrow and the earth drawn about them4 ,plants set in this way often do not wilt at all1 even in hot sunshine4 ,when plants are grown in boxes these can be taken to the field and plants taken from them in much the same way and so that they will be disturbed but little4 ,in setting the plants it should always be borne in mind that while sunshine on the leaves of a plant rarely does any injury1 it is very injurious to the roots1 and the exposure of the roots to the sun or to cold1 dry wind1 should be avoided in every practicable way1 such as by carrying the plants to the field laid on the sides of a box1 which is then carried with its bottom toward the sun so as to have the plants in the shade1 always handling the plant in the shade of one's body1 etc4 ,it is well worth while to walk to the end of the row to commence work in order to secure this4 ,it is attention to such details that distinguishes one whose plants nearly always do well from one who loses a large proportion of those he handles4 ,fruit at the least expenditure of labor4--,the plants are prepared for setting by scant watering1 and are taken up so as to secure as much root as possible with little soil adhering to them4 ,great care should be taken in taking the plants from the bed1 and in handling them1 to avoid twisting the stems1 as to do so very seriously injures the plants1 often to such an extent that they will fail to grow1 no matter how carefully set out4 ,some growers dip the roots in a very thin clay mud1 hardly thicker than thin cream1 but ,i have not found this of advantage except1 sometimes1 when the roots are to be exposed for a longer period than usual and ,i do not recommend it for general use4 ,in setting1 holes are made either with a long dibble1 in the hands of the one who distributes the plants1 or by a short one1 in the hands of the setter2 the plants are dropped into them a little deeper than they had stood in the bed1 the earth closed about the roots1 by pressure from the side4 ,especial care should be taken that this is well done1 particularly at the bottom2 the earth should be so firmly pressed to the root that the plant cannot be easily pulled from the soil4 ,in some sections transplanting machines 7,fig4 #bj7 are used and liked1 but most planters prefer to set by hand and the additional cost is not great4 ,an expert with one or two boys to assist in handling the plants can put out as many as #e1jjj plants in a day4 ,a machine requiring more help to run it can set from #ae1jjj to #bj1jjj4 ,in the home garden1 when but a few plants are to be set1 it will be better to put them in after #d ,p4 ,m4 and use water in setting1 but the wet soil should be covered with some dry earth to prevent its caking4 ,in the greenhouse4--,plants are better set in the places where they are to fruit just before their first blossoms open and should be set in accordance with the suggestions given for transplanting to the field4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bj--,,planting ,,tomatoes ,,on ,a ,,delaware ,,farm 7,photo by courtesy of ,american ,agriculturist7 ,,chapter ,,xii ,cultivation ,for maximum crop4--,as soon as plants are set the ground should be well cultivated to the greatest depth practicable4 ,we should remember that the tomato needs for its best development a very friable soil1 while the tramping necessary in setting out the plants and gathering the fruit tends to compact and harden the soil4 ,often transplanting has to be done when the soil is wet1 and we need to counteract the injury from tramping by immediate cultivation2 but1 at the same time1 we must avoid the disturbing of the plants any more than is necessary1 and all of our cultivation should be done with these points in mind4 ,just how it can be done best will vary not only with the location and the facilities available1 but with the weather conditions1 so that it is not well to attempt to give explicit directions any further than that one can hardly cultivate too deeply for the first seven days nor too often for the first #cj days after the plants are set1 provided he avoids turning the soil when it is too wet4 ,even walking through the field when the soil is wet is injurious and should be avoided1 in proportion as the soil is a clayey one4 ,at least expenditure of labor4--,i hardly need add to or change the suggestions given above for tomatoes at least cost1 for any cultivation wisely given will probably do as much to reduce cost per bushel by increasing the yield per acre as any other expenditure4 ,in the garden it is advisable that from the time the plants are set until the fruit ripens1 the surface soil about them be stirred every evening when it is not actually wet4 ,in the greenhouse4--,the surface of the soil should be kept open by frequent stirring or1 as is the practice of some successful growers1 it may be covered with a mulch of partially rotted manure4 ,the plants should be watered only as needed to prevent wilt1 and special pains taken to guard against too much moisture either in the soil or in the air1 particularly on dark days4 ,the night temperature should be uniformly about #fj ,f4 while in the day it should be #ge1 and if it be bright and sunny it may go to #ij or even higher4 ,air should be given freely whenever feasible to do so without too greatly reducing temperature4 ,a moderate degree of moisture should be maintained in the air1 care being taken that it does not become too moist1 especially during dark days4 ,there is more danger from the air becoming too moist than from its becoming too dry1 though either extreme is injurious4 ,pollinating4--,the structure and relations of the parts of the tomato flower are such that while perfect pollination is possible1 and in plants grown in the open air usually takes place without artificial assistance1 it is not so likely to occur when plants are grown under glass1 particularly in the winter months1 and it is usually necessary to secure it by artificial means4 ,with vigorous1 healthy plants and on light1 sunny days1 it can be accomplished by jarring the plants near midday4 ,this generally throws enough pollen into the air so that an abundance of it reaches each receptive stigma4 ,with less vigorous plants and on dark days it is necessary to hand pollinate the flowers4 ,this is done by gathering the pollen by means of jarring the plants1 so that it falls into a watch crystal or other receptacle secured at the end of a wand1 and then pressing the projecting pistils of other flowers into it so that they may become covered with the pollen4 ,some growers transfer the pollen with a camel's-hair-brush2 others by pulling off the corolla and adhering anthers and rubbing them over the stigma of other flowers4 ,fruit rarely follows flowers that are not pollinated1 and if it is incomplete the fruit will be unsymmetrical and imperfectly developed4 ,as tomato flowers secrete but very little1 if any1 honey and are not attractive to insects1 it is of no advantage to confine a hive of bees in the tomato house in the way which is so useful in one where cucumbers or melons are growing4 ,,chapter ,,xiii ,staking1 ,training and ,pruning ,under favorable conditions of soil and climate1 plants of most varieties of tomatoes will1 in field culture1 yield as much fruit if allowed to grow naturally and unpruned as if trained and pruned4 ,this is especially true of the sorts of the ,earliana type and on warm1 sandy soils1 while it may not be true of the stronger growing sorts1 or on rich clay lands or where the fertilizer used contains an excess of nitrogen4 ,in any case more fruit can be grown to the acre on pruned and staked plants because more of them can be gotten on an acre2 and it is an advantage to grow them in that way because it enables us1 by later cultivation1 to keep the ground in good tilth longer2 also it facilitates the gathering of the fruit2 and last1 but not least1 it generally enables us to produce better ripened and flavored fruit4 ,staking and pruning used to be the almost universal practice in the ,south1 but in many sections growers have abandoned it1 claiming that they get as good or better results without it4 ,in the ,north it is rarely used in field culture1 though often used in private gardens and by some market gardeners1 and both staking or tying up and pruning are essential to the profitable growing of tomatoes under glass4 ,in the ,south1 stout stakes from #a to #b inches in diameter and #d to #e feet long are driven into the ground so that they can be depended upon to hold the plants erect through the heaviest storms1 as seen in ,fig4 #ba4 ,this is generally and wisely done as soon as the plant is set1 though some growers delay doing so until the fruit is well set1 claiming that the disturbance of staking1 tying and pruning tends to hasten the ripening of the fruit4 ,the plant is then tied up1 the tying material being wrapped once about the stake and then looped about the plant so as to prevent slipping on the stake or choking the stem of the plant as it enlarges4 ,raffia is largely used and is one of the best tying materials1 but short pieces of any soft1 cheap string can be used4 ,the tying up will need to be repeated as the stem elongates1 which it will do very rapidly4 ,in pruning the tomato we should allow the central shoot of the young plant to grow1 and remove all of the side shoots which spring from the axils of the leaves and sometimes even from the fruit clusters1 as seen in ,fig4 #bb4 ,it is very desirable that this be done when the branches are small1 as there is then less danger of seriously disturbing the balance of the growing forces of the plant1 and also because there is less danger of careless workmen cutting off the main shoot in place of a lateral1 which would seriously check the ripening of the fruit4 ,it is especially important that any shoots springing from the fruit cluster be removed as early as possible4 ,for these reasons it is important that1 if the plants are to be pruned at all1 the field be gone over every few days4 ,if the pruning is not well done it is a disadvantage rather than a help4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ba--,,training ,,tomatoes ,,in ,,florida ,,to ,,single ,,stake 7,photo by courtesy of ,prof4 ,p4 ,h4 ,rolfs1 ,director ,florida ,experiment ,station7 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bb--,,tomato ,,plant ,,trained ,,to ,,single ,,stake ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bc--,,method ,,of ,,training ,,to ,,three ,,stems ,,in ,,forcing-,,house ,,and ,,out ,,of ,,doors ,some growers allow two or three 7,fig4 #bc7 instead of one shoot to grow1 selecting for the second the most vigorous of the shoots starting from below the first cluster of fruit4 ,in some locations they stop or pinch out the main shoot just above the first leaf above the third or fourth cluster2 in some soils it is an advantage and in others rather a disadvantage to do this4 ,i have seldom practiced it4 ,when fruit at the lowest cost a bushel is the desideratum1 neither pruning nor staking is desirable4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bd--,,method ,,of ,,training ,,on ,,line ,,in ,,greenhouse ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #be--,,ready ,,to ,,transplant ,,in ,,greenhouse 7,redrawn from photo by ,new ,york ,experiment ,station7 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bf--,,training ,,young ,,tomatoes ,,in ,,greenhouse ,,at ,,new ,,york ,,experiment ,,station 7,photo by courtesy ,prof4 ,u4 ,p4 ,hedrick7 ,for home gardens4--,in the home garden trellising and pruning are often very desirable1 as they enable us not only to produce more fruit in a given area but of better quality4 ,many forms of trellis1 have been recommended4 ,where the plants are to be pruned as well as supported1 as they should always be in gardens1 there is nothing better than the single stake1 as described above4 ,for a trellis without pruning1 one to three stout hoops supported by three stakes so as to surround the plant which is allowed to grow through and fall over them1 or two or more parallel strips supported about a foot from the ground on each side of a row of plants answer the purpose1 which is simply to keep the plant up from the ground and facilitate the free circulation of the air among leaves and fruit4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bg--,,tomatoes ,,in ,,greenhouse ,,at ,,ohio ,,experiment ,,station 7,photo by courtesy of ,c4 ,w4 ,waid7 ,i have seen tomatoes grown very successfully by the side of an open fence4 ,two stakes were driven into the ground about #f inches from the fence and the plant1 but slanting outward and away from each other4 ,the tops of the stakes were fastened to the fence by wooden braces1 and then heavy strings fastened to the fence around the stakes and back to the fence1 the whole with the fence forming a sort of inverted pyramidal vase about #c feet across at the top4 ,in this the plant was allowed to grow1 but it would be essential to success that the fence be an open one4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bh--;,,forcing ,,tomatoes ,,in ,,greenhouse ,,at ,,new ,,hampshire ,,experiment ,,station4 ,,note ,,character ,,of ,,bed ,,on ,,the ,,ground ,,floor4 7,photo by courtesy of ,prof4 ,h4 ,f4 ,hall7 ,in the greenhouse4--,here pruning and training are essential4 ,the plants may be supported by wires or strings 7a coarse wool twine will answer71 twisting the string about the plant as it grows4 ,the growth is usually confined to a single shoot1 though some growers allow two 7,fig4 #bd72 the method of pruning does not differ from that given for field culture1 but it is more important that the plants be gone over often and the branches removed when small4 ,if allowed to do so1 branches would spring from the axil of each leaf and the plant would become a perfect thicket of slender branches and leaves and produce but little fruit4 ,the main stem is sometimes pinched out after three or four clusters of fruit are set and the branch from the axil of the first leaf above is allowed to take its place4 ,this tends to hasten the maturing of the fruit clusters already set4 ,after several clusters have matured1 or the main stem reaches the top of the house1 some growers allow a shoot from the bottom to grow and as soon as fruit sets on it the first stem is cut away and this takes its place4 ,others prefer to remove the old plant entirely and set in young ones4 ,a plant ready for transplanting is shown in ,fig4 #be4 ,in figures #bf1 #bg and #bh are shown interior views of greenhouses at the ,new ,york station at ,geneva1 the ,ohio station at ,wooster1 and the ,new ,hampshire station at ,durham4 ,note the strong1 vigorous plants in ,fig4 #bf2 the method of utilizing tile for watering in ,fig4 #bg2 and the ground-floor bedding in ,fig4 #bh4 ,,chapter ,,xiv ,ripening1 ,gathering1 ,handling and ,marketing the ,fruit ,tomatoes ripen and color from within outward and they will acquire full and often superior color1 particularly about the stems1 if1 as soon as they have acquired full size and the ripening process has fairly commenced1 they are picked and spread out in the sunshine4 ,the point of ripeness when they can be safely picked is indicated by the surface color changing from a dark green to one of distinctly lighter shade with a very light tinge of pink4 ,fruit picked in this stage of maturity may be wrapped in paper and shipped #a1jjj or #b1jjj miles and when unwrapped after two or ten days' journey will be found to have acquired a beautiful color1 often even more brilliant than that of a companion fruit left on the vine4 ,enclosing the fruit while on the vine and about half grown in paper bags has been recommended1 and it often results in deeper and more even coloring and prevents injury from cracking1 but the fruit so ripened1 while more beautiful1 is not so well flavored as that ripened in the sun4 ,but ,americans are said to taste with their eyes1 so that in this country1 fruit of this beautiful color will often out-sell that which is of better flavor though of duller color4 ,the tomato never acquires its full and most perfect flavor except when ripened on the vine and in full sunlight4 ,vine and sun-ripened tomatoes1 like tree-ripened peaches1 are vastly better flavored than those artificially ripened4 ,this is the chief reason why tomatoes grown in hothouses in the vicinity are so much superior to those shipped in from farther south4 ,after it has come to its most perfect condition on the plant the fruit deteriorates steadily1 whether gathered or allowed to remain on the vine1 and the more rapidly in proportion as the air is hot and moist4 ,that it be fresh is hardly less essential to the first quality in a tomato than it is to such things as lettuce and cucumbers4 ,gathering4--,as is the case with most horticultural products1 the best methods of gathering1 handling and marketing the fruit vary greatly with the conditions under which the fruit was grown and how it is to be used1 and it requires the best of judgment to gather it in the stage of maturity in which it will give the best satisfaction1 under the conditions and for the purposes for which it is to be used4 ,it is impossible to give exact rules for determining when the fruit is in the best condition4 ,this can only be learned by experience1 guided by a knowledge of the ripening habit of the fruit1 which not only varies somewhat in different localities1 but with different varieties4 ,in the extreme ,south1 fruit is picked for shipment before it shows more than the slightest tint of color at the blossom end2 the depth of color which is considered as indicating shipping condition deepens as we go north and nearer market4 ,generally the fruit should be left on the vine no longer than will permit of its becoming fully ripe by the time it reaches its destination and is exposed for sale4 ,when the fruit is to be shipped any distance the field should be gone over frequently1 as often as every second or third day or even every day in the hight of the season1 and care taken to pick every fruit as soon as it is in proper condition4 ,when it is to be sold in nearby markets or to a cannery the exact stage of maturity1 when picked1 is not so important1 although it is always an advantage not to gather until the fruit is well colored and before it begins to soften4 ,some growers for canneries make but three or four pickings1 but in this case it is well to gather the ripest fruit separately4 ,in picking and handling great care should be taken not to mar or bruise the fruit1 and the stems should be removed as the fruit is picked to prevent bruising in handling4 ,a bruise or mar may not be as conspicuous in a tomato as in a peach1 but it is quite as injurious4 ,it is a great deal better for pickers to use light pails rather than baskets1 the flexibility of the latter often resulting in bruises4 ,it is an advantage to have enough of these so that the sorting can be from the pail1 but if this is not practical the fruit should be carefully emptied on a sorting table for grading4 ,it should first of all be separated with regard to its maturity4 ,a single fruit which is a little riper or greener than the remainder may make the entire package unsalable4 ,it should also be graded as to freedom from blemishes or cracks1 and as to size1 form and color4 ,it is assumed that the fruit for each package is to be of the same variety1 but often there is quite a variation in different fruits from even the same vine2 the more uniform in all respects the fruit in a package is the more attractive and salable it becomes4 ,there is no fruit where careful grading and packing have more influence on the price it will command4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bi--;,,florida ,,tomatoes ,,properly ,,wrapped ,,for ,,long ,,shipment 7,photo by courtesy of ,american ,agriculturist7 ,i know of a certain noted peach-grower in northern ,michigan who grew1 each year1 some #b to #e acres of tomatoes for the ,chicago market4 ,it was his custom to pick out about one-tenth of the best of the fruit1 putting it into small and attractively labeled packages2 the remainder of the crop was sorted over and from one-tenth to one-fifth of it rejected and fed to stock or sold to a local cannery4 ,the remainder was sent to ,chicago with his selects1 but as common stock1 and usually brought more than his neighbors received for unsorted fruit2 but the check he received for his selects was usually as large as that for his commons1 thus giving him about #cc-a_/c per cent4 more for his crop than his neighbors received for their equally good1 but unsorted1 fruit--to say nothing of what he received for the rejected fruit and the saving of freight which1 he said1 was usually enough to pay the actual cost of sorting4 ,tomatoes are usually classed as vegetables but1 when ripe1 they require as careful handling as the most delicate fruits and are as easily and seriously injured by bruising and jarring4 ,just how this can be avoided and the fruit gotten from the vine to the possibly distant consumer in the best condition will vary in different cases4 ,tomatoes from the ,south 7,fig4 #bi7 are generally marketed in carriers which1 though varying somewhat1 are essentially alike and consist of an open basket or boxes of veneer holding about #aj pounds of fruit4 ,when shipped1 two1 four or six of these are packed in crates made of thin boards1 so as to protect the fruits but give them plenty of air4 ,packing4--,most of the fruit sent to ,new ,york and ,philadelphia markets from ,new ,jersey and other northern states is in boxes or crates holding about #e_/h of a bushel and so made as to facilitate ventilation when piled in cars or warehouses4 ,fruit for the canneries is usually picked and handled in bushel crates of lath4 ,these various packages are usually sold in the flat and the grower puts them together as is convenient before the crop comes on2 but in many sections where there are large shipments they are often put together by the package dealers4 ,fig4 #cj shows tomatoes as packed by the ,ohio experiment station4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cj--;,,greenhouse ,,tomatoes ,,packed ,,for ,,market 7,by courtesy ,ohio ,experiment ,station7 ,fruits after frost4--,sometimes when there is a great quantity of partially ripe and full grown green fruit on the vines which is liable to be spoiled by an early fall frost1 it can be saved by pulling the vines and placing them in windrows and covering them with straw4 ,of course the vines should be handled carefully to shake off as little fruit as possible4 ,if the freeze is followed by a spell of warm1 dry weather the fruit will ripen up so as to be quite equal to that shipped in from a distance4 ,a second plan is to pull the vines and hang them up in a dry cellar or out-house1 or lay them on the ground in an open grove of trees1 or beneath the trees of an adjoining orchard4 ,still another plan is to gather the green fruit and spread it not more than two to four fruits deep in hotbed frames1 which are then covered with sash4 ,local grocers are usually glad to pay good prices for this late fruit1 and in seasons of scarcity ,i have known canners to buy thousands of bushels so ripened at better prices than they paid for the main crop4 ,,chapter ,,xv ,adaptation of ,varieties ,whatever may be their botanical origin1 the modern varieties of cultivated tomatoes vary greatly in many respects1 and while these differences are always of importance their relative importance differs with conditions4 ,when the great desideratum is the largest possible yield of salable fruit at the least expenditure of labor1 the qualities of the vine may be the most important ones to be considered1 while in private gardens and for a critical home market and where closer attention and better cultivation can be given1 they may be of far less importance than qualities of fruit4 ,habits of growth4--,whether it be standard or dwarf1 compact or spreading1 is sometimes of great importance as fitting the sorts for certain soils and methods of culture4 ,on heavy1 moist1 rich land1 where staking and pruning are essential to the production of fruit of the best quality1 it is of importance that we use sorts whose habits of growth fit them for it2 while on warm1 sandy1 well-drained land1 staking and pruning may be of little value1 and a different habit of growth more desirable4 ,we have sorts in which the vine is relatively strong growing with few branches1 upright1 with long nodes and small fruit clusters well scattered over the vine4 ,they are usually very productive through a long season but generally late in maturing4 ,stocks of this type are sometimes sold1 ,i think improperly1 as giant climbing1 or ,tree tomato4 ,the ,buckeye ,state is a good type of these sorts4 7,fig4 #ca47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ca--;,,buckeye ,,state1 ,,showing ,,long ,,nodes ,,and ,,distance ,,between ,,fruit ,,clusters ,other varieties make a stout and vigorous but shorter growth1 with more and heavier branches1 shorter nodes and many small medium-sized clusters of fruit well distributed over the plant and which mature through a fairly long season4 ,these sorts are usually very productive and our most popular varieties generally belong to this type1 of which the ,stone 7,fig4 #cb7 is a good representative of the more compact and the ,beauty of the more open growing4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cb--,,stone1 ,,and ,,characteristic ,,foliage ,other varieties form many short1 weak1 sprawling branches1 with usually large and sometimes very large clusters of fruit produced chiefly near the center of the plant and which mature early and all together4 ,plants of this type will often mature their entire crop and die by the time those of the first type have come into full crop4 ,the ,atlantic ,prize 7,fig4 #cc7 and ,sparks ,earliana are examples of this type4 ,in sharp contrast with the above is the tomato ,de ,laye1 often called ,tree tomato4 ,this originated about #ahfb in a garden at ,chateau de ,laye1 ,france4 ,in this the plant rarely exceeds #ah inches in hight1 is single-stemmed or with few very short branches1 the nodes very short1 the fruit clusters few and small4 ,from this1 by crossing with other types1 there has been developed a distinct class of dwarf tomatoes which are of intermediate form and character and are well represented by the ,dwarf ,champion 7,fig4 #cd74 ,early maturity is sometimes the most important consideration of all1 though1 because of increasing facilities for shipping from the ,south1 it is less commonly so than formerly4 ,for shipping and canning it is generally1 though not always1 desirable that the crop mature as nearly together as possible1 that it may be gathered with the fewest number of pickings and advantage taken of a favorable market2 while for the home garden and market a longer season is desirable4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cc--;,,atlantic ,,prize1 ,,and ,,its ,,normal ,,foliage ,foliage4--,abundant1 broad and close1 or scanty cut and open foliage is sometimes of importance1 according to whether the location1 season and other conditions make it desirable that the foliage protect the fruit from the sun or admit the sunlight1 with as little obstruction as possible1 to the center of the plant4 ,in different sorts1 we have gradations from those in which the leaves are so deeply cut as to have a fern-like appearance1 to those like the ,magnus1 or potato-leaved1 in which the margin of each leaflet is entire1 and from those in which the leaflets are so few and small as to scarcely shut out the light at all to those in which they are so numerous that the light can hardly penetrate to the center of the plant4 ,the ,atlantic ,prize is an illustration of the scanty foliaged sorts1 and the ,royal ,red or ,buckeye ,state of those in which it is more abundant4 ,as to color1 the foliage varies from the dark blue-green of the ,buckeye ,state to the light1 distinctly yellowish-green of the ,honor ,bright4 ,varietal differences as to fruit4--,these are often more important than those of vine4 ,for canning1 for forcing1 and some other uses and for certain markets1 a medium and uniform size is a very important quality1 while in other cases uniformity is not important and the larger the individual fruits1 provided they be well formed1 the better4 ,we have different sorts in which the size of the fruit varies from that of the ,currant1 which is scarcely #a inch in circumference1 to that of ,ponderosa1 of which well-formed specimens over #bj inches in circumference have been grown4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cd--;,,dwarf ,,champion4 ,,note ,,character ,,of ,,foliage ,shape4--,it is always desirable that the outline of the vertical section shall be a flowing line with a broad and shallow1 or no depression at the stem end and as little as possible at the opposite point2 but the relative importance of this1 or whether the general outline shall be round or oval1 either vertically or horizontally1 forming a round1 long or flat fruit1 is largely determined by how the fruit is to be used1 and by individual taste4 ,a round fruit is best for canning2 a long one is the most economical for slicing1 though some prefer a flat one for this purpose4 ,it is always desirable that the outline of the horizontal section shall be smooth1 flowing and symmetrical1 and if there be any distinct sutures that they shall be shallow and broad2 but the relative importance of this1 and whether the outline be round or oval1 is wholly a matter of individual taste4 ,some people and markets prefer one shape and others a very different one4 ,size and smoothness of fruit are the factors which control price in some markets1 while in others these points are quite secondary to color and character of flesh4 ,we have sorts which vary from the perfectly spherical ones of the grape and cherry1 to those in which the vertical diameter is less than a third of that of the horizontal section2 and the pear-shaped in which the vertical diameter is twice or thrice that of the longest horizontal section1 and from those in which the outline of both the vertical and horizontal sections is smooth and flowing to those in which the vertical section has a deep indentation at both the stem and opposite ends1 and those in which the horizontal section is broken by deep indentures and sutures often disposed with great irregularity4 ,for shipping long distances1 for the rough handling1 and for the easy preparation for the fruit for canning1 a thick1 tough skin is desirable1 while for home use it is objectionable4 ,freedom from blemish or skin crack is also often an important quality1 and we have sorts which vary greatly in these respects4 ,the color of the skin1 whether purple1 red1 yellow or white1 is a matter of taste4 ,in some markets the choice is given to purple fruit1 like the ,beauty1 while in others it can only be sold at a reduced price4 ,there are few who would care to use either yellow or white fruit for canning or cooking in any way1 but many prefer them for slicing1 or like to use them with the red for this purpose2 we have sorts showing every gradation from white or light yellow in color through shades of red to dark purple-red1 and still others which show distinct colors in splashings and shadings4 ,character of flesh4--,many consider that the greater the number of cells and the larger the proportion of flesh to that of pulp and seed the better4 ,this may be true of itself1 but the fruit-like acid tomato flavor which most people value is found chiefly in the pulp1 and the fruit which has not a due proportion of pulp and flesh seems to be insipid and tasteless4 ,again1 the division into many small cells is often connected with a large and pithy placenta and unevenness in maturity and coloring1 which faults often more than overbalance any advantage from small cells and thick flesh4 ,the size and character of the placenta are important qualities4 ,in some sorts it is large1 dry1 pithy and hard1 extending far into the fruit even to below the center2 and sometimes seems to divide into secondary or branch placentas or masses of hard cellular matter1 while in other varieties it is small and so soft and juicy as scarcely to be distinguished from the flesh4 ,usually1 but not invariably1 the large and pithy placenta is correlated with large-sized fruit having many cells2 where this is the case it practically necessitates the cutting away and wasting of a large proportion of the fruit in preparing it for canning1 so that the canners usually prefer round1 medium-sized fruits4 ,the character of the interior of the fruit varies greatly in different varieties4 ,both the exterior and divisional walls vary in thickness and in consistency4 ,in some varieties they are comparatively thin1 hard and dry2 in others1 thicker1 softer and more juicy4 ,in some cases there is but little interior wall1 the fruit being divided into but few--even but two--cells of even size and shape1 while in others there are many cells of varying size and shape4 ,varieties also differ greatly as to the amount1 consistency and flavor of the pulp and the number of seeds4 ,it requires from #cjj to #ejj pounds of ripe fruit to furnish a pound of seed of ,ponderosa1 while with some of the smaller1 earlier sorts one can get a pound of seed from #ajj to #bjj pounds of fruit4 ,coloring and ripening4--,uniformity and evenness in coloring and ripening are an important quality4 ,tomatoes generally color and ripen from within outward1 and from the point opposite the stem upward1 but varieties differ in the evenness and rapidity with which this takes place4 ,it is always desirable that the ripening be as even as possible and that there be no green and hard spots either at the surface or in the flesh1 but often perfection in this respect is correlated with such lack of size and solidity as to counterbalance it4 ,rapidity in ripening1 in a general way1 is desirable for fruit to be used at home1 and undesirable in that which is to be shipped4 ,the time a tomato fruit will remain in usable condition and the amount of rough handling it will endure without becoming unsalable are most important commercial qualities depending largely upon the combined effects of the form and structure of the fruit1 solidity and firmness of the flesh and ripening habit4 ,in all these respects we have varieties which differ greatly1 from the ,honor ,bright1 which requires as much time to ripen1 and when ripe is firm-fleshed and will remain usable as long as a peach1 to those which #bd hours after reaching their full size are fully colored and ripe1 and in #bd hours more are so over-ripe and soft that they will break open of their own weight4 ,these are only some of the varietal differences of the tomato4 ,are such differences of practical importance8 ,i think they are1 and that a wise selection of the type best suited to one's own particular conditions and requirements is one of the most essential requisites of satisfactory tomato culture4 ,how important it seems to practical tomato growers may be illustrated by an actual case4 ,in a certain section of ,new ,jersey the money-making crop is early tomatoes1 and they are grown to such an extent that from an area with a radius of not exceeding #e miles they have shipped as much as #ae1jjj bushels in one day1 and the shipments will often average #h1jjj bushels for days together4 ,they have tried a great number of sorts1 but have settled upon a certain type of a well-known variety as that best suited to their conditions and needs4 ,seeds of this variety which are supposed to produce plants of the exact type wanted can be bought from seedsmen for #aj cents an ounce and at much lower rates for larger quantities1 but when one of the most successful growers of that locality1 because of change of occupation1 offered seed selected by him for his own use for sale at auction1 it brought #c an ounce4 ,this price was paid because of the confidence of the bidders that the seed could be depended upon to produce plants of the exact type wanted for their conditions2 and ,i was assured that the use of this high-priced seed actually added very largely to the profits from every field in that vicinity in which it was used1 but the use of some of the same lot of seed by planters in ,florida resulted in financial loss because the type of plant produced was not suited to their conditions and requirements4 ,a wise answer can only be given after a study of each case1 and no one can do this so well as the planter himself4 ,he should know1 as no one else can know1 his own conditions and requirements1 and should be able to form very exact ideas of just what he wants1 and the doing so is1 in my opinion1 one of the most important requisites for satisfactory tomato growing4 ,i also believe that it is as impossible for a man to answer offhand the question1 ,what is the best variety of tomato8 as for a wise physician to answer the question1 ,what is the best medicine8 ,varietal names and descriptions mean something quite different in the case of plants like the tomato1 which are propagated by seed1 from what they do with plants like the apple and strawberry1 which are propagated by division4 ,in the latter case all the plants of the variety are but parts of the primal origination1 and so are alike4 ,a description is simply a more or less complete and accurate definition of what a certain immutable thing really is1 but in the case of plants propagated by seed the variety is made up of all the plants which accord with a certain ideal4 ,bailey says1 ,of all those which have more points of resemblance than of difference1 and a description of the variety is of that ideal which in common practice is not fixed1 but may and generally does vary not only with different people but from time to time4 ,the only foundation for varietal names in plants of this class is an agreement as to the ideal the name shall stand for4 ,under modern horticultural practice when anyone has been able to secure seed most of which he is reasonably sure will develop into plants of a distinct type different from that of any sort known to him1 he has a distinct variety1 so that it is not surprising that we should find that ,american seedsmen offer tomato seed under more than #cjj different names1 and those of ,europe under more than #bjj additional1 so that we have more than #ejj varietal names1 each claiming to stand for a distinct sort4 ,now it is quite possible--indeed1 it is certain--that we might have #ejj tomato plants each different in some respect1 either of vine1 leaf1 habit of growth1 or character of fruit1 from any of the others and that these differences might make plants of one type better suited to certain conditions and uses than any other2 but it is very certain that these #ejj names do not stand for such differences4 ,it is doubtless true that a portion--though ,i think but a small portion--of these different sorts exist simply as a matter of commercial expediency2 but by far a greater part of them exist because one has found that plants of a certain character were better suited to some set of conditions and requirements than any sort with which he was acquainted1 and having secured seed which he thought would produce plants of that character1 has offered it as of a distinct sort4 ,it is probable that a better acquaintance with sorts already in cultivation would have prevented the naming of many of these stocks as distinct varieties4 ,what is of far more practical importance1 the same name does not always stand for precisely the same type with different seedsmen1 or even with the same seedsmen in different years2 nor are the seedsmen's published descriptions such as would enable any one to learn from them just what type he will receive under any particular name1 or which sort he should buy in order to get plants of any desired type4 ,seedsmen's catalogs are published and distributed gratuitously at great expense1 and are issued1 primarily1 for the sake of selling the seeds they offer4 ,they answer the purpose for which they are designed1 in proportion as they secure orders for seeds4 ,will this be measured by the accuracy and completeness of their descriptions8 ,i think that it needs but slight acquaintance with the actual results of advertising to answer in the negative1 and whatever your answer may be1 the answer given by the catalogs themselves is an emphatic no4 ,in a recent case ,i looked very carefully through the catalogs of #abe ,american seedsmen who listed a certain variety which is very markedly deficient in a certain desirable quality1 and found that but #cg of the #abe mentioned the quality in connection with the variety at all and of these but #g admitted the deficiency1 while #cj told the opposite of the truth4 ,even if a complete1 exact and reliable description of a variety was published by disinterested persons1 one could not be sure of getting seed from seedsmen which would produce plants of that exact type1 since there is no agreement or uniformity among them as to the exact type any varietal name shall stand for4 ,one way of getting seed of the exact type wanted is to do as the ,south ,jersey growers did3 go to work and breed up a stock which is uniformly of the type wanted2 but this involves more painstaking care than many are willing to give1 though ,i think not more than it would be most profitable for them to expend for the sake of getting seed just suited to their needs4 ,a second and easier way is to secure samples of the most promising sorts and from the most reliable sources and grow them on one's own farm2 select the stock which seems best for him and buy enough of that exact stock for several years' planting1 and in the meantime be looking for a still better one4 ,tomato seed stored in a cool1 dry place will retain its vitality for from three to seven years4 ,,chapter ,,xvi ,seed ,breeding and ,growing ,the potentialities of every plant and its limitations are inherent1 fixed and immutable in the seed from which it is developed and are made up of the balanced sum of the different tendencies it receives in varying degree from each of its ancestors back for an indefinite number of generations4 ,a very slight difference in the character or the degree of any one of the tendencies which go to make up this sum may make a most material difference in the balance and so in the resulting character of the plant produced4 ,different plants1 even of the same ancestry1 vary greatly in prepotency or in the relative dominance of the influence they have over descendants raised from seed produced by them4 ,in some cases all the plants raised from seed produced by a certain plant will be essentially alike and closely resemble the seed-bearing plant1 while seed from another plant of the same parentage will develop into plants differing from each other and seemingly more influenced by some distant ancestor or by varying combinations of such influences than of those of the plant which actually produced the seed from which they were developed4 ,successful seed breeding can only be accomplished by taking advantage of these principles of heredity and variation1 and by a wise use of them it is possible to produce seed which can be depended upon to produce plants of any type possible to the species4 ,the first essential for breeding is to have a clear and exact conception of precisely what1 in all respects1 the type shall be and then the securing of seed which has come from plants of that exact character for the greatest possible number of generations1 carefully avoiding the introduction by cross-pollination of tendencies from plants differing in any degree from the desired type4 ,secondly1 seed should be used from plants which have been proven to produce seed1 which will develop into plants like themselves or are strongly prepotent4 ,a practical way to accomplish this in the tomato is as follows3 ,by experiment and observation form a very clear conception of precisely the type of plant and fruits which is best suited to your needs4 ,this may be done by the study of available descriptions of sorts1 by conference with those who have had experience in your own or similar climatic and soil conditions and in raising fruit for the same purposes and1 best of all1 by trials of samples of different sorts and stocks on your own grounds4 ,having formed such a conception1 write out the clearest possible description of exactly what you want and the ideal plant you are aiming at1 stating as fully and minutely as possible every desirable quality and also those to be avoided4 ,i consider not only the formation of an exact ideal1 but the writing out of a most minute and exact description of precisely what in every particular the ideal plant should be and the rigid adherence to that exact ideal in selection1 as the most important elements of successful seed breeding4 ,without it one is certain to vary from year to year in the type selected and in just so far as he does this1 even if it be toward what might be called improvements or in regard to an unimportant quality1 he undermines all his work and makes it impossible to establish a strain which can be relied upon to produce an exact type4 ,with this description in hand1 search out one or more plants which seem the nearest to the ideal4 ,in doing this it should be kept in mind that the character of the seed is determined by the plant rather than by the individual fruit4 ,therefore1 a plant whose fruit is most uniformly of the desired type should be chosen over one having a small proportion of its fruits of very perfect type1 the others being different and variable4 ,save seed from one or more fruits from each of the selected plants1 keeping that from each fruit1 or at least each plant1 separate4 ,give it a number and make a record of how nearly1 in each particular1 the plant and fruit of each number come to the desired ideal4 ,i regard the saving of each lot separately and recording its characters as very important1 even when all have been selected to and come equally close to precisely the same ideal4 ,quite often the seed of one plant will produce plants precisely like it1 while that of another1 equal or superior1 will produce plants of which no two are alike and none like that which produced the seed1 so that often the mixing of seed from different plants of the same general type1 and seemingly of equal quality1 prevents the establishment of a uniform type4 ,the next year from #aj to #ajj plants raised from each lot are set in blocks and labeled4 ,as they develop the blocks are studied and compared with the original description of the desired type and that of each plant from which seed was saved1 and the block selected in which all the plants come the nearest to the desired type1 and which show the least variation4 ,from it plants are selected in the same way and to the same type as the previous year4 ,it is better to make selections from such a block than to take the most superior plants from all of the blocks1 or from one which produced but one or but a few superlative ones1 the rest being variable4 ,it is also well to consider the relative importance of different qualities in connection with the degree to which the different lots approach the ideal in these respects4 ,such a course of selection intelligently and carefully carried out will give1 in from three to five years1 strains of seed greatly superior and better adapted to one's own conditions than any which it is possible to purchase4 ,a single or but a very few selections may be made each year1 and the superior value of the seed of the remainder of the seed blocks for use in the field will be far more than the cost of the whole work4 ,growing and saving commercial seed4--,the ideal way is for the seedsman to grow and select seed as described above and give this stock seed to farmers who plant in fields and cultivate it1 much as is recommended for canning1 and save seed from the entire crop1 the pulp being thrown away4 ,only a few pickings are necessary and the seed is separated by machines worked by horse power at small cost1 often not exceeding #aj cents a pound4 ,they secure from #ge to #bej pounds per acre1 according to the variety and crop1 and the seedsmen pay them #dj cents to #a a pound for it4 ,some of our more careful seedsmen produce all the seed they use in this way2 others buy of professional seed growers1 who use more or less carefully grown stock seed4 ,in other cases when the fruit is fully ripe it is gathered1 and the seeds1 pulp and skins1 are separated by machinery2 the seed is sold to seedsmen1 the pulp made into catsup1 and only the skins are thrown away4 ,still others get their supply by washing out and saving the seed from the waste of canneries4 ,such seed is just as good as seed saved from the same grade of tomatoes in any other way1 but the fruit used by the canneries is1 usually1 a mixture of different crops and grades1 and even of different varieties1 and consequently the seed is mixed and entirely lacking in uniformity and distinctness of type4 ,generally from #e to #bj per cent4 of the plants produced by seed as commonly grown either by the farmer himself or the seedsmen1 though they may be alike in more conspicuous characteristics1 will show varietal differences of such importance as to affect more or less materially the value of the plant for the conditions and the purposes for which it is grown4 ,in a book like this it is useless to attempt to give long varietal descriptions even of the sorts commonly listed by seedsmen1 since such descriptions would be more a statement of what the writer thought seed of that variety should be rather than of what one would be likely to receive under that name4 ,,chapter ,,xvii ,production for ,canning ,growing for canning has many advantages over growing for market4 ,some of these are that it is not necessary to start the plants so early1 that they can be grown at less cost1 and set in the field when smaller and with less check1 and on this latter account are apt to give a large yield4 ,it is not necessary to gather the fruit so often1 nor to handle it so carefully1 while practically all of it is saleable4 ,for these reasons the cost of production is lower and it is less variable than with crops grown for market4 ,still farmers and writers do not agree at all as to the actual cost4 ,it is claimed by some that where the factory is within easy reach of the field the cost of growing1 gathering and delivering a full yield of tomatoes need not exceed #ab to #ah an acre1 while others declare they cannot be grown for less than #dj4 ,nearly one-third of this cost is for picking and delivering1 and varies more with the facilities for doing this easily and promptly and with the yield than with crops grown for market4 ,a large proportion of the crops grown for canning are poorly cultivated and unwisely handled1 so that the average yield throughout the entire country is very low1 hardly exceeding #ajj bushels an acre4 ,but where weather and other conditions are favorable1 and with judicious cultivation1 a yield of #cjj to #hjj bushels an acre can be expected4 ,i have known of many larger ones4 ,a large proportion of the tomatoes grown for canning are planted under contract1 by which the farmer agrees to deliver the entire yield of fruit fit for canning1 which may be produced on a given area1 at the contract price per bushel or ton4 ,the canner is to judge what fruit is fit for canning and this often results in great dissatisfaction4 ,to the grower it seems in many cases as though the quantity of acceptable fruit paid for was determined quite as much by the abundance or scarcity of the general crop as by the weight hauled to the factory4 ,the prices paid by the factories for the past #aj years run from #aj to #be cents a bushel1 while canning tomatoes in the open market for the same period have brought from #h to #ej cents a bushel1 which1 however1 are exceptional prices4 ,in all but two of the past #aj years uncontracted tomatoes could generally be sold1 in most sections1 for more than was paid on contract4 ,i have given the price a bushel1 though canning tomatoes are usually sold by the ton4 ,the cost of the product of a well-equipped cannery is divided about as follows3 fruit1 #cj per cent42 handling1 preparing and processing the fruit1 #ah per cent42 cost of cans1 labels1 cases1 etc41 #dc per cent42 labeling1 packing and selling1 #j4jce per cent42 incidentals1 #j4jee per cent4 ,canning on the farm4--,while as a general proposition such work as canning tomatoes can usually be done at less cost in a central plant1 yet in many cases the grower can profitably do this on the farm1 thus saving not only the expense of delivery at the factory1 but the dissatisfaction with weights credited and delays in receiving the fruit4 ,but very little special apparatus or machinery 7more than some form of boiler for supplying steam7 is needed1 and this and the cans can be readily obtained of dealers in canners' supplies4 ,in ,maryland and neighboring states many dealers furnish all necessary machinery1 cans and other requisites and contract for the crop delivered in cans4 ,canning on the farm where the fruit is grown would be more generally practiced except for the popular demand that the canned product shall be brighter colored than it is possible to produce from fruit alone1 and the necessary dyeing and other doctoring can be more easily and skilfully done at a central factory1 though it is always at the sacrifice of flavor and healthfulness for the sake of appearance4 ,another advantage of canning on the farm is that it can be done with less waste of fruit4 ,the hauling to the factory and delay in working the fruit result in a great deal of waste4 ,the average cannery does not obtain more than #a1bjj pounds of product from a ton of fruit1 there being #hjj pounds of waste1 while with sound1 ripe1 perfectly fresh fruit1 it is entirely practical to secure from #a1fjj to #a1hjj pounds of canned goods from a ton1 and this saving in waste would more than counterbalance the gain from the use of the better machinery possible in the factory4 ,the process of canning is simple and consists first of rinsing off the fruit1 then in wire baskets or pails dipping it into boiling hot water to start the skins1 which will require but two to four minutes4 ,while they are still hot they should be peeled and imperfections cut out1 then promptly placed in the cans1 which should be fully filled2 it is well to do this by adding the juice which has escaped while peeling1 instead of water1 as is done in the larger factories4 ,this will give the canned fruit better color and lessen the need of dye4 ,place in a hot box for three to five minutes until heated through1 wipe top of can clean and drop perforated cap in place1 add flux and solder1 seal cap in place with round capper1 close perforation in cap with drop of solder4 ,place in box or kettle and steam or boil for #bj to #dj minutes4 ,if the tomatoes were all ripe and none over-ripe1 and have been kept hot from the time they went into the scalding kettle until the sealed cans are in the kettle1 #bj minutes' cooking will make them surer to keep than #dj minutes would with fruit such as is commonly received at factories1 or that which has been allowed to cool once or twice while in process4 ,,chapter ,,xviii ,cost of ,production ,there are a few vegetables or fruits where the cost of production and the price received are more variable than with the tomato4 ,the cost per acre for raising the fruit varies with the conditions of soil1 facilities for doing the work economically and with the season1 while that of marketing the product varies still more4 ,under usual conditions1 the growing of an acre of tomatoes and the gathering and marketing of the fruit will cost from #ah to #ij1 of which from #ae to #dj per cent4 is spent in fertilizing and preparing the ground1 #e to #aj per cent4 for plants1 #bj to #cj per cent4 for cultivation1 and #be to #dj per cent4 for gathering and handling the fruit4 ,the last item1 of course1 varies somewhat with1 but not in proportion to1 the amount of the crop1 as it costs proportionately less to gather a large than a small crop1 and for canners' use than for market4 ,the expense of shipping and marketing the crop varies so greatly according to the conditions and methods that ,i do not attempt to state the amount4 ,the total yield of fruit runs from #bjj to #fjj or #gjj bushels to the acre1 a #bjj-;bushel crop of tomatoes comparing as to amount with one of #be bushels of wheat and a #gjj-;bushel crop of tomatoes with one of #fj bushels of wheat2 with the best and wisest cultivation and under the most favorable conditions one can as reasonably hope for one as for the other4 ,of this total yield1 from #aj to #be per cent4 of the fruit should be such as1 because of earliness and quality1 can be sold as extras1 and there is usually from #e to #aj per cent41 and sometimes a much larger per cent41 which should be rejected as unsalable4 ,the selected fruit should net from #a to #e a bushel1 the common from #cj to #ge cents--making the returns for a #bjj-;bushel yield well sold in a nearby market #gj to #cej1 and proportionately larger1 for a better yield4 ,in practice ,i have known of crops which gave a profit above expenses of over #a1jjj an acre4 ,this came1 however1 from exceptionally favorable conditions and skilled marketing1 and ,i have known of many more crops where1 though the fruit was equally large and well grown1 the profit was less than #ajj4 ,in this country a greenhouse is seldom used solely for the growing of tomatoes1 but other crops--such as lettuce--are grown in connection with the tomatoes1 so that it is impracticable to give the cost of production4 ,as grown at the ,ohio state experiment station--and the crop ripened in late spring or early summer and sold on the market of smaller cities--greenhouse tomatoes have yielded about two pounds a square foot of glass and brought an average price of #ab cents per pound4 ,in other cases yields as high as #aj pounds a foot of glass and an average price of #dj cents a pound have been reported4 ,,chapter ,,xix ,insects ,injurious to the ,tomato ,by ,,dr4 ,f4 ,h4 ,,chittenden ,bureau of ,entomology1 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture ,from the time tomato plants are set in the field until the fruit has ripened they are subject to the attacks of insects which frequently cause serious injury4 ,on the whole1 however1 the tomato is not so susceptible to damage as are some related crops--such as the potato4 ,cutworms4--,of insects most to be feared and of those which attack the plants when they are first set out are cutworms of various species4 ,the grower is as a rule quite too familiar with these insects1 and no description of their methods is necessary1 beyond the statement that they cut off and destroy more than they eat and re-setting is frequently necessary4 ,the best remedy is a poisoned bait1 prepared by dipping bunches of clover1 weeds1 or other vegetation in a solution of ,paris green or other arsenical1 #a pound to #ajj gallons of water4 ,these baits are distributed in small lots over the ground before the plants are set1 the precaution being observed that the land is free for two or three weeks from any form of vegetation4 ,this will force the hungry worms to feed on the baits1 to their prompt destruction4 ,a bran-mash is also used instead of weeds or clover1 and is prepared by combining one part by weight of arsenic1 one of sugar1 and six of sweetened bran1 with enough water added to make a mash4 ,the baits are renewed if they become too dry1 or they can be kept moist by placing them under shingles or pieces of board4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ce--;,,cutworm ,,and ,,parent ,,moth 7,feltia subgothica7 7,from ,chittenden1 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture7 ,flea-beetles attack the plants soon after they are set1 and their injuries can be prevented by dipping the young plants before setting in a solution of arsenate of lead1 about #a pound to #ej gallons of water1 or ,paris green1 #a pound to #ajj gallons4 ,if this precaution has not been observed a spray of either of these arsenicals used in the proportion specified will suffice1 repeating if the insects continue on the plants4 ,in the preparation of the spray a pound of fresh lime to each pound of the arsenical should be added2 or1 better yet1 ,bordeaux mixture should be employed as a diluent instead of water4 ,this mixture has some insecticidal value1 is a most valuable fungicide1 and is also a powerful deterrent of flea-beetle attack1 acting to a less degree against other insects which are apt to be found on the tomato4 ,in applying any spray a sprayer costing not less than #g is a positive necessity4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cf--;,,flea-,,beetle ,does great injury to young plants4 ,much enlarged4 ,actual size shown by line at right4 7,from ,chittenden7 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cg--,,margined ,,blister ,,beetle 7,from ,chittenden7 ,the ,colorado potato beetle1 or potato bug1 sometimes injures tomatoes1 but not as a rule when potatoes are available4 ,this suggests the use of potatoes as a trap crop1 planted in about three rows completely around the field of tomatoes4 ,the arsenicals used in the same proportion as for flea-beetles will destroy the potato beetle4 ,it is necessary to keep the trap potatoes well sprayed to prevent them from breeding on these plants and migrating to the tomatoes4 ,potato beetles can also be controlled by jarring them from the affected plants into large pans containing a little water on which a thin scum of kerosene is floating4 ,blister beetles may be controlled1 under ordinary circumstances1 by the same method employed against the ,colorado beetle4 ,when they are present in great numbers a good remedy consists in driving them with the wind from the cultivated fields into windrows of straw or similar dry material previously prepared along the leeward side of the field1 where they will congregate and can be burned4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ch--,,tomato ,,worm 7,protoparce sexta7 7a7 ,adult moth2 7b7 full-grown larva2 7c7 pupa--all reduced4 7,after ,howard1 ,u4 ,s4 ,dept4 ,agr47 ,the tomato worms1 of which there are two common species closely resembling each other1 are often abundant and destructive on tomato foliage1 particularly southward4 ,the arsenicals will kill them1 or they can be held in check by hand-picking1 a little experience enabling one to detect their presence readily4 ,turkeys are utilized in destroying these worms in the ,south4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ci--,,tomato ,,stalk-,,borer 7,papaipema nitela7 7a7 ,female moth2 7b7 half-grown larva2 7c7 mature larva in injured stalk2 7d7 lateral view of abdominal segment2 7e7 pupa--all somewhat enlarged4 7,from ,chittenden1 ,u4 ,s4 ,dept4 ,agr47 ,the stalk-borer1 as its name implies1 attacks the stalk1 and is an intermittent pest1 though quite annoying at times4 ,it is difficult to combat1 but its injuries may be prevented by care in keeping down1 and by promptly destroying1 the weeds after they are pulled or hoed out during the growing season4 ,if weeds are left to dry the striped caterpillar of this species will desert them and enter cultivated plants4 ,ragweed and burdock are the principal foods of this insect1 and special attention should be given to eradicate them where tomatoes are planted4 ,crop rotation is advisable where this can be conveniently practiced1 and such plants as cabbage1 radish and the like1 onions1 beets1 asparagus and celery are suggested as alternates4 ,when the plants are sprayed with arsenicals for other insects this will operate to a certain extent against the stalk-borer4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dj--;,,characteristic ,,work ,,of ,,the ,,tomato ,,fruit ,,worm 7,heliothis obsoleta7 7,redrawn by ,johnson from ,c4 ,v4 ,riley7 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #da--;,,adult ,,moth1 ,,or ,,parent ,,of ,,tomato ,,fruit ,,worm 7,from ,chittenden1 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture7 ,the tomato fruit worm 7,fig4 #dj7 known as the bollworm of cotton and the ear worm of corn1 is frequently the cause of serious trouble to tomato growers1 especially in the southern states1 due to its pernicious habit of eating into and destroying the green and ripening fruit4 ,for its control it is advisable not to plant tomatoes in proximity to old corn or cotton fields1 nor should land be used in regions where this species is abundant until it has been fall or winter plowed4 ,sweet corn planted about the field before the tomatoes are set will serve as a lure for the parent moths to deposit their eggs1 corn and cotton being favorite foods of this species and preferred to tomatoes4 ,the fruit worm feeds to a certain extent on the foliage before penetrating the fruit1 and it is possible to keep it in subjection by spraying with arsenicals as advised for the flea-beetles4 ,it is suggested that arsenate of lead1 being more adhesive than other arsenicals1 should be used for the first sprayings1 beginning when the fruit commences to form1 repeating once or twice as found necessary1 and making a last spraying with ,paris green within a few days of ripening4 ,this last poison will readily wash off and there is no danger whatever of poisoning to human beings1 as has been conclusively proved in numerous similar cases4 ,for the perfect success of this remedy the last spraying is essential1 as those who have sprayed with an arsenical and have reported only partial good results have discontinued within about two weeks of the time of the ripening of the first fruit4 ,white fly or aleyrodes4--,these minute insects are familiar to most growers who raise tomatoes under glass4 ,they can be held in control by vaporization or fumigation with tobacco or nicotine extracts1 or by spraying with kerosene emulsion or the so-called whale-oil 7fish-oil7 soap4 ,care is necessary in using the extracts that the smudge does not become too dense and injure the plants4 ,before applying this remedy on a large scale a preliminary trial should be made following the directions on the packages1 and reducing the amount if any ill results follow4 ,hydrocyanic acid gas1 properly used1 is also an excellent remedy for aleyrodes1 aphides1 mealy-bug1 and other soft-bodied insects which are sometimes troublesome on greenhouse tomatoes4 ,for a complete account of the methods of making and handling hydrocyanic acid gas1 see ,professor ,johnson's book entitled ,fumigation ,methods1 published by ,orange ,judd ,company1 of ,new ,york4 ,sent postpaid for #a4--;,,author4 ,,chapter ,,xx ,tomato ,diseases ,by ,w4 ,a4 ,,orton ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture ,,diseases ,,not ,,caused ,,by ,,fungi ,,or ,,insects ,the health of tomato plants is to a large extent dependent on the conditions under which they are being grown4 ,the character and physical condition of the soil1 the supply of water and plant food1 the temperature and amount of sunlight1 are all factors of the greatest importance in the growth and development of the crop4 ,when there are variations from the normal in the case of any of these the plant adapts itself to the change as far as possible1 but its functions may be so disturbed as to result in ill health or disease4 ,it is in many cases difficult to draw a line between a natural re-action of the plant to its environment and a state of disease4 ,for example1 the trouble described in the next paragraph seems to fall into the first class4 ,shedding of blossoms4--,the tomato is very liable to drop its buds and blossoms and in some instances partial or total crop failures have resulted4 ,the principal causes are an over-rapid growth1 due in many cases to an excess of nitrogenous fertilizers1 unfavorable weather conditions1 especially cold winds1 continued rainy or moist weather1 which hinders pollination1 lack of sunlight1 or extremely hot weather4 ,such shedding can be partially controlled by pruning away the lateral branches as soon as formed and topping the plants after the third cluster of fruit has set1 and by a reduction in the use of nitrogenous fertilizers4 ,a failure to set fruit in the greenhouse is often due to lack of pollination1 which must be remedied by hand pollination4 ,cracking of the fruit4--,the formation of cracks or fissures in the nearly mature fruit is due to variations in the water supply and other conditions affecting growth at this stage4 ,if after the development of the outer portion of the fruit has been checked by drought there follows a period of abundant water supply and rapid growth1 the fruit expands more rapidly than its epidermis and the latter is ruptured4 ,some varieties of tomatoes are much less subject to this trouble than others and should be given preference on this account4 ,the grower1 so far as lies in his power1 should seek to maintain an uninterrupted growth by thorough preparation of the land1 by cultivation or by mulching4 ,if the half-grown fruits are enclosed in paper bags1 cracking may be prevented1 but at the risk of loss of flavor in the ripened fruit4 ,leaf curl4--,the effect of pruning is to stimulate growth and to increase the size of the leaves1 the effort of the plant being to maintain a balance between roots and foliage4 ,with rapidly growing plants1 especially in the greenhouse and garden where both high manuring and pruning have been practiced1 more or less curling and distortion of the leaves may result without developing into serious trouble if the grower takes the hint and modifies his methods so as to permit a more balanced growth4 ,on the other hand1 the ill effects of over-feeding and pruning may reach a point where the plant is seriously crippled4 ,edema4--,under certain conditions plants in greenhouses or even in the open field1 may absorb water through the roots faster than it can be transpired through the leaves1 with the result that dropsical swellings or blisters occur on the leaves and more succulent stems4 ,there is also a deformation of the foliage1 much like the leaf-curl produced by over-feeding4 ,this trouble1 known as edema1 occurs when the soil is warmer than the air1 or during periods of moist1 warm1 cloudy weather1 which checks transpiration4 ,the grower should cease pruning1 and withhold water1 and in the field cultivate deeply4 ,in the greenhouse1 adequate ventilation should be given1 keeping the house dry rather than moist4 ,mosaic disease4--,the tomato is occasionally subject to a trouble allied to the mosaic disease of tobacco4 ,it is characterized by a variegation of the leaves into light and dark green areas1 usually accompanied by distortion and reduction in size4 ,in severe cases a whole field may become worthless4 ,while the nature of this malady is not fully understood1 it is known to be due to a disordered nutrition of the young leaf-cells4 ,it can be produced by severe pruning or by mutilation of the roots in transplanting1 both of which should be carefully avoided4 ,it is more likely to occur in seedlings that have made a soft1 rapid growth on account of an excess of nitrogenous fertilizer or too high temperature4 ,close1 clayey soils1 on account of their poor physical condition1 also favor the development of the disease after transplanting4 ,western blight 7,yellows74--,in the ,north ,pacific and ,rocky ,mountain states1 serious losses are annually caused by a disease apparently unlike any eastern trouble4 ,it is marked by a gradual yellowing of the foliage and fruit4 ,development is checked1 the leaves curl upward and the plant dies without wilting4 ,the nature and cause of this disease is as yet unknown4 ,it appears to be worst on new land4 ,experiments that have been made indicate that in older cultivated fields thorough preparation of the soil1 manuring and cultivation1 combined with care in transplanting to avoid injuring the roots and checking growth1 will greatly restrict the spread of this blight4 ,,diseases ,,caused ,,by ,,parasites ,there are several fungous parasites of tomatoes1 which1 for the readers convenience1 may be briefly mentioned and the treatment of all discussed together4 ,the first three are indeed somewhat difficult to tell apart without a microscope1 as they produce a similar effect on the leaves and all yield to the same treatment--thorough spraying with ,bordeaux mixture4 ,leaf spot 7,septoria lycopersici ,speg47 has been widely prevalent and injurious during recent years4 ,it produces small1 roundish dark-brown spots on leaves and stems4 ,the lower leaves are attacked first and gradually curl up1 die and fall off4 ,the vitality of the plant is reduced and it is only kept alive by the young leaves formed at the top4 ,the fungus that causes early blight of potatoes 7,alternaria solani 7,e4 ,m47 ,j4 ,g47 occurs on tomatoes also1 sometimes doing much injury4 ,the spots formed are at first small and black1 later enlarging and exhibiting fine concentric rings4 ,a somewhat similar leaf-blight results from a species of ,cylindrosporium1 and other fungi may occur on diseased leaves4 ,leaf mold 7,cladosporium fulvum ,cke47 is quite distinct from the foregoing in appearance4 ,it does not cause such distinct spots but occurs in greenish brown1 velvety patches of irregular outline on the under side of the leaves4 ,the lower leaves are first attacked1 and as the disease progresses they turn yellow and drop off4 ,this is the principal fungous enemy of greenhouse tomatoes1 but also does injury in gardens1 particularly in ,florida and the ,gulf region4 ,it is readily controlled by spraying4 ,in the greenhouse care should be taken to ventilate well1 without1 however1 allowing cold drafts to strike the plants4 ,downy mildew 7,phytopthora infestans ,de,by471 the cause of the late blight of potatoes1 will attack tomatoes during cool and very moist weather1 which greatly favors its development4 ,such outbreaks sometimes occur to a limited extent in ,new ,england and serious losses are reported on the winter crop in southern ,california1 but the disease has never been troublesome in other sections of the country1 as it cannot develop in dry or hot weather4 ,it affects the tomato as it does the potato1 forming on the leaves dark1 discolored spots1 which spread rapidly under favorable conditions1 killing the foliage in a few days4 ,the fruit is also attacked and becomes covered with the mildew-like spore-bearing threads of the fungus4 ,bordeaux mixture properly applied is an efficient preventive4 ,spraying tomatoes4--,it should be the invariable practice of the tomato grower to spray with ,bordeaux mixture to prevent injury from any of these leaf-blights4 ,this should be done while the plants are still healthy1 as if put off until the disease appears the battle is half lost4 ,make the first application to the young plants in the seed-bed a few days before transplanting4 ,spray again within a week after the plants are set in the field1 and repeat at intervals of ten days or two weeks until the fruit is full grown4 ,success in spraying depends mainly on the thoroughness of the work4 ,the aim should be to cover every leaf with a fine mist4 ,do not drench the foliage but pass to the next plant before the drops run together and off the leaf4 ,use a nozzle that gives a fine spray and maintain a high pressure at the pump4 ,preparation of ,bordeaux mixture4--,formula3 ,copper sulphate 7bluestone71 #e pounds2 lime1 #e pounds2 and water1 #ej gallons4 ,the copper sulphate may be either in crystals or pulverized4 ,dissolve by suspending the required amount in a coarse sack near the top of the water a few hours before it will be needed4 ,the lime must be fresh stone lime of good quality4 ,slake thoroughly by the addition of small quantities of water at a time as needed1 stirring until all small lumps are slaked4 ,strain both the lime milk and the copper sulphate or bluestone solution through a brass strainer of #ah meshes per inch and dilute each with half the water before mixing together4 ,do not use ,bordeaux left over from the previous day4 ,an old mixture or one made from the concentrated solutions has a poor physical condition4 ,it settles more quickly1 tends to clog the nozzle and does not adhere so well to the foliage4 ,failure to use the strainer results in endless trouble in the field from clogged nozzles4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #db--,,proper ,,way ,,to ,,make ,,bordeaux 7,from ,w4 ,g4 ,johnson7 ,when much spraying is to be done it is more convenient to keep the bluestone and lime in separate permanent stock solutions1 as shown in ,fig4 #db1 containing #b pounds to the gallon of their respective ingredients4 ,these will keep indefinitely1 if the water evaporated is replaced1 and may be used from as needed4 ,spraying apparatus4--,tomato growers having only a small area to spray may use one of the numerous forms of hand-pumps or bucket sprayers now on the market4 ,for larger fields it will be necessary to employ a barrel sprayer4 ,this consists of a hand-pump mounted in a barrel or tank and equipped with two leads of #c_/h inch hose #be feet long1 each with a four-foot1 extension made from #a_/d inch gas pipe1 and a double ,vermorel nozzle4 ,the barrel should be carried in an ordinary farm wagon4 ,three men do the work4 ,one is expected to drive and pump1 while the other two manipulate the nozzles4 ,the outfit is stopped while the plants within reach are sprayed1 then driven forward about #cj feet and stopped again4 ,on an average in actual field practice #c to #d acres a day can be sprayed in this way1 applying #ajj to #bjj gallons of ,bordeaux per acre4 ,to keep the long hose off the plants two poles about #aj feet long may be pivoted to the bed of the wagon so as to swing at an angle over the wheel and carry the hose4 ,the pump for this outfit should be of good capacity1 with brass valves4 ,a ,y shut-off discharge connection on the pump is a convenience for stopping the spray at any time4 ,the most satisfactory nozzles are those of the ,vermorel type4 ,it is cheapest in the long run to buy the best grades of pumps on the market4 ,this outfit is excellently adapted for spraying small fields of potatoes and for general orchard work1 and is invaluable on the average farm4 ,phytoptosis4--,this disease is known to occur only in ,florida1 where it is sometimes common enough to require remedial treatment4 ,the affected portions of the foliage are more or less distorted and covered with an ashy white fuzz4 ,the general vigor and fruitfulness of the plants are greatly reduced4 ,the name applied to this trouble denotes its cause1 an extremely small mite 7,phytoptus calacladophora ,nal471 which by its presence on the leaves or stems so irritates them as to result in the abundant development of modified plant hairs1 which shelter the mites and form the fuzzy covering characteristic of the disease4 ,a remedy for phytoptosis is available in the sulphur compounds4 ,the following one is particularly recommended by ,prof4 ,p4 ,h4 ,rolfs1 to whom our knowledge of the disease is due3 ,preparation of sulphur spray4--,place #cj pounds of flowers of sulphur in a wooden tub large enough to hold #be gallons4 ,wet the sulphur with #c gallons of water1 stir it to form a paste4 ,then add #bj pounds of #ih per cent4 caustic soda 7#bh pounds should be used if the caustic soda is #gj per cent47 and mix it with the sulphur paste4 ,in a few minutes it becomes very hot1 turns brown1 and becomes a liquid4 ,stir thoroughly and add enough water to make #bj gallons4 ,pour off from the sediment and keep the liquid as a stock solution in a tight barrel or keg4 ,of this solution use #d quarts to #ej gallons of water4 ,apply with a spray pump whenever the disease appears1 and repeat if required by its later reappearance4 ,the use of dry sulphur is also recommended4 ,,diseases ,,of ,,the ,,fruit ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dc--,,point-,,rot ,,disease ,,of ,,the ,,tomato 7,redrawn from ,n4 ,y4 ,expr4 ,sta4 ,no4 #abe7 ,point-rot4--,this trouble1 called also blossom-end rot1 and black-rot1 occurs on the green fruit at various stages of development1 as shown in ,fig4 #dc4 ,it begins at the blossom end as a sunken brown spot1 which gradually enlarges until the fruit is rendered worthless4 ,the decayed spot is often covered in its later stages by a dense black fungous growth 7,alternaria fasciculata 7,c4 ,e47 ,j4 ,g4 syn4 ,macrosporium tomato ,cke471 formerly thought to be the cause of the rot1 but now known to be merely a saprophyte4 ,point-rot sometimes occurs in greenhouses1 but is more common in field culture4 ,it is one of the most destructive diseases of the tomato1 but its nature is not fully worked out1 and a uniformly successful treatment is unknown4 ,it has been thought to be due to bacterial invasion1 but complete demonstrations of that fact have not yet been published4 ,the physiological conditions of the plant appear to be important4 ,the disease is worst in dry weather and light soils1 where the moisture supply is insufficient1 and irrigation is beneficial in such cases4 ,spraying does not control point-rot so far as present evidence goes4 ,anthracnose--ripe-rot--7,colletotrichum phomoides 7,sacc47 ,chest471 is distinguished from the point-rot by the fact that it occurs mainly on ripe or nearly ripe fruits1 producing a soft and rapid decay4 ,widespread losses from this cause are not common1 but when a field becomes infected a considerable proportion of the crop within a limited area may be destroyed if humid or rainy weather prevails4 ,preventive measures only can be employed4 ,these should consist in collecting and destroying diseased fruit and in staking and trimming the vines to admit light and air to dry out the foliage4 ,bordeaux mixture applied after the development of the disease would be of doubtful efficiency and would be objectionable on account of the sediment left on the ripe fruit4 ,,diseases ,,of ,,the ,,root ,,or ,,stem ,damping off4--,young plants in seed-beds often perish suddenly from a rot of the stem at the surface of the ground4 ,this occurs as a rule in dull1 cloudy weather among plants kept at too high a temperature1 crowded too closely in the beds or not sufficiently ventilated4 ,several kinds of fungi are capable of causing damping off1 under such conditions4 ,preventive measures are of the first importance4 ,since old soil is often full of fungous spores left by previous crops1 it is the wisest plan to use sterilized soil for the seed-bed4 ,when the young plants are growing1 constant watchfulness is required to avoid conditions that will weaken the seedlings and favor the damping off fungi4 ,watering and ventilation are the two points that require especial skill4 ,watering should be done at midday1 to allow the beds to drain before night1 and only enough water for the thorough moistening of the soil should be applied4 ,ventilation should be given every warm day as the temperature and sunshine will permit1 but the plants must be protected from rain and cold winds4 ,work the surface of the soil to permit aeration and do not crowd the plants too closely in the beds4 ,if damping off develops something can be done to check it by scattering a layer of dry1 warm sand over the surface1 and by spraying the bed thoroughly with weak ,bordeaux or by applying dry sulphur and air-slaked lime4 ,bacterial wilt 7,bacterium solanacearum ,erw4 ,sm474--,this disease1 which also attacks potatoes and eggplants and some related weeds1 is one of the most serious enemies of the tomato4 ,it is known to occur from ,connecticut southward to ,florida and westward to ,colorado1 but is most prevalent in the ,gulf ,states1 where it has greatly discouraged many growers4 ,its most prominent symptoms are the wilting of the foliage and a browning of the wood inside the recently wilted stems4 ,an affected plant wilts first at the top1 or a single branch wilts1 but later the entire plant yellows1 wilts and dies4 ,young plants wilt more suddenly and dry up4 ,the disease progresses more rapidly in plants that have made a succulent1 luxurious growth1 while those with hard1 woody stems resist it somewhat4 ,the disease is due to the invasion of bacteria1 which enter the leaves through the aid of leaf-eating insects1 or through the roots4 ,they plug the water-carrying vessels of the stem1 shutting off the water and food supply of the plant4 ,if the stem of a plant freshly wilted from this disease be severed1 the bacteria will ooze out in dirty white drops on the cut surface4 ,remedial measures entirely satisfactory for the control of bacterial wilt have not yet been worked out4 ,the best methods to adopt at present are the following3 7#a7 ,rotation of crops4--,the field evidence is that this disease is in many cases localized in old gardens or in definite spots in the field4 ,it appears also that the infection left by a diseased crop can remain in the soil for some time4 ,it is therefore advised that tomato growers should always practice a rotation of crops1 whether any disease has appeared or not1 and that in case bacterial wilt develops they should not plant that land in tomatoes1 potatoes1 or eggplants for three or four years4 ,the length of rotation necessary to free the soil is not known1 but will have to be worked out by the individual grower4 7#b7 ,destruction of diseased plants4--,the bacteria causing wilt not only spread through the soil but are carried by insects from freshly wilted to healthy plants4 ,diseased plants thus become dangerous sources of infection1 and it is evident that all such should be pulled out and burned4 ,this is particularly important at the beginning of the trouble when the eradication of a few wilting plants may save the remainder4 7#c7 ,control of insects4--,to lessen the danger from spread of wilt by insects1 the measures advised in the next chapter for the control of leaf-eating insects should be adopted4 ,in this connection it should be mentioned that the use of ,bordeaux mixture for leaf blights1 as previously recommended1 has an additional value in that the coating on the leaves is distasteful to insects and helps to keep them away4 7#d7 ,seed selection4--,work done at the ,florida experiment station indicates that resistant varieties may be secured1 but there are as yet none in commercial use4 ,this is an important line for experimenters to follow up4 ,there is no proof that the disease is spread through seed from diseased plants4 ,fusarium wilt4--,this disease and the one following resemble the bacterial wilt so closely1 as far as external characters go1 that they are difficult to tell apart4 ,the parasites1 however1 differ so materially in their nature and life history that the field treatment is quite different4 ,there are also differences in geographical distribution that are important1 for while the ,fusarium wilt occurs occasionally throughout the southern states1 it is known to be of general commercial importance only in southern ,florida and southern ,california4 ,the symptoms of the disease are a gradual wilting and dying of the plants1 usually in the later stages of their development4 ,young plants die1 however1 when the soil infection is severe4 ,there is a browning of the woody portions of the stem1 and when a section of this is examined under a compound microscope the vessels are found to be filled with fungous threads1 which shut off the water supply4 ,the infection in the ,fusarium wilt appears to come entirely from the soil4 ,little is known of its manner of spread1 except that the cultivation of a tomato crop in certain districts appears to leave the soil infected so that a crop planted the next year will be injured or destroyed4 ,the fungus does not remain in the soil for a very long time in sufficient abundance to cause serious harm4 ,a rotation of crops that will bring tomatoes on the land once in three years has been found in ,florida to prevent loss from ,fusarium wilt4 ,this fungus does not attack any other crop than tomatoes1 so far as known1 though it is very closely related to species of ,fusarium producing similar diseases in cotton1 melon1 cowpea1 flax1 etc4 ,fusarium wilt has not been found in fields and gardens in the northern states1 but tomatoes in greenhouses there are sometimes attacked by it or a related ,fusarium1 which also occurs in ,england4 ,when greenhouse beds are infected the soil for the next crop should be thoroughly sterilized by steam under pressure4 ,sclerotium wilt4--,this disease resembles the two preceding in its effect on the plant1 which wilts at the tip first1 and gradually dies4 ,its geographical range is more restricted4 ,it seems to be confined to northern ,florida and the southern part of ,georgia and ,alabama1 where it occurs in gardens and old cultivated fields4 ,the fungus causing this wilt attacks the root and the stem near the ground1 working in from the outside4 ,there is not the browning of the wood vessels characteristic of the two preceding diseases4 ,if an affected stem is put in a moist chamber made from a covered or inverted dish1 there will develop an exceedingly vigorous growth of snow-white fungous mycelium which1 after a few days1 bears numerous round shot-like bodies1 at first light-colored1 then becoming smaller and dark-brown4 ,these are the sclerotia or resting bodies of the fungus4 ,this fungus1 called ,sclerotium sp41 or ,rolf's ,sclerotium1 is noteworthy because it attacks potatoes1 squash1 cowpea1 and a long list of other garden vegetables and ornamental plants4 ,the only satisfactory means of control is rotation of crops1 using corn1 small grain1 and the ,iron cowpea1 a variety immune to this and other diseases4 ,susceptible crops should be kept from infected fields for two or three years4 ,root-knot 7,heterodera radicicola 7,greef7 ,ml47 attacks tomatoes in greenhouses and is in some cases an important factor in southern field culture4 ,it is caused by a parasitic eelworm or nematode1 of minute size1 which penetrates the roots and induces the formation of numerous irregular swellings or galls1 in which are bred great numbers of young worms4 ,the effect on the plant is to check growth and diminish fruitfulness1 in advanced cases even resulting in death4 ,the remedy in greenhouse culture is thorough soil sterilization4 ,in the open field this is impracticable and recourse must be had to a rotation with immune crops1 which will starve out the root-knot4 ,it must now be borne in mind that the root-knot worm can attack cotton1 cowpea1 okra1 melons and a very large number of other plants4 ,the only common crops safe to use in such a rotation in the ,south are corn1 oats1 velvet beans1 beggar weed1 peanuts1 and the ,iron cowpea4 ,the use of other varieties of cowpea than the ,iron is particularly to be avoided1 on account of the danger of stocking the land with root-knot4 ,fortunately1 the disease is serious only in sandy or light soils4 ,rosette 7,corticium vagum 7,b4 ,c47 var4 solani ,burt47 is a disease of minor importance1 which occurs in ,ohio1 ,michigan1 and scatteringly in other states4 ,the fungus causing it 7,rhizoctonia7 attacks the roots and base of the stem1 forming dark cankers4 ,the effect on the plant is to dwarf and curl the leaves and to restrict productiveness4 ,the potato suffers more severely from the same trouble4 ,rotation of crops and liberal application of lime to the soil are advised for the control of rosette in tomatoes4 ,,index ,,page ,adaptations of varieties1 #ig as to habit1 #ig as to foliage1 #ajj as to fruit1 #ajb ,botany1 #a ,canning1 cost of1 #aah on the farm1 #aah ,essentials for successful1 #aai ,catalog descriptions incomplete1 #aaj ,characteristics of blossom1 #be ,characteristics of fruit1 #bf ,development from original form1 #bf ,effect of conditions on1 #bf ,quality1 #bf ,characteristics of plant1 #bj ,checking of growth1 effect upon1 #bj ,natural environment1 #bj ,uniform growth1 importance of1 #ba ,characteristics of root1 #bc ,characteristics of stem and leaves1 #bd ,classification1 #d ,cherry1 #e ,cultivated varieties1 #aj ,currant1 #d ,pear1 #g ,cold-frames1 construction1 #ec ,commercial importance of crop1 #ah ,cost of crop1 per acre1 #aba as grown for canners1 #aag ,covers for plant beds1 #ee ,cultivation1 #gf ,care and thoroughness necessary1 #gf in greenhouse1 #gg in home garden1 #gg ,diseases1 #aca ,bacterial wilt1 #adb ,blight1 early1 #ace ,blight1 leaf1 #acd ,blight1 ,western1 #acd ,cracking of fruit1 #acb ,damping off1 #ada ,edema1 #acc ,fusarium wilt1 #add ,leaf curl1 #acb ,leaf mold1 #ace ,leaf spot1 #acd ,mildew1 downy1 #ace ,mosaic disease1 #acc ,phytoptosis1 #ach ,point rot1 #aci ,root knot1 #adf ,sclerotium wilt1 #ade ,yellows1 #acd ,diseases1 remedies for1 #aca ,bordeaux mixture1 preparation of1 #acf ,preventatives of1 #adc ,spraying apparatus1 #acg ,spraying1 importance of1 #acf ,sulphur spraying1 #aci ,distances for setting plants1 #fh in field1 #fh in greenhouse1 #gj in home garden1 #fi ,drainage1 importance of1 #ca ,essentials for best development1 #bh ,cultivation1 #cb1 #gf ,effect of shade1 #bh ,food supply1 #ca1 #dc ,heat1 #cj ,moisture1 #cj ,sunlight1 #bh ,exposure1 #ch for early crop1 #ci for greenhouse1 #dj for home garden1 #dj ,fertilizers1 #dc ,amounts1 #dc ,character1 #dd ,experiments with1 #de for general application1 #dd for greenhouse1 #de for home garden1 #de ,flats1 construction1 #eg ,gathering fruit1 #ia ,habit1 #bb ,handling fruit1 #ib ,history1 #ad ,hotbeds1 construction1 #ea ,hotbeds1 growing fruit in1 #gj ,house1 construction1 #di ,insects injurious to tomatoes1 #abc ,blister beetle1 #abe ,colorado potato beetle1 #abe ,cut worm1 #abc ,flea-beetle1 #abd ,stalk-borer1 #abg ,tomato fruit worm1 #abh ,tomato worm1 #abf ,white fly1 #acj ,location of field as determining profit1 #ch ,manure ,fall dressing1 #da for cold-frames1 #ee for greenhouse soil1 #cg for hotbeds1 #ea in preparing ground1 #df ,origin1 #aj ,origin of name1 #ad ,packing1 #id ,pollinating1 #gg ,pollination1 #be ,prices obtained at canneries1 #aah for hothouse fruit1 #abb for select field grown fruit1 #abb ,profits on crop1 #abb ,propagation of plants1 #dh from cuttings1 #di from seed1 #dh1 #di in cold-frames1 #ec in hotbeds1 #ea in temporary greenhouses1 #di ,pruning1 #hj ,ripening on the vines1 #ij ,ripening after frost1 #ie ,sash1 cost1 #di for hotbeds1 #eb for cold-frames1 #ec ,seed breeding1 #aab ,essentials to success1 #aac ,growing and saving commercial seed1 #aae ,methods followed1 #aae ,prices received1 #aaf ,yields obtained1 #aaf ,importance of breeding from individual plants1 #aad ,importance of exact ideals1 #aac ,methods recommended1 #aac ,principles underlying1 #aab ,setting plants1 #gj ,conditions favorable and unfavorable1 #gj1 #ga in field1 #gj in greenhouse1 #gd in home garden1 #gd ,new ,jersey method1 #ga ,other methods1 #gc ,soil ,composition1 importance of1 #bd ,conditions essential1 #da ,preparation1 #da1 #df for greenhouse1 #dg for home garden1 #dg ,soil ,preparation1 for main crop1 #df ,importance of1 #df ,selection1 #cc for early crop1 #cf for greenhouse1 #cg for home garden1 #cf for main crop1 #cd ,previous crop1 #da ,sorting1 #ib ,staking1 #gi ,starting plants1 #ei ,effect of shade1 #bi for early fruit1 #fc for forcing1 #fg for home garden1 #fg for late crop1 #fe in flats1 #ei in greenhouse1 #ei ,pricking out1 #fj ,right conditions1 #fb ,spotting boards1 #fa ,unfavorable conditions1 #fc ,watering1 #fj ,with least labor1 #ff ,succession1 practice in the ,south1 #db ,training1 #gi for greenhouse1 #hh for home garden1 #he ,types1 #ad ,value1 development of1 #af ,variations1 in foliage1 #ajj in fruit1 #ajb ,coloring1 #ajf ,flesh1 #aje ,ripening1 #ajf ,shape1 #ajb in habit1 #ig ,varietal differences1 as to foliage1 #ajj as to fruit1 #ajb as to growth1 #ig ,variety names1 #ajh ,sources1 #aji ,varying application1 #aaj ,watering1 danger in1 #cj1 #fj ,yielding capacity1 #bb ,yield per acre1 #aag1 #aba ,yield per foot of greenhouse bench1 #abb ,transcriber's ,notes ,the following typographical errors have been corrected3 ,page #fa3 444 necessary4 ,when plants are set in 444 7had 'plans'74 ,page #ajg3 444 these respects we have varieties 444 7had 'resepcts'74 ,page #aag3 444 the question1 ,what is the best 444 7had 'queston'74 ,page #adh3 ,mildew1 downy1 #ace 7had 'downey'74 ,page #adi3 ,pollinating1 #gg 7had ',pollenating'74 ,page #adi3 ,pollination1 #be 7had ',pollenation'74 ,the archaic spelling of hight is as used throughout the original4 '' is used to denote italics1 and '' is used to denote bold typeface4