,,history ,,of ,,education ,,by ,,levi ,,seeley1 ,,ph4 ,d4 ,,professor ,,of ,,pedagogy ,,in ,,the ,,new ,,jersey ,,state ,,normal ,,school ,,revised ,,edition ,,new ,,york 3 ,,cincinnati 3 ,,chicago ,,american ,,book ,,company ,,copyright1 #ahii1 #aijd1 ,,by ,,levi ,,seeley4 ,entered at ,stationers' ,hall4 ,,hist4 ,,of ,,education ,,preface ,the importance of a knowledge of the history of education was never so fully recognized as at the present time4 ,normal schools and teachers' colleges give this subject a prominent place in their professional courses1 superintendents require candidates for certificates to pass examination in it1 and familiarity with it is an essential part of the equipment of every well-informed teacher4 ,the history of education portrays the theories and methods of the past1 warns of error and indicates established truth1 shows difficulties surmounted1 and encourages the teacher of to-day by examples of heroism and consecration on the part of educators whose labors for their fellow-men we discuss4 ,to the teacher this study is a constant help in the schoolroom1 the trials of which are met with the added strength and inspiration from contact with great teachers of the past4 ,no text-book can be said to contain the last word upon any subject4 ,least of all can such a claim be made for a history of education1 which aims to trace the intellectual development of the human race and to indicate the means and processes of that evolution4 ,any individuals or factors materially contributing thereto deserve a place in educational history4 ,as to which of these factors is the most important1 that is a question of choice1 upon which1 doubtless1 many will differ with the author4 ,some educators1 whose claims to consideration are unquestioned1 have been reluctantly omitted on account of the limitations of this work4 ,on the other hand1 many teachers lack time for exhaustive study of such a subject4 ,this book is designed to furnish all the material that can be reasonably demanded for any state1 county1 or city teacher's certificate4 ,it also provides sufficient subject-matter for classes in normal schools and colleges and for reading circles4 ,the material offered can be mastered in a half-year's class work1 but1 by using the references1 a full year can be well employed4 ,for those who desire to make a more extended study of particular topics1 the author gives such authorities as years of careful research have shown to be most valuable4 ,every investigator knows the labor involved in finding suitable material4 ,to spare the reader something of that labor1 the literature is given at the beginning of each chapter4 ,by following the collateral readings thus suggested1 this book will be found suitable for the most advanced classes4 ,the plan of references embraces three features3 7#a7 literature at the beginning of each chapter2 7#b7 foot references to special citations2 and 7#c7 a general bibliography in the ,appendix4 ,in the first two1 titles are sometimes abbreviated because of their frequent repetition4 ,in case of doubt the reader should refer to the general bibliography1 in which all the authorities cited are arranged alphabetically1 with full titles4 ,to get the greatest value from this study1 classes should be required to keep a notebook which should follow some uniform plan4 ,i suggest the following as such outline3 7#a7 historical and geographical2 7#b7 home life2 7#c7 physical1 religious1 and aesthetic education2 7#d7 elementary and higher education2 7#e7 summary of lessons taught2 7#f7 educators3 7a7 life1 7b7 writings1 7c7 pedagogical teachings4 ,of course each teacher will modify this outline to suit his own ideals4 ,such notebook will be found to be of value not only in review1 but also in fixing the subject-matter in the mind of the student4 ,it is generally conceded that the plan of an historical work should be based upon the evolution of civilization4 ,in common with other recent writers on educational history1 the author accepts the general plan of ,karl ,schmidt in his ,geschichte der ,paedagogik1 the most comprehensive work on this subject that has yet appeared4 ,but the specific plan1 which involves the most important and vital characteristics of this book1 is the author's own4 ,the details of this specific plan embrace a study of the history and environment1 of the internal1 social1 political1 and religious conditions of the people1 without which there can be no accurate conception of their education4 ,our civilization had its inception in that of ancient ,egypt1 and thence its logical development must be traced4 ,if desirable the teacher can omit the chapters on ,china1 ,india1 ,persia1 and ,israel4 ,it will be found1 however1 that the lessons taught by these countries1 though negative in character1 are intensely interesting to students1 and most instructive and impressive4 ,these countries are also admirably illustrative of the plan employed in the book1 and thereby prepare the way for later work4 ,that plan is more fully set forth in the ,introduction1 a careful study of which is recommended to both teacher and student4 ,the author wishes to acknowledge his appreciation of the valuable assistance in the preparation of this volume rendered by ,dr4 ,elias ,f4 ,carr of the ,new ,jersey ,normal ,school1 and ,professor ,w4 ,j4 ,morrison of the ,brooklyn ,training ,school for ,teachers4 ,,levi ,,seeley4 ,,revised ,,edition ,i have taken advantage of the necessary reprinting of the book to make certain changes and additions1 and to correct a few errors which were found to exist4 ,an attempt has been made to note the recent changes that have taken place1 especially in the ,french and ,english school systems4 ,l4 ,s4 ,,second ,,revision ,the continued and hearty reception which teachers are giving this book has led me to desire to make still further improvements in it4 ,accordingly1 ,i have added brief sketches of the ,sophists1 ,plutarch1 ,marcus ,aurelius1 ,rollin1 and ,jacotot4 ,the space available is all too limited to warrant such treatment as the subjects deserve4 ,all that can be expected is that the reader may become interested and seek further information from special sources4 ,an appendix is added in which the ,national ,educational ,association1 the ,national ,bureau of ,education1 the ,quincy ,movement1 the ,herbartian ,movement1 ,child ,study1 ,parents' ,meetings1 ,manual ,training1 and ,material ,improvements in ,schools are each given a brief consideration4 ,l4 ,s4 ,,table ,,of ,,contents ,,chapter ,i ,,page ,,introduction #ae #a4 ,purpose of the history of education4 #b4 ,plan of study4 #c4 ,the study of great educators4 #d4 ,modern systems of education4 #e4 ,general outline4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,china #bj #a4 ,geography and history4 #b4 ,the home4 #c4 ,the elementary school4 #d4 ,higher education4 #e4 ,degrees4 #f4 ,examinations4 #g4 ,criticism of ,chinese education4 #h4 ,confucius4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,india #bi #a4 ,geography and history4 #b4 ,the caste system4 #c4 ,the home4 #d4 ,the elementary school4 #e4 ,higher education4 #f4 ,criticism of ,hindu education4 #g4 ,buddha4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,persia #cf #a4 ,geography and history4 #b4 ,the home4 #c4 ,the ,state education4 #d4 ,criticism of ,persian education4 #e4 ,zoroaster4 ,,chapter ,v ,,the ,,jews #dj #a4 ,geography and history4 #b4 ,the home4 #c4 ,the ,jewish school4 #d4 ,esteem for the teachers4 #e4 ,the ,schools of the ,rabbis4 #f4 ,criticism of ,jewish education4 #g4 ,the ,talmud4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,egypt #df #a4 ,geography and history4 #b4 ,the caste system4 #c4 ,the home4 #d4 ,education4 #e4 ,criticism of ,egyptian education4 #f4 ,general summary of oriental education4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,greece #ec #a4 ,geography and history4 #b4 ,manners and customs4 #c4 ,the ,olympian games4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,athens #ef #a4 ,historical4 #b4 ,the difference in spirit between ,athens and ,sparta4 #c4 ,the home4 #d4 ,education4 #e4 ,the ,sophists4 #f4 ,criticism of ,athenian education4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,athenian ,,educators #fa #a4 ,socrates1--life1 method1 death4 #b4 ,plato1--life1 his ,republic1 scheme and aim of education4 #c4 ,aristotle1--life1 pedagogy1 estimate of him4 ,,chapter ,x ,,sparta #fh #a4 ,historical4 #b4 ,the home4 #c4 ,education4 #d4 ,criticism of ,spartan education4 #e4 ,lycurgus4 #f4 ,pythagoras4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,,rome #gd #a4 ,the ,age of ,augustus4 #b4 ,geography and history4 #c4 ,the home4 #d4 ,education1--elementary1 secondary1 higher4 #e4 ,criticism of ,roman education4 ,,chapter ,,xii ,,roman ,,educators #ha #a4 ,cicero1--life1 philosophy1 pedagogy4 #b4 ,seneca1--the teacher of ,nero1 great orator1 writer1 etc41 pedagogical writings4 #c4 ,quintilian1--his school1 his ,institutes of ,oratory1 pedagogical principles4 #d4 ,plutarch and ,marcus ,aurelius4 ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,christian ,,education--,,introduction #hi #a4 ,general view4 #b4 ,new principles introduced by ,christianity4 #c4 ,importance of the individual4 #d4 ,obstacles which the early ,christians had to meet4 #e4 ,slow growth of ,christian education4 ,,chapter ,,xiv ,,the ,,great ,,teacher #if #a4 ,life and character4 #b4 ,impression which ,christ made4 #c4 ,his work as a teacher4 #d4 ,an example of pedagogical practice4 ,,chapter ,,xv ,,general ,,view ,,of ,,the ,,first ,,period ,,of ,,christian ,,education #aja #a4 ,the period covered4 #b4 ,the connection of the ,church with education4 #c4 ,the monasteries4 #d4 ,influence of the crusades4 #e4 ,of the ,teutonic peoples4 ,,chapter ,,xvi ,,the ,,first ,,christian ,,schools #ajd #a4 ,the catechumen schools4 #b4 ,chrysostom4 #c4 ,basil the ,great4 #d4 ,the catechetical schools4 #e4 ,clement of ,alexandria4 #f4 ,origen4 ,,chapter ,,xvii ,,conflict ,,between ,,pagan ,,and ,,christian ,,education #aaa #a4 ,general discussion4 #b4 ,tertullian4 #c4 ,saint ,augustine4 #d4 ,augustine's pedagogy4 ,,chapter ,,xviii ,,monastic ,,education #aaf #a4 ,monasteries4 #b4 ,the ,benedictines4 #c4 ,the seven liberal arts4 #d4 ,summary of benefits conferred by the monasteries4 ,,chapter ,,xix ,,scholasticism #aba #a4 ,its character4 #b4 ,its influence4 #c4 ,summary of its benefits4 ,,chapter ,,xx ,,charlemagne #abe #a4 ,history1 character1 and purpose4 #b4 ,personal education4 #c4 ,general educational plans4 #d4 ,summary of ,charlemagne's work4 ,,chapter ,,xxi ,,alfred ,,the ,,great #acj #a4 ,history and character4 #b4 ,educational work4 ,,chapter ,,xxii ,,feudal ,,education #acb #a4 ,character of the knights4 #b4 ,three periods into which their education was divided4 #c4 ,education of women4 #d4 ,criticism of feudal education4 ,,chapter ,,xxiii ,,the ,,crusades ,,as ,,an ,,educational ,,movement #acf #a4 ,causes of the crusades4 #b4 ,the most important crusades4 #c4 ,summary of their educational value4 ,,chapter ,,xxiv ,,the ,,rise ,,of ,,the ,,universities #aci #a4 ,what led to their establishment4 #b4 ,the most important early universities4 #c4 ,their privileges4 #d4 ,their influence4 ,,chapter ,,xxv ,,mohammedan ,,education #adc #a4 ,history of ,mohammedanism4 #b4 ,the five ,moslem precepts4 #c4 ,education4 #d4 ,what the ,mohammedans accomplished for science4 #e4 ,general summary of education during the ,middle ,ages4 ,,chapter ,,xxvi ,,the ,,renaissance #adh #a4 ,the great revival4 #b4 ,principles proclaimed4 #c4 ,the movement in ,italy4 #d4 ,in ,germany4 #e4 ,summary of the benefits of the ,renaissance to education4 ,,chapter ,,xxvii ,,humanistic ,,educators #aee #a4 ,revival of the classics their purpose4 #b4 ,dante4 #c4 ,petrarch4 #d4 ,boccaccio4 #e4 ,agricola4 #f4 ,reuchlin4 #g4 ,erasmus4 #h4 ,pedagogy of ,erasmus4 ,,chapter ,,xxviii ,,the ,,reformation ,,as ,,an ,,educational ,,influence #afd #a4 ,conditions at the beginning of the sixteenth century4 #b4 ,the invention of printing4 #c4 ,the rulers of the leading countries4 #d4 ,intellectual conditions4 #e4 ,luther4 #f4 ,luther's pedagogy4 #g4 ,melanchthon4 ,,chapter ,,xxix ,,other ,,protestant ,,educators #agd #a4 ,sturm4 #b4 ,the ,gymnasium at ,strasburg4 #c4 ,the celebrated course of study4 #d4 ,trotzendorf4 #e4 ,neander4 ,,chapter ,,xxx ,,the ,,jesuits ,,and ,,their ,,education #ahb #a4 ,the order4 #b4 ,loyola4 #c4 ,growth of the society4 #d4 ,jesuit education4 #e4 ,use of emulation4 #f4 ,estimate of their educational work4 #g4 ,summary4 #h4 ,the ,port ,royalists4 ,,chapter ,,xxxi ,,other ,,educators ,,of ,,the ,,sixteenth ,,century #aij #a4 ,roger ,ascham4 #b4 ,double translating4 #c4 ,rabelais4 #d4 ,first appearance of realism in instruction4 #e4 ,montaigne4 #f4 ,summary of progress during the sixteenth century4 ,,chapter ,,xxxii ,,education ,,during ,,the ,,seventeenth ,,century #bjj #a4 ,political and historical conditions4 #b4 ,the educational situation4 #c4 ,compulsory education4 #d4 ,the ,innovators4 ,,chapter ,,xxxiii ,,educators ,,of ,,the ,,seventeenth ,,century #bje #a4 ,bacon4 #b4 ,the inductive method4 #c4 ,ratke4 #d4 ,his pedagogy4 #e4 ,comenius4 #f4 ,the ,orbis ,pictus4 #g4 ,summary of his work4 #h4 ,milton4 #i4 ,locke4 #aj4 ,fenelon4 #aa4 ,his pedagogy4 #ab4 ,la ,salle and the brothers of the ,christian schools4 #ac4 ,rollin4 #ad4 ,summary of the educational progress of the seventeenth century4 ,,chapter ,,xxxiv ,,francke ,,and ,,the ,,pietists #bca #a4 ,pietism4 #b4 ,francke4 #c4 ,the ,institutions at ,halle4 #d4 ,the training of teachers4 #e4 ,the ,real-school4 ,,chapter ,,xxxv ,,general ,,view ,,of ,,the ,,eighteenth ,,and ,,nineteenth ,,centuries #bcg #a4 ,the abolition of slavery4 #b4 ,the extension of political rights4 #c4 ,science as an instrument of civilization4 #d4 ,religious freedom4 ,,chapter ,,xxxvi ,,modern ,,educators--,,rousseau #bda #a4 ,life4 #b4 ,pedagogy4 #c4 ,the ,emile4 ,,chapter ,,xxxvii ,,modern ,,educators--,,basedow #bej #a4 ,life4 #b4 ,the ,philanthropin4 #c4 ,writings4 #d4 ,jacotot4 ,,chapter ,,xxxviii ,,modern ,,educators--,,pestalozzi #beg #a4 ,childhood4 #b4 ,schooling4 #c4 ,life purpose4 #d4 ,the ,christian ministry4 #e4 ,the law4 #f4 ,farming4 #g4 ,marriage4 #h4 ,at ,neuhof4 #i4 ,authorship4 #aj4 ,at ,stanz4 #aa4 ,at ,burgdorf4 #ab4 ,at ,yverdon4 #ac4 ,summary of ,pestalozzi's work4 ,,chapter ,,xxxix ,,modern ,,educators--,,froebel #bgb #a4 ,life4 #b4 ,as teacher4 #c4 ,his first school4 #d4 ,the kindergarten4 #e4 ,the ,education of ,man4 ,,chapter ,,xl ,,modern ,,educators--,,herbart #bgh #a4 ,life4 #b4 ,experience as a tutor4 #c4 ,as a university professor4 #d4 ,his practice school in the university4 #e4 ,writings4 #f4 ,his pedagogical work4 #g4 ,work of modern ,herbartians4 ,,chapter ,,xli ,,modern ,,educators--,,horace ,,mann #bhd #a4 ,life4 #b4 ,work as a statesman4 #c4 ,as an educator4 #d4 ,his ,seventh ,annual ,report4 #e4 ,love for the common schools4 ,,chapter ,,xlii ,,the ,,school ,,system ,,of ,,germany #bhi #a4 ,administration4 #b4 ,school attendance4 #c4 ,the schools4 #d4 ,support of schools4 #e4 ,the teachers4 ,,chapter ,,xliii ,,the ,,school ,,system ,,of ,,france #bif #a4 ,administration4 #b4 ,school attendance4 #c4 ,the schools4 #d4 ,support of schools4 #e4 ,the teachers4 ,,chapter ,,xliv ,,the ,,school ,,system ,,of ,,england #cjd #a4 ,administration4 #b4 ,school attendance4 #c4 ,the schools4 #d4 ,support of schools4 #e4 ,the teachers4 ,,chapter ,,xlv ,,the ,,school ,,system ,,of ,,the ,,united ,,states #cji #a4 ,no national system4 #b4 ,state systems--,administration4 #c4 ,school attendance4 #d4 ,the schools4 #e4 ,support of schools4 #f4 ,the teachers4 ,,appendix ,,recent ,,educational ,,movements #cae #a4 ,the ,national ,educational ,association4 #b4 ,the ,national ,bureau of ,education4 #c4 ,the ,quincy ,movement4 #d4 ,the ,herbartian ,movement4 #e4 ,child ,study4 #f4 ,parents' ,meetings4 #g4 ,manual and ,industrial ,training4 #h4 ,material ,improvements4 ,,history ,,of ,,education ,,chapter ,i ,,introduction ,the history of education begins with the childhood of the race1 and traces its intellectual development step by step to the present time4 ,as such history is academic in character1 and furnishes information concerning the educational systems1 methods1 theories1 and practices of the past1 it should be placed early in the professional pedagogical course1 to serve as the foundation for an improved educational science which profits by the experience of mankind4 ,the history of education presents many of the great problems that have interested thoughtful men1 shows how some of these have been solved1 and points the way to the solution of others4 ,it studies educational systems1 selecting the good1 and rejecting the bad1 and introducing the student directly to the pedagogical questions that have influenced the world4 ,for these reasons1 the study of education should begin with its history4 ,karl ,schmidt says3 ,the history of the world is the history of the development of the human soul4 ,the manner of this development is the same in the race as in the individual2 the same law1 because the same divine thought1 rules in the individual1 in a people1 and in humanity4 ,humanity has1 as the individual1 its stages of progress1 and it unfolds itself in them4 ,the individual as a child is not a rational being2 he becomes rational4 ,the child has not yet the mastery over himself1 but his environment is his master2 he belongs not to himself1 but to his surroundings4 ,the oriental peoples are the child of humanity4444 ,classical antiquity represents the period of youth in the history of the world4444 ,christ is the type of perfected manhood4 ,the history of the individual reflects and repeats the history of humanity1 just as the history of humanity is a reflection of the history of the ,cosmos1 and the history of the ,cosmos is an image of the life of ,god2 all history1 be it that of humanity or of the individual1 of the starry heavens1 or of the earth1 is development of life toward ,god4 ,where there is development1 there is progress4 ,progress in history is only the more visible1 audible1 perceptible embodiment of ,god in humanity4#a ,in the study of the education of a people it is necessary first to become acquainted with their social1 political1 and religious life4 ,to this end a knowledge of the geography and history of their country is often essential1 because of the influence of climate1 occupation1 and environment1 in shaping the character of a people4 ,examples of this influence are not wanting4 ,the peculiar position of the ,persians1 surrounded on all sides by enemies1 required a martial education as a preparation for defensive and offensive measures4 ,physical education was dominant among the ,spartans1 because of serfdom which involved the absolute control of the many by the few4 ,no less striking are the effects of physical conditions upon all peoples in stimulating mental activity and in developing moral life1 both of which processes are essential to true education4 ,the intellectual product of the temperate zone differs from that of the torrid zone1 the product of the country from that of the large city4 ,for these reasons stress is here laid upon the geographical and historical conditions of the peoples considered4 ,for the same purpose we must study the home and the family1 the foundations upon which the educational structure is built4 ,the ancient ,jew looked upon children as the gift of ,god1 thereby teaching the great lesson of the divine mission of children and of the parents' responsibility for their welfare4 ,this race has never neglected the home education1 even when it became necessary to establish the school4 ,the family was the nursery of education1 and only when diversified duties made it no longer possible to train the children properly in the home was the school established4 ,even then the purpose of the school was but to give expression to demands which the home created4 ,the spirit and purpose of the education of a people can be understood only when the discipline1 the ideals1 and the religion of the home are understood4 ,when we have learned the environment of a people1 we are ready to study their elementary education4 ,this takes us into the schoolroom1 introduces us to the place where the school is held1 indicates the course of study pursued1 the discipline1 methods of instruction1 spirit and training of the teacher1 as well as the results obtained4 ,after this we are ready to consider the higher education1 which completes the system and measures its efficiency4 ,another task demanded of the student is to draw lessons from the educational systems studied1 to note what can be applied to modern conditions1 and to avoid the errors of the past4 ,the product of a method1 as shown in the character of the people pursuing it1 is of great interest in estimating the value of a scheme of education4 ,great movements have often been the outcome of the teachings of some individual who1 inspired by a new idea1 has consecrated his life to it4 ,through such men the world receives new and mighty impulses toward its enlightenment1 civilization takes vast strides in its development1 and man approaches nearer his final emancipation4 ,confucius1 ,socrates1 ,augustine1 ,charlemagne1 ,luther1 ,bacon1 ,comenius1 ,pestalozzi1 ,froebel1 are names that suggest the uplifting of humanity and the betterment of the world4 ,the study of the lives of these men1 of their victories and their defeats1 cannot fail to be an encouragement and a suggestive lesson to teachers of all lands and all times4 ,the history of education must therefore consider the biographies of such men as well as their theories and their teachings4 ,finally1 modern systems of education are the outgrowth of the experiences of the past4 ,they represent the results attained and indicate present educational conditions4 ,nothing can better summarize the total development reached1 or better suggest lines of future progress than a comparative discussion of the leading school systems of the world4 ,the last chapters of this book1 therefore1 are devoted to a study of the school systems of ,germany1 ,france1 ,england1 and ,america4 ,these are typical1 each being suggestive of certain phases of education1 while one of them has largely influenced the education of several other countries4 ,each furnishes lessons valuable to the student of history4 ,although many practices in other countries may not be applicable to our conditions1 the broad-minded1 genuine patriot will not refuse to accept sound principles and good methods from whatever source derived4 ,it must not be forgotten that there is a vital distinction between ,education and ,schooling4 ,education takes into account all those forces which enter into the civilization and elevation of man1 whether it be the home1 the school1 the state1 the church1 the influences of environment1 or all these combined4 ,it is a continuous process which begins at birth and ceases only at the end of life4 ,by schooling we mean the educative process which is carried on during a limited period of the child's life under the guidance of teachers4 ,the school is a product of civilization4 ,it became necessary because of the division of labor caused by the multiplication of the interests of mankind which made it impossible for the home to continue wholly to care for the training of its children4 ,the history of education must not merely treat of the development of the school1 but it must consider education in its broader meaning2 that is1 as a history of civilization4 ,for this reason some of the great educators of the world who have not been school teachers1 must receive consideration4 ,,footnotes3 #a ,geschichte der ,paedagogik1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #a1 #b4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,china ,literature4--,martin1 ,the ,chinese2 ,clarke1 ,ten ,great ,religions2 ,houghton1 ,women of the ,orient2 ,doolittle1 ,social ,life of the ,chinese2 ,johonnot1 ,geographical ,reader2 ,lord1 ,beacon ,lights of ,history2 ,ballou1 ,due ,west and ,footprints of ,travel2 ,ploetz1 ,epitome of ,universal ,history2 ,barnes1 ,studies in ,education2 ,stoddard's ,lectures2 ,pierre ,leroy-,beaulieu1 ,the ,awakening of the ,east2 ,mc,clure's ,magazine1 ,december1 #aijj1 ,a ,character ,study of the ,chinaman4 ,the civilization of the ,celestial ,empire is1 with the possible exception of that of ,egypt1 the oldest in the world4 ,and yet1 it has contributed but little to the advancement of mankind4 ,their system of education has failed to stimulate national and individual progress1 has fostered narrow egotism1 and has excluded external suggestion4 ,it is studied rather for its negative lessons1 and therefore suggests practices which the student of education will do well to avoid4 ,the result in ,china furnishes the best argument against a method of instruction that appeals solely to the memory4 ,this alone is sufficient reason for a study of ,chinese education1 aside from its strange and unique characteristics which never fail to interest the reader4 ,geography and ,history4--,the ,chinese ,empire occupies a position on the eastern side of the ,asiatic continent within about the same parallels of latitude as the ,united ,states1 extending from twenty degrees latitude on the south to fifty-three degrees on the north4 ,its area is about four and a quarter million square miles1 being somewhat larger than that of the ,united ,states4 ,its population is estimated at about six times that of our country4 ,it has an abundance of rivers1 intersected by numerous canals1 which greatly facilitate internal commerce4 ,many parts of the country are densely populated4 ,the people are largely engaged in agriculture4 ,tea and silk are the chief articles of export1 while rice and millet form the principal food4 ,the ,chinese belong to the ,mongolian or yellow race4 ,they are an industrious1 frugal1 and temperate people1 though the opium habit is very general and is disastrous in its effects4 ,doubtless the overcrowded population1 which has driven many to live in boats and in crowded apartments1 has had much to do in molding the ,chinese character4 ,until recently they have been slow to admit modern improvements and are conservative in the maintenance of their customs1 religion1 education1 and social practices4 ,consequently they have for many centuries made but little progress4 ,their authentic history covers1 according to extant records1 a period of nearly four thousand years4 ,the government is an absolute monarchy2 the emperor is regarded as the father of all his people and has complete power over the lives of his subjects4 ,the ,chinese language contains no alphabet2 each symbol represents a different word2 the substantives are indeclinable1 and the verbs are without inflection4 ,it thus becomes necessary in mastering the language to learn by rote a vast number of signs and characters1--a prodigious feat for the memory4 ,the religion most widespread among the ,chinese is ,buddhism 7which was imported from ,india71 though ancestor worship is still universal4 ,women are the principal worshipers1 yet the ,chinese believe that women have no souls4 ,the belief in transmigration of souls is implicit1 and this is used to keep woman in a most degraded condition4 ,if a woman is obedient to her husband and his relatives1 and is the mother of sons1 she may hope to return to this world1 in the future1 as a man1 and thus have a chance ultimately to reach ,buddha's heaven4 ,the belief in the transmigration of souls explains the vegetarian diet of the ,buddhist4 ,no zealous ,buddhist will touch meat or even eggs1 neither will he kill the smallest insect1 lest he should thus inadvertently murder a relative4#b ,the men care but little for any religion beyond a veneration for their ancestors4 ,polygamy is very generally practiced1 the limit to the number of wives being determined by the ability to support them4 ,women usually become more religious as they advance in years1 and they spend much time in worshiping in the temples4 ,it is they who preserve the national religion and make most difficult the work of missionaries4#c ,the ,home4--,the wife exists only for the comfort of her husband4 ,it is her duty to serve and obey him4 ,if she abuses her husband1 she receives one hundred stripes2 but abuse from him is not a punishable offense4 ,instruction1 at home as well as at school1 is confined to boys4 ,the birth of a boy is indicated by hanging a bow and arrow over the door2 that of a girl1 by a spindle and yarn4 ,in naming the number of his children1 the father counts only the boys4 ,boys are clothed in the finest material the family can afford2 girls1 in rags4 ,parents may destroy their children1 but only girls are ever sacrificed4 ,the mother can seldom read and write1 her chief duty being to instill into her children the two cardinal ,chinese virtues--politeness and obedience4 ,the relation of parents and children is the highest and purest representation of the relation between the ,creator and the creature1 and to venerate the parents is the first and holiest of all duties1 higher than the love of wife to husband1 higher than the reverence for the emperor2 therefore the emperor's father cannot be his subject4 ,to the ,chinaman all other duties are included in filial duties4 ,the bringing up of the children is left almost entirely to the mother4 ,the training begins very early1 and greatest stress from the first is laid upon obedience4 ,disobedience is a crime punishable by the father with death4 ,there are no illustrated children's books1 no nursery rhymes to inspire the imagination1 none of the bright and useful things so necessary to a happy childhood4 ,the child grows up with but few playthings calculated to stimulate the powers of the mind4 ,the ,elementary ,school4--,at about six or seven years of age the child enters school4 ,sometimes a few parents unite to employ a teacher for their children4 ,the government has no concern for the qualifications of the teacher2 no license to teach is required1 there is no governmental inspection or control1 nor does the ,state assume any part of the expense of the school4 ,attendance is not compulsory1 and yet male education is so universal that scarcely a boy can be found who does not enjoy opportunities for education4 ,charity schools are furnished by the wealthy for those who cannot afford to contribute toward the maintenance of a school4 ,there are no public schoolhouses4 ,the school is sometimes held in the temple1 sometimes in the home of the schoolmaster1 and sometimes in the home of a wealthy patron4 ,the furniture of the schoolroom consists of an altar consecrated to ,confucius and the god of knowledge1 a desk and a chair for the teacher1 and the pupils' desks and stools1 provided by the children themselves4 ,no effort is made to render the room attractive4 ,the child is admitted the first time with much ceremony in order that the day may be one of pleasant memories4 ,he also receives a new name1 the name of his babyhood being dropped4 ,indeed1 a change of name accompanies each new epoch of his life1 as the time he takes a new degree1 the day of his marriage1 etc4 ,thus the boy enters upon his new work4 ,the first years of study are devoted to reading1 writing1 and the elements of arithmetic1 which studies complete the education of the majority of the pupils4 ,no effort is made to interest the child2 he is simply required to memorize and write as many as possible of the fifty thousand characters4 ,not until after the names of the characters have been learned by rote is there any effort to teach the meaning of the words which they represent4 ,the child's writing1 too1 is mechanical1 for the expression of thought is but a secondary consideration4 ,thought awakening is not encouraged in the ,chinese course of education4 ,fear1 not interest1 is the motive which drives the child to study4 ,memory is the chief faculty to be cultivated1 and each child vies with the others to make the most noise in study4 ,the teacher is greatly revered1 only less so than the father4 ,his discipline is rigid1 the rod not being spared4 ,there are no new methods to learn2 the practice to-day is the same as that of hundreds of years ago2 it consists simply in hearing what the children have learned by heart4 ,the second stage of study consists of translations from text-books and lessons in composition4 ,this work brings some pleasure to the child1 as it is a little less mechanical4 ,the third stage consists of belles-lettres and essay writing4 ,only a few ever reach this stage1 and the purpose of this advanced work is not intellectual development1 or even the accumulation of knowledge1 but to prepare for a position under the government1 which can be reached by no other means4 ,even in these last two stages of study memory is the principal faculty brought into play4 ,without great exercise of this power the vast amount of material can never be mastered4 ,higher ,education4--,there are no high schools1 but men who have taken degrees gather about them young students1 who are to devote themselves to study1 and give them instruction in the ,chinese classics and prepare them for the ,state examinations for degrees4 ,great attention is paid to style1 and in order to cultivate a good style1 students are required to commit to memory many of the productions of their classical authors4 ,they write a great many essays and verses1 which are criticised by their teachers4 ,the attention is confined solely to the ,chinese classics4 ,the educated ,chinaman is usually ignorant of any field of knowledge not embraced in his own literature4 ,there is in the royal library at ,pekin a catalogue consisting of one hundred and twelve octavo volumes of three hundred pages each1 containing the titles of twelve thousand works1 with short extracts of their contents4 ,these works treat of science1 medicine1 astronomy1 and philosophy1 while history has an especially rich literature4 ,the ,chinese knew how to observe the heavens four thousand years ago1 and yet were unable to construct a calendar without the help of the ,europeans4 ,they invented gunpowder1 the mariner's compass1 porcelain1 bells1 playing cards1 and the art of printing long before they were used in ,europe1 yet they lacked the ability to use these inventions as instruments to their advancement4 ,china is divided into provinces which are subdivided into districts4 ,candidates must pass three examinations in their own district and those who are successful receive the lowest degree1 that of ,budding ,intellect4 ,many thousands enter for this degree1 but only about one per cent succeed in attaining it4 ,the possession of this degree does not yet entitle the holder to a public office1 but most of those who have secured it become teachers1 physicians1 lawyers1 etc4 ,once in three years there is another examination for the second degree1 called ,deserving of ,promotion1 conducted by an examiner sent from ,pekin4 ,a third examination is also held once every three years1 in ,pekin1 and success in this is rewarded by the title ,fit for ,office4 ,holders of the last two degrees are entitled to an appointment to some office1 the highest aim of a ,chinaman4 ,all of these examinations are conducted with great strictness and fairness1 no one being excluded4 ,thus every ,chinese child of ability has the opportunity to reach the highest positions in the country4 ,there is a still higher degree called the ,forest of ,pencils1 which is open only to members of the ,royal ,academy1 the ,hanlin4 ,the acquirement of this degree is the greatest honor to be attained2 its possessor is highly esteemed1 and may hold the highest offices in the country4 ,in #aije an edict was promulgated abolishing the old system of examinations4 ,this marks an epoch in ,chinese educational history and will tend to place ,china in the line of modern political and industrial development4 ,criticism of ,chinese ,education4--#a4 ,it is not under government control4 #b4 ,it has no interest beyond the boundaries of ,china1 and regards no literature save the ,chinese classics4 #c4 ,it is non-progressive1 having made practically no improvement for many centuries4 #d4 ,it cultivates memory to the neglect of the other powers of the mind1 and places more emphasis on the acquirement of knowledge than on the development of the human faculties4 #e4 ,it obtains its results through fear1 not by awakening interest in or love for study4 #f4 ,women are not embraced in the scheme of education4 #g4 ,it produces a conservative1 untruthful1 cunning1 and non-progressive people4 #h4 ,it reaches practically all of the male sex1 and there is opportunity for all to rise to the highest positions of honor1 but its methods are so unnatural as to awaken little desire for education on the part of the young4 #i4 ,its motive is debasing to the character4 ,,confucius 7,b4,c4 #eej-dgh7 ,the name of ,confucius is the one most revered among the ,chinese4 ,to him and his disciples are due not only the native religion1 now supplanted by ,buddhism1 but also the language and literature4 ,he began to teach in a private school at the age of twenty-two4 ,he rejected no pupil of ability and ambition1 but accepted none without these qualities4 ,he said1 ,when ,i have presented one corner of a subject1 and the pupil cannot make out the other three1 ,i do not repeat the lesson4 ,the following are extracts from the analects of ,confucius3-- #a4 ,what you do not like when done to yourself1 do not to others4 #b4 ,learning without thought is labor lost2 thought without learning is perilous4 #c4 ,to see what is right and not do it is want of courage4 #d4 ,worship as if the ,deity were present4 #e4 ,three friendships are advantageous3 friendship with the upright1 friendship with the sincere1 and friendship with the man of observation4 ,three are injurious3 friendship with a man of spurious airs1 friendship with the insinuatingly soft1 and friendship with the glib-tongued4 #f4 ,shall ,i tell you what knowledge is8 ,when you know a thing1 to hold that you know it2 and when you do not know a thing1 to confess your ignorance4 ,,footnotes3 #b ,mrs4 ,e4 ,e4 ,baldwin1 ,foochow1 ,china4 #c ,houghton1 ,women of the ,orient1 p4 #ad4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,india ,literature4--,marshman1 ,history of ,india2 ,ragozin1 ,vedic ,india2 ,spofford1 ,library of ,historical ,characters2 ,butler1 ,land of the ,veda2 ,houghton1 ,women of the ,orient2 ,clarke1 ,ten ,great ,religions2 ,johonnot1 ,geographical ,reader2 ,macaulay1 ,essays2 ,ballou1 ,footprints of ,travel2 ,stoddard's ,lectures2 ,encyclopaedia ,britannica2 ,arnold1 ,light of ,asia2 ,chamberlain1 ,education in ,india4 ,geography and ,history4--,india lies between the sixth and thirty-sixth parallels of north latitude4 ,it is bordered on the north by the ,himalayas and on the south by the ,indian ocean4 ,the climate in general is hot1 which makes the natives indolent and accounts for their lack of enterprise4 ,the country is very rich1 the chief products being wheat1 cotton1 rice1 opium1 and tea4 ,the area is about one and a half million square miles1 and the population two hundred millions4 ,the early history of ,india is obscure1 as the ,brahmans1 from religious scruples1 have ever been opposed to historical records4 ,it is certain that there was an aboriginal race which occupied the country from an unknown period1 and that a branch of the ,aryan#d or ,indo-,germanic race came to ,india and struggled for supremacy4 ,the ,aryans succeeded in reducing the natives to subjection or in driving them into the mountains4 ,the comparatively pure descendants of these races are about equal in number in ,india1 their mixed progeny composing the great mass of the ,hindu population4 ,the ,sanskrit was their classic language1 and the ,veda their ,bible4 ,the ,caste ,system4--,there are four great castes in ,india3-- #a4 ,the ,brahmans1 or highest caste1 who are the priests1 scholars1 lawyers1 physicians1 teachers1 etc4 ,this order is highly reverenced by the lower castes1 and its members are dignified1 abstemious1 and sedate4 ,their highest ideal is to bring their desires and appetites under complete control4 ,they exercise great influence in the land4#e #b4 ,the warriors1 who comprise the army and the office holders4 #c4 ,the merchants1 mechanics1 and farmers1 who constitute the bone and sinew of ,india4 #d4 ,the servants1 who receive no education excepting in matters of politeness and other things connected with their station in life4 ,each caste must pay respect to the higher castes1 and association with persons of a lower caste is considered a degradation4 ,the ,english government of ,india does not interfere with the caste system1 but it is gradually breaking down4 ,besides the above-mentioned castes1 there are tradesmen's castes which have grown up as new occupations have been introduced4 ,thus there is a potters' caste1 a weavers' caste1 a carpenters' caste1 etc41 each son following his father's trade4 ,this accounts for the marvelous skill of the craftsmen of ,india in weaving carpets and fine muslins1 in metal work1 and other arts1--workmanship not equaled anywhere else in the world4 ,brahmanism and ,mohammedanism are the chief religions4 ,buddhism overran the country in the fifth and sixth centuries ,b4,c41 but it did not seem to be suited to the ,hindus1 and now it is found in its purity only in ,ceylon4 ,unlike the ,chinese1 the ,hindus are a very religious people4 ,the ,shastas#f declare that when in the presence of her husband1 a woman must keep her eyes upon her master1 and be ready to receive his commands4 ,when he speaks1 she must be quiet and listen to nothing besides4 ,when he calls1 she must leave everything else and attend upon him alone4 ,a woman's husband is her god1 her priest1 and her religion4 ,the most excellent work that she can perform is to gratify him with the strictest obedience4#g ,the system of sale of girls at birth1 for wives1 of early betrothal and marriage1 of perpetual widowhood under most degrading circumstances1#h and the practice of polygamy make the condition of woman in ,india still worse than in ,china4 ,the ,english now rule the country with such wisdom and justice that the people are generally contented and loyal4 ,reforms have been introduced1 commerce has been established1 improvements have been made1 and new life has been awakened4 ,they have also established schools and universities2 but as the purpose here is to give a picture of the caste education1 the ,english system will not be described4 ,the ,home4--,woman has no educational advantages in ,india1 and she is regarded more as the servant than as the equal of her husband4 ,she may never appear uninvited in the presence of any man except her husband4 ,this has worked great hardships for her1 especially in cases of sickness1 as she can have no medical attendance unless a female medical missionary can be reached4 ,this fact has opened a fertile field for missionary enterprise which has been a great blessing to ,hindu women4 ,a member of a caste may marry in his own or in a lower caste2 thus the ,brahman may have four wives1 the warrior three1 the farmer two1 and the servant one4 ,parents love their children1 and expect of them unquestioning obedience4 ,children are taught to love and honor their teachers even more than their parents4 ,they are taught to reverence and respect older persons under all circumstances4 ,contrary to the ,chinese idea of education1 which is to prepare for this life1 the ,hindu idea is to prepare for the future life1 and children in the home1 from their earliest years1 are trained with reference to this idea4 ,the ,elementary ,school4--,all teachers belong to the ,brahman caste4 ,they receive no salary1 depending upon gifts for their support4 ,they are mild in discipline1 and generally humane in their treatment of their pupils4 ,the instruction is given under trees in the open air on pleasant days1 and in a tent or shed when the weather is bad4 ,instruction is given in reading1 writing1 and arithmetic1 though religion constitutes the principal theme4 ,memorizing the holy sayings of ,brahma occupies a large portion of the time4 ,while the ,chinaman worships nature and his ancestors1 the ,hindu worships ,brahma4 ,the cultivation of the memory is considered important1 but by no means so essential as in the ,chinese system4 ,the reading lessons are from the ,veda4 ,in writing1 the child begins by forming characters in sand with his finger or a stick1 then he writes upon leaves1 and finally upon paper1 with ink4 ,the work in arithmetic is very elementary1 being only such as will fit the learners for practical life4 ,servants and girls are excluded from even this limited education4 ,m4 ,ida ,dean says3 ,how amused you would be if you could take a peep at a school in ,india taught by a native teacher4 ,the school is often held in an open shed1 and no pains whatever is taken to keep it clean4 ,often the rafters are festooned with cobwebs and dirt4 ,of furniture1 save the teacher's low desk1 there is none4 ,the teacher uses a grass mat1 while the boys sit cross-legged on the earthen floor4 ,the teacher1 in a singsong voice1 reads a sentence which the boys shout after him4 ,then another sentence is read1 which the pupils likewise shout in a singsong voice1 while their bodies sway to and fro4 ,this goes on until sentence after sentence is memorized4 ,no one knows nor cares what he is saying4 ,the teacher never explains4 ,neither teacher nor pupil is ever bothered by that troublesome and inquisitive little word why4 ,the castes are taught separately1 and especial attention is given to such instruction as will fit them for their station in life4 ,the highest virtues to be cultivated are politeness1 patience1 modesty1 and truthfulness4 ,morning1 noon1 and evening there are impressive religious ceremonies in the school1 and the pupils must throw themselves at the feet of their teacher with reverential respect4 ,there is no theory of education among the ,hindus1 each teacher instructing as he pleases1 according to historic custom4 ,this precludes any considerable improvement in method or advance in the art of education4 ,there is no authority to decide upon qualifications of teachers1 the only essential requisite being that they shall belong to the ,brahman caste4 ,higher ,education4--,the ,brahmans are the only educated class1 although warriors attend their schools for the purpose of such study as is necessary in connection with their calling4 ,the farmer caste1 too1 may attend the ,brahman schools to learn the studies pertaining to their caste4 ,they pursue in their schools the study of grammar1 mathematics1 astronomy1 philosophy1 medicine1 law1 literature1 and religion4 ,many of them still speak their classic language1 the ,sanskrit4 ,as their religion is based on philosophy1 this study takes precedence over all others4 ,the ,hindus are believed to have originated the decimal system of arithmetical notation which has been transmitted to us through ,arabian channels4#i ,the end of ,hindu wisdom is to rise above all human suffering through knowledge4 ,wuttke says1 ,christians pray1 ',thy ,kingdom come'2 the ,chinese1 ',thy ,kingdom remain'2 the ,hindus1 ',let whatever thou hast created pass away4' ,criticism of ,hindu ,education4--#a4 ,it is not universal1 a large part of the people being excluded from its benefits4 #b4 ,it is based on castes and the promulgation of the caste system1 which is baneful4 #c4 ,it depends too much upon the cultivation of the memory4 #d4 ,it has no philosophy of education1 and1 therefore1 is non-progressive4 #e4 ,it does not properly honor woman1 and excludes her from its advantages4 #f4 ,it produces a dreamy1 self-satisfied1 indolent1 selfish1 and non-progressive people4 #g4 ,it makes the people self-reflective1 which doubtless accounts for their profound philosophical and mathematical discoveries4 ,,buddha#aj ,buddha lived in the first half of the sixth century ,b4,c4 ,he sought to overthrow ,brahmanism and taught that all men are brothers1 that they should show friendship1 kindness1 pity1 and love toward their fellow-men4 ,his religion and his spirit approach nearer to ,christianity than any other oriental faith1 and doubtless his influence was great for the uplifting of the race1 though it cannot be classed as technically educational4 ,self-denial1 virtuous life1 suppression of all self-seeking1 love for fellow-men1 said he1 are cardinal virtues which bring blessedness to mankind4 ,t4 ,w4 ,rhys ,davids says1 ,buddha did not abolish castes1 as no castes existed at his time4 ,had the spirit of his teaching prevailed1 ,india would never have been cursed by this baneful system4 ,buddhism is a religion based on moral acts4 ,in a corrupted form it has many millions of adherents in ,china1 ,tibet1 ,japan1 and other countries2 but it is found in its purity only in ,ceylon4 ,,footnotes3 #d ,the ,aryans are supposed to have originally occupied the country east of the ,caspian ,sea1 though some authorities locate them north of it4 ,the branches of this race are the ,hindus1 ,persians1 ,greeks1 ,romans1 ,celts1 ,teutons1 and ,slavs4 ,these branches are related in language and color1 and the peoples that find their common origin in the ,aryans represent a large part of the world's enterprise and progress4 #e ,see article in ,johonnot's ,geographical ,reader1 p4 #aig4 #f ,a commentary on the sacred book1 the ,veda of the ,hindus4 #g ,houghton1 ,women of the ,orient1 p4 #cd4 #h ,a betrothed girl becomes a widow upon the death of her promised husband even though she be only two or three years old and may never have seen him4 ,she must always remain a widow1 and as such is constantly humiliated4 #i ,williams1 ,history of ,modern ,education4 #aj ,see ,north ,american ,review1 ,vol4 #aga1 p4 #eag4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,persia ,literature4--,benjamin1 ,story of ,persia2 ,ragozin1 ,the ,story of ,media1 ,babylon1 and ,persia2 ,rawlinson1 ,the ,seventh ,great ,oriental ,monarchy2 ,myers1 ,ancient ,history2 ,clarke1 ,ten ,great ,religions2 ,lord1 ,beacon ,lights of ,history2 ,fergusson1 ,history of ,architecture4 ,geography and ,history4--,persia lies in the pathway of the great caravans which formerly carried on trade between ,europe and ,india4 ,it consists largely of a high plateau1 surrounded by mountains4 ,large parts of the country are sandy and dry from lack of sufficient rain1 and therefore are unproductive4 ,the people are a branch of the ,aryan race4 ,they doubtless lived a nomadic life1 and were obliged to be ever ready to defend themselves4 ,success in defense against the frequent assaults of their surrounding enemies stimulated them to become a nation of warriors4 ,this fact had much to do in shaping their education4 ,cyrus the ,great conquered ,media and brought ,persia to the summit of her greatness4 ,the ,persians boasted that they had become great by the sword1 hence they cared but little for agriculture or manufactures4 ,they levied tribute upon the nations they had subdued4 ,home production was therefore unnecessary1 and they could devote all of their time to the art of war4 ,about one fourth of the population are still classed as wandering tribes1 and the nation is an aggregation rather than a unity of peoples4 ,the early ,persians worshiped fire1 and holy fires which only the ,magi1 or priests1 were allowed to approach1 were kept perpetually burning upon the mountain tops4 ,the sun also was worshiped1 the ,persian kneeling with his face toward the east at sunrise in beatific joy4 ,this worship may have been borrowed from the ,egyptians1 who were conquered by the ,persians1 and with whom they stood in close relations4 ,in later times the religion of ,zoroaster became the religion of the people4 ,the ,home4--,wife and children were required to show the father great respect4 ,each morning the wife was expected to ask her husband nine times1 ,what do you wish me to do8 ,the teacher stood next to the father in the child's esteem4 ,the child was kept at home under the care of the mother until seven years of age4 ,an astrologer gave him a name and outlined his future destiny by reference to the stars4 ,it was forbidden to tell him the difference between right and wrong before his fifth year4 ,no corporal punishment was administered before his seventh year4 ,the mother was greatly beloved by her children1 though women were excluded from education4 ,the position of woman was much higher than in either ,china or ,india4 ,the chief training of children in the home was physical4 ,throwing1 running1 archery1 riding1 etc41 were the principal employments of children4 ,absolute truthfulness and justice were early inculcated4 ,a quick eye1 a steady hand1 accurate power of observation1 and unwavering courage were qualities sought for in every child1 and all of the training in the home1 as well as in the later education1 had for its aim the acquirement of these powers4 ,thus children were early taught to be self-reliant and fearless4 ,the ,state ,education4--#a4 ,persian education was national in character4 ,after the seventh year the boy was taken from home and educated entirely by and for the ,state4 ,his training in the use of arms1 in riding1 and in other athletic exercises was continued4 ,there were large public institutions in which the boys were quartered1 and simplest food and clothing were given them4 ,besides the training for war1 they were taught religious proverbs and prayers1 and were led to practice truth and justice4 ,this education continued until their fifteenth year4 ,the teachers were men who had passed their fiftieth year1 and who were chosen for virtue as well as knowledge1 that they might serve as models to their pupils4 #b4 ,the second period of education consisted of a military training1 which occupied the ten years between the age of fifteen and twenty-five4 #c4 ,the final period was that of the soldier1 which continued till the fiftieth year1 when the ,persian could retire from the army with honor4 ,the most competent were retained as teachers4 ,reading and writing were taught to a limited degree1 but the chief end of education was to prepare the citizen for war4 ,the ,magi were educated in astronomy1 astrology1 and alchemy1 and many of the dervishes have ever been renowned for their acuteness1 sense of justice1 great powers of observation1 and good judgment4 ,criticism of the ,persian ,education4--#a4 ,the ,state robs the family of its inherent right to educate the children4 #b4 ,it neglects intellectual education1 giving undue prominence to the physical and moral2 and demands too great a part of the active life of man4 #c4 ,it makes the highest aim of education to prepare for war1 and therefore does not cultivate the arts of peace4 #d4 ,it excludes woman from the benefits of education4 ,,zoroaster#aa ,zoroaster1 the founder of the ,persian religion1 was a great teacher4 ,the exact date of his birth is unknown1 but it is generally placed at about ,b4,c4 #fjj4 ,the testimony of ancient classic literature confirms the belief that he was an historical person4 ,a tablet unearthed in ,greece contains an account of his life and his doctrines4 ,pliny says that he laughed on the day of his birth and that for thirty years he lived in the wilderness on cheese4 ,he was the founder of the ,magi priesthood1 but did not teach the worship of fire4 ,his philosophy is dualistic4 ,there are two spirits or principles that rule the universe4 ,these are ,ormuzd1 the principle of light1 and ,ahriman1 the principle of darkness4 ,these two opposing principles are in constant conflict1 each striving for the mastery4 ,man is the center of the conflict1 but ,ormuzd as his creator has the greater power over him4 ,all influences are summoned to bring about the success of the good1 and in the end it will surely prevail4 ,no remission of sin is taught1 but judgment is represented as a bridge over which those whose good deeds outweigh their evil deeds are allowed to pass to paradise3 in case the evil deeds outweigh the good1 the person is cast off forever2 in case of a balance of good and evil deeds1 there is another period of probation4 ,this dualism shows itself in nature as well as in the spiritual world4 ,order is opposed to lawlessness1 truth to falsehood1 life to death1 good to evil4 ,it is a religion in which the ideas of guilt and merit are carried out to the extreme4 ,zoroaster believed that he was the prophet chosen to promulgate these doctrines1 and his influence as a teacher upon the ,persian nation was unquestionably great4 ,persia is now a ,mohammedan country4 ,,footnotes3 #aa ,north ,american ,review1 ,vol4 #agb1 p4 #acb4 ,,chapter ,v ,,the ,,jews ,literature4--,hosmer1 ,story of the ,jews2 ,clarke1 ,ten ,great ,religions2 ,durrell1 ,new ,life in ,education2 ,myers1 ,ancient ,history2 ,stoddard's ,lectures2 ,lord1 ,beacon ,lights of ,history2 ,josephus1 ,antiquities of the ,jews2 ,morrison1 ,the ,jews under ,roman ,rule2 ,larned1 ,history for ,ready ,reference2 ,hegel1 ,philosophy of ,history2 ,report of the ,united ,states ,commissioner of ,education1 #ahie2 ,peters1 ,justice to the ,jew4 ,geography and ,history4--,the ,jews were the ancient people of ,god1 the chosen people1 whose history is recorded in the ,old ,testament ,scriptures4 ,they reached their greatest power and glory during the reigns of ,david and ,solomon1 and they occupied ,palestine1 with ,jerusalem as their capital city4 ,within this small territory1 some six thousand square miles in extent1 have occurred some of the most important events of history1 and the ,jewish race has been the representative of ,god's purposes toward man4 ,the ,almighty communicated directly with his people1 who were thus made acquainted with the divine will4 ,the early ,jews were nomadic in their habits1 living in tents1 and tending their flocks4 ,the patriarch1 who was at the head of a family or tribe1 made laws for the people under him and governed them according to the command of ,god1 whose representative he was4 ,because ,god directly or through the patriarch led and instructed the people1 their education1 like their government1 is called theocratic4 ,the ,jews lost their independence ,b4,c4 #fc in becoming subject to the ,romans1 and in ,a4,d4 #gj ,jerusalem was destroyed and the ,jews were dispersed4 ,since that time they have been wanderers on the face of the earth1 and there is no part of the world where they are not to be found4 ,they have maintained their racial characteristics with remarkable purity4 ,they were an agricultural people until the ,babylonian captivity1 after which they became a commercial people4 ,persecutions1 which have universally followed them1 making the acquirement of fixed property unsafe1 had much to do with this change4 ,the ,home4--,the ,jewish family was the purest of antiquity4 ,in general1 monogamy was practiced1 and the wife was regarded as the companion and equal of the husband4 ,children being accepted as the gift of ,god1 the father stood in the same relation to his children as ,jehovah stood to man4 ,therefore the father's highest aim was to bring up his children in the knowledge and service of the ,lord4 ,we have here the highest and best type of family training to be found in history1 a characteristic that still holds in ,jewish families wherever they exist1 and that has contributed largely to the maintenance of the strong racial peculiarities of the ,jews4 ,the father taught his boys reading and writing1 and the mother taught the girls household duties2 but the latter were not entirely excluded from intellectual training4 ,great attention was given to the rites and ceremonies of the tabernacle and the ,jewish law4 ,history was also taught as a means of stimulating patriotism4 ,the ,jewish child was early made acquainted with the ,scriptures1 and history1 law1 and prophecy became familiar to every ,jew4 ,as there were no schools1 this was all done in the home by the parents4 ,religion was the central thought of all education1 and preparation for the service of the tabernacle and the worship of ,god was early given to every child4 ,thus in an atmosphere of love and piety the ,jew discharged his sacred duty with care and faithfulness4 ,obedience to the commands of parents1 veneration for the aged1 wholesome respect for their ancestors1 and familiarity with the ,jewish law were instilled into the minds of all children4 ,music and dancing were taught in every household1 not for pleasure1 but as a means of religious expression4 ,by prayer and holy living1 by precept and example1 by word and deed1 the father discharged the duty committed to him by ,god1 leading his children by careful watchfulness toward the ideal manhood which was revealed to him by the teachings of ,holy ,writ4 ,there were no castes among the ,hebrews1 and the same kind of training was given to the children of rich and poor1 high and low1 alike4 ,no other race of people has given such careful home training to its children1 from earliest times to the present4 ,the ,jewish ,school4--,there were no elementary ,jewish schools until after the destruction of the nation and the loss of their civil liberty4 ,after the defeat at ,jena the ,prussians turned to education as the sole means of retrieving their national greatness2 the same was true of the ,austrians after the defeat of ,sadowa1 and of the ,french after the fall of the empire at ,sedan4 ,but the ,jewish people had set this example eighteen centuries before4 ,dittes says1 ,if ever a people has demonstrated the power of education1 it is the people of ,israel4 ,the rabbis required1 ,a4,d4 #fd1 that every community should support a school1 and that attendance should be compulsory4 ,this is the first instance of compulsory education on record4 ,if a town was divided by a stream without a connecting bridge1 a school was supported in each part4 ,not more than twenty-five pupils could be assigned to one teacher1 and where the number was greater an assistant was employed4 ,if there were forty pupils1 there were two teachers4 ,it will thus be seen that the ,jews put into practice eighteen centuries ago a condition of things which1 owing to the complexity of our civilization1 is with us to-day largely an unrealized ideal4 ,teachers were respected even more than parents1 for it was held that parents prepared their children for the present1 but teachers for the future4 ,none but mature married men were employed as teachers4 ,it was said that he who learns of a young master is like a man who eats green grapes1 and drinks wine fresh from the press2 but he who has a master of mature years is like a man who eats ripe and delicious grapes1 and drinks old wine4 ,the child entered school at six4 ,previous to that age physical exercise and bodily growth were to be the ends sought4 ,when he enters school1 says the ,talmud1 load him like an ox4 ,other authorities1 however1 encouraged giving him tasks according to his strength4 ,the subjects taught were reading1 writing1 natural history1 arithmetic1 geometry1 and astronomy4 ,the ,scriptures were taught to all the children1 and all were versed in religious rites4 ,the methods were good and attractive1 great effort being made to lead the children to understand1 even though it might be necessary to repeat four hundred times4 ,the discipline was humane4 ,according to the ,talmud1 children should be punished with one hand and caressed with two4 ,corporal punishment was administered only to children over eleven years of age4 ,the ,schools of the ,rabbis4--,karl ,schmidt says3 ,culture in a people begins with the creation of a literature and the use of writing4 ,the oldest monument of writing among the ,israelites is found in the tables of stone containing the ,ten ,commandments4 ,moses1 ,david1 ,solomon1 and ,isaiah1 and the other prophets were the founders of the ,hebrew literature4 ,among the instrumentalities of higher education were the ,schools of the ,prophets1 which taught philosophy1 medicine1 poetry1 history1 and law to the sons of prophets and priests1 and of leading families4 ,these schools were influential in stimulating the production of the historical1 poetical1 and prophetic books of the ,old ,testament4 ,but more important as direct means of higher education were the ,schools of the ,rabbis4 ,these sprang up in ,alexandria1 ,babylon1 and ,jerusalem in the early centuries of the ,christian era4 ,they were private institutions founded by celebrated teachers4 ,doubtless it was in such a school as this that ,st4 ,paul was brought up at the feet of ,gamaliel4 ,the principal subjects studied were theology and law1--politics1 history1 mathematics and science being excluded4 ,the collection of the sayings and discussions was begun in the second century ,a4,d4 and afterward took form in the ,talmud4 ,criticism of ,jewish ,education4--#a4 ,it exalted the home and insisted on the control of children by their parents4 #b4 ,it gave to woman an honored place in the home4 #c4 ,it gave an intelligent interpretation of the school and its functions4 ,in regard to school attendance1 the number of pupils under one teacher1 the respect due to teachers1 the course of study1 and many other matters1 it showed practical wisdom4 #d4 ,it taught obedience1 patriotism1 and religion4 #e4 ,it provided only for ,jewish children4 #f4 ,it was mild and generally wise in discipline1 though mistaken in forbidding corporal punishment before the eleventh year1 while admitting its use after that4 #g4 ,it developed an honest1 intelligent1 progressive1 ,god-fearing people4 #h4 ,it produced some of the greatest poets and historians of the world4 ,,the ,,talmud#ab ,this book1 as we have seen1 is the outgrowth of the discussions of the rabbis1 whose sayings1 collected from the second to the sixth century ,a4,d41 are herein contained4 ,it proclaims with great minuteness rules of life which the faithful ,jew still rigidly observes4 ,it has aided in perpetuating ,jewish laws1 ceremonies1 customs1 and religion1 and has been the most potent means of preserving the national and racial characteristics of the ,jews for nearly two thousand years4 ,driven from one country to another1 they have always carried the ,talmud with them and have been guided and kept united by its teachings4 ,during the last quarter of the nineteenth century the study of the ,talmud has been revived1 not only among the ,jews1 but also among ,christians and students of all classes4 ,,extracts ,,from ,,the ,,talmud #a4 ,even if the gates of heaven are shut to prayer1 they are open to tears4 #b4 ,teach thy tongue to say1 ,i do not know4 #c4 ,if a word spoken in its time is worth one piece of money1 silence is worth two4 #d4 ,not the place honors the man1 but the man the place4 #e4 ,the world is saved by the breath of school children4 ,,footnotes3 #ab ,see ,peters1 ,justice to the ,jew4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,egypt ,literature4--,maspero1 ,egyptian ,archaeology2 ,wilkinson1 ,the ,ancient ,egyptians2 ,stoddard's ,lectures2 ,myers1 ,ancient ,history2 ,routledge1 ,the ,modern ,wonders of the ,world2 ,johonnot1 ,geographical ,reader2 ,edwards1 ,a ,thousand ,miles up the ,nile2 ,knox1 ,egypt and the ,holy ,land2 ,ballou1 ,due ,west2 ,clarke1 ,ten ,great ,religions2 ,ebers1 ,uarda2 and ,egyptian ,princess2 ,curtis1 ,nile ,notes of a ,howadji4 ,geography and ,history4--,egypt consists of a narrow strip of land about six hundred miles long1 lying in the northeastern part of ,africa4 ,its geographical importance is due to the river ,nile1 which flows through it1 and which1 by its annual overflow1 enriches the soil1 and makes one of the most productive portions of the globe4 ,for many centuries reservoirs for the storage of water in time of the overflow1 and irrigation canals for its later distribution1 have secured the country against drought1 and thus abundant harvests were always assured independent of the seasons and the skies4 ,this1 with the mild climate and exceedingly rich soil1 made food attainable with slight labor1 furnishing an abundance1 not only for its own population1 but making ,egypt the granary of the ,mediterranean countries4 ,we learn from the ,scriptures1 of the visits of the sons of ,jacob to ,egypt to buy corn of ,joseph when famine existed in their own land4 ,these conditions1 which made living so cheap1 were doubtless the main causes of the early settlement of the valley of the ,nile1 and the rapid increase in its population4 ,in confirmation of the foregoing we have the testimony of ,diodorus ,siculus1 a ,greek writer1 who visited ,egypt nearly two thousand years ago4 ,he tells us that the entire cost to bring up a child to manhood was not more than twenty drachmas 7less than four dollars of our money74#ac ,of the antiquity of ,egyptian history we have abundant evidence4 ,swinton says1 ,egypt is the country in which we first find a government and political institutions established4 ,egypt itself may not have been the oldest nation1 but ,egyptian history is certainly the oldest history4 ,its monuments1 records1 and literature surpass in antiquity those of ,chaldea and ,india1 the two next oldest nations4#ad ,the records of the history of ,egypt are found in abundance carved on her monuments1 tombs1 buildings1 implements1 etc4 ,they were written in hieroglyphics1 the meaning of which was unknown until the discovery of the ,rosetta stone1 which furnished the key to their interpretation4 ,the ancient ,egyptians excelled in mechanics and arts4 ,it is doubtful whether to-day we know as much of certain sciences as they did four thousand years ago4 ,their applications of mechanics1 engineering1 dyeing1 and embalming still remain to us lost arts4 ,the wisdom of the ,egyptians was proverbial1 and the great scholars of other countries made pilgrimages to ,egypt to study philosophy1 literature1 law1 and science4 ,the ,caste ,system4--,the caste system existed also in ,egypt1 but in no such strict sense as in ,india4 ,the first and highest caste consisted of the priests1 who represented the learning and wealth of the country4 ,they owned one third of the land1 upon which they paid no tax4 ,they held all the offices1 were the surveyors1 engineers1 teachers1--indeed1 their caste alone furnished all the higher professions4 ,they ruled the land with an iron hand4 ,concerning their influence1 ,swinton says1 ,the priests were the richest1 most powerful1 and most influential order4 ,it must not be supposed1 however1 that the modern word 'priest' gives the true idea of this caste4 ,its members were not limited to religious offices2 they formed an order comprising many occupations and professions4 ,they were distributed all over the country1 possessing exclusively the means of reading and writing1 and the whole stock of medical and scientific knowledge4 ,their ascendency1 both direct and indirect1 over the minds of the people was immense1 for they prescribed that minute religious ritual under which the life of every ,egyptian1 not excepting the king himself1 was passed4#ae ,the second caste consisted of the military class1 who also belonged to the nobles4 ,there was freer intercourse between the two higher castes than was possible in the ,hindu system4 ,it was not uncommon to find brothers belonging to different castes4 ,ampere found an inscription on a monument mentioning one son as a priest1 another as governor of a province1 and a third as superintendent of buildings4 ,to each member of this caste was assigned a parcel of land 7six and one half acres71 which also was free from taxation4 ,these two higher castes were especially privileged1 and the gulf between them and the lower castes was very wide4 ,the third1 or unprivileged caste was subdivided into three orders3 7#a7 the farmers and boatmen2 7#b7 the mechanics and tradespeople2 and 7#c7 the common laborers4 ,between these1 also1 there were bonds of common interest1 though a decided difference between the orders was recognized4 ,the caste system may be outlined as follows3-- ,i4 ,priests1 who represented the learning and wealth and ruled the land4 ,egyptian ,,ii4 ,soldiers1 who1 though lower in caste than the priests1 ,castes4 yet associated with them4 #a4 ,farmers and boatmen1 who ranked next4 ,,iii4 #b4 ,mechanics and tradespeople1 who ranked next4 #c4 ,the common laborers4 ,the slaves were lower than the common laborers1 and were not classified among the castes4 ,they were generally captives taken in war4 ,respect and reverence for the higher castes were by no means so marked as in ,india1 and outbreaks between the various classes were common4 ,the ,home4--,woman occupied a much higher plane in ,egypt than in ,china or ,india1 though polygamy was practiced by all classes except the priests4 ,she was the recognized mistress of the home1 possessed some education1 and largely directed the education of the children4 ,children of wives of different castes had equal rights before the law to inheritance4 ,great attention was paid to religious ceremonies1 and the children were taught piety and obedience in their early youth4 ,they were highly regarded in the ,egyptian home1 and were brought up in an atmosphere of love and filial respect4 ,the day of a child's birth was regarded as determining its destiny4 ,the child was brought up on the simplest food1 and furnished with scanty clothing1 in order that its body might be strong and supple4 ,the ,education4--,the education1 like that of ,india1 was suited to the different castes4 ,priests were the only teachers4 ,while chief attention was given to the education of boys1 girls also received some instruction4 ,the principal subjects taught in the lowest caste were writing and mathematics4 ,the papyrus plant1 found along the ,nile1 furnished a material on which writing was practiced4 ,in arithmetic we find an anticipation of modern principles in the concrete methods employed4 ,religious instruction was also given4 ,bodily exercise was severe1 running being a favorite pastime4 ,the expense of schooling was very small4 ,the boy usually followed the trade of his father1 though this was not an inflexible rule4 ,the occupation he was to follow had some influence in shaping his education4 ,the higher castes received an extensive education1 including a knowledge of higher mathematics1 astronomy1 language1 natural science1 medicine1 music1 engineering1 and religion4 ,the annual overflow of the ,nile necessitated the construction of reservoirs and irrigation canals1 and caused frequent changes of boundary lines4 ,for all this a knowledge of mathematics was necessary1 and this study was therefore greatly encouraged4 ,institutions of higher learning for the training of priests and soldiers were found at ,thebes1 ,memphis1 and ,heliopolis4 ,the ,museum of ,alexandria1 which reached its highest prosperity about the middle of the third century ,b4,c41 and which made ,alexandria the center of the learning of the world at that period1 attracted philosophers and investigators from ,athens and ,rome4 ,in connection with the ,museum was the celebrated ,alexandrian library1 which was fostered by the ,ptolemies1 and which contained a vast collection of books1 variously estimated at from four hundred thousand to seven hundred thousand volumes4#af ,criticism of ,egyptian ,education4--#a4 ,it was dominated by the priests under the caste system1 and did not recognize equality of man4 #b4 ,it encouraged greater respect for woman than other oriental systems1 but took little account of her intellectual training4 #c4 ,it made use of concrete methods1 at least in writing and arithmetic1 for the first time in history4 #d4 ,it was non-progressive in its elementary education1 the father generally expecting his son to follow his calling4 #e4 ,in higher education it was justly noted1 as it attracted wise men from ,greece and ,rome to study its science and philosophy4 ,,general ,,summary ,,of ,,oriental ,,education ,with the discussion of ,egyptian education1 the consideration of oriental systems ceases4 ,concerning the education of the ,phoenicians1 ,babylonians1 and other oriental nations we know but little4 ,to the ,phoenicians the invention of the alphabet1 glass making1 and purple dyeing is generally credited1 and the knowledge of these things was communicated to the ,mediterranean nations with whom they engaged in trade4 ,the classical countries were materially influenced by ,egyptian culture1 and the way was prepared for a broader and more enlightened interpretation of the purpose of education1 and for a more successful evolution of civilization on soil better suited to that end4 ,we may briefly summarize the lessons of oriental education1 as follows3-- #a4 ,the ,oriental systems fostered class distinctions by furnishing but little enlightenment to the lower classes1 and affording superior advantages to the privileged few4 #b4 ,they were non-progressive1 for centuries witnessed no improvement in methods of instruction1 reached no higher ideals1 and marked no advance in civilization4 #c4 ,they did not feel the need of trained teachers4 #d4 ,the importance of the individual was not appreciated1 and man was regarded as belonging to the ,state4 #e4 ,the end sought was good conduct1 which was to be attained through memorizing moral precepts4 ,this gave undue importance to the memory4 #f4 ,little encouragement was given to free investigation2 authority of teachers and ancestral traditions were the principal factors employed4 ,the progress of civilization was therefore very slow4 #g4 ,in general1 excepting with the ,jews1 woman had no part in education1 being regarded as incapable of any considerable intellectual development4 #h4 ,in ,china the motive of education was to prepare for success in this life2 in ,india1 for the future life2 in ,persia1 to support the ,state2 in ,israel1 to rehabilitate the nation2 and in ,egypt1 to maintain the supremacy of the priests4 #i4 ,in no case was the conception reached that the aim of education should be to emancipate all the powers of man1--physical1 intellectual1 moral1 spiritual4 #aj4 ,finally1 we may sum up the conditions that prepared the way for classical education in the words of ,karl ,schmidt3 ,in ,greece at last the idea of human individuality as the principal end1 and not as a means to that end1 was grasped4 ,conformable to this truth1 all human1 social1 and political conditions were shaped and education given its form4 ,this idea of the emancipation of the individual became established in ,greece with a brilliancy which attracts attention to that land until the present time4 ,,footnotes3 #ac ,the student should bear in mind the fact that the purchasing power of a sum equivalent to four dollars was much greater in those days than now4 #ad ,outlines of the ,world's ,history1 p4 #ab4 #ae ,outlines of ,history1 p4 #bj4 #af ,it must be observed that the ancient volume1 or roll1 contained much less matter than the modern book4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,greece ,literature4--,davidson1 ,education of the ,greek ,people2 ,felton1 ,ancient and ,modern ,greece2 ,grote1 ,history of ,greece2 ,curtius1 ,history of ,greece2 ,morris1 ,historical ,tales 7,greek72 ,mahaffy1 ,old ,greek ,education2 ,social ,life in ,greece2 ,the ,greek ,world under ,roman ,sway2 ,clarke1 ,ten ,great ,religions2 ,guhl and ,koner1 ,life of ,greeks and ,romans2 ,timayenis1 ,history of ,greece2 ,wilkins1 ,national ,education in ,greece2 ,lord1 ,beacon ,lights2 ,monroe1 ,source ,book of the ,history of ,education4 ,geography and ,history4--,greece lies in the center of the ancient world4 ,the numerous islands between it and the mainland of ,asia made stepping-stones for the hardy mariners who1 filled with the spirit of adventure1 pushed out farther and farther from the ,asiatic shores until they reached ,greece--the first ,european country to be settled4 ,here we find another branch of the great ,aryan race4 ,the coast is broken up by many indentations which afford fine harbors and invite seafaring life4 ,the surface is mountainous1 the ranges cutting the country up into many sections or states4 ,the climate is varying1 depending upon proximity to the sea1 and upon the elevation4 ,the scenery is beautiful1 and the soil in the valleys is fertile4 ,the productions are fruit1 grain1 and silk4 ,as might be expected from the nature of the country1 the people show much commercial enterprise4 ,the area is about twenty-five thousand square miles1 and the population about #b1bjj1jjj4 ,the ,greeks were a brave and ambitious people1 and their history is full of heroic deeds and stirring events4 ,the many small states were often hostile to one another4 ,athens and ,sparta were the two most important cities4 ,around them centered two diverse forms of civilization1 and in them were developed two very different standards of education4 ,it will be necessary1 therefore1 to discuss separately the education of these two cities4 ,when the ,grecian states were united in defense1 no outside power was able to conquer them2 but1 unfortunately1 jealousies often arose which brought them into conflict with one another1 and which finally caused the overthrow of all4 ,in art and literature ,greece reached the summit of her glory in ,athens in the age of ,pericles1 the fifth century ,b4,c4 ,the work accomplished by ,athens has been the inspiration of the world for nearly twenty-four hundred years4 ,in government1 in manners1 and in customs the ,greeks were very different from the oriental nations4 ,the spirit of political freedom prevailed here for the first time in the history of the world4 ,doubtless the small size of the states1 which were separated from each other by natural boundaries1 was an important factor in stimulating the people to secure and maintain this independence4 ,man's character is formed by the surroundings of his home4 ,the beautiful valleys and mountains1 the varying climate1 the sea with its many islands and harbors1 the soil1 in the main yielding its fruit only by hard labor1 were elements well calculated to produce a hardy race1--a race with lofty ideals1 loving beauty both of mind and body4 ,the ,olympian ,games4--,because of their national popularity and their direct influence on the education of the people1 a description of the ,olympian games is not out of place in a history of education4 ,at first they were religious in character4 ,they were celebrated in honor of ,zeus1 at ,olympia1 in ,elis1 which became the ,holy ,land of ,greece4 ,they took place once in four years1 and this period1 called an ,olympiad1 furnished the basis of computing time4 ,the first ,olympiad begins with ,b4,c4 #ggf4 ,all of the states took part in these contests1 and when at war1 hostilities were suspended during the games1 that visitors might attend them unmolested4 ,thus once in four years the various states of ,greece were united in friendly contest and joyous festivity4 ,at first there was only the foot race1 but afterward wrestling1 jumping1 and throwing the spear were added4 ,still later1 chariot and horse races1 and contests in painting1 sculpture1 and literature1 were included4 ,only ,greek citizens of good moral character could enter the contests4 ,the prize1 though but a simple wreath of laurel or olive1 was most highly esteemed4 ,at first spectators were attracted from the different parts of ,greece only2 but afterward the games became great fairs for the exchange of commodities1 as well as contests which attracted people from all parts of ,europe4 ,the ,olympian games tended to unite the people and cultivate the arts of peace4 ,they encouraged the development of perfect bodies1 the training being designed to produce superior athletes4 ,they inculcated broader views1 bringing together people from different parts of their own land and from other lands4 ,they incited intellectual ambition by adding in later times literary productions4 ,they created a manly spirit and stimulated a national patriotism4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,athens ,literature4--7,see general literature for ,greece47 ,harrison1 ,story of ,greece2 ,macaulay1 ,essays2 ,curtius1 ,history of ,greece2 ,davidson1 ,education of the ,greeks2 ,wilkins1 ,national ,education in ,greece2 ,freeman1 ,historical ,essays4 ,history4--,the ideals of ,athens--educational1 political1 and moral--were in direct contrast to those of ,sparta4 ,at ,athens1 love of liberty1 love of knowledge1 and love of beauty went hand in hand4 ,though the body was not neglected1 as is proved by the beautiful types of manhood preserved for us in ,athenian art1 the ,athenians believed that the truest beauty was to be reached only by the development of the mind4 ,hence ,athens brought forth great men like ,pericles1 ,socrates1 ,plato1 and ,aristotle1 she created a literature that has influenced the world1 she developed art to its highest excellence1 and gained for herself a permanent and high place in the world's history4 ,sparta did none of these things1 therefore her ruin was sure and speedy2 while the decline of ,athens was slow and her influence still lives4 ,the spirit of ,athens was liberty1 while that of ,sparta was tyranny4 ,it is true that ,athens had slaves2 indeed1 only one fourth of the inhabitants were free2 but even the slaves had a large share of freedom1 and enjoyed some means of education4 ,we learn that children of the wealthy were committed to trusted slaves1 called pedagogues1 who escorted them to school1 instructed them in many things1 and had a right to punish them for disobedience4 ,this could not have been allowed by parents with such high ideals had the slaves been debased as were those of ,sparta4 ,in ,athens we find for the first time the democratic idea of government2 this was by no means so completely realized as it is in modern times1 especially in the western world4 ,the ,age of ,pericles 7,b4,c4 #dhj-dcj7 forms the most brilliant period of ,athens1 a period hardly surpassed in some respects by any other in the world's history4 ,solon 7,b4,c4 #fch7 was the great lawgiver of ,athens4 ,his wise laws had much influence on the prosperity and intellectual development of the people4 ,the ,home4--,in ,athens the child was left with the mother until the sixth or seventh year4 ,the toys were greater in variety than with any other people of antiquity4 ,they were much the same in character as those of modern times1 and their purpose was to amuse the children rather than to furnish a definite preparation for life1 as in ,persia and ,sparta4 ,play1 therefore1 was recognized as an important factor in the child's life1 and the toys in use stimulated and encouraged the joyous element in the child's nature4 ,that toys are a potent influence toward healthful mental and physical growth is an educational truth that has been fully recognized by us only within recent years4 ,and yet the ,athenians appreciated it in the home1 twenty-five centuries ago4 ,the training was intellectual and humane1 though strict obedience was enforced4 ,great attention was paid to the works of the poets1 selections being taught to all the children4 ,the father interested himself chiefly in the education of the boys1 and when he was unable to discharge this duty an elderly male relative was selected as mentor1 who devoted his leisure hours to such training4 ,little attention was paid to the mental training of the girls4 ,women were not held in so high esteem as in ,sparta1 nor were they as worthy of respect4 ,the husband exercised over his wife the same authority as over his children4 ,neither by social position nor by intellectual attainment was she his equal4 ,her own chamber was the world of the ,athenian woman2 her maids were her companions2 household duties and the preparation of clothing for her family were her employment4 ,education4--,the father was free to choose for his children their school and the character of their education4 ,the ,state furnished gymnasia in which schools could be held1 fixed the qualifications of teachers1 the school hours1 and the number of pupils to a teacher4 ,once a year public examinations were held1 the expense of which the ,state defrayed4 ,the schools were private institutions1 supported by private means1 though under ,state inspection4 ,the teachers were philosophers or wise men1 thoroughly competent to discharge the duties of their office4 ,at six or seven years of age1 the boy was sent to school in charge of a pedagogue1 or leader of the young1--usually an old and trusted slave4 ,while not intrusted with the actual teaching of his charge1 he was responsible for his morals and manners1 and was allowed1 as we have seen1 to administer punishment4 ,the pedagogue was the constant attendant of the boy4 ,the character of the school chosen depended upon the means of the parents4 ,the first two years were devoted chiefly to gymnastics4 ,the two subjects of the elementary course were gymnastics and music1 the latter term including reading and writing4 ,but little arithmetic was taught1 as the ,athenians believed that the object of the study of arithmetic was simply utility1 and but little arithmetic was needed for practical use4 ,calculating boards made the reckoning for all business needs a purely mechanical process4 ,the idea of education was the development of the beautiful1 and they held that arithmetic contributed but little to this end4 ,the works of the poets were given prominence throughout the ,athenian education1 and pupils were required to commit to memory many selections4 ,the ,sophists4--,the ,sophists flourished during the fifth century ,b4,c4 ,their greatest exponents were ,protagoras and ,gorgias4 ,they introduced a movement of which ,schwegler says1 ,it had struck its roots into the whole moral1 political1 and religious character of the ,hellenic life of that time4 ,they wandered about from place to place proclaiming themselves as philosophers and bidding for the patronage of the rich by charging large fees and considering public questions4 ,they discussed error and wrong with the same eloquence and zeal that they discussed truth and justice1 their purpose being to foster eloquence rather than discover truth4 ,hence1 we have the word sophistry1 which means fallacious reasoning4 ,and yet1 in the words of ,schwegler1 ,it cannot be denied that ,protagoras also hit upon many correct principles of rhetoric1 and satisfactorily established certain grammatical categories4 ,it may in general be said of the ,sophists that they gave the people a great profusion of general knowledge2 444 that they called out investigations in the theory of knowledge1 in logic1 and in language2 that they laid the basis for the methodical treatment of many branches of human knowledge1 and that they partly originated and partly assisted the wonderful intellectual activity which characterized ,athens at that time4 ,children of the poorer classes were kept in school until their fourteenth or fifteenth year1 when they learned a trade4 ,those of the rich remained in school until their twentieth year4 ,the course of study of the latter included music1 rhetoric1 grammar1 and philosophy4 ,at twenty the youth's education was regarded as completed1 and the young man became a citizen4 ,teachers were paid fees and not fixed salaries4 ,it was the atmosphere of ,athens1 more than the discipline of the school1 that fostered culture and inspired learning4 ,the aim of education was the beautiful1 and the ideal was the aesthetic in mind and body4 ,criticism of ,athenian ,education4--#a4 ,it sought to educate the entire man1 giving him beauty of form1 keenness of intellect1 and nobleness of heart4 #b4 ,it acknowledged the right of parents to direct and determine the education of their children4 #c4 ,it recognized the importance of the individual as no other people had before4 #d4 ,strict obedience was required of the children4 #e4 ,it produced great men1 with high moral and intellectual ideals1 but these ideals were centered in ,athenian culture4 #f4 ,it excluded women and slaves from its benefits1 and was by no means universal4 #g4 ,it recognized the value of play as an educational force1 thereby anticipating the kindergarten4 #h4 ,the ,state exercised a certain control over the school by furnishing places where it might be held1 by defraying the expense of examinations1 by determining the number of pupils to a teacher1 by fixing the limit of school hours1 and by deciding upon the qualifications of teachers4 ,and yet the choice of education was free1 and its aim was the good of the individual and not the glory of the ,state4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,athenian ,,educators ,literature4--,bulkley1 ,plato's ,best ,thoughts2 ,schwegler1 ,history of ,philosophy2 ,morris1 ,historical ,tales2 ,curtius1 ,history of ,greece2 ,lord1 ,beacon ,lights2 ,spofford1 ,library of ,historical ,characters2 ,jowett1 ,the ,republic of ,plato2 ,vogel1 ,geschichte der ,paedagogik2 ,emerson1 ,representative ,men2 ,de ,quincey1 ,plato's ,republic2 ,hegel1 ,philosophy of ,history4 ,,socrates 7,b4,c4 #dgj-cii7 ,socrates was the son of a sculptor of ,athens4 ,though he learned his father's trade and followed it in early manhood1 he relinquished it to devote himself to the study of philosophy1 for which he had a natural bent4 ,in person he was far from fulfilling the ,athenian ideal of beauty1 being short of stature1 corpulent1 with protruding eyes1 upturned nose1 large mouth1 and thick lips4 ,his domestic life was not happy1 his wife1 ,xantippe1 being a noted shrew4 ,his failure to provide for the material welfare of his family1 though quite natural in a man to whom all material things seemed unessential1 must have sorely tried her patience4 ,but ,socrates bore her scolding with resignation4 ,indeed1 he seemed to regard it as furnishing an opportunity to practice the philosophic patience that he preached4 ,socrates believed that he had a divine call to convince men of ignorance mistaking itself for knowledge1 and by so doing to promote their intellectual and moral development4 ,like many other philosophers1 he spent his time in the streets1 markets1 and other public places1 arguing with any one who would stop to listen or converse4 ,this manner of teaching was common in ,athens1 and he never lacked hearers4 ,the whole atmosphere of the classic city was charged with the spirit of intellectual activity and philosophic discussion4 ,socrates did not teach positive doctrines1 but assumed ignorance himself in order to convince others of ignorance4 ,by a series of suggestive questions he would lead his pupils or opponents into admissions which finally established the truth that ,socrates saw at the outset4 ,this is known as the ,socratic ,method1 or the dialectical method1 and this form of inductive teaching was an important contribution to education4 ,although ,socrates left no writings1 his great pupils1 ,xenophon and ,plato1 have given the world a full account of his teachings4 ,plato speaks in highest terms of his moral character1 declaring that he was not of this world4 ,xenophon also adds his testimony in the following words3 ,no one ever knew of his doing or saying anything profane or unholy4 ,socrates believed in one ,supreme ,being1 the intelligent ,creator of the universe4 ,he also believed in the immortality of the soul4 ,these doctrines were altogether contrary to ,greek polytheism1 the prevailing religion of ,athens1 and they prove him to have been far in advance of the age in which he lived4 ,while he established no school1 ,socrates nevertheless must ever rank as one of the world's greatest teachers and thinkers4 ,in his death he fully exemplified the truth of his own philosophy4 ,he was accused of corrupting the youth and denying the deities1 and was condemned to die by drinking a cup of hemlock4 ,he calmly submitted to his fate1 refusing to avail himself of an opportunity to escape4 ,according to the account given in ,plato's ,phaedo1 he spent his last hours discussing with the friends who attended him the question of the immortality of the soul4 ,,plato 7,b4,c4 #dbi-cdg7 ,plato was a disciple of ,socrates1 and to him we are chiefly indebted for an account of the teachings of his great master4 ,for twenty years he sat at the feet of the philosopher1 and drank from the fountain of knowledge possessed by that wonderful man4 ,he also traveled in other lands1 particularly ,egypt and ,italy1 in pursuit of knowledge4 ,he became one of the most remarkable scholars and philosophers1 not only of antiquity1 but of all time4 ,when forty years of age he founded a school at ,athens1 though it is not as a teacher that he is chiefly known1 but as a writer and sage4 ,plato among the ,greeks1 like ,bacon among the moderns1 was the first who conceived a method of knowledge4 ,his great work is his ,republic1 in which he pictures the ideal ,state and outlines his scheme of education1 which is built on ideals of both ,spartan and ,athenian citizenship4 ,from ,sparta comes the thought of an education which shall be controlled by the ,state from birth2 while ,athens adds the aesthetical aspects to those purely physical4 ,in his scheme he divided the people into the following classes3-- #a4 ,the common people4 ,they should be allowed to rise1 but no education is provided for them in his scheme4 #b4 ,the guardians or citizens1 who shall study music and gymnastics4 ,music includes literature1 that is1 human culture as distinguished from scientific knowledge4 ,writing and arithmetic are also included under music1 the latter not being studied for practical purposes1 but to develop the reason4 #c4 ,the rulers1 who1 in addition to the preceding subjects1 shall study geometry1 astronomy1 rhetoric1 and philosophy4 ,the ,state is to have absolute control of every citizen2 it shall arrange marriages1 destroy weak and unpromising children1 and remove the healthy babes at birth to public nurseries1 where mothers may care for the children in common1 but will not recognize or take special interest in their own children4 ,boys and girls are to be educated alike4 ,great care is to be taken that nothing mean or vile shall be shown to children2 their environments shall be beautiful and ennobling1 though simple4 ,from birth to seven years of age the child is to have plenty of physical exercise4 ,he shall hear fairy tales and selections from the poets1 but careful censorship must be placed on everything presented to him4 ,suitable playthings are to be provided1 precaution taken against fear of darkness1 and by gentleness combined with firmness a manly spirit is to be produced4 ,beauty of mind and body are to be harmoniously united4 ,from seven to thirteen intellectual as well as physical activity is required4 ,the special education begins at twenty by the selection of the most promising youths4 ,at thirty another selection of those able to continue their education five years more is made4 ,higher mathematics1 astronomy1 harmony1 and science constitute the work of the first ten years1 and philosophical study that of the last five4 ,fifteen years then are to be given to the service of the ,state1 after which1 at fifty1 the student may return to the study of philosophy for the remainder of his life4 ,education is to be compulsory1 as the child belongs to the ,state and not to the parent4 ,plato gave predominance to intellectual rather than to physical culture1 as he said1 ,if the mind be educated it will take care of the body1 for the good soul improves the body1 and not the good body the soul4 ,he taught that it is the aim of education to bring all of the powers of man into harmonious cooeperation4 ,it will thus be seen that ,plato's scheme of education centers around the oriental idea that man belongs to the ,state1 and the main purpose of education is to fit him to serve the ,state4 ,and ,plato clearly set forth how the education which he demanded should be attained1 and therefore he is to be remembered as originating the first systematic scheme of education in history4 ,,aristotle 7,b4,c4 #chd-cbb7ag ,aristotle was born in ,stagira in ,macedonia1 and from this fact he is called the ,stagirite4 ,for twenty years he was a pupil of ,plato1 as ,plato had been of ,socrates4 ,aristotle was not only one of the greatest philosophers that ever lived1 but he enjoyed the distinction of being the teacher and chosen counselor of ,alexander the ,great4 ,much of the greatness of the man who conquered the world and wept because there were no more worlds to conquer was due to his wise teacher4 ,alexander loved and revered ,aristotle as much as his father1 declaring that he was indebted to the one for living1 and to the other for living well4 ,he assisted ,aristotle in founding a school at his native place1 ,stagira4 ,it is not simply as the teacher of ,alexander the ,great that ,aristotle is to be remembered in the history of education1 though that would entitle him to lasting fame4 ,after the education of ,alexander was finished1 ,aristotle went to ,athens1 where he founded the ,lyceum4 ,here he lectured for many years1 in the morning to his riper pupils on philosophical subjects1 and in the evening to the masses on such topics as were within their comprehension and as would tend to elevate them4 ,his pedagogy may be briefly outlined as follows3-- #a4 ,education is a lifelong task1 beginning at birth and continuing till death4 ,the first seven years are to be spent in the home under the fostering care of the parents4 ,during this period the child is to have no severe tasks1 but chief attention is to be given to physical development4 ,he must learn obedience1 as the first step to an ethical life4 ,his food and clothing are to be simple1 and his toys and games of a character to stimulate wholesome activity4 ,at the age of seven he is to enter upon the direct intellectual training1 and nothing must interfere with this during the next seven years4 ,from fourteen to twenty-one the education is to include such exercises as directly prepare for life4 ,the diet is to be simple1 the physical training severe1 for the double purpose of counteracting the tendencies of the adolescent period1 and of preparing for war4 #b4 ,education includes the development of the body1 the character1 and the intellect4 ,courage1 endurance1 self-denial1 temperance1 truthfulness1 and justice are essential characteristics to be sought4 ,the purpose of instruction is to develop the imperfect1 untrained child into the well-rounded1 intelligent1 and patriotic citizen4 #c4 ,the course of study1 which begins seriously after the seventh year1 includes music1 gymnastics1 drawing1 grammar1 rhetoric1 and mathematics4 ,later1 dialectics1 philosophy1 and political science are to be added4 #d4 ,woman is to have part in education that she may properly train her children1 and may1 by an intelligent understanding of the laws1 uphold the ,state4 #e4 ,aristotle considered education as the most important and most difficult of all problems4 ,he based his pedagogy upon a knowledge of the individual4 #f4 ,his method was the analytical4 ,he began with things and advanced from the concrete to the abstract4 ,the foregoing will show that ,aristotle began the study of problems that still occupy the minds of educational thinkers1 after more than twenty-two centuries of search for the truth4 ,some of the problems he discussed have found their solution1 and the seed sown by the great thinker has come to fruitage4 ,karl ,schmidt says1 ,aristotle is the intellectual ,alexander4 ,rich in experience and profound in speculation1 he penetrates all parts of the universe and seeks to reduce all realities to concepts4 ,he is the most profound and comprehensive thinker of the pre-,christian world1--the ,hegel of classical antiquity1--because1 like ,hegel1 he seeks to unify all knowledge1 brings together the scattered materials of the present into one system1 constructs in a wonderful intellectual temple the psychical and physical ,cosmos1 the universe and ,god1 proclaims the destruction of an earlier culture epoch1 and sets in motion waves in the ocean of history that are destined to influence the intellectual life of all centuries to come4444 ,aristotle stands for the highest intellectual summit of antiquity1--the bridge which binds the ,grecian to the modern world1--the philosophical mouthpiece and the intellectual master of twenty centuries4 ,,footnotes3 #ag ,brother ,azarias1 ,essays ,philosophical4 ,,chapter ,x ,,sparta ,literature4--7,see general literature for ,greece47 ,sankey1 ,spartan and ,theban ,supremacies2 ,smith1 ,history of ,greece2 ,plutarch's ,lives2 ,mombert1 ,great ,lives2 ,spofford1 ,library of ,historical ,characters4 ,history4--,sparta was the capital of ,laconia1 the southern province of ,greece4 ,its inhabitants consisted of3-- #a4 ,citizens1 composed of nine thousand families of nobles1 who ruled the other classes4 #b4 ,perioeci1#ah composed of thirty thousand families of freemen who lived in the territory surrounding ,sparta1 but who were subject to the nobles4 #c4 ,helots1#ai about three hundred thousand in number1 who were slaves4 ,the ,perioeci and the helots1 with the love of freedom characteristic among the ,greeks1 chafed under their yoke of subjugation1 and eagerly watched for opportunities for revolt4 ,only by an exercise of superior force could the nobles maintain their supremacy1 and they were obliged to seek by martial training the strength they lacked in numbers4 ,hence the education of the ,spartan youth was of necessity military1 and every citizen was trained to become a warrior4 ,the ,spartans were dignified1 austere1 and of few words1 laconic in speech4 ,the young were expected to be silent in the presence of their elders except when addressed4 ,they were taught to give way to their seniors1 especially to old men1 whenever they met upon the street or in a public place4 ,the ,home4--,the child was left in charge of the mother until six or seven years of age4 ,toys inciting to warlike sports were provided1 and childhood was made happy4 ,the father usually superintended the child's training1 but sometimes an aged relative assumed the responsibility4 ,the treatment was humane and intelligent4 ,from the first the child was taught implicit obedience and modesty4 ,the ,iliad and the ,odyssey have been called the ,bible of the ,greeks1 and children early learned extracts from the works of the great poet1 ,homer4 ,the ,spartan mother was highly respected by her husband and her children1 and she was noted for her chastity and nobility of character4 ,she entered fully into the ,spartan idea1 and cheerfully gave her sons to her country1 while she often inspired them to deeds of bravery and patriotism4 ,the lofty and self-sacrificing patriotism of the ,spartan mother is illustrated by her words upon sending her son to battle1--,return either with your shield or on it6 ,it is said that weak and unpromising children were either killed as soon as they were born1 or abandoned to the wild beasts upon the mountains4 ,this was because the ,state would assume the training only of strong children1 such as were likely to make good soldiers4 ,it is probable that many of these abandoned children were rescued and reared by the lower classes1 which would partially account for the fierce resistance so often offered by these classes to those who deprived them of liberty4 ,if such an inhuman practice had been encouraged by other nations of the world1 many of the greatest benefactors of the race would have been consigned to an untimely death1 for some of the noblest men that have ever lived were weak in infancy4 ,education4--,at six or seven the boy was taken from the home1 and the ,state had entire jurisdiction over his education4 ,the boys were placed in groups in charge of young men who were responsible for their education1 which was almost wholly physical4 ,they lived on very simple food1 and were often obliged to appease hunger by theft4 ,they were taught that crime did not lie in the commission of the offense1 but in its detection4 ,their dress from seven to twelve consisted of a long coat of very coarse material1 the same for summer and winter4 ,they were taught to bear blows without a murmur1 and instances are related of boys being whipped to death without crying out4 ,children sat at table with older men and listened to their conversation1 but they were never allowed to speak except in answer to questions4 ,thus they absorbed wisdom and were incited to deeds of bravery by the stories of heroism related by their seniors4 ,the ,state furnished barracks poorly provided with the comforts of life1 in which the boys slept in severe weather2 at other times they slept in the open air4 ,they were wholly separated from their homes1 and completely under control of the ,state4 ,the purpose was to secure strong1 beautiful1 and supple bodies1 inured to hardship1 as a preparation for the life of the soldier4 ,the only intellectual education was music1 which consisted in playing the lyre as an accompaniment to the dance4 ,reading and writing were despised as being fit only for slaves4 ,at the age of twelve the boy exchanged the long coat for the mantle1 thereby entering upon manhood4 ,from this time until the age of thirty1 much the same form of training was continued1 though it became more definitely military4 ,at thirty the ,spartan youth became a citizen and was expected to marry4 ,girls also received gymnastic training1 in many cases with the boys4 ,the purpose of this was to develop strong and beautiful wives and mothers4 ,the effect of this coeducation of the sexes was in the highest degree salutary1 impurity among women being unknown in ,sparta4 ,we have already noted the patriotism of the ,spartan mother4 ,woman was highly esteemed in the home4 ,her praises and her reproofs were alike respected1 and all her opinions bore much weight4 ,criticism of ,spartan ,education4--#a4 ,it produced men and women of beautiful physique4 #b4 ,it inculcated obedience1 politeness1 modesty1 sobriety1 respect for the aged1 courage1 and patriotism4 #c4 ,it checked luxury and extravagance4 #d4 ,on the other hand1 it gave little attention to intellectual training1 hence it produced few men of lasting fame4 #e4 ,its aim was martial supremacy1 and this attained1 the ,state fell into a hasty decline because of the instability of such a foundation4 #f4 ,it excluded a large part of the inhabitants from its benefits1 only the nobles being included4 #g4 ,it was selfish because it trained for ,sparta and not for ,greece1 or for humanity4 #h4 ,it taught the duty of man to the ,state1 and not the duty of man to man4 #i4 ,it took boys at an early age away from the influences of home1 thus robbing the parents of the sacred prerogative of directing the education of their offspring4 #aj4 ,it produced men cruel in battle and revengeful in victory1 men incapable of cultivating the arts of peace4 ,,lycurgus ,there is so much that is mythical and uncertain concerning ,lycurgus that many have doubted whether he ever lived4 ,curtius1 however1 says1 ,there really lived in the ninth century ,b4,c4 a legislator of the name of ,lycurgus4 ,lycurgus formed the constitution which gave ,sparta its peculiar institutions1 and which established its place in history4 ,his laws were intended to check luxury and to inculcate the simplest habits4 ,some of his important laws led to the introduction of the following customs3-- #a4 ,all the men ate at common tables1 fifteen at a table4 #b4 ,children sat at these tables1 but were required to maintain silence save when addressed4 ,they were not allowed to ask for food4 ,the object was to teach them good manners1 to inculcate implicit obedience1 and to impart to them the wisdom of the ,spartan fathers4 #c4 ,the food was of the simplest kind4 #d4 ,sparta was divided into nine thousand parts1 a part for each of the nine thousand citizens1 or noble families4 ,the provinces under ,spartan rule were divided into thirty thousand parts1 a part for each ,perioeci family4 #e4 ,iron was made the only money1 so that the people could not become rich2 for its great weight rendered burdensome the possession of a considerable amount4 #f4 ,all children belonged to the ,state1 to which only soldiers were valuable1 therefore weak or deformed children were cast out4 ,marriage was also controlled by the ,state4 ,lycurgus exerted a great influence upon ,sparta1 and his laws were responsible for her peculiar political system and her resulting greatness4 ,,pythagoras ,pythagoras1 though not a ,spartan1 is associated with southern ,greece4 ,little is known of his early life4 ,he was born on the island of ,samos1 about ,b4,c4 #ehb4 ,he was familiar with the ,ionic philosophy1 and probably visited ,egypt for study1 a custom common among scholars of that time4 ,such a visit would in part explain his knowledge of mathematics1 as the ,egyptians had long been masters in that science4 ,one of his teachers was ,thales1 the father of philosophy4 ,the fundamental thought of the ,pythagorean philosophy was the idea of proportion and harmony4 ,through number alone1 the quantitative relations of things1 extension1 magnitude1 figure 7triangular1 quadrangular1 cubic71 combination1 distance1 etc41 obtain their peculiar character2 the forms and proportions of things can all be reduced to number4 ,therefore1 it was concluded1 since without form and proportion nothing can exist1 number must be the principle of things themselves1 as well as the order in which they manifest themselves in the world4 7,schwegler's ,history of ,philosophy47 ,while mathematics was the central idea of his system1 medicine1 physics1 and philosophy were also taught in his school4 ,he did the world great service in the discovery of the so-called ,pythagorean theorem in geometry1 that the square of the hypotenuse of a right-angled triangle is equal to the sum of the squares of the other two sides4 ,,footnotes3 #ah ,the ,perioeci 7dwellers around7 were the older population of the land1 who inhabited the mountains and hillsides about ,sparta4 ,they were farmers1 and they also worked the mines and quarries1 manufactured articles for the ,spartan market1 and carried on the commerce4 ,though freemen1 they were allowed no part in the government1 could not bear arms1 and had to pay tribute to ,sparta4 #ai ,the ,helots were probably peasants who occupied the land about ,helos1 and1 defeated in war1 became ,spartan subjects4 ,they could not be sold or given away1 but belonged to the inventory of the farm4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,,rome ,literature4--,bryce1 ,the ,holy ,roman ,empire2 ,bury1 ,the ,roman ,empire2 ,church1 ,pictures from ,roman ,life and ,story2 ,clarke1 ,ten ,great ,religions2 ,gibbon1 ,decline and ,fall of ,roman ,empire2 ,lord1 ,beacon ,lights2 ,capes1 ,roman ,empire2 ,merivale1 ,history of the ,romans2 ,shumway1 ,a ,day in ,ancient ,rome2 ,mommsen1 ,history of ,rome2 ,liddell1 ,history of ,rome2 ,ploetz1 ,epitome of ,universal ,history2 ,gilman1 ,story of ,rome2 ,collins1 ,ancient ,classics2 ,monroe1 ,source ,book of the ,history of ,education4 ,the ,age of ,augustus4--,the history of ,rome covers a period of a thousand years4 ,from the little village on the ,palatine ,hill ,rome grew to be the mightiest empire of the world4 ,the ,age of ,augustus represents not only the summit of military glory1 but also the highest civilization1 and the noblest ideals of the ,roman people4 ,it was the age of ,vergil1 ,horace1 ,ovid1 ,livy1 and ,seneca4 ,rome was at peace with the world1 and therefore had time to devote to art1 literature1 and other intellectual pursuits4 ,it was during this period that ,christ was born4 ,like ,sparta1 ,rome for a long time maintained her supremacy by force of arms1 and therefore encouraged physical education4 ,but when she became mistress of the world1 and came in contact with the culture of the ,greeks1 she began to feel the need of an intellectual and aesthetic development4 ,accordingly it became the fashion to study ,greek1 to bring teachers from ,athens to ,rome1 and to send young men to ,athens to study4 ,the ,roman ,empire was therefore the medium through which ,grecian culture was transmitted to the western world1 and during the ,augustan ,age the center of learning was transferred from ,athens to ,rome4 ,gibbon says1 ,the first seven centuries were filled with a rapid succession of triumphs2 but it was reserved for ,augustus to relinquish the ambitious design of subduing the whole earth1 and to introduce a spirit of moderation into the public councils4#bj ,the ,augustan ,age shows ,rome at her best1 and a study of the educational system at that time will be most fruitful for the student of pedagogy4 ,geography and ,history4--,we have seen that ,rome began with a small territory in the center of ,italy1 and that province after province was added1 until in the time of ,augustus she ruled the world4 ,italy1 the center of the empire1 has a diversified surface1 a mild climate1 and a fertile soil4 ,in the time of ,augustus1 the ,roman ,empire embraced all of the border of the ,mediterranean1 extended as far north as the ,north ,sea1 as far east as the ,euphrates1 as far south as the ,sahara1 and west to the ,atlantic4 ,with the great ,mediterranean entirely under its control1 including the seas1 bays1 and rivers tributary to it2 with its rich territories2 and with its vast population1 which represented most of the enterprise and civilization of the world1--this great empire possessed wonderful advantages for the spread of ,christianity1 for the dissemination of intelligence1 and for the improvement of the human race4 ,the government of the ,romans was generally some form of republic1 the people always being jealous of their rights4 ,their religion took on gross forms of idolatry1 for they readily adopted and worshiped the gods of the ,grecians1 ,egyptians1 and other conquered peoples4 ,temples to ,faith1 ,hope1 ,concord1 and other virtues were erected and maintained4 ,the ,romans were very superstitious4 ,these facts have a bearing upon ,christian education1 and will explain some of the chief difficulties which it had to encounter4 ,the ,home4--,while in ,athens the father had charge of the education of the boy in his early years1 in ,rome that duty devolved almost entirely upon the mother4 ,in early ,roman history the matron was celebrated for her virtues--fidelity to her husband1 love for her children1 and queenly guardianship of the sacred precincts of the home4 ,the name of the ,roman matron became a synonym of all that is noble1 wifely1 and motherly in the home4 ,without doubt the character had sadly deteriorated at the period of which we write1 but there still remained with many the lofty ideals which had been fostered in earlier times4 ,the husband was the head of the house1 but to the wife was committed the care of the children and their instruction for the first six or seven years of their lives4 ,she taught them strict obedience and politeness1 and instructed them in the ,twelve ,tables of ,roman ,law4#ba ,the mother also took great pains to teach her children correct pronunciation4 ,she taught them their letters1 first the name and then the form1 a practice which is pedagogically false1 as ,quintilian pointed out4 ,she also taught them poems from the great masters4 ,in taking pains with pronunciation she prepared the way for later training in oratory1 which was the most important study in ,roman education4 ,only when ,rome had begun to decay did mothers commit the training of their children to nurses and slaves4 ,when ,rome was at her best1 the child grew up in an atmosphere of love under direct care of the mother1 who shaped his morals and guided his religious life as well as his early mental development4 ,around the mother centered all that was ennobling and elevating in the first seven years of the child's life4 ,the father had but little to do with this period1 and did not interfere with the mother's work4 ,his duty lay in public life2 hers lay within the home1 and well did she meet her responsibilities until the time of her debasement with all the other elements of ,roman society4 ,elementary ,education4--,at six or seven years of age the child was sent to school in charge of a slave1 who carried his books and protected him from harm4 ,this was in imitation of the practice in ,athens1 where the pedagogue performed a like office4 ,but the duties of the ,roman slave do not seem to have been as responsible as those of the ,athenian pedagogue4 ,as we have seen1 in ,rome the mothers looked after the morals of their children with great care1 and the attendant of the child to school was regarded as but little else than a servant4 ,in some of the wealthier and more aristocratic families1 however1 in addition to the slave who performed the menial duties mentioned1 there was also a pedagogue who attended the youth to school and to the theater1 superintended his games1 and1 in short1 accompanied him wherever he went4 ,this pedagogue was intrusted with full power to discipline and to direct the morals of his charge4 ,in some cases several boys were placed in the care of the same pedagogue4 ,on the other hand1 it often happened that a boy had a whole retinue of slaves1 each having his special duty to perform4 ,the schools were in charge of literators1 usually men of little culture and no social standing4 ,these institutions were public1 though supported by private means4 ,the discipline was severe1 strict obedience being exacted by the teacher1 who made use of the rod when he thought it necessary4 ,the subjects taught were reading1 writing1 and arithmetic4 ,great care was taken with pronunciation1 just as had been done in the early years under the mother's instruction4 ,in writing1 the characters were traced with the stylus on waxed tablets4 ,arithmetic was learned for its utility4 ,indeed1 the whole purpose of the schools was to prepare the children for practical life4 ,the easier poets were read1 explained1 and committed to memory1 not so much for their content as to fit youth for public speaking4 ,obedience1 politeness1 modesty1 cleanliness1 and respect for teachers were virtues insisted upon4 ,these schools1 which covered the instruction of children from five to twelve years of age1 did not1 as already intimated1 reach the very highest classes1 who preferred to employ private tutors4 ,secondary ,education4--,at twelve the boy entered a school taught by an educated man1 called literatus4 ,many of the teachers of this class were ,greeks4 ,here1 in addition to the studies of the elementary school1 the pupils were taught the ,greek and ,latin languages2 and the poets1 history1 oratory1 philosophy1 and criticism were also studied4 ,the school of the literatus was much better than that of the literator1 but it reached only a limited number of the ,roman youth4 ,higher ,education4--,upon entering his sixteenth year1 the boy was inducted with ceremony into the dignity of manhood1 and was clothed with the toga virilis1 the dress of men4 ,he now chose his calling and began definite preparation for it4 ,five vocations were open to him1--namely1 oratory1 politics1 arms1 law1 and agriculture4 ,those without talent or inclination for any of the others devoted themselves to agriculture4 ,they were taken to the farms1 where they received definite instruction in the principles and practices of this occupation4 ,to those who chose oratory1 politics1 or law1 were assigned persons experienced in their respective fields1 and the boys were taken to the forum1 the senate1 and other places where they could hear renowned orators and become familiar with public life4 ,they had also definite instruction in their chosen branch4 ,those who entered the army were placed in charge of military officers1 who taught them military tactics and the practical duties of life in camp4 ,these learners also gave attention to oratory and other intellectual studies4 ,it will thus appear that in their schools1 as in life1 the ,romans were thoroughly practical4 ,each boy was carefully prepared for the life which he had chosen1 by being inducted into it during his school course4 ,cicero asked the question1 ,what have we to learn8 and answered it1 ,to honor and strengthen the ,state1 in order that we may become the rulers of the world4 ,roman parents demanded that their children should be trained in the practical duties of life1 in order that they might know how to become rich4 ,therefore all training for children was in this direction4 ,while this in general was the purpose of education1 the ,romans had their ideal of what an educated man should be1 and that ideal found its expression in the name of orator4 ,he who was the best orator was the best educated man4 ,the schools1 however1 were for boys1 little account being taken of the education of girls except in household duties4 ,still1 women were more respected1 and had wider privileges than they had before enjoyed4 ,most of the wealthy citizens employed ,greek tutors for their sons1 and sought to ape ,grecian manners and culture4 ,education was completed by study in ,athens and by travel--advantages within reach only of the very wealthy4 ,criticism of ,roman ,education4--#a4 ,it took great care to instill respect for law and obedience to parental and civil authority4 #b4 ,it honored the home and taught respect for the mother4 ,in this1 ,rome took a great step in advance over many nations of antiquity4 #c4 ,it was not a ,state institution1 and therefore could not offer equal advantages to all4 #d4 ,its end was to prepare the youth for practical life and to fit him for the acquirement of wealth1 rather than for the development of all the human powers4 #e4 ,it was superficial1 and sought to apply ,greek culture to ,roman conditions and character4 #f4 ,it did not take a strong hold upon the ,roman people so as to shape the course of the nation4 #g4 ,it ignored the claims of the masses1 including women1 to equal education and equal rights4 ,,footnotes3 #bj ,decline and ,fall of the ,roman ,empire1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #b4 #ba ,the ,twelve ,tables were formulated about ,b4,c4 #dej4 ,they constituted the code of written law1 and were written or engraved on tables of wood4 ,they settled usages long in practice1 but never before written1 defining the rights of plebeians and patricians4 ,they were agreed to only after ten years of dispute and mutual concession4 ,they resembled ,solon's laws1 owing1 doubtless1 to the commission which was sent to ,greece to study the laws of that country4 ,these tables were destroyed when the ,gauls sacked ,rome 7,b4,c4 #cij71 but their contents had been widely committed to memory1 and were handed down from generation to generation4 ,the mothers saw to it that these laws were early taught to their children1 who thus came to venerate them and to have respect for authority4 ,,chapter ,,xii ,,roman ,,educators ,literature4--7,see ,literature1 ,chapter ,,xi47 ,forsyth1 ,life of ,cicero2 ,spofford1 ,library of ,historical ,characters2 ,watson1 ,quintilian's ,institutes 7,pedagogy1 in ,bks4 ,i ,,ii74 ,,cicero#bb 7,b4,c4 #ajf-dc7 ,cicero was born ,b4,c4 #ajf1 of noble parents4 ,as a boy he had the advantage of the best schools and teachers that ,rome could furnish4 ,later he studied at ,athens1 under the greatest ,greek masters1 and became proficient in the ,greek language4 ,according to the common practice among the better classes in ,rome1 he spent some time in travel to complete his education1 visiting ,egypt1 ,asia ,minor1 and other parts of the known world4 ,but ,cicero's education can hardly be said to have been completed as long as he lived1 for he remained a student even in the midst of his most exacting duties of ,state1 and often employed teachers1 especially in oratory4 ,forsyth says of him1 ,philosophy and oratory seem to have been the two chief objects of his study2 but if of any man before ,bacon appeared that might be said which the great master of modern philosophy claimed for himself1 that he 'had taken all knowledge for his province1' it might be truly declared of the youthful ,cicero4 ,his appetite for knowledge was insatiable1 and his desire for distinction boundless4#bc ,becoming an advocate in ,rome1 he devoted himself chiefly to the defense of men high in position1 often those who were charged with bribery1 extortion1 or other abuse of political trust4 ,some of his finest orations were delivered on these occasions4 ,in the meantime he lost no opportunity to advance his own political interests4 ,he was elected to one office after another until he reached the height of his political ambition1--the consulship of ,rome1 the loftiest position attainable by the ,roman citizen4 ,as consul he devoted himself with such zeal1 integrity1 and success as to win the title ,father of his ,country4 ,while he held this office he exposed the conspiracy of ,catiline and saved ,rome from civil war4 ,he conducted the office with honesty and efficiency4 ,indeed1 at a time of great corruption1 ,cicero stands out during his entire life of nearly sixty-four years as the purest patriot1 the broadest-minded statesman1 the noblest man of the age4 ,his honesty in public or private life is unquestioned4 ,of his intellectual greatness ,forsyth says1 ,the greatness of his intellect dwarfed that of every other man alive4#bd ,that he was vain of his accomplishments admits of no doubt4 ,that he also sometimes lacked moral courage and was vacillating seems also true4 ,but he was incorruptible in a corrupt age2 above reproach when impure life was the rule2 and when treason was common1 he remained a firm patriot4 ,his celebrated ,philippics were delivered against practices which indicated the approaching ruin of the republic4 ,that ruin was complete when the ,second ,triumvirate was formed1--an event which also sealed the doom of ,cicero4 ,upon learning that he was proscribed1 ,cicero attempted to escape from ,italy1 but was overtaken and assassinated4 ,his head and hands were carried to ,rome and presented to ,antony1 who gave the head to his wife1 ,fulvia1 whose crimes ,cicero had often rebuked4 ,forsyth says1 ,she took it1 and placing it on her lap1 addressed it as if it were alive1 in words of bitter insult4 ,she dragged out the tongue1 whose sarcasms she had so often felt1 and with feminine rage pierced it with her bodkin4 ,it was then taken and nailed to the rostra1 together with the hands1 to molder there in mockery of the triumphs of his eloquence1 of which that spot had so often been the scene4 ,a sadder sight was never gazed upon in ,rome4#be ,cicero's ,pedagogy4--,it is not as a teacher1 but as a writer1 that ,cicero demands a place in educational history4 ,his writings furnish the finest examples of ,latin style1 and his orations are studied for their classic beauty and rhetorical finish4 ,he wrote many philosophical works1 in which are set forth advanced ideas on education4 ,especially was he in advance of his age in regard to the punishment of children4 ,he held that corporal punishment should be resorted to only when all else has failed2 that the child should not be degraded in the mode of punishment2 that punishment should never be administered in anger1 should be deferred until ample time for reflection has been allowed to both teacher and pupil2 and that reasons for it should be given1 so that1 if possible1 the child may be led to see the justice of the punishment inflicted4 ,the teachings of ,cicero on this subject are of great pedagogical importance1 and they have at last come to be recognized in the school practice of the present day4 ,while these were ,cicero's most important pedagogical teachings1 he also taught many other truths valuable in education4 ,among them are these3 that education begins in childhood1 and is a steady growth throughout life2 that memory should be cultivated by learning extracts from classic authors2 that great care should be taken to make the amusements and environments of the child such as to elevate and refine1 as well as properly to develop its powers2 that at the suitable time some calling should be chosen for which the youth has evident fitness2 that religion is the basis of morals1 therefore careful attention should be given to religious instruction4 ,,seneca 7,b4,c4 #c-;,a4,d4 #fe7 ,seneca was one of the most distinguished men that ,rome produced4 ,even as a boy he showed remarkable talent1 and his father furnished him the best educational opportunities by placing him under the greatest masters in the city4 ,he also had the benefit of travel in ,greece and ,egypt1 after which he practiced law in ,rome4 ,the student of education is interested in ,seneca chiefly as the tutor of ,nero1 who was committed to his charge at the age of eleven4 ,without doubt the lad had already formed vicious habits1 as his teacher had great trouble in managing him2 nor did ,seneca eradicate those evil tendencies which bore such terrible fruit in ,nero's later years4 ,nero retained his love for his teacher for a long time1 keeping him as a trusted counselor for several years4 ,seneca drew up all of ,nero's state papers1 among others one defending the crime of matricide1 ,nero having put his own mother to death4 ,this brought deserved odium upon ,seneca's name4 ,it indicates that he was a time-server1 lacking moral independence and firmness4 ,this may explain his failure in the training of his royal pupil4 ,nero himself wearied of his old teacher and friend1 and condemned him to death4 ,seneca1 however1 committed suicide1 a mode of death quite in accord with his ,stoic philosophy4 ,seneca was the most eminent writer1 rhetorician1 and orator of his time4 ,he anticipated many modern ethical teachings1 and in some of his writings we find a strong religious sentiment1 quite like that of ,christianity1 leading one to think that he may have been influenced by ,christ and his disciples1 with whom he was contemporary4 ,on the other hand1 some of his teachings are decidedly repulsive to ,christianity4 ,seneca's ,pedagogy4--#a4 ,like ,cicero1 he believed that punishment should be mild and reasonable4 ,who condemns quickly1 condemns willingly2 and who punishes too much1 punishes improperly4 #b4 ,the office of education is to correct the evil tendencies in the child4 #c4 ,the character of each child must be studied1 and each individual should be developed according to his peculiarities4 #d4 ,do not flatter the child1 but teach him truthfulness1 modesty1 and respect for his elders4 #e4 ,take great care that the environment of the child is elevating1 and allow only pure and ennobling examples to be reflected before him4 #f4 ,give the child but few studies1 in order that he may be thorough and acquire right habits of learning4 #g4 ,the office of teacher is one of the most important of all offices4 ,what the teacher1 who instructs us in the sciences1 imparts to us in noble effort and intellectual culture1 is worth more than he receives2 for1 not the matter1 but the trouble2 not the desert1 but only the labor1 is paid for4444 ,such a man1 who consecrates his whole being to our good1 and who awakens our dormant faculties1 is deserving all the esteem that we give a benevolent physician or our most loved and dearest kindred4 ,,quintilian#bf ,no other ,roman contributed so much pedagogy to the world as ,quintilian4 ,he was born in ,spain1 but early moved to ,rome1 in order to be trained in the atmosphere of culture which that city alone afforded4 ,his education was conducted by his father1 a celebrated rhetorician1 to whom he owed the particular direction of his powers which afterward made him so famous4 ,he chose the law as a profession1 because it offered the best opportunity for the exercise of oratory4 ,not finding the practice of law congenial1 he soon abandoned it1 and devoted his time to teaching4 ,he founded a school at ,rome1 and conducted it with great success for twenty years1 having for pupils children from the most distinguished patrician families4 ,among these were the grandnephews of ,domitian1 possible heirs to the throne4 ,this was the best school in ,rome at that time4 ,vespasian honored ,quintilian by creating for him a chair of rhetoric and conferring upon him the title ,professor of ,oratory4 ,this is the first instance in history of ,state endowment of a chair for teaching a specific subject4 ,royal recognition was not without effect upon the fortunes of ,quintilian1 as it placed him in the front rank of the teachers of ,rome4 ,this1 together with his subject1 the teaching and mastery of which were considered by the ,romans to be the climax of education1 enabled him to wrest supremacy from the ,greek teachers who so long had enjoyed a monopoly of teaching in the city4 ,when fifty-three years of age1 ,quintilian retired from his school1 and devoted himself to authorship4 ,in the first two books of his great work1 ,institutes of ,oratory1#bg he sets forth his ideas on education4 ,this is the most remarkable treatise on education bequeathed to us by antiquity4 ,he taught that as oratory was the climax of ,roman education1 especial attention should be given to it4 ,he was not in sympathy with the prevailing use that was made of oratory4 ,oratorical contests were frequent1 and they excited popular interest4 ,courts1 lawyers1 and public speakers resorted to all the tricks of speech to win popular favor1 and audiences demanded something startling1 dramatic1 and unusual4 ,quintilian tried to stay this tide1 and taught that oratory should conceal itself4 ,he met1 however1 with poor success in reforming the evil4 ,quintilian's ,pedagogy4--,his pedagogical teachings1 some of which we present1 are of the greatest importance4 #a4 ,there should be no corporal punishment1 as punishment administered to slaves is not suitable for children who are to be citizens4 #b4 ,nurses must be irreproachable in life and language1 so that children be not brought in contact with anything impure4 #c4 ,amusements should be turned to account as a means of education4 #d4 ,teachers should be men of ability and of spotless character4 #e4 ,children should begin early with a foreign tongue1 as their own language will come to them naturally in their intercourse with those about them4 #f4 ,education should begin with the earliest childhood4 #g4 ,the forms and names of the letters should be learned simultaneously1 playthings being utilized to assist in this4 #h4 ,care should be taken that children do not acquire a distaste for learning4 #i4 ,in learning to read1 advance very slowly4 #aj4 ,writing should begin with tracing1 and the copies should consist of moral precepts4 #aa4 ,the individuality of the child should be studied4 #ab4 ,public schools are preferable to other means of education1 because they do not subject the child to greater moral danger1 while they stimulate him by association1 friendship1 and example1 to nobler endeavor4 #ac4 ,under the literatus1 grammar1 composition1 music1 geometry1 astronomy1 and literature are to be studied4 #ad4 ,the climax of education should be rhetoric4 ,other ,roman ,educators4--,among the other ,roman educators may be mentioned ,plutarch 7#ej-ach ,a4,d47 and the ,emperor ,marcus ,aurelius4 ,plutarch in his ,parallel ,lives gives particular attention to morals4 ,he offers valuable suggestions as to the training of children1 laying great stress upon family life1 an admonition particularly needed in ,rome at that period4 ,he also urges that women should be educated in order properly to train their children1 being one of the first to consider this question4 ,marcus ,aurelius1 called the philosopher on the throne1 in his ,meditations gave expression to most lofty thoughts1 showing keenest self-examination and obedience to conscience4 ,his moral teachings are among the noblest of all the writers of antiquity4 ,,footnotes3 #bb ,forsyth1 ,life of ,cicero4 ,this is a very complete1 just1 and discriminating treatment of ,cicero and his relation to the times in which he lived4 #bc ,life of ,cicero1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #cj4 #bd ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #bac4 #be ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #cag4 #bf ,authorities differ as to the dates of ,quintilian's birth and death1 placing his birth at from ,a4,d4 #ce to #db1 and his death from ,a4,d4 #ie to #abj4 ,drieser1 who is perhaps the best authority1 places his birth at ,a4,d4 #ce1 but does not fix the date of his death1 which1 however1 was probably much later than ,a4,d4 #ie as he lived to a ripe old age4 #bg ,institutio ,oratoria4 ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,christian ,,education ,literature4--,bryce1 ,holy ,roman ,empire2 ,guizot1 ,history of ,civilization2 ,lord1 ,beacon ,lights2 ,sheppard1 ,fall of ,rome2 ,draper1 ,conflict between ,religion and ,science2 ,clarke1 ,ten ,great ,religions2 ,gibbon1 ,decline and ,fall of ,roman ,empire2 ,laurie1 ,rise of ,universities2 ,stille1 ,studies in ,mediaeval ,history2 ,arnold1 ,essays in ,criticism2 ,lecky1 ,history of ,european ,morals2 ,hegel1 ,philosophy of ,history2 ,allies1 ,the ,formation of ,christendom2 ,chateaubriand1 ,the ,genius of ,christianity2 ,azarias1 ,essays ,philosophical4 ,,introduction ,oriental civilization was based on the theory that the individual belonged to the ,state1 and could have no interest except that which was bound up in the interests of the ,state4 ,christianity1 on the other hand1 taught that while the individual has duties which he owes to the ,state1 and while he must look to the ,state for his protection1 and for the preservation of his material interests1 he owes a higher allegiance elsewhere1 and no fetters can be placed on the aspirations or wants of his own soul4 ,in a word1 ,christianity taught the importance and worth of the individual4 ,the great teachers1 ,confucius1 ,buddha1 ,socrates1 ,plato1 had many glimpses of truth1 but ,christ is truth itself4 ,he discovered to the world the final principle of the value of the human soul1 and brought to fruition the truth that all men are equal before ,god4 ,this thought made human development possible2 a new principle was introduced upon which civilization could build and advance1 and improve to the end of time4 ,perhaps the highest test of civilization is found in the respect shown to women4 ,measured by this test1 the oriental nations have made but little progress1 as the position of woman with them is much the same to-day as it was centuries ago4 ,while this is true of each individual nation1 we have found among the nations themselves1 as we have traced the growth of civilization1 steady improvement in the condition of woman4 ,thus1 in ,athens and ,rome1 where we find the highest types of ancient civilization1 there was also the greatest respect for woman4 ,in no country of the ,east was it equaled4 ,if the ,jews are mentioned as an exception1 it must be admitted that the ,jewish women held the highest place among those of antiquity2 but this eminence was given by the ,jews only to the women of their own race1 and was by no means universally accorded to womankind1 as it is by the spirit of ,christianity4 ,if we discover a greater respect for woman in ,rome or ,athens than in ,china or ,india1 it only shows the movement of civilization toward the west4 ,the coming of ,christ marked a new era both in religion and education4 ,let us look at some of the lessons which ,christianity teaches4 #a4 ,god is the common ,father of all men4--,this does not limit the blessings of the world to the ,jew and exclude the ,gentile4 ,all men of whatever race or color may approach ,god as their ,father1 and all are equal in his sight4 ,this gives hope to all1 and makes possible an exercise of faith in the present and in the future life4 ,it proclaims a higher citizenship than that of the ,state1 and demands allegiance first of all to ,god4 #b4 ,the universal brotherhood of man4--,this principle sweeps away castes1 abolishes slavery1 destroys class distinctions1 and gives equal rights to all men4 ,it stimulates love for fellow-men1 checks selfishness1 promulgates peace and good will1 and implants the spirit of the ,golden ,rule in the hearts of men4 #c4 ,marriage is a divine rite and husband and wife are equal4--,nothing like this teaching had been practiced in the pagan world4 ,woman was simply the servant1 the creature1 of man4 ,she was to do his bidding1 and might be divorced for trivial cause1 or for none4 ,man was supreme and his will was law4 ,the home in the ,christian sense did not exist1 because the husband and wife were not one4 #d4 ,children are the gift of ,god4--,this was a ,jewish as well as a ,christian teaching4 ,if children are the gift of ,god1 the power of life and death over them cannot rest with the father1 as in ,china1 ,persia1 or ,rome4 ,it is the duty of the father to preserve them1 teach them1 train them for this life1 and prepare them for the life to come4 ,since the children come from ,god1 the pious parent must consider them as a sacred trust which he does not neglect4 ,hence he must see to it that they are properly educated4 #e4 ,the central pedagogic truth of ,christ's teaching is this3 ,all education is for the individual4 ,oriental education had for its end the interests of the ,state4 ,christian education has for its end the interests of the individual4 ,the ,state is the creature of man1 and not man the creature of the ,state4 ,man will create1 and support1 and preserve the ,state for his self-protection and for his own good4 ,the highest ideal of the ,state is that in which the people rule1 that which furnishes the greatest liberty4 ,this is the logic of ,christianity1 and the logical conclusion of education4 ,it is really for the individual4 ,the world has been slow to learn this lesson taught by ,christ2 but now it is mastering it more thoroughly every day1 as shown by the more liberal forms of government1 the broader interpretation of courses of study1 and the greater attention to the needs of the individual child4 ,all these teachings of ,christianity have a direct educational meaning1 and suggest lessons for all humanity4 ,for the school is not the only contributor to the education of a people4 ,every truth that affects mankind1 every principle that touches the home or the ,state1 has its influence upon the life and character of the individual1 and is1 therefore1 an element in his education4 ,the natural consequence of these principles is that education must be universal4 ,every child must be fitted for the duties of life1 both for his own sake and for the sake of the ,state of which he is a part4 ,as an individual1 he must work out his destiny1 and to make this possible in the broadest and best sense from the ,christian standpoint both mind and heart must be developed4 ,as a member of the ,state he must assume duties in public affairs which require the possession of superior intelligence4 ,this is particularly true in free governments which are the logical product of the spirit of ,christianity4 ,while the idea of universal education had its beginning with the ,christian era1 we shall see that many centuries elapsed before it reached its fulfillment4 ,there were many serious and almost insurmountable obstacles against which the early ,christians had to contend1 and these made progress necessarily slow4 ,let us look at some of these obstacles4 ,their ,poverty4--,the early ,christians were almost without exception poor4 ,christ appealed to the poor and lowly1 and chose his disciples from among them4 ,the acknowledged followers of the ,nazarene had to face confiscation of property1 persecution1 death4 ,homeless and without protection they wandered about1 and had neither the opportunity nor the right to acquire property4 ,they1 therefore1 had little means to apply to the education of their children4 ,they could neither establish schools nor employ teachers2 they could give only such instruction as the limitations of their poverty1 their misery1 and their fear permitted4 ,consequently1 only the most meager training could be secured1 and that almost wholly in religious matters4 ,their ,own ,ignorance4--,chosen as they were from the lowly ranks of life1 many of the early ,christians were ignorant4 ,most of them were servants and slaves1 who had been converted from paganism1 and who did not possess even the rudiments of education4 ,they had to be instructed in the rites and ceremonies of the ,church1 and in the practices and requirements of their new belief4 ,unlettered as they were themselves1 they could scarcely undertake to educate their children4 ,it is marvelous that under these conditions any attempt was made to do it2 yet we find that great pains were taken even in the early centuries of the ,christian era to perform this duty toward those who were regarded as gifts of ,god and heirs of salvation4 ,their ,small ,number4--,even when free from persecution and under comparatively happy conditions1 they were so scattered and so few in number1 as well as so poor1 that to maintain schools was almost an impossibility4 ,they would not permit their children to attend the pagan schools1 as they feared moral and intellectual contamination4 ,the only safety1 especially for the converts from paganism1 was in being separate from the world about them4 ,so where their numbers were sufficient they established schools of their own4 ,but in many communities they could not do this2 hence they could only teach their children at home4 ,opposition of the ,rulers4--,rome ruled the world1 and her highways1 her commerce1 her military expeditions1 and her mighty enterprises furnished excellent means for the spread of ,christianity4 ,but while ,rome had many religions1 adopted from her conquered peoples1 ,christianity was so different from these that the rulers were readily brought to regard the ,christians with suspicion4 ,humility1 returning good for evil1 refusal to avenge1 were contrary to the ,roman spirit4 ,therefore many persecutions followed1 which disturbed the life of the ,christians so as to make impossible the work of educating their children4 ,lack of ,christian ,literature4--,the early ,christian ,fathers fully realized the dangers that surrounded their children4 ,to come in contact with pagan schools1 or even with pagan literature1 they felt to be dangerous4 ,how easy it would be for pagan converts to fall away1 or even for others not pagan1 attracted by popular influences4 ,for ,christianity was not yet popular4 ,hence the only safety of the converts lay in totally abstaining from the use of pagan literature4 ,here was introduced a discussion that affected the ,church and educational progress for centuries1 and caused learned men when converted to abjure their favorite authors who had furnished the material for their education in their early years4 ,having no literature of their own1 and condemning the use of pagan literature1 the ,christians found it hard to overcome the obstacles which stood in the way of ,christian education4 ,as a result1 almost the only things taught to children were certain parts of the ,bible1 and the rites and duties of the ,church4 ,other ,difficulties4--,new ideas do not readily take hold of the world4 ,men naturally cling to the old and tried1 and are not easily turned to new thoughts and practices4 ,the teachings of ,christ were so radically new that men were slow to adopt them4 ,their acceptance involved a change of habit1 the abandonment of customs not before regarded as evil1 the yielding up of social caste1 the humbling of the individual4 ,herein existed a most serious obstacle to the establishment of ,christian education4 ,these are a few of the great difficulties that had to be met1 many of which were not overcome for centuries4 ,we shall see1 as we trace the development of education1 how the new ideas which had their birth with the ,christian era struggled for recognition1 how they have become established1 how they have brought great blessings to mankind1 how they have aroused ambition and awakened hope1 and how they give promise of still greater advancement in times to come4 ,the boundless field thus opened to mankind1 and the knowledge of how to enter and possess it1 constitute the world's great inheritance from ,christ4 ,but to know how to appreciate and use this inheritance1 we must study the slow and painful growth of these new educational ideals from the ,christian era till the present time4 ,,chapter ,,xiv ,,the ,,great ,,teacher ,literature4--,the ,bible2 ,beecher1 ,life of ,christ2 ,hanna1 ,our ,lord's ,life on ,earth2 ,geikie1 ,life of ,christ2 ,azarias1 ,philosophy of ,literature2 ,fouard1 ,life of ,christ4 ,life and ,character4--,christ was born in ,bethlehem1 spent his early life at ,nazareth1 entered upon his ministry when thirty years of age1 continued it for three years1 and was then crucified by the ,romans at the instigation of the ,jews4 ,these are simple facts of history corroborated by both sacred and profane writings4 ,all agree that his was the most noble character that ever appeared on earth4 ,the most careful study of his life for nineteen centuries1 by friends and enemies1 by scholars and critics1 by philosophers and statesmen1 by ,christians and unbelievers1 only adds to its luster1 and sustains the conviction that1 though he was a man1 he was also more than man4 ,the most critical research1 the most careful examination of his life1 his motives1 his teachings1 only compel the testimony that he was without spot or blemish4 ,the great have studied his sayings and his life1 and have bowed in admiration before the sublime teachings of the ,son of ,man4 ,the simple and unlettered have listened to his words of truth and been comforted4 ,faith has been awakened1 hope inspired1 love quickened1 and man redeemed by the power of the ,christ4 ,millions have been influenced by the sweetness and purity of his life4 ,the spirit of ,christianity has led to the founding of hospitals1 asylums1 and institutions of mercy everywhere2 to the establishment of schools and colleges2 to the universal spread of education2 to the uplifting of the individual2 to the furtherance of human brotherhood2 and to the fostering of peace among men and nations4 ,christ produced a profound impression alike upon the great and the small4 ,rousseau says of him1 ,the life and death of ,jesus ,christ are those of a god4 ,napoleon says of ,christ1 ,his birth and the story of his life2 the profoundness of his doctrine1 which overturns all difficulties1 and is their most complete solution2 his gospel2 the singularity of his mysterious being2 his appearance1 his empire1 his progress through all centuries and kingdoms1--all this is to me a prodigy1 an unfathomable mystery4 ,i defy you to cite another life like that of ,christ4 ,it has well been said that ,christ is the ,god who is man1 and the man who is ,god4 ,nor was the impression upon the lowly less profound4 ,he called ignorant fishermen to discipleship1 and by three years' contact and instruction prepared them to go into the world and teach all nations4 ,the inspiration of his life and teachings made them able to stand before kings1 and to confound the wisdom of the wise4 ,his ,work as a ,teacher4--,but the question here is not concerning ,christ as the founder of a religion1 nor of his divine character or life1 but of ,christ as a teacher4 ,he is justly entitled to be called ,the ,great ,teacher4 ,karl ,schmidt says1 ,by his doctrines and through his deeds1--in and with his entire life1--is ,christ the teacher and educator of humanity4 ,his method is the foundation of all true teaching4 ,let us note some of the important characteristics of this method4 #a4 ,it was suited to his hearers4--,when ,christ taught the people he used material that they could comprehend4 ,thus1 when he spoke his parable of the sower1 while he sat by the seaside1 the multitude before him had gathered from the villages and farms of the country round about4 ,they therefore could thoroughly appreciate the lesson4 ,his parable of the vineyard was doubtless suggested by the vine-clad hills of ,judea1 and the lessons taught were made more forcible by their suitableness4 ,in his conversation with the learned ,nicodemus he plunged at once into the most profound doctrines1 but when he talked with the ignorant ,samaritan woman1 his approach to the truth he would teach was most simple and gradual4 ,no one ever failed to understand him1 and he is a most remarkable example of the teacher suiting himself to the capacity of his pupils4 #b4 ,it was full of illustrations4--,when he wished to teach the evil of covetousness he told of the rich man and his barns2 he encouraged faithfulness by the parable of the talents2 he stimulated to fruit bearing by the story of the fig tree2 he taught mercy by the account of the ,good ,samaritan2 joy over repentance was illustrated by the story of the ninety and nine4 ,and so we find that by ample and suitable illustration the ,savior enforced the sublime truths that he taught4 #c4 ,it was simple and yet logical4--,there was no effort to be philosophical1 yet the teachings of ,christ are full of philosophy4 ,the language used and the manner of putting the truth were so simple that the ignorant man and the child were never left in doubt as to his meaning4 ,nevertheless his teaching was not haphazard2 it was connected and logical4 ,it contained so much of truth1 so systematically put and so much to the point in view1 that1 while it appealed at once to the understanding of his hearers1 it also furnished material for thought for the most learned of all ages4 ,whether it was a parable or a story1 an admonition or a rebuke1 a sermon or a prayer1 a word of comfort to the sisters of ,bethany or an argument with the chief priests1 a familiar conversation with his disciples or a stern rebuke of the scribes and ,pharisees1--,christ always expressed himself with simplicity and clearness4 #d4 ,it drew from ,nature4--,christ loved to walk in the fields with his disciples and draw lessons from the plants1 the birds1 the sowing of the farmer1 the gathering of fruit from the vineyard1 the ripening harvests1 and the whispering breezes4 ,consider the lilies of the field how they grow2 behold the fowls of the air2 a sower went forth to sow2 a certain man had a fig tree planted in his vineyard2 and he came and sought fruit thereon and found none2 lift up your eyes and look on the fields2 for they are white already to harvest2 the wind bloweth where it listeth1--these and many other texts show that ,christ was familiar with ,nature1 and loved to call upon her for illustration and example4 #e4 ,it elevated the truth and sought to enforce it4--,christ gave himself a sacrifice for the truth4 ,he allowed no thought of personal safety or success to overshadow the truth4 ,all his words1 his acts1 his teachings1 aimed at establishing the truth4 ,he overthrew old systems and introduced a new spirit into the world1 even the spirit of truth4 ,he was the very essence of truth1 declaring to ,thomas1 ,i am the way1 the truth1 and the life4 ,he thus gave to teachers for all time a noble example and an immortal principle1 vital to their success in true teaching4 ,it is the truth that must be taught and practiced by every one worthy of the name of teacher4 #f4 ,it was earnest and full of sympathy4--,the earnestness of ,christ aroused the populace to shout ,hosanna6 and provoked the bitter hostility of his enemies4 ,it drew multitudes into the wilderness and attracted crowds wherever he went4 ,his sympathy went out to the people as sheep having no shepherd4 ,it led him to feed the multitude1 heal the sick1 raise the dead1 take little children in his arms and bless them1 and weep over ,jerusalem4 ,he came close to the lives and hearts of those whom he instructed4 ,this is one of the grandest lessons that the ,great ,teacher left for teachers of all time4 ,these are some of the chief characteristics of ,christ's spirit and method4 ,he loved little children1 and taught his disciples1 when he had set a little child in the midst of them1 ,whosoever1 therefore1 shall humble himself as this little child1 the same is greatest in the kingdom of heaven4 ,every one of the principles above stated is essential to the teacher1 and these principles contain the sum and substance of all true pedagogy4 ,well has ,karl ,schmidt expressed the truth1 when he says1 ,christ1 the perfect teacher1 gave by his example and by his own teaching the eternal principles of pedagogy4 ,,chapter ,,xv ,,general ,,view ,,of ,,the ,,first ,,period ,,of ,,christian ,,education ,literature4--,allies1 ,peter's ,rock in ,mohammed's ,flood2 ,newman1 ,historical ,essays4 ,this period covered the time from the birth of ,christ till the ,reformation4 ,it included the early centuries of struggling ,christianity1 in which old customs had to be combated1 and the new ideas1 born with the coming of the ,savior1 and propagated by him and his followers1 were slowly and surely to take possession of the world4 ,these fifteen centuries embrace those generally known in history as the ,dark ,ages1 during which progress was indeed slow4 ,but when we remember the obstacles which1 as we have seen1 were to be met1 the prejudice to be set aside1 the great changes inaugurated1 and the limited means at command1 we marvel at the great results attained4 ,let us now briefly examine some of the factors that are prominent in ,christian education during its first period4 #a4 ,the apostles and ,church ,fathers were foremost in all educational matters4--,these men were not simply spiritual leaders2 they caught the spirit of the ,master1 and sought to instruct the head as well as the heart4 ,they established schools and themselves became teachers1 directed educational movements1 formed courses of study1 and by fostering education furthered the success and perpetuity of ,christianity4 ,men like ,paul1 ,origen1 ,chrysostom1 ,basil the ,great1 and ,augustine did much good1 not only in building up the ,church1 but also in promoting education1 the chief handmaid of the ,church4 ,indeed1 all educational progress during the early ,christian centuries centers around the names of these men4 #b4 ,the ,church was the sponsor of the schools4--,during this long period the ,state had not yet assumed the obligation of educating her youth1 and we find only rare instances of the ,state taking any part in the training of the young4 ,no attempt at universal education was made1 and none could be made1 for the ,church could not furnish the means to do it2 consequently nearly all educational effort was directed to training the priesthood and providing for the perpetuity of the ,church4 ,the ,church was the mother of the schools1 and to her fostering care alone do we owe their establishment and maintenance during this long period4 ,her authority was supreme1 and acknowledged by all temporal powers2 hence the subjects studied in the schools and the persons chosen to share the benefits of education were such as would subserve the interests of the ,church4 #c4 ,the monasteries rendered valuable service to education4--,they were long the centers of learning1 being the only places where schools existed4 ,they were the repositories of valuable manuscripts1 which were copied with marvelous diligence and preserved for future generations4 ,the monasteries adopted courses of study which1 however incomplete1 were efficiently carried out1 and formed the basis of future courses4 ,the influence of the monasteries for many centuries was of great value to learning4 #d4 ,the crusades brought new life into education4--,while the crusades were primarily religious movements1 they were also educational in their results4 ,they infused new life into the stagnant conditions of ,europe4 ,they aroused the people to physical and mental1 as well as religious1 activity4 ,they led to the establishment of schools and universities4 #e4 ,the ,teutonic peoples became an important instrument of progress4--,rome began to decline1 and the ,teutons of the north1 whom ,rome had never been able to subjugate1 became her conquerors4 ,the ,latin race had served a noble purpose in the world's history1 but now another1 perhaps stronger race1 joined in the work of civilization4 ,the physical and intellectual vigor of the various branches of the ,teutonic family1--the ,german1 the ,anglo-,saxon1 the ,scandinavian1--which has won for them leadership in evangelization1 in commerce1 in conquest1 and in educational enterprise1 showed itself unmistakably during the period under discussion4 ,these peoples now joined with the ,latin peoples in assuming the ever increasing responsibilities of ,christian civilization1 and the interests of education were greatly enhanced and furthered through these combined influences4 ,these are the principal agencies to which were committed the most vital interests of humanity during the first fifteen centuries of the ,christian era4 ,we shall see that some grave errors were made1 errors that blocked the path of improvement sometimes for centuries2 we shall find that narrowness1 bigotry1 prejudice1 and ignorance often hindered the introduction of truth because it did not coincide with tradition2 we shall see how the ,church assumed prerogatives that did not belong to her1 especially in the field of scientific research1 and thereby delayed human progress2 nevertheless1 we shall ever remain thankful to these agencies for the encouragement they gave to education1 and for whatever good results they were instrumental in attaining4 ,,chapter ,,xvi ,,the ,,first ,,christian ,,schools ,literature4--,white1 ,eighteen ,christian ,centuries2 ,durrell1 ,a ,new ,life in ,education2 ,laurie1 ,rise of ,universities2 ,lecky1 ,history of ,european ,morals2 ,allies1 ,the ,formation of ,christendom2 ,azarias1 ,philosophy of ,literature2 ,azarias1 ,essays ,philosophical4 ,we have already seen that the early ,christians were obliged to endure great hardships and surmount great difficulties in securing education for their children4 ,indeed1 during the first two centuries almost all that was done was to train the converts in the rites and ceremonies of the ,christian ,church4 ,but as they grew stronger in numbers1 and as persecution diminished1 they could give greater attention to education4 ,unwilling to make use of pagan schools1 which could not satisfy their chief need--to prepare for the new religion--they gradually established their own4 ,catechumen ,schools4--,the first ,christian schools were catechumen schools4 ,a catechumen was a person who desired instruction in the new faith with a view to baptism and admission into the ,church4 ,as many of the converts had been pagans1 and as all were ignorant of the requirements of the ,church as well as of the new doctrines1 such instruction was absolutely necessary4 ,therefore the converts were divided into classes1 at first two1 later1 four2 and instruction was given them in the rudiments of ,christianity4 ,in the beginning the catechumen schools were for adults only1 but afterward children were admitted1 and reading and writing were taught4 ,previous to this change1 if children received any secular instruction at all1 it was given at their homes by parents or tutors1 or in the pagan schools4 ,at the close of the second century ,protogenes established a school at ,odessa1 in which reading1 writing1 texts of ,scripture1 and singing of psalms were taught4 ,this was the first ,christian common school4 ,other schools followed rapidly as the persecutions ceased1 until ,rome became ,christianized1 and pagan schools gave place to ,christian schools throughout the empire4 ,two great names are closely connected with this movement4 ,,chrysostom 7#cdg-djg7 ,one of the greatest representatives of the early ,christian ,church interested in education was ,chrysostom4#bh ,he was born at ,antioch in ,syria1 and educated in the pagan schools1 but the influence of his devout ,christian mother kept him true to her faith4 ,he was noted for his eloquence1 hence the name by which he is known in history1 for ,chrysostom means golden-mouthed4 ,john ,malone says of him1 ,first of the great ,christian preachers after the ,church came from the caves1 he was not less able as a teacher4#bi ,he became bishop of the ,church1 and was the greatest pedagogue of his time4 ,some of his educational principles may be stated as follows3-- #a4 ,as ,christ lowered himself to man's estate in order to raise man to his estate1 so the teacher must lower himself to the capacity of his pupils in order to elevate them4 #b4 ,christ did not reveal everything to his disciples1 suggesting sometimes truths for them to discover2 so the teacher must not do for his pupils what they can do for themselves4 #c4 ,the foundation of all true education is the ,christian life and example2 therefore teachers and parents must walk circumspectly before children4 #d4 ,women1 especially mothers1 are the natural educators of children4 #e4 ,religious instruction is an essential factor of the school work4 ,it is of the highest importance that children should be brought up in the nurture and admonition of the ,lord4 ,,basil ,,the ,,great 7#cbi-cgi7 ,basil the ,great was born at ,caesarea4 ,he studied at ,constantinople and ,athens1 and sat at the feet of the greatest pagan philosophers and teachers of his time4 ,he was not perverted by their teachings1 but told them frankly that1 though they possessed all learning1 he had found something greater than this1 and that was the ,christ4 ,basil was one of the foremost ,fathers of the ,church1 a great writer1 and a promoter of education4 ,he was very fond of classic literature1 and1 in face of the bitter opposition of many of the ,church ,fathers1 urged its proper use in the schools4 ,he was instrumental in founding monasteries1 hospitals1 orphanages1 and refuges for the poor4 ,pedagogical ,teachings4--#a4 ,every misdeed should be punished in such a way that the punishment shall be an exercise in self-command and shall tend to correct the fault4 ,for example1 if a child has lied1 used profane language1 or been quarrelsome1 give him solitude and fasting4 ,if he is greedy and gluttonous1 let him stand by and see others eat while he remains hungry4 #b4 ,orphan children and those that are dependent should be taught in the cloister4 #c4 ,the ,bible1 with its stories1 promises1 history1 and doctrines1 should be the chief text-book4 #d4 ,not only monks and priests should be allowed to teach1 but also the laity4 #e4 ,children while still young and innocent must be taught good habits and right precepts4 ,it is worthy of note that ,chrysostom and ,basil were the first to mark out definite lines of ,christian instruction4 ,during this period1 also1 the first songs of the ,christian ,church originated in the huts and caves of the poor4 ,thus in religious instruction and church song the foundations of the ,christian common school were laid4 ,catechetical ,schools4--,the principal catechetical school was established at ,alexandria ,a4,d4 #aha1 by ,pantaenus4 ,others were located later at ,antioch1 ,odessa1 and ,nisibis4 ,the ,alexandrian school1 however1 was by far the most important4 ,alexandria1 at the close of the second century1 was the seat of philosophy1 as ,athens had formerly been4 ,it possessed the most important library in the world1 and students and sages from all parts of the world flocked to this place of learning4 ,laurie says1 ,the great ,alexander1 in founding ,alexandria1 connected ,europe1 ,asia1 and ,africa1 not merely by mercantile bonds1 but in their intellectual and literary life4 ,here arose1 under the ,ptolemies1 a complete system of higher instruction1 and libraries such as the world had not before seen4 ,the books were lodged in the temple of ,serapis1 and accumulated to the number of seven hundred thousand4 ,they formed the record of all human thought1 until they fell a prey to internal civic and religious dissensions4 ,the ,serapeum dates from ,b4,c4 #bih1 and1 after recovering from the fire of ,b4,c4 #dh1 it finally disappeared about ,a4,d4 #fdj4 ,under the stimulus of these surroundings1 and with such an abundance of literary material at command1 pagans and ,christians vied with each other in their search for truth4 ,but the pagans had better schools and better means of preparing themselves for intellectual combat4 ,christian teachers were called upon to defend their faith against subtle philosophers and trained thinkers1 who had had the advantage of excellent schools4 ,in order to meet this apparent defect and fortify themselves against their skillful opponents1 the ,christians established the catechetical school at ,alexandria1 the most celebrated school of its kind at that period4 ,it took the name catechetical from the fact that the method of instruction was largely that of catechising1 though lectures were also given4 ,many pagans had been converted to ,christianity1 and it was necessary that they should be taught the reason of their faith1 in order that they might maintain their ground when they came in contact with unbelievers4 ,this was particularly necessary1 if ,christianity was to hold its own1 in a city like ,alexandria1 where so many learned men had gathered4 ,it was also necessary for the extension of the new faith among men of superior intelligence4 ,thus the object of the catechetical school was to instruct learned men in the doctrines and usages of the ,church1 to prepare believers to meet the arguments of the philosophers1 and to train teachers4 ,while it was a sort of theological school1 it also taught philosophy1 rhetoric1 grammar1 and geometry4 ,from the nature of things it will be seen that the catechetical school was for adults only1 and it may be called a kind of university1 whose chief attention was given to the study of the ,scriptures and the promulgation of religious doctrine4 ,the catechetical school was much higher than the catechumen school in its course of study1 and in the intelligence and learning of its students and professors4 ,,clement ,,of ,,alexandria 7#aej-bbj7 ,among the most promising of the pupils of ,pantaenus was ,clement of ,alexandria1 who was his successor in the direction of the school4 ,clement was brought up a pagan1 but was not satisfied with the heathen religion1 and made a careful study of ,christianity4 ,he traveled everywhere1 and sought out old men who had listened to the apostles1 or whose parents had done so2 and thus he hoped to learn the truth directly4 ,as a result of his research1 he became profoundly impressed with the purity of the morals of the ,christians and the truth of their religion4 ,he was a great teacher as well as ,father of the ,church4 ,his ,pedagogy4--#a4 ,faith is the cornerstone of knowledge4 #b4 ,mosaic law and heathen philosophy are not opposed to each other1 but simply parts of the same truth4 ,both prepared the way for ,christianity4 ,jewish law and ,greek philosophy are steps in the development of the world which prepare the way for revelation4 ,christianity is the fulfillment of law and philosophy4 #c4 ,he brought all the speculations of the ,christians and the culture of the ,greeks to bear upon ,christian truth1 and sought to harmonize the two4 ,the teachings of ,clement gain in importance when we remember the bitter strife in the ,church over the use of classic literature1 which lasted for centuries1 and the scholastic movement a thousand years later1 which also sought to harmonize philosophy and religion4 ,,origen 7#ahf-bec7 ,origen was a pupil of ,clement in the catechetical school at ,alexandria1 and became his successor4 ,besides being brought up in an atmosphere of culture in his native city1 and surrounded by influences that stimulated intellectual growth1 he was fortunate in having a man of learning for his father4 ,from him he learned ,greek1 mathematics1 grammar1 rhetoric1 logic1 and a knowledge of the ,holy ,scriptures4 ,he began to teach in the catechetical school when only eighteen years of age1 a remarkable fact when one remembers that he had among his students learned pagan philosophers1 and that it was very unusual for so young a man to be allowed to teach4 ,he was abstemious in his habits1 self-sacrificing1 generous1 and withal consistent in his life4 ,origen's ,pedagogy4--#a4 ,never teach pupils anything that you do not yourself practice4 #b4 ,the end of education is to grow into the likeness of ,god4 #c4 ,pupils must be taught to investigate for themselves4 #d4 ,the teacher must seek to correct the bad habits of his pupils1 as well as to give them intellectual instruction4 ,under ,origen1 the catechetical school at ,alexandria reached its highest prosperity1 and its decay began soon after his death4 ,already in the middle of the fourth century its power and influence were practically gone4 ,none of the other catechetical schools ever reached the fame of that at ,alexandria1 and they1 too1 gradually disappeared4 ,indeed1 as the ,roman ,empire became ,christianized1 and as ,christians gained in education and intelligence1 there was less and less occasion for the existence of schools of this character4 ,,footnotes3 #bh ,warner's ,library of the ,world's ,best ,literature1 ,vol4 ,,vi1 #cffe4 ,lord1 ,beacon ,lights1 ,vol4 ,i1 ,lecture on ,sacred ,eloquence4 #bi ,warner's ,library1 ,vol4 ,,vi1 #cfff4 ,,chapter ,,xvii ,,conflict ,,between ,,pagan ,,and ,,christian ,,education ,literature4--,lord1 ,beacon ,lights2 ,spofford1 ,library of ,historical ,characters2 ,white1 ,eighteen ,christian ,centuries2 ,fisher1 ,beginnings of ,christianity2 ,azarias1 ,essays ,educational2 ,allies1 ,the ,formation of ,christendom2 ,allies1 ,the ,monastic ,life2 ,maitland1 ,the ,dark ,ages4 ,,general ,,discussion ,as ,christianity became more powerful2 as the ,roman nation privately and officially accepted the new religion2 as the bishops of the ,church came more and more to be recognized as the vicegerents of ,christ and the apostles2 as the ,church authorities became convinced that tolerance of paganism was dangerous to believers1 and irreconcilable with the principles of ,christianity1--as these things became apparent1 it was seen that nothing would suffice short of the utter destruction of pagan schools4 ,pagan philosophy and art were tolerated only as they served the ,church4 ,pagan education had an earthly purpose2 the new education1 a spiritual aim1 a preparation for eternal life4 ,the pagan temples and schools preserved the spirit of paganism long after the ,roman ,empire had become ,christian1 and the leaders of ,christianity finally became convinced that ultimate success would be reached only when these institutions were destroyed4 ,the conflict between these two parties continued during the fifth century and until #ebi1 when a complete victory was gained by the ,christians4 ,after #ebi we have therefore only ,christian schools to consider4 ,for the next thousand years education was entirely in the hands of the ,church1 whose power was not always exercised for the good of humanity1 but often for the furtherance of her own ends4 ,still1 it must not be forgotten that all that was done for education was done by her1 and therefore the world owes her a debt of gratitude1 as later pages will show4 ,she did not undertake the education of the masses1 a task that was beyond her power1 and perhaps beyond the scope of her vision4 ,yet great honor is due the ,church for what was accomplished in education during the ,middle ,ages1 and to her alone must be given credit for an advancement in civilization by no means small1 considering the difficulties to be met and the obstacles to be overcome4 ,during this long period there were many bright spots in the educational firmament1 many brilliant leaders of the ,church who also were conspicuous educators1 and many important movements toward higher civilization4 ,an examination of this period has led recent historians to abandon the term ,dark ,ages4 ,a more careful study of some of these leaders and the movements that they inaugurated will be reserved to later pages4 ,we shall find the spirit of the period best illustrated by a study of two great men who are preeminent in the educational affairs of the time1--namely1 ,tertullian and ,st4 ,augustine4 ,,tertullian 7#aej-bcj7cj ,tertullian was born at ,carthage of pagan parents4 ,he was converted to ,christianity when forty years of age1 and by his talent1 his zeal for the new religion1 and his faithfulness1 he rose rapidly until he became ,bishop of ,carthage4 ,he was an orator1 a writer1 and a teacher4 ,his immoderate zeal led him into the vice of rigorism1 quite foreign to the real spirit of the ,christian religion4 ,he joined the ,montanists1 a sect that believed in withdrawal from the world1 the unlawfulness of second marriages1 and the speedy second advent of the ,savior4 ,having received a thorough training as a jurist at ,rome1 he became a great controversialist4 ,he was the founder of ,christian ,latin literature1 being bitterly opposed to everything pagan4 ,he would use nothing manufactured by the pagans1 would not dress like them1 nor have anything to do with their schools or writings4 ,this of course excluded classic literature1 and was in direct opposition to the teachings of the catechetical schools1 especially that of ,alexandria4 ,tertullian's attempt to create a literature for the schools which should take the place of classic literature1 while it produced discord for centuries1 and influenced other great men to follow his example1 had no permanent result4 ,perhaps the downfall of paganism may have removed all danger to the ,christians from pagan philosophy and letters2 at all events it is certain that in later centuries the ,church was most efficient in preserving them4 ,tertullian held that philosophy of whatever kind is dangerous1 claiming that it makes man arrogant1 and less inclined to faith4 ,in the fourth century the ,fathers of the ,church were opposed to pagan literature4 ,the ,apostolic ,constitutions commanded1 ,refrain from all writings of the heathen2 for what hast thou to do with strange discourses1 laws1 or false prophets1 which1 in truth1 turn aside from the faith those who are weak in understanding4 ,it was urged that1 ,as the offspring of the pagan world1 if not1 indeed1 inspired by demons1 they were dangerous to the new faith4 ,this introduced into education a narrow view1 which evoked many bitter discussions1 and which it took centuries to eradicate4 ,,st4 ,,augustine 7#ced-dcj7 ,augustine was born in ,numidia1 ,africa4 ,his father was a pagan1 and his mother a devout ,christian4 ,augustine grew up in the faith of neither1 and in his early years seems to have had no settled belief4 ,as a student1 he was wild and profligate1 though attentive to his studies4 ,he became thoroughly versed in ,greek and ,latin4 ,he studied at ,carthage and later at ,milan4 ,at the latter place he made the acquaintance of ,st4 ,ambrose1 ,bishop of ,milan1 who was instrumental in ,augustine's conversion4 ,his life was radically changed1 and he who had been the wild1 careless unbeliever became the greatest of the ,church ,fathers4 ,like ,tertullian1 he condemned the very classic literature to which he was indebted for his intellectual greatness4 ,his greatest literary works are ,city of ,god and ,confessions4 ,confessions4--,in this work are found his chief pedagogical teachings4 ,karl ,schmidt says1 ,in his ',confessions' he develops a complete psychology of the human soul1 from which the pedagogue can learn more than from many theories of education4 ,this work shows step by step his own development from childhood to mature manhood1--how a word1 a look1 an act may awaken passions1 and lead to evil desire1 or stimulate to noble deed or self-sacrificing consecration4 ,from his own life and experiences he portrays the whole nature of man4 ,augustine is called the ,st4 ,paul of the fifth century1 and he certainly was the greatest man1 since ,paul1 that the ,church has produced4 ,in his writings is found the most luminous exposition of the ,catholic doctrine1 and probably ,augustine is the most noted of all ,catholic ,fathers4 ,in the domain of theology and morals he based all teaching on authority rather than on investigation1 yet the excessive application of this principle to subjects of physical science was destined later on to hinder investigators in the fields of scientific research4 ,draper says1 ,augustine antagonized science and ,christianity for more than fifteen centuries4 ,this was doubtless due to the application of the principle of authority in fields that ,augustine did not contemplate4 ,but we shall have occasion to recur to this subject in later pages4 ,augustine's ,pedagogy4--#a4 ,all teaching is based on faith and authority4 #b4 ,all pagan literature must be excluded from the schools4 #c4 ,the chief subject in the school course is history pursued in the narrative form4 #d4 ,make abundant use of observation in instruction4 #e4 ,the teacher must be earnest and enthusiastic4 ,while the ,roman ,empire became officially ,christian in the fourth century under ,constantine1 it was not until ,justinian decreed the abolition of pagan schools and temples1 ,a4,d4 #ebi1 that paganism1 as we have seen1 was finally destroyed4 ,thus the long conflict was ended1 and henceforth we have to do only with ,christian education4 ,we now enter upon the thousand years of the world's history known as the ,middle ,ages1 the close of which brings us to the ,reformation4 ,,footnotes3 #cj ,see ,draper1 ,conflict between ,religion and ,science1 p4 #ei4 ,,chapter ,,xviii ,,monastic ,,education ,literature4--,lord1 ,beacon ,lights2 ,lecky1 ,history of ,european ,morals2 ,myers1 ,mediaeval and ,modern ,history2 ,white1 ,eighteen ,christian ,centuries2 ,harper1 ,book of ,facts2 ,mrs4 ,jameson1 ,legends of ,monastic ,orders2 ,gasquet1 ,henry ,,viii4 and the ,english ,monasteries2 ,chateaubriand1 ,the ,genius of ,christianity2 ,allies1 ,the ,monastic ,life2 ,taunton1 ,the ,english ,black ,monks of ,st4 ,benedict4 ,monasteries4--,monasteries were established as early as the third century ,a4,d42 but it was not until the sixth century that they became powerful4 ,the spirit of asceticism1 urged by the ,church as one of the most important virtues1 took a strong hold upon the people1 and led many to withdraw from the world4 ,for such the founding of monasteries became a necessity4 ,the monasteries were the result of the ascetic spirit1 and their teaching was based upon authority and not upon free investigation or original research4 ,thus there was introduced into society and education a principle that1 wrongly interpreted1 impeded progress for a thousand years4 ,most of the time during this period the ,church held supremacy over the ,state with authority unquestioned4 ,this authority was carried not only into spiritual matters1 but also into social1 political1 and educational affairs4 ,everything that conflicted with that authority1 or with the decrees of the ,church1 was condemned4 ,even scientific discoveries that did not harmonize with preconceived and accepted theories were reluctantly received1 if not absolutely rejected4 ,discoverers in the realm of science were silenced1 and sometimes actually punished1 for promulgating theories contrary to the teachings of the ,church4 ,a notable example is that of ,galileo1 who taught the ,copernican theory of the universe1 and for which teaching he was condemned to imprisonment and a ban put upon his work4 ,this exaggerated interpretation of authority worked harm to the ,church4 ,it seemed to be forgotten that the ,bible is a book of religion and morals and not a text-book of science4 ,the ,benedictines4--,the most important monastic order from the standpoint of education was that of the ,benedictines4 ,st4 ,benedict founded the first monastery of the order that bears his name--,monte ,cassino1 near ,naples1--in #ebi4 ,it will be remembered that this is the date of the abolition of pagan schools by ,justinian4 ,on the site of ,monte ,cassino had stood a pagan school4 ,the monastery which supplanted it remains to the present day4 ,benedict's two important principles--to which cloisters hitherto had been unaccustomed--were industry and strict discipline4 ,these principles made the ,benedictine the most successful and beneficent of all monastic orders4 ,it grew rapidly1 and within one hundred years from its foundation there were more than two hundred and fifty ,benedictine monasteries4 ,it is claimed that the order has produced #dfjj bishops1 #afjj archbishops1 #bjj cardinals1 #dj popes1 #ej patriarchs1 #d emperors1 #ab empresses1 #df kings1 #da queens1 #cfjj canonized saints1 and #ae1gjj authors1 and that prior to the ,french ,revolution it possessed #cg1jjj cloisters4 ,there have been times when the wealth of this order in some states comprised more than half of all the property4 ,the ,benedictine monks tilled the soil of the country surrounding their monasteries1 literally making the desert blossom as the rose4 ,they were untiring in zeal for the ,church and in deeds of mercy4 ,they established cloister schools in ,italy1 ,france1 ,spain1 ,england1 ,ireland1 ,germany1 and ,switzerland4 ,monte ,cassino 7#ebi71 ,italy2 ,canterbury 7#ehf7 and ,oxford 7ninth century71 ,england2 ,st4 ,gall 7#fac71 ,switzerland2 ,fulda 7#gdd71 ,constance1 ,hamburg1 and ,cologne 7tenth century71 ,germany2 ,lyons1 ,tours1 ,paris1 and ,rouen 7tenth century71 ,france2 ,salzburg 7#fif71 ,austria2 and many other schools were founded chiefly by the ,benedictines4 ,among the many great teachers that they produced were ,alcuin of ,england1 ,boniface of ,germany1 ,thomas ,aquinas1 ,duns ,scotus1 and ,abelard4 ,it thus appears that the ,benedictine order took a deep interest in education1 and their work deserves a most honorable place among the educational agencies of the period under discussion4 ,the ,seven ,liberal ,arts4--,we have seen that much attention was always given to religious instruction in the ,christian schools4 ,the ,bible1 the doctrines of the ,church1 and its rites and ceremonies were at first exclusively taught4 ,but later secular branches were introduced4 ,these secular branches were known as the seven liberal arts1 which comprised the following subjects3-- ,reading and #a4 ,grammar4 ,writing4 ,i4 ,trivium#a #b4 ,rhetoric4 ,the ,seven #c4 ,logic4 ,liberal ,arts4 #a4 ,arithmetic4 #b4 ,music4 ,,ii4 ,quadrivium#ca #c4 ,geometry4 #d4 ,astronomy4 ,this course required seven years4 ,latin was the only language used1 and consequently the native tongues suffered4 ,the trivium was the most popular course2 such knowledge was considered an absolute necessity for any one making claim to culture4 ,after completing the trivium1 those who wished for higher culture studied the quadrivium4 ,under the term grammar were included reading and writing1 as well as the construction and use of language4 ,in rhetoric the works of ,quintilian and ,cicero were studied1 and sermons delivered in the churches were made to serve for a practical application of the rules4 ,in logic the works of ,st4 ,augustine were used in the exercises of constructing syllogisms1 of disputation1 and of definition4 ,in arithmetic1 before the introduction of the ,arabic notation1 numbers were considered to have a mysterious meaning4 ,the hands and fingers were used to indicate numbers4 ,for example1 the left hand upon the breast indicated ten thousand2 both hands folded1 one hundred thousand4 ,for the practical purposes of life the reckoning board was used4 ,this was a board with lines drawn upon it1 between which pebbles were placed to indicate the number to be expressed4 ,for example1 the number #cadf would be indicated as follows3-- #c #a #d #f ''' ' '''' '''''' ,music was designed for the church service4 ,knowledge of music was held to be positively essential to priest and teacher4 ,under the term music were also sometimes included the fine arts1 painting1 drawing1 architecture1 sculpture1 etc4 ,in geometry ,euclid was used4 ,lines1 angles1 surfaces1 and solids were studied4 ,with geometry there seems to have been connected a meager study of geography4 ,early maps have been found1 one dating from the seventh century1 being in possession of ,st4 ,gall monastery4 ,astronomy was closely connected with astrology4 ,its practical application was limited to the formation of the ,church calendar1 fixing the date of ,easter1 etc4 ,this celebrated course of study formed the basis of secular instruction in the monasteries1 and1 indeed1 in all schools1 for several centuries4 ,religious instruction always remained a prominent feature of the work4 ,history had no place in the curriculum4 ,summary of ,benefits conferred upon ,civilization by the ,monasteries4--#a4 ,they preserved classic literature4 ,though many of the ,church ,fathers1 as we have seen1 were bitterly opposed to pagan literature1 the monasteries copied it with great industry and preserved it with care4 ,the archives of these institutions have yielded up some most remarkable and valuable manuscripts that otherwise would have been lost to the world4 #b4 ,they kept alive the flickering flame of ,christianity4 ,the ,middle ,ages were indeed dark for ,christianity1 as unbelief1 ignorance1 and faithlessness prevailed4 ,but the monasteries were centers of religious interest and zeal4 #c4 ,they maintained educational interest during this long1 dark period4 ,we have seen that the monasteries contained the only schools4 ,through them the ,church kept up whatever educational interest survived during the ,middle ,ages1 and her work then conserved the energies employed in later educational enterprise4 #d4 ,they originated a great course of study by giving to the world the seven liberal arts4 #e4 ,they furnished places of refuge for the oppressed4 ,,footnotes3 #ca ,laurie thinks that these names were first appropriately used about the end of the fourth century4 ,,chapter ,,xix ,,scholasticism ,literature4--,fisher1 ,history of the ,reformation2 ,lord1 ,beacon ,lights2 ,thalheimer1 ,mediaeval and ,modern ,history2 ,schwegler1 ,history of ,philosophy2 ,seebohm1 ,era of the ,protestant ,revolution2 ,hegel1 ,philosophy of ,history2 ,azarias1 ,philosophy of ,literature2 ,azarias1 ,essays ,philosophical2 ,schwickerath1 ,jesuit ,education1 its ,history and ,principles4 ,compayre remarks1 ,it has been truly said that there were three ,renascences3 the first1 which owed its beginning to ,charlemagne1 and whose brilliancy did not last2 the second1 that of the twelfth century1 the issue of which was ,scholasticism2 and the third1 the great ,renaissance of the sixteenth century1 which still lasts1 and which the ,french ,revolution has completed4#cb ,as scholasticism1 in a sense1 was the rival of monasticism1 and as it covered a large part of the ,middle ,ages1 we shall discuss it at this point4 ,scholasticism was a movement having for its object the harmonizing of ancient philosophy1 especially that of ,aristotle1 with the doctrines of ,christianity4 ,it covered a period reaching from the ninth to the fifteenth century1 and displayed its greatest activity between the eleventh and thirteenth centuries4 ,it is called the philosophy of the ,middle ,ages4 ,the term scholastic is also applied generally to forms of reasoning which abound in subtleties4 ,scholasticism was a dissent from the teachings of ,st4 ,augustine and the ascetics4 ,it laid chief stress upon reason instead of authority1 thus asserting a vitally different principle1 which would tend to change the whole spirit of education4 ,the first prominent leader of this movement was ,erigena1 who lived during the ninth century1 and was the most interesting writer of the ,middle ,ages4 ,he was also a great teacher1 and was called to give instruction at the court of ,charles the ,bald1 and afterward at ,oxford4 ,he opposed the prevailing tendencies of the monasteries to base all teaching on authority1 and made its foundation philosophy and reason4 ,schwegler#cc denominates ,anselm 7born about #ajcc7 as the beginner and founder of scholasticism4 ,thus it was not till the eleventh century that there was developed anything that might be properly termed a ,christian philosophy4 ,this was the so-called scholasticism4#cd ,greater than either of these was ,abelard 7born #ajgi71 who by his eloquence attracted great numbers of students to ,paris4 ,it is said that few teachers ever held such sway as did ,abelard for a time4 ,he made ,paris the center of the scholastic movement1 attracting students from all parts of the world4 ,he did more than any of his predecessors to give accepted ecclesiastical doctrines a rational expression4 ,scholasticism influenced the establishment of institutions of learning in ,england1 ,germany1 ,italy1 and ,spain1 some of which later developed into great universities4 ,thomas ,aquinas1 ,duns ,scotus1 and ,occam may also be mentioned as great schoolmen4 ,of the first two ,schwegler says1#ce ,at the summit of scholasticism we must place the two incontestably greatest masters of the scholastic art and method1 ,thomas ,aquinas 7,dominican1 #abbe-abgd7 and ,duns ,scotus 7,franciscan1 #abfe-acjh71 the founders of two schools1 into which after them the whole scholastic theology divides itself1--the former exalting the understanding 7intellectus71 and the latter the will 7voluntas71 as the highest principle1 both being driven into essentially differing directions by this opposition of the theoretical and practical4 ,even with this began the downfall of scholasticism2 its highest point was also the turning point to its self-destruction4 ,the rationality of the dogmas1 the oneness of faith and knowledge1 had been constantly their fundamental premise2 but this premise fell away1 and the whole basis of their metaphysics was given up in principle the moment ,duns ,scotus placed the problem of theology in the practical4 ,when the practical and the theoretical became divided1 and still more when thought and being were separated by nominalism1 philosophy broke loose from theology and knowledge from faith4 ,knowledge assumed its position above faith and above authority1 and the religious consciousness broke with the traditional dogma4 ,toward the end1 another thing contributed to the downfall of scholasticism4 ,the philosophical subtleties of discussion made the schoolmen lose sight of the main issue1 and devote themselves to the most ridiculous questions4#cf ,schwickerath remarks1#cg ,it can not and need not be denied that the education imparted by the mediaeval scholastics was in many regards defective4 ,it was at once too dogmatic and disputatious4 ,literary studies were comparatively neglected2 frequently too much importance was attached to purely dialectical subtleties4444 ,the defects of scholasticism became especially manifest in the course of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries1 when much time and energy were wasted in discussing useless refinements of thought4 ,that it did a great deal of good will appear from the following summary3-- ,summary of the ,benefits of ,scholasticism4--#a4 ,it attempted to harmonize philosophy with ,christianity1 and may be called the first ,christian philosophy4 #b4 ,it sought to base learning on reason and investigation1 rather than on authority4 ,in this we find the first impulse of that movement which later led to the founding of science4 #c4 ,many universities were established through the scholastic influence1 notably1 ,paris1 ,heidelberg1 ,bologna1 ,prague1 and ,vienna4 #d4 ,while it failed to establish them1 it at least recognized the desirableness of a universal language for schools1 and a universal church for man4 #e4 ,although1 with the exception of the universities which it founded1 its direct work in education cannot be said to have been permanent1 yet it imparted fresh vigor to educational endeavors4 #f4 ,schwegler says1#ch ,it 444 introduced to the world another principle than that of the old ,church1 the principle of the thinking spirit1 the self-consciousness of the reason1 or at least prepared the way for the victory of this principle4 ,even the deformities and unfavorable side of scholasticism1 the many absurd questions upon which the scholastics divided1 even their thousandfold unnecessary and accidental distinctions1 their inquisitiveness and subtleties1 all sprang from a rational principle1 and grew out of a spirit of investigation1 which could only utter itself in this way under the all-powerful ecclesiastical spirit of the time4 ,,footnotes3 #cb ,history of ,pedagogy1 p4 #ga4 #cc ,history of ,philosophy1 p4 #ahf4 #cd ,ibid41 p4 #ahe4 #ce ,ibid41 p4 #ahf4 #cf ,see ,k4 ,schmidt1 ,geschichte der ,paedagogik1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #bfe1 for subjects of these discussions4 #cg ,jesuit ,education1 p4 #df4 #ch ,history of ,philosophy1 p4 #ahi4 ,,chapter ,,xx ,,charlemagne ,literature4--,ferris1 ,great ,leaders2 ,emerton1 ,introduction to the ,middle ,ages2 ,guizot1 ,history of ,civilization2 ,wells1 ,the ,age of ,charlemagne2 ,bryce1 ,the ,holy ,roman ,empire2 ,church1 ,the ,beginning of the ,middle ,ages2 ,lord1 ,beacon ,lights2 ,white1 ,eighteen ,christian ,centuries2 ,laurie1 ,rise of the ,universities2 ,bulfinch1 ,legends of ,charlemagne2 ,encyclopaedia ,britannica1 ,article on ,charlemagne4 ,history1 ,character1 and ,purpose4--,charlemagne was not only the greatest ruler of the ,middle ,ages1 but one of the greatest and wisest rulers the world has known4 ,by birth and instinct he belonged to the ,teutonic race1 to which1 as before stated1 the world's enlightenment has been committed4 ,like ,alexander the ,great1 ,charlemagne united many peoples into one1 until he ruled over the territory now included in ,france1 the ,netherlands1 ,germany1 ,austria1 and ,italy1--in fact1 his empire comprised the richest part of central ,europe4 ,he designed to rebuild the ,roman ,empire1 and was crowned ,emperor of ,rome by the ,pope1 in the year #hjj4 ,while he protected the ,pope and was loyal to him1 he did not admit the papal supremacy in matters of ,state4 ,two very important influences were wisely utilized by ,charlemagne in his work of civilization1 namely1 the political ideas of the ,teutons1 and the adhering power of the ,christian church4 ,he cherished ,german customs1 and left1 in various parts of ,germany1 many monuments of his love for that people4 ,he was of commanding presence1 being seven feet in height1 and of good proportions1 blond in type1 and of genial manners4 ,his real capital was at ,aix-la-,chapelle1 but ,rome was a nominal capital4 ,bulfinch says of ,charlemagne3 ,whether we regard him as a warrior or legislator1 as a patron of learning or as the civilizer of a barbarous nation1 he is entitled to our warmest admiration4 ,if his successors had possessed the ability1 enterprise1 and breadth of view that characterized him1 the world might never have known the period in history commonly called the ,dark ,ages4 ,personal ,education4--,when ,charlemagne arrived at the estate of manhood and ascended the throne1 he was ignorant of letters and lacked any considerable intellectual training4 ,his education had been that of the knight who believed that skill in the use of arms and physical prowess were of far more importance than a knowledge of letters4#ci ,after he had come to the throne1 and especially after he had conquered his foes and had leisure to study the welfare of his people1 he realized his deficiencies1 and sought to overcome them by diligent study4 ,he called to his court the most learned men of the world1 received personal instruction from them1 and had them read to him and converse with him while at his meals4 ,in this way he overcame1 in a measure1 the defects of his early education4 ,he thoroughly mastered ,latin1 became familiar with ,greek1 and learned also grammar1 rhetoric1 logic1 music1 astronomy1 and natural history4 ,he never learned to write well1 owing to the late period of life at which he began1 and to the clumsiness of the hand accustomed to wielding the sword rather than the pen4 ,among his instructors was ,alcuin of ,england1 the most celebrated teacher of his time4 ,charlemagne established the ,school of the ,palace1 and placed ,alcuin at its head4 ,here the children of the emperor as well as his courtiers were taught4 ,he had his own daughters learn ,latin and ,greek4 ,france is indebted to ,alcuin for its polite learning4 ,alcuin was also the counselor of the emperor in the educational matters of the empire1 and it was probably his influence that led ,charlemagne to adopt such broad views concerning the culture of his people4 ,general ,education4--,we have seen that the prevailing idea was that education should subserve the interests of the ,church4 ,charlemagne turned the current of thought toward the national idea4 ,he believed in religious training1 but wanted to found a great ,state1 and therefore insisted that those things which encouraged intelligent patriotism should be taught4 ,he protected the ,church1 but insisted that the ,church was subordinate to the ,state1 and that his will was law over both4 ,consequently he required priests to preach in the native tongues rather than in ,latin1 and decreed that monasteries that would not open their doors to children for school purposes should be closed4 ,the priests1 he insisted1 should be able to read and write1 should have a knowledge of the ,holy ,scriptures and of the chief doctrines of the ,church1 and should instruct the people in these things4 ,the seven liberal arts formed the basis of school instruction4 ,monks were not to remain in idleness and ignorance1 but were required to teach1 not only in the monasteries1 but also outside of them4 ,he also encouraged education among his nobles1 and plainly intimated that merit and not noble birth would entitle them to favor4 ,charlemagne visited the schools himself1 and required the bishop to report to him their condition4 ,he thus became a superintendent of schools1 being as familiar with the educational interests of his kingdom as he was with every other interest4 ,he sought to teach first the priests and nobles1 and after that the masses of his people4 ,he introduced the practice of compulsory education for all children1 and decreed that truant children be first deprived of food as punishment1 and if that did not suffice1 that they be brought before him4 ,reading1 writing1 arithmetic1 and singing were taught1 especial attention being given to music1 which was of use in the church services4 ,the ,apostles' ,creed and the ,lord's ,prayer were also taught4 ,in #hja ,charlemagne decreed that women and children should receive instruction in the doctrines of religion1 because he believed religion to be the foundation of a civilized nation4 ,charlemagne's career shines out in brilliant contrast with the ignorance and superstition of his age4 ,the world was not yet ripe for his advanced ideas1 hence when the work lost the support of his strong personality1 its effects soon became obliterated1 and a retrogression of civilization resulted4 ,the clergy1 who had entertained but little sympathy for the enterprises of the emperor1 soon closed the monasteries to outside students1 and returned to the same practices from which the authority and energy of ,charlemagne had aroused them4 ,his work was not wholly in vain1 however1 for he laid the foundations of the ,prussian school system4#dj ,summary of ,charlemagne's ,work4--#a4 ,he elevated the clergy by demanding greater educational qualifications of them and by insisting that they do their duty4 #b4 ,he gave dignity to native tongues by requiring the priests to preach more frequently in the vernacular of the people1 and thus helped to make the services of the ,church of greater profit to the people4 #c4 ,he opened the cloisters to the purposes of education1 and thereby greatly extended their usefulness4 #d4 ,he sought to perpetuate religion and insure the stability of his empire by making education compulsory and universal4 #e4 ,he believed in the education of women4 #f4 ,he laid the foundations of future school systems1 and indicated certain principles that are still recognized as valid4 ,,footnotes3 #ci ,see ,feudal ,education1 ,chap4 ,,xxii4 #dj ,professor ,masius1 ,lectures in the ,university of ,leipsic4 ,,chapter ,,xxi ,,alfred ,,the ,,great ,literature4--,ferris1 ,great ,leaders2 ,lord1 ,beacon ,lights2 ,mombert1 ,great ,lives2 ,spofford1 ,library of ,historical ,characters2 ,green1 ,history of the ,english ,people4 ,history and ,character4--,alfred became king of the ,west ,saxons in #hga at the age of twenty-three4 ,as a boy he had already shown remarkable energy and ability1 and as a man he more than fulfilled the promise of his early years4 ,england was divided into several kingdoms1 the ,danes having taken possession of the eastern part of the island4 ,alfred carried on war against them for many years with varying success1 until he made peace by skillful diplomacy in giving them territory4 ,he afterward showed remarkable statesmanship in winning them to peaceful acquiescence in his sovereignty1 and thus he came to rule over united ,england4 ,he laid the foundation of ,england's naval greatness by building ships to defend the country against ,danish pirates4 ,many stories are told of his simplicity1 his perseverance1 his strategy in defeating his enemies1 and the love with which he inspired his people4 ,karl ,schmidt says1 ,alfred1 as victor in fifty-six battles1 as lawgiver1 as king and sage1 as ,christian and man1 as husband and father1 is rightly called--',the ,great4' ,he was very methodical in his habits1 and divided his day into three equal parts of eight hours each3 eight hours he gave to government1 eight hours to religious devotion and study1 and the other eight hours to sleep1 recreation1 and the recuperation of his body4 ,education4--,alfred did not learn to read until twelve years of age4 ,his mother then stimulated him by the promise of a book to that one of her sons who should first commit to memory a ,saxon poem4 ,with indomitable energy he mastered reading1 learned the poem1 and secured the prize4 ,throughout his life he gave much attention to literary matters4 ,he translated many portions of the ,bible1 as well as other books1 into ,anglo-,saxon1 and encouraged literary efforts in others4 ,without doubt the intellectual activity of ,charlemagne acted as a spur to ,alfred's personal ambition and to his desire to elevate his people4 ,although he did not follow the example of ,charlemagne in seeking universal education for his people1 he did urge that the children of every freeman should be able to read and write1 and should have instruction in ,latin4 ,the distinction thus made in the purposes of these two great rulers has been perpetuated till the present time1 the ,germans encouraging universal education1 while the ,english have attended chiefly to the education of the higher classes4 ,alfred established many monasteries and made them centers of learning4 ,it seems clear that he assisted in laying the foundations from which ,oxford ,university grew4 ,he left his impress upon the ,english people as no other ruler has done1 implanting love for law1 justice1 freedom1 national honor1 and the domestic virtues which characterize that nation4 ,his influence is felt upon ,english institutions to this day4 ,,chapter ,,xxii ,,feudal ,,education ,literature4--,stille1 ,studies in ,mediaeval ,history2 ,bulfinch1 ,legends of ,charlemagne2 ,emerton1 ,mediaeval ,europe4 ,emerton defines feudalism as an organization of society based upon the absence of a strong controlling power at the center of the ,state4#da ,it marks a step in the reorganization of society which was slowly going forward during the ,middle ,ages4 ,it was an element in the movement toward freedom1 in which men of large landed possessions gained the allegiance of vassals by gifts of land1 in return for which the latter bound themselves to defend the former in case of attack4 ,the tie by which the higher freeman bound the lower one to himself was ordinarily a gift of the use of a certain tract of land1 together with more or less extensive rights of jurisdiction over the dwellers thereon4 ,by means of this gift he secured the service of the lesser man in war1 and as war was the normal condition of things1 such service was the most valuable payment he could receive4#db ,while it is true that the feudal lords were in many cases little else than robber chieftains1 especially in the earlier history of the system1 it would be false to history to picture them in general as being of that character4 ,the knights were chivalrous in battle1 ever ready to fight for their religion1 as shown in the crusades1 to defend the weak1 to show greatest respect for woman1 and to maintain freedom4 ,fortified in an impregnable castle on some eminence1 with his loyal retainers about him1 the feudal baron was able to defy kings4 ,the system marks a stage in the development of civilization1 and when feudalism fell into decline its purpose had been fulfilled4 ,with such an independent manner of living1 and such ideas of their own rights1 it is not strange that the knights had a form of education peculiar to themselves1 and this education is full of interest to the student4 ,there was little in the schooling of the monasteries that could appeal to them1 and their ideas of manhood were very different from those of the ecclesiastics4 ,prowess in the use of arms1 skill in horsemanship1 acquaintance with the chivalric forms of politeness and with knightly manners1 were of far more importance to them than ability to read and write4 ,indeed1 they despised book-learning as something beneath their own dignity1 however suitable it might be for their vassals4 ,in such a school as this ,charlemagne grew up4 ,it was a school of action rather than of thought2 a school which looked to the present rather than the future4 ,the education of the knights was in striking contrast with the prevailing modes4 ,instead of the seven liberal arts1 the seven perfections of the knight were taught1--horsemanship1 swimming1 use of bow and arrow1 swordsmanship1 hunting1 chess-playing1 and verse-making4 ,their purpose was to prepare for the activities of the life in which their lot was cast2 that of the monasteries was to preserve learning to fit men for the duties of the ,church1 and to prepare them for the life to come4 ,it must not be inferred1 however1 that the knight was unmindful of religion1 for he was inducted into knighthood by most solemn religious ceremonies and vows4 ,the education of the knight was divided into three periods4 ,first ,period4--,the first seven years of the boy's life were spent in the home under the mother's careful direction4 ,obedience1 politeness1 and respect for older persons were inculcated1 and stress was also laid upon religious training4 ,by the development of strong and healthy bodies the boys were well prepared for the later education upon which they entered after the seventh year4 ,second ,period4--,after the seventh year the boy was generally removed from home to the care of some friendly knight1 in order that he might receive a stricter training4 ,here he remained till his fourteenth year1 chiefly under the care of the lady whom he served as page4 ,he was taught music1 poetry1 chess1 and some simple intellectual studies1 besides the duties of knighthood1 especially in relation to the treatment of women1 and to courtly manners4 ,third ,period4--,at fourteen the boy left the service of his lady and became an esquire to the knight4 ,he now attended his master upon the chase1 at tournaments1 and in battle4 ,he was taught all the arts of war1 of riding1 jousting1 fencing4 ,it was necessary that he should have a watchful eye to avert danger1 protect his master1 and quickly anticipate his every wish4 ,the service of this period completed his education1 and at twenty-one he was knighted with imposing ceremonies4 ,after partaking of the sacrament1 he took vows to speak the truth1 defend the weak1 honor womanhood1 and use his sword for the defense of ,christianity4 ,this form of education was most potent in preserving knighthood for several centuries and was a powerful factor in shaping the destinies of ,europe4 ,it was faithfulness to the vow to defend ,christianity that led finally to the overthrow of chivalry1 as will appear in the study of the crusades4 ,education of ,women4--,the girls remained at home and were taught the domestic arts1 as well as the forms of etiquette which were practiced in this chivalric age1 and which the peculiar homage paid to woman made necessary4 ,they were also taught reading and writing1 and were expected to be familiar with poetry4 ,daughters of the better families were sometimes collected in some castle1 where a kind of school was organized1 in which they were instructed in reading1 writing1 poetry1 singing1 and the use of stringed instruments1 religion1 and sometimes in ,french and ,latin4 ,among no other class during the ,middle ,ages was such great attention paid to the education of women4 ,it was the duty of mothers to see that their daughters were carefully prepared to sustain the peculiar dignity of feudal womanhood4 ,criticism of ,feudal ,education4--#a4 ,it honored woman and gave her the highest position afforded by any system during the ,middle ,ages4 #b4 ,it gave the world a splendid example of chivalry1 teaching manliness1 courage1 devotion to the right as it was understood1 and the espousal of the cause of the weak4 #c4 ,it contributed to literature through the compositions of the ,minnesingers4 #d4 ,it counteracted the ascetic tendencies of the monastics by encouraging an active participation in life's affairs4 #e4 ,it restricted its advantages to the privileged class4 #f4 ,it despised intellectual training1 while laying great stress upon physical prowess4 #g4 ,it lacked the elements of progress4 ,,footnotes3 #da ,mediaeval ,europe1 p4 #dgh4 #db ,ibid41 p4 #dhj4 ,,chapter ,,xxiii ,,the ,,crusades ,,as ,,an ,,educational ,,movement ,literature4--,michaud1 ,the ,crusades2 ,stubbs1 ,mediaeval and ,modern ,history2 ,mombert1 ,great ,lives 7see ,godfrey72 ,myers1 ,mediaeval and ,modern ,history2 ,guizot1 ,history of ,civilization2 ,lord1 ,beacon ,lights2 ,archer and ,kingsford1 ,the ,crusaders2 ,white1 ,eighteen ,christian ,centuries2 ,andrews1 ,institutes of ,general ,history2 ,ridpath1 ,library of ,universal ,history 7article on the ,crusades74 ,among the most remarkable movements that took place during the ,middle ,ages were the crusades4 ,the ,saracens had overrun and conquered the ,holy ,land1 and the ,christian nations of the west attempted to recover from the hands of the infidels the soil made sacred by the life and death of ,christ4 ,for a long time the pilgrims who made journeys to the tomb of the ,savior were undisturbed1 as their pilgrimages were a source of profit to the ,saracens4 ,but when the ,turks gained possession of ,jerusalem1 they began to persecute both the native ,christians and those who came from abroad4 ,peter the ,hermit1 who had suffered from these cruelties at ,jerusalem1 returned to ,europe1 and by his crude eloquence and earnestness stirred the people almost to a frenzy4 ,obtaining the sanction of the ,pope1 he gathered an immense crowd of men1 women1 and children1 and started for the ,holy ,land4 ,they encountered great hardships1 many died of hunger1 disease1 and the hostility of the people through whose countries they passed1 and the remnant who reached the ,bosporus1 were totally destroyed by ,turkish soldiers4 ,the first successful crusade was organized by the feudal lords1 who gathered an army of six hundred thousand men under the leadership of ,godfrey of ,bouillon4 ,they had connected with their army one hundred thousand splendidly mounted men4 ,after untold losses and horrors1 which reduced their forces to sixty thousand men1 they succeeded in taking ,jerusalem4 ,they established a ,latin kingdom with ,godfrey at the head1 and thus accomplished the purpose for which they had set out4 ,this crusade lasted from #ajif to #ajii4 ,for about fifty years the ,latin kingdom held its own2 but it was constantly harassed by the ,mohammedans1 until it became necessary to organize a second crusade4 ,the leaders in this were ,conrad ,,iii4 of ,germany and ,louis ,,vii4 of ,france4 ,jealousies soon arose between the rival leaders1 who cared more for personal glory than for the purpose of the crusade4 ,as a result1 only a small portion of the three hundred thousand soldiers ever reached the ,holy ,land2 and this crusade1 which lasted from #aadg to #aadi1 resulted in failure4 ,forty years later ,saladin1 a ,mohammedan ruler1 having captured ,jerusalem1 a third crusade was organized4 ,this was led by ,richard the ,lion-,hearted of ,england1 ,frederick ,barbarossa of ,germany1 and ,philip ,augustus of ,france4 ,barbarossa went overland1 but ,richard and ,philip1 profiting by past experiences1 made the journey by water1 thus accomplishing it with greater ease and fewer losses4 ,the rivalries between the different nationalities engaged prevented successful warfare2 but a truce was made with the humane ,saladin1#dc whereby he guaranteed protection to the ,christians1 and thus the crusade came to an end4 ,this crusade lasted from #aahi to #aaib4 ,other crusades followed from time to time for several centuries1 with but little advantage gained over the conditions granted by ,saladin4 ,results of the ,crusades4--,this1 in brief1 is a historical account of the crusades4#dd ,it remains for us to note their educational value4 #a4 ,they drew various nations together by one common purpose4 #b4 ,they increased the knowledge of the manners1 customs1 culture1 products1 and civilization of the ,east4 #c4 ,they stirred up commerce1 especially that of the ,mediterranean1 making ,venice and ,genoa great commercial centers4 #d4 ,they broke up the power of feudalism4 ,lord and vassal together entered upon enterprises of danger and suffering1 which were great levelers of class distinction4 ,in the enthusiasm of the holy cause1 many feudal lords disposed of all their worldly possessions1 and became as poor as their vassals4 ,this broke up the feudal estates4 #e4 ,they widened the horizon of thought1 made ,europeans more liberal1 and prepared the way for an intellectual and religious revival4 #f4 ,they emancipated philosophy from theology4 ,as a result of movements inaugurated by the crusades1 the university of ,paris established the faculty of philosophy separate from that of theology4 #g4 ,g4 ,w4 ,cox says1 ,by rolling back the tide of ,mohammedan conquest from ,constantinople for upward of four centuries they probably saved ,europe from horrors the recital of which might even now make one's ears tingle4 ,,footnotes3 #dc ,see ,lessing's ,nathan der ,weise4 #dd ,it would be impossible to give a full historical account of the crusades in a work of this kind4 ,the reader is referred to any standard work on that subject4 ,,chapter ,,xxiv ,,the ,,rise ,,of ,,the ,,universities ,literature4--,laurie1 ,rise of the ,universities2 ,hallam1 ,middle ,ages2 ,guizot1 ,history of ,civilization2 ,paulsen1 ,the ,german ,universities2 ,hurst1 ,life and ,literature in the ,fatherland2 ,brother ,azarias1 ,essays ,educational4 ,we have seen that the ,church had almost entire control of education during the ,middle ,ages4 ,through her influence schools were established and maintained1 learning was preserved1 and the interests of civilization were promoted4 ,she was also influential in the founding of universities1 though not to her alone were these institutions due4 ,laurie says3-- ,now looking first to the germ out of which the universities grew1 ,i think we must say that the universities may be regarded as a natural development of the cathedral#de and monastery schools2 but if we seek for an external motive force urging men to undertake the more profound and independent study of the liberal arts1 we can find it only in the ,saracenic schools of ,bagdad1 ,babylon1 ,alexandria1 and ,cordova4 ,the ,saracens were necessarily brought into contact with ,greek literature1 just when the western ,church was drifting away from it2 and by their translations of ,hippocrates1 ,galen1 ,aristotle1 and other ,greek classics1 they restored what may be quite accurately called the 'university life' of the ,greeks4 ,the first universities1 however1 can hardly be said to have been inspired by the influence of the ,church4 ,nor did the ,state assist in their establishment1 though it afterward sanctioned them1 and conferred upon them their peculiar privileges4 ,the first universities grew out of organizations of scholars and students who joined themselves together for the purpose of study and investigation4 ,the oldest institution of this kind was that of ,salerno1 ,italy1 which ,laurie says was a public school from ,a4,d4 #ajfj1 and a privileged school from #aajj4 ,it taught medicine only1 and was established by a converted ,jew4 ,it was entirely independent of both ,church and ,state1 and attracted students from many countries4 ,the next university was that of ,bologna1 ,italy4 ,it also had only one faculty1 that of law4 ,in #aaeh ,frederick ,i4 recognized the institution by giving it certain privileges4 ,it awakened widespread interest throughout ,europe1 so that by the end of the twelfth century it is estimated that twelve thousand students had flocked to ,bologna1 most of them from foreign lands4 ,this is an indication that the revival of learning was quite general throughout the world4 ,but the greatest university of the ,middle ,ages was that of ,paris1 which attracted at least twenty thousand students4 ,the university of ,paris was evolved from a cathedral school1 and it always retained a strong theological tendency4 ,philip ,augustus gave it privileges as a corporation1 and ,pope ,innocent ,,iii4 recognized it as a high school of theology4 ,the course of study was by no means narrow1 as it was held that broad knowledge was essential as a preparation for theological study4 ,consequently it was not long before a philosophical faculty#df--the first in history--was added as separate from the theological faculty4 ,the greatest name connected with the university of ,paris is that of ,abelard4 ,early in the twelfth century he attracted great numbers of students1 and it was his personality that made ,paris the greatest university of the ,middle ,ages4 ,the university of ,oxford1 ,england1 was founded in #aadj1dg that of ,cambridge in #abjj4 ,the oldest ,german university is ,prague1 founded in #acdh4 ,then follow3 ,vienna1 #acfe2 ,heidelberg1 #achf2 ,cologne1#c #achh2 ,erfurt1#dh #acib2 ,wuerzburg1 #adjc2 ,leipsic1 #adji2 ,rostock1 #adai2 ,greifswald1 #adef2 ,freiburg-im-,breisgau1 #adeg2 ,trier1 #adgb2 ,tuebingen1 #adgg2 and ,mainz1 #adgg4 ,in ,france1 after ,paris1 ,toulouse1 #abcc2 ,orleans1 ,cahors1 ,caen1 ,poitiers1 ,nantes1 and others during the fourteenth century4 ,in the same century at ,lund and ,upsala in ,sweden1 ,christiania in ,norway1 and ,copenhagen in ,denmark4 ,italy1 ,spain1 ,england1 ,ireland1 and ,scotland also felt this wonderful impulse4 ,these universities were usually modeled after that of ,paris4 ,the ,european universities were early granted certain privileges1 many of which are accorded to this day4 ,indeed1 some of these privileges were assumed and allowed before the institutions had official recognition by charter4 ,these educational associations acquired so much influence and power that princes and popes vied with each other to gain favor with them by granting them special privileges4 ,one of the most important of these is that the government of the student body rests with the university faculty1 both as to their life in connection with the university1 and also outside of it4 ,thus to this day if a student is arrested by the police1 his case is turned over to the authorities of the university for trial and punishment4 ,this was an important concession largely growing out of the fact that a great many of the students were citizens of other countries than that in which the university was located4 ,it will readily appear that this privilege alone would have a tendency to create a world for university students and professors apart from that of the citizens4 ,doubtless the moral tone among the former was often very low4 ,students took advantage of the situation created by their peculiar privileges1 and disregarded laws which the citizens were obliged to obey4 ,conflicts between these two classes1 therefore1 were frequent and bitter4 ,the universities stimulated a desire for learning1 created a respect for it1 and began a movement toward free investigation1 and for the promulgation of liberal ideas1 which gains strength with each decade of the world's history4 ,they have greatly contributed to the growth of knowledge1 to the advancement of science1 and to the elevation of mankind4 ,,footnotes3 #de ,the cathedral schools were institutions connected with each cathedral for the purpose of training priests for their sacred office1 but they were not limited entirely to priests4 ,instructions in the seven liberal arts was imparted1 and also in religion4 ,parochial schools were established in many places for the purpose of training children in the doctrines of the ,church4 ,thus1 as early as the ninth century1 the ,church sought to extend the benefits of education to the people as well as to the priesthood4 ,while the parochial schools were limited in their instruction1 somewhat after the manner of the early catechumen schools1 the changed conditions of ,christianity permitted a much broader training than formerly4 #df ,the complete university has four faculties1 which embrace all human knowledge4 ,the historical order of precedence is as follows3 ,theology 7#abei-fj71 ,law 7#abga71 ,medicine 7#abgd71 and ,arts or ,philosophy 7#abha74 ,the last includes all subjects not embraced in the first three4 ,thus all branches of science1 history1 language1 mathematics1 etc41 belong to the philosophical faculty4 #dg ,laurie1 ,rise of the ,universities4 #dh ,no longer in existence ,,chapter ,,xxv ,,mohammedan ,,education ,literature4--,warner1 ,library of the ,world's ,best ,literature 7see article on the ,koran72 ,johonnot1 ,geographical ,reader2 ,lane-,poole1 ,story of the ,moors in ,spain2 ,lord1 ,beacon ,lights of ,history2 ,thalheimer1 ,mediaeval and ,modern ,history2 ,stille1 ,studies in ,mediaeval ,history2 ,irving1 ,mahomet and his ,successors2 ,church1 ,the ,beginnings of the ,middle ,ages2 ,andrews1 ,institutes of ,general ,history2 ,white1 ,eighteen ,christian ,centuries2 ,myers1 ,mediaeval and ,modern ,history2 ,mombert1 ,great ,lives2 ,clarke1 ,ten ,great ,religions2 ,ferris1 ,great ,leaders2 ,laurie1 ,rise of the ,universities2 ,walker1 ,john ,brisben1 ,the ,building of an ,empire 7,cosmopolitan1 ,feb4-,sept41 #ahii72 ,north ,american ,review1 ,vol4 #aga1 p4 #ged4 ,we have thus far described the work of ,christian education4 ,parallel with this and almost entirely independent of it grew the educational work of the ,moslems4 ,this was a very important movement most valuable to civilization4 ,history of ,mohammedanism4--,mohammedanism dates from the time of the ,hegira1 or flight of ,mohammed from ,mecca1 ,a4,d4 #fbb4 ,from this date ,moslems reckon their time1 as the ,christian world reckons from the birth of ,christ4 ,mohammed first appeared as prophet when forty years of age4 ,the religion of the ,arabs was a most degraded one1 and there was great need of the reformation which ,mohammed undertook4 ,the prophet was not well received at first1 and1 being obliged to flee from ,mecca1 he retired to a cave at ,medina1 where he meditated and studied4 ,it was during this retirement that he wrote the ,koran1 the ,bible of the ,mohammedans4 ,he claimed that the angel ,gabriel appeared to him1 giving him a new revelation1 which was more significant than that of the ,christians4 ,indeed1 these so-called revelations were strangely suited to the varying ambition of the founder of this religion4 ,the ,koran teaches that as ,jesus was greater than ,moses1 so ,mohammed was greater than ,jesus4 ,there is no doubt that the new religion was an improvement upon the degraded form of worship that ,mohammed found among the ,arabs1 or that in the beginning of his activity he did much to purify and elevate his people4 ,but as he gained great numbers of adherents1 and as he acquired power1 ,mohammed became a warrior1 and attempted by the sword to compel belief in his doctrines4 ,moslemism met with such wonderful success that already1 during the life of ,mohammed1 all ,arabia was conquered to this belief1 while his successors spread his teachings into northern ,africa1 western ,asia1 ,spain1 and ,turkey4 ,they carried their triumphant arms into ,france1 until they were checked by ,charles ,martel2 they overran ,austria and threatened the complete subjugation of southeastern ,europe1 until ,john ,sobieski dealt them a crushing blow before the gates of ,vienna1 and forever destroyed their ambition for northern conquest2 they occupied ,spain for seven hundred years1 and still retain ,turkey as their sole ,european possession2 they have extended their power over many parts of ,asia and ,africa1 until now they number about two hundred million souls4 ,the five chief ,moslem precepts are3-- #a4 ,confession of the unity of ,god4 ,there is one ,god1 and ,mohammed is his prophet4 #b4 ,stated prayer4 #c4 ,almsgiving4 #d4 ,the fast of ,ramadan1 the ninth month of the ,mohammedan year4 #e4 ,observance of the festival of ,mecca4 ,every ,moslem is expected to make a pilgrimage to ,mecca at least once in his lifetime4 ,education4--,when ,mohammedanism became secure in its power1 it turned its attention to education4 ,the successors of ,mohammed were called caliphs1 and the caliphs of ,bagdad and ,cordova rivaled each other in fostering learning4 ,schools were established in all large ,moslem cities and in many smaller towns4 ,their scholars translated the works of ,aristotle and other ,greek authors4 ,they taught mathematics1 astronomy1 philosophy1 and grammar4 ,they originated the science of chemistry1 and made great advances in the study of algebra and trigonometry4 ,they also measured the earth1 and made catalogues of the stars4 ,every branch of knowledge was studied1 and students were attracted from all parts of ,europe to their schools1 especially to ,cordova4 ,students lived in colleges with the professors1 and there was an atmosphere of culture and investigation not equaled in any of the ,christian universities of the ,middle ,ages4 ,spain reached the summit of ,moslem education during the reign of ,king ,hakem ,,iii4 7#ifa-igf74 ,this king fostered education1 being himself a man of learning4 ,he had a private library of six hundred thousand volumes4 ,education was not confined simply to the higher schools and universities4 ,there were also a great many elementary schools4 ,the first work of these was to teach the ,koran1 which was used as a reading book4 ,the ,koran gives us the most perfect picture of the oriental mind that we possess4 ,children of the poor attended school from their fifth till their eighth year1 when they were allowed to go to service4 ,children of the rich entered school at their fifth year and remained till their fourteenth or fifteenth year4 ,after that1 if parents could afford it1 boys traveled until their twentieth year1 under care of a tutor4 ,this completed their education4 ,any person could teach who chose to do so1 no authority fixing the qualifications of teachers4 ,the ,mohammedan schools began to decline in the eleventh century4 ,at the present time1 but little attention is paid to education in any of the countries under the sway of ,islam4 ,,general ,,summary ,,of ,,educational ,,progress ,,during ,,the ,,middle ,,ages #a4 ,paganism gave way to ,christianity1 and the benign influence of the latter began to be felt in the recognition of the importance of the individual4 #b4 ,the ,church undertook the direction of education1 which1 though necessarily limited chiefly to the ecclesiastics1 had also a great influence upon the masses at large4 #c4 ,the ,church ,fathers were the leaders in intellectual as well as in spiritual matters1 while monks and priests were the principal teachers4 #d4 ,the monasteries were the centers of educational activity1 both in fostering scholarship and in preserving classic literature4 #e4 ,secular courses of study were established1 the most important being the seven liberal arts4 #f4 ,education was based on authority1 and free investigation found but little encouragement1 except among the scholastics4 #g4 ,the ,state assumed no part in the training of the young4 ,charlemagne's educational work is an exception to this rule4 ,he asserted the prerogative of the ,state to control education1 recognized the necessity of universal education1 and the principle of compulsory attendance4 #h4 ,the crusades checked the growth of feudalism1 aroused the intellectual as well as the spiritual energies of the people1 led to a broader conception of man's duty to his fellow-man1 and prepared the way for greater religious and political freedom4 #i4 ,as an important result of the stimulated educational activity1 both among ,christians and ,mohammedans1 many universities were founded4 #aj4 ,the ,middle ,ages1 says ,emerson1 gave us decimal numbers1 gunpowder1 glass1 chemistry1 and gothic architecture1 and their paintings are the delight and tuition of our age4#di ,,footnotes3 #di ,emerson1 ,progress of ,culture in ,letters and ,social ,aims1 p4 #bjd4 ,boston1 #ahie4 ,,chapter ,,xxvi ,,the ,,renaissance ,literature4--,williams1 ,history of ,modern ,education2 ,quick1 ,educational ,reformers2 ,bryce1 ,the ,holy ,roman ,empire2 ,andrews1 ,institutes of ,general ,history2 ,fisher1 ,history of the ,reformation2 ,reeve1 ,petrarch2 ,symonds1 ,renaissance in ,italy2 ,seebohm1 ,era of ,protestant ,revolution2 ,spofford1 ,library of ,historical ,characters2 ,hegel1 ,philosophy of ,history2 ,draper1 ,intellectual ,development of ,europe2 ,azarias1 ,philosophy of ,literature2 ,schwickerath1 ,jesuit ,education2 ,dr4 ,ludwig ,pastor1 ,history of the ,popes1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #ed1 etc4 ,as the fifteenth century drew to a close there were unmistakable evidences of the dawn of a better day1 and the long period known as the ,dark ,ages was to be succeeded by a brighter and more glorious era4 ,the sway of the ,church over the consciences1 lives1 and material interests of men was disputed2 the feudal system had begun to disintegrate2 the world had been aroused to new enterprise by the discovery and exploration of distant continents1 by the invention of paper1 the printing press1 gunpowder1 and the mariner's compass2 the ,ptolemaic system of astronomy had been superseded by that of ,copernicus2 the great empires of the ,middle ,ages had disappeared1 and upon their ruins had been constructed smaller nationalities which spoke a language of their own4 ,the period in which these remarkable changes were taking place is known as that of the ,renaissance4 ,it cannot be confined to definite chronological limits1 but is the period of transition from one historical stage to another1 in which there was a gradual metamorphosis of the intellectual and moral state of ,europe4 ,the ,renaissance must be viewed as an internal process whereby spiritual energies latent in the ,middle ,ages were developed into actuality and formed a mental habit for the modern world4 ,it prepared the way for the ,reformation1 and introduced the era of wonderful progress upon which modern civilization has entered4 ,it was the new birth1 the regeneration 7renascence7 of the world4 ,a most important instrumentality for carrying forward the great work thus inaugurated was the ,teutonic race4 ,the despised northern barbarians1 who had conquered ,rome1 had become civilized and ,christianized1 and were found to possess the sterling qualities which made them capable of bearing the great responsibilities of progressive civilization4 ,the proud ,roman ,empire had at last succumbed to its internal weaknesses and vices1 and had disappeared forever from the face of the earth4 ,with the greater enlightenment of men had come once more an appreciation of the value of the classic languages1 and ,greek1 the language of the ,eastern ,empire1 was no longer regarded with antipathy4 ,the revival of learning1 which had its inception in ,italy and spread northward1 found its most important expression in the new interest awakened in the classic languages4 ,it is in this1 the so-called humanistic phase of the ,renaissance1 that the student of education is chiefly interested4 ,to this we turn our attention4 ,we have already alluded to the social conditions1 the inventions1 and discoveries1 which prepared the way for the revival of learning4 ,new and powerful impulses were shaping the progress of the world1 and the leaders of the humanistic movement were not slow to utilize the instruments thus opportunely furnished them4 ,chief among these was the art of printing1 which enabled them to multiply and distribute copies of the classics1 that had been consigned to comparative oblivion4 ,another important element must be considered if we are to understand this revival4 ,we have seen that during the ,middle ,ages the ecclesiastics largely shaped the intellectual activity of ,europe1 that mystery was made of science1 and that the authority of the ,church was supreme on all questions of education as well as of religion4 ,a new and vital doctrine was taught which had much to do with the intellectual and spiritual emancipation of man4 ,this new doctrine may be stated as follows3-- ,man is a rational1 volitional1 self-conscious being1 born with capabilities and rights to enjoy whatever good the world offers4 ,this doctrine1 it will readily appear1 is capable of being perverted to an excuse for unbridled license1 as was done by the ,italians2 or1 rightly interpreted1 of being productive of great good1 as in the case of the ,germans4 ,another new doctrine taught was that there was goodness in man and his works even previous to the ,christian era1 and that a study of the writings of all who have contributed to human progress is essential to culture1 and of value to mankind4 ,this was an argument for the revival of the study of ,greek1 which had for centuries been neglected4 ,indeed1 ,gibbon tells us that in the time of ,petrarch1 ,no more than ten votaries of ,homer could be enumerated in all ,italy4 ,again1 it was held that the gates of learning must be opened to all and not limited to the clergy1 the recluse1 and the sage4 ,intellectual culture must be offered to all men1 to make them better and happier1 and is not to be confined to the few for the purpose of increasing their power and widening the breach between the classes4 ,the ,renaissance made learning popular1 it created a passion for culture1 it aroused and stimulated widespread desire for greater enlightenment4 ,some of the leaders in the movement1 however1 merited opposition because of their efforts to introduce not only the beauties of pagan art and literature1 but likewise some of their licentiousness4 ,we may now turn our attention to a more detailed history of this revival and its effect upon different peoples1 and to a brief study of some of its great leaders4 ,humanism in ,italy4--,italy was the first to catch the impulse of humanism4 ,dante1 ,petrarch1 and ,boccaccio in the fourteenth century inspired men with their new ideas1 and set in motion influences which were attended with results often far from good4 ,they revived the study of ,latin and ,greek classics1 extracted manuscripts from their hidden archives1 incited in society a passion for learning1 and created a popular literature in their own vernacular4 ,they implanted a love of freedom of thought in the ,italian masses4 ,their enthusiasm for the new learning attracted scholars from ,germany1 ,france1 and other countries1 who spread the influence in their own lands4 ,the effect of humanism upon the ,italian mind and life was pernicious in the extreme4 ,it led to infidelity1 to immorality1 and to a return to many pagan practices4 ,this was owing to two chief causes4 ,first1 the evil influence of many leaders of the ,church1 and second1 the passionate nature of the ,italian people4 ,karl ,schmidt says1 ,humanism1 but not morality1 ruled in the ,vatican4 ,brother ,azarias1 in speaking of this period1 says3#ej ,the clergy loved their own ease too well2 they were too great pleasure-seekers and gold-coveters to attend to their flocks with that pastoral spirit of simplicity and good faith that is to be witnessed in the ,church to-day4 ,the bishops were no better4 ,they looked for emoluments and court favor4 ,even the better class of ecclesiastics gave themselves up to the intellectual luxury of admiring ,plato and imitating ,cicero4 ,while a general laxity of morals in all orders of religious life--among priest and monk1 pope and cardinal--was bringing odium on the ,church1 and weakening her hold upon the people--especially upon the ,teutonic races--the seeds of regeneration were germinating in her own body4 ,she was even then the mother of sanctity4444 ,the ,catholic hierarchy at last realized that with themselves should begin the reformation they would see established2 they therefore pronounced the most withering denunciations upon the clerical and religious abuses of the day4 ,the people interpreted the teaching of ,petrarch that the world was made for man's enjoyment1 as a plea for license and absence of restraint4 ,even monks and priests1 who had been held to the rigid life of the cloister1 imbued with this teaching1 indulged in excesses that were subversive of both morals and religion4#ea ,but without doubt there was a great intellectual movement in ,italy4 ,draper says1 ,between #adgj and #aejj more than ten thousand editions of books and pamphlets were printed1 and a majority of them in ,italy1 demonstrating that ,italy was in the van of the intellectual movement4 ,humanism in ,germany4--,a far different result was attained among the ,teutonic peoples4 ,the best students of ,germany went to ,italy1 and1 becoming acquainted with the new education1 returned to introduce it into their own universities4 ,being less directly under the influences that obtained in ,italy1 and possessing the moral stability which had brought the ,teutonic race to the front1 the ,germans obtained good where the ,italians had absorbed evil4 ,the same principle1 with different interpretation1 under different conditions1 and in different soil1 brought forth far different fruit4 ,thus ,petrarch's teaching was interpreted to mean that the good things of earth are not to be abused1 and that man's acquirements are to be consecrated to his self-development and to the glory of ,god4 ,the ,german humanists revived the study of the classics1 ,greek1 ,latin1 and ,hebrew1 until1 at the beginning of the sixteenth century1 these languages were taught in every ,german university4 ,the ,bible was studied in the original1 and classic writings were redeemed from obscurity1 printed1 and given to the world4 ,heidelberg and ,tuebingen became centers of the humanistic movement1 and ,agricola1 ,reuchlin1 and ,erasmus were the great leaders4 ,artisan ,schools4--,during the #acth and #adth centuries another type of schools flourished1 namely1 the ,buerger or ,artisan ,schools1 whose purpose1 contrary to that of the humanistic influences1 was to prepare men for practical and useful work1 and to fit for citizenship4 ,the need of these schools grew out of the changed conditions of life1 especially the growing tendency to live in cities and to divide labor into crafts4 ,they were supported by the secular authorities1 and ultimately they came to exert a great influence upon city governments1 particularly those of the ,hanseatic league4 ,many of the teachers were priests1 and the instruction was usually given in the mother tongue4 ,these schools flourished in ,germany1 ,france1 ,italy1 ,denmark1 and other countries1 and they doubtless furthered the idea of the maintenance of education at public expense1 an idea that has come to have universal acceptance4 ,summary of the ,influence of ,humanism4--#a4 ,it laid the foundation for future liberty of thought and conscience4 #b4 ,it revived the study of the classic languages1 and gave them a place in education which they still hold4 #c4 ,it utilized the art of printing by placing the works of ancient authors in form to be used by the world4 #d4 ,it increased the number of students in the universities1 and stimulated intelligence among the masses4 #e4 ,it changed courses of study1 making them more practical4 #f4 ,it exerted an influence on schools of all kinds by giving better preparation to teachers4 #g4 ,it stimulated all forms of elevating activity1--in art1 in science1 in exploration1 in invention4 #h4 ,it prepared the way for the ,reformation1 which broadened and perfected the work thus inaugurated4 ,,footnotes3 #ej ,philosophy of ,literature1 p4 #abc4 #ea ,ibid4 ,,chapter ,,xxvii ,,humanistic ,,educators ,literature4--,spofford1 ,library of ,historical ,characters2 ,symonds1 ,renaissance in ,italy2 ,reeve1 ,petrarch2 ,macaulay1 ,essays2 ,warner1 ,library of the ,world's ,best ,literature 7see articles on ,dante1 ,petrarch1 and ,boccaccio72 ,d',aubigne1 ,history of the ,reformation2 ,morris1 ,era of the ,protestant ,revolution2 ,leclerc1 ,life of ,erasmus2 ,fisher1 ,history of the ,reformation2 ,mrs4 ,oliphant1 ,dante2 ,azarias1 ,philosophy of ,literature2 ,schwickerath1 ,jesuit ,education4 ,the mission of the humanistic leaders was to awake the dead1 for ,greek had become in the fullest sense a dead language1 and while classic ,latin was still read1 its spirit was not comprehended and therefore it also was practically dead4 ,we have seen that the ,italians were the first to catch the inspiration of this revival1 and ,germany1 ,france1 ,spain1 and ,england were invited to her feast4 ,the great leaders of ,italy were ,dante1 ,petrarch1 and ,boccaccio4 ,it is not the purpose here to discuss these men in all of their intellectual activities1 but simply to consider the part of their work that had a bearing on education4 ,,the ,,italian ,,humanists ,,dante 7#abfe-acba7 ,dante was born and educated in ,florence4 ,he was favored with a devoted teacher1 ,brunetto ,latini1 who was said to be a great philosopher and a consummate master of rhetoric1 not only knowing how to speak well1 but to write well4 ,under him ,dante became familiar with all of the great ,latin poets1 with philosophy1 history1 and theology4 ,dante always spoke of his teacher with great affection4 ,those were times of revolution and political disturbance1 and ,dante was readily drawn into politics4 ,this caused his banishment and even endangered his life4 ,dante's greatest work is the ,divine ,comedy1 which has made his name immortal4 ,his was the first great name in literature after the long dark period of the ,middle ,ages4 ,it is said of him that he was not the restorer of classic antiquity1 but one of the great prophets of that restoration4 ,he brought the ,italian language into use in literature and gave to it a dignity that it has never lost4 ,dante prepared the way for the humanistic movement and was therefore an important factor in this great revival4 ,,petrarch 7#acjd-acgd7 ,the father of ,petrarch was an eminent jurist1 and he desired his son to adopt his profession1 but ,petrarch had neither taste nor capacity for ,roman law4 ,he was determined to be a man of letters4 ,like ,dante1 he too mixed in politics1 and several important diplomatic positions were given to him4 ,though he succeeded in learning a little ,greek late in life1 ,petrarch was not a ,greek scholar4 ,this did not hinder him from being a warm advocate of the claims of the ,greek language as an important element of a liberal education4 ,although he possessed a manuscript of ,homer1 ,homer was dumb to him1 or rather he was deaf to ,homer4 ,petrarch was the real founder of humanism4 ,being enthusiastic for the works of antiquity himself1 he inspired the ,italians with a remarkable zeal in the pursuit of classic lore2 nor was his influence confined to the limits of his native country4 ,he was the first to make a collection of classic works1 and to bring to light the literary treasures which the monasteries had so carefully preserved for centuries4 ,he inaugurated that great movement which restored freedom1 self-consciousness1 and the faculty of progress to human intellect4 ,he recognized that the most wonderful thing in the world is the human mind1 the emancipation of which can be brought about only through its own activity4 ,he was the first to appreciate the importance of ,greek in human culture4 ,unlike ,tertullian1 ,jerome1 and ,augustine1 he believed that classic authors1 together with the ,holy ,scriptures and the writings of the ,church ,fathers1 produce the broadest intelligence4 ,all of these have the same purpose1 and all are necessary to human enlightenment4 ,petrarch broke down the unfruitful methods of the scholastics1 and laid the foundations upon which modern education is based2 namely1 intellectual freedom1 self-consciousness1 and self-activity4 ,,boccaccio 7#acac-acge7 ,the third of the great ,italian leaders in the humanistic movement was ,boccaccio4 ,at the age of twenty-five1 while standing at the grave of ,vergil1 he decided to devote himself to a literary career4 ,he admired the great work of ,petrarch1 and was proud that1 at his own expense1 he was the first to have the works of ,homer and other ,greek authors brought to his native land2 that he was the first to call and support a teacher of ,greek2 and that he was the first among all ,italians who could read ,homer in the original4 ,,the ,,german ,,humanists ,the ,german mind is more earnest1 disputative1 and practical than the ,italian1 therefore the trend of ,german humanism was at first chiefly theological1 and the study of the classic languages1 especially ,hebrew and ,greek1 was undertaken for the purpose of better understanding the ,holy ,scriptures4 ,only a few scholars1 however1 were interested1 and not until a violent attack was made upon ,reuchlin1 was general attention attracted4 ,,agricola 7#addc-adhe7 ,rudolphus ,agricola was the first to prepare the northern countries for the reception of the classic revival4 ,after studying for some time under the great ,italian masters1 he returned to ,germany and accepted a professorship at ,heidelberg1 where he delivered courses of lectures on the literature of ,greece and ,rome4 ,he lectured also at ,worms at the request of the bishop1 and drew around him a large number of students in both places4 ,hallam says of him1 ,no ,german wrote so pure a style1 or possessed so large a portion of classic learning4 ,he prepared the way for the introduction of humanistic teachings and some of his pupils became the great leaders of that movement among the ,teutonic peoples4 ,the testimony of ,erasmus concerning ,agricola is as follows3 ,there was no branch of knowledge in which he could not measure himself with the greatest masters4 ,among the ,greeks1 he was a pure ,greek1 among the ,latins a pure ,roman4444 ,even when he spoke ex tempore1 his speech was so perfect and so pure that one could easily believe that one heard a ,roman rather than a ,german4 ,united with his powerful eloquence was the broadest erudition4 ,he had investigated all the mysteries of philosophy1 and thoroughly mastered every branch of music4 ,in his later years he devoted his whole soul to the mastery of ,hebrew and to the study of the ,holy ,scriptures4 ,he cared but little for glory4 ,,reuchlin 7#adee-aebb7 ,reuchlin may properly be called the first great ,german humanist4 ,he was educated at ,freiburg1 ,paris1 and ,basel1 and gave especial attention to the classic studies1 which had almost disappeared from the university courses in ,germany4 ,he took his master's degree at ,basel1 and then began to lecture on classical ,latin and ,greek4 ,being a born teacher1 he drew about him a great number of students1 who became interested in classic studies4 ,he made several visits to ,italy1 where he imbibed the humanistic theories of the ,italians1 though he was already far advanced in those theories before he went to ,italy4 ,in #adha he was appointed professor at ,tuebingen1 which thus became the first ,german university to teach humanistic doctrines4 ,at ,linz1 where he had been sent on an embassy1 he made the acquaintance of the emperor's ,jewish physician1 with whom he began the study of ,hebrew4 ,this marks an important epoch in his history1 as he is best known for his ,hebrew ,grammar and ,lexicon1 published in #aejf1 and for his championship of the ,hebrew literature4 ,owing to the scarcity of classic text-books1 ,reuchlin was obliged to mark out courses for his students1 and1 in a measure1 to supply text-books for them4 ,much of his work in the university had to be dictated1 and students were obliged to copy their work from manuscripts4 ,he published a ,latin lexicon and prepared the manuscript of a ,greek grammar which he never published1 but from which doubtless he drew in his work with students4 ,in #adif his friend ,count ,eberhard died1 and ,reuchlin's enemies succeeded in alienating the new prince1 so he was glad to avail himself of the opportunity to go to the university of ,heidelberg4 ,here he gave chief attention to ,hebrew4 ,while in ,heidelberg he became involved in an unfortunate controversy regarding ,hebrew literature1 a controversy which was forced upon him4 ,john ,pfefferkorn1 a converted ,jew1 zealous for the conversion of his race1 obtained an order from the emperor to confiscate and destroy all ,hebrew works which opposed the ,christian faith4 ,reuchlin was appealed to as the highest authority on ,hebrew1 and he urged that1 instead of destroying the literature1 two professors should be appointed in each university to teach ,hebrew and thereby refute the ,jewish doctors by making the students acquainted with the ,bible4 ,the struggle continued for years1 and although the ,church and even the universities were against him1 ,reuchlin was finally victorious1 thereby saving a noble literature to the world4 ,this was a great victory for humanism4 ,a short time before his death ,reuchlin returned to ,tuebingen1 where he closed his illustrious career in #aebb4 ,reuchlin was the first to introduce ,greek into ,germany1 and the first to recognize the necessity of a knowledge of ,hebrew in interpreting the ,holy ,scriptures4 ,he began a reform in the schools which prepared the way for a like movement in the ,church1 and in ,luther he saw the man who was destined to carry both of these reforms to fulfillment4 ,god be praised1 said he1 in ,luther they have found a man who will give them work enough to do1 so that they can let me1 an old man1 go to my rest in peace4 ,,erasmus 7#adfg-aecf7 ,erasmus was born at ,rotterdam4 ,though not a ,german1 he belonged to the ,teutonic race4 ,he has well been called a citizen of the world1 as he lived in so many countries1 and came to be the most learned man of his time4 ,he was left an orphan at an early age1 and his guardians placed him in a convent4 ,they wished to make a monk of him so that they could inherit his patrimony1 but this plan was resisted by the boy for a long time4 ,the life of the convent was very distasteful to him1 and though he afterward took vows1 he never was in sympathy with asceticism4 ,possibly the condition of the monasteries at that time may have had something to do with the repugnance of ,erasmus to the monastic life4 ,he was certainly greatly relieved when the ,pope absolved him from his vows4 ,erasmus was precocious as a child1 and it was early predicted of him that he would be a great man1 a prediction which he fully verified4 ,through the influence and help of the ,bishop of ,cambray1 he was enabled to go to ,paris for study1 though the means furnished were not sufficient for his support4 ,he took pupils and gave lectures1 thereby supplying the deficiency in his funds4 ,it is recorded that1 in his eagerness for books1 he said1 ,when ,i get money1 ,i will first buy ,greek books1 and then clothing4 ,he also studied at ,oxford1 and afterward at ,turin1 where he took the degree of ,doctor of ,divinity4 ,though many high offices in the ,church1 and many positions in universities1 were offered to him1 he refused them all1 preferring to be an independent man of letters4 ,erasmus was recognized as the supreme literary authority of the world1 and this lofty position was the summit of his ambition4 ,nothing could turn him aside from the path that led to that eminence1 and1 once attained1 nothing could attract him away from it4 ,basel had become the center of the new printing industry4 ,this led ,erasmus to choose that city as his home for the latter part of his life1 and here he furthered the cause of humanism as no other man had done1 by editing and giving to the world many of the classic treasures of the monasteries4 ,he translated ,greek works into ,latin1 thereby making them available to the world1 as ,latin was better understood than ,greek4 ,his edition of the ,greek ,testament was his most eminent service1 though his ,colloquies are better known4 ,his ,praise of ,folly is a satirical work1 in which he holds up to ridicule the ignorance and vice of the monks4 ,though he never broke away from the ,church1 without doubt his sympathies were with the reformers4 ,but neither the persuasions nor the denunciations of ,luther could bring him to take a decided stand on either side4 ,he thought that the reform could be wrought within the ,church4 ,he accepted the dogmas of the ,church1 and remained within it as long as he lived4 ,erasmus was the exact counterpart of ,luther4 ,he appealed to the limited few1 ,luther to the masses2 he to the educated and higher classes1 ,luther to the ignorant and lowly2 he was a man of reflection1 ,luther a man of action4 ,the apparent vacillation of ,erasmus may have been due to ill health1 to the influence of the ,pope1 to the ties of the ,church in which he had been reared1 to the satisfaction he found in his eminent literary position1 and to his dislike for controversy4 ,erasmus gives us some very valuable pedagogical teachings1 which may be summed up as follows3-- ,pedagogy of ,erasmus4--#a4 ,the mother is the natural educator of the child in its early years4 ,the mother who does not care for the education of her children is only half a mother4 #b4 ,until the seventh year the child should have little to do but play1 in order to develop the body4 ,it must have no earnest work1 but must be taught politeness4 #c4 ,after the seventh year earnest work must begin4 ,latin and ,greek 7which should be studied together7 must be taught early so that right pronunciation and a good vocabulary may be attained4 #d4 ,the first subject to be learned is grammar4 ,language is necessary before a knowledge of other things can be gained4 #e4 ,teachers should be better trained and better paid1 and suitable places must be furnished for the schools4 #f4 ,the religious side of education must not be neglected4 #g4 ,great attention must be paid to the cultivation of the memory3 7a7 by a proper understanding of the subject2 7b7 by logical order in thinking2 7c7 by comparison4 #h4 ,as the bee collects honey from many flowers1 so knowledge is gathered from many sources4 #i4 ,the foundation of all training of children must be laid in the home4 ,parents should know what their children ought to be taught4 ,above all things children must be taught to obey4 #aj4 ,the first care with girls is to inculcate in them religious feelings2 the second to protect them from contamination2 the third1 to guard them from idleness4 ,,chapter ,,xxviii ,,the ,,reformation ,,as ,,an ,,educational ,,influence ,literature4--,white1 ,eighteen ,christian ,centuries2 ,taylor1 ,history of ,germany2 ,draper1 ,intellectual ,development of ,europe2 ,guizot1 ,history of ,civilization2 ,lord1 ,beacon ,lights2 ,seebohm1 ,the ,protestant ,revolution2 ,gasquet1 ,eve of the ,reformation2 ,spaulding1 ,history of the ,reformation2 ,bryce1 ,the ,holy ,roman ,empire2 ,morris1 ,era of the ,protestant ,revolution2 ,hurst1 ,history of the ,reformation2 ,lewis1 ,history of ,germany2 ,myers1 ,mediaeval and ,modern ,history2 ,schiller1 ,the ,thirty ,years' ,war2 ,hallam1 ,literary ,history2 ,kiddle and ,schem1 ,cyclopaedia of ,education2 ,dyer1 ,modern ,europe2 ,d',aubigne1 ,history of the ,reformation2 ,yonge1 ,three ,centuries of ,modern ,history2 ,mombert1 ,great ,lives2 ,schwickerath1 ,jesuit ,education4 ,historical ,conditions4--,at the beginning of the sixteenth century we find the stage of political1 religious1 and educational activity transferred from the shores of the ,mediterranean to the north of the ,alps4 ,we have seen the great work of civilization taken from the ,greek and ,latin races and committed to the ,teutonic race4 ,we have traced the humanistic movement from its birthplace in ,italy to ,germany1 where it found a more congenial atmosphere and a more suitable soil4 ,the world was ripe for a great revolution1 which was destined to advance the interests of mankind with gigantic strides4 ,the invention of printing by ,gutenberg1 in the middle of the fifteenth century1 must be mentioned as the primary material agency in forwarding this advance4 ,it was said of this art that it would give the deathblow to the superstition of the ,middle ,ages4 ,it multiplied readers a hundredfold2 it stimulated authorship2 it revolutionized literature1 because it made the preservation and dissemination of thought easy2 it was a mighty influence in bringing about universal education1 a principle for which the ,reformation stood4 ,another event of great importance was the discovery of ,america1 which stimulated various ,european enterprises4 ,thus1 at the beginning of the sixteenth century1 the world awakened from its long sleep1 and educational enterprise was born anew4 ,the ,german ,reformation had been preceded by similar movements in other lands4 ,huss and ,jerome of ,prague1 in ,bohemia1 ,wyclif in ,england1 ,zwingli in ,switzerland1 the ,waldenses in ,italy1 and the ,albigenses in ,france1 had raised their voices in solemn protest against clerical abuses1#eb and many of the reformers had paid for their temerity by martyrdom4 ,but the ,german ,reformation1 under the leadership of ,martin ,luther1 was destined to exert a mighty influence throughout northern ,europe1 and to set in motion impulses which were to shape all later history4 ,the chief rulers of ,europe were ,frederick the ,wise of ,saxony1 known as ,luther's friend1 ,henry the ,eighth of ,england1 ,francis the ,first of ,france1 and ,charles the ,fifth1 king of ,spain1 ,naples1 ,sicily1 and ,austria1 and afterward emperor of ,germany4 ,leo the ,tenth was ,pope1 and he had great influence in temporal affairs4 ,emperor ,charles the ,fifth was the most powerful ruler of this period4 ,though a foreigner in manners1 customs1 and sympathy1 and unacquainted with the ,german tongue1 he became emperor of ,germany by bribing the electors who had a voice in selecting the ruler of that nation4 ,it is said that he paid #a1ejj1jjj to these corrupt electors1 besides making many promises of future favors4 ,he was treacherous1 and never hesitated to break the most solemn pledges when his interests so demanded4 ,bayard ,taylor says of him1 ,his election was a crime1 from the effects of which ,germany did not recover for three hundred years4 ,intellectual ,conditions4--,these1 then1 were the external conditions which existed at the beginning of the sixteenth century4 ,we have seen that the need of reformation was acknowledged on all sides4 ,there were but few good teachers to be found1 even in the ,church which had so long been the mother of schools4 ,education was at such a low ebb1 and the advantages offered by the schools were so poor1 and of such a doubtful character1 that but few persons cared to avail themselves of their privileges4 ,even the universities failed to educate4 ,luther says1 ,is it not pitiable that a boy has been obliged to study twenty years or longer to learn enough bad ,latin to become a priest1 and read mass8 ,again he says1 ,such teachers and masters we have been obliged to have everywhere1 who have known nothing themselves1 and have been able to teach nothing good or useful4 ,there was need1 then1 of reform in education as well as in religion1 and ,luther took the burden of both upon his shoulders4 ,as an educational reformer1 he has earned for himself the world's gratitude4 ,it must be admitted that ,luther's main purpose was the reformation of the ,church1 and that his educational work merely grew out of the need of general intelligence as a necessary adjunct to that work4 ,of the existing conditions1 ,compayre well says1 ,with ,la ,salle and the foundation of the ,institute of the ,brethren of the ,christian ,schools1 the historian of education recognizes the ,catholic origin of primary instruction2 in the decrees and laws of the ,french ,revolution1 its lay and philosophical origin2 but it is to the ,protestant ,reformation1--to ,luther in the sixteenth century1 and to ,comenius in the seventeenth1--that must be ascribed the honor of having first organized schools for the people4 ,in its origin1 the primary school is the child of ,protestantism1 and its cradle was the ,reformation4#ec ,,luther 7#adhc-aedf7 ,martin ,luther was born at ,eisleben1 ,germany1 of poor and humble parents4 ,he was brought up under the rigid discipline of the typical ,german home1 in which the rod was not spared4 ,upon this point he writes1 ,my parents' severity made me timid2 their sternness and the strict life they led me made me afterward go into a monastery and become a monk4 ,they meant well1 but they did not understand the art of adjusting their punishments4 ,when he was fourteen years of age1 his parents1 then in better circumstances1 sent him to ,magdeburg to prepare for the university4 ,but the expense being too great1 he was withdrawn from this school and sent to ,eisenach1 where he could live with relatives4 ,here he sang in the street for alms1 and his sweet voice attracted the attention of ,ursula ,cotta1 a wealthy lady1 who took him to her own home and gave him an excellent teacher4 ,when eighteen years of age he entered the university of ,erfurt1 then a center of humanistic learning4 ,he made marvelous progress in his studies until he took his degree4 ,his father had intended him for the law1 but ,luther determined to devote himself to the ,church1 much to his father's disappointment4 ,accordingly he became an ,augustinian monk when twenty-two years of age4 ,unlike many of his brethren1 he kept up his studies while in the monastery1 and was called to a professorship in the new university at ,wittenberg in #aejh1 where he found an ample field for his remarkable powers4 ,two years later1 he went as a delegate to the papal court at ,rome1 where his eyes were opened to the condition of the ,church in her holiest sanctuaries4 ,returning to ,wittenberg1 he continued his studies and his lectures1 and drew about him a great number of students4 ,his lectures and his writings against the practices of the ,church became so pronounced that he was summoned before the ,diet of ,worms and commanded to retract4 ,this he refused to do in the memorable words3 ,here ,i stand2 ,i cannot do otherwise4 ,god help me6 ,amen4 ,on his return from ,worms1 fearing for his safety1 his friends took him prisoner and confined him in the ,wartburg castle at ,eisenach4 ,during the nine months of his confinement he translated the ,bible into ,german4#ed ,luther took great pains to make the language so pure and plain that it could be understood by the common people1 to whom he appealed4 ,he was never ashamed of his humble origin4 ,when he came to be the honored friend and trusted adviser of princes and kings1 he was wont to say1 ,i am a peasant's son2 my father1 grandfather1 and remote ancestors were nothing but veritable peasants4 ,the language of ,luther's translation of the ,bible became the standard ,german1 which was to supplant the many dialects4 ,his great watchword was1 ,make the people acquainted with the ,word of ,god4 ,but the ,bible was of little use to the masses so long as they could not read4 ,luther therefore set himself sturdily to the improvement of the schools1 which were in a deplorable condition4 ,he urged the principle of parental responsibility for the education of children4 ,believe me1 said he1 it is far more important that you exercise care in training your children than that you seek indulgences1 say many prayers1 go much to church1 or make many vows4 ,his pedagogy constitutes the foundation of the ,german common school system of to-day4 ,luther1 then1 must be remembered as the greatest educator of his time for two reasons4 #a4 ,he gave the ,german people a language by his translation of the ,holy ,scriptures4 #b4 ,he laid the foundation of the ,german common school system4 ,luther's ,pedagogy4--#a4 ,parents are responsible for the education of their children4 #b4 ,it is the duty of the ,state to require regular attendance at school of every child1 and the parents must be held accountable for non-attendance4 #c4 ,religion is the foundation of all school instruction4 #d4 ,every child must learn not only the ordinary subjects taught at school1 but also the practical duties of life1--boys1 a trade2 girls1 housework4 #e4 ,every clergyman must have pedagogical training and experience in teaching before entering upon a pastorate4#ee #f4 ,the teacher must be trained1 and in that training singing is included4 #g4 ,children must be taught according to nature's laws1--the knowledge of the thing must precede its name4 #h4 ,due respect should be shown to the office of teacher1 and by example and precept every teacher should be worthy of respect4 #i4 ,his course of study included ,latin and ,greek1 history1 mathematics1 singing1 and physical training1 besides religion4 #aj4 ,every school should have a library4 #aa4 ,it is the inherent right of every child to be educated1 and the ,state must provide the means to that end4 ,the principles above stated are fundamental in the ,german school systems of the present time4 ,religious instruction1 trained teachers1 compulsory and universal education1 are the central principles of the schools of ,germany and of many other nations4 ,luther could not give his chief attention to education1 but with deep insight he saw the necessity of it1 and laid the foundations upon which later generations have built a marvelous structure1 true to the design of its architect4 ,,melanchthon 7#adig-aefj7 ,philipp ,melanchthon was the friend1 colaborer1 and adviser of ,luther4 ,luther was a resolute1 energetic1 impulsive man2 ,melanchthon was quiet1 reserved1 and conciliating4 ,there is no doubt that these two men of such opposite dispositions exerted a salutary influence upon each other1--,luther stimulated and encouraged ,melanchthon2 ,melanchthon checked and restrained ,luther4 ,it is certain that each was helpful to the other1 and that the great cause of the ,reformation1 to which they mutually consecrated themselves1 was furthered by their friendship and union4 ,melanchthon had excellent training as a boy1 and early showed signs of unusual ability4 ,at fifteen he took his bachelor's degree at ,heidelberg ,university1 and when only eighteen years of age ,erasmus said of him1 ,what hopes may we not conceive of ,philipp ,melanchthon1 though as yet very young1 almost a boy1 but equally to be admired for his proficiency in both languages6 ,what quickness of invention6 ,what purity of diction6 ,what vastness of memory6 ,what variety of reading6 ,what modesty and gracefulness of behavior6 ,and what a princely mind6 ,after completing his course at ,heidelberg1 he went to ,tuebingen1 where his studies were directed by ,reuchlin1 who was his kinsman4 ,he gave public lectures at ,tuebingen on rhetoric and on various classic authors1 attracting worldwide attention4 ,in #aeah he was called to the ,greek professorship at ,wittenberg1 where he made the acquaintance of ,luther4 ,bishop ,hurst says1 ,the life of ,melanchthon was now so thoroughly identified with that of ,luther that it is difficult to separate the two4 ,they lived in the same town of ,wittenberg4 ,they were in constant consultation1 each doing what he was most able to do1 and both working with unwearied zeal for the triumph of the cause to which they gave their life4 ,his success at ,wittenberg was assured from the first4 ,though youthful in appearance1 being but twenty-one years of age1 his pure logic1 his profound knowledge of philosophy1 his familiarity with the ,scriptures1 his perfect mastery of the classic languages1 his fine diction1 and his broad knowledge awoke enthusiasm at once4 ,wittenberg1 possessing two such great men as ,luther and ,melanchthon1 became the center of humanistic studies1 not less than two thousand students being attracted to its university4 ,melanchthon was an inspiring teacher2 among his pupils were men who afterward became leaders of thought in ,germany1 and who did much to shape the destiny of ,europe4 ,perhaps ,melanchthon's greatest service to the schools was his publication of text-books1 which were very much needed4 ,he wrote a ,greek grammar for boys when himself but a boy of sixteen4 ,grammar he defined as the science of speaking and writing correctly1 a definition that has been scarcely improved upon4 ,ten years later his ,latin grammar was published1 after being tested for some years in his classes4 ,for more than one hundred years this was the principal ,latin grammar in use1 and there were not less than fifty-one editions of it4 ,he wrote also text-books on logic1 rhetoric1 and ethics4 ,it will be seen that the trivium--grammar1 rhetoric1 logic--furnished the foundation of his literary activity1 so far as the schools are concerned4 ,he was active also in authorship of theological works1 producing the first theological work of the ,protestant ,church1 the ,loci ,communes1 which ,luther placed next to the ,bible for theological study4 ,the interest of ,melanchthon for education made him the chief adviser and leader among the school men4 ,his advice was constantly sought in the educational movements of ,germany4 ,after visiting the schools of ,saxony1 he drew up the ,saxony ,school ,plan1 which furnished the basis of various similar organizations throughout ,germany4 ,there were three fundamental principles in this system4 #a4 ,there must not be too many studies in the schools1 and ,latin should be the only language taught4 #b4 ,there must not be too many books used4 #c4 ,the children should be divided into at least three classes1 or grades4 ,in the first grade1 reading1 writing1 the ,lord's ,prayer1 the ,creed1 prayers and hymns1 and some ,latin should be taught4 ,in the second1 the ,latin grammar1 ,latin authors1 and religion4 ,in the third1 completion of the grammar1 difficult ,latin authors1 rhetoric1 and logic4 ,williams calls this ,melanchthon's somewhat artless ideas of a proper school system1 which he excuses as being marked possibly by the crudity of a first effort at organization1 but more probably controlled in form by the fewness of teachers in the schools of his time4 ,melanchthon is also known as the first ,protestant psychologist4 ,to sum up the educational work of ,melanchthon1 we find that he was a born teacher1 attracting and inspiring thousands of young men whom he instructed2 that he was the author of many text-books for the schools1 and of theological works2 that he was an educational authority2 that he outlined a complete school system2 and that he was the adviser and friend of ,luther in the work of the ,reformation4 ,,footnotes3 #eb ,see ,brother ,azarias1 ,philosophy of ,literature1 pp4 #abb-abd4 #ec ,history of ,pedagogy1 p4 #aab4 ,karl ,schmidt1 in speaking of the spirit of the ,reformation1 says1 ,these ideas form the basis of the common school1 which up to this time had been sporadically established only in isolated places4 ,geschichte der ,paedagogik1 ,vol4 ,,iii1 p4 #af4 #ed ,in #ahgg1 ,mr4 ,h4 ,stevens published at ,south ,kensington1 a ,list of ,bibles in the ,caxton ,exhibition4 ,he says3 ,not only are there many editions of the ,latin ,vulgate long anterior to that time 7#aejg ,a4,d471 but there were actually nine ,german editions of the ,bible in the ,caxton exhibition earlier than #adhc1 the year of ,luther's birth1 and at least three more before the end of the century4 ,the general use of the printing press about this time made popular translations opportune1 as it placed the ,bible within the reach of all4 ,it thus became a powerful instrument for universal education4 #ee ,this was because the pastor had an oversight of the school1 a practice still very common in ,germany4 ,,chapter ,,xxix ,,other ,,protestant ,,educators ,the educational work of ,luther and ,melanchthon bore remarkable fruit4 ,luther had urged parents to see to it that their children should be educated1 and had appealed to magistrates to assist the ,church in maintaining schools4 ,he insisted upon compulsory education in the memorable words1 ,the authorities are bound to compel their subjects to send their children to school4 ,as a result schools were organized in ,nuremberg1 ,frankfort1 ,ilfeld1 ,strasburg1 ,hamburg1 ,bremen1 ,dantzic1 and many other places4 ,eton1 ,rugby1 ,harrow1 and other educational institutions were founded about this time in ,england4 ,melanchthon's course of study 7,schulplan7 for ,saxony had appeared in #aebh1 and in #aeeh the school law of ,wuertemberg1 by far the best yet enacted1 went into force4 ,other ,german provinces adopted more or less efficient school systems1 and for the first time in the history of ,christian education1 the duty of the ,state to assume the responsibility of the education of its subjects was recognized4 ,out of these primitive systems have grown the completer systems of the present1 after more than three centuries of experiment1 study1 and struggle4 ,the ,reformation taught the right of every person to an education1 primarily1 it is true1 for religious ends1 and it gradually came to be understood that the ,state must assume that duty4 ,for the ,church had neither the means nor the power to accomplish universal education4 ,but it was not till the nineteenth century that this end was reached1 whereby the advantages of education were offered to the child of every parent of whatever rank or station1 and the ,state assumed full control of the schools4 ,this was the great work marked out by ,luther and ,melanchthon1 and their pupils and disciples carried that work to its fulfillment4 ,among these immediate followers we may mention ,sturm1#ef ,trotzendorf1 and ,neander1 who contributed to educational reform4 ,,sturm#eg 7#aejg-aehi7 ,johann ,sturm is counted among the greatest schoolmen that the ,reformation produced1 though he belonged to the ,french rather than the ,german reformers4 ,he received an excellent training in the schools of ,germany1 and completed his education at ,paris1 where he afterward became professor of ,greek4 ,he soon gained such a wide reputation that when only thirty years of age he was called to the rectorship of the ,gymnasium at ,strasburg1 a position which he held for forty-seven years1 and where he gained lasting fame4 ,this fame rests not on his work as a teacher1 but as an organizer and an executive4 ,paulsen doubts his having been a great teacher4 ,he says1 ,he was a man who gave his attention to great things4 ,he had his hands in universal politics2 he was in the service of nearly all the ,european potentates1 drawing his yearly salary from all4444 ,it is not probable that such a wonderful man was also a good schoolmaster4#eh ,but his great work was the organization of the ,strasburg ,gymnasium1 especially its course of study1 which became the model for the ,latin schools for many years4 ,sturm's counsel was sought by schoolmen all over ,europe1 and he came to be the recognized leader of educational forces4 ,his school course took the boy at six years of age and provided at first a nine years'1 afterward a ten years' course1 ending at the sixteenth year of age4 ,he added a five years' course to this later1 and evidently planned to found a university4#ei ,sturm believed that the mother should have charge of the child for the first six years of its life4 ,in his ten years' course he required ten years of ,latin1 six of ,greek1 besides rhetoric1 logic1 religion1 and music4 ,he introduced the practice of translating ,latin into ,german and then translating it back into ,latin4#fj ,his course took no account of ,german1 history1 mathematics1 or science4 ,he thus sought to reinstate ,greece and ,rome1 but entirely neglected those things which prepare for life4 ,williams says1 ,with regard to ,sturm's plan of organization1 it should be borne in mind that it is the very earliest scheme that we have1 looking to an extended1 systematic1 well-articulated course of studies for a school of several teachers1 in which is assigned to each class such portion of the subject-matter of the course of instruction as is suited to the age and stage of advancement of its pupils4#fa ,this course of study attracted the attention of all ,europe4 ,karl ,schmidt says that in #aegh his school numbered several thousand students1 among whom were two hundred of noble birth1 twenty-four counts and barons1 and three princes--from ,portugal1 ,poland1 ,denmark1 ,england1 etc4 ,paulsen1 while not belittling the work of ,sturm1 thinks that the celebrated course has but little in it different from the courses of the ,wittenberg reformers4 ,he says1 ,if ,melanchthon had had the planning of a school course for a large city1 it would have been much the same 7as ,sturm's74 ,the ,saxon school plan of #aebh was effective only in small cities and country places4 ,the basis of both 7,melanchthon's and ,sturm's7 is the same1--grammar1 rhetoric1 dialectics1 with music and religion4 ,in the large schools1 like those of ,nuremberg and ,hamburg1 a beginning of ,greek and mathematics was added4#fb ,sturm's course has the merit of definiteness1 thoroughness1 and unity4 ,there seems to be some doubt as to his success in carrying it out4 ,it is certain that but few students completed his course compared with the number who began it4 ,instead of sixty to seventy pupils in the last class1 there were only nine or ten4 ,the influence of ,sturm1 however1 spread not only over ,germany1 but also reached to many other countries1 and his ,strasburg course of study shaped the work in the classical schools for many years4 ,,trotzendorf 7#adij-aeef7 ,valentine ,trotzendorf was born in poverty and beset by many difficulties in boyhood4 ,his mother was a constant inspiration to him1 and when he was disposed to give up the struggle1 her words1 ,my son1 stick to your school1 led him to continue until he overcame the obstacles4 ,when ready for the university he went to ,leipsic1 where he studied ,greek and ,latin for two years4 ,in #aeae he became a teacher in a village near ,leipsic1 a position that he retained for three years4 ,he then went to ,wittenberg1 where he studied under ,melanchthon for five years1 and became very intimate with that great teacher4 ,his fame as a teacher was made at ,goldberg1 where he was thirty-five years rector of a school4 ,like ,melanchthon1 he believed that the fear of the ,lord is the beginning of wisdom1 and that the school is an adjunct of the ,church4 ,with ,sturm1 he laid great stress upon the classic languages1 and insisted that his pupils should speak in the ,latin tongue4 ,as a teacher he possessed remarkable power4 ,he loved to mingle with his pupils1 converse with and question them1 and he had great skill in drawing them out4 ,in his instruction he employed many illustrations1 and proceeded from the concrete to the abstract4 ,his discipline was unique and original4 ,he introduced a practice before unknown1 namely1 that of self-government on the part of the students1 an experiment that has been tried in recent years with excellent results in many ,american institutions for higher learning4 ,trotzendorf established a senate of twelve students1 a consul1 and other officers1 who were made responsible for the government of the school4 ,these constituted a court of which he was president4 ,offenders were brought before the tribunal and tried with great formality and dignity4 ,this body sentenced the culprit to such punishment as his guilt merited1 the master reserving to himself the right of being a court of final appeal4 ,besides the officers above named1 there were others who were in charge of the boys in their domestic relations1--such as keeping guard over their punctuality1 table manners1 diligence in study1 etc4 ,it was considered a high honor to hold one of these offices4 ,the scheme worked well under ,trotzendorf2 it taught self-government1 and inculcated the spirit of freedom as well as an intelligent submission to law4 ,trotzendorf thus gives an example of school government which is quite in accord with the spirit of modern times4 ,he also had his best pupils instruct the lower classes under his supervision1 and thus prepared them to go forth as teachers4 ,teachers from his school were sought for by intelligent patrons of education in all parts of ,europe4 ,,neander 7#aebe-aeie7 ,michael ,neander was another of ,melanchthon's pupils who became great as a teacher4 ,neander was for forty-five years the sole teacher of a ,latin school at ,ilfeld4 ,though he never had many pupils1 his school was pronounced by ,melanchthon as the best seminary in the country4 ,he was a most successful teacher1 and the students whom he sent to the university were found to possess the very best preparation1 and always stood among the first4 ,he was well versed in medicine and chemistry1 and was one of the best ,greek and ,latin scholars of his time4 ,contrary to the practice of his contemporaries1 he favored the teaching of geography1 history1 and the natural sciences4 ,his position in regard to the sciences places him in advance of other educators1 and in this he was a follower of ,melanchthon1 who also believed that science should be taught4 ,neander is celebrated also for the ,greek and ,latin text-books which he wrote4 ,speaking of these books1 ,paulsen says1 ,what he especially emphasized is3 as few and as short rules as possible1 and these rules are to be progressive2 at the proper time they are to be committed to memory4 ,the pupil must also commit words1 phrases1 and sentences to memory1 which is equally important4 ,lastly1 he gave a careful outline of the work of a boy for every year from the sixth to the eighteenth4 ,this was especially valuable for that period when parents and teachers alike had nothing to guide them except the monastic course of study1 and when the world was giving birth to new theories in education as well as in religion4 ,neander's whole life was concentrated on the work of teaching1 and in the schoolroom he found his greatest joy4 ,here1 also1 he made a lasting impression upon his pupils and upon mankind4 ,his father was mistaken when he addressed the boy1 ,into a cloister with you2 you will amount to nothing in the world4 99 99 99 99 99 ,other great teachers in the schools and in the universities carried forward the educational work begun by the great reformers4 ,many cities had founded schools1 and several of the ,german states had established school systems4 ,the educational ideas of the ,protestant ,reformation had taken deep root1 and were destined to spread over the whole world1 gaining in force with each succeeding century4 ,the practical outcome of this great movement was the establishment of schools in every village in ,germany under the direction of the pastor1 and where he was unable to teach1 under his clerk or assistant4 ,as the chief purpose was to prepare the children for entrance to the church by confirmation1 religion was the center of the school course4 ,but reading1 writing1 arithmetic1 and singing were also taught4 ,the clerk of the church gradually became the schoolmaster1 and while the relations of these two offices have materially changed1 there is still a close official connection between the two1 particularly in the country4 ,in many cases the pastor is the local superintendent of the school1 and the teacher is the clerk and chorister of the church4 ,as fast as ,lutheran churches were organized1 schools were also established in connection with them4 ,nor were boys alone included in the work of education4 ,girls' schools were organized and an effort was made at universal education4 ,many provinces adopted advanced school laws1 and the principle of compulsory education was recognized1 though by no means successfully carried out4 ,thus was born in the middle of the sixteenth century the common school1 and thus was recognized the right of all men to an education1 and a practical illustration of the means of securing it was given to the world4 ,,footnotes3 #ef ,though ,sturm was not a ,lutheran1 he was a ,protestant1 being a follower of ,calvin4 #eg ,see ,quick1 ,educational ,reformers1 and ,williams1 ,history of ,modern ,education1 p4 #hh4 #eh ,geschichte des ,gelehrten ,unterrichts4 #ei ,sturm's school course appeared in #aech4 ,it was not the oldest school course of the ,protestants4 ,the oldest school course for a ,german school was prepared by ,johannes ,agricola and ,hermann ,talich in #aebe for the school at ,eisleben1 ,luther's birthplace4 ,indeed1 ,paulsen thinks that ,melanchthon had a hand in its preparation4 ,he says 7,geschichte des ,gelehrten ,unterrichts1 p4 #ahb71 ,this is the oldest published school course of the ,reformed ,church1 which1 if not composed by ,melanchthon1 was without doubt outlined1 or at least approved1 by him4 ,this was discovered in #ahfe by ,f4 ,l4 ,hoffmann in the ,hamburg city library4 #fj ,see ,ascham1 p4 #aia1 and ,ratke1 p4 #baj4 #fa ,history of ,modern ,education1 p4 #ia4 #fb ,geschichte des ,gelehrten ,unterrichts1 p4 #aig4 ,,chapter ,,xxx ,,the ,,jesuits ,,and ,,their ,,education ,literature4--,draper1 ,intellectual ,development of ,europe2 ,durrell1 ,a ,new ,life in ,education2 ,dyer1 ,modern ,europe2 ,fisher1 ,history of the ,reformation2 ,guizot1 ,history of ,civilization2 ,ferris1 ,great ,leaders2 ,lord1 ,beacon ,lights2 ,parkman1 ,the ,jesuits in ,north ,america2 ,white1 ,eighteen ,christian ,centuries2 ,quick1 ,educational ,reformers2 ,symonds1 ,renaissance in ,italy2 ,hughes1 ,loyola2 ,larned1 ,history for ,ready ,reference2 ,schwickerath1 ,jesuit ,education2 ,chateaubriand1 ,the ,genius of ,christianity4 ,the ,order4--,the remarkable spread of ,protestantism1 however1 was not to go on unchallenged4 ,already before the rupture of the ,church1 the need of a better-educated clergy had been acknowledged4 ,we have seen that ,luther and the ,reformers laid great stress upon the education of the young as a means of propagating the new faith1 and they had employed this means with great success4 ,it is not to be gathered from this that the ,roman ,church had been unmindful of her duty in the training of the young4 ,it has already been shown that the ,church maintained education from the beginning of the ,christian era down through the ,middle ,ages1 that she never slackened in her zeal for this work1 and that she held it to be her right and duty1 as she does to this day1 to train the young4 ,at this very time she was maintaining many schools4 ,but the ,order of ,jesus was destined to systematize education in such a degree as the ,church had never witnessed4 ,it has been claimed that the founding of the ,society of ,jesus was a ,counter-,reformation1 the purpose of which was to check the growth of ,protestantism4 ,whatever may have been the effect of its work in this direction1 it seems clear that such was not the purpose for which it was organized4 ,schwickerath shows that it is doubtful if the founder of the ,jesuit order had ever heard the name of the ,german ,reformer4 ,he says1#fc ,the ,papal ,letters and the ,constitutions assign as the special object of the ,society3 ',the progress of souls in a good life and knowledge of religion2 the propagation of faith by public preaching1 the ,spiritual ,exercises and works of charity1 and particularly the instruction of youth and ignorant persons in the ,christian religion4' ,it cannot be denied1 whatever the original purpose of the ,society1 that it not only checked the onward march of ,protestantism1 but it even restored many provinces and communities to their fealty to the ,mother ,church4 ,how well the last clause of the admonition above quoted was carried out will be seen when we remember that the ,jesuits originated the most successful educational system of the sixteenth1 seventeenth1 and eighteenth centuries1 a system having a definite end in view1 and whose adherents by indomitable energy1 by self-sacrifice1 by oneness of purpose1 secured remarkable success4 ,let us turn our attention to the founding of the ,order4 ,loyola 7#adia-aeef71 the originator of the order1 was a ,spanish nobleman4 ,while recovering from a severe wound received in battle1 he read some religious books which made such a profound impression upon him that he resolved to consecrate himself to religious work4 ,not being an educated man1 he devoted some years to study1 and while at the university of ,paris he gathered around him other young men who also were ready to consecrate themselves to the service of ,god4 ,they formed themselves into the ,order of ,jesus1 with the avowed purpose at first of rescuing ,jerusalem from the hands of the infidels4 ,this was not to be done by force of arms1 as in case of the crusaders1 but by peaceful means4 ,this purpose was abandoned1 but the zealous missionary spirit of the ,jesuits endured4 ,in #aedj ,pope ,paul ,,iii4 recognized the new order and gave it the sanction of the ,church4 ,the organization was military in character1 ,loyola becoming its first general4 ,the ,growth of the ,society was remarkable from the outset4 ,in #afjj it had #bjj schools2 in #agaj1 #fab colleges1 #aeg boarding or normal schools1 #ei houses for novitiates1 #cdj residences1 #bjj missions1 and #bd universities4 ,the college at ,clermont had1 in #afea1 #bjjj students1 and in #afge1 #cjjj students4 ,these institutions controlled the education of the ,catholic ,church in all ,europe1 and many ,protestant young men also were attracted to the ,jesuit schools by their superior teachers and their thorough training4 ,the society became so strong that various attempts were made to check its power4 ,it spread1 however1 to ,china and ,hindustan1 to the ,indian tribes of ,north ,america1 and to ,south ,america4 ,its spirit and its practices aroused the suspicion of princes and people1 of many ,catholics as well as ,protestants4 ,in #aggc the ,jesuits were in possession of #da provinces1 and had #bb1ehi members1 of whom #aa1bie were priests4 ,since that time popes have suppressed them1 rulers have expelled them from their countries1 their property and power have been taken from them1 until their influence has been greatly lessened and their progress checked4 ,jesuit ,education4--,unlike the monastics1 the ,jesuits mingled with the world2 they assumed no peculiarities of dress1 and held themselves ready to act as missionaries to the most remote parts of the world1 as agents of the ,church to which they so fully consecrated themselves1 and as teachers of youth4 ,they established schools everywhere1 and placed them in charge of teachers of remarkable skill and pedagogical training4#fd ,we have seen that their efforts were chiefly directed to higher education1 their schools being designed for boys not less than fourteen years of age4 ,in general1 primary education did not enter into their scheme4 ,schwickerath thinks that the ,jesuits could not undertake elementary education because they had never men enough to supply the demands for higher education4#fe ,this shows that they held higher education as of the greater importance1 and the same author further adds3 ,besides1 the whole intellectual training of the ,jesuits fitted them better for the higher branches4 ,they reached sons of princes1 noblemen1 and others who constituted the influential classes1#ff but the ,constitutions expressly laid down that poverty and mean extraction were never to be any hindrance to a pupil's admission4#fg ,instruction was free4 ,their schools became the most efficient and the most popular means of education furnished throughout ,europe1--and justly so1 for their work was thorough1 their teachers were competent and well trained1 and their course of study comprehensive4 ,it is worthy of especial note that all teachers of the ,jesuit schools were carefully trained before they were allowed to give instruction4 ,this is the first time in history that the necessity of special preparation for the work of teaching was recognized as an essential element in the work of education4 ,every ,jesuit school was divided into two departments1 the lower1 studia inferiora1 consisting of five classes1 and the higher1 studia superiora1 requiring two or three years4 ,boys were admitted to the lower course at the age of fourteen1 and the work consisted chiefly of the study of the humanities1 while that of the advanced course embraced philosophy and theology4#fh ,with reference to these courses of study1 ,quick says1 ,the ,jesuit system stands out in the history of education as a remarkable instance of a school system elaborately thought out and worked as a whole4 ,again1 he says of the ,ratio ,studiorum3#fi ,it points out a perfectly attainable goal1 and carefully defines the road by which that goal is to be approached4 ,for each class was prescribed not only the work to be done1 but also the end to be kept in view4 ,surely these are most commendable features of any course of study4 ,the work was remarkably thorough in every detail4 ,after the society had been in existence some forty years1 ,claudius ,aquaviva became its ,general ,superior4 ,he at once began the study of the educational problem1 using all the resources of his office in obtaining information1 and employing his executive ability in producing an improved method of study4 ,a committee of twelve most eminent churchmen was appointed in #aeha to study the question1 and three years later a commission of six1 representing different countries1 began the labor of preparing a course of study4 ,their work1 called the ,ratio ,studiorum1#gj completed in #aeii1 has remained1 with some modifications1 the guide of ,jesuit institutions of learning4 ,emulation4--,emulation was employed to stimulate pupils to work and to secure good conduct4 ,prizes1 decorations1 rewards1 titles1 were offered as a means of attaining desired ends4 ,emulation is a natural instinct in mankind1 and it may be utilized to stimulate endeavor and foster ambition4 ,the principle ever to be kept in mind should be excellency without degrading others4 ,schwickerath thinks that such was the spirit in which the ,jesuits employed this incentive4#ga ,he admits1 however1 that there are dangers connected with prizes1 and1 on the whole1 that certain methods of fostering emulation recommended by the ,ratio ,studiorum are less suitable to northern countries and less in accordance with modern taste4 ,while corporal punishment was allowed1 it was generally administered by an official disciplinarian4 ,it was seldom used1 however1 the discipline being mild and humane4 ,criticism of ,jesuit ,education4--,as to the efficiency of the instruction in the ,jesuit schools1 opinions widely differ4 ,bacon and ,descartes indorse it in highest terms1 while ,leibnitz1 ,voltaire1 and others are equally strong in its condemnation4 ,bacon remarks1 ,as to whatever relates to the instruction of the young1 we must consult the schools of the ,jesuits1 for there can be nothing that is better done4 ,leibnitz1 on the other hand1 says1 ,in the matter of education1 the ,jesuits have remained below mediocrity4 ,ranke1 in speaking of the success of the ,jesuit schools1 says1 ,it was found that young persons learned more under them in half a year than with others in two years4 ,mr4 ,quick says3 ,i have said that the object which the ,jesuits proposed in their teaching was not the highest object4 ,they did not aim at developing all the faculties of their pupils1 but merely the receptive and reproductive faculties4 ,when the young man had acquired a thorough mastery of the ,latin language for all purposes1 when he was well versed in the theological and philosophical opinions of his preceptors1 when he was skillful in dispute1 and could make a brilliant display from the resources of a well-stored memory1 he had reached the highest point to which the ,jesuits sought to lead him4#gb ,some critics of the ,jesuits claim that they lack in originality of thinking1 and that they neglect training in the power of forming correct judgments4 ,they have produced1 however1 many great men4 ,summary4--,summarizing the educational work of the ,jesuits1 the following would appear to us to be just3-- #a4 ,their educational system was by far the most efficient and successful of any during the sixteenth1 seventeenth1 and eighteenth centuries4 #b4 ,this1 however1 applies only to higher education1 as primary education was not undertaken by them4 #c4 ,they made their schools interesting1 and learning pleasant4 ,their work was thorough1 their consecration complete1 their success as teachers marvelous1 they being the greatest schoolmasters of their time4 #d4 ,they produced a course of study1 the ,ratio ,studiorum1 which lays principal stress upon the humanities and religious instruction4 #e4 ,they taught the necessity of trained teachers1 and developed a remarkable power and tact in the work of instruction and school management4 #f4 ,they made use of emulation as a means of stimulating ambition1--a principle that tends to arouse the baser motives1 and which is therefore to be used guardedly4 #g4 ,they were indefatigable in missionary enterprise1 and zealous in the propagation of their principles1 both religious and educational4 #h4 ,they stimulated authorship1 advanced learning1 and produced many great men4 #i4 ,they exerted a powerful influence upon the intellectual1 social1 and political movements of their time4 ,,the ,,port ,,royalists ,opposed to the ,jesuits was another body of ,catholics1 sometimes called ,jansenists from the organizer of the movement1 and sometimes ,port ,royalists1 because their chief school was at ,port ,royal near ,paris4 ,their purpose was to check the progress of the ,jesuits1 to promote greater spirituality in the ,church1 and to revive the pure ,catholicism of ,st4 ,augustine4 ,among their great leaders may be mentioned ,pascal1 ,nicole1 and ,launcelot4 ,the purpose of the ,jansenists was very different from that of the ,jesuits1 and their methods were more modern4 ,they gave preference to modern languages1 while the ,jesuits gave chief attention to the classic tongues4 ,their discipline1 like that of the ,jesuits1 was humane1 but firm4 ,their greatest contribution to education is the phonic method of spelling4 ,they also laid stress upon the use of objects1 the development of the sense perceptions1 especially in early childhood4 ,one of their axioms was1 ,the intelligence of childhood always being very dependent on the senses1 we must1 as far as possible1 address our instruction to the senses1 and cause it to reach the mind1 not only through hearing1 but also through seeing4 ,this appears to be the first instance in which object teaching was taught as a principle1 a principle which ,bacon1 ,comenius1 ,pestalozzi1 and ,froebel worked out1 and which has been one of the most important factors of modern educational progress4 ,,footnotes3 #fc ,jesuit ,education1 p4 #gg4 #fd ,see ,hughes1 ,loyola1 pp4 #df1 #aac1 #aef1 #bhb4 ,also ,schwickerath1 ,jesuit ,education1 p4 #dae4 #fe ,jesuit ,education1 p4 #aje4 ,see also ,hughes1 ,loyola1 pp4 #d1 #ad1 #dc1 #df1 #fh1 #gb1 #hb1 and #hf 7lines #ab-bc74 #ff ,see ,hughes1 ,loyola1 pp4 #gb1 #aea4 #fg ,educational ,reformers p4 #bf4 #fh ,k4 ,schmidt1 ,vol4 ,,iii1 p4 #bcj4 #fi ,educational ,reformers1 p4 #cd4 #gj ,see ,hughes1 ,loyola1 p4 #ada1 for full description of this work and outline of the course4 ,also ,schwickerath1 ,jesuit ,education1 p4 #aia4 #ga ,see ,hughes1 ,loyola1 p4 #eaa4 #gb ,educational ,reformers1 p4 #ce4 ,,chapter ,,xxxi ,,other ,,educators ,,of ,,the ,,sixteenth ,,century ,literature4--,h4 ,m4 ,skinner1 ,the ,schoolmaster in ,literature1 ,the ,schoolmaster in ,comedy and ,satire2 ,gill1 ,systems of ,education2 ,quick1 ,educational ,reformers2 ,williams1 ,history of ,modern ,education2 ,besant1 ,rabelais2 ,monroe1 ,educational ,ideal2 ,collins1 ,montaigne2 ,emerson1 ,representative ,men2 ,vogel1 ,geschichte der ,paedagogik2 ,carlisle1 ,two ,great ,teachers 7,ascham and ,arnold72 ,azarias1 ,essays ,educational2 ,davidson1 ,history of ,education4 ,we have thus far discussed educators who were directly connected with the great ,protestant and ,catholic movements4 ,there were others who were more or less independent of these movements4 ,among these we may mention ,roger ,ascham1 ,rabelais1 and ,montaigne4 ,,ascham 7#aeae-aefh7 ,roger ,ascham was the most celebrated ,english educator of the sixteenth century4 ,he was educated at ,cambridge1 and studied three years in ,germany4 ,he had a thorough knowledge of the classic languages4 ,for these reasons he was chosen tutor to ,elizabeth1 a position which he held for two years4 ,upon her accession to the throne1 ,ascham came to read with her several hours a day1 and she retained her affection for her old teacher throughout his life4 ,his chief literary work is his ,scholemaster1 which is the first educational classic in ,english4 ,dr4 ,johnson says of this book1 ,it contains1 perhaps1 the best advice that ever was given for the study of languages4 ,this method was as follows1 given in ,ascham's words3 ,first1 let him teach the child1 cheerfully and plainly1 the cause and matter of the letter 7,cicero's ,epistles72 then1 let him construe it into ,english so oft as the child may easily carry away the understanding of it2 lastly1 parse it over perfectly4 ,this done1 then let the child by and by both construe and parse it over again2 so that it may appear that the child doubteth in nothing that his master has taught him before4 ,after this1 the child must take a paper book1 and sitting in some place where no man shall prompt him1 by himself let him translate into ,english his former lesson4 ,then showing it to his master1 let the master take from him his ,latin book1 and pausing an hour at the least1 then let the child translate his own ,english into ,latin again in another paper book4 ,when the child bringeth it turned into ,latin1 the master must compare it with ,tully's book1 and lay them both together1 and where the child doth well1 praise him1 where amiss1 point out why ,tully's use is better4 ,thus the child will easily acquire a knowledge of grammar1 and also the ground of almost all the rules that are so busily taught by the master1 and so hardly learned by the scholar in all common schools4 ,the translation is the most common and most commendable of all other exercises for youth2 most common1 for all your constructions in grammar schools be nothing else but translations2 but because they be not double translations 7as ,i do require71 they bring forth but simple and single commodity2 and because also they lack the daily use of writing1 which is the only thing that breedeth deep root1 both in the wit for good understanding1 and in the memory for sure keeping of all that is learned2 most commendable also1 and that by the judgment of all authors which entreat of these exercises4#gc ,ascham often refers to his illustrious pupil in claiming merit for his system4 ,he says1 ,and a better and nearer example herein may be our most noble ,queen ,elizabeth1 who never took yet ,greek nor ,latin grammar in her hand after the first declining of a noun and a verb2 but only by this double translating of ,demosthenes and ,isocrates daily1 without missing1 every forenoon1 and likewise some part of ,tully every afternoon1 for the space of a year or two1 hath attained to such a perfect understanding in both tongues1 and to such a ready utterance of the ,latin1 and that with such a judgment as there be few now in both universities1 or elsewhere in ,england1 that be in both tongues comparable with her ,majesty4 ,mr4 ,quick thinks that while ,ascham may have thus flattered his royal pupil1 there is no doubt that she was an accomplished scholar4 ,we have seen that ,sturm made some use of double translation1 but ,ascham is entitled to full credit for the method1 which he adopted from ,pliny and perfected4 ,many teachers of language since that time have employed this method with excellent results4 ,,rabelais#gd 7#adhc-aeec7 ,though there is some obscurity as to the exact date of the birth of ,rabelais1 it is generally believed that he was born the same year as ,luther1 #adhc4 ,he was the son of a ,french innkeeper1 and1 after completing a classical course1 was consecrated to the priesthood4 ,his great ability and independent thinking1 and his humanistic tendency brought reproof from his superiors1 and he was ordered to perform works of penance in his cell2 but through the influence of powerful friends he was freed and allowed to go over to the ,benedictines1 with whom1 however1 he did not remain long4 ,he became an independent preacher1 and as such had many friends among the reformers1 chief among whom was ,calvin4 ,his intimacy with ,calvin led the more radical reformers to be suspicious of him1 and not without reason4 ,walter ,besant tells us that1 ,one hears he is a buffoon--he is always mocking and always laughing4 ,that is perfectly true4 ,he laughs at the pretensions of pope1 cardinal1 bishop1 and priest2 he laughs at monkery and monks2 he mocks at the perpetual iteration of litanies2 he laughs at the ignorance and superstition which he thinks are about to vanish before the new day of modern learning4#ge ,nor was his sympathy with the reformers any more marked4 ,besant further adds1 ,it was at that time all important that1 as in ,england1 the scholars should range themselves on the ,protestant side4 ,rabelais refused to do this4 ,more1 he set an example which deterred other scholars1 and kept them1 in sheer impatience1 in the enemy's camp4#gf ,the great literary work of ,rabelais is embodied in a series of chronicles1 the first of which is called ,gargantua and the second1 ,pantagruel4 ,it is believed that these were popular names of giants in the ,middle ,ages4 ,in these books we find ,rabelais's pedagogy4#gg ,the giant ,gargantua attends a school in which scholastic methods are employed4 ,the author skillfully ridicules the methods1 and shows the utter inefficiency of the instruction by contrasting the result in ,gargantua and ,eudemon1 a page of the king4 ,gargantua1 a man of fifty-five1 is introduced to ,eudemon1 a boy of twelve4 ,the former is awkward1 bashful1 and does not know what to say1 while the latter meets ,gargantua cap in hand1 with open countenance1 ruddy lips1 steady eyes1 and with modesty becoming a youth4 ,in reply to the polite and intelligent conversation of the lad1 ,gargantua falls to crying like a cow1 casting down his face1 and hiding it with his cap4 ,compayre says1 ,in these two pupils1 so different in manner1 ,rabelais has personified two contrasted methods of education3 that which1 by mechanical exercises of memory1 enfeebles and dulls the intelligence2 and that which1 with large grants of liberty1 develops intelligences and frank and open characters4 ,the deficiencies of the old education 7the scholastic7 being thus shown1 ,rabelais places his pupil under ,ponocrates1 ,eudemon's teacher1 who has produced such practical results4 ,he then opens up his system of pedagogy in the plan pursued for the redemption of ,gargantua4 ,realism in ,education4--,compayre's estimate of this pedagogy is as follows3 ,the pedagogy of ,rabelais is the first appearance of what may be called realism in instruction1 in distinction from the scholastic formalism4 ,the author of ',gargantua' turns the mind of the young man toward objects truly worthy of occupying his attention4 ,he catches a glimpse of the future reserved to scientific education1 and to the study of nature4 ,he invites the mind1 not to the labored subtleties and complicated tricks which scholasticism had brought into fashion1 but to manly efforts1 and to a wide unfolding of human nature4#gh ,in comparing ,rabelais with ,lucretius1 ,walter ,besant says1 ,both1 at an interval of fifteen hundred years1 anticipated the nineteenth century in its restless discontent of old beliefs1 its fearless questioning1 its advocacy of scientific research4#gi ,compayre thinks that ,rabelais is certainly the first1 in point of time1 of that grand school of educators who place the sciences in the first rank among the studies of human thought4#hj ,it would seem1 then1 that the author of ,gargantua is worthy of a most honorable place among educational writers4 ,rabelais began a movement1 which was destined to revolutionize educational methods4 ,the educational scheme of ,rabelais embraced the study of letters1 of nature1 of science1 of morals and religion1 of the physical well-being1--in short1 of everything necessary1 as ,herbert ,spencer would say1 to complete living4 ,,montaigne#ha 7#aecc-aeib7 ,of a very different character from ,rabelais was ,montaigne4 ,rabelais was radical and extravagant1 ,montaigne conservative and discreet2 ,rabelais sought development of all the faculties alike1 ,montaigne gave preference to the training of the judgment2 ,rabelais would thoroughly master every branch of human knowledge1 ,montaigne was content to skim over the sciences4 ,and yet1 ,montaigne must be recognized as an important factor in education1 not only for his own teachings1 but because undoubtedly ,bacon1 ,locke1 ,rousseau1 and other apostles of reform were greatly influenced by him4 ,bacon furthered ,montaigne's theories concerning the importance of science1 and by his inductive method rendered the world a far greater service than his great ,french contemporary4 ,locke enlarged upon ,montaigne's ideas of physical training4 ,rousseau accepted a vital doctrine of ,montaigne in the following words3 ,he 7,emile7 possesses a universal capacity1 not in point of actual knowledge1 but in the faculty of acquiring it2 an open1 intelligent genius adapted to everything1 and1 as ,montaigne says1 if not instructed1 capable of receiving instruction4 ,montaigne's father was a ,french nobleman1 who fully appreciated the responsibility laid upon him in the education of his son4 ,doubtless his training had much to do in shaping the pedagogy of the illustrious son4 ,it was wise1 mild but firm1 natural1 and thorough4 ,the tutors and servants who surrounded him were allowed to speak only in ,latin4 ,that tongue thus became as familiar as his native tongue4 ,indeed1 it is said1 that at the age of six he was so proficient in the language of ,cicero1 that the best ,latinists of the time feared to address him4 ,nor was his knowledge confined to ,latin alone4 ,he was instructed in modern lore as well4 ,at the age of six he was placed in the college of ,guienne1 where he remained seven years4 ,his experience there1 so contrary to that under which he had been brought up1 led him to be utterly opposed to corporal punishment4 ,of the methods of discipline employed in the school1 he says1 ,the discipline of most of our colleges has always displeased me4 ,they are veritable jails in which youth is held prisoner4 ,the pupils are made vicious by being punished before they become so4 ,pay a visit there when they are at their work2 you will hear nothing but cries1--children under execution1 and masters drunk with fury4 ,what a mode of creating in these tender and timid souls an appetite for their lessons1 to conduct them to their tasks with a furious countenance1 rod in hand6--it is an iniquitous and pernicious fashion4 ,how much more becoming it would be to see the classroom strewed with leaves and flowers than with blood-stained stumps of birch rods6 ,i would have painted up there scenes of joy and merriment1 ,flora and the ,graces1 as ,speusippus had his school of philosophy3 where they are to gain profit1 there let them find happiness too4 ,one ought to sweeten all food that is wholesome1 and put bitter into what is dangerous4#hb ,here we find a strong plea for humane forms of punishment and a severe criticism of the prevailing practice of flogging1 a practice which did not cease until long after ,montaigne's time4 ,it is an equally forcible plea for beautiful and pleasant schoolrooms1 decorated with works of art intended to awaken and cultivate the aesthetic sense of the children1 while contributing to their happiness4 ,it has been left to the educators of the end of the nineteenth century to take up and seriously act upon this suggestion made over three hundred years ago4 ,the purpose of education1 said ,montaigne1 is the training1 not of a grammarian1 or a logician1 but of a complete gentleman4 ,education should be of a practical nature4 ,the child must become familiar with the things about him4 ,he must learn his own language first and then that of his neighbors1 and languages should all be learned by conversation4 ,a decided weakness in his system is found in his ideas concerning women4 ,he made no provision for their education1 and1 indeed1 expressed great contempt for their abilities of either mind or heart4 ,montaigne's chief literary work is his ,essays4 ,compayre pronounces ,montaigne's pedagogy1 a pedagogy of good sense1 and further adds that he has remained1 after three centuries1 a sure guide in the matter of intellectual education4 ,observation and experience were to be abundantly employed1 and visits to other lands1 together with intercourse with intelligent men everywhere1 were to sharpen our wits by rubbing them upon those of others4 ,to sum up1 we may say that the pedagogy of ,montaigne teaches the training and use of the senses2 the study of science2 the learning of the mother tongue first by conversation1 and then the language of our neighbors with whom we come in contact2 the abolition of corporal punishment1 and the beautifying of schoolrooms4 ,this surely is no small contribution to education4 ,his definition of education is worthy of note4 ,he says1 ,it is not the mind only1 nor the body1 but the whole man that is to be educated4#hc ,summary of ,educational ,progress during the ,sixteenth ,century4--#a4 ,humanism had reached its climax and begun to decline4 ,it stimulated invention and discovery2 it revived classic literature and put it in such form that it could be used2 it emancipated the mind2 it prepared the way for later reforms2 it produced great educators such as ,petrarch1 ,erasmus1 and ,reuchlin4 #b4 ,the ,reformation took up the educational work of humanism1 and carried it forward4 ,it instituted primary education1 the education of the masses1 compulsory education and parental responsibility therefor2 it asserted the right and duty of the ,state to demand and secure universal education2 it elevated and gave dignity to the office of teacher2 it formulated several school systems1 and laid the foundation of the present ,german school system4 ,among its great educators were ,luther1 ,melanchthon1 ,sturm1 and ,neander4 #c4 ,the ,jesuits established a remarkable system of schools1 noted for their thoroughness1 for their singleness of purpose1 for their rapid growth1 and for their trained teachers4 ,they gave little attention to primary education1 but sought to reach the higher classes4 ,emulation was the principal incentive employed4 #d4 ,opposed to the ,jesuit education was that of the ,port ,royalists4 ,they appealed to the intelligence of the children and cultivated the sense-perceptions4 ,they invented the phonic method of spelling4 #e4 ,sturm's celebrated course of study was introduced during this century at ,strasburg4 #f4 ,the method of double translations in learning a language was taught by ,ascham and ,sturm4 #g4 ,in ,rabelais we find the first appearance of realism1 which bore rich fruit in later scientific education4 #h4 ,montaigne opposed the use of the rod1 and taught that the schoolroom should be made attractive4 ,he also advocated the study of modern languages by conversation1 and gave science an honorable place in the curriculum4 ,it thus appears that the sixteenth century surpassed many previous eras in its contributions to educational progress4 ,,footnotes3 #gc ,h4 ,m4 ,skinner1 ,the ,schoolmaster in ,literature1 p4 #bj4 #gd ,for special reference see ,besant's ,rabelais4 #ge ,rabelais1 #aib4 #gf ,ibid41 #aic4 #gg ,schoolmaster in ,comedy and ,satire1 #i-cc4 #gh ,history of ,pedagogy1 p4 #ia4 #gi ,rabelais1 p4 #ahg4 #hj ,history of ,pedagogy1 p4 #if4 #ha ,see ,collins1 ,montaigne4 #hb ,collins1 ,montaigne1 p4 #ad4 #hc ,a good summary of ,montaigne's educational ideas may be found in ,collins's ,montaigne1 p4 #ajb4 ,,chapter ,,xxxii ,,education ,,during ,,the ,,seventeenth ,,century ,literature4--,taylor1 ,history of ,germany2 ,guizot1 ,history of ,civilization2 ,schiller1 ,the ,thirty ,years' ,war2 ,dyer1 ,modern ,europe2 ,lewis1 ,history of ,germany2 ,macaulay1 ,history of ,england4 ,political and ,historical ,conditions4--,the seventeenth century was remarkable for the wars for religious supremacy4 ,the ,reformation had challenged the authority of the ,church1 aroused a questioning spirit1 and instilled into men's minds a love for religious liberty4 ,during the latter half of the sixteenth century1 ,europe had swayed back and forth between ,protestantism and ,catholicism1 according as success in arms had favored one side or the other4 ,the spirit of ,protestantism had taken possession more especially of the common people1 who formed the bone and sinew of the armies4 ,bitter animosities existed between the adherents of the papal church and the reformers1 which found expression in bloodshed1 rapine1 and destruction of property4 ,england was torn asunder by civil war1 which resulted in the death of ,charles ,i4 and the establishment of the ,commonwealth under ,cromwell1--the struggle between ,cavalier and ,roundhead1 between established church and ,puritan1 ending finally in the revolution of #afhh4 ,the country was in a religious ferment during the greater part of this century1 caused by a growing jealousy for the maintenance of the principle of the right to worship ,god according to the dictates of one's own conscience4 ,nor was the struggle less virulent or disastrous in continental ,europe4 ,the religious upheaval of the previous century culminated in the terrible conflict known as the ,thirty ,years' ,war2 this lasted from #afah till #afdh1 when the ,peace of ,westphalia secured religious liberty to all men4 ,northern ,germany1 ,austria1 ,france1 ,holland1 ,denmark1 and ,sweden1 as well as minor countries1 were involved in this great war4 ,let ,bayard ,taylor paint the result of this fearful struggle4 ,thirty years of war6 ,the slaughters of ,rome's worst emperors1 the persecution of the ,christians under ,nero and ,diocletian1 the invasions of the ,huns and ,magyars1 the long struggle of the ,guelfs and ,ghibellines1 left no such desolation behind them4 ,at the beginning of the century1 the population of the ,german ,empire was about #cj1jjj1jjj2 when the ,peace of ,westphalia was declared1 it was scarcely more than #ab1jjj1jjj6 ,electoral ,saxony1 alone1 lost #ijj1jjj lives in two years4444 ,the city of ,berlin contained but #cjj citizens1 the whole of the ,palatinate of the ,rhine but #bjj farmers4 ,in ,hesse-,cassel1 #ag cities1 #dg castles1 and #cjj villages were entirely destroyed by fire2 thousands of villages1 in all parts of the country1 had but four or five families left out of hundreds1 and landed property sank to about one twentieth of its former value4444 ,the horses1 cattle1 and sheep were exterminated in many districts1 the supplies of grain were at an end1 even for sowing1 and large cultivated tracts had relapsed into a wilderness4 ,even orchards and vineyards had been wantonly destroyed wherever armies had passed4 ,so terrible was the ravage that1 in a great many localities1 the same amount of population1 cattle1 acres of cultivated land1 and general prosperity was not restored until the year #ahdh1 two centuries afterward6 ,this statement of the losses of ,germany1 however1 was but a small part of the suffering endured4444 ,during the last ten or twelve years of the war1 both ,protestants and ,catholics vied with each other in deeds of barbarity2 the soldiers were nothing but highway robbers1 who maimed and tortured the country people to make them give up their last remaining property4444 ,in the year #afcg1 when ,ferdinand ,,ii4 died1 the want was so great that men devoured each other1 and even hunted down human beings like deer or hares1 in order to feed upon them4 ,in character1 in intelligence1 and in morality1 the ,german people were set back two hundred years4 ,all branches of industry had declined1 commerce had almost entirely ceased1 literature and the arts were suppressed1 and except the astronomical discoveries of ,copernicus and ,kepler1 there was no contribution to human knowledge4 ,even the modern ,high ,german language1 which ,luther had made the classic tongue of the land1 seemed to be on the point of perishing4 ,spaniards and ,italians on the ,catholic1 ,swedes and ,french on the ,protestant side1 flooded the country with foreign words and expressions1 the use of which soon became an affectation with the nobility1 who did their best to destroy their native tongue4 ,politically1 the change was no less disastrous4 ,the ambition of the house of ,hapsburg1 it is true1 had brought its own punishment2 the imperial dignity was secured to it1 but henceforth the head of the ',holy ,roman ,empire' was not much more than a shadow4444 ,as for the mass of the people1 their spirit was broken2 for a time they gave up even the longing for the rights which they had lost1 and taught their children abject obedience in order that they might simply live4#hd ,the ,educational ,situation4--,these political conditions had a marked influence upon education4 ,schools were abandoned1 colleges gave up their charters1 and people were content to allow their children to grow up in ignorance4 ,indeed1 it was not to be expected that1 in the midst of their poverty and sorrow1 parents should care for education4 ,and yet1 some most important and wise school laws were enacted and put into force1 which form the basis of the present ,german school system1 as well as the school systems of many other countries4 ,in #afai the ,duke of ,weimar decreed that all children1 girls as well as boys1 should be kept in school for at least six years1--from six to twelve4 ,this is the first efficient compulsory education law on record intended for all classes of children4 ,besides ,weimar1 ,wuertemberg1 ,hesse-,darmstadt1 ,mecklenburg1 ,holstein1 ,hesse-,cassel1 and other provinces were active in school work4 ,they organized schools1 appointed teachers1 and formulated school regulations4 ,in #afdb1 ,duke ,ernst of ,gotha adopted a new school regulation which was a century in advance of the time1 and this action was taken when the ,thirty ,years' ,war was at its height and in a territory sadly devastated by contending armies4 ,this law required every child to enter school at the beginning of his sixth year1 and to remain in school until he could read his mother tongue1 had mastered ,luther's catechism1 and was well grounded in arithmetic1 writing1 and church songs4 ,a course of study was marked out1 the schools were graded1 and methods of instruction were outlined4 ,the greatest defect in the system was the lack of competent teachers4 ,discharged soldiers1 worthless students1 and degraded craftsmen who could read and write1 and who possessed a little knowledge of music1 continued for many years to be employed as schoolmasters4 ,but little progress could be made under these adverse circumstances2 and the only reason for encouragement was the fact that the duty of parents to keep their children at school was everywhere recognized4 ,the ,innovators4--,we must here mention also the ,innovators or ,reformers1 whose period of educational activity falls chiefly within the seventeenth century4 ,among these appear the names of ,francis ,bacon1 ,ratke1 ,milton1 ,comenius1 ,rollin1 ,fenelon1 and ,locke4 ,these men started movements which revolutionized education and laid the foundation of modern methods4 ,the demands of the ,reformers are summed up by ,quick as follows3 ,first1 that the study of things should precede1 or be united with1 the study of words2 second1 that knowledge should be communicated1 where possible1 by appeal to the senses2 third1 that all linguistic study should begin with that of the mother tongue2 fourth1 that ,latin and ,greek should be taught to such boys only as would be likely to complete a learned education2 fifth1 that physical education should be attended to in all classes of society for the sake of health1 not simply with a view to gentlemanly accomplishments2 sixth1 that a new method of teaching should be adopted1 framed ',according to nature4'#he ,in another chapter we shall study the life and work of some of these men4 ,,footnotes3 #hd ,history of ,germany1 p4 #dji4 #he ,quick1 ,educational ,reformers1 p4 #ej4 ,,chapter ,,xxxiii ,,educators ,,of ,,the ,,seventeenth ,,century ,literature4--,church1 ,bacon2 ,macaulay1 ,essays2 ,spofford1 ,library of ,historical ,characters2 ,lord1 ,beacon ,lights2 ,montagu1 ,life of ,bacon2 ,barnard1 ,english ,pedagogy2 ,quick1 ,educational ,reformers2 ,williams1 ,history of ,modern ,education2 ,laurie1 ,life and ,works of ,comenius2 ,comenius1 ,orbis ,pictus2 ,barnard1 ,journal of ,education2 ,milton1 ,tractate on ,education2 ,pattison1 ,milton2 ,fowler1 ,locke2 ,leitch1 ,practical ,educationists2 ,gill1 ,systems of ,education2 ,schwegler1 ,history of ,philosophy2 ,courtney1 ,john ,locke2 ,vogel1 ,geschichte der ,paedagogik2 ,compayre1 ,history of ,pedagogy2 ,fenelon1 ,education of ,girls2 ,azarias1 ,philosophy of ,literature2 ,monroe1 ,comenius4 ,,bacon#hf 7#aefa-afbf7 ,but little is known of the early years of ,francis ,bacon1 but it is probable that he was well trained1 as his father was a man of good education1 and the boy was able to enter ,cambridge when only a little over twelve years of age4 ,his father was for many years ,lord ,keeper of the ,seals1 and this brought ,francis in contact with court life1 where his precocity made him a favorite with the queen4 ,he thus early acquired that taste for the court1 by which he climbed to the height of his ambition only to fall therefrom in ignominious defeat4 ,he remained at ,cambridge only about three years4 ,lord ,macaulay sums up the result of ,bacon's university experience in the following words3 ,bacon departed1 carrying with him a profound contempt for the course of study pursued there1 a fixed conviction that the system of academic education in ,england was radically vicious1 a just scorn for the trifles on which the followers of ,aristotle had wasted their powers1 and no great reverence for ,aristotle himself4#hg ,some think that thus early1 while not yet fifteen years of age1 ,bacon began to formulate that inductive system which made him a great benefactor of the human race4 ,there seems to be but little proof of this2 and1 if it be so1 he laid it aside until near the close of his life1 and devoted himself to politics4 ,after leaving ,cambridge1 he went abroad with the ,english ambassador at ,paris1 with whom he served until the death of his father compelled his return to ,england4 ,unexpectedly finding that his patrimony was gone1 he began a career at the bar1 and rose step by step1 amid many discouragements1 until he reached the height of his ambition1 the ,lord ,high ,chancellorship of the realm4 ,in reaching this position he resorted to many of the tricks of the politician1 and sacrificed his best friends to further his selfish interests4 ,concerning his actions toward his benefactor1 ,essex1 ,macaulay says1 ,this friend1 so loved1 so trusted1 bore a principal part in ruining the earl's fortunes1 in shedding his blood1 and in blackening his memory4 ,but let us be just to ,bacon4 ,we believe that1 to the last1 he had no wish to injure ,essex4 ,nay1 we believe that he sincerely wished to serve ,essex1 as long as he could serve ,essex without injuring himself4#hh ,such seeming mitigation of ,bacon's ingratitude serves only to bring the ,lord ,chancellor's cowardice more completely to light4 ,this lack of principle and greed for office1 together with the luxurious tastes which kept ,bacon constantly in debt1 made him susceptible to corruption4 ,accordingly he accepted bribes2 and1 when exposed1 his degradation from the highest office under the crown was most complete and humiliating4 ,he was summoned before the bar of ,parliament2 and1 finding the evidence against him complete1 he admitted his guilt and pleaded for clemency4 ,these are the words of his confession1 ,upon advised consideration of the charges1 descending into my own conscience and calling upon my memory to account so far as ,i am able1 ,i do plainly and ingenuously confess that ,i am guilty of corruption1 and do renounce all defense4 ,he was found guilty and condemned to imprisonment in the ,tower during the pleasure of the king1 and to a fine of ,l#dj1jjj2 he was forbidden ever to sit in ,parliament or come within the verge of the court1 and was forever debarred from holding office4 ,he never paid the fine1 was released from the ,tower after two days1 was permitted to visit the court1 and was summoned to the meetings of ,parliament4#hi ,he never1 however1 took any part in public affairs4 ,the king granted him a pension upon which he lived the remainder of his days4 ,thus disappeared from public life one of ,england's greatest statesmen1 whose political career ended in disgrace4 ,but during the remaining six years of his life1 he wrote his principal works1 which made him famous for all time1 and which mark a new era in education as well as in the world's progress4 ,in #afbj his greatest work1 the ,novum ,organum1 was published4 ,in this appears his ,inductive ,method1 a great educational discovery1 which has been of inestimable value to mankind4 ,it revolutionized science1 and suggested the application of the forces of nature to the wants of man1 thus opening to man's enterprise an illimitable field for research4 ,in the three centuries since ,bacon's discovery1 science has made vast strides1 and yet is only at the threshold of its possible development4 ,the watchwords of the inductive method--experiment1 investigate1 verify--have led to the establishment of laboratories1 to the founding of experimenting stations1 and to the study of ,nature herself4 ,as ,macaulay puts it1 ,two words form the key of the ,baconian doctrine1 ,utility and ,progress4 ,again he says1 ,the philosophy of ,plato began in words and ended in words4444 ,the philosophy of ,bacon began in observation and ended in arts4#ij ,macaulay depreciates the work of ,bacon1 and shows that he was not the original inventor of the inductive method1 which1 he says with truth1 has been practiced ever since the beginning of the world by every human being4#ia ,nor was he the first person who correctly analyzed that method and explained its uses1 as ,aristotle had done so long before4 ,but these facts do not detract from the glory of ,bacon any more than the discovery of ,america by the ,norsemen five hundred years before the time of ,columbus detracts from his glory4 ,the same process of reasoning would take all credit from every philosopher that has ever lived1 for with equal truth it may be said that every mental process has been practiced ever since the beginning of the world by every human being4 ,bacon's teachings resemble those of ,montaigne1 though ,bacon's work was far more important and complete than that of his ,french contemporary4 ,his pedagogy may be summed up in these pregnant words from his own pen3 ,a judicious blending and interchange between the easier and more difficult branches of learning1 adapted to the individual capabilities and to the future occupation of pupils1 will profit both the mental and bodily powers1 and make instruction acceptable4 ,we find in ,bacon1 then1 the beginning of a new era in education4 ,it remained for ,comenius1 ,locke1 ,rousseau1 ,pestalozzi1 and their compeers to apply to specific educational systems the great truth contained in the inductive method2 and to scientists and investigators of all kinds has been intrusted the mission of furthering1 through this method1 the marvelous scientific development which has almost re-created the world4 ,,ratke#ib 7#aega-afce7 ,perhaps the first to urge the reforms which constitute the basis of educational theory was ,ratke1 a ,german1 born in the province of ,holstein4 ,he originated a scheme by which he promised to teach any language1 ancient or modern1 in six months4 ,he traveled throughout ,europe1 endeavoring to sell his discovery to princes and men of learning4 ,purchasers had to agree strictly to maintain the secret4 ,professor ,williams speaks of this conduct as follows3 ,these were the acts of a charlatan peddling some secret quack nostrum4#ic ,mr4 ,quick says1 ,he would also found a school in which all arts and sciences should be rapidly learned and advanced2 he would introduce1 and peacefully maintain throughout the continent1 a uniform speech1 a uniform government1 and1 more wonderful still1 a uniform religion4 ,from these modest proposals we should naturally infer that the promiser was nothing but a quack of more than usual impudence2 but the position which the name of ,ratich holds in the history of education is sufficient proof that this is by no means a complete statement of the matter4#id ,many thinkers fully believed that the schools were in bondage to the classic studies1 that they did not prepare for life1 and that science1 which had begun to show signs of awakening1 should have a place in education4 ,the extravagant theories of ,ratke1 therefore1 attracted attention4 ,opportunity was given him to put his theories into practice1 first at ,augsburg1 then at ,koethen1 and finally at ,magdeburg4 ,in each instance he utterly failed1 more from want of tact in dealing with men1--with those in authority1 as well as with his teachers and pupils1--than from lack of soundness in theory4 ,of course much of his theory was worthless1 especially that referring to the mastery of a language in six months1 and that proposing uniformity in speech1 government1 and religion4 ,ratke's method of teaching a language was not original with him1 being similar to1 though not so effective as1 that advocated by ,roger ,ascham1 more than a hundred years before 7see p4 #aia71 and suggested first by ,pliny1 fifteen centuries earlier4 ,ratke required the pupil to go over the same matter many times1 to learn the grammar in connection with translation1 and finally to translate back into the original4 ,he proposed to follow the same course with all languages1 and have all grammars constructed on the same plan4 ,the work which ,ratke began was more successfully carried out by others who followed him1 and thus fruit has been borne to these new and radical ideas4 ,quick sums up ,ratke's pedagogy in a few words1 as follows3#ie-- #a4 ,everything after the order and course of nature4 #b4 ,one thing at a time4 #c4 ,one thing again and again repeated4 #d4 ,nothing shall be learned by heart4 #e4 ,uniformity in all things4 #f4 ,knowledge of the thing itself must be given before that which refers to the thing4 #g4 ,everything by experiment and analysis4 #h4 ,everything without coercion2#b that is1 by gentle means1 and not by the use of the rod4 ,others have worked out these principles until they have become thoroughly incorporated into every system of modern pedagogy4 ,,comenius#if 7#aeib-afgj7 ,by far the greatest educator of the seventeenth century1 and one of the greatest in educational history1 was ,johann ,amos ,comenius4 ,he was born in ,moravia1 and belonged to the ,protestant body known as the ,moravian ,brethren4 ,his early education was neglected1 a fact that was not without its compensation1 for1 not beginning the study of ,latin until sixteen years of age1 he was mature enough to appreciate the defects in the prevalent method of instruction4 ,one of his most valuable services to education grew out of his attempt to remedy the defects thus discovered4 ,of the schools he attended1 he says1 ,they are the terror of boys1 and the slaughterhouses of minds1--places where a hatred of books and literature is contracted1 where ten or more years are spent in learning what might be acquired in one1 where what ought to be poured in gently is violently forced in1 and beaten in1 where what ought to be put clearly and perspicuously is presented in a confused and intricate way1 as if it were a collection of puzzles1--places where minds are fed on words4#ig ,in speaking of his own experience at school1 he says1 ,i was continually full of thoughts for the finding out of some means whereby more might be inflamed with the love of learning1 and whereby learning itself might be made more compendious1 both in the matter of charge and cost1 and of labor belonging thereto1 that so the youth might be brought by a more easy method unto some notable proficiency in learning4#ih ,the life of ,comenius1 which extended over nearly eighty years1 was full of vicissitudes and trials4 ,briefly told1 it is as follows3 ,he was left an orphan at an early age1 had poor educational advantages in childhood1 began the study of ,latin at sixteen1 and completed his studies at ,heidelberg at twenty-two1 having previously studied at ,herborn4 ,after leaving the university1 he was teacher of the ,moravian ,school at ,prerau for two years1 and then having been ordained to the ministry1 became pastor of ,fulnek4 ,here he remained for a number of years1 living a happy and useful life4 ,in the meantime1 the ,thirty ,years' ,war had broken out1 the battle of ,prague had been lost by the ,protestants1 and the town of ,fulnek sacked4 ,comenius lost everything he possessed1 and this misfortune was soon followed by the death of his wife and child4 ,after hiding in the mountains for some time1 he was banished from his native land1 together with all the other ,protestants4 ,this took place in #afbg1 when ,comenius was thirty-five years old4 ,though he often longed to return to his fatherland1 he was never permitted to do so4 ,he settled in ,poland1 and began by the study of the works of ,ratke1 ,bacon1 and other writers to prepare himself for the great task of educational reform4 ,of this experience he writes1 ,after many workings and tossings of my thoughts1 by reducing everything to the immovable laws of nature1 ,i lighted upon my ',didactica ,magna1' which shows the art of readily and solidly teaching all men all things4 ,he visited ,england1 ,sweden1 and ,hungary in the interests of education1 and was invited to ,france1 but did not accept the invitation4 ,while living at ,leszno1 ,poland1 for a second time his house was sacked and all his property destroyed4 ,among other things1 his work on ,pansophia1 and his ,latin-,bohemian dictionary1 on which he had labored for forty years1 were burned4 ,he closed his days at ,amsterdam1 ,holland4 ,in addition to the great honors bestowed upon him by the various countries that sought his advice on educational matters1 he was made the chief bishop and head of the ,moravian ,brethren4 ,raumer forcibly sums up the life of ,comenius as follows3 ,comenius is a grand and venerable figure of sorrow4 ,though wandering1 persecuted1 and homeless1 during the terrible and desolating ,thirty ,years' ,war1 yet he never despaired1 but with enduring courage1 and strong faith1 labored unweariedly to prepare youth by a better education for a happier future4 ,suspended from the ministry1 as he himself tells us1 and an exile1 he became an apostle to the ,christian youth2 and he labored for them with a zeal and love worthy of the chief of the apostles4#ii ,pedagogical ,work4--,the great educational works of ,comenius are his ,gate of ,tongues ,unlocked1 the ,great ,didactic1 and his ,orbis ,pictus4 ,mr4 ,quick thinks that the ,great ,didactic contains1 in the best form1 the principles he afterward endeavored to work out#ajj in his other educational writings4 ,the services of ,comenius to pedagogy1 says ,professor ,williams1 were of a threefold character1 in each of which his merit was very great4 ,first1 he was the true originator of the principles and methods of the ,innovators4 ,second1 he was a great educational systematist4 ,third1 he was the author of improved text-books1 which were long and widely famous4#aja ,this is a fair summing up of the remarkable activity of this man with the exception of the first point4 ,montaigne1 ,ratke1 and ,bacon had previously taught many of the fundamental truths which ,comenius merely amplified and brought to practical fruition1 and he himself acknowledged the influence of the last two men upon him4 ,that the whole purpose of the life of ,comenius was far nobler than that of ,ratke or ,bacon1 there remains no room for doubt4 ,compayre says1 ,the character of ,comenius equals his intelligence4 ,through a thousand obstacles he devoted his long life to the work of popular instruction4 ,with a generous ardor he consecrated himself to infancy4 ,he wrote twenty works and taught in twenty cities4 ,moreover1 he was the first to form a definite conception of what the elementary studies should be4#ajb ,bacon gave the inspiration and ,comenius worked the truth into practical form2 ,bacon invented a new theory of scientific investigation1 ,comenius employed that theory in education2 ,bacon originated and ,comenius applied4 ,this does not detract from the merit of ,comenius any more than his work detracts from the merit of ,rousseau1 ,pestalozzi1 or ,horace ,mann1 all of whom gathered inspiration from him4 ,summary of the ,work of ,comenius4--7#a7 ,he was the author of the first illustrated text-book1 the ,orbis ,pictus4#ajc ,the cost of illustrations was for a long time a serious barrier to their general adoption in schoolbooks2 but modern inventions and improvements have removed this obstacle1 and many of the text-books of to-day are as valuable for their illustrations as for their text4 ,the ,orbis ,pictus appeared in #afeh4 7#b7 ,in his ,great ,didactic1 he presents a scheme for general organization of the school system which covers the first twenty-four years of life4 ,it divides this time into four equal periods of six years1 each as follows3-- #a4 ,infancy1 or the mother school1 from birth up to six years of age4 #b4 ,boyhood1 the vernacular or national school1 from six to twelve4 #c4 ,adolescence1 the ,gymnasium or ,latin school1 from twelve to eighteen4 #d4 ,youth1 the university 7including travel71 from eighteen to twenty-four4 ,the infant school should be found in every house1 the vernacular school in every village and community1 the gymnasium in every province1 and the university in every kingdom or large province4 ,this scheme1 with variation of details1 forms the basis of present school systems3 first1 the period in the home with the mother till six2 second1 the period of general education in the common school1 from six to twelve or fourteen2 third1 the period of preparation for the professional schools1 from twelve or fourteen to eighteen2 and fourth1 the professional or university course1 from eighteen to twenty-four4 ,the last is usually divided into a college and a university course4 7#c7 ,the educational principles of ,comenius were revolutionary as to the school practices of the time4 ,they have come to be almost universally accepted at present4 ,we can here state only a few of the most essential4#ajd #a4 ,if we would teach and learn surely1 we must follow the order of ,nature4 #b4 ,let everything be presented through the senses4 #c4 ,proceed from the easy to the difficult1 from the near to the remote1 from the general to the special1 from the known to the unknown4 #d4 ,make learning pleasant by the choice of suitable material1 by not attempting too much1 by the use of concrete examples1 and by the selection of that which is of utility4 #e4 ,fix firmly by frequent repetitions and drills4 #f4 ,let all things advance by indissoluble steps1 so that everything taught to-day may give firmness and stability to what was taught yesterday1 and point the way to the work of to-morrow4#aje #g4 ,let everything that is useless be eliminated from teaching4 #h4 ,learn to do by doing4 #i4 ,each language should be learned separately1 have a definite time assigned to it1 be learned by use rather than precept1--that is1 the practice in learning should be with familiar things1--and all tongues should be learned by one and the same method4 #aj4 ,the example of well-ordered life of parents1 nurses1 teachers1 and schoolfellows is very important for children2 but precepts and rules of life must be added to example4 #aa4 ,as knowledge of ,god is the highest of all knowledge1 the ,holy ,scriptures must be the alpha and omega of the ,christian schools4 ,comenius gives explicit directions as to methods of instruction1 class management1 discipline1 courses of study1 including a discussion of each branch1 and moral and religious teaching4 ,he presents these directions in the most remarkable and complete series of precepts and principles to be found in educational literature4#ajf ,,milton 7#afjh-afgd7 ,john ,milton was the most notable man who ever kept school or published a schoolbook4 ,while his fame rests on ,paradise ,lost and other great literary works1 he deserves a place among educators for his ,tractate on ,education1 and for his sympathy with educational reform4 ,he anticipated ,herbert ,spencer's celebrated definition1--,to prepare us for complete living is the function which education has to discharge1--in the following words3 ,i call1 therefore1 a complete and generous education that which fits a man to perform justly1 skillfully1 and magnanimously all the offices1 both private and public1 of peace and war4 ,he criticised the schools of his time and sought to make them more practical4 ,like the earlier ,innovators1 and in harmony with the spirit that was rapidly growing1 he thought that too much time was given to the study of ,latin1 and urged that science1 music1 physical culture1 and language as a means of acquiring a knowledge of useful things1 should receive more attention in the schools4 ,quick says1 ,a protest against a purely literary education comes with tremendous force from the student who sacrificed his sight to his reading1 the accomplished scholar whose ,latin works were known throughout ,europe1 and the author of ',paradise ,lost4'#ajg ,milton's experience in teaching was confined to a small boarding school1 such as those usually resorted to for educating the sons of the better classes in ,england at that time4 ,for pupils he began with two nephews1 to whom were soon added a few other boys4 ,these were sons of ,milton's friends1 and some of them came as boarders1 others as day students4 ,milton seemed to like the work of teaching1 and it was during this period that his ,tractate was written4 ,he probably taught school in this way for eight or nine years1 and then was appointed to a small office under the government1 which secured his living4 ,the rest of his life was devoted chiefly to literary work4 ,milton's ,tractate4--,the principal lessons from this educational work are embodied in the following quotation3 ,the end then of ,learning is to repair the ruines of our first ,parents by regaining to know ,god aright1 and out of that knowledge to love him1 and to imitate him1 to be like him1 as we may the nearest by possessing our souls of true virtue1 which being united to the heavenly grace of faith makes up the highest perfection4#ajh ,this rather cumbersome definition shows how fully ,milton was possessed of the ,puritan spirit1 which then controlled ,england1 and which magnified religious zeal4 ,milton's scheme of education may be briefly summed up as follows3-- #a4 ,the school premises should consist of a spacious house with large school grounds1 intended for about one hundred and thirty students from twelve to twenty-one years of age1 who should receive their complete secondary and university education in the same school4 ,this scheme1 so unique in ,milton's time1 is practically carried out in ,france and the ,united ,states1 where the connection between the lower and higher schools is direct4 ,in ,england1 the land of its inception1 and in ,germany1 there is no such direct articulation between the lower and the higher schools4 #b4 ,the course of study embraces1 first1 the ,latin grammar1 arithmetic1 geometry1 religion1 and ,greek authors to be read in translation2 second1 ,latin authors1 geography1 natural philosophy2 third1 ,greek1 trigonometry1--intended to prepare for fortification1--architecture1 engineering1 and navigation1 anatomy1 and medicine4 ,this course is supposed to be completed at about the age of sixteen4 ,the harder topics now follow1 together with the study of those subjects intended to teach ethical judgment4 ,milton says1 ,as they begin to acquire character1 and to reason on the difference between good and evil1 there will be required a constant and sound indoctrinating to set them right and firm1 instructing them more amply in the knowledge of virtue and the hatred of vice4 ,then come ,greek authors1 ,holy ,writ1 poetry1 and at any odd hour1 the ,italian tongue1 ethics1 and politics4 ,he is consistent with his definition of education1--that which fits a man to perform justly1 skillfully1 and magnanimously all the offices1 both public and private1 of peace and war1 when he would train men to be steadfast pillars of the ,state4 ,he adds in his course also the study of law1 including ,roman edicts and ,english common law1 a knowledge of ,hebrew1 and possibly ,syrian and ,chaldaic4 ,nor were physical exercises omitted4 ,sword exercises1 wrestling1 military tactics1 riding1 etc41 were to be daily practiced1 each in its proper time4 ,finally1 the young man1 when about twenty-three years of age1 should travel abroad1 and thus1 when mature enough to comprehend them1 become acquainted with the geography1 history1 and politics of other countries4 ,this was to be the final preparation for citizenship and service of country4 ,mr4 ,browning pronounces this a magnificent and comprehensive scheme4 ,the most serious criticism of it is1 that it marks out much more than the average young man can accomplish4 ,,locke#aji 7#afcb-agjd7 ,john ,locke was the son of a ,puritan gentleman who took active part in the wars for religious freedom fought during the latter part of the seventeenth century4 ,without doubt the stirring scenes enacted and the great moral movements which occupied ,england had a great influence upon ,locke's life4 ,he was carefully trained at home until he was about fourteen years old1 when he entered ,westminster ,school1 a ,puritan institution1 where he remained for six years4 ,he then entered ,oxford1 and in due time took his bachelor's and master's degrees4 ,in #affj1 when twenty-eight years old1 he was made tutor of ,christ ,church1 ,oxford1 where he lectured on ,greek1 rhetoric1 and philosophy4 ,he interested himself in theology1 but never took orders2 and he also studied medicine and for a time practiced it4 ,his own health was precarious1 he having suffered1 from chronic consumption nearly all his life4 ,nevertheless1 he accomplished a tremendous amount of work4 ,the friendship of the ,earl of ,shaftesbury gave ,locke some political prestige4 ,he lived in the family of that nobleman for many years1 and was the tutor of his son and grandson4 ,locke's great work1 on which his fame securely rests1 is the ,essay concerning ,human ,understanding1 which stamps him as the greatest of ,english philosophers4 ,this appeared in #afij4 ,his most important educational work is entitled ,some ,thoughts concerning ,education4 ,compayre says1 ,from psychology to pedagogy the transition is easy1 and ,locke had to make no great effort to become an authority on education after having been an accomplished philosopher4 ,further1 the same author says concerning the essential principles discussed in ,thoughts concerning ,education1 ,these are3 #a1 in physical education1 the hardening process2 #b1 in intellectual education1 practical utility2 #c1 in moral education1 the principle of honor1 set up as a rule for the free self-government of man4 ,in ,locke1 for the first time1 we find a careful set of rules as to the food1 sleep1 physical exercise1 and clothing of children4 ,while modern science rejects some of these1 most of them are regarded as sound in practice4 ,plenty of outdoor exercise1 clothing loose and not too warm1 plain food with but little meat or sugar1 proper hours of sleep1 and beds not too soft1 early retiring and rising1 and cold baths1 are means prescribed to harden the body and prepare it to resist the attacks of disease4 ,a sound mind in a sound body is the celebrated aphorism which sums up ,locke's educational theory4 ,as to moral education1 ,locke declares1 ,that which a gentleman ought to desire for his son1 besides the fortune which he leaves him1 is1 #a1 virtue2 #b1 prudence2 #c1 good manners2 #d1 instruction4 ,in his course of study the idea of utility prevails4 ,after reading1 writing1 drawing1 geography1 and the mother tongue are mastered1 ,locke1 like ,montaigne1 would teach the language of nearest neighbors1 and then ,latin4 ,even the ,latin tongue should be learned through use1 rather than by rules of grammar and by memorizing the works of classic authors4 ,while his system of education was planned for sons of gentlemen1 ,locke urged the establishment of working schools for children of the laboring classes4 ,this was in line with his utilitarian ideas1 as the intent was not so much intellectual training1 as the formation of steady habits and the preparation for success in industrial pursuits4 ,locke's plan was for a sort of manual training school1 the first appearance of such a project in history4 ,locke did not believe in universal education1 nor in the public school4 ,only gentlemen were provided for in his formal scheme1 and herein he followed the path marked out by ,alfred the ,great eight hundred years before1 which ,england has not completely forsaken to this day4 ,since he had done all his teaching as a private tutor in the family of a gentleman1 one can easily understand his advocacy of that form of instruction for the favored few4 ,locke's teachings in this respect are gradually losing their hold even in ,england1 the most conservative of all countries in educational matters1 and the latest great nation to accept the principle of universal education4 ,during the last quarter of a century ,england has been earnestly seeking to give every child1 whether of gentle or of humble birth1 rich or poor1 what his birthright demands1--a good common school education4 ,the influence of ,locke upon education1 then1 has been very great4 ,williams remarks that he inspired ,rousseau with nearly every valuable thought which appears in the brilliant pages of his ',emile4' ,he seems himself to have derived some of his most characteristic ideas from ,montaigne1 and possibly also from ,rabelais4#aaj ,although ,locke differed from other educational reformers in many respects1 though he was somewhat narrow in his conception of education1 owing to his environment1 he opposed the dry formalism that characterized the educational practice of his time1 and sought to emancipate man both intellectually and physically4 ,,fenelon 7#afea-agae7 ,fenelon was born of noble parents in the province of ,perigord1 ,france4 ,during his early years his father attended very carefully to his education1 and later his uncle1 the ,marquis de ,fenelon1 became his guardian4 ,though delicate in health1 the boy showed remarkable aptness in learning4 ,at the age of twelve he entered the college of ,cahors1 and thence went to the university of ,paris4 ,he was destined by his parents for the ,church1 for which1 by natural temperament and pious zeal1 he was well fitted4 ,he preached at fifteen with marked success1 and took up a theological course at ,st4 ,sulpice4 ,at the age of twenty-four he was ordained priest4 ,he desired to enter the missionary field1 first in ,canada1 and later in ,greece1 but had to abandon this purpose on account of ill health4 ,saint-,simon1 in his ,memoires1 describes ,fenelon as a man of striking appearance1 and says1 ,his manner altogether corresponded to his appearance2 his perfect ease was infectious to others1 and his conversation was stamped with the grace and good taste which are acquired by habitual intercourse with the best society and the great world4 ,for ten years ,fenelon was at the head of the convent of the ,new ,catholics1 an institution which sought to reclaim ,protestant young women to ,catholicism4 ,in this position1 as well as in all his lifework1 though himself an ardent ,catholic1 ,fenelon's course was so temperate and just that he won the warmest admiration even of ,protestants1 who did not accept his faith4 ,among his friends were the ,duke and ,duchess of ,beauvilliers1 who had eight daughters and several sons4 ,at their suggestion1 and for the purpose of helping them in educating their daughters1 he wrote his first and most important educational work1 ,the ,education of ,girls4 ,compayre pronounces this the first classical work of ,french pedagogy4 ,he further speaks of this book as a work of gentleness and goodness1 of a complaisant and amiable grace1 which is pervaded by a spirit of progress4#aaa ,it appeared in #afhg4 ,in #afhi1 when thirty-eight years of age1 ,fenelon was chosen preceptor of the grandson of ,louis ,,xiv41 the young ,duke of ,burgundy4 ,in this position his remarkable powers as a teacher were brought to light1 and he applied the theories which he had promulgated4 ,the young duke1 who was eight years of age1 was of a passionate nature1 hard to control1 and yet1 withal1 of warm-hearted impulses4 ,it is said that he would break the clocks which summoned him to unwelcome duty1 and fly into the wildest rage with the rain which hindered some pleasure4 ,the ,telemachus#aab of ,fenelon1 perhaps his greatest literary work1 was composed at this time1 as were also his ,dialogues of the ,dead and his ,fables4 ,the inspiration of all these works was found in the charge committed to him--that of properly instructing his royal pupil4 ,fenelon thus created the material through which he interested the boy and taught him the intended lessons4 ,the ,telemachus was designed for the moral and political instruction of the prince2 through his ,dialogues of the ,dead he taught history2 and his ,fables were composed for the purpose of teaching the moral and intellectual lessons which he wished to impart to his illustrious1 but headstrong1 pupil4 ,fenelon's success with the prince was phenomenal1 as the passionate boy became affectionate1 docile1 and obedient4 ,the success of the experiment1 however1 was never put to the final test1 as the duke died before coming to the throne4 ,there seems to be no doubt that the cure was permanent1 and it is not believed that1 like ,nero1 he would have relapsed into his former viciousness and cruelty4 ,one naturally compares ,fenelon with ,seneca4 ,to both were committed children1 heirs apparent to thrones1--willful1 cruel1 disobedient1 and hard to control4 ,in ,seneca's pupil the seeds of cruelty remained1 to germinate into the awful tyrant2 in ,fenelon's the evil seemed to be permanently eradicated1 and the result was a prince with generous impulses and noble intentions4 ,and this result was largely owing to the difference in the teachers1--,fenelon1 the gentle1 but firm1 patient1 painstaking conscientious man2 ,seneca1 the more brilliant1 but vacillating and timeserving sycophant4 ,fenelon's ,pedagogy4--#a4 ,there must be systematic care of the body4 ,therefore regular meals and plain food1 plenty of sleep1 exercise1 etc41 are essential4 #b4 ,all instruction must be made pleasant and interesting4 ,play is to be utilized in teaching4 ,in this he anticipated ,froebel4 #c4 ,let punishments be as light as possible4 ,encourage children to be open and truthful1 and do not prevent confession by making punishments too frequent or too severe4 ,punishment should be administered privately1 as a rule1 and publicly only when all other means have failed4 #d4 ,present the thing before its name1--the idea before the word4 ,study things1 investigate4 ,employ curiosity4 ,in this he was a disciple of ,bacon and ,comenius1 and a prophet to ,pestalozzi4 #e4 ,allow nothing to be committed to memory that is not understood4 #f4 ,girls1 also1 must share the benefits of education4 ,especial attention should be given to teaching them modesty1 gentleness1 piety1 household economy1 the duties of their station in life1 and those of motherhood4 #g4 ,morality should be taught early and by means of fables1 stories1 and concrete examples4 #h4 ,proceed from the near at hand to the remote1 from the known to the unknown4 ,thus in language1 after the mother tongue1 teach other living languages1 and then the classics4 ,the latter are to be learned by conversation about common objects1 and by application of the rules of grammar in connection therewith4 ,in geography and history one's own environment and country should be learned first1 then other countries4 #i4 ,example is of great importance to all periods of life1 but especially to childhood4 ,this ,fenelon practically illustrated by his own life and by the concrete cases which he used4 ,voltaire says of ,fenelon1 ,his wit was overflowing with beauty1 his heart with goodness4 ,,la ,,salle ,,and ,,the ,,brothers ,,of ,,the ,,christian ,,schools#aac ,in #afha1 ,la ,salle1 a devoted priest of the ,catholic ,church1 organized the ,brothers of the ,christian ,schools4 ,the idea primarily was to awaken interest in elementary education4 ,he perfected the work already done by ,peter ,faurier1 ,charles ,demia1 and others4 ,the method of instruction1 up to this time1 had been largely individual4 ,the pupils were called up to the teacher1 one by one1 or at most two by two1 and1 after the lesson had been heard1 they were sent back to their seats to study4 ,la ,salle conceived the idea of grading together pupils of the same advancement1 and teaching them simultaneously1--a practice now employed in primary schools everywhere4 ,it is known as the ,simultaneous ,method4 ,brother ,azarias says of this method1 ,because we all of us have been trained according to this method1 and see it practiced in nearly all of our public and many of our private schools throughout the land1 and have ceased to find it a subject of wonder1 we may be inclined to undervalue its importance4 ,not so was it regarded in the days of ,la ,salle4 ,then a ,brothers' ,school was looked upon with admiration4 ,strangers were shown it as a curiosity worth visiting4 ,la ,salle laid down many explicit rules concerning punishment1 methods of teaching1 and school organization in a book called ,the ,conduct of ,schools4 ,while modern criticism would condemn many of these rules1 we think1 with ,compayre1 that whatever the distance which separates these gloomy schools from our modern ideal1--from the pleasant1 active1 animated school1 such as we conceive it to-day1--there is none the less obligation to do justice to ,la ,salle1 to pardon him for practices which were those of his time1 and to admire him for the good qualities that were peculiarly his own4#aad ,he established the first normal school in history at ,rheims in #afhd1 thirteen years before ,francke organized his teachers' class at ,halle1 and fifty years before ,hecker founded the first ,prussian normal school at ,stettin4 ,la ,salle magnified the teacher's office1 and urgently demanded professional training for instructors of the young4 ,brother ,azarias forcibly sums up ,la ,salle's great work in this respect as follows3 ,he is the benefactor of the modern schoolmaster4 ,he it was who raised primary teaching out of the ruts of never ending routine1 carried on in the midst of time-honored noise and confusion1 and1 in giving it principles and a method1 made of it a science4 ,he hedged in the dignity of the schoolmaster4 ,he was the first to assert the exclusive right of the master to devote his whole time to his school work4#aae ,education1 therefore1 owes to ,la ,salle three important contributions1--7#a7 the ,simultaneous ,method of ,instruction1 whereby a number of children of the same advancement are taught together2 7#b7 the first ,normal ,school1 established at ,rheims1 ,france1 in #afhd2 and 7#c7 a dignifying of the teacher's profession by setting apart trained persons who should give all their time to the work of teaching4 ,rollin 7#affa-agda74--,this great teacher1 connected for many years with the ,university of ,paris1 and deposed therefrom in connection with the ,jansenists to whom he adhered1 was not merely a university lecturer1 but also an author of educational works and a student of general education4 ,his most important educational work is his ,treatise on ,studies4 ,rollin anticipated modern practice by seeking to make learning pleasant and discipline humane4 ,he would use the rod only as a last resort--a theory quite contrary to the practice of that time4 ,too much freedom1 he thought1 would have a tendency to make children impudent2 too frequent appeal to fear breaks the spirit2 praise arouses and encourages the child1 but too much of it makes him vain4 ,therefore the teacher must avoid both extremes4 ,while he would have girls know the four ground rules of arithmetic1 that is about all they should have except domestic training4 ,rollin had no connection with elementary schools and but little contact with children2 therefore his precepts do not always have the sound basis that experience furnishes4 ,nevertheless1 he exerted a salutary influence upon the education of his time4 ,summary of the ,educational ,progress of the ,seventeenth ,century4--#a4 ,school systems were established and compulsory attendance made efficient in ,weimar in #afai1 in ,gotha in #afdb1 and in many other cities1 showing a growing recognition of the principle of universal education and the duty of the ,state to assume the responsibility for its attainment4 #b4 ,a school of educators1 known as the ,innovators1 laid emphasis on sense-realism1--the study of things1 the contact with nature1 the education that is of practical use4 #c4 ,bacon laid the foundation of all future scientific research by his inductive method4 ,this increased the riches of the world beyond calculation1 taught how investigation is to be made1 laid the foundation of modern science1 and gave direction to all later education4 #d4 ,ratke1 though erratic and vulgar1 instituted wholesome reforms in the teaching of languages1 and promulgated theories which1 under later reformers1 bore rich fruitage4 #e4 ,comenius1 one of the greatest educators of all time1 produced the first illustrated text-book1 planned a general organization for schools in several countries1 which is the basis of present systems1 and proclaimed theories which are now universally accepted as the guide of modern pedagogical practice4 #f4 ,milton1 though primarily a literary man1 lent the weight of his genius and his great name to school reform4 ,he marked out a course of study which contemplates a unity of purpose from the elementary school to the university4 #g4 ,the great ,english philosopher1 ,locke1 also found time to devote to education4 ,his principle1 ,a sound mind in a sound body1 directed attention to physical education4 #h4 ,in the noble ,french priest1 ,fenelon1 we find an example of theory practically applied4 ,he gives1 also1 for the first time1 a place in pedagogy to the education of girls4 #i4 ,in general1 we find that the seventeenth century laid stress upon the principle of utility1 gave great impulse to science1 called attention to the care of the body1 decreased the influence of classic studies1 brushed away the fabric which superstition and conservatism had woven1 produced some of the greatest educators that have ever lived1 and laid the foundations on which modern education is built4 ,,footnotes3 #hf ,for special reference see ,macaulay's ,essays1 ,vols4 ,,ii and ,,iii4 #hg ,essays1 ,vol4 ,,iii1 p4 #ced4 #hh ,ibid41 ,vol4 ,,iii1 p4 #cfh4 #hi ,for a full description of his trial consult ,macaulay's ,essays4 ,also his biographer1 ,montagu1 whose judgment of ,bacon is much milder than ,macaulay's4 #ij ,essays1 ,vol4 ,,iii1 p4 #dei4 #ia ,ibid41 ,vol4 ,,iii1 p4 #dgj4 #ib ,also ,rateke1 ,radtke1 and ,ratich4 ,paulsen pronounces the last an abominable mutilation of ,latinization4 #ic ,history of ,modern ,education1 p4 #ada4 #id ,quick1 ,educational ,reformers1 p4 #ea4 #ie ,educational ,reformers1 p4 #ec4 #if ,especial attention is called to ,laurie's ,life of ,comenius1 and ,monroe's ,comenius4 ,for other works1 see ,appendix of ,bardeen's edition of ,laurie's ,comenius4 #ig ,laurie1 ,life of ,comenius1 p4 #ad4 #ih ,preface to the ,prodromus4 #ii ,raumer1 ,geschichte der ,paedagogik4 #ajj ,educational ,reformers1 p4 #gc4 #aja ,history of ,modern ,education1 p4 #aea4 #ajb ,history of ,pedagogy1 p4 #abb4 #ajc ,see ,orbis ,pictus1 edited and published by ,c4 ,w4 ,bardeen1 ,syracuse1 ,n4,y4 #ajd ,laurie's ,life and ,works of ,comenius1 p4 #gg4 #aje ,ibid41 p4 #aje4 #ajf ,for full discussion of the pedagogical principles of ,comenius1 see ,professor ,laurie's great work4 #ajg ,educational ,reformers1 p4 #ei4 #ajh ,tractate1 p4 #c4 #aji ,see ,fowler's ,locke4 ,also ,quick1 ,compayre1 and ,williams4 #aaj ,history of ,modern ,education1 p4 #aha4 #aaa ,history of ,pedagogy1 p4 #afe4 #aab ,schoolmaster in ,comedy and ,satire1 pp4 #gc-ajj4 #aac ,especial reference is made to ,brother ,azarias1 ,essays ,educational4 #aad ,history of ,pedagogy1 p4 #bgf4 #aae ,essays ,educational1 p4 #bch4 ,,chapter ,,xxxiv ,,august ,,hermann ,,francke ,,and ,,the ,,pietists 7#affc-agbg7 ,literature4--,rein1 ,encyklopaedisches ,handbuch2 ,strack1 ,geschichte des ,volkschulwesens2 ,dyer1 ,modern ,europe2 ,rein1 ,am ,ende der ,schulreform8 ,russell1 ,german ,higher ,schools4 ,,pietism ,pietism is the name of a movement in ,germany which sought to revive spiritual life in the ,lutheran ,church4 ,in that church1 religion had become purely a matter of intellect1 instead of heart4 ,cold formality and adherence to the letter1 rather than the spirit1 had taken possession of the ,protestant ,church4 ,like the ,jansenists in ,france1 who had a similar purpose with reference to the ,catholic ,church1 and later the ,methodists in ,england1 who sought to awaken religious zeal in the ,church of ,england1 the ,pietists of ,germany endeavored to vitalize religious life1 and to lead men away from creeds promulgated by human agency1 to the pure word of ,god4 ,the ,pietists differed from the orthodox ,lutherans not in doctrine1 but in insisting on the necessity of a change of heart and a pious life1 instead of mere adherence to formal doctrine4 ,the ,pietists founded the university of ,halle1 and this remained the center of the movement until it had run its course4 ,pietism had its inception during the latter part of the seventeenth century1 and it extended through the first half of the eighteenth century4 ,its originator was ,philipp ,jakob ,spener1 a man of remarkable zeal and godly life4 ,though it met with bitter opposition on the part of the orthodox ,lutherans1 it certainly did great good1 not only to its adherents1 but to the ,church at large1 by awakening deeper spiritual life4 ,its influence was also great in reviving ,biblical study in ,germany1 in improving the character of teachers1 and in giving a spiritual direction to the studies of the schools4 ,it has left an enduring monument in the great ,institutions that it founded at ,halle4 ,the greatest of the ,pietists was ,august ,hermann ,francke1 who is celebrated1 not only as a theologian1 but as a philanthropist and teacher4 ,,francke#aaf 7#affc-agbg7 ,francke's early education was conducted by private teachers1 though his parents1 who were intelligent and ,god-fearing people1 exerted a strong influence upon him4 ,at thirteen he entered the highest class of the ,gymnasium at ,gotha1 where he remained for one year4 ,here he was introduced to the reform teachings of ,ratke and ,comenius4 ,two years later he entered the university of ,erfurt as a student of theology4 ,he studied also at ,kiel and ,leipsic4 ,while he gave particular attention to ,hebrew and ,greek1 he also learned ,french1 ,english1 and ,italian4 ,he seemed to be gifted with a talent for learning languages1 for during a short residence in ,holland in later life he learned the ,dutch language so well that he was able to preach in it4 ,under the instruction of a ,jewish rabbi1 he read the ,hebrew ,bible through seven times in one year4 ,after spending some time as teacher in a private school1 he returned to ,leipsic as ,privat ,docent#aag in the university4 ,having become acquainted with ,spener and his teachings1 ,francke became an earnest ,pietist4 ,his success in lecturing and his zeal in religious work drew around him a large number of students4 ,this awakened the envy of the old professors of the university1 and they began a persecution which caused his dismissal4 ,he then went to ,erfurt and preached with remarkable success1 drawing great crowds by his earnestness and eloquence4 ,persecution again followed him1 and he was banished from the city4 ,about this time the new university of ,halle called ,francke to the chair of ,greek and oriental languages and afterward to that of theology4 ,he began his work in #afib1 and remained in that position for nearly thirty-six years1 until his death4 ,as this position did not furnish enough to live upon1 he became pastor of the church in the neighboring village of ,glaucha4 ,in his pastoral work he came in contact with poverty1 drunkenness1 and every form of immorality4 ,moved with pity1 he collected small sums of money1 which he distributed among the poor after catechising the children4 ,at ,easter1 #afie1 he found seven guldens 7#b4hj7 in the collection boxes1 which he declared to be ,a splendid capital with which something of importance can be founded2 ,i will begin a school for the poor with it4 ,this was the beginning of the great orphan asylum at ,halle1--an enterprise the magnitude of which we shall describe later4 ,without visible income1 with no means at command1 but with a sublime faith in ,god and humanity1 and an overwhelming sense of the ignorance and misery of the children about him1 ,francke began at once the great work2 nor was his faith misplaced1 as the result shows4 ,he gathered together a few children and placed a student over them as a teacher4 ,soon the better class of citizens took an interest1 and desired him to provide a school for their children4 ,two rooms were rented1 one for those who could not pay and the other for those who could4 ,this was the foundation of the free school and the citizens' school still connected with the ,institutions4 ,in the fall of #afie1 ,francke founded the orphan asylum4 ,money flowed in from all parts of the country as people began to understand the great work4 ,francke was thus able to branch out in many directions4 ,he established a ,pedagogium to prepare teachers for his and other schools2 free meals were furnished to students who devoted a part of their time to teaching in the institutions2 separate schools for boys and girls1 a ,gymnasium1 a ,real-school1 a bookbindery and printing establishment1 and many other institutions were founded4 ,the ,institutions at ,halle4--,in a few years ,francke had in successful operation a marvelous system1 a work founded upon love of humanity and dependent upon philanthropy for its support4 ,the results attracted attention from all ,europe1 and students came from many lands4 ,at the death of ,francke in the year #agbg1 the following report of the ,institutions was sent to ,king ,frederick ,william ,i43 7#a7 ,in the ,pedagogium1 #hb scholars1 #gj teachers and other persons2 7#b7 in the ,latin school1 #c inspectors1 #cb teachers1 #djj pupils1 and #aj servants2 7#c7 in the common school1 #d inspectors1 #ih male teachers1 #h female teachers1 #agbe boys and girls2 7#d7 orphans1 #ajj boys1 #cd girls1 #aj overseers2 7#e7 at the free table1 #bbe students1 #cfj poor children2 7#f7 employed in the drug store1 bookstore1 etc41 and other persons in the establishment1 #hb4aah ,this makes a total of over #cbjj persons instructed1 sheltered1 employed1 or otherwise connected with these great ,institutions4 ,the foundations were so firmly laid that the progress has been steady from that time to this4 ,at present there are no less than twenty-five different enterprises connected with the ,institutions1 among which may be mentioned a free school for boys1 and one for girls2 a common school for boys1 and one for girls2 a royal ,pedagogium2 a ,latin school2 a higher girls' school2 a ,realgymnasium2 a preparatory school for the high school2 a ,real-school2 an orphan asylum for boys1 and one for girls2 a boarding house for students2 a ,bible house1 which has distributed about #f1ejj1jjj ,bibles and religious works2 a teachers' seminary 7normal school7 for each sex2 a bookstore1 a printing house1 and a drug store4#aai ,about #cjjj children receive instruction in the various schools1 and about #aah1jjj have been recipients of the benefits since the ,institutions were founded two hundred years ago4 ,the cost is about one million marks a year1 which is covered by endowments1 by tuition fees1 by profits from the productive departments 7bookstores1 printing establishment1 etc471 and by moneys received from the ,state4 ,francke's idea of depending upon voluntary gifts has been abandoned4 ,all this work is the result of the energy of a man who began with a capital of less than three dollars1 and a vast amount of faith to found something of importance4 ,the ,training of ,teachers4--,while ,francke's greatest work for mankind was the ,institutions mentioned above1 we must notice one field of his activity that is of especial importance to us1--that of the training of teachers4 ,we have seen that1 on account of the scarcity of funds1 he was obliged to rely upon students to do the work of instructing the children committed to his care4 ,the young theologians made use of this opportunity as a stepping-stone to their future calling1 the ministry1 and ,francke1 perceiving this1 sought to secure the most pious and gifted among his theological students for this work4 ,he also established a pedagogical class 7,pedagogium74 ,after two years' membership therein1 the student was allowed to teach provided he pledged himself to devote three years to teaching in the schools4 ,this class met once a week for criticism and discussion under the leadership of the inspector of the school1 and the various inspectors met ,francke every evening for further instruction4 ,the results soon attracted widespread notice1 and created a great demand for ,francke's teachers4 ,although this was very crude pedagogical training1 it may be regarded as the inception of the normal school1 which has now come to be an essential part of every educational system4 ,the ,real-school4--,a third service is credited by many to ,francke1 namely1 the founding of the ,real-school#abj of ,germany4 ,the best authorities give that credit to ,professor ,erhard ,weigel of ,jena4 ,whether or not the idea originated with ,francke1 he was ready to accept the necessity of such a change1 and founded schools for higher learning in which ,greek and ,latin were not required1 and in which more attention was given to modern languages and science4 ,,footnotes3 #aaf ,rein's ,encyklopaedisches ,handbuch1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #ccf4 #aag ,the ,privat ,docent is the first step in the professor's career in the ,german university4 ,he is allowed to lecture in the university1 but receives no pay except fees from the students who hear him4 #aah ,k4 ,schmidt1 ,geschichte der ,paedagogik1 ,vol4 ,,iii1 p4 #dfb4 #aai ,see ,rein1 ,encyklopaedisches ,handbuch1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #cdh4 #abj ,the ,real-school is the great rival of the ,gymnasium in ,germany4 ,the latter is the old established school which bases culture on the ,humanities1--the classic languages1 and literature4 ,the ,real-school is more modern and gives greater attention to the ,realities1--to things of practical utility4 ,precedence is given to the modern languages1 sciences1 and arts4 ,while the chief purpose of the ,gymnasium is to prepare for the learned professions1 that of the ,real-school is to prepare for practical life4 ,the relation of these two institutions to each other and to the university led to the ,berlin ,conference in #ahij1 at which it clearly appeared that the younger is outstripping the older and more conservative institution4 ,see ,russell1 ,german ,higher ,schools4 ,,chapter ,,xxxv ,,general ,,view ,,of ,,the ,,eighteenth ,,and ,,nineteenth ,,centuries ,literature4--,dyer1 ,modern ,europe2 ,duruy1 ,the ,french ,revolution2 ,yonge1 ,three ,centuries of ,modern ,history2 ,andrews1 ,institutes of ,general ,history2 ,lord1 ,beacon ,lights2 ,taylor1 ,history of ,germany2 ,guizot1 ,history of ,civilization2 ,draper1 ,conflict between ,religion and ,science2 ,schwickerath1 ,jesuit ,education4 ,the history of the world since the seventeenth century has been crowded with events1 and characterized by movements of greatest moment to mankind4 ,it is not the purpose of this work to discuss political movements1 to chronicle wars1 or to study the great upheavals of society except in so far as they have a direct bearing upon educational questions4#aba ,the political chains that fettered the nations of the world have gradually been broken until greater liberty has been secured1 a more perfect acknowledgment of the rights of the individual brought about1 and a more tolerant religious spirit fostered in every civilized land4 ,these things have exerted a tremendous force in the intellectual emancipation of man4 ,at last the long struggle of the centuries begins to bear legitimate fruit1 and the supreme educational purpose of ,christianity1 that of asserting and maintaining the importance of the individual1 seems destined to complete realization4 ,the noble truths of brotherly love1 equality before ,god1 and human rights were obscured during the long centuries1--obscured sometimes by the very institution whose chief aim is to scatter light and give gladness to men4 ,it has remained for modern education to rediscover the educational principles which the ,great ,teacher promulgated1 and which through the struggle of centuries failed of recognition1 and bore indifferent fruit4 ,among the many social and political changes that have taken place during the last two centuries1 we may mention a few that have a direct influence upon education4 ,preceding centuries had prepared the way1--had broken the ground and sown the seed1 and now the world was ready to reap an abundant harvest4 ,the great political events of this period may be briefly summarized as follows3-- #a4 ,the abolition of human slavery4--,great ,britain1 ,spain1 ,france1 ,russia1 and finally our own country have forever removed the shackles of the slave within their borders4 ,perhaps the greatest of all emancipation acts was that of ,russia1 which1 in #ahfa1 without bloodshed and without serious disturbance1 by royal decree1 set free forty million serfs4 ,the abolition of slavery in nearly all civilized countries is the greatest political triumph of ,christian civilization4 ,without this there could never have come that higher intellectual emancipation which is the aim sought in all education4 #b4 ,the extension of political rights4--,this is another victory that must be credited to the period under discussion4 ,at the beginning of the eighteenth century there was scarcely a nation that acknowledged the right of the individual to a part in government1 or to personal freedom4 ,men were in vassalage to their immediate lord1 who1 in turn1 was obliged to acknowledge the divine right of the king over him4 ,with the exception of ,switzerland1 who for centuries had maintained her freedom1 and of ,england1 who had secured the rights of man only by much bloodshed1 there was scarcely a people in the world that possessed the right of self-government4 ,even ,england had secured that right only in the latter half of the seventeenth century under the leadership of ,cromwell4 ,this right she did not concede to her colonies1 however1 until the ,american ,revolution wrested her richest dependency from her1 and forever established the principle of self-government for a sovereign people4 ,immediately following the ,american ,revolution came the ,french ,revolution1 which taught the ,old ,world the ideas so heroically conceived1 so bravely supported1 and so successfully realized in the ,new ,world4 ,nor is this all4 ,the same principle has compelled the rulers of most of the ,european nations to divide the responsibility of government with their subjects1 and to grant their people enlarged powers but little short of absolute sovereignty4 #c4 ,science has been recognized as a powerful instrument of civilization4--,through scientific discoveries there has been a wonderful accession to material wealth1 invention has been stimulated1 and progress has been made in all directions4 ,the spirit of investigation has been fostered1 old theories and superstitions have been abandoned1 and truth has been established upon their ruins4 ,in this direction more has been done by science during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries than during the whole previous history of the world4 ,man has now become master of heretofore unknown forces which he may utilize as a blessing for the human race4 ,we shall see in later pages that scientific investigation has become the greatest educational principle of modern times4 #d4 ,religious freedom has been attained4--,the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries witnessed many struggles for religious liberty1 which resulted in no decided victory4 ,it was not until the last two centuries that complete religious freedom was gained4 ,men are no longer bound to accept ecclesiastical decrees without question1 but every one may weigh and consider1 and freely decide for himself4 ,civil law protects1 civil society sustains1 and public opinion justifies men in the exercise of personal liberty in religious matters4 ,by the realization of these great principles educational progress has been encouraged4 ,the greatest obstacles have been removed1 and the future opens with possibilities of universal brotherhood1 universal peace1 and universal education4 ,it remains for us to study some of the men who have contributed to the educational progress of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries1 to trace the chief movements in the intellectual development of the race1 and to examine the school systems of the representative nations of the world at the present time4 ,,footnotes3 #aba ,it must be freely admitted that such influences are powerful in shaping the destiny of man1 and that they have had much to do with education1 as we have often shown in the foregoing pages4 ,we must1 however1 leave the tracing of the movements to each individual student4 ,,chapter ,,xxxvi ,,modern ,,educators ,literature4--,davidson1 ,rousseau2 ,graham1 ,rousseau2 ,morley1 ,life of ,rousseau2 ,rousseau1 ,emile2 ,munroe1 ,educational ,ideal2 ,vogel1 ,geschichte der ,paedagogik2 ,quick1 ,educational ,reformers2 ,weir1 ,the ,key to ,rousseau's ,emile 7article in ,educational ,review1 ,vol4 ,,xvi1 p4 #fa72 ,compayre1 ,history of ,pedagogy4 ,,rousseau 7#agab-aggh7 ,jean ,jacques ,rousseau was born in ,geneva1 ,switzerland4 ,his father was a watchmaker1 and upon him devolved the education of the boy1 as the mother died in childbirth4 ,rousseau's father was a man of dissipated habits1 careless of responsibility1 and of very violent temper4 ,he interested himself in his son far enough to teach him to read1 and supplied him with the worthless novels which he himself was fond of reading4 ,this unwise course doubtless had much to do in shaping the character of the boy4 ,probably it was the evil effects of this early literature that led ,rousseau later in life to oppose teaching young children to read4 ,quick says1 ,rousseau professed a hatred of books1 which he said kept the student so long engaged upon the thoughts of other people as to have no time to make a store of his own4 ,abandoned by his father at the age of ten1 he was taken into the family of his uncle1 who apprenticed him1 first to a notary1 and afterward to an engraver4 ,at the age of sixteen he ran away1 and began a life of vagabondage4 ,while yet a young man1 he became involved in intrigues1 which1 according to his own account in his ,confessions1 were no credit to him4 ,madame de ,warens1 a young widow with whom he lived for some years1 sent him to school at ,st4 ,lazare1 where he studied the classics and music2 but he soon lapsed again into vagabondage4 ,he picked up a little music1 and attempted to give lessons in it1 but with small success4 ,he also took a position as private tutor1 but he had no talent for teaching4 ,later in life he married ,therese le ,vasseur1 a woman from the common ranks of life4 ,she bore him five children1 all of whom he committed to foundling hospitals without means of identification4 ,he did this because he was not willing that his own comfort or plans should be disturbed by the presence of children4 ,rousseau had reason to regret this heartless and unnatural course when1 in later years1 he sought in vain to find some trace of his children4 ,compayre says1 ,if he loved to observe children1 he observed1 alas1 only the children of others4 ,there is nothing sadder than that page of the ',confessions1' in which he relates how he often placed himself at the window to observe the dismission of a school1 in order to listen to the conversations of children as a furtive and unseen observer6#abb ,in #agdi ,rousseau successfully competed for a prize offered by the ,academy of ,dijon on the subject1 ,has the restoration of the sciences contributed to purify or to corrupt manners8 ,rousseau entered this contest quite accidentally4 ,he saw the notice of the contest in a newspaper1 and decided at once to compete4 ,of this event he says1 ,if ever anything resembled a sudden inspiration1 it was the movement which began in me as ,i read this4 ,all at once ,i felt myself dazzled by a thousand sparkling lights2 crowds of vivid ideas thronged into my mind with a force and confusion which threw me into unspeakable agitation2 ,i felt my head whirling in a giddiness like that of intoxication4 ,a violent palpitation oppressed me2 unable to walk for difficulty of breathing1 ,i sank under one of the trees of the avenue1 and passed half an hour there in such a condition of excitement that when ,i rose ,i saw that the front of my waistcoat was all wet with tears1 though ,i was wholly unconscious of shedding them4 ,ah1 if ,i could have written the quarter of what ,i saw and felt under that tree1 with what clearness should ,i have brought out all the contradictions of our social system2 with what simplicity should ,i have demonstrated that man is good naturally1 and that by institution only is he made bad4 ,this essay made him famous1 and its publication was the beginning of a remarkable literary career4 ,his principal literary works are his ,confessions1 in which he declares that he conceals nothing concerning himself2 the ,social ,contract1 an anti-monarchic work1 which many believe incited the ,french ,revolution2 ,heloise1 a novel over-strained in sentiment and immoral in its teachings1 but full of pathos and knowledge of the human heart2 and ,emile1 his greatest work1 which contains his educational theories4 ,the ,emile#abc was an epoch-making book1 which excited great interest throughout ,europe4 ,it is said that the philosopher ,emanuel ,kant became so absorbed in reading it that he forgot to take his daily walk4 ,pedagogy4--7a7 ,rousseau's first principle is1 ,everything is good as it comes from the hands of the ,author of nature2 everything degenerates in the hands of man4 ,it follows1 then1 that education has only to prevent the entrance of evil1 and let nature continue the work begun4 ,it is to be a negative1 as well as a natural1 process4 ,the fallacy of this principle is very forcibly shown by ,vogel#abd as follows3 ,the very first sentence of ',emile1' that man by nature is good1 is a fundamental error2 for by nature1 that is1 from birth1 man is neither good nor bad1 but morally indifferent4 ,only when the individual possesses mature self-consciousness does he have a correct idea of good and evil4 ,if man by nature is good1 it is inexplicable how evil can originate within him4 ,external things may1 indeed1 furnish motives to evil1 but are never in themselves evil2 the evil arises rather from the conduct of the individual toward outside objects4 ,if1 then1 evil does not come from without1 and is not by nature already within the heart1 it is impossible that there shall be such a thing as evil4 7b7 ,the first education is physical and it begins at birth4 ,as the physical wants of the child are natural they should be satisfied1 but the clothing should be of such character as not to interfere with the perfect freedom of the body4 ,great care must be taken to distinguish between the real wants of the child and its passing whims4 ,to gratify the latter because of the crying of the child will tend to form bad habits4 ,in this connection may be taught the first moral lessons4 ,it thus becomes important that the speech1 gestures1 and expressions of the young child shall be carefully studied4 ,this is the first suggestion of the necessity for child study4 ,the idea was later developed by ,pestalozzi and ,froebel1 and is one of the most important features of recent pedagogical activity4 7c7 ,the child's second period begins with his ability to speak and continues till the twelfth year4 ,no attempt must be made to educate the child for his future1 but he must be allowed to get the full enjoyment of childhood by freedom to play as he will4 ,let him run1 jump1 and test his strength1 thereby acquiring judgment of the material forces about him1 and learning how to take care of himself4 ,leave him free to do what he will1 let him have what he wishes1 but1 as far as possible1 he should be led to depend upon himself to satisfy his wants4 ,give him perfect freedom1 for freedom is the fundamental law of education4 ,if he disobeys1 do not punish him1--disobedience works its own punishment2 therefore1 do not command him4 ,the training of the senses is the important work of this period2 therefore1 there should be as little moral training as possible1 and absolutely no religious training4 ,the only moral idea for the child to learn is that of ownership4 ,he is to be prevented from vice in a negative manner1 that is1 by never being allowed to meet it4 ,the only habit that a child should be allowed to form is to contract no habit4 ,he is to have a preceptor devoted entirely to him1 not to instruct or control him1 but to lead him to discover and experience for himself4 ,in regard to his intellectual instruction1 ,rousseau says of ,emile at twelve years of age1 that he has not learned to distinguish his right hand from his left4 ,books are entirely proscribed1 and1 indeed1 they are useless to him as he cannot read2 the only intellectual knowledge the child receives is that which comes from things through his own experience4 ,this is a brief outline of the erratic1 impossible1 and inconsistent training that ,rousseau provides for ,emile during this period when the foundation of character in the child must be laid4 ,greard says1 ,rousseau goes beyond progressive education to recommend an education in fragments1 so to speak1 which isolates the faculties in order to develop them one after another1 which establishes an absolute line of demarkation between the different ages1 and which ends in distinguishing three stages of progress in the soul4 ,rousseau's error on this point is in forgetting that the education of the child ought to prepare for the education of the young man4 7d7 ,the third period extends from the twelfth to the fifteenth year4 ,it is the period of intellectual development4 ,with no habits of thought or study1 being little else than a robust animal1 in three years ,emile is to obtain all needed intellectual training4 ,true1 ,rousseau excludes everything that is not useful1 and places limitations even on that4 ,for example1 he naturally lays great stress upon the physical sciences which are to be taught in connection with things themselves1--out of doors1 by travel1 and in actual life2 but he allows no history1 or grammar1 or ancient languages4 ,no books are permitted save ,robinson ,crusoe1 which ,rousseau finds entirely suitable for ,emile4 ,a trade is to be learned during this period4 ,while in general we condemn ,rousseau's scheme of education1 there is much in his methods that is most excellent4 ,on this point ,compayre comments as follows3 ,at least in the general method which he commends1 ,rousseau makes amends for the errors in his plan of study3 ',do not treat the child to discourses which he cannot understand4 ,no descriptions1 no eloquence1 no figures of speech4 ,be content to present to him appropriate objects4 ,let us transform our sensations into ideas4 ,but let us not jump at once from sensible to intellectual objects4 ,let us always proceed slowly from one sensible notion to another4 ,in general1 let us never substitute the sign for the thing1 except when it is impossible for us to show the thing4'#abe 7e7 ,the fourth period of education begins at fifteen1 the period of adolescence4 ,at this time1 ,emile will know nothing of history1 nothing of humanity1 nothing of art and literature1 nothing of ,god2 but he will know a manual trade4 ,rousseau himself says1 ,emile has but little knowledge1 but that which he has is really his own2 he knows nothing by halves4 ,he has a mind which1 if not instructed1 is at least capable of being instructed4 ,the remaining work to be done in the education of ,emile consists in training the sentiments of affection1 the moral and the religious sentiments4 ,the feeling of love for his fellow-beings is now to be cultivated4 ,the error of this is shown by ,compayre1 who says1 ,for fifteen years ,rousseau leaves the heart of ,emile unoccupied4444 ,rousseau made the mistake of thinking that a child can be taught to love as he is taught to read and write1 and that lessons could be given to ,emile in feeling just as lessons are given to him in geometry4 ,in morals ,rousseau taught that the first duty of every one is to take care of himself2 we must love ourselves first of all1 and find our greatest interest in those things that best serve us4 ,we must seek that which is useful to us and avoid what harms us1 instead of loving our enemies and doing good to those that hate us1 as taught by ,christ4 ,we must love those who love us1 while we must avoid and hate those who hate us4 ,as to religion1 ,emile does not yet know at fifteen that he has a soul1 and ,rousseau thinks that perhaps the eighteenth year is still too early for him to learn that fact2 for1 if he tries to learn it before the proper time1 he runs the risk of never really knowing that he possesses an immortal soul4 ,but as religion furnishes a check upon the passions1 it should be taught to the boy when eighteen years of age4 ,he is not to be instructed in the doctrines of any particular sect1 but should be allowed to select that religious belief which most strongly appeals to his reason4 ,modern investigation has proven the utter fallacy of ,rousseau's teachings in this respect4 ,indeed1 it seems to be established that the most orthodox period of the child's life occurs before the fifteenth year1 the time when ,rousseau would begin his religious training4 ,conformable to this truth1 many sects confirm children and receive them into the church at or before the fifteenth year4#abf 7f7 ,having brought ,emile to the period of life at which he is to marry1 ,rousseau proceeds to create in ,sophie the ideal wife4 ,it is not the education of women as such that ,rousseau discusses1 but their education with reference to man4 ,he says1 ,the whole education of women should be relative to men2 to please them1 to be useful to them1 to make themselves honored and loved by them1 to educate the young1 to care for the older1 to advise them1 to console them1 to make life agreeable and sweet to them1--these are the duties of women in every age4 ,consequently the sole instruction woman needs is in household duties1 in care of children1 in ways to add to the happiness of her husband4 ,her own happiness or development does not enter into ,rousseau's scheme4 ,this is the weakest part of his educational theory4 ,the world is gradually awakening to the fact that woman's intellectual capacity is not inferior to that of man1 and the prejudices of ages are slowly disappearing4 ,rousseau's pedagogical theories made a profound impression throughout ,europe1 and though often inconsistent1 extravagant1 and visionary1 they set the world to thinking of the child and his psychological development4 ,a new direction was thus given to educational theory and practice1 and upon this basis ,pestalozzi1 ,froebel1 and other modern educators have built4 ,rousseau must1 therefore1 be reckoned among the greatest pedagogical writers of modern times4 ,karl ,schmidt pronounces the ,emile a ,platonic republic of education1--nevertheless1 ,rousseau's work is a great universal achievement1 the importance of which ,goethe recognizes when he calls the book the nature-gospel of education4#abg ,,footnotes3 #abb ,history of ,pedagogy1 p4 #bhf4 #abc ,schoolmaster in ,literature1 pp4 #dj-fc4 #abd ,geschichte der ,paedagogik1 p4 #abg4 ,see also ,compayre1 ,history of ,pedagogy1 p4 #bhf4 #abe ,history of ,pedagogy1 p4 #bih4 #abf ,see address of ,professor ,earl ,barnes1 ,proceedings of the ,national ,educational ,association for #ahic1 p4 #gfe4 ,also article by ,dr4 ,g4 ,stanley ,hall in ,pedagogical ,seminary1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #aif4 ,note also the religious development of ,laura ,bridgman4 #abg ,geschichte der ,paedagogik1 ,vol4 ,,iii1 p4 #eei4 ,,chapter ,,xxxvii ,,modern ,,educators 7,continued7 ,,basedow#abh 7#agbc-agij7 ,the name of ,basedow is connected with what is known as the ,philanthropinic experiment4 ,he was born at ,hamburg1 his father being a wigmaker4 ,not being appreciated in his home1 the son ran away and bound himself out as servant in the household of a gentleman4 ,through the influence of this man1 who discovered his extraordinary abilities1 he was reconciled with his father1 and returned home4 ,he was sent to the ,gymnasium at ,hamburg1 and afterward1 through the assistance of friends1 went to the university of ,leipsic1 where he studied theology4 ,here he lived a rather wild life1 and upon the completion of his studies was found too unorthodox to take orders4 ,accordingly1 he became tutor 7,hauslehrer7 to the children of ,herr von ,quaalen4 ,in this position he showed great aptitude and originality in the instruction of children4 ,his method of teaching included conversation1 adaptation of play1 and use of the woods1 fields1 plants1 birds1 and other works of nature4 ,owing to his original manner of teaching1 ,basedow obtained the best results4 ,in teaching ,latin1 for instance1 he began by pointing to objects and giving their ,latin names4 ,his pupils1 in a very short time1 learned to speak ,latin almost as well as their native language4 ,basedow himself learned ,french1 after the same manner1 of the governess of the house4#abi ,he next became ,professor of ,morals and ,polite ,literature at ,soroee1 ,denmark1 where his unorthodox writings again led him into trouble4 ,he was removed to the ,gymnasium at ,altona4 ,rousseau's ,emile produced a profound impression upon him1 as it had done upon many other thinkers in ,europe1 and many of his theories are probably traceable to that book4 ,basedow was convinced of the need of a radical reform in the schools of ,germany1 and set himself the task of effecting it4 ,bernsdorf1 the ,danish minister of education1 became interested in his writings1 and1 together with several of the crowned heads of ,europe1 assisted him in bringing out his ,elementary ,book 7,elementarbuch71 which foreshadowed his plans4 ,it was modeled after the ,orbis ,pictus of ,comenius4 ,the interest of these distinguished patrons shows how urgent was the need of an educational reform4 ,basedow also made the acquaintance of the great literary men of the time1 chief among whom was ,goethe4 ,in temperament he was misanthropic and peevish1 owing in part1 doubtless1 to ill health brought on by overwork and worry4 ,the ,philanthropin4--,indirectly through ,goethe1 ,prince ,leopold of ,dessau was attracted to ,basedow4 ,the prince determined to found an institute in which the plans of the great educator could be carried out4 ,the institute1 called the ,philanthropin1 was established1 and became celebrated throughout ,europe4 ,quick says3 ,then1 for the first and probably for the last time1 a school was started in which use and wont were entirely set aside1 and everything done on 'improved principles4' ,such a bold enterprise attracted the attention of all interested in education1 far and near2 but it would seem that few parents considered their own children vilia corpora 7vile bodies71 on whom experiments might be made for the public good4 ,when1 in ,may1 #aggf1 a number of schoolmasters and others collected from different parts of ,germany1 and even from beyond ,germany1 to be present by ,basedow's invitation at an examination of the children1 they found only thirteen pupils in the ,philanthropin1 including ,basedow's own son and daughter4#acj ,the main purpose of the ,philanthropin was to give ,basedow an opportunity to carry out his new educational ideas4 ,a prominent feature of the undertaking was that it should be a model institute for the preparation of teachers in the theory and practice of the new education4 ,the institution1 was to be a school of true humanity4 ,its name was to give evidence of its object--the education of youth in accordance with the laws of nature and humanity4 ,in it ,basedow was to exemplify his ideas of education4 ,the best of teachers were to be employed1 the best appliances furnished1 and the instruction was to be founded entirely on sense-perception4 ,the ,philanthropin was opened in #aggd1 and at once awoke universal interest4 ,but this school1 conceived in love for humanity1 founded with the noblest of purposes1 and exemplifying much of sound educational philosophy1 was destined to be shortlived4 ,it was abandoned in less than twenty years4 ,this downfall was owing to several causes1 some of which may be mentioned4 #a4 ,the institution was purely secular in character1 and the world was not yet ready for this4 ,parents were suspicious of a non-sectarian school1 the idea of which was so contrary to that of the traditional church-school4 ,hence the small number of pupils in the ,philanthropin1 even at the height of its prosperity under ,basedow4 #b4 ,altogether too many subjects were included in the course4 ,quick outlines the work undertaken as follows3 7#a7 ,man4 ,here he would use the pictures of foreigners and wild men1 also a skeleton1 a hand in spirits1 and other objects still more appropriate to a surgical museum4 7#b7 ,animals4 ,only such animals are to be depicted as it is useful to know about1 because there is much that ought to be known1 and a good method of instruction must shorten rather than increase the hours of study4 ,articles of commerce made from the animals may also be exhibited4 7#c7 ,trees and plants4 ,only the most important are to be selected4 ,of these the seeds also must be shown1 and cubes formed of the different woods4 ,gardeners' and farmers' implements are to be explained4 7#d7 ,mineral and chemical substances4 7#e7 ,mathematical instruments for weighing and measuring2 also the air pump1 siphon1 and the like4 ,the form and motion of the earth are to be explained with globes and maps4 7#f7 ,trades4 ,the use of various tools is to be taught4 7#g7 ,history4 ,this is to be illustrated by engravings of historical events4 7#h7 ,commerce4 ,samples of commodities may be produced4 7#i7 ,the younger children should be shown pictures of familiar objects about the house and its surroundings4#aca ,there are very many suggestive ideas in ,basedow's course1 which have been adopted in modern schools2 but the trouble was that he demanded too much1 and he himself acknowledged later in life that he had exaggerated notions of the amount boys were capable of learning1 and accordingly his curriculum was very much shortened4 #c4 ,another reason for the failure of the ,philanthropin was ,basedow's indiscriminate condemnation of everything that had been done before1 and of all who failed to agree with him4 ,this awoke the antagonism of teachers everywhere4 ,all reformers are apt to be radical in their own views and denunciatory of the opinions of others4 ,had there been less to criticise in ,basedow himself1 he would doubtless have triumphed over all opposition4 ,but his educational theories and practices did not produce the results which he predicted for them1 and his opponents were quick to mark every weakness that his system betrayed4 #d4 ,more fatal still1 perhaps1 was the unfitness of ,basedow for the directorship of the institution4 ,he was capricious1 lacking in self-command and proper balance1 visionary1 and often suspicious of the teachers under his direction4 ,such causes prevented the experiment at ,dessau from fulfilling the bright hopes of ,basedow and the friends who assisted him in starting the enterprise4 ,basedow retired after four years' leadership1 and the institution continued for a few years with varying success1 under such men as ,campe1 ,salzmann1 and ,matthison4 ,yet1 when the ,philanthropin was closed in #agic1 the teachers1 dispersed throughout ,germany1 carried the new gospel wherever they went1 arousing fresh interest in education and doing much for its advancement4 ,quick thinks that ,basedow's system possessed great merits for children1 say1 between the ages of six and ten4 ,kant was greatly disappointed at the result4 ,rousseau's ,emile had awakened his interest in education1 and he looked to the experiment at ,dessau for an exemplification of the new ideals4 ,his estimate of the work accomplished is as follows3 ,experience shows that often in our experiments we get quite opposite results from what we had anticipated4 ,we see1 too1 that since experiments are necessary1 it is not in the power of one generation to form a complete plan of education4 ,the only experimental school which1 to some extent1 made a beginning in clearing the road1 was the ,institute at ,dessau4 ,this praise at least must be allowed1 notwithstanding the many faults which could be brought up against it--faults which are sure to show themselves when we come to the results of our experiments1 and which merely prove that fresh experiments are necessary4 ,it was the only school in which teachers had liberty to work according to their own methods and schemes1 and where they were in free communication both among themselves and with all learned men throughout ,germany4#acb ,writings4--,basedow's chief educational writing is the book called the ,elementary4 ,the ,book of ,method was the first to appear1 and was really the first part of the ,elementary4 ,concerning the ,book of ,method1 ,lang says1 ,this famous manual was undoubtedly the greatest of ,basedow's educational writings4444 ,it was full of valuable suggestions4 ,it set educators to thinking1 and has been a powerful motor in bringing about a change in school instruction4 ,the ,elementary1 containing ,basedow's complete scheme of education1 has been called the ,orbis ,pictus of the eighteenth century4 ,the general opinion is that ,basedow obtained the root ideas of this work from ,comenius1 ,locke1 and ,rousseau4 ,there is but little that is original in his pedagogical principles1 but he made an effort to carry out the progressive teachings which had entered into the theories of advanced thinkers but had not been worked into practice4 ,still1 the problem of education became through ,basedow better understood1 and he is deserving of a place among the great educators of the world for his experiment at ,dessau toward the solution of that problem4 ,the experiment was crude1 but it has borne fruit in modern schools and their methods1 in better school buildings and apparatus1 in trained teachers1 in milder forms of discipline1 in the improved study of nature1 and in a broader and more philanthropic view of man's duty to his fellow-man4 ,jacotot 7#aggj-ahdj74--,perhaps the most famous of the ,french educators and writers of this period was ,jacotot1 for a time professor of languages and mathematics at ,paris1 and later professor of the ,french language and literature at ,loewen4 ,his principal educational work is entitled ,universal ,instruction4 ,jacotot is best known for his paradoxes1 two of the most famous of which are1 ,everything is in ,everything1 and ,all men have equal intelligence4 ,but his method rather than his paradoxical statements has proved his greatest contribution to educational progress4 ,his method consisted in the selection of fundamental examples or types1 having the pupils commit them to memory1 repeating this work daily1 amplifying it1 deriving the rules or principles in relation to it1 until the mastery in all directions is complete4 ,thus in studying ,latin a page of ,caesar might be taken and drilled upon until the style1 rules of grammar1 and meaning of the passage are mastered2 in mathematics the fundamental rules1--the ,pythagorean theorem must be repeated daily2 in geography begin with a map and master all its details4 ,gain a complete understanding of one subject before taking up another4 ,his method attracted much attention4 ,,footnotes3 #abh ,special ,references1 ,williams1 ,history of ,modern ,education2 ,quick1 ,educational ,reformers1 pp4 #add1 #bhh2 ,lang1 ,basedow 7,teachers' ,manuals1 ,no4 #af74 #abi ,lang1 ,basedow1 p4 #f4 #acj ,educational ,reformers1 p4 #aej4 #aca ,educational ,reformers1 p4 #aea4 #acb ,kant1 ,ueber ,paedagogik4 ,,chapter ,,xxxviii ,,modern ,,educators 7,continued7 ,,pestalozzi 7#agdf-ahbg7 ,literature4--,de ,guimps1 ,pestalozzi1 his ,life and ,works2 ,kruesi1 ,life1 ,work1 and ,influence of ,pestalozzi2 ,quick1 ,educational ,reformers2 ,von ,raumer1 ,life and ,system of ,pestalozzi2 ,durrell1 ,new ,life in ,education2 ,gill1 ,systems of ,education2 ,skinner1 ,the ,schoolmaster in ,literature2 ,barnard1 ,pestalozzi and ,pestalozzianism2 ,vogel1 ,geschichte des deutschen ,volksschulwesens2 ,rein1 ,encyklopaedisches ,handbuch der ,paedagogik4 ,johann ,heinrich ,pestalozzi was born in ,zurich1 ,switzerland1 ,january #ab1 #agdf4 ,his father was a physician of great intelligence1 and his death before the boy reached his sixth year deprived the latter of a wise counselor4 ,the character of the mother is shown by the dying appeal of ,pestalozzi's father to his servant ,baebeli3 ,for ,god's sake and in the name of mercy do not forsake my wife4 ,when ,i am dead she will be helpless1 and my children will fall into the hands of strangers4 ,baebeli replied1 ,i will never leave your wife1 if it should please ,god to take you hence4 ,i will remain with her till death1 if she wishes me to do so1 a promise which she faithfully kept4 ,kruesi thinks that1 ,the sacrifices of a mother for her children do not show more nobility of soul than was displayed by this poor1 uneducated girl1 who gave up all her worldly interest for a family not her own4 ,who can say that ,pestalozzi himself was not inspired to his long life of devotion to the interests of the lowly by the unselfish consecration of this lowly woman to his family8 ,pestalozzi did not care for companions of his own age4 ,he was peculiarly a mother's boy1 content to grow up dreamy and impractical at her quiet hearthstone4 ,consequently he was awkward and reserved1 easily imposed upon1 and lacking in self-reliance4 ,these qualities remained with him as long as he lived1 and caused him many painful failures4 ,on the other hand1 the pious example of his mother and the tranquil life he led with her made the boy reflective and imaginative1 while his soul became filled with great thoughts for the well-being of mankind4 ,his grandfather1 a country pastor1 whom he often visited1 by his simple1 godly life exerted a great influence in shaping ,pestalozzi's religious character4 ,schooling4--,at school he was the butt of ridicule among the scholars because of his awkwardness1 his simplicity1 and his ingenuousness4 ,his comrades dubbed him ,harry ,oddity of ,follyville1 a nickname that carried no reproach with it1 but was intended to express good-natured appreciation of his characteristics4 ,mr4 ,quick tells us that his good nature and obliging disposition gained him many friends4 ,no doubt his friends profited from his willingness to do anything for them4 ,we find that when1 on the shock of an earthquake1 teachers and scholars alike rushed out of the schoolhouse1 ,harry ,oddity was the boy sent back to fetch out caps and books4 ,while not brilliant as a scholar1 he was by no means dull4 ,he was more ready in grasping the content than the form of the subject4 ,consequently all through life he never overcame his weakness in some of the commonest requirements of education4#acc ,life ,purpose4--,after completing the work of the elementary schools1 he entered the university of ,zurich1 where he sustained himself with credit4 ,even while yet a boy he joined a league of students which was intended to resist injustice4 ,of himself and his fellow-students1 he says1 ,we decided to live for nothing but independence1 well-doing1 and sacrifice for love of country4 ,speaking of society as he saw it1 he says1 ,i saw the unfortunate condition of all mankind1 especially of my own countrymen1 in all its hollowness4 ,i saw indulgence despoiling the highest moral1 spiritual1 and civil interests1 and sapping the lifeblood of our race as never before in the history of ,europe4 ,i saw finally the people of our nation steeped in poverty1 misery1 and universal want4 ,from youth up the purpose of my life has been to secure to the poor of my country a happier fate by improving and simplifying their educational privileges4 ,but the only sure foundation upon which we may hope to secure national culture and elevate the poor is that of the home where the love of father and mother is the ruling principle4 ,through the unselfishness1 truth1 strength1 and purity of their love1 parents kindle faith in their children4 ,this leads to that implicit obedience which is based on confidence and love4 ,love for humanity1 desire to ameliorate suffering1 and thorough unselfishness furnished the key to ,pestalozzi's purpose and lifework4 ,the ,christian ,ministry4--,it was this lofty purpose that led him first to attempt the work of the ,christian ministry1 a work which his aged grandfather encouraged4 ,but he failed in his first sermon1 and at once decided that he had mistaken his calling4 ,kruesi#acd says that he stopped short in his sermon and made mistakes in the ,lord's ,prayer4 ,this may have been due to embarrassment1 which made the young minister forget the sermon which he had been obliged to commit to memory4 ,more likely1 however1 it was an exalted idea of the proper qualifications of a clergyman1 compared with his own humble merits1 which induced him to exchange the study of theology for that of law4 ,the ,law4--,his motive in devoting himself to law was the same that had led him to the ministry1--his desire to be a blessing to his fellow-beings4 ,he saw the peasantry cheated and imposed upon because of their ignorance1 and determined to become their champion4 ,kruesi thinks that his study of the law must have produced negative results by showing him the insufficiency of human legislation to do away with abuses1 unless supported by principles of charity and justice4 ,he therefore gave up this enterprise also4 ,farming4--,the advice of a dying friend1 ,bluntschli1 ,never embark in any operation which might become dangerous to your peace of mind1 because of the simplicity and tenderness of your disposition1 may have had its effect upon ,pestalozzi4 ,he now entered upon his third venture4 ,having induced a wealthy firm in ,zurich to advance him money1 he bought about one hundred acres of unimproved land in the canton of ,aargau1 where he proposed to raise madder as a means of profit4 ,once more his real purpose was philanthropic1 as he intended to show the poor peasants improved methods of farming whereby they could obtain better results for their labor and thereby be enabled to live more comfortably4 ,he named the place ,neuhof4 ,marriage4--,at this time he had just passed his twenty-first year4 ,we pause to mention an event that had much to do with his happiness and with his later life4 ,he had made the acquaintance of ,anna ,schulthess1 a young lady of considerable means1 and sought her hand in marriage4 ,his letter to her1 proposing marriage1 is remarkable for its frankness1 for the ingenuous confession of his own weaknesses1 and for its correct estimate of himself4 ,a few quotations from this letter must suffice4#ace ,my failings1 which appear to me the most important in relation to the future1 are improvidence1 want of caution1 and want of that presence of mind which is necessary to meet unexpected changes in my future prospects4 ,i hope1 by continued exertions1 to overcome them2 but know that ,i still possess them to a degree that does not allow me to conceal them from the maiden ,i love4444 ,i am further bound to confess that ,i shall place the duties toward my fatherland in advance of those to my wife1 and that1 although ,i mean to be a tender husband1 ,i shall be inexorable even to the tears of my wife1 if they should ever try to detain me from performing my duties as a citizen1 to their fullest extent4 ,my wife shall be the confidant of my heart1 the partner of all my most secret counsel4 ,a great and holy simplicity shall reign in my house4444 ,my dear friend1 ,i love you so tenderly and fervently that this confession has cost me much1 since it may even take from me the hope of winning you4 ,anna was not discouraged by the picture which the man she loved drew of himself1 and she consented to become his wife4 ,they were married in his twenty-fourth year1 and thus began a long period of happy wedded life that extended over fifty years4 ,quick tells us that the forebodings of the letter were amply realized1 444 and yet we may well believe that ,madame ,pestalozzi never repented of her choice4 ,neuhof4--,but to return to ,pestalozzi's experiment in farming1 matters had not progressed well4 ,the ,zurich capitalists became suspicious1 and after an investigation decided to withdraw their support1 thus precipitating failure4 ,of this ,pestalozzi himself says1 ,the cause of the failure of my undertaking lay essentially and exclusively in myself1 and in my pronounced incapacity for every kind of undertaking which requires practical ability4 ,one cannot fail to admire the energy and courage of the man1 who1 conscious of his own weakness1 still persevered in great enterprises until he achieved success4 ,it was not for himself1 but for humanity1 that ,pestalozzi labored1 and no discouragement could daunt1 no failure defeat1 no lack of appreciation or misunderstanding check1 the ardor of his zeal for the great work that absorbed his life4 ,around him were men and women in poverty and misery1 whose children were growing up in vice and ignorance1 to perpetuate the evils under which their parents suffered4 ,with the spirit of his divine ,master1 ,pestalozzi sought to elevate and bless those around him4 ,accordingly1 after the failure caused by the withdrawal of the financial support heretofore mentioned1 he started again at ,neuhof1 using his wife's money4 ,he opened an industrial school for the poor1 which ,kruesi calls the first school of its kind ever conceived1 and the mother of hundreds now existing on both sides of the ,atlantic4 ,this was in #agge4 ,he gathered fifty children together1 and fed1 clothed1 housed1 and taught them without compensation2 in return for this they were to work in the fields in summer and at spinning in the winter4 ,but this experiment also was doomed to bring disappointment4 ,the children were lazy1 shiftless1 and dishonest2 their work was of little use to ,pestalozzi1 because of their lack of skill and their bad habits4 ,they would often run away as soon as they were well fed and had a new suit of clothes4 ,parents were unappreciative and dissatisfied1 demanding pay for the labor of their children4 ,was there ever a more discouraging situation than this which ,pestalozzi had to confront1 when people demanded pay for accepting the philanthropic and unselfish measures taken for the good of their children and for their own elevation8 ,this could not continue long1 and in #aghj ,pestalozzi was obliged to close his school4 ,he found himself badly in debt1 with his wife's property gone4 ,but even under these overwhelming misfortunes he says1 ,my failure showed me the truth of my plans1 and this has long since been verified1 both in his ideas of farming and in the industrial school4 ,authorship4--,the next eighteen years1 though passed by ,pestalozzi in extreme poverty1 were not unfruitful4 ,he began to write pamphlets and books1 the first book being1 ,the ,evening ,hours of a ,hermit1 which appeared in #aghj4 ,his second book1 ,leonard and ,gertrude1#acf was published the year following4 ,it created great interest and brought ,pestalozzi immediate fame4 ,the government of ,berne presented him a gold medal1 which1 however1 he was obliged to sell to procure the necessities of life for his family4 ,in ,leonard and ,gertrude ,pestalozzi gives a homely and touching picture of life among the lowly1 and shows how a good woman uses her opportunities for uplifting and educating1 first her own family1 and then her neighbors4 ,in this work she is aided by the village schoolmaster and the magistrate1 who are inspired by her example and leadership4 ,pestalozzi wrote several other books during this period1 but none to equal ,leonard and ,gertrude4 ,stanz4--,in the meantime1 the ,french ,revolution broke out1 and ,pestalozzi1 influenced by the writings of ,rousseau1 became an ardent champion of the new order of things4 ,he seems to have acquired considerable political influence1 as the ,directors of the ,government of ,switzerland thought it necessary to win him to their cause by giving him a political office4 ,they therefore asked him what office he wanted1 and he replied1 ,i want to be a schoolmaster4 ,accordingly1 when the ,french had pillaged the inhabitants and burned their homes1 ,pestalozzi was sent to ,stanz1--the only village left in the canton of ,nidwalden1--to establish a school4#acg ,now for the first time he found himself in the calling for which his whole nature had yearned1 for which he was peculiarly suited1 and in which he was destined to become famous4 ,at the age of fifty-three ,pestalozzi began his work at ,stanz4 ,the government gave him an empty convent in which to hold his school1 and1 before it was ready for occupancy1 children flocked to it for admission4 ,the devastation of the land by the ,french and the consequent lack of the necessities of life among the people increased the difficulties of ,pestalozzi's task4 ,his own description of the beginning of his work is full of eloquence4 ,speaking of the school1 he says1 ,i was among them from morning till evening4 ,everything tending to benefit body and soul ,i administered with my own hand4 ,every assistance1 every lesson they received1 came from me4 ,my hand was joined to theirs1 and my smile accompanied theirs4 ,they seemed out of the world and away from ,stanz2 they were with me and ,i with them4 ,we shared food and drink4 ,i had no household1 no friends1 no servants around me2 ,i had only them4 ,was their health good1 ,i enjoyed it with them2 were they sick1 ,i stood at their side4 ,i slept in their midst4 ,i was the last to go to bed and the first to rise4 ,i prayed with them1 and taught them in bed till they fell asleep4 ,how true is the saying that1 ,he lived with beggars in order that beggars might learn to live like men4 ,thus living with them1 teaching them1 inspiring them to be good1 devoting his whole thought to their welfare1 ,pestalozzi1 who was described as either a good-natured fool1 or a poor devil1 who was compelled1 by indigence1 to perform the menial office of schoolmaster1 began a work that has revolutionized educational method4 ,but the same discouragements that had met him at ,neuhof attended him at ,stanz4 ,parents brought their children to the asylum only to be clothed1 and then removed them upon the slightest pretexts4 ,nevertheless1 the work of ,pestalozzi at ,stanz was not a failure1 though the school was rendered houseless by the ,french soldiers in #agii1 and had to be abandoned after less than five months' existence4 ,kruesi comments upon this period of ,pestalozzi's life as follows3 ,let those who now witness the mighty changes that have taken place in education pay grateful tribute to the man who first took up arms against the hollow systems of the old school routine1 and who showed the path to those delightful regions of thought1 in whose well-tilled soil rich harvests will ever be reaped by the patient laborer4 ,to the philanthropist and friend of education1 ,stanz will always be a hallowed spot1 exhibiting1 as it does1 the picture of this venerable teacher sitting among the outcast children1 animated by the very spirit of ,christ1 and by a great idea which not only filled his own soul1 but also inspired those who witnessed his labors4#ach ,burgdorf4--,but ,stanz proved the turning point in ,pestalozzi's career4 ,he was soon chosen assistant teacher at ,burgdorf4 ,his experience at ,stanz1 without books and without appliances1 had compelled him to invent methods of interesting the children4 ,he was thus brought to the use of objects1 and here we have the beginning of practical object teaching4 ,it was not long1 however1 before the head master of the school became jealous of him because he secured the attention and affection of the pupils1 and ,pestalozzi's dismissal was obtained on the ground that he did not know how to read and spell correctly1 a charge which1 as we have seen1 was without doubt true4 ,as to his method of teaching1 ,ramsauer1 one of his pupils1 tells us that there was no regular plan1 not any time-table4444 ,as ,pestalozzi1 in his zeal1 did not tie himself to any particular time1 we generally went on until eleven o'clock with whatever we commenced at eight1 and by ten o'clock he was always tired and hoarse4 ,we knew when it was eleven by the noise of the other school children in the street1 and then we usually all ran out without bidding good-by4 ,certainly no one will commend such schoolroom practice1 and at first glance ,pestalozzi would seem to merit only censure2 but his enthusiasm1 his zeal for the good of his fellow-beings1 and his consciousness of possessing the truth triumphed over his lack of system as well as over other obstacles4 ,the school committee of ,burgdorf appreciated this1 as is shown by their report4 ,he 7,pestalozzi7 has shown what powers are hidden in the feeble child1 and in what manner they can be developed4 ,the pupils have made astonishing progress in some branches1 thereby proving that every child is capable of doing something if the teacher is able to draw out his talent1 and awaken the powers of his mind in the order of their natural development4 ,upon his dismissal from this position he united with ,hermann ,kruesi in founding a private school4 ,pupils increased in numbers1 and at last ,pestalozzi was on the road to success as well as fame4 ,he gathered a strong corps of teachers about him1 who not only contributed to the success of the institution1 but sat at the feet of their recognized master1 and loyally supported his measures4 ,during his life at ,burgdorf1 he issued his work entitled ,how ,gertrude teaches her ,children 7#ahja71 in which he attempts to give his system of education4 ,a work1 says ,professor ,hunziker1#aci whose contents in no way meet the demands of the subtitle4 7,the full title is1 ,how ,gertrude teaches her ,children2 an ,attempt to direct ,mothers how to teach their own ,children47 ,yverdon4--,in #ahjd ,pestalozzi was obliged to vacate his quarters at ,burgdorf1 and after some hesitation he moved his school to ,yverdon1 into an old fortress1 which1 says ,kruesi1 having stood many a siege of invading armies1 was now captured by a schoolmaster2 and it was henceforth to become more formidable in its attack upon ignorance1 than it had before been in its defense of liberty4 ,at ,yverdon ,pestalozzi was enabled to carry out the principles of education which he had so long held1 and this place must be recognized as the ,mecca of ,pestalozzianism4 ,his success at ,burgdorf had drawn to him the attention of the world1 and now educators1 philosophers1 and princes began to study his theories1 while many visited the institution to witness its peculiar workings4 ,without doubt the many visitors seriously disturbed the work1 as ,pestalozzi took great pains to show what his pupils could do1 especially when men of influence came4 ,during the first five years there was great prosperity1 the number of students reaching one hundred and fifty4 ,pestalozzi usually arose at two in the morning1 and commenced literary work2 and his example was followed by his teachers1 one of whom testifies1 ,there were years in which not one of us was found in bed after three o'clock1 and summer and winter we worked from three to six in the morning4#adj ,at first the teachers were thoroughly united1 cordially carrying out the teachings of ,father ,pestalozzi4 ,but after a time private ambitions and personal jealousies crept in and destroyed harmony4 ,many of the best teachers left and the school was closed4#ada ,in #ahbe1 after an existence of twenty years1 the institute at ,yverdon was abandoned1 and once more ,pestalozzi saw the apparent failure of his hopes4 ,he died two years later1 at the age of eighty-one4 ,mr4 ,quick comments upon this event as follows3 ,thus the sun went down in clouds1 and the old man1 when he died at the age of eighty1#adb in #ahbi1adc had seen the apparent failure of all his toils4 ,he had not1 however1 failed in reality4 ,it has been said of him that his true function was to educate ideas1 not children1 and when twenty years later the centenary of his birth was celebrated by schoolmasters1 not only in his native country1 but throughout ,germany1 it was found that ,pestalozzian ideas had been sown1 and were bearing fruit1 over the greater part of central ,europe4#add ,professor ,hunziker says of ,pestalozzi's influence1 ,eighty years have passed since ,pestalozzi was laid in the grave4 ,the social thinker1 who pointed out the way of reform for humanity in his ',leonard and ,gertrude1' who attempted to solve the enigmas and inequalities of social life in his ',inquiries concerning the ,course of ,nature in the ,development of ,mankind1' is almost forgotten4 ,but the name of ,pestalozzi shines brighter than ever in the field of pedagogics4 ,in every branch of education we hear the warning cry1 return to ,pestalozzi6 ,let the watchword for the future be3 ,pestalozzi forever6#ade ,summary of ,pestalozzi's ,work4--,no one can study the history of ,pestalozzi without discovering the secret of his educational purpose4 ,it is revealed in every enterprise he undertook1 in every book he wrote1 in his whole lifework4#adf ,let us briefly sum up the work he accomplished3-- #a4 ,he showed how the theories of ,comenius and ,rousseau could be applied4 ,by this a decided impulse was given to educational reform1 and the way was prepared for the wonderful educational revival of the present century4 #b4 ,his greatest pedagogical principle is that education consists in the harmonious development of all the human powers4 #c4 ,development should follow the order of nature4 ,while he doubtless borrowed this thought from ,rousseau1 unlike ,rousseau he held that the order of nature requires the child to be taught with other children4 #d4 ,all knowledge is obtained through the senses by the self-activity of the child4 #e4 ,instruction should be based on observation1 especially with young children4 ,hence objects must be freely used4 ,there are three classes of object lessons1--those applying to form1 to number1 and to speech4 ,mr4 ,quick says1 ,by his object lessons ,pestalozzi aimed at1--7#a7 enlarging gradually the sphere of the child's intuition1 that is1 increasing the number of objects falling under his immediate perception2 7#b7 impressing upon him those perceptions of which he had become conscious1 with certainty1 clearness1 and precision2 7#c7 imparting to him a comprehensive knowledge of language for the expression of whatever had become or was becoming an object of his consciousness1 in consequence either of the spontaneous impulse of his own nature1 or of the assistance of tuition4 #f4 ,the mother is the natural educator of the child in its early years4 ,maternal love is the first agent in education2 444 through it the child is led to love and trust his ,creator and his ,redeemer4 ,it follows1 therefore1 that mothers should be educated4 #g4 ,he illustrated his principles in his methods of instruction4 ,he employed the phonic method in spelling2#adg made use of objects in teaching number2 graded the work according to the capacity of the children2 taught drawing1 language1 composition1 etc41 by use1 thus illustrating one of the aphorisms of ,comenius1--,we learn to do by doing4 #h4 ,but the greatest lesson that ,pestalozzi taught is embodied in the word love4 ,he loved little children1 he loved the distressed and lowly1 he loved all his fellow-men4 ,by the spirit which actuated him1 by the methods of instruction employed1 by a life of disappointment and apparent failure1 by the appreciation of his service after he had gone to his rest1 by the accelerated growth of his teachings throughout the world1 he more closely resembles the ,great ,teacher than any other man that has ever lived4 ,dr4 ,harris says1 ,he is the first teacher to announce convincingly the doctrine that all people should be educated1--that1 in fact1 education is the one good gift to give to all1 whether rich or poor4#adh ,hence there is no character in educational history more worthy of study and more inspiring to the teacher than ,johann ,heinrich ,pestalozzi4 ,,footnotes3 #acc ,in regard to the criticisms made against him at ,burgdorf1 ,pestalozzi says3 ,it was whispered that ,i myself could not write1 nor work accounts1 nor even read properly4 ,popular reports are not always entirely wrong4 ,it is true ,i could not write1 nor read1 nor work accounts well4 #acd ,life1 ,work1 and ,influence of ,pestalozzi1 p4 #ag4 #ace ,both ,quick and ,kruesi give this letter in full4 #acf ,schoolmaster in ,literature1 pp4 #hc-aaj4 #acg ,see ,kruesi1 p4 #bh1 for an account of his appointment4 #ach ,pestalozzi1 p4 #cf4 #aci ,encyklopaedisches ,handbuch der ,paedagogik1 ,vol4 ,v1 p4 #cae4 #adj ,encyklopaedisches ,handbuch1 ,vol4 ,v1 p4 #cai4 #ada ,kruesi1 whose father was associated with ,pestalozzi1 gives a full account of these dissensions4 ,he also tells many interesting incidents connected with ,pestalozzi and his school at ,yverdon1 p4 #de4 #adb ,should be eighty-one4 #adc #ahbg4 #add ,educational ,reformers1 p4 #ahc4 #ade ,encyklopaedisches ,handbuch1 ,vol4 ,v1 p4 #cbj4 #adf ,in him the most interesting thing is his life4--,,quick4 #adg ,not original with ,pestalozzi1--see ,port ,royalists4 #adh ,for statement of his principles1 see ,compayre1 p4 #dch2 ,williams1 p4 #cab2 ,kruesi1 p4 #afi4 ,,chapter ,,xxxix ,,modern ,,educators 7,continued7 ,,froebel 7#aghb-aheb7 ,literature4--,lange1 ,collected ,writings of ,f4 ,froebel2 ,kriege1 ,friedrich ,froebel2 ,bowen1 ,froebel and ,education by ,self-activity2 ,herford1 ,the ,student's ,froebel2 ,froebel1 ,education of ,man2 ,quick1 ,educational ,reformers2 ,munroe1 ,educational ,ideal2 ,williams1 ,history of ,modern ,education2 ,marenholtz-,buelow1 ,reminiscences of ,f4 ,froebel2 ,rein1 ,encyklopaedisches ,handbuch der ,paedagogik4 ,friedrich ,wilhelm ,august ,froebel was born at ,oberweisbach1 a village in the beautiful ,thueringian ,forest of ,germany4 ,the first ten years of his life were spent at home under the instruction of his father1 who was a ,lutheran clergyman and had six villages under his pastorate4 ,the many cares of his office prevented the pastor from giving his son much attention1 and as the stepmother neither understood the boy1 nor took much interest in him1 he spent most of his time in the woods1 with birds and flowers as his companions1 and received far less rudimentary training than most boys of his age4 ,but at the age of ten an important change took place in his life4 ,he went to live with his mother's brother1 who sent him to school for four years4 ,here he was taught the elementary branches and a little ,latin4 ,he tells us of the profound impression made upon him the first day of school by the text of ,scripture that the children repeated4 ,it was1 ,seek ye first the kingdom of ,god4 ,he says1 ,the verse made an impression on me like nothing before or since4 ,indeed1 this impression was so lively and deep1 that to-day every word lives fresh in my memory with the peculiar accent with which it was spoken2 and yet since that time nearly forty years have elapsed4 ,his progress in the school does not seem to have been very great4 ,at fourteen he returned to his father's home1 and soon thereafter was apprenticed to a forester4 ,here he was entirely in his element1 and he tells of four aspects of this life3 ,the homelier and more practical life2 the life spent with nature1 especially forest nature2 the life of study1 devoted to mathematics and languages1 for which he found a good supply of books ready to hand2 and the time spent in gaining a knowledge of plants1 in which he was much helped by books on botany lent him by a neighboring doctor4#adi ,but he obtained little help from the forester1 so at the end of three years ,froebel withdrew1 and soon thereafter entered the university of ,jena4 ,he seems to have studied hard during the year and a half he spent at ,jena1 but to have accomplished little4 ,he became involved in debt1 and was imprisoned for nine weeks in the university ,carcer4#aej ,after his liberation1 he left the university4 ,as ,teacher4--,meeting with little success in various enterprises in which he engaged1 he at last drifted to ,frankfurt-am-,main1 where he made the acquaintance of ,dr4 ,gruner1 head master of the ,model ,school4 ,dr4 ,gruner quickly discovered ,froebel's talent1 and urged him to accept a position under him as teacher4 ,froebel reluctantly consented1 but in speaking later of his first experience in the schoolroom1 he says1 ,it seemed as if ,i had found something ,i had never known1 but always longed for1 always missed2 as if my life had at last discovered its native element4 ,i felt as happy as the fish in the water1 the bird in the air4 ,although ,froebel succeeded at once in his new profession1 thereby justifying ,dr4 ,gruner's opinion of him1 he felt that he needed special preparation for the work of teaching4 ,accordingly1 in #ahjh1 after two years' experience in teaching1 having in the meantime visited ,pestalozzi at ,yverdon1 and having read his works1 he gave up his position and joined the institute at ,yverdon4 ,he took with him three of his pupils to tutor1 and it thus happened1 he tells us1 that ,i was there both as teacher and scholar1 educator and pupil4 ,froebel spent two years at ,yverdon1 and his testimony concerning ,pestalozzi is interesting4 ,he says1 ,he set one's soul on fire for a higher and nobler life1 though he had not made clear or sure the exact road toward it1 nor indicated the means whereby to attain it4 ,this sums up in a word the secret and extent of ,pestalozzi's power4 ,dittes thinks that the origin of the kindergarten is due to the pedagogical revival of ,pestalozzi4 ,froebel himself1 speaking of his experience at ,yverdon1 says1 ,i studied the boys' play1 the whole series of games in the open air1 and learned to recognize their mighty power to awaken and to strengthen the intelligence and the soul as well as the body4 ,here we find the first suggestion of the kindergarten1 which has made ,froebel famous4 ,after leaving ,yverdon1 ,froebel spent about two years at the universities of ,goettingen and ,berlin in furthering his preparation for educational reform1 to which he had devoted himself4 ,in #ahac war for ,german liberty broke out1 and ,froebel1 with many other students1 enlisted4 ,it is not the purpose here to follow his fortunes as a soldier1 but while in the army he made the acquaintance of two young men who afterward became associated with him in educational enterprise1--,wilhelm ,middendorff and ,heinrich ,langethal4 ,his ,first ,school4--,in #ahaf ,froebel opened his first school at ,griesheim1 under the high-sounding title of ,universal ,german ,educational ,institute4 ,at first he had his five nephews as his only pupils4 ,soon after1 the school was removed to ,keilhau1 near ,rudolstadt1 in the ,thueringian ,forest4 ,here he was joined by his old friends ,middendorff and ,langethal4 ,this institution continued for a number of years with some success1 until #ahcc1 when ,froebel removed to ,burgdorf1 ,switzerland4 ,the ,prussian government1 far from giving encouragement to the institution at ,keilhau1 had regarded it with suspicion4 ,a commission was sent by the government to examine the institution1 and although the report was highly complimentary to ,froebel's work1#aea the persecution did not cease4 ,in #ahea the government prohibited kindergartens1 as forming a part of the ,froebelian socialistic system1 the aim of which is to teach children atheism2 and this decree was in force till #ahfj6 ,indeed1 to this day1 ,prussia does not regard the kindergarten as an educational institution1 nor does she give aid to it as such4 ,the kindergarten is officially recognized as a sort of day nursery1 its teachers are not licensed1--hence have no official standing1--and everything that pertains to the work of the elementary schools1 every specific preparation for the work of the latter1 must be strictly excluded1 and these schools can in no way be allowed to take the character of institutions of learning4 ,especially can neither reading nor arithmetic be allowed a place in them4#aeb ,but ,froebel received more encouragement in ,switzerland4 ,he admitted children from four to six years of age1 and organized a teachers' class to study his theories4 ,although ,froebel did not remain long in ,switzerland1 that land proved congenial to his ideas1 and the kindergarten has flourished there from his time to the present4 ,great credit is due to this country1 which extended its hospitality to the two great educational modern reformers1 ,pestalozzi and ,froebel6 ,the ,kindergarten4--,mr4 ,herford says of ,froebel's institution at ,burgdorf1 that1 ,here we recognize the rise of the kindergarten1 not yet so named4#aec ,the name came to ,froebel a few years later as an inspiration4 ,he had returned to ,keilhau and opened a school in the neighboring town of ,blankenburg4 ,for a long time he had been pondering over a suitable name for the new institution4 ,while taking a walk one day with ,middendorff and ,barof to ,blankenburg over the ,steiger ,pass1 ,froebel kept repeating1 ',oh1 if ,i could only think of a good name for my youngest born6' ,blankenburg lay at our feet1 and he walked moodily toward it4 ,suddenly he stood still as if riveted to the spot1 and his eyes grew wonderfully bright4 ,then he shouted to the mountain so that it echoed to the four winds1 ',eureka6 ,kindergarten shall the institute be called6' ,but1 like ,pestalozzi1 ,froebel was wholly incapable of financial management1 and the institution at ,blankendorf had to be closed4 ,he devoted the remainder of his life to lecturing upon his theories in different parts of ,germany4 ,he appealed to mothers1 and endeavored to instruct them in the duty of training young children4 ,he taught that the mother is the natural teacher of the child1 and that it is her duty to fit herself for the sacred responsibility that ,god has placed upon her4 ,froebel's greatest discovery was that education comes only through self-activity1 though he never clearly formulated his discovery4 ,the ,baroness ,bertha von ,marenholtz-,buelow has published one of the best accounts of his life and work4#aed ,the ,education of ,man4--,froebel gives his philosophy of education in his ,education of ,man1 but his most popular work is ,songs for ,mother and ,nursery4 ,his chief contribution to the work of educational reform is the kindergarten1 an institution that has been ingrafted upon the school systems of many lands1 and that is destined to become ever increasingly potent for good4 ,in no country in the world has the kindergarten taken so strong a hold and made so great progress as in ,america4 ,the purpose of the kindergarten1 according to ,froebel himself1 is1 to take the oversight of children before they are ready for school life2 to exert an influence over their whole being in correspondence with its nature2 to strengthen their bodily powers2 to exercise their senses2 to employ the awakening mind2 to make them thoughtfully acquainted with the world of nature and of man2 to guide their heart and soul in the right direction1 and to lead them to the ,origin of all life1 and to unison with ,him4 ,,footnotes3 #adi ,bowen1 ,froebel1 p4 #aa4 #aej ,for a part of this debt ,froebel's brother1 also a student1 was responsible4 ,the amount of the debt was less than twenty-five dollars4 #aea ,the sole recommendation of the commission that might be interpreted as a criticism was that the boys should have their hair cut6 ,see ,bowen's ,froebel1 p4 #bf1 for the full report of the visiting commission4 #aeb ,rescript from the ,prussian ,minister of ,education1 ,april #g1 #ahhd4 #aec ,the ,student's ,froebel1 ,,xv4 #aed ,handbuch der ,froebelischen ,erziehungslehre1 ,reminiscences of ,friedrich ,froebel1 ,child and ,child-nature4 ,,chapter ,,xl ,,modern ,,educators 7,continued7 ,,herbart 7#aggf-ahda7 ,literature4--,de ,garmo1 ,herbart and the ,herbartians2 ,felkin1 ,introduction to ,herbart2 ,van ,liew1 ,life of ,herbart and ,development of his ,pedagogical ,doctrines2 ,yearbooks of the ,herbart ,society2 ,lange1 ,apperception2 ,rein1 ,outlines of ,pedagogics2 also1 ,encyklopaedisches ,handbuch der ,paedagogik2 ,willmann1 ,herbart's paedagogische ,schriften4 ,it is probable that no system of pedagogy is attracting so much attention and awakening so much interest at the present time as that of ,herbart4 ,professor ,rein says1 ,he who nowadays will aspire to the highest pedagogical knowledge1 cannot neglect to make a thorough study of ,herbart's pedagogy4 ,johann ,friedrich ,herbart was born at ,oldenburg1 ,may #d1 #aggf4 ,his grandfather was rector of the ,gymnasium at ,oldenburg for thirty-four years2 his father was a high official under the government2 but his mother seems to have wielded the most influence over him4 ,she watched over his studies with greatest care1 and1 indeed1 studied ,greek herself to spur him on4 ,though gentle and mild1 she was firm in discipline4 ,the father was satisfied to leave the direction of the education of his son to her4 ,there was1 however1 little sympathy between the father and mother1 and there were frequent family dissensions1 that must have had a bad influence on the lad4 ,these disagreements finally led to a separation4 ,a tutor employed for ,herbart at this period developed in him a speculative tendency and taught him the power of forcible expression4 ,herbart learned to play on several musical instruments1 and at the age of eleven displayed considerable talent as a pianist4 ,when twelve years of age he entered the ,gymnasium at ,oldenburg1 and six years later completed the course4 ,he entered the university of ,jena in #agid and became a student of ,fichte1 who was sure to inspire a young man of ,herbart's philosophical bent4 ,his attention seems to have been directed to educational questions1 though he had not yet decided to be a teacher4#aee ,as ,teacher4--,after three years at ,jena1 ,herbart became tutor 7,hauslehrer7 in the family of ,herr von ,steiger1 governor of ,interlaken4 ,this was his only experience in teaching children4 ,herbart's experience as a teacher1 says ,de ,garmo1 would seem too small a thing to mention--some two or three years in a private family in ,switzerland with three children aged respectively eight1 twelve1 and fourteen4 ,yet to a man who can see an oak tree in an acorn1 who can understand all minds from the study of a few1 such an experience may be most fruitful4 ,it is certain that ,herbart often drew upon this experience in his later writings4 ,while in ,switzerland he visited ,pestalozzi1 with whom he was deeply impressed4 ,opinions differ as to the harmony of theory between ,pestalozzi and ,herbart4 ,professor ,rein thinks that1 ,in the ideas of ,pestalozzi are found the outlines of ,herbart's pedagogical structure4 ,having decided to devote himself to academic teaching1 he gave up his position in ,switzerland and went to ,bremen for further study4 ,during the two years spent there1 he wrote several essays on educational subjects1 but gave his chief attention to the study of ,greek and mathematics4 ,as ,professor4--,in #ahjb he took the first step in his academic career as ,privat ,docent at the university of ,goettingen4 ,this with him was a period of great literary activity4#aef ,in #ahji1 he was called to the chair of philosophy at ,koenigsberg once occupied by ,kant4 ,he calls this the most renowned chair of philosophy1 the place which when a boy ,i longed for in reverential dreams1 as ,i studied the works of the sage of ,koenigsberg4#aeg ,his ,practice ,school4--,here he established a pedagogical seminary1 having a practice school in which the students instructed children under the criticism of ,herbart himself4 ,concerning his pedagogical activity at ,koenigsberg1 ,herbart says1 ,among my many duties1 the consideration of educational questions is of especial interest to me4 ,but it is not enough to theorize merely2 there must be experiment and practice4 ,furthermore1 ,i desire to extend the range of my own experience 7already covering ten years7 in this field4 ,therefore1 ,i have long had in mind to teach daily for one hour a few selected boys in the presence of such of my students as are familiar with my pedagogical theory4 ,after a little1 these students are to take up the work ,i have begun1 and give instruction under my observation4 ,in time1 in this way1 teachers would be trained1 whose method by means of reciprocal observation and discussion must be perfected4 ,as a plan of teaching is valueless without a teacher1 and indeed a teacher that is in sympathy with that plan1 and is master of the method1--so perhaps a small experimental school1 such as ,i have in mind1 would prepare the way for future greater undertakings4 ,there is a word from ,kant1 'first experimental schools and then normal schools6'#aeh ,this was the first practice school in connection with the chair of pedagogy in a university2 the idea1 however1 does not seem to have taken very deep root1 as1 with the exception of the celebrated practice school at ,jena1 under ,professor ,rein1 there is not one now in ,germany4 ,most professors of pedagogy conduct a ,seminar1 in which some practice work with children is done1 but none of them maintain a practice school4 ,literary ,activity4--,herbart's literary activity at ,koenigsberg was great4 ,he worked out his psychological system1 and wrote also on philosophy1 history1 and pedagogy4 ,but his greatest works in the latter field are his ,a ,b ,c der ,anschauung1#aei and his ,allgemeine ,paedagogik1#afj both of which appeared while he was still at ,goettingen4#afa ,in #ahcc1 after twenty-four years in ,koenigsberg1 he returned to ,goettingen1 where his lifework was completed in #ahda4 ,upon his retirement from ,koenigsberg1 the practice school was closed4 ,ten years later1 a pupil of ,herbart1 ,karl ,volkmar ,stoy1 established the practice school at ,jena1 of which mention has already been made4 ,two schools of ,herbartians exist in ,germany1 the ,stoy school1 which attempts to follow ,herbart very closely1 and the ,ziller school1 which is freer in its interpretation of him4 ,the chief exponent of the latter is ,professor ,wilhelm ,rein of ,jena1 the place which is at present the center of ,herbartian activity4 ,in ,america this movement is under the direction of the ,national ,herbart ,society4 ,his ,pedagogical ,work4--,aside from the educational movements organized by ,herbart and his followers1 the credit is due to him of being the first to elevate pedagogy to the dignity of a science4 ,professor ,rein says1 ,herbart has rendered an undisputed service in that he has elevated pedagogics to the rank of a science4 ,no one has ever repented of having become familiar with ,herbart's teachings1 for1 in any case1 he has thereby added richly to his own attainments4 ,the development of our people will be fortunate if the education of the youth shall be intrusted more and more to those who stand and work upon the lines laid down by ,comenius1 ,pestalozzi1 ,herbart4 ,the pedagogic thinking of ,herbart has indeed borne rich fruit in ,germany4 ,other peoples1 also1 have been blessed by his teachings4 ,thus ,herbart1 whose span of life did not reach to the middle of this century1 lives in the present4 ,he created the basis of a science of education1 which furnishes a safe starting point for all pedagogical theories1 and which bears in itself the most fruitful germs for future development4#afb ,modern ,herbartians have carried forward that development far beyond its original outline4 ,the terms many-sided interest1 apperception1 concentration1 culture-epochs1 the formal steps of instruction1 correlation1 and harmonious development1 are phrases that have become common in educational literature4 ,the limits of this volume do not permit a discussion of these subjects4 ,indeed1 many of them belong more properly to the disciples of ,herbart1 rather than to ,herbart himself4#afc ,herbart's ideal was that education should aim to produce well-rounded men1 fit for all the duties of life2 men well developed physically1 intellectually1 morally1 and spiritually4 ,he himself was not one-sided1 being an enthusiastic teacher as well as psychologist and philosopher4 ,,footnotes3 #aee ,professor ,rein indicates that ,herbart discussed educational questions at this period4 ,see ,encyklopaedisches ,handbuch1 ,vol4 ,,iii1 p4 #dfh4 #aef ,for list of works produced1 see ,de ,garmo's ,herbart and the ,herbartians1 p4 #ag4 #aeg ,felkin's translation of ,science of ,education1 p4 #af4 #aeh ,willmann's ,herbart1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #c4 #aei ,the ,a ,b ,c of ,observation4 #afj ,general ,pedagogy4 #afa ,the best collection of his works is that by ,willmann1 ,herbart's ,paedagogische ,schriften1 which has not been translated into ,english4 #afb ,encyklopaedisches ,handbuch der ,paedagogik1 ,vol4 ,,iii1 p4 #dhe4 #afc ,for discussion of these subjects see the ,yearbooks of the ,herbartian ,society1 and other works referred to on page #bgh4 ,for the completest list of references to ,herbartian literature1 see ,encyklopaedisches ,handbuch1 ,vol4 ,,iii1 p4 #dhe4 ,,chapter ,,xli ,,modern ,,educators 7,continued7 ,,horace ,,mann 7#agif-ahei7 ,literature4--,mrs4 ,mary ,t4 ,mann1 ,life of ,horace ,mann2 ,hinsdale1 ,horace ,mann2 ,winship1 ,horace ,mann1 the ,educator2 ,lang1 ,horace ,mann2 ,f4 ,w4 ,parker1 ,article in ,educational ,review1 ,vol4 ,,xii1 p4 #fe2 ,wm4 ,t4 ,harris1 ,educational ,review1 ,vol4 ,,xii1 p4 #aje2 ,martin1 ,education in ,massachusetts4 ,colonel ,parker says1 ,it would be difficult to find a child ten years of age in our sixty-five millions who does not know of ,abraham ,lincoln or ,george ,washington2 but the third1 at least1 in the list of the builders of the ,american republic is not known to millions of intelligent people4 ,washington and ,lincoln represent the highest types of heroism1 patriotism1 and wisdom in great crises of republic-building2 ,horace ,mann1 the quiet inner building1 the soul-development of the nation4#afd ,horace ,mann was born at ,franklin1 ,massachusetts1 ,may #d1 #agif4 ,inured to the hard work of the farm1 with but a few weeks' schooling in the winter1 never blessed with very rugged health1 left at the age of thirteen by the death of his father with the responsibilities of a man1 it is no wonder that he retained only painful recollections of the whole period which ought to be1 with every child1 a golden age to look back upon4#afe ,when nearly twenty years of age1 through the influence of ,mr4 ,barrett1 an eccentric teacher who came to the village1 he decided to go to college1 and in six months he prepared for the sophomore class of ,brown ,university4 ,this preparation was a tremendous undertaking which broke down his health for life4 ,he now had an opportunity to satisfy the cravings for knowledge1 which the hardships of his early life had not been able to stifle4 ,he was graduated with the highest honors of his class and decided to study law4 ,he spent two years at ,brown ,university as tutor1 meanwhile privately studying law1 and then resigned that position to enter the law school at ,litchfield1 ,connecticut4 ,two years later1 at the age of twenty-seven1 he was admitted to the bar4 ,as ,statesman4--,he was called upon to serve his state in the legislature1 and later as representative in ,congress4#aff ,the year #ahcg marks a new epoch in the educational history of ,massachusetts4 ,although ,massachusetts had had schools for nearly two centuries1 the free school had been1 to a great degree1 a charity school the country over4444 ,horace ,mann1 like ,thomas ,jefferson1 saw clearly that there could be no evolution of a free people without intelligence and morality1 and looked upon the common school as the fundamental means of development of men and women who could govern themselves4 ,he saw clearly that the whole problem of the republic which was presenting itself to intelligent educated men rested upon the idea of public education4#afg ,as ,educator4--,accordingly1 having secured the passage of a law establishing a ,state ,board of ,education1 ,mr4 ,mann was made its secretary at a salary of one thousand dollars a year4 ,to accept this work1 he gave up a lucrative law practice1 fine prospects of political preferment1 and probable fortune1 as well as professional fame4 ,he entered upon an educational campaign full of discouragement1 colossal in its undertaking1 and sure to arouse bitterest animosities4 ,of this period ,colonel ,parker says1 ,the story of his early struggles in this direction has not yet been written4 ,when it is1 it will reveal a profound depth of heroism rarely equaled in the history of the world4 ,mr4 ,mann visited all parts of the state1 lecturing to parents and stimulating the teachers4 ,he was often received with coldness1 sometimes with active hostility4 ,his ,annual ,reports4--,but he persevered until the whole state was awakened4 ,he continued in this work for twelve years1 and presented its results in his ,annual ,reports1 the most remarkable documents of ,american educational literature4#afh ,in the meantime1 he visited ,europe1 studied the schools1 and gave the results of his investigations in his celebrated ,seventh ,annual ,report4 ,mr4 ,martin summarizes the work of ,horace ,mann during these twelve years as follows3 ,in the evolution of the ,massachusetts public schools during these twelve years of ,mr4 ,mann's labors1 statistics tell us that the appropriations for public schools had doubled2 that more than two million dollars had been spent in providing better schoolhouses2 that the wages of men as teachers had increased sixty-two per cent1 of women fifty-one per cent1 while the whole number of women employed as teachers had increased fifty-four per cent2 one month had been added to the average length of the schools2 the ratio of private school expenditures to those of the public schools had diminished from seventy-five per cent to thirty-six per cent2 the compensation of school committees had been made compulsory1 and their supervision was more general and more constant2 three normal schools had been established1 and had sent out several hundred teachers1 who were making themselves felt in all parts of the state4#afi ,love for the ,common ,schools4--,he believed most fully in the common school1 declaring that1 ,this institution is the greatest discovery ever made by man4444 ,in two grand characteristic attributes1 it is supereminent over all others3 first in its universality1 for it is capacious enough to receive and cherish in its parental bosom every child that comes into the world2 and second1 in the timeliness of the aid it proffers1--its early1 seasonable supplies of counsel and guidance making security antedate danger4 ,in his first ,annual ,report ,mr4 ,mann asserts that1 ,the object of the common school system is to give to every child a free1 straight1 solid pathway1 by which he can walk directly up from the ignorance of an infant to a knowledge of the primary duties of man4 ,horace ,mann could hardly have anticipated the kindergarten for the infant years1 and the high school at the end of the course1 as they now stand in the common school systems of our country4 ,and yet1 what has already been accomplished in our educational scheme fulfills the prophecy implied in his words4 ,the best known and most important of ,mr4 ,mann's written documents is his ,seventh ,annual ,report1 in which he gives an account of ,european schools4 ,concerning this ,mr4 ,winship says1 ,he had made a crisis1 and his ,seventh ,report was an immortal document2 opposition to the normal schools was never more to be heard in the land1 and oral instruction1 the word method1 and less corporal punishment were certain to come to the ,boston schools4#agj ,after severing his connection with the ,state ,board of ,education1 ,mr4 ,mann served in ,congress from #ahdh to #ahec1 and was defeated in his candidacy for governor of ,massachusetts4 ,at the age of fifty-six he accepted the presidency of ,antioch ,college at ,yellow ,springs1 ,ohio1 a position which he held until his death in #ahei4 ,he closed his last address to the graduating class at ,antioch with these noble words3 ,be ashamed to die until you have won some victory for humanity4 ,he himself had won many great victories for humanity1--in the improvement of the common school systems of his native country2 in the establishment of free schools2 in the founding of normal schools where teachers might be trained2 in the adoption of milder means of discipline2 in the improvement of schoolhouses2 in the better support of schools2 in better methods of instruction2 and in the inspiration he gave to teachers for all time4 ,therefore he at least had no need to be ashamed to die4 ,,footnotes3 #afd ,educational ,review1 ,vol4 ,,xii1 p4 #fe4 #afe ,mrs4 ,mann1 ,life of ,horace ,mann1 p4 #aj4 #aff ,mr4 ,mann completed the term made vacant by the death of ,john ,quincy ,adams1 and was reelected for the two succeeding terms4 #afg ,colonel ,parker in article cited4 #afh ,for an analysis of these ,reports1 see ,dr4 ,harris's article in ,educational ,review1 ,vol4 ,,xii1 p4 #aab4 #afi ,education in ,massachusetts1 p4 #agd4 #agj ,horace ,mann1 p4 #gf4 ,,chapter ,,xlii ,,the ,,school ,,system ,,of ,,germany ,literature4--,parsons1 ,prussian ,schools through ,american ,eyes2 ,klemm1 ,european ,schools2 ,prince1 ,methods in the ,german ,schools2 ,seeley1 ,the ,german ,common ,school ,system2 ,russell1 ,german ,higher ,schools2 ,bolton1 ,secondary ,education in ,germany4 ,we have traced the historical development of education to the present time4 ,it now remains for us to examine briefly the educational systems of a few leading countries1 in order that comparisons may be made1 lessons drawn1 and the present condition of education clearly set forth4#aga ,the plan of discussion to be followed in each of the four systems considered will embrace1 #a1 ,administration2 #b1 ,school ,attendance2 #c1 the ,schools2 #d1 ,support of ,schools2 #e1 the ,teachers4 ,administration4--,each ,german state is independent in its school system1 though there are many features in common1 and there is a mutual understanding on most educational questions between the various states1 which makes their systems practically uniform4 ,the system here described is that of ,prussia1 which1 being the largest1 most populous1 and most influential of the states comprised within the ,german ,empire1 as well as the foremost in educational development1 may well be taken as a type4 ,there is a minister of education whose jurisdiction extends over the whole kingdom4 ,he represents the school interests in the ,prussian diet or ,landtag1 listens to appeals1 distributes school moneys1 and is the general educational executive officer4 ,each of the thirteen royal provinces has a school board whose presiding officer is ex officio the royal president of the province4 ,with him are associated other royal counselors1 and pedagogically trained men1--school superintendents and principals4 ,this board consists of men of highest integrity and intelligence4 ,their duties extend to the higher institutions of learning1 and to institutions for the unfortunate2 they have charge of the school finances of their provinces1 adopt the school books that are used in the higher schools1 and appoint teachers in the normal schools4 ,they report annually to the minister1 and as much more frequently as he may require4 ,the thirteen royal provinces are subdivided into the so-called governments 7,regierungen71 of which ,prussia contains thirty-six4 ,these governments have an administrative school board similar to that of the province1 with duties within their territory corresponding to those of the provincial board4 ,they come into close touch with the schools1 have a voice in the appointment of teachers and in the selection of text-books for the elementary schools4 ,their work is especially with the common schools1 while that of the provincial boards is with the higher schools4 ,the governments are subdivided into districts4 ,there is a district school board similar to that of the larger territories mentioned1 but the chief and most important school officer of the district is the school inspector4 ,the district inspector is always a man of pedagogical training and experience4 ,he is appointed for life and devotes his whole time to the schools in his district4 ,his efficient and wise inspection of the schools insures their success4 ,the district school board erects school buildings1 determines the amount of the teachers' salaries1 oversees their pensions1 enforces compulsory attendance laws1 decides upon taxable property1 fixes boundary lines1 and provides for the finances4 ,finally1 there is the local school board for each separate school4 ,these men have charge of the external matters of the school such as the direct enforcement of attendance1 the repairs1 supplies1 etc42 but they may not interfere with the teacher in his work4 ,in the country villages they have a voice in the choice of the teacher4 ,the teacher may appeal to them in matters that need immediate attention4 ,in the administration of the schools men of the highest character are chosen without reference to their political leanings4 ,there are usually teachers among the number1 on the principle that those who have made the most careful study of education are the most competent to administer it4 ,school ,attendance4--,every child in normal health is required to attend school between the ages of six and fourteen for every day that the school is in session4 ,parents are held responsible for the attendance of their children1 and may be fined or imprisoned for non-fulfillment of the requirements of the law4 ,in case parents are unable to secure the attendance of their children1 the latter are placed in reform schools4 ,the law is carried out with great strictness and wonderful efficiency4 ,for example1 in #ahic1 out of #e1bii1caj children of school age in ,prussia1 there were only #ide unexcused absentees1--that is1 #b in #aj1jjj4 ,all parents expect their children to be in school every day1 and the children grow up fully impressed with the idea that they are to attend school regularly4 ,the chief reason for the efficiency of compulsory attendance in ,germany lies in the fact that it covers every school day1 and therefore does not allow the formation of habits of truancy4 ,the ,schools4--,the common school 7,volksschule7 of ,germany reaches every child1 as we have seen4 ,in villages the sexes are taught together2 but in cities they are generally separated4 ,the school hours are from eight to eleven in the forenoon1 for six days in the week1 and from two to four for four days in the week1 ,wednesday and ,saturday afternoons being holidays4 ,these hours may be varied to suit local conditions4 ,the school is in session for about forty-two weeks each year4 ,each teacher is required to give about twenty-eight hours of service per week1 while the pupils must attend from sixteen hours 7for beginners7 to twenty-eight4 ,the common schools of ,prussia are now practically free4 ,the common school is intended for the common people1 and it is not followed by a high or secondary school4 ,this is the greatest weakness of the ,german school system4 ,it perpetuates the class system1 and effectually prevents the child from rising above his station4 ,the sole opportunity for the child of the lower classes to receive a higher education is through the normal school1 and even this privilege is limited to a small number of the pupils who show special ability4 ,we may mention also the ,continuation schools1 which are held evenings and ,sundays4 ,these schools are rapidly multiplying and becoming more efficient1 as many of them are held in the daytime4 ,they furnish an opportunity for the child who has completed the common school to review his work1 and also to add some subjects that will be of utility in his lifework4 ,in general1 there are three classes of secondary schools1--the ,gymnasium1 the ,realgymnasium1 and ,oberrealschule4 ,each prepares for the university1 and each has nine classes2 namely1 ,sexta1 ,quinta1 ,quarta1 ,untertertia1 ,obertertia1 ,untersecunda1 ,obersecunda1 ,unterprima1 and ,oberprima4 ,these schools differ chiefly in the amount of classics they offer1 the ,gymnasium laying stress upon the classics and the ,realschule upon the realities4#agb ,neither of these schools succeeds the common school1 and the boy who is to pursue one of these courses of study must begin at not later than nine or ten years of age4#agc ,thus1 if a professional life is chosen for a boy1 he cannot attend the common school1--at least not for more than the first three or four years1--but must be sent to one of the schools above mentioned1 for they alone prepare for the university1 and without a university course he cannot enter a profession4 ,the university is the crowning institution of the ,german school system4 ,support of ,schools4--,about one half of the expense of the schools is paid from the general state fund1 one third from local taxation1 and the balance comes from income from endowments1 church funds1 tuition1 etc4 ,the general tendency is to make the schools free1 according to the recommendation of the minister of education1 but some communities still continue to charge tuition4 ,in these cases1 there are poor schools for those who cannot pay tuition1 thus affording school privileges to all4 ,the ,teachers4--,all teachers of the ,prussian common schools are normal graduates1 or have had an equal pedagogic preparation4#agd ,graduates of the university seldom enter the common school work2 they teach in the secondary schools1 in private schools1 and as tutors4 ,the common school teachers generally come from the common schools4 ,if a child shows special aptness for teaching1 the attention of the school inspector is called to him1 and1 with consent of his parents1 he is sent to a preparatory school for three years4 ,his work there is entirely academic in character4 ,at seventeen he enters the normal school and has another year of academic work1 after which he begins his technical work4 ,his normal course is three years1 the last year being given almost entirely to professional work4 ,each class in the normal school contains from thirty to thirty-six students1 thus making the total number of students in a ,german normal school about one hundred4 ,as only about thirty can enter from the whole district1 it will appear that the opportunities for children to extend the common school course are very limited4 ,after completing the normal course1 the graduate is provisionally appointed to a position for three years4 ,he is now under the oversight of his former principal1 as well as of the district inspector4 ,if he proves successful in teaching1 he is required to pass a final examination1 chiefly on pedagogical questions1 and then has a life tenure1 and can be removed only on the ground of inefficiency or immorality4 ,the average tenure of office with teachers is twenty-five years4 ,the salary is often very low1 but with free rent1 fuel1 and light1 the schoolmaster's income is by no means inadequate4 ,his salary increases with the years of service1 and his prospective pension also increases year by year4#age ,the ,german schoolmaster is a state officer4 ,he commands1 by virtue of his position1 the respect which his character1 his self-sacrifice1 his efficiency1 and the great work that he is doing deserve4 ,it is the schoolmaster that has won our battles1 said ,von ,moltke2 and it is he that is preparing ,germany for the arts of peace as well as those of war4 ,the ,prussian school system is the most efficient in the world1 at least so far as the education of the masses is concerned4 ,it has practically obliterated illiteracy in the kingdom1 more than #iia_/b per cent of the recruits received into the army in #ahic being able to read and write4 ,many countries have materially improved their school systems by adopting some of the lessons taught by ,prussia4 ,the three most important features of the ,german school system are3-- #a4 ,only professionally trained teachers can be employed4 #b4 ,such teachers are appointed to permanent positions4 #c4 ,the attendance of every child during the entire school year is compulsory4 ,,footnotes3 #aga ,it will1 of course1 be impossible within the limitations of this work to give more than a mere outline of these systems4 ,the reader will find full discussions in the works referred to in the ,literature4 ,particular attention is called to the ,reports of the ,united ,states ,commissioner of ,education from the year #ahie to the present time4 #agb ,in addition to these schools1 there are also the ,progymnasium1 the ,realprogymnasium1 and the ,realschule1 which1 as their names indicate1 are modified forms of the principal types4 ,these schools do not offer the full nine years' course4 ,see footnote on p4 #bcf for explanation of the work of these schools4 #agc ,russell's ,german ,higher ,schools fully describes these institutions4 #agd ,in #ahic there were only #bda teachers out of #ga1gca in ,prussia1 who were outside of the above requirement4 ,these #bda were old teachers who began before the law was so strict1 and who1 because of their efficiency1 are retained4 ,in a few years this band will entirely disappear1 and all will be normal graduates4 #age ,for full statement of salaries and pensions1 see ,german ,common ,school ,system1 pp4 #agb1 #aie4 ,though the ,german teacher's salary is much smaller than that of the average ,american teacher1 taking into account the greater purchasing power of money in ,germany1 the simple habits1 and fewer demands upon the purse1 the ,german teacher is fully as well off as the ,american4 ,,chapter ,,xliii ,,the ,,school ,,system ,,of ,,france ,literature4--,parsons1 ,french ,schools through ,american ,eyes2 ,richard1 ,the ,school ,system of ,france2 ,weigert1 ,die ,volksschule in ,frankreich2 ,schroeder1 ,das ,volksschulwesen ,frankreichs2 ,united ,states ,commissioner's ,reports4 ,administration4--,france1 like ,germany1 has a minister of education who sits in the cabinet of the president4 ,the work of his office is divided into three departments1 higher1 secondary1 and primary1 and at the head of each there is a director4 ,there are two advisory bodies in charge of education4 ,one has general oversight of all the school interests of ,france4 ,the other is divided into three boards1 appointed by the minister himself1 for supervision of the three departments above mentioned4 ,the general board consists of sixty members1 fifteen appointed by the president of the republic1 and the others appointed by the board itself whenever vacancies occur4 ,this body meets once a year to hear reports1 to pass upon the general school policy1 and to legislate for the schools4 ,out of its membership is chosen an executive committee that meets once a week1 and upon which devolves the chief management of educational affairs4 ,this committee is answerable to the general board1 to which it renders an annual report4 ,men of the highest character and intelligence constitute this board4 ,the whole of ,france is divided into seventeen parts called academies4 ,these divisions do not coincide with the political divisions1 but are made merely for convenience in school administration4 ,each academie has a school board to which is committed the general oversight of all educational interests within its territory1 and particularly the care of the higher schools4 ,a narrower division is into departements4 ,there are ninety of these in ,france and ,algiers4 ,each is governed by an educational council which has charge of the elementary schools4 ,the principal officer of a departement is a school inspector1 a trained educator who devotes all his time to the schools4 ,in each departement there is a normal school for each sex1 though in a few instances two departements combine to maintain one normal school4 ,the departement is subdivided into arrondissements4 ,each has an executive officer and a council in close touch with the schools4 ,lastly there are the cantons1 whose school board has direct control of each individual school4 ,in this manner from the highest to the lowest division there are executive officers with well-defined duties--all working together in perfect harmony and with great efficiency4 ,trained teachers often sit in these councils as members and advisers4 ,thus the highest pedagogical training of the republic is utilized to obtain the best administration of the school interests4 ,school ,attendance4--,school attendance is compulsory upon children from six to thirteen years of age for every school day4 ,as in ,germany1 the child is not compelled to attend the public school1 but must receive instruction for the required time and in a manner approved by the ,state4 ,it is the right of the child to be educated1 and the ,state asserts its prerogative to secure that right to the child1 whatever be the attitude of the parent4 ,but the manner of securing it is left to the parent if he chooses to exercise that privilege4 ,although ,france has had compulsory education only since #ahhb1 the law is effective1 and grows more so each year4 ,in #ahie1 #ia per cent of all the children of school age attended school regularly4 ,the ,schools4--,in the arrangement of her schools1 and the perfect articulation between them from the mother school to the university1 ,france has the most perfect system in the world4 ,the mother schools 7ecoles maternelles7 take children from two to six years of age and care for them from early morning till evening1 thereby permitting parents to go out to service4 ,they combine the idea of the day nursery and the kindergarten4 ,these schools1 in communes of #bjjj or more1 are supported by the ,state1 as are other schools4 ,instead of the mother school1 sometimes the infant school 7ecole infantine7 takes the child from four to seven and prepares him for the primary school4 ,this school is more nearly like the kindergarten than the mother school4 ,it is supported wholly by the ,state and is a part of the school system1 its work being entirely in sympathy with that which follows4 ,in this respect1 ,france has taken a more advanced step than any other nation4 ,with the lower primary school 7ecole primaire elementaire71 which covers the period of from six to thirteen years of age1 begins compulsory education4 ,the sexes are always taught separately except in villages of less than five hundred inhabitants4 ,the pupils all dress in the same garb4 ,the school is in session five days in the week1 ,thursdays being free4 ,there is no religious instruction in the schools4 ,a peculiar and very important factor is a book of registration for each child1 in which specimens of work in each subject are entered once a month for the whole school course4 ,this book is kept at the school1 and furnishes an accurate indication of progress to parents or inspectors4#agf ,following the lower primary school is the higher primary 7ecole primaire superieure71 which has two courses1 one for pupils who wish to review their elementary work and add some subjects1 with the view of better preparing for the ordinary walks of life2 and the high school course for those who wish to prepare for academic life4 ,the former is indefinite in length2 the latter requires five years1 thus being completed at the eighteenth year4 ,here appears another superiority over the ,german system1 in which1 it will be remembered1 there is no connection between the common and the high school4 ,these high schools prepare for the normal school and for the university4 ,there are also many other kinds of schools under ,state support1--such as technical schools1 apprentice schools1 schools of mines1 etc4 ,in the advantages offered to young men for perfecting themselves in a trade or calling1 ,france surpasses all other countries4 ,finally there are the ,state universities1 fifteen in number1 the professors of which are appointed by the ,state4 ,while the ,state pays all salaries1 the maintenance of the buildings depends upon fees1 endowments1 and such local support as is obtainable4 ,these institutions are open to students from the higher primary schools1 thus making a complete system from the lowest school to the highest1 and offering remarkable advantages to all4 ,all degrees are given by the ,state1 thereby securing perfect uniformity4 ,support of ,schools4--,all of the schools above mentioned1 from the mother school to the university1 are free4 ,the expenses are distributed as follows3 7#a7 ,the ,state pays the salaries of all teachers1 administrators1 and inspectors1 and all the expenses of the normal schools4 ,thus it will be seen that the bulk of the expense of education is borne by the ,state in general4 7#b7 ,the departements erect the normal school and furnish the apparatus and supplies for the same4 7#c7 ,the communes pay for the needed supplies1 for the janitor1 and for other local necessities of the elementary schools4 ,they may also tax themselves to increase the salaries of teachers beyond the ,state allowance4 ,each community thus has the power to decide whether it will be content with an average school1 merely fulfilling the ,state requirements1 or whether it will have a superior school taught by the best teachers obtainable4 ,the ,teachers4--,there are two classes of normal schools in ,france1 the elementary1 of which there are eighty-seven for men and eighty-five for women1--practically one for each sex in each of the departments1--and the higher1 of which there is one for men1 one for women1 and one for kindergartners4 ,nearly all teachers are graduates of normal schools1 and as no candidates for positions are considered unless they hold a normal certificate1 in the near future all the teachers of ,france will be professionally trained4 ,candidates for admission to the normal school must be at least sixteen years of age1 of good moral character1 and of fair abilities4 ,they must pledge themselves to teach for not less than ten years4#agg ,the elementary course covers three years4 ,after graduation1 the young teacher is appointed provisionally until he has taken a final examination1 which must be within ten years4 ,if he has been successful in the schoolroom1 as well as in this second examination1 he becomes a permanent teacher1 and can be removed only for immorality4 ,the course in the advanced normal school takes three or more years1 depending upon the preparation with which the candidate enters4 ,only those between eighteen and twenty-five can be admitted4 ,these schools train principals1 superintendents1 inspectors1 and teachers for the elementary normal schools4 ,they are the model schools of ,france1 and shape the educational practice of the republic4 ,graduates from the elementary normal schools are not debarred from entering the higher normal schools2 thus ambitious teachers are encouraged to prepare themselves for higher work4 ,no other country in the world does so much as ,france to assist young teachers in their preparation4 ,in all of the normal schools mentioned1 tuition1 board1 room1 and books are free4 ,and when the young teacher has been graduated1 the ,state recognizes its own work by giving him the preference in appointments4 ,there are five classes of teachers in the elementary schools1 the lowest being the fifth4 ,the young graduate teacher begins in the lowest class and works his way up4 ,the annual salaries for the different classes are indicated by the following table3-- ---------------------------------------- ---- ,,classes ,,of ,,teachers ,,men ,,women ---------------------------------------- ---- ,fifth ,class #bjj4jj #bjj4jj ,fourth ,class #bdj4jj #bdj4jj ,third ,class #cjj4jj #bhj4jj ,second ,class #cfj4jj #cjj4jj ,first ,class #djj4jj #cbj4jj ---------------------------------------- ---- ,additional allowances are made in large schools1 and the communes often supplement the above amounts4 ,the annual salaries of principals are as follows3-- ---------------------------------------- ---- ,,higher ,,primary ,,normal ,,schools ,,principals ------------------------------ ,both ,sexes ,men ,women ---------------------------------------- --- ,fifth ,class #cfj4jj #gjj4jj #fjj4jj ,fourth ,class #djj4jj #hjj4jj #gjj4jj ,third ,class #dej4jj #ijj4jj #hjj4jj ,second ,class #ejj4jj #ajjj4jj #ijj4jj ,first ,class #efj4jj #aajj4jj #ajjj4jj ---------------------------------------- --- ,the assistants in these schools receive3-- ---------------------------------------- ---- ,,higher ,,primary ,,normal ,,schools ,,assistants ------------------------------ ,both ,sexes ,men ,women ---------------------------------------- --- ,fifth ,class #bdj4jj #ejj4jj #ddj4jj ,fourth ,class #bhj4jj #edj4jj #dhj4jj ,third ,class #cbj4jj #ehj4jj #ebj4jj ,second ,class #chj4jj #fbj4jj #efj4jj ,first ,class #ddj4jj #fhj4jj #fjj4jj ---------------------------------------- --- ,in addition to these amounts there is also a small allowance for rent4 ,after thirty-five years of service1 the teacher may retire upon three fourths of his salary as a pension4 ,without doubt ,france has outstripped all other nations in educational progress during the last twenty-five years1--the period in which her school system has been constructed4 ,the three great signs of advance in ,french education are the establishment of free schools 7#ahha72 compulsory education and the secularization of the schools 7#ahhb72 and the restriction of teachers to lay persons 7#ahhf74agh ,the strong features of the ,french school system may be stated as follows3-- #a4 ,completeness and harmony of the system1 covering the period from early childhood till the prescribed education is finished4 #b4 ,thoroughly trained teachers4 #c4 ,two kinds of normal schools to meet the various educational requirements of teachers4 #d4 ,liberal support of schools of all kinds4 #e4 ,admirable administration of the schools4 ,,footnotes3 #agf ,see ,parsons1 ,french ,schools through ,american ,eyes1 p4 #hb4 #agg ,this is no hardship1 as they fully expect to devote their lives to teaching4 #agh ,previous to this the members of religious orders could teach in the public schools4 ,,note4--,in #aijb the government still further restricted the teaching by religious orders4 ,it is now proposed not only to forbid all teaching by these orders1 but also to sequestrate the property of such congregations as exist solely for teaching purposes4 ,this will close about #cejj schools of the ,christian ,brothers which have existed for a long time1 and necessitate the organization by the government of corresponding school facilities to supply their place4 ,five years are allowed to effect the change44 ,,chapter ,,xliv ,,the ,,school ,,system ,,of ,,england ,literature4--,sharpless1 ,english ,education2 ,craik1 ,education and the ,state2 ,barnard1 ,english ,pedagogy2 ,clark1 ,the ,state and ,education2 ,gill1 ,systems of ,education2 ,balfour1 ,educational ,systems of ,great ,britain and ,ireland2 ,united ,states ,commissioner's ,reports for #ahhi to #aijb4 ,nearly a thousand years ago ,alfred the ,great encouraged education of the higher classes to the exclusion of the masses--a principle that has governed education in ,england until within recent times4 ,statistics taken in #ahde showed that only one in six of the inhabitants could read1 one in four write1 and one in fifty cipher as far as the ,rule of ,three4 ,since #ahgj important changes have been made1 and the number of children in the elementary schools of ,england has increased from #a1ejj1jjj in #ahgj to nearly #f1jjj1jjj in #aijb4agi ,the principal features of the law of #ahgj were 7#a7 the obligation assumed by the government to secure school provision for all children of ages #e to #ad2 7#b7 the recognition or creation of local agencies 7private or church managers or elected boards7 for the execution of this purpose2 7#c7 provision for securing efficient instruction by means of an annual grant from the treasury to be distributed to the local managers upon the results of examination and inspection by government inspectors2 7#d7 the creation of a central agency to carry out the provisions on the part of the government and of new local agencies or school boards which every school district must elect except upon satisfactory evidence that schools efficient and adequate to the needs of the district were otherwise provided2 7#e7 the admission of private and public elementary schools to a share in the government grant upon the same conditions2 7#f7 the requirements that board schools should be strictly non-sectarian and the children of private schools protected from enforced sectarian instruction by a conscience clause4#ahj ,the most important modifications of this law are the laws of #ahii and #aijc4 ,the law of #ahii has reference to the general administration of education in ,england and ,wales1 while that of #aijc entirely changes the local management of schools and extends the sphere of public education to secondary as well as elementary schools4 ,administration4 #a4 ,general4--,under the provisions of the law of #ahii the general administration of educational affairs is committed to a board of education consisting of a president1 appointed by the crown1 lord president of the council1 the principal secretaries of state1 the first commissioner of the treasury1 and the chancellor of the exchequer--not less than five nor more than fifteen members4 ,by means of a sufficient number of royal inspectors who are trained educators1 whose duty it is to visit the schools and report thereon1 the board of education is able to reach every school in the kingdom4 ,there is also a consultation committee1 two-thirds of whom are persons representing universities and bodies interested in education1 whose office is to advise the board of education4 #b4 ,counties and ,county ,boroughs4--,by the terms of the law of #aijc the council of every county and of every county borough are constituted a local education authority1 which controls secular instruction in all elementary schools within its district1 and performs the duties of former school boards and school attendance committees4 ,they may also establish high schools4 ,in boroughs of over #aj1jjj and cities of over #bj1jjj inhabitants a special board or local education authority is allowed4 #c4 ,local ,managers4--,all public undenominational 7board7 schools have a body of six managers1 four of whom are appointed by the local education authority and two by the minor local authority4 ,all public denominational 7voluntary7 schools shall also have six managers1 four of whom are foundation managers and two are appointed by state authority4 ,a greater number of local managers may be chosen1 but the above proportion of members must hold4 ,school ,attendance4--,the school age is from five to fourteen1 and the local authorities are required to compel attendance for that period excepting in case where the pupil has obtained the educational certificate of exemption1 which cannot be given before the child is twelve years of age4 ,the average attendance in #aijb reached nearly #hc per cent of the enrollment4 ,england has stringent laws in regard to the employment of children in factories1 mines1 etc41 which are well enforced4 ,the ,schools4--,we have already mentioned the board and the voluntary schools which supply the principal means of elementary education4 ,the voluntary schools are under the fostering care of the ,church1 and their enrollment includes more than half of the children4 ,secondary education is carried on chiefly in private schools1 though the law of #aijc permits the establishment of high schools to follow elementary education4 ,the private secondary schools are of two general classes1 grammar and public schools4 ,the former are intended for the middle classes1 their main purpose being to prepare for civil service1 while the latter are the great endowed schools like ,rugby1 ,eton1 etc4 ,support of ,schools4--,the expense of the elementary schools is met by parliamentary grants1 by local taxes1 and by endowments4 ,parliamentary grants cover about #fb per cent of the total1 and the balance is made up from the other sources4 ,formerly both denominational and undenominational schools participated alike in the government grants1 but the former were compelled to make up the balance needed by private subscriptions1 school pence1 etc41 while the latter were allowed to levy a local tax for this purpose4 ,under the law of #aijc both may share alike in the local tax1 thereby removing the necessity for private subscriptions4 ,the ,teachers4--,the training of teachers is as peculiar as the other features of the ,english system4 ,lancaster and ,bell introduced the monitorial system1 by which one teacher could take charge of a large school1 the older pupils teaching the younger ones4 ,this idea has been perpetuated in the pupil teacher scheme4 ,children fifteen years old are apprenticed to a school to assist in the work1 and in return receive instruction and a small stipend4 ,at eighteen or nineteen they enter the teachers' college for a two years' course4 ,they may instead at this time take an examination for the teachers' certificate1 and if successful1 they are known as assistant teachers4 ,that the pupil teacher idea has lost its force is shown by the following facts3 ,from #ahgf to #ahic the increase of graduate teachers was #aad per cent1 the increase of assistant teachers #fia per cent1 while there was a decrease of #ae per cent in the number of pupil teachers4 ,this would seem to indicate that ,england is demanding better prepared teachers4 ,the #aca teachers' colleges graduate about #aijj students each year1 which is about two thirds of the number of teachers needed4 ,teachers' positions are practically permanent1 and the salaries are good1 being in #aija an average for certificate teachers of #fdd a year for men and #dcb for women4 ,each teacher is entitled to a pension at the age of #fe4 ,this amounts to at least #ccj for men who have been in the service from their twenty-first year1 and #bbe for women4 ,if obliged to retire earlier on account of breakdown1 the amount of pension will be proportionate to the length of service4 ,men teachers contribute three pounds annually and women two pounds to this fund1 while the ,state appropriates the balance needed4 ,when one considers the traditions that have controlled ,english education for centuries1 and recalls the conservatism that rules ,english life1 one can only marvel at the tremendous strides taken by ,england during the last third of a century4 ,victor ,hugo says3 ,the ,english patrician order is patrician in the absolute sense of the word4 ,no feudal system was ever more illustrious1 more terrible1 and more tenacious of life4 ,england has had to overcome her patrician ideas in regard to education1 and her growth in the last thirty years has been more rapid and more effectual than for a thousand years before4 ,although she still has many problems to solve1 her recent educational enterprise places her in the front rank among the nations of the world in school matters4 ,the law of #aijc consisted of many compromises which satisfy neither party4 ,it will doubtless be followed by still further changes in the near future4 ,,footnotes3 #agi ,the total enrollment in #aijb was #e1hha1bgh1 or #ah4jh per cent of the population4 #ahj ,report of the ,united ,states ,commissioner of ,education for #ahif-ahig1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #ab4 ,,chapter ,,xlv ,,the ,,school ,,system ,,of ,,the ,,united ,,states ,literature4--,boone1 ,education in the ,united ,states2 ,williams1 ,history of ,modern ,education2 ,barnard1 ,american ,journal of ,education2 ,horace ,mann1 ,annual ,reports2 ,united ,states ,commissioners ,reports1 especially the more recent ones4 ,each state in the ,united ,states has its own independent system of education2 there is no national system4 ,in #ahfg ,congress established a ,national ,bureau of ,education1 the function of which is to collect statistics and facts showing the condition and progress of education in the several states and territories1 and diffuse such information respecting the organization and management of schools and school systems and methods of teaching as shall aid the people of the ,united ,states in the establishment and maintenance of efficient school systems1 and otherwise promote the cause of education throughout the country4 ,the bureau issues an annual report1 which is replete with information concerning the educational interests of our own and other lands4 ,the ,united ,states government has given vast tracts of the public domain1 as well as large sums of money1 to the various states1 out of which have been created1 in some cases1 large school funds which yield a permanent income4#aha ,up to #ahgf the ,united ,states had granted nearly eighty million acres of land for educational purposes4 ,the ,bureau of ,education is obliged to rely on such statistics as its correspondents are willing to give1 yet its work has been so valuable1 its information so extensive and accurate1 and its educational purpose so high1 that cordial cooeperation is generally given4 ,this annual report is the finest issued by any nation in the world4#ahb ,,the ,,state ,,systems ,administration4--,at the head of each state school system1 there is an executive officer usually called the ,state ,superintendent of ,public ,instruction4 ,he is chosen for from two to five years1 sometimes by popular vote1 sometimes by the joint houses of the ,legislature1 sometimes by the ,state ,board of ,education1 and in some cases is appointed by the governor4 ,his duties are to make reports1 to examine teachers1 to inspect schools1 to distribute school moneys1 to hear appeals in school matters1 and to have general oversight of the educational interests of the state4 ,in some states there is a ,state ,board of ,education that cooeperates with the ,state ,superintendent4 ,the interests of education seem to be best conserved when there is a non-partisan ,state ,board of ,education1 which appoints the executive officers and has general charge of the schools4 ,the second administrative unit is the county1 over which is placed a ,superintendent of ,schools4 ,he is chosen by popular vote or is appointed by the ,state ,board of ,education1 and holds office generally about three years4 ,he must visit the schools1 examine teachers1 hold institutes1 distribute school moneys1 and oversee the educational work4 ,the number of schools under the inspection of the county superintendent is often so great1 and the territory so large1 that his work cannot be well done4 ,in many cases the compensation is so small that he is obliged to devote a part of his time to some other occupation4 ,the work is of sufficient importance to demand the full time of a competent man2 and the salary ought to be proportionate to such needs4 ,the next division is that of the township1 though in most states the school district is the next unit4 ,the so-called township system has been adopted in several states1 and recommended in others4 ,this system has a board of education which appoints teachers1 purchases supplies1 and manages the schools of the whole township4 ,the district system has outlived its usefulness4 ,it maintains more schools than are warranted by the small number of pupils4 ,many of these could be abandoned in favor of better schools in neighboring districts1 to which the children could be sent4 ,it often secures for its trustee a man of limited education and narrow views1 who conducts the school on the cheapest plan possible1 while the larger territory of the township furnishes better material from which to choose2 it limits its educational plan to the most elementary course1 whereas the township system contemplates a central high school open to all children of the township4 ,the township system also admits of the employment of a special school inspector or superintendent if desired4 ,in some instances1 two or more townships unite in the employment of such a superintendent4 ,school ,attendance4--,the school age commences at from four to six and extends to from eighteen to twenty-one1 varying greatly in the different states4 ,the ,united ,states ,commissioner's ,report now covers the period of from five to eighteen4 ,on this basis he reports that #ga4ed per cent of the children who are of school age are enrolled in the schools1 while the average attendance is about #fi per cent of the enrollment4 ,this is a very low percentage as compared with that in ,germany1 ,france1 and ,england4 ,the longer period covered by us 7five to eighteen7 thus acts unfavorably4 ,the natural period of the child's life to be devoted to education is from six to fourteen4 ,school attendance in the ,united ,states is by no means so regular as it should be1 even during the period 7six to fourteen74 ,to remedy this1 compulsory education laws have been passed in most states4 ,they cover periods varying from eight consecutive weeks and a total of twenty weeks during the year1 to the full school year4 ,these laws are generally a dead letter1 partly because of their own weakness1 and partly because of the indifference of the people4 ,compulsory attendance to be effective must cover the whole school year1 and must carry a sufficient penalty for non-enforcement4 ,the ,schools4--,the schools of the ,united ,states may be classified as follows3 #a1 the elementary school having an eight years' course which should be completed at fourteen2 #b1 the secondary school with a four years' course that fits for college or its equivalent training2 #c1 the undergraduate school or college with its four years' course2 and the graduate school or university4 ,the elementary school is generally separated into primary and grammar grades1 and is sometimes preceded by the kindergarten4 ,the secondary school usually offers commercial or other practical courses to those who do not wish to prepare for college4 ,colleges differ greatly in the scope of their work and in their courses of instruction4 ,most universities open their doors to those who are not graduates of colleges4 ,in all states the elementary and the high schools are free1 while in some1 particularly the western states1 the entire expense of the child's education from kindergarten to university is defrayed at public expense4 ,support of the ,schools4--,the annual cost of the schools of the country is about two hundred and fifty million dollars4 ,about two thirds of this is raised by local tax1 about one fifth by state tax1 and the balance is derived chiefly from permanent funds1 etc4 ,the preponderance of the local tax shows that to each community is intrusted the important matter of deciding as to the quality of school it will maintain4 ,the ,american people have always been liberal toward education1 and no money is voted so freely by legislative bodies as that necessary for the education of the young4 ,the ,teachers4--,there are over #ddj1jjj teachers in the ,united ,states1 of whom about #bh per cent are men and #gb per cent women4 ,only about #aj per cent of these have had a professional training4 ,the average term of service is five years1 and about #ajj1jjj new teachers are needed every year4 ,to supply this number the normal schools and other institutions for training teachers are utterly inadequate1 and will remain so until the average term of service is lengthened4 ,the principal institutions for training teachers are the normal school1 the city training school1 the pedagogical departments of universities1 and teachers' training classes4 ,to these may be added the teachers' institute and the summer school1 which while they stimulate and instruct the teachers1 cannot be said to give them a professional training4 ,the course of the normal school usually covers three years1 and embraces both the theory of education and practice in teaching children4 ,within the last few years1 many colleges have established chairs of pedagogy1 but the work remains inadequate for a professional training so long as practice in teaching is not added to the requirements4 ,teachers are appointed by local boards generally for one year1 though they often remain undisturbed year after year4 ,the average monthly salary of men in #aijb was #di4je1 and of women #ci4gg4 ,so long as professional training of the teacher guarantees neither permanence of position nor adequate remuneration1 many men and women with ability to teach will be tempted to devote their energies to other work1 leaving the nation's most sacred trust1 the education of its children1 to those who will not or cannot properly prepare themselves for that great responsibility4 ,but there is in present tendencies no need for discouragement4 ,everywhere brave men and women are preparing themselves in earnest for the high calling of teacher1 hopeful that the future will bring them the recognition they deserve4 ,with free schools1 abler teachers1 consecrated to their calling1 and better courses of instruction2 with a people generous in expenditures for educational purposes1 a cooeperation of parents and teachers1 and a willingness to learn from other nations2 with the many educational periodicals1 the pedagogical books1 and teachers' institutes to broaden and stimulate the teacher1--the friends of education in ,america may labor on1 assured that the present century will give abundant fruitage to the work which has so marvelously prospered in the past4 ,,footnotes3 #aha ,in #ahcf there was a large surplus in the national treasury1 which1 by act of ,congress1 was ordered to be deposited with the several states1 in proportion to their representation in ,congress4 ,the amount so distributed equaled about #cj1jjj1jjj4 ,most of the states receiving this deposit set it aside as a permanent school fund4 ,see ,boone1 ,history of ,education in the ,united ,states1 p4 #ia4 #ahb ,see an article by ,m4 ,stevens on ,the ,national ,bureau of ,education1 in the ,new ,york ,school ,journal1 ,vol4 ,,lvi1 p4 #gdc1 for a full description of this bureau and its work4 ,,appendix ,,recent ,,educational ,,movements ,literature4--,proceedings of the ,national ,educational ,society2 ,reports of the ,commissioner of ,education2 ,yearbooks of the ,national ,society for the ,scientific ,study of ,education2 ,parker ,memorial ,number of the ,new ,york ,school ,journal1 ,april #e1 #aijb4 ,in order to bring the history of education down to the present and awaken an interest in questions that are now occupying the attention of educational thinkers1 a brief study of recent educational movements1 theories1 and organizations is here presented4 ,such study should serve as an introduction of the young teacher to the actual world of thought1 in which he is to live1 and present to him the questions which he must aid in solving4 ,the ,national ,educational ,association4--,one of the most potent factors of education in the ,united ,states is the ,national ,educational ,association1 founded in ,philadelphia in #aheg4 ,the purpose of this organization1 in the language of the preamble to its constitution1 is1 ,to elevate the character and advance the interests of the profession of teaching1 and to promote the cause of popular education in the ,united ,states4 ,it holds its meetings annually in different parts of the country1 attracting large numbers of teachers of all ranks and from every section4#ahc ,there are eighteen departments1 each of which holds special sessions during the time of the general meeting1 which occurs early in the summer vacation4 ,the department of superintendence1 however1 holds a midwinter meeting which attracts the leading educators of the country4 ,very valuable service has been rendered by the ,association through its committees that have been appointed from time to time to investigate and report upon special problems4 ,among the notable reports may be mentioned the following3 ,report of the ,committee of ,ten on ,secondary ,schools2 ,report of the ,committee of ,fifteen on ,elementary ,schools2 ,report of the ,committee on ,normal ,schools2 ,report of the ,committee on ,rural ,schools4 ,the discussions of the ,association are preserved in an annual volume of proceedings4 ,its committee reports often appear also in special bulletins4 ,it must be admitted in general that the ,national ,educational ,association fulfils its mission1 as outlined in the preamble quoted1 in an admirable way4 ,,the ,,national ,,bureau ,,of ,,education ,while the ,united ,states has no national system of education1 each state having entire charge of its own educational affairs1 there is a national bureau whose office is twofold2 namely3 7#a7 to collect statistics1 and 7#b7 to diffuse information concerning educational affairs4 ,this bureau was established by ,congress in #ahfg1 and since #ahfi it has been a bureau of the ,department of the ,interior4 ,henry ,barnard was appointed the first commissioner1 and he has been succeeded in that office by ,john ,eaton1 ,n4 ,h4 ,r4 ,dawson1 ,william ,t4 ,harris1 and ,elmer ,e4 ,brown1 the present incumbent4 ,this bureau fosters the interests of education in three important directions3 7#a7 by its publications2 7#b7 by its maintenance of a pedagogical library1 the most extensive in the country2 and 7#c7 by its pedagogical museum1 in which every feature of educational enterprise is exhibited4 ,the most valuable service rendered1 however1 is through its publications4 ,it issues an annual report which has grown to two large volumes of more than twenty-four hundred pages1 in which are found statistics concerning all kinds of schools and educational enterprises throughout the ,united ,states4 ,nor are its investigations limited to our own country and its territories4 ,educational movements in other countries are described from time to time by experts with a view to furnish complete information concerning current educational history throughout the world4 ,these reports are recognized as by far the best furnished by any country4 ,in addition to the annual report the bureau issues many pamphlets bearing upon special topics and furnishing valuable information4 ,in view of the fact that such vast interests are involved1--the instruction of over twenty million pupils1 requiring the service of more than half a million teachers1 involving the expenditure of nearly three hundred million dollars per annum1 and of vital interest to the whole population1--many educators believe that the bureau should be elevated to the dignity of a department of the government with a cabinet officer at its head4 ,,the ,,quincy ,,movement ,in #ahgc the ,school ,board of ,quincy1 ,massachusetts1 took a new and very important departure1 namely1 that of calling an educational expert to take charge of their schools4 ,they realized that the office of a school board is to administer the external matters1 but trained experts should have entire direction of the internal affairs of the schools1 such as discipline1 methods of instruction1 course of study1 etc4 ,they called ,colonel ,francis ,w4 ,parker 7#ahcg-aijb7 to the superintendency and said to him practically3 ,we will furnish the equipment and the teachers1 and it is your business to run the schools4 ,we will not interfere with your methods or your plans1 but will hold you responsible for results4 ,colonel ,parker1 who had just returned from a careful study of ,european schools1 accepted this responsibility and at once began reforms in primary education not second in importance to those of ,horace ,mann a generation earlier4 ,the ,new ,education and ,quincy ,methods began to be discussed everywhere1 and ,quincy became the educational ,mecca for teachers from every part of the land4 ,some of the reforms inaugurated were the following3 ,text-books were abolished1 the learning of the alphabet discontinued1 mere memorizing of facts discountenanced1 nature work was emphasized1 concrete methods employed1 and all school work made natural and interesting4 ,the results in comparison with those of other schools were phenomenal1 and it was recognized that a great reform movement had been started4 ,doubtless1 like reformers generally1 ,colonel ,parker was too extreme4 ,some of his innovations were later modified1 even by the originator himself4 ,nevertheless1 the ,quincy ,movement did incalculable good by breaking up the formalism that prevailed1 by making the work practical and interesting1 by offering suitable material1 by improving the methods of instruction1 and by awakening great interest in educational problems among both the teachers and the public at large4 ,for this great work at ,quincy1 for his many years' service as the head of the ,chicago ,normal ,school1 and for his stimulating influence upon elementary education throughout the country1 ,colonel ,parker deserves a place among the foremost educators of recent times4 ,the example of the ,quincy ,school ,board in placing an educational expert over their schools has been followed by many cities4 ,the office of city superintendent has been created1 and to him is now committed duties that formerly were undertaken by members of the ,school ,board who were without professional training4 ,this change marks a decided step forward in the educational progress of our country4 ,,the ,,herbartian ,,movement ,one of the most important educational movements of recent years1 is that inaugurated by the disciples of ,herbart#ahd in this country4 ,at the meeting of the ,new ,england ,association in ,denver in #ahie a number of men1 most of whom had studied under ,stoy and ,rein in ,germany1 formed the ,national ,herbart ,society1 whose purpose was declared to be the aggressive discussion and spread of educational doctrines4 ,this society was the outgrowth of the ,herbart ,club1 formed three years before at ,saratoga4 ,it is now known as the ,national ,society for the ,scientific ,study of ,education4 ,it holds semiannual meetings in connection with the ,national ,association1 but is not a department of said ,association4 ,it issues ,yearbooks which contain the results of the investigations of its members and which are valuable contributions to current educational literature4 ,among the most important educational theories brought forward by this school may be mentioned that of ,apperception1 the ,doctrine of ,interest1 the ,correlation of ,studies1 ,concentration1 the ,culture ,epoch ,theory1 and ,character ,building as an end of education4 ,the practical application of these theories to school problems has not been neglected4 ,there is no doubt that the ,herbartian teachings have served to bring education in this country to a scientific basis4 ,the members of this society have been among the foremost contributors to the pedagogical literature of the last decade4 ,,various ,,tendencies ,child ,study4--,the old psychologists based their theories and deductions upon a study of the activities of the adult mind4 ,modern educators have turned their attention to the being whom they are to educate--the child4 ,questionnaires have been issued and syllabi formulated concerning many characteristics of children1 such as their fears1 their imaginations1 their lies1 their views of ,god1 etc41 for the purpose of discovering laws governing the same4 ,while as yet the movement cannot claim to have added much to educational theory1 it has stimulated careful study and observation of children1 brought teachers into more genuine sympathy with them1 suggested suitable material for instruction1 and fostered rational discipline4 ,it offers an unlimited and fruitful field for further investigation4 ,parents' ,meetings4--,in the early history of the race parents assumed the entire education of their offspring4 ,when schools became numerous and teachers efficient1 parents largely absolved themselves from direct responsibility in the matter of education4 ,to arouse proper interest and to unite all the agencies of the community in this work1 parents' meetings have been organized in many places4 ,thus the patrons of the school have not only been led to cooeperate with their teachers1 but also to study educational problems4 ,such organizations have strengthened the hands of the teachers1 stimulated educational interest1 and aroused a genuine and intelligent pride in the work of the school4 ,manual and ,industrial ,training4--,the marvelous industrial development of recent years1 together with the attitude of labor unions towards apprenticeships1 creates a demand for a reconstruction of courses of study4 ,much of education that was secured in the shop and field must now be furnished in the school4 ,educate the whole child is the watchword4 ,the motor activities must be trained as well as the mental activities4 ,indeed1 the latter cannot attain their proper development without the former4 ,hence1 manual training has been adopted as a part of the curriculum4 ,material ,improvements4--,a careful study of the ventilation1 lighting1 seating1 and other hygienic conditions1 as well as construction of school buildings1 has characterized recent times4 ,in many places not only school materials1 but also text-books1 are furnished free of cost to the pupil4 ,physicians are also employed periodically to visit the schools and examine the children as to the condition of eyes and ears1 as to the prevalence of disease1 and as to their general health4 ,safeguards are inaugurated to prevent the spread of contagious diseases4 ,all of these material measures are founded upon the theory that only under best conditions can the best results be obtained in education1 and therefore it is true economy for the community to furnish these conditions4 ,,footnotes3 #ahc ,the membership at the ,boston meeting in #aijc was #cd1ihd4 ,this1 however1 is far in excess of the average attendance4 #ahd ,see p4 #bgh4 ,,bibliography ,the following works have a bearing upon some phase of the many topics considered in this book4 ,most of them have been mentioned in abbreviated form either in the literature at the beginning of each chapter or in the footnotes4 ,they are here given with their full titles4 ,a ,,adams1 ,,francis4 ,the ,free ,school ,system of the ,united ,states4 ,,allen1 ,w4 ,f4 ,a ,short ,history of the ,roman ,people4 ,,allies4 ,the ,monastic ,life4 ,the ,formation of ,christendom4 ,,andrews1 ,e4 ,b4 ,brief ,institutes of ,general ,history4 ,,archer1 ,t4 ,a41 and ,kingsford1 ,c4 ,l4 ,crusaders4 ,,arnold1 ,,edwin4 ,the ,light of ,asia4 ,,arnold1 ,,matthew4 ,essays in ,criticism4 ,a,r,n,s,t,ae,d,t1 ,f4 ,a4 ,rabelais und sein ,traite d',education4 ,fenelon4 ,,ascham1 ,,roger4 ,the ,scholemaster 7edited by ,e4 ,arber74 ,,azarias1 ,,brother4 ,essays ,educational4 ,essays ,philosophical4 ,philosophy of ,literature4 ,b ,,balfour1 ,,graham4 ,educational ,systems of ,great ,britain and ,ireland ,,ballantine1 ,h4 ,midnight ,marches through ,persia4 ,,ballou1 ,m4 ,m4 ,due ,west2 or1 ,round the ,world in ,ten ,months4 ,footprints of ,travel4 ,,bardeen1 ,c4 ,w4 ,the ,orbis ,pictus of ,john ,comenius4 ,,barnard1 ,,henry4 ,english ,pedagogy4 ,pestalozzi and ,pestalozzianism4 ,american ,journal of ,education4 ,,barnes1 ,,earl4 ,studies in ,education4 ,,barrows1 ,,john ,,henry4 ,world's ,parliament of ,religions4 ,,beecher1 ,h4 ,w4 ,life of ,jesus the ,christ4 ,,beeger ,,und ,,leutbecher4 ,comenius ,ausgewaehlte ,schriften4 ,,benjamin1 ,s4 ,g4 ,w4 ,the ,story of ,persia4 ,persia and the ,persians4 ,,besant1 ,,walter4 ,rabelais4 ,,boone1 ,,richard ,g4 ,education in the ,united ,states3 ,its ,history from the ,earliest ,settlements4 ,,bormann1 ,k4 ,paedagogik ,fuer ,volksschullehrer4 ,,bowen1 ,h4 ,,courthope4 ,froebel and ,education by ,self-activity4 ,,brooks1 ,,phillips4 ,letters of ,travel4 ,,browning1 ,,oscar4 ,milton's ,tractate on ,education4 ,,brugsch-,,bey1 ,h4 ,history of ,egypt ,under the ,pharaohs4 ,,bryce1 ,,james4 ,the ,holy ,roman ,empire4 ,a ,short ,history of the ,roman ,empire4 ,,bulfinch1 ,t4 ,legends of ,charlemagne4 ,,bulkley1 ,,rev4 ,c4 ,h4 ,a4 ,plato's ,best ,thoughts4 ,,bury1 ,j4 ,b4 a ,history of the ,later ,roman ,empire ,from ,arcadius ,to ,irene4 ,,butler1 ,n4 ,m4 the ,place of ,comenius in the ,history of ,education4 ,,butler1 ,w4 ,land of the ,veda4 ,c ,,capes1 ,w4 ,w4 ,roman ,empire of the ,second ,century3 ,age of ,antonines4 ,,carlisle1 ,,james ,h4 ,two ,great ,teachers--,ascham and ,arnold4 ,,carlyle1 ,,thomas4 ,french ,revolution4 ,,chamberlain4 ,education in ,india4 ,,chateaubriand4 ,the ,genius of ,christianity4 ,,church1 ,,alfred ,j4 ,pictures ,from ,roman ,life and ,story4 ,pictures ,from ,greek ,life and ,story4 ,,church1 ,r4 ,w4 ,the ,beginnings of ,middle ,ages4 ,bacon4 ,,clark1 ,,henry4 ,the ,state and ,education4 ,,clarke1 ,,james ,,freeman4 ,ten ,great ,religions4 ,,collins1 ,w4 ,,lucas4 ,montaigne4 ,,combe1 ,,george4 ,education3 ,its ,principles and ,practice4 ,,comenius4 ,the ,orbis ,pictus4 ,grosse ,unterrichtslehre 7see ,zoubek74 ,,compayre1 ,,gabriel4 ,the ,history of ,pedagogy 7trans1 by ,w4 ,h4 ,payne74 ,,courtney1 ,w4 ,l4 ,john ,locke4 ,,cox1 ,,sir ,g4 ,w4 ,the ,crusades4 ,,craik1 ,h4 ,the ,state in ,relation ,to ,education4 ,,curtis1 ,g4 ,w4 ,nile ,notes of a ,howadji4 ,,curtius1 ,,ernst4 ,history of ,greece 7#e ,vols474 ,d ,d',,aubigne1 ,j4 ,h4 ,,merle4 ,history of the ,reformation of the ,sixteenth ,century4 ,,davidson1 ,,thomas4 ,rousseau and ,education ,according ,to ,nature4 ,the ,education of the ,greek ,people and ,its ,influence on ,civilization4 ,aristotle and the ,ancient ,educational ,ideals4 ,history of ,education4 ,,de ,,garmo1 ,,charles4 ,herbart and the ,herbartians4 ,,de ,,guimps1 ,r4 ,pestalozzi1 ,his ,life and ,works 7trans4 by ,j4 ,russell74 ,,de ,,quincey1 ,t4 ,plato's ,republic4 ,,dittes1 ,f4 ,geschichte ,der ,erziehung ,und ,des ,unterrichts4 ,,doolittle1 ,,rev4 ,j4 ,social ,life of the ,chinese4 ,,draper1 ,,john ,w4 ,conflict ,between ,religion and ,science4 ,history of the ,intellectual ,development of ,europe4 ,,durrell1 ,,fletcher4 ,a ,new ,life in ,education4 ,,duruy1 ,,victor4 ,history of ,france 7trans4 by ,mrs4 ,carey74 ,a ,history of the ,middle ,ages4 ,history of ,modern ,times1 ,from the ,fall of ,constantinople ,to ,the ,french ,revolution4 ,,dyer1 ,t4 ,h4 ,history of ,modern ,europe 7#c ,vols474 ,e ,,ebers1 ,,georg4 ,uarda4 ,an ,egyptian ,princess4 ,,educational ,,review4 ,,edwards1 ,,amelia ,b4 a ,thousand ,miles ,up the ,nile4 ,,emerson1 ,,ralph ,,waldo4 ,representative ,men4 ,,emerton1 ,e4 ,an ,introduction ,to the ,study of the ,middle ,ages4 ,mediaeval ,europe4 ,,encyclopaedia ,,britannica4 ,e,n,c,y,k,l,o,p,ae,d,i,s,c,h,e,s ,,handbuch ,,der ,p,ae,d,a,g,o,g,i,k4 ,f ,,felkin1 ,,henry ,m4 and ,,emmie4 ,herbart's ,science of ,education4 ,,felton1 ,c4 ,c4 ,greece1 ,ancient and ,modern4 ,,fenelon1 ,f4 ,treatise on the ,education of ,girls4 ,,fergusson1 ,,james4 ,history of ,architecture in ,all ,countries4 ,,ferris1 ,g4 ,t4 ,great ,leaders4 ,,fisher1 ,g4 ,p4 ,history of the ,reformation4 ,the ,beginnings of ,christianity4 ,,forsyth1 ,w4 ,life of ,cicero4 ,,fowler1 ,,thomas4 ,locke4 ,bacon4 ,,frazer1 ,,robert ,w4 ,british ,india4 ,,freeman1 ,,edward ,a4 ,historical ,essays4 ,,froebel1 ,f4 ,the ,education of ,man 7trans4 by ,w4 ,n4 ,hailmann74 ,,froude1 ,,james ,,anthony4 ,short ,studies on ,great ,subjects4 ,life and ,letters of ,erasmus4 ,g ,,gasquet4 ,henry ,,viii and the ,english ,monasteries4 ,,geikie1 ,c4 ,life of ,christ4 ,,gibbon1 ,,edward4 ,history of the ,decline and ,fall of the ,roman ,empire4 ,,gill1 ,,john4 ,systems of ,education4 ,,gilman1 ,a4 ,story of ,rome ,from the ,earliest ,times ,to the ,end ,of ,the ,republic4 ,,graham1 ,h4 ,g4 ,rousseau4 ,,green1 ,j4 ,r4 ,history of the ,english ,people 7#d ,vols474 ,,grote1 ,,george4 ,history of ,greece 7#ab ,vols474 ,,guhl ,,and ,,koner4 ,the ,life of ,greeks and ,romans4 ,from ,antique ,monuments4 ,,guizot4 ,history of ,civilization 7#d ,vols474 ,h ,,hailmann1 ,w4 ,n4 ,history of ,pedagogy4 ,,hallam1 ,,henry4 ,view of the ,state of ,europe ,during the ,middle ,ages 7#c ,vols474 ,literary ,history of ,europe4 ,,hanna1 ,,william4 ,life of ,christ4 ,,hanus1 ,,paul ,h4 ,the ,permanent ,influence of ,comenius 7ed4 ,review1 ,n4,y41 ,vol4 ,,iii1 #bbf74 ,,harper',s ,book of ,facts 7compiled by ,j4 ,h4 ,willsey74 ,,harrison1 ,j4 ,h4 ,story of ,greece4 ,,hegel1 ,g4 ,w4 ,f4 ,the ,philosophy of ,history4 ,,herbart1 ,j4 ,f4 ,the ,science of ,education4 7see ,felkin47 ,,herford1 ,,william ,h4 ,the ,student's ,froebel4 ,,hinsdale1 ,b4 ,a4 ,horace ,mann4 ,,horton1 ,r4 ,f4 ,a ,history of the ,romans4 ,,hosmer1 ,j4 ,k4 ,story of the ,jews4 ,,houghton1 ,r4 ,c4 ,women of the ,orient4 ,,hughes1 ,,thomas4 ,loyola and the ,educational ,system of the ,jesuits4 ,,hurst1 ,,john ,f4 ,a ,short ,history of the ,reformation4 ,life and ,literature in the ,fatherland4 ,i ,,irving1 ,,washington4 ,mahomet and ,his ,successors4 ,j ,,jameson1 ,,mrs4 ,,anna4 ,legends of the ,monastic ,orders4 ,,johonnot1 ,,james4 ,geographical ,reader4 ,,josephus1 ,f4 ,the ,works ,of4 ,,jowett1 ,b4 ,the ,republic of ,plato4 ,k ,,kemp4 ,history of ,education4 ,,kiddle ,,and ,,schem4 ,cyclopaedia of ,education4 ,,kingsford1 ,c4 ,l4 7see ,archer47 ,,kitchin1 ,g4 ,w4 ,history of ,france4 ,,klemm1 ,l4 ,r4 ,european ,schools4 ,,knox1 ,,thomas ,w4 ,the ,boy ,travelers in the ,far ,east4 ,in ,egypt and the ,holy ,land4 ,k,oe,n,i,g,b,a,u,e,r1 ,j4 ,geschichte ,der ,paedagogik ,und ,methodik4 ,,kriege1 ,,matilda ,h4 ,friedrich ,froebel4 ,k,ue,r,s,i1 ,h4 ,life1 ,work1 and ,influence of ,pestalozzi4 ,l ,,labberton1 ,r4 ,h4 ,new ,historical ,atlas and ,general ,history4 ,,lane1 ,,edward ,w4 ,account of the ,manners and ,customs of ,modern ,egyptians4 ,,lane-,,poole1 ,s4 ,the ,story of the ,moors in ,spain4 ,,lang1 ,,ossian ,h4 ,rousseau3 ,his ,life1 ,work1 and ,educational ,ideas4 ,basedow3 ,his ,life and ,educational ,work4 ,horace ,mann4 ,,lange1 ,,wichard4 ,gesammelte ,paedagogische ,schriften von ,f4 ,froebel4 ,,langhorne1 ,j4 and ,w4 ,life of ,plutarch4 ,,larned1 ,j4 ,n4 ,history for ,ready ,reference 7#e vols474 ,,laurie1 ,s4 ,s4 ,rise and ,early ,constitution of ,universities4 ,comenius3 ,his ,life and ,educational ,works4 ,,lavisse1 ,,ernst4 ,general ,view of the ,political ,history of ,europe 7trans4 by ,charles ,gross74 ,,lecky1 ,w4 ,e4 ,h4 ,history of ,european ,morals 7#b vols474 ,,le ,,clerc4 ,life of ,erasmus4 ,,leitch1 ,j4 ,,muir4 ,practical ,educationists and their ,systems of ,teaching4 ,,leroy-,,beaulieu4 ,the ,awakening of the ,east4 ,,lessing1 ,g4 ,e4 ,nathan der ,weise4 ,,lewis1 ,,charles ,t4 ,history of ,germany4 ,,liddell1 ,h4 ,g4 ,student's ,history of ,rome4 ,,lord1 ,,john4 ,beacon ,lights of ,history4 ,m ,,macaulay1 ,t4 ,b4 ,essays4 ,history of ,england4 ,,mahaffy1 ,j4 ,p4 ,social ,life in ,greece4 ,old ,greek ,education4 ,the ,greek ,world under ,roman ,sway4 ,,maitland4 ,the ,dark ,ages4 ,,mann1 ,,mary1 and ,,george ,,combe ,,mann4 ,the ,life and ,works of ,horace ,mann4 ,educational ,writings of ,horace ,mann4 ,,marden1 ,,orison ,,swett4 ,pushing to the ,front4 ,,marenholtz-,b,ue,l,o,w1 ,,bertha ,,von4 ,reminiscences of ,friedrich ,froebel 7trans4 by ,mary ,mann74 ,,marshman1 ,j4 ,c4 ,history of ,india4 ,,martin1 ,g4 ,h4 ,evolution of the ,massachusetts ,public ,school ,system4 ,,martin1 ,w4 ,a4 ,p4 ,the ,chinese3 ,their ,education1 ,philosophy1 and ,letters4 ,,maspero1 ,g4 ,egyptian ,archaeology 7trans4 by ,amelia ,b4 ,edwards47 ,,merivale1 ,c4 ,history of the ,romans 7#g ,vols474 ,,michaud1 ,j4 ,f4 ,history of the ,crusades 7trans4 by ,w4 ,robson74 ,,milton1 ,j4 ,tractate on ,education4 7see ,oscar ,browning47 ,,mombert1 ,j4 ,i4 ,great ,lives4 ,history of ,charles the ,great 7,charlemagne74 ,,mommsen1 ,,th4 ,history of ,rome4 ,,monroe1 ,,paul4 ,source ,book of the ,history of ,education4 ,,montagu1 ,,basil4 ,life of ,francis ,bacon4 ,,morley1 ,,john4 ,life of ,rousseau4 ,,morris1 ,,charles4 ,historical ,tales 7,greek-,roman74 ,,morris1 ,,william ,o',,connor4 ,the ,french ,revolution and ,first ,empire4 ,,morrison1 ,w4 ,,douglas4 ,the ,jews ,under ,roman ,rule4 ,,munroe1 ,,james ,p4 ,the ,educational ,ideal4 ,,myers1 ,p4 ,v4 ,n4 ,mediaeval and ,modern ,history4 ,ancient ,history4 ,n ,n,i,e,d,e,r,g,e,s,ae,s,s4 ,geschichte ,der ,paedagogik4 ,north ,american ,review1 ,vol4 #aga4 ,o ,,oliphant1 ,,mrs4 ,,montaigne4 7see ,w4 ,lucas ,collins47 ,dante4 ,p ,,painter1 ,f4 ,v4 ,n4 ,a ,history of ,education4 ,,parkman1 ,,francis4 ,the ,jesuits in ,north ,america in the ,seventeenth ,century4 ,,parsons1 ,j4 ,,russell4 ,prussian ,schools ,through ,american ,eyes4 ,french ,schools ,through ,american ,eyes4 ,,pastor1 ,,ludwig4 ,history of the ,popes4 ,,pattison1 ,,mark4 ,milton4 ,,paulsen1 ,,friedrich4 ,the ,german ,universities3 ,their ,character ,and ,historical ,development 7trans4 by ,e4 ,p4 ,perry74 ,geschichte ,des ,gelehrten ,unterrichts1 ,auf ,den ,deutschen ,schulen ,und ,universitaeten4 ,,peters4 ,justice ,to the ,jew4 ,,ploetz4 ,epitome of ,ancient1 ,mediaeval1 and ,modern ,history4 ,,prince1 ,,john ,t4 ,methods of ,instruction1 and ,organization of ,schools ,in ,germany4 ,q ,,quick1 ,,robert ,h4 ,educational ,reformers4 ,,quintilian4 ,institutes of ,oratory2 ,or1 ,education of an ,orator4 7see ,watson47 ,r ,,ragozin1 ,z4 ,a4 the ,story of ,chaldea3 ,from ,earliest ,time ,to ,rise ,of ,assyria4 ,the ,story of ,media1 ,babylon1 and ,persia4 ,,ragozin1 ,,mrs4 ,j4 ,a4 ,the ,story of ,vedic ,india4 ,,raumer1 ,,karl ,,von4 ,geschichte ,der ,paedagogik4 ,life and ,system of ,pestalozzi 7trans4 by ,tilleard74 ,,rawlinson1 ,g4 ,five ,great ,monarchies4 ,ancient ,egypt4 ,seventh ,great ,oriental ,monarchy4 ,,reeve1 ,,henry4 ,petrarch4 ,,reimer1 ,,karl4 ,michel de ,montaigne4 ,emil1 ,oder ,ueber ,die ,erziehung4 ,,rein1 ,w4 ,am ,ende ,der ,schulreform8 ,encyklopaedisches ,handbuch ,der ,paedagogik4 ,,reports of the ,united ,states ,commissioner of ,education4 ,,richard1 ,,ernst4 ,the ,school ,system of ,france4 ,,richter1 ,,karl4 ,pestalozzi4 ,a4 ,h4 ,francke4 ,,ridpath1 ,j4 ,c4 ,library of ,universal ,history4 ,,rousseau4 ,emile4 ,,routledge4 ,the ,modern ,seven ,wonders of the ,world4 ,,russell1 ,,james ,e4 ,german ,higher ,schools4 ,s ,,sankey1 ,c4 the ,spartan and ,theban ,supremacies4 ,,schiller1 ,,friedrich4 ,history of the ,thirty ,years' ,war 7trans4 ,by ,morrison74 ,,schmid1 ,k4 ,a4 ,encyklopaedie ,des ,gesammten ,erziehungs ,und ,unterrichtswesens 7#aa ,vols474 ,,schmidt1 ,,karl4 ,geschichte ,der ,paedagogik 7#d ,vols47 7edited ,by ,wichard ,lange74 ,,schneider1 ,e41 und ,e4 ,,von ,,bremen4 ,das ,volksschulwesen ,im ,preussischen ,staate 7#c ,vols474 ,,schroeder1 ,,chr4 ,das ,volksschulwesen in ,frankreich4 ,,schwegler1 ,a4 ,a ,history of ,philosophy 7trans4 by ,julius ,h4 ,seelye74 ,,seebohm1 ,f4 ,era of the ,protestant ,revolution4 ,,seeley1 ,l4 ,common ,school ,system of ,germany4 ,,seidel1 ,f4 ,froebel's ,paedagogische ,schriften 7#c ,vols474 ,,sharpless1 ,,isaac4 ,english ,education in ,elementary and ,secondary ,schools4 ,,sheppard1 ,j4 ,y4 ,the ,fall of ,rome and the ,rise of ,new ,nationalities4 ,,shoup1 ,,william ,j4 ,the ,history and ,science of ,education4 ,,shumway1 ,e4 ,s4 ,a ,day in ,ancient ,rome4 ,,sine1 ,,james4 ,history of ,germany4 ,,skinner1 ,h4 ,m4 ,the ,schoolmaster in ,literature4 ,the ,schoolmaster in ,comedy and ,satire4 ,,smith1 ,,william4 ,history of ,greece4 ,history of ,rome4 ,,sonnenschein ,,co4 ,cyclopaedia of ,education4 ,,spofford1 ,a4 ,r4 ,library of ,historical ,characters 7#aj ,vols474 ,,steeg1 ,m4 ,,jules4 ,emile2 ,or1 ,concerning ,education 7trans4 ,by ,eleanor ,worthington74 ,,stille1 ,c4 ,j4 ,studies in ,mediaeval ,history4 ,,stoddard1 ,,john ,l4 ,lectures on ,travel4 ,,strack1 ,k4 ,geschichte ,des ,deutschen ,volksschulwesens4 ,,symonds1 ,,john ,,addington4 ,the ,renaissance in ,italy4 ,t ,,taunton4 ,the ,english ,black ,monks of ,st4 ,benedict4 ,,taylor1 ,,bayard4 ,history of ,germany4 ,,thalheimer1 ,m4 ,e4 ,mediaeval and ,modern ,history4 ,,timayenis1 ,t4 ,t4 ,history of ,greece 7#b ,vols474 ,u ,,ufer1 ,c4 ,introduction ,to the ,pedagogy of ,herbart4 ,,united ,,states ,,commissioner ,,of ,,education ,,reports4 ,v ,,van ,,liew1 ,c4 ,c4 ,life of ,herbart and ,development of ,his ,pedagogical ,doctrines4 ,,vogel1 ,,august4 ,geschichte ,der ,paedagogik ,als ,wissenschaft4 ,w ,,walker1 ,,john ,,brisben4 ,the ,building of an ,empire4 7,cosmopolitan1 ,feb4-,sept41 #ahii47 ,,warner1 ,,charles ,,dudley4 ,library of the ,world's ,best ,literature4 ,,watson1 ,j4 ,s4 ,quintilian's ,institutes of ,oratory2 ,or1 ,education ,of ,an ,orator4 ,,weigert1 ,,max4 ,die ,volksschule in ,frankreich4 ,,weir1 ,,samuel4 ,key ,to ,rousseau's ,emile4 ,,wells1 ,c4 ,l4 ,the ,age of ,charlemagne4 ,,west1 ,,andrew ,f4 ,alcuin and the ,rise of the ,christian ,schools4 ,,white1 ,,rev4 ,,james4 ,the ,eighteen ,christian ,centuries4 ,,wilkins1 ,a4 ,s4 ,national ,education in ,greece in the ,fourth ,century ,b4,c4 ,,wilkinson1 ,,sir ,j4 ,g4 ,manners and ,customs of the ,ancient ,egyptians 7#c ,vols474 ,,williams1 ,,samuel ,g4 the ,history of ,modern ,education4 ,,willmann1 ,,otto4 ,herbart's ,paedagogische ,schriften 7#b ,vols474 ,,winship1 ,,albert ,e4 ,horace ,mann1 ,educator4 ,y ,,yonge1 ,c4 ,d4 ,three ,centuries of ,modern ,history4 ,z ,,zoubek1 ,,fr4 ,e4 ,a4 ,,comenius4 ,grosse ,unterrichtslehre4 ,,index ,a4 ,b4 ,c4 der ,anschauung1 ,herbart's1 #bha4 ,abelard at ,university of ,paris1 #ada4 ,benedictine teacher1 #aah4 leader of scholasticism1 #abb4 ,academies1 in ,french school administration1 #bif1 #big4 ,agricola1 ,johannes1 school course of1 #agf n4 ,agricola1 ,rudolphus1 father of ,german humanism1 #aec1 #aeh4 lectures of1 #aeh4 ,ahriman1 principle of darkness in ,persian religion1 #ci4 ,albigenses1 reformers in ,france1 #afe4 ,alcohol1 ,arabians discover1 #ade4 ,alcuin of ,england1 ,benedictine teacher1 #aah4 teacher of ,charlemagne1 #abg4 ,alexander the ,great1 pupil of ,aristotle1 #fe4 ,alexandria1 catechetical school at1 #ajg1 #ajh4 ,museum of1 #ej4 ,saracenic school at1 #adj4 school of rabbis at1 #dd4 seat of philosophy1 #ajg4 ,alexandrian library fostered by the ,ptolemies1 #ej4 ,alfred the ,great1 becomes king1 #acj4 character and history of1 #acj4 education of1 #aca4 encourages education of higher classes1 #cjb4 establishes monasteries1 #aca4 founds ,oxford ,university1 #aca4 influence on ,english education1 #aca4 literary work of1 #aca4 statesmanship of1 #acj4 ,algebra1 modern form of1 #ade4 ,allgemeine ,paedagogik1 ,herbart's1 #bha4 ,ambrose1 ,st41 bishop of ,milan1 #aad4 ,america1 discovery of1 #afe4 ,american ,revolution1 establishes principle of self-government1 #bci4 ,analects of ,confucius1 #bh4 ,analytical method of ,aristotle1 #fg4 ,anatomy1 in ,milton's scheme of education1 #bai4 ,annual ,reports1 ,horace ,mann's1 #bhf4 of ,bureau of ,education1 #caj4 ,anselm1 founder of scholasticism1 #abb4 ,antioch1 catechetical school at1 #ajg4 ,antioch ,college1 ,horace ,mann president of1 #bhh4 ,apostles1 active in education1 #aja4 ,apostles' ,creed1 taught during ,charlemagne's reign1 #abh4 ,apostolic ,constitution quoted1 #aac4 ,apprentice schools1 in ,france1 #bii4 ,aquinas1 ,thomas1 ,benedictine teacher1 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#bic4 privileges granted to1 #adb4 rise of1 #aci-adb4 services of1 #adb4 ,state1 in ,france1 #bii4 ,upsala1 university at1 #ada4 ,vasseur1 ,therese le1 wife of ,rousseau1 #bdb4 ,veda1 ,bible of ,india1 #cj4 reading lessons from1 #cc4 ,vergil1 ,roman poet1 #gd4 ,vespasian1 honors ,quintilian1 #hf4 ,vienna1 university established at1 #abd1 #ada4 ,vogel1 on errors of ,emile1 #bdd4 ,volksschule 7common school7 in ,germany1 #bib4 ,voltaire1 condemns ,jesuit education1 #ahg4 on ,fenelon1 #bbg4 ,voluntary schools1 in ,england1 #cje n41 #cjf4 ,von ,moltke1 quoted1 #bie4 ,waldenses1 reformers in ,italy1 #afe4 ,war1 preparation for1 chief end of education in ,persia1 #ch4 ,warens1 ,madame de1 befriends ,rousseau1 #bdb4 ,warriors1 education of1 #cd4 marriage of1 #cb4 second caste in ,india1 #cj4 ,weigel1 ,erhard1 founds ,real-school1 #bcf4 ,weimar1 ,duke of1 law for compulsory education1 #bjc4 ,westminster1 school at1 #cjf4 ,williams1 ,professor1 on ,comenius's services to pedagogy1 #bad4 on ,locke1 #bbc4 on ,ratke1 #bji4 on ,sturm's school course1 #agf1 #agg4 ,winchester1 school at1 #cjf4 ,winship1 ,mr41 on ,mann's ,seventh ,annual ,report1 #bhg1 #bhh4 ,wittenberg1 center of humanistic studies1 #agb4 ,luther professor at1 #afh4 ,women1 education of1 among ,jews1 #da4 education of1 during ,charlemagne's reign1 #abh4 education of1 in ,aristotle's scheme1 #fg4 education of1 in ,athens1 #fj4 education of1 in ,china1 #dg4 education of1 in ,egypt1 #ej4 education of1 in ,india1 #ce4 education of1 in ,persia1 #ch4 education of1 in ,rome1 #hj4 education of1 in ,sparta1 #ga4 education of1 ,rousseau's ideas of1 #bdh4 improvement in culture of1 #ij4 ,montaigne's contempt for1 #aih4 status of1 among ,jews1 #da1 #dd4 status of1 among oriental nations1 #ij4 status of1 in ,athens1 #eh4 status of1 in ,china1 #bb1 #bg4 status of1 in ,egypt1 #di1 #ea4 status of1 in ,india1 #ca1 #cb1 #ce4 status of1 in ,persia1 #cg4 status of1 in ,rome1 #gf4 status of1 in ,sparta1 #fi1 #ga4 ,working schools1 ,locke urges establishment of1 #bbb4 ,writing1 during ,charlemagne's reign1 #abh4 in ,athens1 #eh4 in ,chinese schools1 #bd4 in ,egypt1 #ej4 in ,india1 #cb1 #cc4 in ,jewish schools1 #dc4 in monastic education1 #aai4 in ,persian schools1 #ch4 in ,roman schools1 #gh4 neglected in ,sparta1 #ga4 ,wuertemberg1 active in school work1 #bjc4 ,wuerzburg1 ,university of1 #ada4 ,wuttke1 quoted1 #cd4 ,wyclif1 reformer1 #afe4 ,xantippe1 wife of ,socrates1 #fa4 ,xenophon1 testimony to ,socrates1 #fb4 ,yellow ,springs1 ,antioch ,college at1 #bhh4 ,yverdon1 ,froebel at1 #bgd4 ,pestalozzi's school at1 #bfg1 #bfh4 ,zeus1 ,olympian festivals in honor of1 #ee4 ,ziller ,school1 #bha4 ,zoroaster1 dualistic philosophy of1 #ci4 founder of ,persian religion1 #ci4 religion of1 in ,persia1 #cg4 ,zwingli1 ,swiss reformer1 #afe4 ,a ,,system ,,of ,,pedagogy ,by ,,emerson ,e4 ,,white1 ,a4,m41 ,,ll4,d4 ,elements of ,pedagogy #a4jj ,school ,management and ,moral ,training #a4jj ,art of ,teaching #a4jj ,by the safe path of experience and in the light of modern psychology the ,,elements ,,of ,,pedagogy points out the limitations of the ordinary systems of school education and shows how their methods may be harmonized and cooerdinated4 ,the fundamental principles of teaching are expounded in a manner which is both logical and convincing1 and such a variety and wealth of pedagogical principles are presented as are seldom to be found in a single text-book4 ,,school ,,management discusses school government and moral training from the standpoint of experience1 observation1 and study4 ,avoiding dogmatism1 the author carefully states the grounds of his views and suggestions1 and freely uses the fundamental facts of mental and moral science4 ,so practical are the applications of principles1 and so apt are the concrete illustrations that the book can not fail to be of interest and profit to all teachers1 whether experienced or inexperienced4 ,in the ,,art ,,of ,,teaching the fundamental principles are presented in a clear and helpful manner1 and afterwards applied in methods of teaching that are generic and comprehensive4 ,great pains has been taken to show the true functions of special methods and to point out their limitations1 with a view to prevent teachers from accepting them as general methods and making them hobbies4 ,the book throws a clear light1 not only on fundamental methods and processes1 but also on oral illustrations1 book study1 class instruction and management1 written examinations and promotions of pupils1 and other problems of great importance4 ,,american ,,book ,,company ,,standards ,,in ,,education ,including ,industrial ,training ,by ,,arthur ,,henry ,,chamberlain1 ,b4,s41 ,a4,m41 ,dean and ,professor of ,education1 ,throop ,polytechnic ,institute4 #a4jj ,the present widespread agitation for a more purposeful curriculum is fully recognized by this work on practical pedagogy4 ,it discusses modern elementary education in a helpful manner1 setting forth its acknowledged defects of standard1 and presenting suggestions for the introduction of more industrial training4 ,the book is broad in the best sense1 and every problem affecting the school and its relation to the outside world is dealt with so simply and convincingly as to be clear to everybody1 whether teachers or parents4 ,only the great issues of education are considered4 ,,education ,,through ,,music ,by ,,charles ,,hubert ,,farnsworth1 ,adjunct ,professor of ,music1 ,teachers ,college1 ,columbia ,university4 #a4jj ,a book for grade teachers which enables them to teach music in their schools with the same ease and success as the ordinary branches of study4 ,yet it is no less valuable for the music supervisor1 the principal1 and the superintendent1 and it is an excellent text for all schools in which special teachers of music are trained4 ,it is at once a rule1 a guide1 and an inspiration1 and points out the place of music in the general educational scheme4 ,it lays out the work step by step for each year of the elementary school1 and never leaves the teacher in doubt on any point4 ,the methods of presentation are applicable to any music course4 ,,american ,,book ,,company ---------------------------------------- --------- ,transcriber's ,note3 ,typographical errors corrected in the text3 ,page #bcd ,pedagogism changed to ,pedagogium ,page #cai ,questionaire changed to ,questionnaire ,page #cdj ,mechlenburg changed to ,mecklenburg ,page #cdf ,schwickrath changed to ,schwickerath ,page #cdi ,peslalozzi changed to ,pestalozzi ---------------------------------------- ---------