,the ,home ,medical ,library ,by ,,kenelm ,,winslow1 ,b4,a4,s41 ,m4,d4 ,formerly ,assistant ,professor ,comparative ,therapeutics1 ,harvard ,university2 ,late ,surgeon to the ,newton ,hospital2 ,fellow of the ,massachusetts ,medical ,society1 etc4 ,with the ,cooperation of ,many ,medical ,advising ,editors and ,special ,contributors ,,in ,,six ,,volumes ,first ,aid 33 ,family ,medicines 33 ,nose1 ,throat1 ,lungs1 ,eye1 and ,ear 33 ,stomach and ,bowels 33 ,tumors and ,skin ,diseases 33 ,rheumatism 33 ,germ ,diseases ,nervous ,diseases 33 ,insanity 33 ,sexual ,hygiene ,woman and ,child 33 ,heart1 ,blood1 and ,digestion ,personal ,hygiene 33 ,indoor ,exercise ,diet and ,conduct for ,long ,life 33 ,practical ,kitchen ,science 33 ,nervousness and ,outdoor ,life 33 ,nurse and ,patient ,camping ,comfort 33 ,sanitation of the ,household 33 ,pure ,water ,supply 33 ,pure ,food ,stable and ,kennel ,,new ,,york ,the ,review of ,reviews ,company #aijg ,medical ,advising ,editors ,managing ,editor ,,albert ,,warren ,,ferris1 ,a4,m41 ,m4,d4 ,former ,assistant in ,neurology1 ,columbia ,university2 ,former ,chairman1 ,section on ,neurology and ,psychiatry1 ,new ,york ,academy of ,medicine2 ,assistant in ,medicine1 ,university and ,bellevue ,hospital ,medical ,college2 ,medical ,editor1 ,new ,international ,encyclopedia4 ,nervous ,diseases ,,charles ,e4 ,,atwood1 ,m4,d4 ,assistant in ,neurology1 ,columbia ,university2 ,former ,physician1 ,utica ,state ,hospital and ,bloomingdale ,hospital for ,insane ,patients2 ,former ,clinical ,assistant to ,sir ,william ,gowers1 ,national ,hospital1 ,london4 ,pregnancy ,,russell ,,bellamy1 ,m4,d4 ,assistant in ,obstetrics and ,gynecology1 ,cornell ,university ,medical ,college ,dispensary2 ,captain and ,assistant ,surgeon 7in charge71 ,squadron ,a1 ,new ,york ,cavalry2 ,assistant in ,surgery1 ,new ,york ,polyclinic4 ,germ ,diseases ,,hermann ,,michael ,,biggs1 ,m4,d4 ,general ,medical ,officer and ,director of ,bacteriological ,laboratories1 ,new ,york ,city ,department of ,health2 ,professor of ,clinical ,medicine in ,university and ,bellevue ,hospital ,medical ,college2 ,visiting ,physician to ,bellevue1 ,st4 ,vincent's1 ,willard ,parker1 and ,riverside ,hospitals4 ,the ,eye and ,ear ,j4 ,,herbert ,,claiborne1 ,m4,d4 ,clinical ,instructor in ,ophthalmology1 ,cornell ,university ,medical ,college2 ,former ,adjunct ,professor of ,ophthalmology1 ,new ,york ,polyclinic2 ,former ,instructor in ,ophthalmology in ,columbia ,university2 ,surgeon1 ,new ,amsterdam ,eye and ,ear ,hospital4 ,sanitation ,,thomas ,,darlington1 ,m4,d4 ,health ,commissioner of ,new ,york ,city2 ,former ,president ,medical ,board1 ,new ,york ,foundling ,hospital2 ,consulting ,physician1 ,french ,hospital2 ,attending ,physician1 ,st4 ,john's ,riverside ,hospital1 ,yonkers2 ,surgeon to ,new ,croton ,aqueduct and other ,public ,works1 to ,copper ,queen ,consolidated ,mining ,company of ,arizona1 and ,arizona and ,southeastern ,railroad ,hospital2 ,author of ,medical and ,climatological ,works4 ,menstruation ,,austin ,,flint1 ,,jr41 ,m4,d4 ,professor of ,obstetrics and ,clinical ,gynecology1 ,new ,york ,university and ,bellevue ,hospital ,medical ,college2 ,visiting ,physician1 ,bellevue ,hospital2 ,consulting ,obstetrician1 ,new ,york ,maternity ,hospital2 ,attending ,physician1 ,hospital for ,ruptured and ,crippled1 ,manhattan ,maternity and ,emergency ,hospitals4 ,heart and ,blood ,,john ,,bessner ,,huber1 ,a4,m41 ,m4,d4 ,assistant in ,medicine1 ,university and ,bellevue ,hospital ,medical ,college2 ,visiting ,physician to ,st4 ,joseph's ,home for ,consumptives2 ,author of ,consumption3 ,its ,relation to ,man and ,his ,civilization2 ,its ,prevention and ,cure4 ,skin ,diseases ,,james ,c4 ,,johnston1 ,a4,b41 ,m4,d4 ,instructor in ,pathology and ,chief of ,clinic1 ,department of ,dermatology1 ,cornell ,university ,medical ,college4 ,diseases of ,children ,,charles ,,gilmore ,,kerley1 ,m4,d4 ,professor of ,pediatrics1 ,new ,york ,polyclinic ,medical ,school and ,hospital2 ,attending ,physician1 ,new ,york ,infant ,asylum1 ,children's ,department of ,sydenham ,hospital1 and ,babies' ,hospital1 ,n4 ,y42 ,consulting ,physician1 ,home for ,crippled ,children4 ,bites and ,stings ,,george ,,gibier ,,rambaud1 ,m4,d4 ,president1 ,new ,york ,pasteur ,institute4 ,headache ,,alonzo ,d4 ,,rockwell1 ,a4,m41 ,m4,d4 ,former ,professor ,electro-,therapeutics and ,neurology at ,new ,york ,post-,graduate ,medical ,school2 ,neurologist and ,electro-,therapeutist to the ,flushing ,hospital2 ,former ,electro-,therapeutist to the ,woman's ,hospital in the ,state of ,new ,york2 ,author of ,works on ,medical and ,surgical ,uses of ,electricity1 ,nervous ,exhaustion 7,neurasthenia71 etc4 ,poisons ,e4 ,,ellsworth ,,smith1 ,m4,d4 ,pathologist1 ,st4 ,john's ,hospital1 ,yonkers2 ,somerset ,hospital1 ,somerville1 ,n4 ,j42 ,trinity ,hospital1 ,st4 ,bartholomew's ,clinic1 and the ,new ,york ,west ,side ,german ,dispensary4 ,catarrh ,,samuel ,,wood ,,thurber1 ,m4,d4 ,chief of ,clinic and ,instructor in ,laryngology1 ,columbia ,university2 ,laryngologist to the ,orphan's ,home and ,hospital4 ,care of ,infants ,,herbert ,b4 ,,wilcox1 ,m4,d4 ,assistant in ,diseases of ,children1 ,columbia ,university4 ,special ,contributors ,food ,adulteration ,s4 ,,josephine ,,baker1 ,m4,d4 ,medical ,inspector1 ,new ,york ,city ,department of ,health4 ,pure ,water ,supply ,,william ,,paul ,,gerhard1 ,c4,e4 ,consulting ,engineer for ,sanitary ,works2 ,member of ,american ,public ,health ,association2 ,member1 ,american ,society ,mechanical ,engineers2 ,corresponding ,member of ,american ,institute of ,architects1 etc42 ,author of ,house ,drainage1 etc4 ,care of ,food ,,janet ,,mckenzie ,,hill ,editor1 ,boston ,cooking ,school ,magazine4 ,nerves and ,outdoor ,life ,s4 ,,weir ,,mitchell1 ,m4,d41 ,,ll4,d4 ,,ll4,d4 7,harvard1 ,edinburgh1 ,princeton72 ,former ,president1 ,philadelphia ,college of ,physicians2 ,member1 ,national ,academy of ,sciences1 ,association of ,american ,physicians1 etc42 ,author of essays3 ,injuries to ,nerves1 ,doctor and ,patient1 ,fat and ,blood1 etc42 of scientific works3 ,researches ,upon the ,venom of the ,rattlesnake1 etc42 of novels3 ,hugh ,wynne1 ,characteristics1 ,constance ,trescott1 ,the ,adventures of ,francois1 etc4 ,sanitation ,,george ,m4 ,,price1 ,m4,d4 ,former ,medical ,sanitary ,inspector1 ,department of ,health1 ,new ,york ,city2 ,inspector1 ,new ,york ,sanitary ,aid ,society of the #ajth ,ward1 #ahhe2 ,manager1 ,model ,tenement-houses of the ,new ,york ,tenement-house ,building ,co41 #ahhh2 ,inspector1 ,new ,york ,state ,tenement-house ,commission1 #ahie2 ,author of ,tenement-house ,inspection1 ,handbook on ,sanitation1 etc4 ,indoor ,exercise ,,dudley ,,allen ,,sargent1 ,m4,d4 ,director of ,hemenway ,gymnasium1 ,harvard ,university2 ,former ,president1 ,american ,physical ,culture ,society2 ,director1 ,normal ,school of ,physical ,training1 ,cambridge1 ,mass42 ,president1 ,american ,association for ,promotion of ,physical ,education2 ,author of ,universal ,test for ,strength1 ,health1 ,strength and ,power1 etc4 ,long ,life ,,sir ,,henry ,,thompson1 ,bart41 ,f4,r4,c4,s41 ,m4,b4 7,lond47 ,surgeon ,extraordinary to ,his ,majesty the ,king of the ,belgians2 ,consulting ,surgeon to ,university ,college ,hospital1 ,london2 ,emeritus ,professor of ,clinical ,surgery to ,university ,college1 ,london1 etc4 ,camp ,comfort ,,stewart ,,edward ,,white ,author of ,the ,forest1 ,the ,mountains1 ,the ,silent ,places1 ,the ,blazed ,trail1 etc4 ,illustration3 ,,walter ,,reed4 ,in the year #aijj1 ,major ,walter ,reed1 a surgeon in the ,united ,states ,army1 demonstrated1 by experiments conducted in ,cuba1 that a mosquito of a single species1 ,stegomyia fasciata1 which has sucked the blood of a yellow-fever patient may transmit the disease by biting another person1 but not until about twelve days have elapsed4 ,he also proved1 as described in ,volume ,i1 ,part ,,ii1 that the malady is not contagious4 ,with the exception of the discovery of anaesthesia1 said ,professor ,welch1 of ,johns ,hopkins ,university1 ,dr4 ,reed's researches are the most valuable contributions to science ever made in this country4 ,general ,leonard ,wood declared the discovery to be the greatest medical work of modern times1 which1 in the words of ,president ,roosevelt1 renders mankind his debtor4 ,major ,reed died ,november #bc1 #aijb4 ,the ,home ,medical ,library ,,volume ,v 33 ,,sanitation ,edited by ,,thomas ,,darlington1 ,m4,d4 ,health ,commissioner of ,new ,york ,city2 ,former ,president ,medical ,board1 ,new ,york ,foundling ,hospital1 etc42 ,author of ,medical and ,climatological ,works ,,water ,,supply ,,and ,,purification ,by ,,william ,,paul ,,gerhard1 ,c4,e4 ,consulting ,engineer for ,sanitary ,works2 ,author of ,house ,drainage1 ,sanitary ,engineering1 ,household ,wastes1 etc4 ,,pure ,,food ,,for ,,the ,,housekeeper ,by ,s4 ,,josephine ,,baker1 ,m4,d4 ,medical ,inspector1 ,new ,york ,city ,department of ,health ,,the ,,house ,,and ,,grounds ,by ,,george ,m4 ,,price1 ,m4,d4 ,former ,medical ,sanitary ,inspector1 ,department of ,health1 ,new ,york ,city2 ,author of ,tenement-,house ,inspection1 ,handbook on ,sanitation1 etc4 ,,new ,,york ,the ,review of ,reviews ,company #aijg ,copyright1 #aijg1 by ,,the ,,review ,,of ,,reviews ,,company ,,the ,,trow ,,press1 ,,new ,,york ,contents ,,part ,i ,,chapter ,,page ,i4 ,,country ,,sources ,,of ,,water ,,supply #ai ,relation of ,water to ,health--,collection of ,rain ,water--,cisterns--,springs--,various ,kinds of ,wells--,laws ,regulating ,supply4 ,,ii4 ,,appliances ,,for ,,distributing ,,water #ci ,pumping ,machines--,the ,hydraulic ,ram--,use of ,windmills--,engines--,steam and ,electric ,pumps--,reservoirs and ,tanks--,appliances for ,country ,houses4 ,,iii4 ,,purifying ,,water ,,by ,,copper ,,sulphate #eb ,clear ,water ,often ,dangerous--,pollution ,due to ,plants--,copper ,sulphate ,method--,directions for the ,copper ,cure4 ,,iv4 ,,ridding ,,stagnant ,,water ,,of ,,mosquitoes #gj ,malaria ,due to ,mosquitoes--,cause of ,yellow ,fever--,effect of a ,mosquito ,bite--,destruction of ,larvae--,best ,preventive ,measures--,use of ,kerosene4 ,,part ,,ii ,i4 ,,how ,,to ,,detect ,,food ,,adulteration #hg ,definition of ,adulteration--,food ,laws--,permissible ,adulterants--,how to ,select ,pure ,food--,chemical ,tests4 ,,ii4 ,,mushroom ,,poisoning #aab ,symptoms and ,treatment--,coffee and ,atropine the ,best ,antidotes--,how to ,tell the ,edible ,kind--,horse1 ,fairy-ring1 and ,other ,varieties--,poisonous ,species4 ,,part ,,iii ,i4 ,,soil ,,and ,,sites #aca ,constituents of the ,soil--,influence on ,health--,improving ,defective ,soil--,street ,paving and ,tree ,planting--,proper ,construction of ,houses--,subsoil ,drainage4 ,,ii4 ,,ventilation #adf ,what is ,meant by ,ventilation--,quantity of ,air ,required--,natural ,agents of ,ventilation--,special ,appliances4 ,,iii4 ,,warming #afj ,various ,methods--,materials of ,combustion--,chimneys--,fireplaces and ,grates--,stoves--,hot-air ,warming--,hot-water ,systems--,principles of ,steam ,heating4 ,,iv4 ,,disposal ,,of ,,sewage #agj ,refuse and ,garbage--,discharge into ,waters--,cremation--,precipitation--,in termittent ,filtration--,immediate ,disposal1 etc4 ,v4 ,,sewers #ahb ,definition--,materials ,used in ,construction--,levels of ,trenches--,joints of ,pipes--,the ,fall and ,flow of the ,contents--,connections--,tide ,valves--,sewer ,gas4 ,,vi4 ,,plumbing #ahi ,purposes and ,requisites--,materials ,used--,joints and ,connections--,construction of ,traps--,siphonage and ,back ,pressure--,the ,vent-pipe ,system4 ,,vii4 ,,plumbing ,,pipes #bjf ,construction of ,house ,drains--,fall1 ,position1 and ,connection--,main ,traps--,extension of ,vertical ,pipes--,fresh-air ,inlets--,soil and ,waste ,pipes--,branch ,pipes1 etc4 ,,viii4 ,,plumbing ,,fixtures #baf ,sinks--,washbasins--,washtubs--,bathtub s--,refrigerators1 etc4--,safes and ,wastes--,pan1 ,valve1 and ,hopper ,closets--,flush ,tanks--,yard ,closets--,drains4 ,,ix4 ,,defects ,,in ,,plumbing #bca ,poor ,work--,improper ,conditions--,how to ,test ,traps1 ,joints1 and ,connections--,detect ,sewer ,gas--,water-pressure1 ,smoke1 and ,scent ,tests--,special ,appliances4 ,x4 ,,infection ,,and ,,disinfection #bch ,physical and ,chemical ,disinfectants--,use of ,sulphur ,dioxide--,formaldehyde--,hydrocyanic ,acid--,chlorine--,carbolic ,acid--,bichloride of ,mercury--,formalin--,potassium ,permanganate1 etc4 ,,xi4 ,,cost ,,of ,,conveyed ,,heating ,,systems #bed ,cost of ,hot-air ,systems--,cast-iron ,hot-water ,heater--,advantages and ,disadvantages--,cost for a ,ten-room ,house--,steam ,heating--,cost of ,equipment4 ,the ,editor's ,preface ,the character and scope of this volume render it a most useful book for the home maker4 ,the question of sanitation is one that closely affects the life of each individual1 and many of its aspects are treated here in a lucid and comprehensive manner4 ,designed for wide distribution1 these articles have been written to meet the needs of the dweller in the more densely populated communities1 as well as those living in the less thickly settled portion of the country4 ,in large cities the water supply is a problem that is cared for by regularly constituted sanitary authorities4 ,pure water is a vital necessity1 but the inhabitant of a city has no need to personally concern himself with the source of supply4 ,in the country1 however1 the home builder must often decide the matter for himself1 and it is the aim of this book to give him the needed directions for avoiding many errors and pitfalls that abound in this direction4 ,house construction1 with its intricate problems1 is also a more serious matter for the country dweller than for his city brother4 ,in the matter of food supply1 the inhabitant of a country district is more fortunate4 ,fresh vegetables and dairy products are much more easily obtained1 and their freshness and purity more dependable4 ,the article on water supply by ,mr4 ,gerhard is authoritative1 written1 as it is1 by a most eminent sanitarian4 ,the publishers are to be congratulated upon the following valuable contribution to the same subject as regards the use of copper sulphate and the concise presentation of plans for mosquito extermination1 while the extended work of ,dr4 ,price and ,dr4 ,baker's ,food ,adulteration are much to be commended4 ,the two latter have been connected with the ,department of ,health of ,new ,york ,city1 and have the advantage of experience in an organization which gives to the citizens of ,new ,york the protection to health that the wise use of science1 knowledge1 and money afford4 ,i trust that the notes ,i have added in the light of recent practice of the ,new ,york ,city ,department of ,health may make this material of the utmost practical value to the householder of to-day4 ,through this ,department of ,health1 ,new ,york ,city spent1 during #aije1 over #a1ejj1jjj1 and for #aijf it has appropriated over #a1hjj1jjj4 ,this vast sum of money is used for the sole purpose of safeguarding its citizens from disease4 ,sanitation in its varied branches is pursued as an almost exact science1 and the efforts of trained minds are constantly employed in combating disease and promoting sanitation4 ,the cities care for their own1 but the greater number of the inhabitants of this country must rely upon their individual efforts4 ,therefore1 any dissemination of knowledge regarding sanitation is most worthy4 ,this book has a useful mission4 ,it is pregnant with helpful suggestions1 and ,i most heartily commend its purpose and its contents4 ,,thomas ,,darlington1 ,president of the ,board of ,health4 ,,new ,,york ,,city4 ,part ,i ,,water ,,supply ,,and ,,purification ,,by ,,william ,,paul ,,gerhard ,,chapter ,i ,country ,sources of ,water ,supply ,the writer was recently engaged to plan and install a water-supply system for a country house which had been erected and completed without any provision whatever having been made for supplying the buildings and grounds with water4 ,the house had all the usual appointments for comfort and ample modern conveniences1 but these could be used only with water borrowed from a neighbor4 ,in all parts of the country there are numerous farm buildings which are without a proper water-supply installation4 ,these facts are mentioned to emphasize the importance of a good water supply for the country home1 and to point out that water is unquestionably the most indispensable requirement for such structures4 ,adequate ,water ,supply ,important ,but the advantages of a water supply are not limited to the dwelling house1 for it is equally useful on the farm1 for irrigation1 and in the garden1 on the golf grounds and tennis courts1 in the barns and stables2 it affords1 besides1 the best means for the much-desired fire protection4 ,and1 most important of all1 an unstinted and adequate use of water promotes cleanliness and thereby furthers the cause of sanitation1 in the country not less than in the city home4 ,the water supply for country houses has been so often discussed recently that the writer cannot hope to bring up any new points4 ,this article should1 therefore1 be understood to offer simple suggestions as to how and where water can be obtained1 what water is pure and fit for use1 what water must be considered with suspicion1 what water is dangerous to health1 and how a source of supply1 meeting the requirements of health1 can be made available for convenient use4 ,right here ,i wish to utter a warning against the frequent tendency of owners of country houses to play the role of amateur engineers4 ,as a rule this leads to failure and disappointment4 ,much money uselessly spent can be saved if owners will1 from the beginning1 place the matter in experienced hands1 or at least seek the advice of competent engineers1 and adopt their suggestions and recommendations as a guide4 ,points to be ,borne in ,mind ,many are the points to be borne in mind in the search for water4 ,science teaches us that all water comes from the clouds1 the atmospheric precipitation being in the form of either rain1 or dew1 or snow4 ,after reaching the earth's surface1 the water takes three different courses1 and these are mentioned here because they serve to explain the different sources of supply and their varied character4 ,a part of the water runs off on the surface1 forming brooks1 streams1 and lakes1 and if it falls on roofs of houses or on prepared catchment areas1 it can be collected in cisterns or tanks as rain water4 ,another part of the water soaks away into pervious strata of the subsoil1 and constitutes underground water1 which becomes available for supply either in springs or in wells4 ,a third part is either absorbed by plants or else evaporated4 ,in our search for a source of supply1 we should always bear in mind the essential requirements of the problem4 ,briefly stated1 these are3 the wholesomeness of the water1 the adequateness and steadiness of the supply1 its availability under a sufficient pressure1 insuring a good flow1 and the legal restrictions with which many water-supply problems are surrounded4 ,the first essential requirement is that of wholesomeness4 ,the quality of a water supply is dependent upon physical properties and upon chemical and bacteriological characteristics4 ,water1 to be suitable for drinking1 must be neither too hard nor too soft2 it should not contain too many suspended impurities1 nor too much foreign matter in solution4 ,pure water is colorless and without odor4 ,but it must be understood that the quality cannot be decided merely by the color1 appearance1 taste1 and odor4 ,the chemical and bacteriological examinations1 if taken together1 form a much safer guide1 and with these analyses should go hand in hand a detailed survey of the water source and its surroundings4 ,relation of ,water to ,health ,any pronounced taste in the water renders it suspicious2 an offensive smell points to organic contamination2 turbidity indicates presence of suspended impurities1 which may be either mineral or organic4 ,but even bright and sparkling waters having a very good taste are sometimes found to be highly polluted4 ,hence1 it should be remembered that neither bright appearance nor lack of bad taste warrants the belief that water is free from dangerous contamination4 ,it is a well-established fact now that there is a relation between the character of the water supply and the health of a community2 and what is true of cities1 villages1 and towns1 is1 of course1 equally true of the individual country house4 ,how ,water ,becomes ,contaminated ,there are numerous ways in which water may become polluted1 either at the source or during storage or finally during distribution4 ,rain water1 falling pure from the clouds1 encounters dust1 soot1 decaying leaves and other vegetable matters1 and ordure of birds on the roofs2 its quality is also affected by the roofing material1 or else it is contaminated in the cisterns by leakage from drains or cesspools4 ,upland waters contain generally vegetable matter1 while surface water from cultivated lands becomes polluted by animal manure4 ,river water becomes befouled by the discharge into it of the sewers from settlements and towns located on its banks4 ,subsoil water is liable to infiltration of solid and liquid wastes emanating from the human system1 from leaky drains1 sewers1 or cesspools1 stables1 or farmyards2 and even deep well water may become contaminated by reason of defects in the construction of the well4 ,during storage1 water becomes contaminated in open reservoirs by atmospheric impurities2 a growth of vegetable organisms or algae often causes trouble1 bad taste1 or odor2 water in open house tanks and in cisterns is also liable to pollution4 ,during distribution1 water may become changed in quality1 owing to the action of the water on the material of the pipes4 ,from what source shall good water be obtained8 ,this is the problem which confronts many of those who decide to build in the country4 ,the usual sources1 in their relative order of purity1 are3 deep springs and land or surface springs1 located either above or below the house1 but not too near to settlements2 deep subterranean water1 made available by boring or drilling a well2 upland or mountain brooks from uninhabited regions2 underground water in places not populated1 reached by a dug or driven well2 lake water2 rain water2 surface water from cultivated fields2 pond and river water2 and finally1 least desirable of all1 shallow well water in villages or towns4 ,these various sources of supply will be considered farther on4 ,an ,ample ,volume ,necessary ,the second essential requirement is ample quantity4 ,the supply must be one which furnishes an ample volume at all seasons and for all purposes4 ,what is a reasonable daily domestic consumption8 ,the answer to this question necessarily depends upon the character of the building and the habits and occupation of its inmates4 ,it is a universal experience that as soon as water is introduced it is used more lavishly1 but also more recklessly and regardless of waste4 ,for personal use1 from twenty to twenty-five gallons per person should prove to be ample per day3 this comprises water for drinking and cooking1 for washing clothes1 house and kitchen utensils1 personal ablutions1 and bathing2 but1 taking into account other requirements on the farm or of country houses1 we require at least sixty gallons per capita per diem4 ,to provide water for the horses1 cows1 sheep1 for carriage washing1 for the garden1 for irrigation of the lawn1 for fountains1 etc41 and keep a suitable reserve in case of fire1 the supply should be not less than #aej gallons per person per day4 ,a ,good ,pressure ,required ,the third essential requirement is a good water pressure4 ,where a suitable source of water is found1 it pays to make it conveniently available1 so as to avoid carrying water by hand1 which is troublesome and not conducive to cleanliness4 ,a sufficient pressure is attained by either storing water at1 or lifting it to1 a suitable elevation above the point of consumption4 ,in this respect many farm and country houses are found to be but very imperfectly supplied4 ,often the tank is placed only slightly higher than the second story of the house4 ,as a result1 the water flows sluggishly at the bathroom faucets1 and1 in case of fire1 no effective fire stream can be thrown4 ,where a reservoir is suitably located above the house1 the pressure is sometimes lost by laying pipes too small in diameter to furnish an ample stream4 ,elevated tanks should always be placed so high as to afford a good working pressure in the entire system of pipes4 ,where a tower of the required height is objectionable1 either on account of the cost or on account of appearance1 pressure tanks may be installed which have many advantages4 ,in selecting a source of water supply1 the following points should be borne in mind for guidance3 first1 the wholesomeness of the water2 next1 the cost required to collect1 store1 and distribute the water2 finally1 where a gravity supply is unavailable1 the probable operating expenses of the water system1 cost of pumping1 etc4 ,collection of ,rain ,water ,the collection of rain water near extensive manufacturing establishments is not advisable1 except where arrangements are provided for either filtering or distilling the water4 ,in the country1 rain water is pure and good1 if the precaution is observed to allow the first wash from roofs to run to waste4 ,the rain may be either caught on the roofs1 which must always have a clean surface and clean gutters1 or else on artificially prepared catchment areas4 ,as an example1 ,i quote3 ,all about the ,bermuda ,islands one sees great white scars on the hill slopes4 ,these are dished spaces1 where the soil has been scraped off and the coral rock exposed and glazed with hard whitewash4 ,some of these are a quarter acre in size4 ,they catch and carry the rainfall to reservoirs1 for the wells are few and poor1 and there are no natural springs and no brooks4 7,mark ,twain1 ,some ,rambling ,notes of an ,idle ,excursion47 ,after the close of the ,boer ,war the ,english sent about #g1jjj ,boer prisoners of war to ,bermuda1 where they were encamped on some of the smaller islands of the group1 and the entire water supply for the encampment was obtained by building artificial catchment areas as described in the above quotation4 ,sometimes1 instead of building underground cisterns1 rain water is caught and stored in barrels above ground2 if so1 these should always be well covered1 not only to avoid pollution1 but to prevent the barrels from becoming mosquito breeders4 ,cisterns should always be built with care and made water-tight and impervious4 ,the walls should be lined with cemented brickwork4 ,in soil consisting of hard pan1 cisterns in some parts of the country are built without brick walls1 the walls of the excavation being simply cemented4 ,i do not approve of such cheap construction1 particularly where the cistern is located near a privy or cesspool4 ,pollution of cistern water is often due to the cracking of the cement lining4 ,overflows of cisterns should never be connected with a drain1 sewer1 or cesspool4 ,run the overflow into some surface ditch and provide the mouth with a fine wire screen1 to exclude small animals4 ,it is not recommended to build cisterns in cellars of houses4 ,quality of ,water ,obtained from ,lakes ,lakes yield1 as a rule1 a supply of clear1 bright1 and soft water4 ,this is particularly the case with mountain lakes1 because they are at a distance from sources of contamination4 ,the character of the water depends upon whether the lake is fed by brooks1 that is1 by the rain falling upon the watershed1 or also by springs4 ,in one case the water is surface water exclusively2 in the other1 it is surface and underground water mixed4 ,the purity also depends upon the depth of the lake and upon the character of its bottom4 ,deep lakes furnish a better supply and clearer water than shallow ones4 ,the solid matter brought into the lake by the brooks or rivers which feed it does not remain long in suspension1 but soon settles at the bottom1 and in this way some lakes acquire the wonderfully clear water and the beautiful bluish-green color for which they are far famed4 ,strong ,winds ,dangerous on ,lakes ,strong winds or currents at times stir up the mud from the bottom2 hence1 in locating the intake1 the direction of the prevailing winds should be considered1 if practicable4 ,the suction pipe should always be placed in deep water1 at a depth of at least fifteen to twenty feet1 for here the water is purer and always cooler4 ,settlements on the shores of a lake imply danger of sewage contamination1 but the larger the lake1 the less is the danger of a marked or serious pollution1 if the houses are scattered and few4 ,pools and stagnant ponds are not to be recommended as a source of supply4 ,in artificially made lakes there is sometimes danger of vegetable pollution1 and trouble with growth of algae4 ,the bottom of such lakes should always be cleared from all dead vegetation4 ,surface water may be obtained from brooks flowing through uninhabited upland or from mountain streams4 ,such water is very pure and limpid1 particularly where the stream in its downward course tumbles over rocks or forms waterfalls4 ,but1 even then1 the watershed of the stream should be guarded to prevent subsequent contamination4 ,larger creeks or rivers are not desirable as a source of supply1 for settlements of human habitations1 hamlets1 villages1 and even towns are apt to be located on the banks of the river1 which is quite generally used--wrong as it is--as an outlet for the liquid wastes of the community1 thus becoming in time grossly polluted4 ,down-stream neighbors are sure to suffer from a pollution of the stream1 which the law should prevent4 ,the ,water of ,springs ,the water of springs is subterranean1 or ground water1 which for geological reasons has found a natural outlet on the surface4 ,we distinguish two kinds of springs1 namely1 land or surface springs1 and deep springs4 ,the former furnish water which originally fell as rain upon a permeable stratum of sand or gravel1 underlaid by an impervious one of either clay or rock4 ,such water soaks away underground until it meets some obstacle causing it to crop out on the surface4 ,such spring water is not under pressure and therefore cannot again rise4 ,water from deep springs is rain water fallen on the surface of a porous stratum on a high level1 and which passes under an impermeable stratum1 and thus1 being under pressure1 rises again where an opening is encountered in the impervious stratum2 these latter springs are really artesian in character4 ,deep-spring water is less apt to be polluted than water from surface or land springs1 for it has a chance in its flow through the veins of the earth to become filtered4 ,land springs always require careful watching1 particularly in inhabited regions1 to prevent surface contamination4 ,not all ,spring ,water ,pure ,it is a popular fallacy that all spring water is absolutely pure and healthful4 ,the above explanation will be helpful in pointing out how1 in some cases1 spring water may be nothing but contaminated ground water4 ,land springs in uncultivated and uninhabited regions1 particularly in the mountains1 yield a good and pure supply4 ,but it is always advisable1 when tapping a spring for water supply1 to study its probable source1 and carefully to inspect its immediate surroundings4 ,the spring should be protected by constructing a small basin1 or reservoir1 and by building a house over this4 ,the basin will also serve to store the night flow of the spring4 ,before deciding upon a supply from a spring1 its yield should be ascertained by one of the well-known gauging methods4 ,springs are usually lowest in the months of ,october and ,november1 though there is some difference in this respect between land springs and deep springs4 ,the minimum yield of the spring determines whether it forms a supply to be relied upon at all times of the year4 ,if the spring is located higher than the grounds and buildings to be supplied1 a simple gravity supply line may be carried from it1 with pipes of good size1 thus avoiding undue friction in the line1 and stoppages4 ,if lower than the house1 the water from the spring must be raised by some pumping method4 ,all water found underground owes its origin to the rainfall4 ,if concealed water is returned to the surface by natural processes it is called spring water1 but if recovered by artificial means it is called well water4 ,different ,kinds of ,wells ,there are numerous kinds of wells1 distinguished from one another by their mode of construction1 by their depth from the surface1 by the fact of their piercing an impervious stratum or merely tapping the first underground sheet of water1 and by the height to which the water in them rises or flows4 ,thus we have shallow and deep wells1 horizontal wells or infiltration galleries1 open or dug wells1 tube wells1 non-flowing and flowing wells1 bored1 drilled1 and driven wells1 tile-lined and brick-lined wells1 and combination dug-and-tubular wells4 ,when it is desired to provide a water supply by means of wells some knowledge of the geology of the region1 of the character of the strata and of their direction and dip1 will be very useful4 ,in the case of deep wells1 it is really essential4 ,by making inquiries as to similar well operations in the neighborhood1 one may gain some useful information1 and thus1 to some extent1 avoid guesswork4 ,when one must drill or bore through rock for a very deep well1 which necessarily is expensive1 much money1 often uselessly spent1 may be saved by consulting the reports of the ,state geologist1 or the publications of the ,united ,states ,geological ,survey1 or by engaging the services of an expert hydrogeologist4 ,water ,finders ,it used to be a common practice to send for so-called water finders1 who being usually shrewd observers would locate by the aid of a hazel twig the exact spot where water could be found4 ,in searching for water one sometimes runs across these men even to-day4 ,the superstitious faith in the power of the forked twig or branch from the hazelnut bush to indicate by its twisting or turning the presence of underground water was at one time widespread1 but only the very slightest foundation of fact exists for the belief in such supernatural powers4 ,in ,europe1 attention has again1 during the past years1 been called to this method of finding water1 and it has even received the indorsement of a very high ,german authority in hydraulic engineering1 a man well up in years1 with a very wide practical experience1 and the author of the most up-to-date hand-book on ,water ,supply1 but men of science have not failed to contradict his statements4 ,definition of ,ground-water ,level ,water percolating through the soil passes downward by gravity until it reaches an impervious stratum4 ,the surface of this underground sheet of water is technically called water table or ground-water level4 ,the water is not at rest1 but has a slow and well-defined motion1 the rate of which depends upon the porosity of the soil and also upon the inclination or gradient of the water table4 ,a shallow well may be either excavated or driven into this subsoil sheet of water4 ,in populous districts1 in villages1 towns1 but also near habitations1 the soil from which water is obtained must1 of necessity1 be impregnated with organic waste matter4 ,if1 in such a surface well1 the level of the water is lowered by pumping1 the zone of pollution is extended laterally in all directions4 ,ordinary shallow well water should always be considered suspicious water4 ,there are two distinct ways in which surface wells are contaminated3 one is by leakage from cesspools1 sewers1 privies1 etc42 the other1 just as important and no less dangerous1 by direct contamination from the surface4 ,the latter danger is particularly great in wells which are open at the surface1 and from which water is drawn in buckets or pails4 ,a pump well is always the safer of the two4 ,frogs1 mice1 and other small animals are apt to fall into the water2 dust and dirt settle into it2 the wooden curb and the rotten cover also contribute to the pollution2 even the draw-buckets add to it by reason of being often handled with unclean hands4 ,always avoid1 in the country1 drinking water from farmers' wells located near cesspools or privies4 ,such shallow wells are particularly dangerous after a long-protracted drought4 ,it is impossible to define by measurement the distance from a cesspool or manure pit at which a well can be located with safety1 for this depends entirely upon local circumstances4 ,contamination of shallow wells may1 in exceptional cases1 be avoided by a proper location of the well with reference to the existing sources of impurity4 ,a well should always be placed above the source of pollution1 using the word above with reference to the direction in which the ground water flows4 ,precautions ,regarding ,wells ,other precautions to be observed with reference to surface wells are the following3 ,never dig a well near places where soil contamination has taken or is taking place4 ,line the sides of the well with either brick1 stone1 or tile pipe1 cemented in a water-tight manner to a depth of at least twenty feet from the surface1 so that no water can enter except from the bottom1 or at the sides near the bottom4 ,raise the surface at the top of the well above the grade2 arrange it so as to slope away on all sides from the well2 cover it with a flagstone1 and cement the same to prevent foreign matters from dropping into the well2 make sure that no surface water can pass directly into the well2 make some provision to carry away waste water and drippings from the well4 ,shallow wells made by driving iron tubes with well points into the subsoil water are preferable to dug wells4 ,use a draw-pump in preference to draw buckets4 ,when a well is sunk through an impervious stratum to tap the larger supply of water in the deeper strata1 we obtain a deep well4 ,water so secured is usually of great purity1 for the impurities have been filtered and strained out by the passage of the water through the soil4 ,moreover1 the nature of the construction of deep wells is such that they are more efficiently protected against contamination1 the sides being made impervious by an iron-pipe casing4 ,in some rare cases1 even deep wells show pollution due to careless jointing of the lining1 or water follows the outside of the well casing until it reaches the deeper water sheet4 ,deep wells usually yield more water than shallow driven wells1 and the supply increases perceptibly when the water level in the well is lowered by pumping4 ,while surface wells draw upon the rainfall percolating in their immediate vicinity1 deep wells are supplied by the rainfall from more remote districts4 ,deep wells are either non-flowing or flowing wells4 ,when the hydrostatic pressure under which the water stands is sufficient to make it flow freely out on the surface or at the mouth of the well1 we have a flowing1 or true artesian well4 ,character of ,water ,from ,deep ,wells ,water from deep wells is of a cool and even temperature4 ,it is usually very pure1 but in some cases made hard by mineral salts in the water4 ,sulphur is also at times present1 and some wells on the southern ,atlantic coast yield water impregnated with sulphur gases1 which1 however1 readily pass off1 leaving the water in good condition for all uses4 ,in many cases the water has a taste of iron4 ,no general rule can be quoted as to the exact amount of water which any given well will yield1 for this depends upon a number of factors4 ,increasing the diameter of very deep wells does not seem to have any marked effect in increasing the supply4 ,thus1 a two-foot well gives only from fifteen to thirty per cent more water than a three-inch-pipe well4 ,this rule does not seem to apply to shallow wells of large diameter1 for here we find that the yield is about in proportion to the diameter of the well4 ,it is interesting to note the fact that wells located near the seashore1 within the influence of the tide1 vary in the hourly flow4 ,according to ,dr4 ,honda1 of the ,university of ,tokio1 there is a remarkable concordance between the daily variations in the level of the tides and the water level in wells4 ,the water in wells one mile from the seashore was found to stand highest at high tide4 ,the daily variation amounted to sixteen centimeters1 or a little over six inches4 ,a similar variation was observed by the writer in some flowing wells located on the north shore of ,long ,island4 ,dr4 ,honda found also that the water level in wells varied with the state of the barometer1 the water level being lowered with a rise in the barometer4 ,where a large supply is wanted a series of wells may be driven1 and1 as the expense involved is considerable1 it is always advisable to begin by sinking a smaller test well to find out whether water may be had4 ,ground water may also be recovered from water-bearing strata by arranging horizontal collecting galleries with loose-jointed sides through which the water percolates4 ,such infiltration galleries have been used in some instances for the supply of towns and of manufacturing establishments1 but they are not common for the supply of country houses4 ,laws ,regulating ,appropriation of ,water ,persons contemplating the establishment of a system of water supply in the country should bear in mind that the taking of water for supply purposes is1 in nearly all ,states1 hemmed in by legal restrictions4 ,the law makes a distinction between subterranean waters1 surface waters flowing in a well-defined channel and within definite banks1 and surface waters merely spread over the ground or accumulated in natural depressions1 pools1 or in swamps4 ,there are separate and distinct laws governing each kind of water4 ,it is advisable1 where a water-supply problem presents itself1 to look up these laws1 or to consult a lawyer well versed in the law of water courses4 ,if it is the intention to take water from a lake1 the property owner should make sure that he owns the right to take such water1 and that the deed of his property does not read to high-water mark only4 ,the owner of a property not abutting on a lake has no legal right to abstract some of the water from the lake by building an infiltration gallery1 or a vertical well of large diameter intended for the same purpose4 ,on the other hand1 an owner may take subterranean water by driving or digging a well on his own property1 and it does not matter1 from the law's point of view1 whether by so doing he intercepts partly or wholly the flow of water in a neighboring well4 ,but1 if it can be shown that the subterranean water flows in a well-defined channel1 he is not permitted to do this4 ,the water from a stream cannot be appropriated or diverted for supply or irrigation purposes by a single property holder without the consent of the other riparian owners1 and without compensation to them4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,appliances for ,distributing ,water ,we have so far discussed only the various sources of potable water4 ,we must now turn our attention to the mechanical means for making it available for use1 which comprise appliances for lifting1 storing1 conveying1 distributing1 and purifying the water4 ,the location of the source of supply with reference to the buildings and grounds decides generally the question whether a gravity supply is feasible or whether water must be pumped4 ,the former is desirable because its operating expenses are almost nothing1 but it is not always cheapest in first cost4 ,rather than have a very long line of conduit1 it may be cheaper to pump water1 particularly if wind or water power1 costing nothing1 can be used4 ,machines for ,pumping ,when it becomes necessary to pump water1 there are numerous machines from which to choose2 only the more important ones will be considered4 ,we may use pumps operated by manual labor1 those run by animal power1 pumping machinery using the power of the wind or that of falling or running water2 then there are hot-air1 steam1 and electric pumps1 besides several forms of internal-combustion engines1 such as gas1 gasoline1 and oil engines4 ,each has advantages in certain locations and under certain conditions4 ,of appliances utilizing the forces of ,nature1 perhaps the simplest efficient machine is the hydraulic ram4 ,while other machines for lifting water are composed of two parts1 namely1 a motor and a pump1 the ram combines both in one apparatus4 ,it is a self-acting pump of the impulse type1 in which force is suddenly applied and discontinued1 these periodical applications resulting in the lifting of water4 ,single-acting rams pump the water which operates them2 double-acting rams utilize an impure supply to lift a pure supply from a different source4 ,the advantages of the ram are3 it works continuously1 day and night1 summer and winter1 with but very little attendance2 no lubrication is required1 repairs are few1 the first cost of installation is small4 ,frost protection1 however1 is essential4 ,the disadvantages are that a ram can be used only where a large volume of water is available4 ,the correct setting up is important1 also the proper proportioning in size and length of drive and discharge pipes4 ,the continual jarring tends to strain the pipes1 joints1 and valves2 hence1 heavy piping and fittings are necessary4 ,a ram of the improved type raises water from twenty-five to thirty feet for every foot of fall in the drive pipe1 and its efficiency is from seventy to eighty per cent4 ,running water is a most convenient and cheap power1 which is often utilized in water wheels and turbines4 ,these supply power to run a pump2 the water to be raised may come from any source1 and the pump may be placed at some distance from the water wheel4 ,where sufficient fall is available--at least three feet--the overshot wheel is used4 ,in ,california and some other ,western ,states an impulse water wheel is much used1 which is especially adapted to high heads4 ,windmills ,used for ,driving ,pumps ,the power of the wind applied to a windmill is much used for driving pumps4 ,it is a long step forward from the ancient and picturesque ,dutch form of windmill1 consisting of only four arms with cloth sails1 to the modern improved forms of wheels constructed in wood and in iron1 with a large number of impulse blades1 and provided with devices regulating the speed1 turning the wheel out of the wind during a gale1 and stopping it automatically when the storage tank is filled4 ,the useful power developed by windmills when pumping water in a moderate wind1 say of sixteen miles an hour velocity1 is not very high1 ranging from one twenty-fifth horse-power for an eight and one-half foot wheel to one and one-half horse-power for a twenty-five foot wheel4 ,the claims of some makers of windmills as to the power developed should be accepted with caution4 ,the chief advantage is that1 like a ram1 the windmill may work night and day1 with but slight attention to lubrication1 so long as the wind blows4 ,but there are also drawbacks2 it requires very large storage tanks to provide for periods of calm2 the wheel must be placed sufficiently exposed to receive the full wind force1 either on a tower or on a high hill1 and usually this is not the best place to find water4 ,besides1 a windmill tower1 at least the modern one1 is not an ornamental feature in the landscape4 ,it is expensive when built sufficiently strong to withstand severe winter gales4 ,during the hot months of the year1 when the farmer1 the gardener1 and the coachman require most water1 the wind is apt to fail entirely for days in succession4 ,the ,use of ,engines ,if water is not available1 and wind is considered too unreliable1 pumping must be accomplished by using an engine which1 no matter of what form or type1 derives its energy from the combustion of fuel1 be the same coal1 wood1 charcoal1 petroleum or kerosene1 gas1 gasoline1 or naphtha4 ,the use of such pumping engines implies a constant expense for fuel1 operation1 maintenance1 and repairs4 ,in some modern forms of engines this expense is small1 notably so in the oil engine1 and also in the gasoline engine2 hence these types have become favorites4 ,advantages of ,pumping ,engines ,an advantage common to all pumping engines is that they can be run at any time1 not like the windmill1 which does not operate in a light breeze1 nor like the ram1 which fails when the brook runs low4 ,domestic pumping engines are built as simple as possible1 so that the gardener1 a farm hand1 or the domestic help may run them4 ,skill is not required to operate them1 and they are constructed so as to be safe1 provided ordinary intelligence is applied4 ,in using a fuel engine it is desirable1 because of the attendance required1 to take a machine of such capacity and size that the water supply required for two or three days may be pumped to the storage tank in a few hours4 ,expansive ,force of ,heated ,air ,utilized ,a favorite and extensively used type of domestic pump is the hot-air engine1 in which the expansive force of heated air is used to do useful work4 ,among the types are simple and safe machines which do not easily get out of order4 ,they are started by hand by giving the fly wheel one or more revolutions4 ,if properly taken care of they are durable and do not require expensive repairs4 ,gas and ,gasoline ,engines ,in gas engines power is derived from the explosion of a mixture of gas and air4 ,where a gas supply is available1 such engines are very convenient1 for1 once started1 they will run for hours without attention4 ,they are economical in the consumption of gas1 and give trouble only where the quality of gas varies4 ,owing to the unavailability of gas on the farm and in country houses1 two other forms of pumping engines have been devised which are becoming exceedingly popular4 ,one is the gasoline1 the other is the oil engine4 ,both resemble the gas engine1 but differ from it in using a liquid fuel which is volatilized by a sprayer4 ,gasoline engines are now brought to a high state of perfection4 ,kerosene or ,crude ,oil as ,fuel ,in recent years1 internal-combustion engines which use heavy kerosene or crude oil as fuel have been introduced4 ,these have two palpable advantages3 first1 they are safer than gasoline engines2 second1 they cost less to run1 for crude oil and even refined kerosene are much cheaper than gasoline4 ,oil engines resemble the gas and gasoline engines1 but they have larger cylinders1 because the mean effective pressure evolved from the explosion is much less than that of the gasoline engines4 ,oil engines for pumping water are particularly suitable in regions where coal and wood cannot be obtained except at exorbitant cost4 ,usually1 the engine is so built as to be adapted for other farm work4 ,it shares this advantage with the gasoline engine4 ,oil engines are simple1 reliable1 almost automatic1 compact1 and reasonable in first cost and in cost of repairs4 ,there are many forms of such engines in the market4 ,to be successful from a commercial point of view1 an oil engine should be so designed and built that any unskilled attendant can run1 adjust1 and clean it4 ,the cost of operating them1 at eight cents per gallon for kerosene1 is only one cent per hour per horse-power2 or one-half of this when ordinary crude oil is used4 ,the only attention required when running is periodical lubrication and occasional replenishing of the oil reservoir4 ,the noise of the exhaust1 common to all engines using an explosive force1 can be largely done away with by using a muffler or a silencer4 ,the smell of oil from the exhaust likewise forms an objection1 but can be overcome by the use of an exhaust washer4 ,steam and ,electric ,pumps ,the well-known forms of steam-pumping engines need not be considered in detail1 because high-pressure steam is not often available in country houses4 ,where electric current is brought to the building1 or generated for lighting purposes1 water may be pumped by an electric pump4 ,electric motors are easy and convenient to run1 very clean1 but so far not very economical4 ,electric pumps may be arranged so as to start and stop entirely automatically4 ,water may be pumped1 where electricity forms the power1 either by triplex plunger pumps or by rotary1 screw1 or centrifugal pumps4 ,pumps ,worked by ,hand ,space forbids giving a description of the many simpler devices used for lifting water4 ,in small farmhouses lift and force pumps worked by hand are now introduced1 and the old-fashioned1 moss-covered draw-bucket1 which is neither convenient nor sanitary1 is becoming a relic of past times4 ,reservoirs and ,storage ,tanks ,the water pumped is stored either in small masonry or earth reservoirs1 or else in storage tanks of either wood1 iron1 or steel1 placed on a wood or steel tower4 ,wooden tanks are cheap but unsightly1 require frequent renewal of the paint1 and give trouble by leaking1 freezing1 and corrosion of hoops4 ,in recent years elevated tanks are supplanted by pressure tanks4 ,several such systems1 differing but little from one another1 are becoming quite well known4 ,in these water is stored under suitable pressure in air-tight tanks1 filled partly with water and partly with air4 ,a ,simple ,pressure ,system ,one system consists of a circular1 wrought-steel1 closed tank1 made air- and water-tight1 a force pump for pumping water into the tank1 and pipe connections4 ,the tank is placed either horizontally or vertically in the basement or cellar1 or else placed outdoors in the ground at a depth below freezing4 ,water is pumped into the bottom of the tank1 whereby its air acquires sufficient pressure to force water to the upper floors4 ,this simple system has some marked advantages over the outside or the attic tank4 ,in these1 water gets warm in summer and freezes in winter4 ,vermin and dust get into the tank1 and the water stagnates4 ,in the pressure tank1 water is kept aerated1 cool1 and clean4 ,another pressure tank has an automatic valve1 controlled by a float and connected with suction of pump4 ,it prevents the tank from becoming water-logged by maintaining the correct amount of air inside4 ,an ,ideal ,system for a ,country ,house ,still another system using pressure tanks is more complete than either of the others1 comprising engine1 pump1 air compressor1 a water tank1 and also an air tank4 ,it is best described by a recent example constructed from plans and under the direction of the writer4 ,the buildings supplied with water comprise the mansion1 the stable1 the cottage1 and a dairy1 and the pumping station is placed near the shore of the lake from which the supply is taken4 ,see ,figs4 #a and #b4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4 ,,diagram ,,of ,,compressed ,,air ,,tank ,,system4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4 ,,pressure-,,tank ,,pumping ,,station4 ,interior view of pumping station of compressed air-tank system 7see plan on opposite page7 showing #c1jjj gallon water tank1 air tank of #aej pounds pressure and #aj horse-power gasoline engine4 ,the pump house is about #bj feet by #bg feet1 and contains a water-storage tank #f feet in diameter and #ac-a_/b feet long1 of a capacity of #c1jjj gallons2 an air tank of same dimensions as the water tank1 holding air under #aej pounds pressure2 a #aj horse-power gasoline engine1 direct-connected1 by means of friction clutch1 with an air compressor and also with a triplex pump of #ge gallons capacity per minute4 ,the water in the tank is kept under #ge pounds pressure1 and at the hydrant near the house1 located about #ajj feet above the pumping station1 there is an available pressure of #cc pounds4 ,the last drop of water flows from the water tank under the full pressure of #ge pounds at the pumping station4 ,the suction pipe into the lake is #d inches and is provided with well strainers to prevent clogging4 ,the cost of pumping water by this system is quite reasonable4 ,the gasoline engine requires per horse-power per hour about #a-a_/d gallons of gasoline1 and at sixteen cents per gallon this makes the cost for #a1jjj gallons pumped about five cents4 ,to this expense should1 however1 be added the cost of lubricating oil1 repairs1 amount for depreciation1 and the small cost for labor in running the engine4 ,water pipes forming a distribution system should always be chosen generous in diameter1 in order to avoid undue loss of pressure by friction4 ,where fire hydrants are provided1 the size of the water main should not be below four inches4 ,all branches should be controlled by shut-offs1 for which the full-way gate valves are used in preference to globe valves4 ,pipe-line material is usually galvanized1 screw-jointed wrought iron for sizes up to four inches4 ,in conclusion1 a word about water purification4 ,where the quality of the water supply is not above suspicion it may be improved by filtration4 ,a filter should never be installed without the advice of a qualified expert1 for there are numerous worthless devices and few really efficient ones4 ,where a filter is not available1 the water used for drinking should be boiled or sterilized if there is the slightest doubt as to its wholesomeness4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,purifying ,water by ,copper ,sulphate ,from the standpoint of the health of the community1 the most vital problem is to get pure water4 ,almost equally important1 when comfort and peace of mind is considered1 is the procuring of sweet water4 ,the wise owner of a country home looks to the water supply upon which his family is dependent4 ,the careful farmer is particular about the water his stock1 as well as his family1 must drink4 ,but careless persons constitute the large majority4 ,most people in the city and in the country pay no attention to their drinking water so long as it tastes all right4 ,clear ,water ,often ,dangerous ,some years ago the inhabitants of ,ithaca1 ,n4 ,y41 furnished a pitiful example of this foolhardy spirit4 ,for a year previous to the breaking out of the typhoid epidemic1 the public was warned1 through the local and the metropolitan press1 of the dangerous condition of ,ithaca's water supply4 ,professors of ,cornell ,college joined in these warnings4 ,but the people gave no heed1 probably because the water was clear and its taste sweet and agreeable4 ,as was the case in this instance1 bacteria are tolerated indefinitely1 and it is only an alarming increase in the death rate that makes people careful4 ,then they begin to boil the water--when it is too late for some of them4 ,bad-,tasting ,water not ,always ,poisonous ,but let the taste become bad and the odor repulsive1 and a scare is easily started4 ,there must be dead things in the water1 or it wouldn't taste so horrible1 is the common verdict4 ,some newspaper seizes upon the trouble and makes of it a sensation4 ,the ubiquitous reporter writes of one of the animals that it looks like a wagon wheel and tastes like a fish4 ,with such a remarkable organism contaminating one's drink no wonder there is fear of some dread disease4 ,the water is believed to be full of germs2 whereas the pollution is entirely due to the presence of algae--never poisonous to mankind1 in some cases acting as purifying agents1 but at certain seasons of the year imparting a taste and odor to the water that cannot be tolerated4 ,algae--what are they8 ,they are aquatic plants4 ,algae are not to be confounded with the water vegetation common to the eye and passing by the term weeds4 ,such plants include eelgrass1 pickerel weed1 water plantain1 and duckmeat--all of which have roots and produce flowers4 ,this vegetation does not lend a bad odor or taste to the water4 ,in itself it is harmless1 although it sometimes affords a refuge for organisms of a virulent type4 ,but when the aquatic vegetation of the flowering variety is eliminated from consideration1 there still remains a group of water plants called algae4 ,they comprise one-fifth of the known flowerless plants4 ,they are the ancestors of the entire vegetable kingdom4 ,those whose habitat is the sea number the largest plants known in nature4 ,certain forms found in the ,pacific are supposed to be #hjj feet in length2 others are reported to be #a1ejj feet long4 ,the marine variety are familiar as the brown kelps and the wracks1 which are very common along our ,northern coast4 ,plants ,which ,pollute ,drinking ,water ,the fresh-water algae are usually grass green in color4 ,this green variety is often seen as a spongy coating to the surface of stagnant pools1 which goes by the name of frog spawn or pond scum4 ,one of this description1 ,spirogyra1 has done thousands of dollars' worth of damage by smothering the life out of young water-cress plants in artificial beds constructed for winter propagation4 ,when the cress is cut the plants are necessarily left in a weakened condition1 and the algae form a thick mat over the surface of the water1 thus preventing the growth of the cress plants and oftentimes killing them4 ,the absolute necessity of exterminating these algae led to the perfection of the copper-purification process4 ,it is1 however1 a variety of algae not easily detected that contaminates the water4 ,so long as they are in a live1 healthy condition they benefit drinking water by purifying it4 ,indeed1 some scientists have attributed the so-called self-purification of a stream entirely to the activities of these plants4 ,of such1 one form1 ,chlamydomonas1 is bright grass green in appearance4 ,but the largest group--the plants which have the worst reputation as polluters of drinking water--are popularly known as the blue-green algae 7,schizophyceae74 ,the common name tells the color of these plants1 although there are exceptions in this respect1 some of them showing shades of yellow1 brown1 olive1 chocolate1 and purplish red4 ,this variety of algae flourishes in the summer months1 since a relatively high temperature and shallow stagnant water favor its germination4 ,if the pond begins to dry up1 the death of the organisms takes place1 and the result is a most disagreeable1 persistent odor which renders the water unfit for drinking purposes4 ,this result is chemically due to the breaking down of highly organized compounds of sulphur and phosphorus in the presence of the large amount of nitrogen contained in these plants4 ,decomposition is not necessary for some of the blue greens to give off a bad odor1 however4 ,a number of them1 on account of their oil-content1 produce an odor when in a healthy condition that is sometimes likened to raw green corn or to nasturtiums1 but usually it cannot be so pleasantly described4 ,the ,department of ,agriculture has been able to solve the problem of exterminating algae from water supplies4#a ,the department has done more2 for it has succeeded in perfecting a method by which a reservoir contaminated with typhoid or other pathogenic bacteria can be purified4 ,the work was begun with an inquiry into the extent of the trouble from algal pollution4 ,letters were addressed to some five hundred engineers and superintendents of water companies scattered all over the ,united ,states4 ,the replies1 which came from almost every ,state in the ,union1 were burdened with one complaint--,algae are our worst pest2 and with one prayer--,come over into ,macedonia1 and help us4 ,a ,cheap and ,available ,remedy for ,algae ,convinced of the need of earnest work1 extensive laboratory experiments were inaugurated4 ,the problem presented was this3 the remedy must not only be readily available1 but it must be cheap1 that advantage may be taken of it by the poorest communities1 as well as by those owning large reservoirs4 ,above all1 the remedy must be absolutely harmless to man2 the poison used to exterminate algae must not in any way affect the water drinkers4 ,a large number of substances were used in the experiments before the final decision rested with copper sulphate4 ,this salt is very poisonous to algae4 ,on the other hand1 copper in solution just strong enough to destroy algal growth could not possibly injure man2 in fact1 the temporary presence of such a small amount of copper in drinking water could not be detected4 ,a ,practical ,demonstration ,the results in the laboratory being successful1 the next step was to make a practical demonstration of the value of the method4 ,this was first done in the fall of #aija4 ,at ,ben1 ,va41 water cress is grown in large quantities during the winter1 when it is a valuable market crop4 ,dams are constructed across a stream in such a manner as to enable the maintenance of a water level not too high for the growth of plants2 when a freeze is threatened the plants can be flooded4 ,in the cress beds selected for the experiments the water is obtained from a thermal spring whose temperature throughout the year is about #gj deg4 ,f4 ,this temperature is particularly favorable to the growth of frog spawn4 ,after the cress was cut for market1 the algae frequently developed so rapidly as to smother the life out of the weakened plants4 ,when this occurred1 the practice was to rake out both water cress and algae and reset the entire bed4 ,this was not only expensive2 half the time it failed to exterminate the pest4 ,it was1 therefore1 most desirable to devise a method of ridding the bed of algal growth without injuring the cress4 ,the ,copper-sulphate ,method ,tested ,here the copper-sulphate method was put to a practical test4 ,at the outset a strong solution was sprayed on the algae which coated the surface of the pond4 ,this only killed the algal growth with which the particles of copper came in contact and left the main body of algae unaffected4 ,then trial was made of dissolving the copper directly in the water1 and the result was most satisfactory4 ,the solution used was that of #a part of copper to #ej1jjj1jjj parts of water4 ,growers need have no trouble in the future4 ,they need have no fear of employing the method1 as the copper solution required for killing the algae could not possibly injure water cress1 provided ordinary care is used in the work4 ,as to the frequency of treatment required1 one or two applications a year will generally be found sufficient1 as this letter1 received from the manager of the ,virginia company1 goes to show3 ,the 'moss' has given me no trouble at all this winter2 in fact1 ,i have for six months had to resort to the copper sulphate only once4444 ,all the conditions were favorable last fall and early winter for a riot of 'moss1' but it did not appear at all until just a few days ago1 and then yielded to treatment much more readily than it did when ,i first began to use the copper4 ,this letter was written over three years after ,dr4 ,moore made his experiment in these cress beds4 ,satisfied with the results attained in exterminating algal growth in water-cress beds1 attention was next given to reservoirs4 ,some fifty water supplies were treated during the summer of #aijd1 and in every case success attended the copper cure4 ,in one respect the results were surprising4 ,it was found that in practice the copper-sulphate method worked better than in theoretic experimentation2 results in large reservoirs were more pronounced than in the laboratory4 ,in fact1 it developed that the solution necessary to kill algae in the laboratory must contain from five to twenty times as much copper as that contained in a solution which will exterminate algal growth in its natural habitat4 ,this is not easily explained1 if it can be explained at all4 ,the test reason advanced is that only the most resistant organisms stand transplanting to an artificial environment4 ,but1 after all1 the important point is that the new method works better in practice than was expected4 ,a ,prescription for the ,copper ,cure ,thus the department is able to announce that the process is no longer in the experimental stage1 and also to say what conditions must be known in determining the proper quantity of copper sulphate for destroying algae1 together with a prescription for the copper cure4 ,here it is1 for the benefit of careful persons who will use the method with proper intelligence3 ,the importance of knowing the temperature of the contaminated water is second only to the necessity of knowing the organism present4 ,with increase of temperature the toxicity of a given dilution increases1 and vice versa4 ,assuming that #ei deg4 ,f4 is the average temperature of reservoirs during the seasons when treatment is demanded1 the quantity of copper should be increased or decreased approximately #b4e per cent for each degree below or above #ei deg4 ,f4 ,similar scales should be arranged for the organic content and the temporary hardness of the water4 ,with the limited data at hand it is impracticable to determine these figures1 but an increase of #b per cent in the quantity of copper for each part per #ajj1jjj of organic matter and an increase of #j4e to #e per cent in the proportion of copper for each part per #ajj1jjj of temporary hardness will possibly be found correct4 ,the proper variation in the increase due to hardness will depend upon the amount of dissolved carbon dioxide2 if very small1 #e per cent increase is desirable2 if large1 #j4e per cent is sufficient4 ,the information in this prescription is to be used in connection with a table#b published by the ,department of ,agriculture4 ,this table gives the number of parts of water to one part of copper sulphate necessary to kill the various forms of algae which are listed4 ,the formulae vary from #a part of copper to #ajj1jjj parts of water1 necessary to destroy the most resistant and very rare forms 7three of these are listed71 to #a part of copper in #be1jjj1jjj parts of water1 which is a sufficiently strong solution to exterminate ,spirogyra1 the cress-bed pest4 ,by far the majority of forms do not require a solution stronger than that of #a part of copper to #a1jjj1jjj parts of water4 ,what the ,agricultural ,department is ,doing ,it is true that the department is not now holding out1 directly1 a helping hand to the owner of a country place1 or to the farmer1 in this campaign of purifying drinking water4 ,in the first place1 the greatest good of the greatest number demands that large reservoirs1 which supply a great number of people with drinking water1 ought to be considered first4 ,such supplies1 moreover1 are most frequently contaminated4 ,where fifty reservoirs were treated last summer1 ten times that number will be cured this summer4 ,it will be readily seen1 therefore1 that in conducting such a large number of experiments--considering preliminary reports1 prescribing for treatment1 and keeping proper account of results--the department1 with a limited force and limited facilities1 has its hands more than full4 ,more important still1 there is an absolute need of the services of some expert on the ground4 ,while an algologist is a functionary not generally employed by water companies--in fact1 a man trained in the physiology of algae is difficult to find--nevertheless1 it is highly important1 as the department views it1 to have the cooeperation of an expert versed to some extent in the biological examination of drinking water4 ,in other words1 the copper cure is not a patent medicine1 with printed directions which any person could follow4 ,intelligence and care are absolutely essential in the use of this treatment4 ,furthermore1 each case must be treated as a distinct and separate case1 as a physician would treat a patient4 ,actual ,purification ,simple ,suppose1 however1 an owner of a country place1 which is dependent upon a fresh-water pond for its water supply1 finds that his drinking water is contaminated1 that the taste and odor are such as to render the water unfit for use4 ,there is no reason why he should not treat the supply1 provided he is properly careful4 ,when the nature of the polluting organism is definitely determined and the average temperature of the water observed1 then the necessary formula can be decided upon4 ,first1 of course1 the pond must be plotted1 the depth found1 and the capacity computed4 ,the department will willingly furnish data for this purpose1 together with blanks upon which to submit details as to contaminating organisms and water temperature1 to any applicant4 ,once the proper solution is determined upon1 the actual work of purification is most simple4 ,in the following directions the department outlines the most practicable method of introducing the copper sulphate into a water supply3 ,directions for the ,copper ,cure ,place the required number of pounds of copper sulphate in a coarse bag--gunny sack or some equally loose mesh--and1 attaching this to the stern of a row-boat near the surface of the water1 row slowly back and forth over the reservoir1 on each trip keeping the boat within ten to twenty feet of the previous path4 ,in this manner about a hundred pounds of copper sulphate can be distributed in one hour4 ,by increasing the number of boats1 and1 in the case of deep reservoirs1 hanging two or three bags to each boat1 the treatment of even a large reservoir may be accomplished in from four to six hours4 ,it is necessary1 of course1 to reduce as much as possible the time required for applying the copper1 so that for immense supplies1 with a capacity of several billion gallons1 it would probably be desirable to use a launch1 carrying long projecting spars to which could be attached bags containing several hundred pounds of copper sulphate4 ,the substitution of wire netting for the gunny-sack bag allows a more rapid solution of the sulphate1 and the time required for the introduction of the salt may thus be considerably reduced4 ,it is best to select as warm a day for treatment as circumstances will permit4 ,cost of the ,treatment ,not difficult1 one would say4 ,no--when the proper solution is determined2 to reach that determination is the difficulty4 ,that the method can be tried at home is proved by the results obtained by the owner of a country home in the vicinity of ,new ,york4 ,tired of consulting engineers1 who looked at his water supply1 informed him that they could do nothing1 and then charged him a big fee 7to one he paid #bej71 this owner resorted to the copper-sulphate treatment4 ,the cure cost the man just #b--;but let his letter to the department tell the story3 ,my place in the country is located at ,water ,mill1 in the township of ,southampton1 in ,long ,island4 ,i purchased it in ,april1 #aijb1 and was largely influenced in selecting this piece of land by the beauty of a pond which bounds it on the east4 ,this little body of water covers about two acres1 is fed by numerous springs1 and discharges into ,mecox ,bay1 the southern boundary of the land4 ,when ,i bought the place the pond was filled with clear water4 ,about the middle of the following ,june algae began to show1 and in ,august the surface was almost entirely covered by the growth4 ,the odor was offensive1 and myriads of small insects hovered over the masses of algae much of the time4 ,i consulted two engineers interested in the storage of water1 and they told me that nothing could be done4 ,the condition was so objectionable that ,i planned to plant a thick hedge of willows along the bank to shut off the view of the pond from the house4444 ,i examined the pond on ,june #aeth and found large masses of algae covering an area several hundred feet in length and from twenty to forty feet in width4 ,no microscopical examination was made of the growth1 but ,i was informed that it seemed to be largely composed of filaments of ,spirogyra and other ,confervae4 ,on ,june #ahth the treatment was begun4444 ,in one week the growth had sunk and the pond was clear water4 ,i examined the pond ,september #aeth and found it still clear4 ,the use of the sulphate of copper converted an offensive insect-breeding pond into a body of beautifully clear water4 ,the pond was full of fish1 but the copper did not seem to harm them4 ,effect of ,copper ,sulphate on ,fish ,native trout were not injured when the large reservoir at ,cambridge1 ,n4 ,y41 was purified by the copper treatment4 ,a slightly different result1 in this respect1 was reported from ,elmira1 ,n4 ,y41 however4 ,part of the report is as follows3 ,the effect of the copper-sulphate treatment on the different animal life was as follows3 numerous 'pollywogs' killed1 but no frogs2 numerous small 7less than two inches long7 black bass and two large ones 7eight inches long7 killed2 about ten large 'bullheads' were killed1 but no small ones2 numerous small 7less than two inches long7 'sunfish' were killed1 but no large ones4 ,the wind brought the dead fish to the corners of the reservoir1 and it was very little trouble to remove them4 ,no dead fish were seen twenty-four hours after completion of the treatment4 ,the injury done by copper sulphate to fish is a more serious matter than was at first supposed4 ,brook trout are1 apparently1 the least resistant to the salt4 ,a ,massachusetts trout pond stocked with eight-inch trout lost forty per cent as a result of the introduction of a strong solution of copper sulphate4 ,the ,bureau of ,fisheries is working in conjunction with the ,division of ,plant ,physiology in this matter1 and it is hoped to secure reliable information4 ,in the meantime1 owners of ponds stocked with game fish would do well to take great care before resorting to the copper cure for algae--that is1 if they hesitate to lose a part of the fish4 ,water ,may be ,drunk ,during ,treatment ,when a pond or reservoir is treated with the proper amount of copper sulphate to remove algae--except in the case of the few very resistant forms requiring a stronger solution than #a part of copper to #a1jjj1jjj parts of water--there is no need of discontinuing the use of the water supply during treatment2 the water may be drunk with impunity4 ,but when water known to be polluted with pathogenic bacteria is sterilized by means of copper sulphate in strong solution1 it is just as well to discontinue the use of the water for drinking purposes for not more than twenty-four hours4 ,even then1 this is an overcareful precaution rather than a necessity4 ,experiments conducted with great care and thoroughness demonstrate that at room temperature1 which is near the temperature of a reservoir in summer1 a solution of #a part of copper to #ajj1jjj parts of water will destroy typhoid bacteria in from three to five hours4 ,similar experiments have proved that a copper solution of like strength is fatal to cholera germs in three hours1 provided the temperature is above #bj deg4 ,f4 ,as was the case with algae1 bacteria were found to be much more sensitive to copper when polluting water than when grown in artificial media4 ,the ,use of ,copper ,tanks ,the toxic effect of metallic copper upon typhoid bacteria in water gives some hints as to prevention of the disease by the use of copper tanks4 ,this should not altogether take the place of the boiling of the water2 it is useful in keeping it free from contamination1 although water allowed to stand in copper receptacles for a period of from twenty-four to forty-eight hours at room temperature would be effectively sterilized1 no matter what its contamination and no matter how much matter it held in suspension4 ,but in order to insure such results the copper must be kept thoroughly clean4 ,this polishing is not1 as was popularly supposed1 to protect the consumer from copper poisoning1 but to prevent the metal from becoming so coated with foreign substances that there is no contact of the copper with the water1 hence no antiseptic quality4 ,dr4 ,henry ,kreamer1 of ,philadelphia1 proved that within four hours typhoid germs were completely destroyed by the introduction into the polluted water of copper foil4 ,granting the efficiency of the boiling of water for domestic purposes1 ,i believe that the copper-treated water is more natural and more healthful4444 ,the intestinal bacteria1 like colon and typhoid1 are completely destroyed by placing clean copper foil in the water containing them4 ,pending the introduction of the copper treatment of water on a large scale1 the householder may avail himself of a method for the purification of drinking water by the use of strips of copper foil about three and one-half inches square to each quart of water1 this being allowed to stand overnight1 or from six to eight hours at the ordinary temperature1 and then the water drawn off or the copper foil removed4 ,although a splendid antiseptic1 copper in weak solution is not harmful1 no more so than the old copper utensils used by our forefathers were harmful4 ,undoubtedly they were of benefit1 and the use of them prevented the growth of typhoid and other bacteria4 ,people of to-day might well go back to copper receptacles for drinking water4 ,,footnotes3 #a ,for published reports of the work1 see ,bulletins #fd and #gf1 ,bureau of ,plant ,industry1 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture2 reports prepared by ,dr4 ,george ,t4 ,moore and his assistant1 ,mr4 ,karl ,f4 ,kellerman4 #b ,see ,bulletin ,no4 #gf1 supra4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,ridding ,stagnant ,water of ,mosquitoes ,because of the serious and often fatal injury it inflicts on man1 the most dangerous animal known is the mosquito4 ,compared with the evil done by the insect pest1 the cobra's death toll is small4 ,this venomous serpent is found only in hot countries1 particularly in ,india1 while mosquitoes know no favorite land or clime--unless it be ,jersey4 ,arctic explorers complain of them4 ,in ,alaska1 it is recorded by a scientist that mosquitoes existed in countless millions1 driving us to the verge of suicide or insanity4 ,a traveler on the north shore of ,lake ,superior1 when the snow was several feet deep1 and the ice on the lake five feet in thickness1 relates that mosquitoes appeared in swarms1 literally blackening the banks of snow in sheltered places4 ,mosquitoes ,responsible for ,yellow ,fever ,in the temperate zone this evil-breeding insect was1 until recent years1 considered more in the light of an exasperating pest4 ,it is now known1 however1 that malaria is due entirely to the bites of mosquitoes4 ,but it is in the tropical countries that their deadliest work is done4 ,there1 it has been proved beyond question1 the mosquitoes are responsible for the carriage of yellow fever4 ,if1 in a yellow-fever ridden region1 one were to live entirely in an inclosure1 carefully protected with proper screens--as certain entomologists did--there practically would be no danger from the dread disease1 even if all other precautions were neglected4 ,effect of a ,mosquito ,bite ,the crime committed by the mosquito against its innocent victim1 man1 is more in the nature of manslaughter than of murder1 according to the authorities4 ,there is no premeditated malice4 ,a mosquito bites primarily to obtain food1 says a leading entomologist2 there is neither malice nor venom in the intent1 whatever there may be in the act4 ,there isn't great comfort in the intelligence conveyed by the scientist1 nor in his further observation3 ,theoretically1 there would seem to be no reason why there should be any pain from the introduction of the minute lancets of the insects1 and the small amount of bloodletting is usually a benefit rather than otherwise4 ,unfortunately1 however1 in its normal condition the human blood is too much inclined to clot to be taken unchanged into the mosquito stomach2 hence1 when the insect bites1 a minute droplet of poison is introduced1 whose function it is to thin out the fluid and make it more suitable for mosquito digestion4 ,it is this poison that sets up the inflammation and produces the irritation or swelling4444 ,the pain is caused entirely by the action of the poison in breaking up the blood1 and1 as the first act of a biting mosquito is to introduce the poison into the wound1 the pain and inflammation will be the same1 whether the insect gets its meal or not4 ,in fact1 it has been said that if a mosquito be allowed to suck its fill and then fly1 the bite will not itch1 and there is just a basis of justification for this4 ,to make a scientific inquiry into the habits of the mosquito1 and to do it patiently1 one should be far from the maddening swarms1 or at least effectively screened in4 ,then it would be possible to believe the statement of the ,government's entomologist that not one mosquito in a million ever gets the opportunity to taste the blood of a warm-blooded animal4 ,as proof of this there are1 in this country1 great tracts of marshy land never frequented by warm-blooded animals1 and in which mosquitoes are breeding in countless numbers4 ,the point is emphasized by the prevalence of mosquitoes in the arctic circle and other uninhabited regions4 ,if this gory insect does not live by blood alone1 how is it nourished8 ,female mosquitoes are by nature vegetarians2 they are plant feeders4 ,why they should draw blood at all is a question which remains unsolved by entomologists--as well as by the suffering victims4 ,the females have been observed sucking the nectar from flowers2 obtaining nutriment from boiled potatoes1 even from watermelon rinds1 from which they extract the juice4 ,as regards the blood habit1 the male mosquito is a teetotaler4 ,just how this male insect lives1 scientists have not determined4 ,he may not take nourishment at all4 ,at any rate1 the mouth parts of the male are so different from those of the female that it is probable his food is obtained differently4 ,the male is often seen sipping at drops of water1 and a taste for molasses is ascribed to the male mosquito by one authority4 ,presence of ,mosquitoes ,depends ,upon ,winds ,a common remark heard along the ,jersey shore1 also on ,long ,island1 is this3 ,when we have a sea breeze we are not troubled with mosquitoes1 but when there comes a land breeze they are a pest4 ,while this observation is true1 the reasons therefore entertained by the unscientific mind are erroneous4 ,the matter of the absence or abundance of mosquitoes in varying winds is closely related to the inquiry which entomologists have made3 how far will mosquitoes fly8 ,says one investigator3 ,the migration of mosquitoes has been the source of much misapprehension on the part of the public4 ,the idea prevalent at our seaside resorts that a land breeze brings swarms of mosquitoes from far inland is based on the supposition that these insects are capable of long-sustained flight1 and a certain amount of battling against the wind4 ,this is an error4 ,mosquitoes are frail of wing2 a light puff of breath will illustrate this by hurling the helpless creature away1 and it will not venture on the wing again for some time after finding a safe harbor4 ,the prevalence of mosquitoes during a land breeze is easily explained4 ,it is usually only during the lulls in the wind that ,culex can fly4 ,generally on our coast a sea breeze means a stiff breeze1 and during these mosquitoes will be found hovering on the leeward side of houses1 sand dunes1 and thick foliage4444 ,while the strong breezes last1 they will stick closely to these friendly shelters1 though a cluster of houses may be but a few rods off1 filled with unsuspecting mortals who imagine their tormentors are far inland over the salt meadows4 ,but if the wind dies down1 as it usually does when veering1 out come swarms upon swarms of females intent upon satisfying their depraved taste for blood4 ,this explains why they appear on the field of action almost immediately after the cessation of the strong breeze2 on the supposition that they were blown inland1 this sudden reappearance would be unaccountable4 ,a sultry1 rainy period of midsummer is commonly referred to as good mosquito weather4 ,the accepted idea is that mosquitoes are much more abundant at such times4 ,this is true1 and the explanation is simple4 ,mosquito larvae1 or wrigglers1 as they are termed1 require water for their development4 ,a heavy shower leaves standing water1 which1 when the air is full of moisture1 evaporates slowly4 ,then1 too1 the heat favors the growth of the microoerganisms on which the larvae feed2 wrigglers found in the water forty-eight hours after their formation will have plenty of food1 and adult mosquitoes will appear six to eight days after the eggs are laid4 ,clear weather1 with quick evaporation1 interferes with the development of the wrigglers1 so that a season with plenty of rain1 but with sunshiny1 drying weather intervening1 is not good mosquito weather4 ,destroy the ,larvae ,inasmuch as a generation of mosquitoes appear to torment man within ten days1 at the longest1 after the eggs are laid2 as a batch laid by a female mosquito contains from two hundred to four hundred eggs2 as from each egg may issue a larva or wriggler which in six days will be an adult mosquito on the wing--it is to the destruction of the larvae that attention should be directed4 ,the larva is a slender organism1 white or gray in color1 comprising eight segments4 ,the last of these parts is in the form of a tube1 through which the wriggler breathes4 ,although its habitat is the water1 it must come to the surface to breathe1 therefore its natural position is head down and tail1 or respiratory tube1 up4 ,now1 if oil is spread on the surface of a pool inhabited by mosquito larvae1 the wrigglers are denied access to the air which they must have4 ,therefore1 they drown1 just as any other air-breathing animal would drown under similar circumstances4 ,best ,preventive ,measures ,as to the best methods to employ in ridding a country place1 or any other region1 of mosquitoes1 the directions furnished by ,dr4 ,l4 ,o4 ,howard1 the ,government entomologist1 who has been a careful student of the problem since #ahfg1 are of great value3 ,altogether1#c the most satisfactory ways of fighting mosquitoes are those which result in the destruction of the larvae or the abolition of their breeding places4 ,in not every locality are these measures feasible1 but in many places there is absolutely no necessity for the mosquito annoyance4 ,the three main preventive measures are the draining of breeding places1 the introduction of small fish into fishless breeding places1 and the treatment of such pools with kerosene4 ,these are three alternatives1 any one of which will be efficacious and any one of which may be used where there are reasons against the trial of the others4 ,quantity of ,kerosene to be ,used ,the quantity of kerosene to be practically used1 as shown by the writer's experiments1 is approximately one ounce to fifteen square feet of water surface1 and ordinarily the application need not be renewed for one month4444 ,the writer is now advising the use of the grade known as lubricating oil1 as the result of the extensive experiments made on ,staten ,island4 ,it is much more persistent than the ordinary illuminating oils4444 ,on ponds of any size the quickest and most perfect method of forming a film of kerosene will be to spray the oil over the surface of the water4444 ,it is not1 however1 the great sea marshes along the coast1 where mosquitoes breed in countless numbers1 which we can expect to treat by this method1 but the inland places1 where the mosquito supply is derived from comparatively small swamps and circumscribed pools4 ,in most localities people endure the torment or direct their remedies against the adult insect only1 without the slightest attempt to investigate the source of the supply1 when the very first step should be the undertaking of such an investigation4 ,the remedy which depends upon draining breeding places needs no extended discussion4 ,naturally the draining off of the water of pools will prevent mosquitoes from breeding there1 and the possibility of such draining and the means by which it may be done will vary with each individual case4 ,the writer is informed that an elaborate bit of work which has been done at ,virginia ,beach bears on this method4 ,behind the hotels at this place1 the hotels themselves fronting upon the beach1 was a large fresh-water lake1 which1 with its adjoining swamps1 was a source of mosquito supply1 and it was further feared that it made the neighborhood malarious4 ,two canals were cut from the lake to the ocean1 and by means of machinery the water of the lake was changed from a body of fresh to a body of salt water4 ,water that is somewhat brackish will support mosquitoes1 but water that is purely salt will destroy them4 ,employing ,fish to ,destroy ,larvae ,the introduction of fish into fishless breeding places is another matter4 ,it may be undesirable to treat certain breeding places with kerosene1 as1 for instance1 water which is intended for drinking1 although this has been done without harm in tanks where1 as is customary1 the drinking supply is drawn from the bottom of the tank4 ,the value of most small fishes for the purpose of destroying mosquito larvae was well indicated by an experience described to us by ,mr4 ,c4 ,h4 ,russell1 of ,bridgeport1 ,conn4 ,in this case a very high tide broke away a dike and flooded the salt meadows of ,stratford1 a small town a few miles from ,bridgeport4 ,the receding tide left two small lakes1 nearly side by side and of the same size4 ,in one lake the tide left a dozen or more small fishes1 while the other was fishless4 ,an examination by ,mr4 ,russell in the summer of #ahia showed that while the fishless lake contained tens of thousands of mosquito larvae1 that containing the fish had no larvae4 ,the use of carp for this purpose has been demonstrated1 but most small fish will answer as well4 ,the writer knows of none that will be better than either of the common little sticklebacks 7,gasterosteus aculeatus or ,pygosteus pungitius74 ,is mosquito fighting a success8 ,this question is an all-important one1 not only to the summer resident1 but also to cities and towns contiguous to salt-water marshes1 or to swampy lands1 well suited for mosquito breeding4 ,the answer is this3 ,mosquito control is possible2 actual extermination impossible with an insect that develops so rapidly4 ,the ,jersey mosquito1 the unscientific name popularly given to an insect of huge size and ravenous appetite1 has become famous4 ,as a matter of fact1 the species of mosquitoes found in ,new ,jersey are no more rare or varied than those found on ,staten ,island or on ,long ,island4 ,but until very recently the region lying between ,jersey ,city and ,newark has been particularly favorable to the development of mosquito larvae4 ,it has been announced in the press that mosquitoes have been driven out of the ,newark meadows4 ,this is an exaggeration1 of course1 but the work accomplished there is remarkable1 and other infected regions may take heart from the marked success which has attended the efforts of ,dr4 ,john ,b4 ,smith1 ,entomologist of the ,new ,jersey ,state ,agricultural ,experiment ,station4 ,remarkable ,work ,accomplished ,the salt marsh lying within the limits of the city of ,newark covers an area of about #c1ejj acres4 ,it extends from a point on the ,passaic ,river to the mouth of ,bound ,creek1 where it empties into ,newark ,bay4 ,its length is about eight miles and it has an extreme width of three miles4 ,the ,newark marsh problem was a very complex one4 ,the meadows are cut into many sections by the several traversing railroads and by creeks2 this materially influences the drainage4 ,the ,peddie ,street sewer crosses the marsh in a straight line of about three miles from the city to the bay4 ,this sewer is twenty feet wide1 and its banks are from three to four feet above the marsh land4 ,an experiment with machine ditching was made in #aijc4 ,the worst parts of the marsh were selected1 and about #dj1jjj feet of ditches were cut4 ,these ditches were six inches wide1 two feet deep1 and the drainage was perfect from the outset4 ,the section of meadow thus drained became so dry in consequence that the grass growing there can now be cut by a machine in summer1 whereas formerly the hay could be mown only in winter4 ,the work was so successful that the ,newark ,common ,council appropriated #e1jjj to complete the mosquito drainage of the marsh4 ,of the results obtained up to this spring1 ,dr4 ,smith says3 ,this ,newark marsh problem was an unusual one1 and one that would not be likely to recur in the same way at any other point along the coast4 ,nevertheless1 of the entire #c1ejj acres of marsh1 not #ajj acres remain on which there is any breeding whatever1 and that is dangerous only in a few places and under certain abnormal conditions4 ,including old ditches cleaned out1 about #cfj1jjj running feet of ditches have been dug on the ,newark marshes1 partly by machine and partly by hand1 and if the work is not entirely successful1 that is due to the defects which were not included in the drainage scheme4 ,it is a safe prediction1 ,i think1 that ,newark will have no early brood of mosquitoes in #aije1 comparable with the invasions of #aijc and #aijd4 ,this prophecy has proved true4 ,the ,campaign on ,long ,island ,the wealthy summer residents along the north shore of ,long ,island1 keenly alive to the necessity of driving mosquitoes from the region where they spend so much of their time1 have attacked the problem in a scientific1 as well as an energetic way4 ,the ,north ,shore ,improvement ,association intrusted the work to ,henry ,clay ,weeks1 a sanitary engineer1 with whom was associated1 as entomologist1 ,prof4 ,charles ,b4 ,davenport1 ,professor of ,entomology at the ,university of ,chicago and head of the ,cold ,spring ,biological ,laboratory2 also ,f4 ,e4 ,lutz1 an instructor in biology at the ,university of ,chicago4 ,prof4 ,n4 ,s4 ,shaler1 of ,harvard ,university1 the most eminent authority in the country on marine marshes1 was retained to make a special examination of the salt marshes with a view to recommending the best means of eliminating what were the most prolific breeding grounds of mosquitoes4 ,a detailed examination of the entire territory was made4 ,practically every breeding place of mosquitoes1 including the smaller pools and streams1 and even the various artificial receptacles of water1 were located and reported on4 ,mr4 ,weeks1 with his assistant1 then examined each body of water in which mosquito larvae had been found1 with a view to devising the best means of preventing the further breeding of mosquitoes in these plague spots4 ,finally1 a report was prepared1 together with a map on which was located every natural breeding place4 ,investigations in ,connecticut ,important investigations have been made in ,connecticut by the ,agricultural ,experiment ,station1 under the direction of ,w4 ,e4 ,britton and ,henry ,l4 ,viereck1 and the results have been most encouraging4 ,dr4 ,howard1 in his directions for fighting mosquitoes1 acknowledges his indebtedness to the very successful experiments carried on at ,staten ,island4 ,maryland is aroused to the point of action4 ,dr4 ,howard ,a4 ,kelley1 of ,johns ,hopkins ,university1 is to cooeperate with ,thomas ,b4 ,symons1 the ,state entomologist1 in carrying the war to the shores of ,chesapeake ,bay4 ,home talent1 moreover1 can accomplish much4 ,to fight intelligently1 let it not be forgotten that the battle should be directed against the larvae4 ,these wrigglers are bred for aquatic life2 therefore1 it is to all standing water that attention should be directed4 ,mosquito larvae will not breed in large ponds1 or in open1 permanent pools1 except at the edges1 because the water is ruffled by the wind4 ,any pool can be rendered free from wrigglers by cleaning up the edges and stocking with fish4 ,every fountain or artificial water basin ought to be so stocked1 if it is only with goldfish4 ,the house owner should not overlook any pond1 however small1 or a puddle of water1 a ditch1 or any depression which retains water4 ,a half-filled pail1 a watering trough1 even a tin receptacle will likely be populated with mosquito larvae4 ,water barrels are favorite haunts for wrigglers4 ,a ,simple ,household ,remedy ,there are those1 however1 who will obstinately conduct their campaign against the adult mosquito4 ,if energetic1 such persons will search the house with a kerosene cup attached to a stick2 when this is held under resting mosquitoes the insects fall into the cup and are destroyed4 ,those possessed of less energy daub their faces and hands with camphor1 or with the oil of pennyroyal1 and bid defiance to the pests4 ,with others it is1 ,slap6 slap6--with irritation mental as well as physical2 for the latter1 entomologists recommend household ammonia4 ,,footnotes3 #c ,see ,bulletin ,no4 #be1 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture1 ,division of ,entomology4 ,part ,,ii ,,pure ,,food ,,for ,,the ,,housekeeper ,,by ,s4 ,,josephine ,,baker ,,chapter ,i ,how to ,detect ,food ,adulteration ,adulteration when applied to foodstuffs is a broad1 general term1 and covers all classes of misrepresentation1 substitution1 deterioration1 or addition of foreign substances2 adulteration may be either intentional or accidental1 but the housekeeper should be prepared to recognize it and so protect herself and her household4 ,food is considered adulterated when it can be classified under any of the following headings3 ,,definitions ,,of ,,adulteration4--7#a7 ,if any substance has been mixed or packed with it so as to reduce or lower or injuriously affect its quality or strength4 7#b7 ,if any inferior substance has been substituted for it1 wholly or in part4 7#c7 ,if any valuable constituent has been wholly or in part abstracted from it4 7#d7 ,if it consists wholly or in part of diseased or decomposed or putrid or rotten animal or vegetable substance1 or any portion of an animal unfit for food1 whether manufactured or not1 or if it is the product of a diseased animal or one who has died otherwise than by slaughter4 7#e7 ,if it be colored or coated or polished or powdered1 whereby damage is concealed or it is made to appear better than it really is4 7#f7 ,if it contains any added poisonous ingredient or any ingredient which may render such article injurious to health2 or if it contains any antiseptic or preservative not evident or not known to the purchaser or consumer4 ,,food ,,laws4--,there is now in effect in the ,united ,states a rigid law against the offering for sale of any article intended for human consumption which is adulterated in any way1 without the fact and nature of such adulteration being plainly stated on a label attached to the package containing the article4 ,this law1 however1 applies only to articles of this nature which originate1 or are produced1 in one ,state and offered for sale in another4 ,the purchaser is1 therefore1 in a great degree protected1 but many foodstuffs or manufactured articles may have their origin within the ,state wherein they are sold1 and in this case the only safeguards are those afforded by the laws of the ,state1 city1 or town immediately concerned4 ,if these restraining laws do not exist or if they are not enforced the housekeeper must rely upon her own efforts to protect her family from adulterated food4 ,,permissible ,,adulterants4--,in this class are included articles having a food value such as salt1 sugar1 vinegar1 spices1 or smoke used as preservatives of meats2 or starch when added to the salts composing baking powder1 where a certain amount is permissible for the purpose of absorbing moisture4 ,,general ,,directions4--,the ability to select fresh1 wholesome meats1 poultry1 fish1 fruits1 and vegetables1 to determine readily the purity of dairy products1 and to detect adulteration or misrepresentation in all classes of foodstuffs must1 in most instances1 be acquired4 ,common sense and good reasoning powers are needed here as in every problem of life4 ,while some adulterants can be detected only by trained chemists and by means of tests too difficult and involved for general use1 the average housekeeper may amply protect herself from gross imposition by simply cultivating her powers of observation and by making use of a few simple tests well within her grasp and easily applied4 ,first--,sight1 ,taste1 and ,smell4--,all are of prime importance in determining the freshness and wholesomeness of foods1 especially meats1 poultry1 fish1 vegetables1 and fruits4 ,avoid all highly colored bottled or canned fruits or vegetables2 pure preserved fruits1 jams1 jellies1 or relishes may have a good bright color1 but never have the brilliant reds and greens so often shown in the artificially colored products4#d ,the same is true of canned peas1 beans1 or ,brussels sprouts2 here the natural product is a dull1 rather dingy green1 and all bright green samples must be suspected4 ,foreign articles of this class are the worst offenders4 ,all food products should have a clean wholesome odor1 characteristic of their particular class4 ,the odor of decomposition can be readily detected2 stale and musty odors are soon recognized4 ,it should be rarely necessary to use the sense of taste1 but any food with a taste foreign to the known taste of a similar product of known purity should be discarded or at least suspected4 ,second--,price4--,remember that the best and purest food1 however high priced1 is cheapest in the end4 ,its value in purity1 cleanliness1 food value1 and strength gives a greater proportionate return than foods priced lower than one might legitimately expect from their supposed character4 ,to cite a few instances3 pure ,java and ,mocha coffee cannot be retailed at twenty cents per pound2 therefore1 when the housekeeper pays that price she must expect to get chicory mixed with the coffee2 if it contains no other adulterant1 she may consider herself fortunate4 ,cheap vanilla is not made from the vanilla bean4 ,these beans sell at wholesale for from ten to fifteen dollars a pound1 and the cheap extracts are made from the ,tonka bean or from a chemical product known as vanillin4 ,these substances are not harmful1 but they are not vanilla4 ,pure virgin olive oil is made from the flesh of olives after the stones and skin have been removed2 cheaper grades are made from the stones themselves and have little food value1 while the virgin oil is one of the most nutritious and wholesome of foods4 ,such instances might be cited almost without end4 ,good1 pure food demands a good price1 and economy defeats its own purpose when it is practiced at the expense of one of the most vital necessities of health and life4 ,third--,reliable ,dealers4--,select your tradesmen with the same care you bestow in the choice of a physician4 ,a grocer or butcher who has once sold stale1 adulterated1 or impure wares has forfeited his right to be trusted4 ,a man who is honestly trying to build up a good trade must have the confidence of his customers and it is to his interest to sell only worthy goods2 this confidence he can gain only by proving his trustworthiness4 ,when you are convinced of your dealer's honesty give him your trade and do not be lured away by flashy advertisements and the promise of something for nothing4 ,,preparation ,,for ,,chemical ,,tests4--,although the housekeeper will rarely need the use of any chemical tests for the purpose of determining the purity of food1 the following directions must be kept in mind if such an expedient is deemed necessary4 ,it will be wise1 however1 in the majority of cases when the presence of chemical preservatives and adulterants is suspected1 to send the article to a chemist for analysis4 #a4 ,all refuse matter1 such as shells1 bones1 bran1 and skin1 must be removed from the edible portion of the food to be tested4 #b4 ,if the sample is solid or semi-solid1 divide it as finely as possible4 ,all vegetables and meats may be minced in the common household chopping machine4 ,tea1 coffee1 whole spices1 and the like may be ground or crushed in a mortar or in a spice mill4 #c4 ,milk must be thoroughly stirred or shaken so that the cream is well mixed with the body of the milk4 ,,flesh ,,foods--,meat4--,fresh1 wholesome meat is neither pink nor purple2 these colors indicate either that the animal was not slaughtered or that it was diseased4 ,good meat is firm and elastic and when dented with the finger does not retain the impression2 it has the same consistency and color throughout2 the flesh is marbled1 due to the presence of fat distributed among the muscular fibers2 it will hardly moisten the finger when touched2 it has no disagreeable odor and has a slightly acid reaction so that red litmus paper applied to it should not turn blue4 ,wet1 sodden1 or flabby meat with jellylike fat1 a strong putrid odor1 and alkaline reaction should be avoided4 ,these signs indicate advanced decomposition1 and such meat is unfit for food4 ,beef4--,this meat should have a fine grain1 be firm in texture1 with rosy-red flesh and yellowish-white fat4 ,lamb and ,mutton should have a clear1 hard1 white fat with the lean part juicy1 firm1 and of rather light-red color4 ,the flesh should be firm and close of grain4 ,veal4--,the meat should not be eaten unless the animal was at least six weeks old before slaughtering4 ,the sale of this immature veal1 or bob veal as it is sometimes called1 is prohibited by law in many ,states4 ,it is unwholesome and may be recognized by its soft1 rather mushy consistency and bluish tinge4 ,good veal has a firm white fat with the lean of a pale-red color4 ,pork4--,this meat when fresh has a fat that is solid and pure white2 if yellow and soft it should be rejected2 the lean is pink and the skin like white translucent parchment4 ,poultry4--,good poultry is firm to the touch1 pink or yellowish in color1 is fairly plump1 and has a strong skin showing an unbroken surface4 ,it has a fresh odor4 ,stale poultry is flabby and shows a bluish color2 it becomes green over the crop and abdomen1 and the skin is already broken or easily pulled apart in handling4 ,the odor of such a bird is disagreeable and may even be putrid4 ,fish4--,with the exception of the salted or preserved varieties fish should always be perfectly fresh when eaten4 ,probably no other article of food is more dangerous to health than fish when it shows even the slightest traces of decomposition4 ,the ability to recognize the earliest signs of staleness is of the utmost importance4 ,fish deteriorate rapidly and should always be carefully inspected before purchasing4 ,fresh fish are firm to the touch1 the scales moist and bright1 the gills red1 and the eyes clear and slightly prominent4 ,when held flat in the hand the fish should remain rigid and the head and tail droop slightly1 if at all4 ,stale fish are soft and flabby1 the skin is dull and the eyes sunken and often covered with a film4 ,the tendency of the head and tail to droop is marked and the fish has a characteristic disagreeable odor4 ,this odor of decomposition is best detected in the gills4 ,lobsters and ,crabs4--,these shellfish should always be alive when purchased4 ,this condition is easily demonstrated by their movements1 and the rule should never be disregarded4 ,oysters and ,clams4--,oysters should not be eaten during the months of ,may1 ,june1 ,july1 and ,august2 these are their breeding months and they are unwholesome during that period4 ,that oysters sometimes contain the germs of typhoid fever is an assured fact2 these germs are acquired not from the natural habitat of the oyster in salt water but from the fresh-water1 so-called fattening beds1 where the oysters are placed for a season to remove the brackish and salty taste of the sea and to render them more plump4 ,these beds are frequently subject to pollution1 and the housekeeper should only purchase oysters from reliable dealers where the purity of the source of the supply is unquestioned4 ,clams are in season and may be eaten throughout the year4 ,all shellfish when fresh have an agreeable fresh odor4 ,the shells should be firmly closed or should close when immersed in water and touched with the finger4 ,if they have been removed from their shells when purchased1 the flesh of the fish itself should be firm1 clean in appearance and not covered with slime or scum2 the odor should be fresh4 ,the odor of dead or decomposed oysters and clams is pungent and disagreeable4 ,,meat ,,products--,canned or ,potted ,meats4--,the label on cans containing meat products should state clearly the exact nature of the contents4 ,deception as to the character of the meat is easy to practice and difficult to detect by any but a trained analyst4 ,the presence of preservatives can also only be detected by chemical analysis4 ,as these products are practically all put on the market by the large packing houses and designed for interstate commerce1 they are subject to government inspection1 and1 therefore1 if they bear the government stamp may be considered pure4 ,the point that the housekeeper may consider is the length of time the meat has remained in the can4 ,put up under proper precautions these canned goods retain their wholesomeness for an almost indefinite period4 ,the heads of the cans should always present a concave surface2 if they are convex1 it is a sign of decomposition of the contents4 ,when the can is opened the meat should have a clean appearance1 free from mold or greenish hue1 and the odor should be fresh and not tainted4 ,sausages4--,if possible1 sausages should be homemade1 then one may be assured of their purity and freedom from adulteration4 ,owing to the rapid color changes and early decomposition of fresh meat1 artificial colors are often used to conceal the former1 and preservatives like boric acid or saltpeter to retard the latter4 ,the artificial colors1 such as carmine and aniline red1 may be detected by observation or by warming the finely divided material on a water bath with a five per cent solution of sodium salicylate4 ,this fluid will extract the color1 if present4 ,lard4--,good lard is white and granular and has a firm consistency4 ,it has an agreeable characteristic odor and taste4 ,the choicest leaf lard is made from the fat about the kidneys of the hog2 the cheaper grades are made from the fat of the whole animal4 ,,fresh ,,vegetables ,,and ,,fruits--,vegetables4--,all green vegetables to be eaten uncooked should be carefully washed and examined for insects1 dirt1 and foreign matter generally4 ,the ova or eggs of the tapeworm may be ingested with improperly cleaned vegetables4 ,running water and a clean brush 7kept for this purpose7 should be used4 ,green vegetables should have a fresh1 unwilted appearance2 any sign of staleness or decay should cause their rejection4 ,overripe or underripe vegetables are harmful4 ,lettuce1 celery1 and all leaved or stemmed vegetables should be examined to see if the outer leaves have been removed2 this may be determined by the distance of the leaves from the stem head4 ,the general signs of disease in vegetables are softening1 change of color1 and mold4 ,the following characteristics indicate fresh and wholesome vegetables3 ,asparagus4--,firm and white in the stalk with a green1 compact tip4 ,beans and ,peas should have green1 not yellow1 pods1 brittle1 and easily snapped open4 ,the vegetable itself should be tender1 full and fleshy1 not wrinkled or shrunken4 ,cabbage1 crisp and firm1 with a well-rounded and compact head4 ,carrots1 light red or yellow1 with a regular1 conical shape1 sweet and crisp4 ,cauliflower1 white1 compact head2 any tinge of yellow or green generally indicates an inferior quality4 ,celery1 nearly white in color2 large1 crisp1 and solid stalks1 nutty in flavor4 ,cucumbers1 firm1 crisp1 with a smooth skin and white flesh4 ,lettuce1 the head close and compact2 the leaves clean1 crisp1 and sweet4 ,when it is too young or running to seed the taste is bitter4 ,pale patches on the leaves are caused by mildew and are a sign of decay4 ,parsnips1 buff in color1 with unforked roots1 sweet and crisp4 ,potatoes1 underripe1 green potatoes are unfit for food2 they contain a poisonous substance which renders them actually harmful4 ,good potatoes should have a smooth skin and few eyes2 the flesh pale and of a uniform color and of a firm consistency4 ,a rough skin1 with little depressions1 indicates a disease called scab2 dark-brown patches on the skin are due to a disease called smut4 ,potatoes with such diseases are of inferior quality4 ,if green on one side1 due to exposure to the sun when growing1 the potatoes are unwholesome4 ,fruits4--,underripe or green fruit should never be eaten4 ,this condition may be easily detected by the color and consistency of the fruit4 ,diseased or decayed fruit is known by its change of color1 softening1 and external mold4 ,spots on fruit are often caused by a fungus which lowers its quality and renders it less wholesome4 ,,cereals ,,and ,,their ,,products--,cereals4--,particularly when bought in original packages cereals are generally pure and unadulterated4 ,when bought in bulk there may be found dust1 dirt1 worms1 insects1 and excessive moisture4 ,these may all be determined by careful inspection4 ,the presence of an undue amount of moisture adds greatly to the weight of cereals and is therefore a fraud4 ,cereals should be dry to the touch and the individual kernels or particles separate and distinct4 ,flour4--,by this general term is meant the ordinary wheat flour4 ,it should not be too moist1 should have a fine white appearance1 remain lumpy1 or hold its form1 on pressure1 not show any particles which cannot be crushed1 and when a handful is thrown against the wall1 part of it should adhere4 ,the odor and taste should be fresh and clean and not musty or moldy4 ,the common adulterants are corn and rice meal4 ,if a sample of the flour be thrown on the surface of a glassful of water1 the corn and rice1 being heavier1 will sink2 grit and sand may be detected in the same way4 ,if the flour has been adulterated with mineral substances it may be shown by burning a portion down to an ash2 the ash of pure flour should not exceed two per cent of the total amount2 if mineral substances are present the amount of ash will be greatly increased4 ,alum is sometimes added to flour in order to give it a whiter appearance and to produce whiter and lighter bread2 it is most unwholesome4 ,it can be detected by the so-called logwood test1 which is prepared and used as follows3 ,make two solutions4 ,the first3 a five per cent solution of logwood chips in alcohol4 ,the second3 a fifteen per cent solution of ammonium carbonate in water4 ,make a paste of one teaspoonful of the flour and an equal amount of water2 mix with it one-quarter of a teaspoonful of the logwood solution2 follow this immediately with one-quarter of a teaspoonful of the ammonium carbonate solution4 ,if alum is present1 the paste will show a lavender or blue color2 if absent1 the mass will become pink1 fading to a dirty brown4 ,if the result is doubtful1 set the paste aside for several hours1 when the colors will show more plainly4 ,bread4--,bread should be well baked and not too light or too heavy2 the crust should be light brown and adherent to the substance of the bread4 ,the center should be of even consistency1 spongy1 and firm2 it should not pit or be soggy or doughy4 ,the pores or holes should be of practically the same size throughout4 ,exceedingly white1 light1 or porous bread shows the presence of alum4 ,it may be detected by means of the solutions already mentioned in the logwood test4 ,mix one teaspoonful of each solution and add three ounces 7six tablespoonfuls7 of water2 pour this over a lump of bread1 free from crust and about an inch square4 ,after the bread has become thoroughly soaked1 pour off the excess of liquid and dry the bread in the dish2 if alum is present1 the mass will show a violet or blue tint1 more marked on drying2 if absent1 a brownish color will appear4 ,baking ,powders4--,baking powders are of three classes1 all having sodium bicarbonate 7baking soda7 as their alkaline salt4 ,the first style is the commonly used and wholesome mixture of cream of tartar and baking soda2 the second has calcium phosphate for the acid salt1 and the third contains alum4 ,all have a certain proportion of starch to absorb moisture4 ,of these the alum powders are the most harmful and should be avoided4 ,practically all of the well-known brands of baking powder are of the first-mentioned class and wholesome1 and are rarely adulterated4 ,,dairy ,,products--,milk4--,pure milk should have a specific gravity of from #a4jbg to #a4jcc4 ,its normal reaction is neutral or slightly acid2 it should never be strongly acid4 ,if it is strongly alkaline1 i4 e41 turning red litmus paper blue1 it is pretty certain that something in the way of a preservative has been added to it4 ,when left standing for a few hours the cream should show as a slightly yellowish top layer1 one-tenth or more of the whole amount2 the milk below the cream should be lighter in color and with the slightest bluish tinge4 ,if the color is of a yellowish tinge throughout1 the addition of coloring matter must be suspected4 ,annatto1 a vegetable pigment1 is used to give a rich tint to milk4 ,to detect it1 add one teaspoonful of baking soda to one quart of milk and immerse in it a strip of unglazed paper2 in a few hours examine the paper2 if annatto is present1 it will have become an orange color4#e ,if the whole milk has a blue and thin appearance1 or if the cream is scant in quantity1 it has probably been diluted with water4 ,the popular idea that chalk is sometimes added to poor milk to make it appear of better quality is erroneous2 chalk would always show as a precipitate1 as it does not dissolve1 and the presence of such a sediment would be a too obvious adulteration to be practiced4 ,milk should always be kept at a temperature below #ej deg4 ,f42 above that temperature the bacteria in it multiply with great rapidity and render it unfit for use4 ,milk may be preserved for several days if pasteurized or sterilized4 ,pasteurization consists of heating milk to a temperature of about #afg deg4 ,f41 and maintaining it at that degree for twenty minutes4 ,sterilization means keeping the milk at a temperature of #bab deg4 ,f4 for two hours and a half4 ,immediately after either process the milk should be cooled1 then placed in absolutely clean1 covered bottles and kept on ice4 ,these methods are not only harmless but actually beneficial in that they destroy any disease germs that might be present4 ,chemical preservatives are occasionally found in milk4 ,they may be suspected if the milk is alkaline in reaction and has a disguised taste4 ,the ones most commonly used are boric and salicylic acids and formaldehyde2 the two former can only be detected by chemical tests too delicate and intricate to be used by the housewife4 ,formaldehyde may be tested for by using a solution of one drop of a ten per cent solution of ferric chloride to one ounce of hydrochloric acid4#f ,fill a small porcelain dish one-third full of this solution2 add an equal volume of milk and heat slowly over a flame nearly to the boiling point1 giving the dish a rotary motion to break up the curd4 ,if formaldehyde is present1 the mass will show a violet color1 varying in depth with the amount present2 if it is absent1 the mass turns brown4 ,butter4--,good butter has a fresh1 sweet odor and an agreeable taste4 ,it should be of the same color and consistency throughout1 easily cut and adherent and not crumbly when molded into shapes4 ,pure butter is very light in color2 nearly all that is sold is colored1 in order to meet the popular demand for yellow butter2 annatto and other vegetable and mineral substances are sometimes employed for this purpose4 ,these coloring matters are generally harmless but may be detected by dissolving a portion of the butter in alcohol2 the natural color will dissolve1 while foreign coloring will not4 ,butter should consist of eighty-five per cent fat1 with the remainder water1 casein1 and salt4 ,the most common methods of adulteration consist in an excess of water and the addition of oleomargarine4 ,if an excess of water has been added it may be shown by melting the butter2 the water and fat will separate in two distinct layers4 ,oleomargarine has a distinctive meaty smell1 like that of cooked meat1 and lacks the characteristic odor of pure butter4 ,if pure butter is melted in a spoon1 it will not sputter2 if oleomargarine is present1 it will4 ,the preservatives sometimes used1 namely1 boric and salicylic acids and formaldehyde1 can only be detected by chemical tests4 ,eggs4--,two methods may be used to detect stale eggs4 ,first3 make a solution of one part of table salt to ten parts of water and immerse the suspected egg2 if it sinks1 it is perfectly fresh2 if it remains in the water below the surface1 it is at least three days old1 and if it floats1 it is five or more days old4 ,second3 hold the egg between a bright light and the eye4 ,if it is fresh1 it will show a rosy tint throughout1 without dark spots1 as the air chamber is small2 if not fresh1 it will look cloudy1 with many dark spots present4 ,,tea ,,and ,,coffee4--,these substances are extensively adulterated1 but the adulterants are almost without exception harmless4 ,tea4--,the commonest forms of adulteration of tea are as follows3 7a7 ,exhausted tea leaves which have already been used are dried and added4 ,their presence may be detected by the weakness of the infusion1 made from a given quantity of the suspected tea1 compared with a similar infusion made from tea known to be pure4 7b7 ,leaves from other plants are sometimes dried and added2 these are easily shown if an infusion is made and when the leaves are thoroughly wet unrolling and comparing them4 7c7 ,green teas may be faced or colored with ,prussian blue1 indigo1 ,french chalk1 or sulphate of lime2 black teas may be similarly treated with plumbago or ,dutch pink4 ,if teas so treated are shaken up in cold water the coloring matter will wash off4 7d7 ,sand and iron filings are occasionally added for weight2 observation1 and the fact that they sink when tea is thrown in water1 will show their presence4 ,iron filings may be readily found by using a magnet4 7e7 ,the presence of starch may be shown by washing the tea in cold water1 straining it1 and testing the solution in the following manner3 dissolve one-half teaspoonful of potassium iodide in three ounces of water and add as much iodine as the solution will dissolve2 a few drops of this solution added to the suspected sample will give a blue color if starch is present4 ,coffee4--,coffee should always be purchased in the bean1 as ground coffee is much more frequently adulterated and the foreign substances are more difficult to detect4 ,the adulterants commonly used are3 chicory1 peas1 beans1 peanuts1 and pellets of roasted wheat flour1 rye1 corn1 or barley4 ,fat globules are always present in pure coffee2 their presence may be shown by the fact that imitation coffee sinks in water1 while pure coffee floats4 ,chicory is the most frequently used adulterant2 it is added for flavor and to produce a darker infusion1 thus giving the impression of greater strength4 ,it is perfectly harmless and as a drink is actually preferred by some people4 ,its detection is comparatively easy4 ,chicory grains are dark1 gummy1 soft1 and bitter2 coffee grains are hard and brittle2 a small amount put in the mouth will demonstrate the difference4 ,chicory will often adhere to the wheels of a coffee grinder1 clogging them on account of its gummy consistency4 ,when a sample of adulterated coffee is thrown in water the pure coffee floats and leaves the water unstained2 chicory sinks almost instantly1 coloring the water1 while peas and beans sink more slowly but also color the water4 ,peas and beans are also detected by the polished appearance of the broken or crushed grains in marked contrast to the dull surface of crushed coffee4 ,the presence of peas1 beans1 rye1 wheat1 bread crumbs1 and allied substances may be shown by the fact that they all contain starch4 ,make a ten per cent infusion of the suspected coffee2 filter it1 and decolorize the solution by boiling it with a piece of animal charcoal4 ,test the decolorized solution by slowly adding a few drops of the potassium-iodide-iodine solution1 directions for preparing which were given under heading of ,tea4 ,a resulting blue color will indicate the presence of starch4 ,,cocoa ,,and ,,chocolate4--,the adulterants of these substances are generally harmless1 as they usually consist of flavoring extracts1 sugar1 starch1 flour1 and animal fats4 ,no tests other than flavor1 consistency1 and smoothness need be considered4 ,good cocoa and chocolate should be slightly bitter1 with a pleasant characteristic odor and taste2 they should have a smooth1 even consistency and be free from grit or harsh particles4 ,,canned ,,and ,,bottled ,,vegetables ,,and ,,fruits4--,in general1 acid substances1 such as tomatoes and fruits1 should not be canned in tin1 as the action of the acid tends to dissolve the tin4 ,it is better1 therefore1 to purchase these articles in glass4 ,after opening the can the odor and appearance of the contents should be noted4 ,the odor should be clean and fresh1 and the slightest trace of any sour1 musty1 or disagreeable smell should cause the rejection of the food4 ,the appearance should be clean1 with no mold2 the consistency and color of the fruit or vegetables should be uniform throughout4 ,if the color is brighter than that of a similar article when canned at home1 the presence of artificial coloring matter must be suspected4 ,the brilliant green of some brands of peas1 beans1 or ,brussels sprouts is produced by the addition of the salts of copper4 ,this may be proved by leaving the blade of a penknife in the contents of the can for a short time2 if copper is present it will be deposited on1 and discolor1 the blade4 ,brightly colored fruits should excite suspicion2 this same dictum applies to all brightly colored jams and jellies1 as the colors are usually produced by the addition of carmine or aniline red4 ,the presence of preservatives1 salicylic and boric acids1 the benzoates1 etc41 can only be proved by delicate chemical tests4 ,,sugar4--,pure granulated or powdered sugar is white and clean4 ,the presence of glucose should be suspected in sugar sold below the market price2 it is perfectly harmless1 but has a sweetening power of only about two-thirds that of sugar and is added on account of its cheapness and to increase the bulk4 ,if sand1 dirt1 or flour are present they may be detected by observation1 or by washing the suspected sample in water2 flour will not dissolve1 sand will sink1 and dirt will discolor the water4 ,,spices4--,spices should be bought whole and ground in a spice mill as needed2 if this is done1 there need be little fear of their impurity1 for whole spices are difficult to simulate or adulterate4 ,ground spices may be adulterated with bark1 flour1 starches1 or arrowroot2 these adulterants are harmless1 but are fraudulent1 as they increase the bulk and decrease the strength4 ,their actual presences can only be demonstrated by a microscopical or chemical examination4 ,peppers4--,black pepper is made from the whole berry2 white pepper is made from the same berry with the outer husk removed4 ,the adulterants are usually inert and harmless substances1 such as flour1 mustard1 or linseed oil2 their presence is obviated by the use of the whole peppercorns1 ground as needed4 ,red ,pepper4--,this may be adulterated with red lead2 when pure it will be entirely suspended in water2 if a sediment falls it is probably red lead4 ,mustard4--,practically all of the adulterants of mustard can only be detected by intricate chemical tests4 ,the presence of turmeric may be detected by the appearance of an orange-red color when ammonia is added to a solution of the sample4 ,tomato ,catsup4--,artificial dyestuffs are common1 giving a brilliant crimson or magenta color4 ,such catsup does not resemble the natural dull red or brown color of the homemade article4 ,preservatives1 such as boric1 salicylic1 or benzoic acids and their salts1 are sometimes added4 ,while their presence cannot be condoned1 yet they are usually present in small amounts and therefore practically harmless4 ,pickles4--,these should be of a dull-green color4 ,the bright emerald green sometimes observed is due to the presence of the salts of copper2 this may be proved by dipping the blade of a penknife in the liquor1 as described under the heading of ,canned ,goods4 ,alum is sometimes used as a preservative and in order to make the pickles crisp4 ,its presence may be demonstrated by means of the logwood test mentioned under the heading of ,flour4 ,,vinegar4--,cider vinegar is of a brownish-yellow color and possesses a strong odor of apples4 ,wine vinegar is light yellow if made from white wine1 and red if made from red wine4 ,malt vinegar is brown and has an odor suggestive of sour beer4 ,glucose vinegar has the taste and odor of fermented sugar4 ,molasses vinegar has the distinctive odor and taste of molasses4 ,,olive ,,oil4--,pure olive oil has a pleasant1 bland taste and a distinctive and agreeable odor1 unmistakable in character for that of any other oil4 ,the finest virgin oil is pale green in color1 the cheaper grades are light yellow4 ,the adulterants consist of cotton-seed1 corn1 mustard1 and peanut oils4 ,when pure olive oil is shaken in a glass or porcelain dish with an equal quantity of concentrated nitric or sulphuric acid#g it turns from a pale to a dark green color in a few minutes2 if under this treatment a reddish to an orange or brown color is produced the presence of a foreign vegetable oil is to be suspected4 ,,flavoring ,,extracts--,vanilla4--,this may be wholly or in part the extract of the ,tonka bean or may be made from a chemical substance known as vanillin4 ,the best practical working tests as to its purity are the price1 taste1 and odor4 ,the distinctive odor and taste of vanilla are characteristic and cannot be mistaken4#h ,lemon4--,this extract is often made from tartaric or citric acid4 ,they may be tested for as follows3 to a portion of the extract in a test tube add an equal volume of water to precipitate the oil2 filter1 and add one or two drops of the filtrate to a test tube full of cold1 clear limewater2 if tartaric acid is present a precipitate will fall to the bottom of the tube4 ,filter off this precipitate 7if present7 and heat the contents of the tube2 if citric acid is present it will precipitate in the hot limewater4 ,,footnote4--,dr4 ,baker wishes to acknowledge her indebtedness to the following authorities and the volumes mentioned for many helpful suggestions4 ,pearman and ,moore1 ,aids to the ,analysis of ,foods and ,drugs2 ,albert ,e4 ,leach1 ,food ,inspection and ,analysis2 ,francis ,vacher1 ,food ,inspector's ,hand ,book4 ,,footnotes3 #d ,the presence of aniline dyes may be detected by mixing a portion of the suspected sample with enough water to make a thin paste4 ,wet a piece of white wool cloth or yarn thoroughly with water and place it with the paste in an agate saucepan4 ,boil for ten minutes1 stirring frequently4 ,if a dye has been used the wool will be brightly colored2 a brownish or pinkish color indicates the natural coloring matter of the fruit or vegetable4--,,editor4 #e ,a little vinegar added to heated cream or milk produces in the curd a distinct orange color if an aniline dye has been used to make the cream look rich4 ,the curd will be brown if annatto or caromel has been used4 ,if pure1 the curd will be white4--,,editor4 #f ,this acid must be used with great care2 no portion of it should ever come in contact with the skin or clothing4 #g ,these acids must be used with great care4 ,they should never be allowed to come in contact with the skin or clothing4 #h ,add a little sugar-of-lead solution to the suspected extract2 true vanilla extract will give a yellowish-brown precipitate and a pale1 straw-colored liquid4 ,if the extract is artificial1 the addition of the lead solution will have little or no effect4--,,editor4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,mushroom ,poisoning ,symptoms--,treatment--,how to ,tell ,mushrooms--,the ,common ,kind--,other ,varieties--,the ,edible ,puffball--,poisonous ,mushrooms ,frequently ,mistaken4 ,,mushroom ,,poisoning4--,vomiting1 cramps1 diarrhea1 pains in legs2 possibly confusion1 as if drunk1 stupidity1 followed by excitement1 and perhaps convulsions4 ,lips and face may be blue4 ,pulse may be weak4 ,first ,aid ,rule #a4--,rid the stomach and bowels of remaining poison4 ,give emetic of mustard1 tablespoonful in three glasses of warm water1 unless vomiting is already excessive4 ,when vomiting ceases1 give tablespoonful of castor oil1 or compound cathartic pill4 ,,give ,,no ,,salts4 ,also empty bowels with injection of tablespoonful of glycerin in pint of warm soapsuds and water4 ,rule #b4--;,antidote the poison4 ,give a cup of strong coffee and fifteen drops of tincture of belladonna to adult4 ,repeat both once1 after two hours have passed4 ,rule #c4--,rest and stimulate4 ,put patient to bed4 ,give whisky1 a tablespoonful in twice as much water4 ,give tincture of digitalis1 ten drops every two hours1 till two or three doses are taken by adult4 ,symptoms4--,vomiting and diarrhea come on in a few hours to half a day1 with cramps in the stomach and legs4 ,the face and lips may grow blue4 ,there is great prostration4 ,in the case of poisoning by the fly amanita1 stupor may appear early1 the patient acting as if drunk1 and difficult breathing may be a noticeable symptom4 ,afterwards the patient becomes excited and convulsions develop4 ,the pulse becomes weak and slow4 ,the patient may die in a few hours1 or may linger for three or four days4 ,if treatment be thorough1 recovery may result4 ,treatment4--,unless vomiting has already been excessive1 the patient should receive a tablespoonful of mustard mixed with a glassful of tepid water4 ,after the vomiting ceases he should receive a tablespoonful of castor oil1 or any cathartic except salts4 ,if the cathartic is vomited1 he should receive an injection into the rectum of a tablespoonful of glycerin mixed with a pint of soapsuds and water4 ,coffee and atropine 7or belladonna7 are the best antidotes4 ,if a physician be secured1 he will probably give a hypodermic injection of atropine4 ,if a physician is not procurable1 the patient should receive a cup of strong coffee1 and a dose of ten or fifteen drops of tincture of belladonna in a tablespoonful of water1 if an adult4 ,this dose should be repeated once after the lapse of two hours4 ,the patient should be kept in bed1 a bedpan being used when the bowels move4 ,when the pulse begins to grow weak1 two tablespoonfuls of whisky and ten drops of the tincture of digitalis should be given to an adult in quarter of a glass of hot water4 ,the digitalis should be repeated every two hours till three or four doses have been taken4 ,the patient must be kept warm with hot-water bottles and blankets4 ,,how ,,to ,,know ,,mushrooms4--,one-sixth of one of the poisonous mushrooms has caused death4 ,it is1 therefore1 impossible to exert too much care in selecting them for food4 ,a novice would much better learn all the characteristics of edible and poisonous mushrooms in the field from an expert before attempting to gather them himself1 and should not trust to book descriptions1 except in the case of the few edible species described hereafter4 ,it is not safe for a novice to gather the immature or button mushrooms1 because it is much more difficult to determine their characteristics than those of the full grown4 ,as reference books1 the reader is advised to procure ,bulletin ,no4 #ae of the ,united ,states ,department of ,agriculture1 entitled ,some ,edible and ,poisonous ,fungi1 by ,dr4 ,w4 ,g4 ,farlow1 which will be sent without charge on request by the ,agricultural ,department at ,washington2 ,studies of ,american ,fungi1 by ,atkinson1 and ,miss ,marshall's ,mushroom ,book1 all of which are fully illustrated1 and will prove helpful to those interested in edible fungi4 ,there are no single tests by which one can distinguish edible from poisonous fungi1 such as taste1 odor1 the blackening of a silver spoon1 etc41 although contrary statements have been made4 ,even when the proper mushrooms have been eaten1 ill effects1 death itself1 may follow if the mushrooms have been kept too long1 have been insufficiently cooked1 have been eaten in too large a quantity 7especially by children71 or if the consumer is the possessor of an unhappy idiosyncrasy toward mushrooms4 ,no botanic distinction exists between toadstools and mushrooms2 mushrooms may be regarded as edible toadstools4 ,they are all1 botanically speaking1 edible or poisonous fungi4 ,a description follows of the five kinds of fungi most commonly eaten1 and the poisonous species which may be mistaken for them4 ,,edible ,,mushrooms4--#a4 ,the ,common ,mushroom 7,agaricus ,campestris74--,the fungi called agarici are those which have gills1 that is1 little plates which look like knife blades on the under surface of the top of the mushroom1 radiating outward from the stem like the spokes of a wheel4 ,this is the species most frequently grown artificially1 and sold in the markets4 ,the top or cap of this mushroom is white1 or of varying shades of brown1 and measures from one and a half to three or even four inches in diameter4 ,it is found in the latter part of ,august1 in ,september1 and in ,october1 growing in clusters on pastures1 fields1 and lawns4 ,the gills are pink or salmon colored in the newly expanded specimen2 but as it grows older1 or after it is picked1 the gills turn dark purple1 chestnut brown1 or black4 ,this is the important point to remember1 since the poisonous species mistaken for it all have white gills4 ,the gills end with abrupt upward curves at the center of the cap without being attached to the stem4 ,in the young mushroom1 when the cap is folded down about the stem1 the gills are not noticeable1 as they are covered by a veil or filmy membrane1 a part of which remains attached to the stem 7when the top expands71 as a ring or collar about the stem a little more than halfway up from the ground4 ,the stem is solid and not hollow1 and there is no bulbous enlargement at the base of the stem1 surrounded by scales or a collar1 as occurs in the fly amanita and other poisonous species4 ,neither the campestris nor any other mushroom should be eaten when over a day old1 since decomposition quickly sets in4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ce4 ,,the ,,field ,,mushroom4 7,agaricus ,campestris47 ,an edible variety2 very common4 #b4 ,horse ,mushroom 7,agaricus ,arvensis74--,this species may be considered with the foregoing1 but it differs in being considerably larger 7measuring four to ten inches across7 and in having a more shiny cap1 of a white or brown hue4 ,the ring about the stem is noticeably wider and thicker1 and is composed of two distinct layers4 ,the gills are white at first1 turning dark brown comparatively late1 and the stem is a little hollow as it matures4 ,in some localities it is more common than the campestris in fields and pastures1 while in other places it is found only in rich gardens1 about hot beds1 or in cold frames4 ,it is not distinguished from the campestris by market people1 but is often sold with the latter4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cf4 ,,the ,,horse ,,mushroom4 7,agaricus ,arvensis47 ,this variety is edible4 #c4 ,shaggy ,mane1 ,ink ,cap1 or ,horsetail ,fungus 7,coprinus ,comatus74--,this mushroom possesses the most marked characteristics of any of the edible species2 it would seem impossible to mistake its identity from written descriptions and illustrations4 ,it is considered by many superior in flavor to the campestris4 ,the top or cap does not expand in this mushroom1 until it begins to turn black1 but remains folded down about the stem like a closed umbrella4 ,mature specimens are usually three to five1 occasionally from eight to ten1 inches high4 ,the stem is hollow4 ,the inside of the cap or gills and the stem are snow white4 ,the outer surface of the cap1 which is white in young plants1 becomes of a faint1 yellow-brown or tawny color in mature specimens1 and also darker at the top4 ,delicate scales often rolled up at their lower ends are seen on the exterior of the cap1 more readily in mature mushrooms1 hence the name shaggy mane4 ,there is a ring around the stem at the lower margin of the cap1 and it is so loosely attached to either the cap or stem that it sometimes drops down to the base of the latter4 ,the most salient feature of shaggy mane is the change which occurs when it is about a day old2 it turns black and dissolves away into an inky fluid1 whence the other common name ink cap4 ,the mushroom should not be eaten when in this condition4 ,the ink cap is usually found growing in autumn1 rarely in summer1 in richer earth than the common mushroom4 ,one finds it in heaps of street scrapings1 by roadsides1 in rich lawns1 in soils filled with decomposing wood and in low1 shaded1 moist grounds4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cg4 ,,the ,,horse-,,tail ,,fungus4 7,coprinus ,comatus47 ,edible2 cut shows entire plant and section4 #d4 ,fairy-ring ,mushroom 7,marasmius ,oreades74--,this species usually grows on lawns1 in clusters which form an imperfect circle or crescent4 ,the ring increases in size each year as new fungi grow on the outside1 while old ones toward the center of the circle perish4 ,this mushroom is small and slender1 and rarely exceeds two inches in breadth4 ,the cap and the tough and tubular stem are buff1 and the gills1 few in number and bulging out in the middle1 are of a lighter shade of the same color4 ,there is no ring about the stem4 ,several crops of the fairy-ring mushroom are produced all through the season1 but the most prolific growth appears after the late fall rains4 ,there are other fungi forming rings1 some of which are poisonous1 and they may not be easily distinguished from the edible species2 hence great care is essential in gathering them4 ,the under surface of the cap is brown or blackish in the mature plants of poisonous species4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ch4 ,,the ,,fairy-,,ring ,,mushroom4 7,marasmius ,oreades47 ,an edible variety4 #e4 ,edible ,puffball 7,lycoperdon ,cyathiforme74--,edible puffballs grow in open pastures1 and on lawns and grassplots1 often forming rings4 ,they are spherical in form1 generally from one and a half to two inches1 occasionally six inches1 in diameter1 broad and somewhat flattened at the top1 and tapering at the base1 white or brown outside4 ,they often present an irregularly checkered appearance1 owing to the fact that the white interior shows between the dark raised parts4 ,the interior is at first pure white and of solid consistency1 but later becomes softer and yellowish1 and then contains an amber-colored juice4 ,after the puffball has matured1 the contents change into a brown1 dustlike mass1 and the top falls off2 and it is then inedible4 ,all varieties of puffball with a pure white interior are harmless1 if eaten before becoming crumbly and powdery4 ,there is only one species thought to be poisonous1 and that has a yellow-brown exterior1 while the interior is purple-black1 marbled with white4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ci4 ,,the ,,edible ,,puffball4 7,lycoperdon ,cyathiforme47 ,upper illustration shows entire plant2 lower1 a section4 ,,poisonous ,,mushrooms ,,frequently ,,mistaken4 ,to escape eating poisonous mushrooms do not gather the buttons1 and be suspicious of those growing in woods and shady spots that show any bright hue1 or have a scaly or dotted cap1 or white gills4#i ,by so doing the following species will be avoided4 ,fly ,amanita 7,amanita ,muscaria74--,infusions of this mushroom made by boiling in water are used to kill flies4 ,this species grows in woods and shady places1 by roadsides1 and along the borders of fields1 and is much commoner than the campestris in some localities4 ,it prefers a poor1 gravelly soil1 and is found in summer4 ,the stem is hollow and its gills are white4 ,the cap is variously colored1 white1 orange1 yellow1 or even brilliant red1 and dotted over with corklike particles or warty scales which are easily rubbed off4 ,there is a large1 drooping collar about the upper part of the hollow1 white stem1 and the latter is scaly below with a bulbous enlargement at its base4 ,the young mushrooms1 or buttons1 do not exhibit the dotted cap1 and the bulbous scaly base may be left in the ground when the mushroom is picked4 ,the fly amanita is usually larger than the common mushroom4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dj4 ,a ,,poisonous ,,fungus4 7,amanita ,muscaria47 ,the ,fly ,agaric4 ,death ,cup or ,deadly ,agaric 7,amanita ,phalloides74--,this species is more fatal in its effects than the preceding4 ,its salient feature is a bulbous base surmounted and surrounded by a collar or cup out of which the stem grows4 ,this is often buried beneath the ground1 however1 so that it may escape notice4 ,the gills and stem are white like the preceding1 but the cap is usually not dotted but glossy1 white1 greenish1 or yellow4 ,there is also a broad1 noticeable ring about the stem1 as in the fly amanita4 ,this mushroom frequents moist1 shady spots1 also along the borders of fields4 ,it occurs singly1 and rarely in fields or pastures4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #da4 ,,the ,,deadly ,,agaric4 7,amanita ,phalloides47 ,this variety is very poisonous4 ,,footnotes3 #i ,the shaggy mane has white gills1 but its other features are characteristic4 ,part ,,iii ,,the ,,house ,,and ,,grounds ,,by ,,george ,m4 ,,price ,acknowledgment ,we beg to tender grateful acknowledgment to author and publisher for the use of ,dr4 ,george ,m4 ,price's valuable articles on sanitation4 ,the following extracts are taken from ,dr4 ,price's ,handbook on ,sanitation1 published by ,john ,wiley ,son1 and are covered by copyright4 ,,chapter ,i ,soil and ,sites ,definition4--,by the term soil we mean the superficial layer of the earth1 a result of the geological disintegration of the primitive rock by the action of the elements upon it and of the decay of vegetable and animal life4 ,composition4--,soil consists of solids1 water1 and air4 ,solids4--,the solid constituents of the soil are inorganic and organic in character4 ,the inorganic constituents are the various minerals and elements found alone1 or in combination1 in the earth1 such as silica1 aluminum1 calcium1 iron1 carbon1 sodium1 chlorine1 potassium1 etc4 ,the characteristics of the soil depend upon its constituents1 and upon the predominance of one or the other of its composing elements4 ,the nature of the soil also depends upon its physical properties4 ,when the disintegrated rock consists of quite large particles1 the soil is called a gravel soil4 ,a sandy soil is one in which the particles are very small4 ,sandstone is consolidated sand4 ,clay is soil consisting principally of aluminum silicate2 in chalk1 soft calcium carbonate predominates4 ,the organic constituents of the soil are the result of vegetable and animal growth and decomposition in the soil4 ,ground ,water4--,ground water is that continuous body or sheet of water formed by the complete filling and saturation of the soil to a certain level by rain water2 it is that stratum of subterranean lakes and rivers1 filled up with alluvium1 which we reach at a higher or lower level when we dig wells4 ,the level of the ground water depends upon the underlying strata1 and also upon the movements of the subterranean water bed4 ,the relative position of the impermeable underlying strata varies in its distance from the surface soil4 ,in marshy land the ground water is at the surface2 in other places it can be reached only by deep borings4 ,the source of the ground water is the rainfall1 part of which drains into the porous soil until it reaches an impermeable stratum1 where it collects4 ,the movements of the ground water are in two directions--horizontal and vertical4 ,the horizontal or lateral movement is toward the seas and adjacent water courses1 and is determined by hydrostatic laws and topographical relations4 ,the vertical motion of the ground water is to and from the surface1 and is due to the amount of rainfall1 the pressure of tides1 and water courses into which the ground water drains4 ,the vertical variations of the ground water determine the distance of its surface level from the soil surface1 and are divided into a persistently low-water level1 about fifteen feet from the surface2 a persistently high-water level1 about five feet from the surface1 and a fluctuating level1 sometimes high1 sometimes low4 ,ground ,air4--,except in the hardest granite rocks and in soil completely filled with water the interstices of the soil are filled with a continuation of atmospheric air1 the amount depending on the degree of porosity of the soil4 ,the nature of the ground air differs from that of the atmosphere only as it is influenced by its location4 ,the principal constituents of the air--nitrogen1 oxygen1 and carbonic acid--are also found in the ground air1 but in the latter the relative quantities of ,o and ,,co#b are different4 ,,average ,,composition ,,of ,,atmospheric ,,air ,,in #ajj ,,volumes ,nitrogen #gi4jj per cent4 ,oxygen #bj4if ,carbonic acid #j4jd ,,average ,,composition ,,of ,,ground ,,air ,nitrogen #gi4jj per cent4 ,oxygen #aj4ce ,carbonic acid #i4gd ,of course1 these quantities are not constant1 but vary in different soils1 and at different depths1 times1 etc4 ,the greater quantity of ,,co#b in ground air is due to the process of oxidation and decomposition taking place in the soil4 ,ground air also contains a large quantity of bacterial and other organic matter found in the soil4 ,ground air is in constant motion1 its movements depending upon a great many factors1 some among these being the winds and movements of the atmospheric air1 the temperature of the soil1 the surface temperature1 the pressure from the ground water from below1 and surface and rain water from above1 etc4 ,ground ,moisture4--,the interstices of the soil above the ground-water level are filled with air only1 when the soil is absolutely dry2 but as such a soil is very rare1 all soils being more or less damp1 soil usually contains a mixture of air and water1 or what is called ground moisture4 ,ground moisture is derived partly from the evaporation of the ground water and its capillary absorption by the surface soil1 and partly by the retention of water from rains upon the surface4 ,the power of the soil to absorb and retain moisture varies according to the physical and chemical1 as well as the thermal1 properties of the soil4 ,loose sand may hold about #b gallons of water per cubic foot2 granite takes up about #d per cent of moisture2 chalk about #ae per cent2 clay about #bj per cent2 sandy loam #cc to #ce per cent2 humus#aj about #dj per cent4 ,ground ,temperature4--,the temperature of the soil is due to the direct rays of the sun1 the physicochemical changes in its interior1 and to the internal heat of the earth4 ,the ground temperature varies according to the annual and diurnal changes of the external temperature2 also according to the character of the soil1 its color1 composition1 depth1 degree of organic oxidation1 ground-water level1 and degree of dampness4 ,in hot weather the surface soil is cooler1 and the subsurface soil still more so1 than the surrounding air2 in cold weather the opposite is the case4 ,the contact of the cool soil with the warm surface air on summer evenings is what produces the condensation of air moisture which we call dew4 ,bacteria4--,quite a large number of bacteria are found in the soil1 especially near the surface1 where chemical and organic changes are most active4 ,from #bjj1jjj to #a1jjj1jjj bacteria have been found in #a c4c4 of earth4 ,the ground bacteria are divided into two groups--saprophytic and pathogenic4 ,the saprophytic bacteria are the bacteria of decay1 putrefaction1 and fermentation4 ,it is to their benevolent action that vegetable and animal debris is decomposed1 oxidized1 and reduced to its elements4 ,to these bacteria the soil owes its self-purifying capacity and the faculty of disintegrating animal and vegetable debris4 ,the pathogenic bacteria are either those formed during the process of organic decay1 and which1 introduced into the human system1 are capable of producing various diseases1 or those which become lodged in the soil through the contamination of the latter by ground water and air1 and which find in the soil a favorable lodging ground1 until forced out of the soil by the movements of the ground water and air4 ,contamination of the ,soil4--,the natural capacity of the soil to decompose and reduce organic matter is sometimes taxed to its utmost by the introduction into the soil of extraneous matters in quantities which the soil is unable to oxidize in a given period4 ,this is called contamination or pollution of soil1 and is due3 7#a7 to surface pollution by refuse1 garbage1 animal and human excreta2 7#b7 to interment of dead bodies of beasts and men2 7#c7 to the introduction of foreign deleterious gases1 etc4#aa ,pollution by ,surface ,refuse and ,sewage4--,this occurs where a large number of people congregate1 as in cities1 towns1 etc41 and very seriously contaminates the ground by the surcharge of the surface soil with sewage matter1 saturating the ground with it1 polluting the ground water from which the drinking water is derived1 and increasing the putrefactive changes taking place in the soil4 ,here the pathogenic bacteria abound1 and1 by multiplying1 exert a very marked influence upon the health by the possible spread of infectious diseases4 ,sewage pollution of the soils and of the source of water supply is a matter of grave importance1 and is one of the chief factors of high mortality in cities and towns4 ,interment of ,bodies4--,the second cause of soil contamination is also of great importance4 ,owing to the intense physicochemical and organic changes taking place within the soil1 all dead animal matter interred therein is easily disposed of in a certain time1 being reduced to the primary constituents1 viz41 ammonia1 nitrous acid1 carbonic acid1 sulphureted and carbureted hydrogen1 etc4 ,but whenever the number of interred bodies is too great1 and the products of decomposition are allowed to accumulate to a very great degree1 until the capacity of the soil to absorb and oxidize them is overtaxed1 the soil1 and the air and water therein1 are polluted by the noxious poisons produced by the processes of decomposition4 ,introduction of ,various ,foreign ,materials and ,gases4--,in cities and towns various pipes are laid in the ground for conducting certain substances1 as illuminating gas1 fuel1 coal gas1 etc42 the pipes at times are defective1 allowing leakage therefrom1 and permitting the saturation of the soil with poisonous gases which are frequently drawn up by the various currents of ground air into the open air and adjacent dwellings4 ,influence of the ,soil on ,health4--,the intimate relations existing between the soil upon which we live and our health1 and the marked influence of the soil on the life and well-being of man1 have been recognized from time immemorial4 ,the influence of the soil upon health is due to3 7#a7 the physical and chemical character of the soil2 7#b7 the ground-water level and degree of dampness2 7#c7 the organic impurities and contamination of the soil4 ,the physical and chemical nature of the soil1 irrespective of its water1 moisture1 and air1 has been regarded by some authorities as having an effect on the health1 growth1 and constitution of man4 ,the peculiar disease called cretinism1 as well as goitre1 has been attributed to a predominance of certain chemicals in the soil4 ,the ground-water level is of great importance to the well-being of man4 ,professor ,pettenkofer claimed that a persistently low water level 7about fifteen feet from the surface7 is healthy1 the mortality being the lowest in such places2 a persistently high ground-water level 7about five feet from the surface7 is unhealthy2 and a fluctuating level1 varying from high to low1 is the most unhealthy1 and is dangerous to life and health4 ,many authorities have sought to demonstrate the intimate relations between a high water level in the soil and various diseases4 ,a damp soil1 viz41 a soil wherein the ground moisture is very great and persistent1 has been found inimical to the health of the inhabitants1 predisposing them to various diseases by the direct effects of the dampness itself1 and by the greater proneness of damp ground to become contaminated with various pathogenic bacteria and organisms which may be drawn into the dwellings by the movements of the ground air4 ,as a rule1 there is very little to hinder the ground air from penetrating the dwellings of man1 air being drawn in through cellars by changes in temperature1 and by the artificial heating of houses4 ,the organic impurities and bacteria found in the soil are especially abundant in large cities1 and are a cause of the evil influence of soil upon health4 ,the impurities are allowed to drain into the ground1 to pollute the ground water and the source of water supply1 and to poison the ground air1 loading it with bacteria and products of putrefaction1 thus contaminating the air and water so necessary to life4 ,diseases ,due to ,soil4--,a great many diseases have been thought to be due to the influence of the soil4 ,an aetiological relation had been sought between soil and the following diseases3 malaria1 paroxysmal fevers1 tuberculosis1 neuralgias1 cholera1 yellow fever1 bubonic plague1 typhoid1 dysentery1 goitre and cretinism1 tetanus1 anthrax1 malignant ,oedema1 septicaemia1 etc4 ,sites4--,from what we have already learned about the soil1 it is evident that it is a matter of great importance as to where the site for a human habitation is selected1 for upon the proper selection of the site depend the health1 well-being1 and longevity of the inhabitants4 ,the requisite characteristics of a healthy site for dwellings are3 a dry1 porous1 permeable soil2 a low and nonfluctuating ground-water level1 and a soil retaining very little dampness1 free from organic impurities1 and the ground water of which is well drained into distant water courses1 while its ground air is uncontaminated by pathogenic bacteria4 ,exposure to sunlight1 and free circulation of air1 are also requisite4 ,according to ,parkes1 the soils in the order of their fitness for building purposes are as follows3 7#a7 primitive rock2 7#b7 gravel1 with pervious soil2 7#c7 sandstone2 7#d7 limestone2 7#e7 sandstone1 with impervious subsoil2 7#f7 clays and marls2 7#g7 marshy land1 and 7#h7 made soils4 ,it is very seldom1 however1 that a soil can be secured having all the requisites of a healthy site4 ,in smaller places1 as well as in cities1 commercial and other reasons frequently compel the acquisition of and building upon a site not fit for the purpose2 it then becomes a sanitary problem how to remedy the defects and make the soil suitable for habitation4 ,prevention of the ,bad ,effects of the ,soil on ,health4--,the methods taught by sanitary science to improve a defective soil and to prepare a healthy site are the following3 7#a7 ,street paving and tree planting4 7#b7 ,proper construction of houses4 7#c7 ,subsoil drainage4 ,street ,paving serves a double sanitary purpose4 ,it prevents street refuse and sewage from penetrating the ground and contaminating the surface soil1 and it acts as a barrier to the free ascension of deleterious ground air4#ab ,tree ,planting serves as a factor in absorbing the ground moisture and in oxidizing organic impurities4 ,the ,proper ,construction of the ,house has for its purpose the prevention of the entrance of ground moisture and air inside the house by building the foundations and cellar in such a manner as to entirely cut off communication between the ground and the dwelling4 ,this is accomplished by putting under the foundation a solid bed of concrete1 and under the foundation walls damp-proof courses4 ,the following are the methods recommended by the ,new ,york ,city ,tenement ,house ,department for the water-proofing and damp-proofing of foundation walls and cellars3 ,water-proofing and ,damp-proofing of ,foundation ,walls4--,there shall be built in with the foundation walls1 at a level of six 7#f7 inches below the finished floor level1 a course of damp-proofing consisting of not less than two 7#b7 ply of tarred felt 7not less than fifteen 7#ae7 pounds weight per one hundred 7#ajj7 square feet71 and one 7#a7 ply of burlap1 laid in alternate layers1 having the burlap placed between the felt1 and all laid in hot1 heavy coal-tar pitch1 or liquid asphalt1 and projecting six 7#f7 inches inside and six 7#f7 inches outside of the walls4 ,there shall be constructed on the outside surface of the walls a water-proofing lapping on to the damp-proof course in the foundation walls and extending up to the soil level4 ,this water-proofing shall consist of not less than two 7#b7 ply of tarred felt 7of weight specified above71 laid in hot1 heavy coal-tar pitch1 or liquid asphalt1 finished with a flow of hot pitch of the same character4 ,this water-proofing to be well stuck to the damp course in the foundation walls4 ,the layers of felt must break joints4 ,water-proofing and ,damp-proofing of ,cellar ,floors4--,there shall be laid1 above a suitable bed of rough concrete1 a course of water-proofing consisting of not less than three 7#c7 ply of tarred felt 7not less than fifteen 7#ae7 pounds weight per one hundred 7#ajj7 square feet71 laid in hot1 heavy coal-tar pitch1 or liquid asphalt1 finished with a flow of hot pitch of the same character4 ,the felt is to be laid so that each layer laps two-thirds of its width over the layer immediately below1 the contact surface being thoroughly coated with the hot pitch over its entire area before placing the upper layer4 ,the water-proofing course must be properly lapped on and secured to the damp course in the foundation walls4 ,other methods of damp-proofing foundations and cellars consist in the use of slate or sheet lead instead of tar and tarred paper4 ,an additional means of preventing water and dampness from coming into houses has been proposed in the so-called dry areas1 which are open spaces four to eight feet wide between the house proper and the surrounding ground1 the open spaces running as deep as the foundation1 if possible4 ,the dry areas are certainly a good preventive against dampness coming from the sides of the house4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4 ,,concrete ,,foundation ,,and ,,damp-,,proof ,,course4 ,subsoil ,drainage4--,by subsoil drainage is meant the reducing of the level of the ground water by draining all subsoil water into certain water courses1 either artificial or natural4 ,subsoil drainage is not a modern discovery1 as it was used in many ancient lands1 and was extensively employed in ancient ,rome1 the valleys and suburbs of which would have been uninhabitable but for the draining of the marshes by the so-called cloacae or drains1 which lowered the ground-water level of the low parts of the city and made them fit to build upon4 ,the drains for the conduction of subsoil water are placed at a certain depth1 with a fall toward the exit4 ,the materials for the drain are either stone and gravel trenches1 or1 better1 porous earthenware pipes or ordinary drain tile4 ,the drains must not be impermeable or closed1 and sewers are not to be used for drainage purposes4 ,sometimes open1 ,v-shaped pipes are laid under the regular sewers1 if these are at the proper depth4 ,by subsoil drainage it is possible to lower the level of ground water wherever it is near or at the surface1 as in swamps1 marsh1 and other lands1 and prepare lands previously uninhabitable for healthy sites4 ,,footnotes3 #aj ,humus is vegetable mold2 swamp muck2 peat2 etc4--,,editor4 #aa ,a leak in a gas main1 allowing the gas to penetrate the soil1 will destroy trees1 shrubbery1 or any other vegetation with which it comes in contact4--,,editor4 #ab ,town and village paving plans will benefit by knowledge of the recent satisfactory experience of ,new ,york ,city authorities in paving with wood blocks soaked in a preparation of creosote and resin4 ,as compared with the other two general classes of paving1 granite blocks1 and asphalt1 these wood blocks are now considered superior4 ,the granite blocks are now nearly discarded in ,new ,york because of their permeability1 expense1 and noise1 being now used for heavy traffic only4 ,asphalt is noiseless and impermeable 7thereby serving the double sanitary purpose mentioned by ,dr4 ,price74 ,but the wood possesses these qualities1 and has in addition the advantage of inexpensiveness1 since it is more durable1 not cracking at winter cold and melting under summer heat like the asphalt2 and there is but slight cost for repairs1 which are easily made by taking out the separate blocks4 ,these creo-resinate wood blocks1 recently used on lower ,broadway1 ,park ,place1 and the congested side streets1 are giving admirable results4--,,editor4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,ventilation ,definition4--,the air within an uninhabited room does not differ from that without4 ,if the room is occupied by one or more individuals1 however1 then the air in the room soon deteriorates1 until the impurities therein reach a certain degree incompatible with health4 ,this is due to the fact that with each breath a certain quantity of ,,co#b1 organic impurities1 and aqueous vapor is exhaled2 and these products of respiration soon surcharge the air until it is rendered impure and unfit for breathing4 ,in order to render the air pure in such a room1 and make life possible1 it is necessary to change the air by withdrawing the impure1 and substituting pure air from the outside4 ,this is ventilation4 ,ventilation1 therefore1 is the maintenance of the air in a confined space in a condition conducive to health2 in other words1 ventilation is the replacing of the impure air in a confined space by pure air from the outside4 ,quantity of ,air ,required4--,what do we regard as impure air8 ,what is the index of impurity8 ,how much air is required to render pure an air in a given space1 in a given time1 for a given number of people8 ,how often can the change be safely made1 and how8 ,these are the problems of ventilation4 ,an increase in the quantity of ,,co#b carbon dioxide gas1 and a proportionate increase of organic impurities1 are the results of respiratory vitiation of the air2 and it has been agreed to regard the relative quantity of ,,co#b as the standard of impurity1 its increase serving as an index of the condition of the air4 ,the normal quantity of ,,co#b in the air is #j4jd per cent1 or #d volumes in #aj1jjj2 and it has been determined that whenever the ,,co#b reaches #j4jf per cent1 or #f parts per #aj1jjj1 the maximum of air vitiation is reached--a point beyond which the breathing of the air becomes dangerous to health4 ,we therefore know that an increase of #b volumes of ,,co#b in #aj1jjj of air constitutes the maximum of admissible impurity2 the difference between #j4jd per cent and #j4jf per cent4 ,now1 a healthy average adult at rest exhales in one hour #j4f cubic foot of ,,co#b4 ,having determined these two factors--the amount of ,,co#b exhaled in one hour and the maximum of admissible impurity--we can find by dividing #j4f by #j4jjjb 7or #j4jb per cent7 the number of cubic feet of air needed for one hour1#c1jjj4 ,therefore1 a room with a space of #c1jjj cubic feet1 occupied by one average adult at rest1 will not reach its maximum of impurity 7that is1 the air in such a room will not be in need of a change7 before one hour has elapsed4 ,the relative quantity of fresh air needed will differ for adults at work and at rest1 for children1 women1 etc42 it will also differ according to the illuminant employed1 whether oil1 candle1 gas1 etc4--an ordinary #c-;foot gas-burner requiring #a1hjj cubic feet of air in one hour4 ,it is not necessary1 however1 to have #c1jjj cubic feet of space for each individual in a room1 for the air in the latter can safely be changed at least three times within one hour1 thus reducing the air space needed to about #a1jjj cubic feet4 ,this change of air or ventilation of a room can be accomplished by mechanical means oftener than three times in an hour1 but a natural change of more than three times in an hour will ordinarily create too strong a current of air1 and may cause draughts and chills dangerous to health4 ,in determining the cubic space needed1 the height of the room as well as the floor space must be taken into consideration4 ,as a rule the height of a room ought to be in proportion to the floor space1 and in ordinary rooms should not exceed fourteen feet1 as a height beyond that is of very little advantage4#ac ,forces of ,ventilation4--,we now come to the question of the various modes by which change in the air of a room is possible4 ,ventilation is natural or artificial according to whether artificial or mechanical devices are or are not used4 ,natural ventilation is only possible because our buildings and houses1 their material and construction1 are such that numerous apertures and crevices are left for air to come in2 for it is evident that if a room were hermetically air-tight1 no natural ventilation would be possible4 ,the properties of air which render both natural and artificial ventilation possible are diffusion1 motion1 and gravity4 ,these three forces are the natural agents of ventilation4 ,there is a constant diffusion of gases taking place in the air2 this diffusion takes place even through stone and through brick walls4 ,the more porous the material of which the building is constructed1 the more readily does diffusion take place4 ,dampness1 plastering1 painting1 and papering of walls diminish diffusion1 however4 ,the second force in ventilation is the motion of air or winds4 ,this is the most powerful agent of ventilation1 for even a slight1 imperceptible wind1 traveling about two miles an hour1 is capable1 when the windows and doors of a room are open1 of changing the air of a room #ebh times in one hour4 ,air passes also through brick and stone walls4 ,the objections to winds as a sole mode of ventilation are their inconstancy and irregularity4 ,when the wind is very slight its ventilating influence is very small2 on the other hand1 when the wind is strong it cannot be utilized as a means of ventilation on account of the air currents being too strong and capable of exerting deleterious effects on health4 ,the third1 the most constant and reliable1 and1 in fact1 principal agent of ventilation is the specific gravity of the air1 and the variations in the gravity and consequent pressure which are results of the variations in temperature1 humidity1 etc4 ,whenever air is warmer in one place than in another1 the warmer air being lighter and the colder air outside being heavier1 the latter exerts pressure upon the air in the room1 causing the lighter air in the room to escape and be displaced by the heavier air from the outside1 thus changing the air in the room4 ,this mode of ventilation is always constant and at work1 as the very presence of living beings in the room warms the air therein1 thus causing a difference from the outside air and effecting change of air from the outside to the inside of the room4 ,methods of ,ventilation4--,the application of these principles of ventilation is said to be accomplished in a natural or an artificial way1 according as mechanical means to utilize the forces and properties of air are used or not4 ,but in reality natural ventilation can hardly be said to exist1 since dwellings are so constructed as to guard against exposure and changes of temperature1 and are usually equipped with numerous appliances for promoting change of air4 ,windows1 doors1 fireplaces1 chimneys1 shafts1 courts1 etc41 are all artificial methods of securing ventilation1 although we usually regard them as means of natural ventilation4 ,natural ,ventilation4--,the means employed for applying the properties of diffusion are the materials of construction4 ,a porous material being favorable for diffusion1 some such material is placed in several places within the wall1 thus favoring change of air4 ,imperfect carpenter work is also a help1 as the cracks and openings left are favorable for the escape and entrance of air4 ,wind1 or the motion of air1 is utilized either directly1 through windows1 doors1 and other openings2 or indirectly1 by producing a partial vacuum in passing over chimneys and shafts1 causing suction of the air in them1 and the consequent withdrawal of the air from the rooms4 ,the opening of windows and doors is possible only in warm weather2 and as ventilation becomes a problem only in temperate and cold weather1 the opening of windows and doors cannot very well be utilized without causing colds1 etc4 ,various methods have therefore been proposed for using windows for the purposes of ventilation without producing forcible currents of air4 ,the part of the window best fitted for the introduction of air is the space between the two sashes1 where they meet4 ,the ingress of air is made possible whenever the lower sash is raised or the upper one is lowered4 ,in order to prevent cold air from without entering through the openings thus made1 it has been proposed by ,hinkes ,bird to fit a block of wood in the lower opening2 or else1 as in ,dr4 ,keen's arrangement1 a piece of paper or cloth is used to cover the space left by the lifting or lowering of either or both sashes4 ,louvers or inclined panes or parts of these may also be used4 ,parts or entire window panes are sometimes wholly removed and replaced by tubes or perforated pieces of zinc1 so that air may come in through the apertures4 ,again1 apertures for inlets and outlets may be made directly in the walls of the rooms4 ,these openings are filled in with porous bricks or with specially made bricks 7like ,ellison's conical bricks71 or boxes provided with several openings4 ,a very useful apparatus of this kind is the so-called ,sheringham valve1 which consists of an iron box fitted into the wall1 the front of the box facing the room having an iron valve hinged along its lower edge1 and so constructed that it can be opened or be closed at will to let a current of air pass upward4 ,another very good apparatus of this kind is the ,tobin ventilator1 consisting of horizontal tubes let through the walls1 the outer ends open to the air1 but the inner ends projecting into the room1 where they are joined by vertical tubes carried up five feet or more from the floor1 thus allowing the outside air to enter upwardly into the room4 ,this plan is also adapted for filtering and cleaning the incoming air by placing cloth or other material across the lumen of the horizontal tubes to intercept dust1 etc4 ,mc,kinnell's ventilator is also a useful method of ventilation1 especially of underground rooms4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4 ,,hinkes ,,bird ,,window4 7,,taylor47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f4 ,,ellison',s ,,air ,,inlets4 7,,knight47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g4 ,,sheringham ,,valve4 7,,taylor47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #h4 ,,the ,,tobin ,,ventilator4 7,,knight47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #i4 ,mc,k,i,n,n,e,l,l',s ,,ventilator4 7,,taylor47 ,to assist the action of winds over the tops of shafts and chimneys1 various cowls have been devised4 ,these cowls are arranged so as to help aspirate the air from the tubes and chimneys1 and prevent a down draught4 ,the same inlets and outlets which are made to utilize winds may also be used for the ventilation effected by the motion of air due to difference in the specific gravity of outside and inside air4 ,any artificial warming of the air in the room1 whether by illuminants or by the various methods of heating rooms1 will aid in ventilating it1 the chimneys acting as powerful means of removal for the warmer air4 ,various methods have also been proposed for utilizing the chimney1 even when no stoves1 etc41 are connected with it1 by placing a gaslight within the chimney to cause an up draught and consequent aspiration of the air of the room through it4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aj4 ,,ventilating ,,through ,,chimney4 7,,knight47 ,the question of the number1 relative size1 and position of the inlets and outlets is a very important one1 but we can here give only an epitome of the requirements4 ,the inlet and outlet openings should be about twenty-four inches square per head4 ,inlet openings should be short1 easily cleaned1 sufficient in number to insure a proper distribution of air2 should be protected from heat1 provided with valves so as to regulate the inflow of air1 and1 if possible1 should be placed so as to allow the air passing through them to be warmed before entering the room4#ad ,outlet openings should be placed near the ceiling1 should be straight and smooth1 and1 if possible1 should be heated so as to make the air therein warmer1 thus preventing a down draught1 as is frequently the case when the outlets become inlets4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aa4 ,,cowl ,,ventilator4 7,,knight47 ,artificial ,ventilation4--,artificial ventilation is accomplished either by aspirating the air from the building1 known as the vacuum or extraction method1 or by forcing into the building air from without2 this is known as the plenum or propulsion method4 ,the extraction of the air in a building is done by means of heat1 by warming the air in chimneys or special tubes1 or by mechanical means with screws or fans run by steam or electricity2 these screws or fans revolve and aspirate the air of the rooms1 and thus cause pure air to enter4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ab4 ,,an ,,air ,,propeller4 ,the propelling method of ventilation is carried out by mechanical means only1 air being forced in from the outside by fans1 screws1 bellows1 etc4 ,artificial ventilation is applicable only where a large volume of air is needed1 and for large spaces1 such as theaters1 churches1 lecture rooms1 etc4 ,for the ordinary building the expense for mechanical contrivances is too high4 ,on the whole1 ventilation without complex and cumbersome mechanisms is to be preferred4#ae ,,footnotes3 #ac ,in cerebro-spinal meningitis1 tuberculosis1 and pneumonia1 fresh air is curative4 ,any person1 sick or well1 cannot have too much fresh air4 ,the windows of sleeping rooms should always be kept open at night4--,,editor4 #ad ,these outlets may be placed close to a chimney or heating pipes4 ,warm air rises and thus will be forced out1 allowing cool fresh air to enter at the inlets4--,,editor4 #ae ,the ordinary dwelling house needs no artificial methods of ventilation4 ,the opening and closing of windows will supply all necessary regulation in this regard4 ,the temperature of living rooms should be kept1 in general1 at #gj deg4 ,f4 ,almost all rooms for the sick are unfortunately overheated4 ,cool1 fresh air is one of the most potent means of curing disease4 ,overheated rooms are a menace to health4--,,editor4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,warming ,ventilation and ,heating4--,the subject of the heating of our rooms and houses is very closely allied to that of ventilation1 not only because both are a special necessity at the same time of the year1 but also because we cannot heat a room without at the same time having to ventilate it by providing an egress for the products of combustion and introducing fresh air to replace the vitiated4 ,need of ,heating4--,in a large part of the country1 and during the greater period of the year1 some mode of artificial heating of rooms is absolutely necessary for our comfort and health4 ,the temperature of the body is #ih deg4 to #ii deg4 ,f41 and there is a constant radiation of heat due to the cooling of the body surface4 ,if the external temperature is very much below that of the body1 and if the low temperature is prolonged1 the radiation of heat from the body is too rapid1 and colds1 pneumonia1 etc41 result4 ,the temperature essential for the individual varies according to age1 constitution1 health1 environment1 occupation1 etc4 ,a child1 a sick person1 or one at rest requires a relatively higher temperature than a healthy adult at work4 ,the mean temperature of a room most conducive to the health of the average person is from #fe deg4 to #ge deg4 ,f4 ,the ,three ,methods of ,heating4--,the heating of a room can be accomplished either directly by the rays of the sun or processes of combustion4 ,we thus receive radiant heat1 exemplified by that of open fires and grates4 ,or1 the heating of places can be accomplished by the heat of combustion being conducted through certain materials1 like brick walls1 tile1 stone1 and also iron2 this is conductive heat1 as afforded by stoves1 etc4 ,or1 the heat is conveyed by means of air1 water1 or steam from one place to another1 as in the hot-water1 hot-air1 and steam systems of heating2 this we call convected heat4 ,there is no strict line of demarcation differentiating the three methods of heating1 as it is possible that a radiant heat may at the same time be conductive as well as convective--as is the case in the ,galton fireplace1 etc4 ,materials of ,combustion4--,the materials of combustion are air1 wood1 coal1 oil1 and gas4 ,air is indispensable1 for1 without oxygen1 there can be no combustion4 ,wood is used in many places1 but is too bulky and expensive4 ,oil is rarely used as a material of combustion1 its principal use being for illumination4 ,coal is the best and cheapest material for combustion4 ,the chief objection against its use is the production of smoke1 soot1 and of various gases1 as ,,co1 ,,co#b1 etc4 ,gas is a very good1 in fact1 the best material for heating1 especially if1 when used1 it is connected with chimneys2 otherwise1 it is objectionable1 as it burns up too much air1 vitiates the atmosphere1 and the products of combustion are deleterious2 it is also quite expensive4 ,the ideal means of heating is electricity4 ,chimneys4--,all materials used for combustion yield products more or less injurious to health4 ,every system of artificially heating houses must therefore have not only means of introducing fresh air to aid in the burning up of the materials1 but also an outlet for the vitiated1 warmed air1 partly charged with the products of combustion4 ,these outlets are provided by chimneys4 ,chimneys are hollow tubes or shafts built of brick and lined with earthen pipes or other material inside4 ,these tubes begin at the lowest fireplace or connection1 and are carried up several feet above the roof4 ,the thickness of a chimney is from four to nine inches2 the shape square1 rectangular1 or1 preferably1 circular4 ,the diameter of the chimney depends upon the size of the house1 the number of fire connections1 etc4 ,it should be neither too small nor too large4 ,square chimneys should be twelve to sixteen inches square2 circular ones from six to eight inches in diameter for each fire connection4 ,the chimney consists of a shaft1 or vertical tube1 and cowls placed over chimneys on the roof to prevent down draughts and the falling in of foreign bodies4 ,that part of the chimney opening into the fireplace is called the throat4 ,smoky ,chimneys4--,a very frequent cause of complaint in a great many houses is the so-called smoky chimney2 this is the case when smoke and coal gas escape from the chimney and enter the living rooms4 ,the principal causes of this nuisance are3 7#a7 ,a too wide or too narrow diameter of the shafts4 ,a shaft which is too narrow does not let all the smoke escape2 one which is too wide lets the smoke go up only in a part of its diameter1 and when the smoke meets a countercurrent of cold air it is liable to be forced back into the rooms4 7#b7 ,the throat of the chimney may be too wide1 and will hold cold air1 preventing the warming of the air in the chimneys and the consequent up draught4 7#c7 ,the cowls may be too low or too tight1 preventing the escape of the smoke4 7#d7 ,the brickwork of the chimney may be loose1 badly constructed1 or broken into by nails1 etc41 thus allowing smoke to escape therefrom4 7#e7 ,the supply of air may be deficient1 as when all doors and windows are tightly closed4 7#f7 ,the chimney may be obstructed by soot or some foreign material4 7#g7 ,the wind above the house may be so strong that its pressure will cause the smoke from the chimney to be forced back4 7#h7 ,if two chimneys rise together from the same house1 and one is shorter than the other1 the draught of the longer chimney may cause an inversion of the current of air in the lower chimney4 7#i7 ,wet fuel when used will cause smoke by its incomplete combustion4 7#aj7 ,a chimney without a fire may suck down the smoke from a neighboring chimney2 or1 if two fireplaces in different rooms are connected with the same chimney1 the smoke from one room may be drawn into the other4 ,methods of ,heating4 ,open ,fireplaces and ,grates4--,open fireplaces and fires in grates connected with chimneys1 and using coal1 wood1 or gas1 are very comfortable2 nevertheless there are weighty objections to them4 ,firstly1 but a very small part of the heat of the material burning is utilized1 only about twelve per cent being radiated into the room1 the rest going up the chimney4 ,secondly1 the heat of grates and fireplaces is only local1 being near the fires and warming only that part of the person exposed to it1 leaving the other parts of the room and person cold4 ,thirdly1 the burning of open fires necessitates a great supply of air1 and causes powerful draughts4 ,the open fireplace can1 however1 be greatly improved by surrounding its back and sides by an air space1 in which air can be warmed and conveyed into the upper part of the room2 and if a special air inlet is provided for supplying the fire with fresh air to be warmed1 we get a very valuable means of heating4 ,these principles are embodied in the ,franklin and ,galton grates4 ,a great many other grates have been suggested1 and put on the market1 but the principal objection to them is their complexity and expense1 making their use a luxury not attainable by the masses4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ac4 ,a ,,galton ,,grate4 7,,tracy47 ,stoves4--,stoves are closed receptacles in which fuel is burned1 and the heat produced is radiated toward the persons1 etc41 near them1 and also conducted1 through the iron or other materials of which the stoves are made1 to surrounding objects4 ,in stoves seventy-five per cent of the fuel burned is utilized4 ,they are made of brick1 tile1 and cast or wrought iron4 ,brick stoves1 and stoves made of tile1 are extensively used in some ,european countries1 as ,russia1 ,germany1 ,sweden1 etc42 they are made of slow-conducting material1 and give a very equable1 efficient1 and cheap heat1 although their ventilating power is very small4 ,iron is used very extensively because it is a very good conductor of heat1 and can be made into very convenient forms4 ,iron stoves1 however1 often become superheated1 dry up1 and sometimes burn the air around them1 and produce certain deleterious gases during combustion4 ,when the fire is confined in a clay fire box1 and the stove is not overheated1 a good supply of fresh air being provided and a vessel of water placed on the stove to reduce the dryness of the air1 iron stoves are quite efficient4 ,hot-air ,warming4--,in small houses the warming of the various rooms and halls can be accomplished by placing the stove or furnace in the cellar1 heating a large quantity of air and conveying it through proper tubes to the rooms and places to be warmed4 ,the points to be observed in a proper and efficient hot-air heating system are the following3 7#a7 ,the furnace must be of a proper size in proportion to the area of space to be warmed4 7#b7 ,the joints and parts of the furnace must be gas-tight4 7#c7 ,the furnace should be placed on the cold side of the house1 and provision made to prevent cellar air from being drawn up into the cold-air box of the furnace4 7#d7 ,the air for the supply of the furnace must be gotten from outside1 and the source must be pure1 above the ground level1 and free from contamination of any kind4#af 7#e7 ,the cold-air box and ducts must be clean1 protected against the entrance of vermin1 etc41 and easily cleaned4 7#f7 ,the air should not be overheated4 7#g7 ,the hot-air flues or tubes must be short1 direct1 circular1 and covered with asbestos or some other non-conducting material4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ad4 ,a ,,hot-,,air ,,furnace4 ,the cold air from outside comes to the ,,cold-,,air ,,intake through the cold-air duct1 enters the furnace from beneath1 and is heated by passing around the ,,fire ,,pot and the annular combustion chamber above4 ,it then goes through pipes to the various registers throughout the house4 ,the coal is burnt in the fire pot1 the gases are consumed in the combustion chamber above1 while the heat eventually passes into the ,,smoke ,,flue4 ,the ,,water ,,pan supplies moisture to the air4 ,hot-water ,system4--,the principles of hot-water heating are very simple4 ,given a circuit of pipes filled with water1 on heating the lower part of the circuit the water1 becoming warmer1 will rise1 circulate1 and heat the pipes in which it is contained1 thus warming the air in contact with the pipes4 ,the lower part of the circuit of pipe begins in the furnace or heater1 and the other parts of the circuit are conducted through the various rooms and halls throughout the house to the uppermost story4 ,the pipes need not be straight all through2 hence1 to secure a larger area for heating1 they are convoluted within the furnace1 and also in the rooms1 where the convoluted pipes are called radiators4 ,the water may be warmed by the low- or high-pressure system2 in the latter1 pipes of small diameter may be employed2 while in the former1 pipes of a large diameter will be required4 ,the character1 etc41 of the boilers1 furnace1 pipes1 etc41 cannot be gone into here4 ,steam-heating ,system4--,the principle of steam heating does not differ from that of the hot-water system4 ,here the pressure is greater and steam is employed instead of water4 ,the steam gives a greater degree of heat1 but the pipes must be stronger and able to withstand the pressure4 ,there are also combinations of steam and hot-water heating4 ,for large houses either steam or hot-water heating is the best means of warming1 and1 if properly constructed and cared for1 quite healthy4#ag ,,footnotes3 #af ,great care should be taken that the air box is not placed in contaminated soil or where it may become filled with stagnant or polluted water4--,,editor4 #ag ,see ,chapter ,,xi for practical notes on cost of installation of these three conveyed systems--hot-air1 hot-water1 and steam4--,,editor4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,disposal of ,sewage ,waste ,products4--,there is a large amount of waste products in human and social economy4 ,the products of combustion1 such as ashes1 cinders1 etc42 the products of street sweepings and waste from houses1 as dust1 rubbish1 paper1 etc42 the waste from various trades2 the waste from kitchens1 e4 g41 scraps of food1 etc42 the waste water from the cleansing processes of individuals1 domestic animals1 clothing1 etc42 and1 finally1 the excreta--urine and faeces--of man and animals2 all these are waste products that cannot be left undisposed of1 more especially in cities1 and wherever a large number of people congregate4 ,all waste products are classified into three distinct groups3 7#a7 refuse1 7#b7 garbage1 and 7#c7 sewage4 ,the amount of refuse and garbage in cities is quite considerable2 in ,manhattan1 alone1 the dry refuse amounts to #a1jjj1jjj tons a year1 and that of garbage to #age1jjj tons per year4 ,a large percentage of the dry refuse and garbage is valuable from a commercial standpoint1 and could be utilized1 with proper facilities for collection and separation4 ,the disposal of refuse and garbage has not as yet been satisfactorily dealt with4 ,the modes of waste disposal in the ,united ,states are3 7#a7 dumping into the sea2 7#b7 filling in made land1 or plowing into lands2 7#c7 cremation and 7#d7 reduction by various processes1 and the products utilized4 ,sewage4--,by sewage we mean the waste and effete human matter and excreta--the urine and faeces of human beings and the urine of domestic animals 7the faeces of horses1 etc41 has great commercial value1 and is usually collected separately and disposed of for fertilizing purposes74 ,the amount of excreta per person has been estimated 7,frankland7 as #c ounces of solid and #dj ounces of fluid per day1 or about #cj tons of solid and #ajj1jjj gallons of fluid for each #a1jjj persons per year4 ,in sparsely populated districts the removal and ultimate disposal of sewage presents no difficulties2 it is returned to the soil1 which1 as we know1 is capable of purifying1 disintegrating1 and assimilating quite a large amount of organic matter4 ,but when the number of inhabitants to the square mile increases1 and the population becomes as dense as it is in some towns and cities1 the disposal of the human waste products becomes a question of vast importance1 and the proper1 as well as the immediate and final1 disposal of sewage becomes a serious sanitary problem4 ,it is evident that sewage must be removed in a thorough manner1 otherwise it would endanger the lives and health of the people4 ,the dangers of sewage to health are3 7#a7 ,from its offensive odors1 which1 while not always directly dangerous to health1 often produce headaches1 nausea1 etc4 7#b7 ,the organic matter contained in sewage decomposes and eliminates gases and other products of decomposition4 7#c7 ,sewage may contain a large number of pathogenic bacteria 7typhoid1 dysentery1 cholera1 etc474 7#d7 ,contamination of the soil1 ground water1 and air by percolation of sewage4 ,the problem of sewage disposal is twofold3 7#a7 immediate1 viz41 the need of not allowing sewage to remain too long on the premises1 and its immediate removal beyond the limits of the city2 and 7#b7 the final disposition of the sewage1 after its removal from the cities1 etc4 ,modes of ,ultimate ,disposal of ,sewage4--,the chief constituents of sewage are organic matter1 mineral salts1 nitrogenous substances1 potash1 and phosphoric acid4 ,fresh-mixed excrementitious matter has an acid reaction1 but within twelve to twenty hours it becomes alkaline1 because of the free ammonia formed in it4 ,sewage rapidly decomposes1 evolving organic and fetid matters1 ammonium sulphide1 sulphureted and carbureted hydrogen1 etc41 besides teeming with animal and bacterial life4 ,a great many of the substances contained in sewage are valuable as fertilizers of soil4 ,the systems of final disposal of sewage are as follows3 7#a7 ,discharge into seas1 lakes1 and rivers4 7#b7 ,cremation4 7#c7 ,physical and chemical precipitation4 7#d7 ,intermittent filtration4 7#e7 ,land irrigation4 7#f7 ,bacterial methods4 ,discharge into ,waters4--,the easiest way to dispose of sewage is to let it flow into the sea or other running water course4 ,the objections to sewage discharging into the rivers and lakes near cities1 and especially such lakes and rivers as supply water to the municipalities1 are obvious4 ,but as water can purify a great amount of sewage1 this method is still in vogue in certain places1 although it is to be hoped that it will in the near future be superseded by more proper methods4 ,the objection against discharging into seas is the operation of the tides1 which cause a backflow and overflow of sewage from the pipes4 ,this backflow is remedied by the following methods3 7#a7 providing tidal flap valves1 permitting the outflow of sewage1 but preventing the inflow of sea water2 7#b7 discharging the sewage intermittently1 only during low tide2 and 7#c7 providing a constant outflow by means of steam-power pressure4 ,cremation4--,another method of getting rid of the sewage without attempting to utilize it is by cremation4 ,the liquid portion of the sewage is allowed to drain and discharge into water courses1 and the more or less solid residues are collected and cremated in suitable crematories4 ,precipitation4--,this method consists in separating the solid matters from the sewage by precipitation by physical or chemical processes1 the liquid being allowed to drain into rivers and other waters1 and the precipitated solids utilized for certain purposes4 ,the precipitation is done either by straining the sewage1 collecting it into tanks1 and letting it subside1 when the liquid is drawn off and the solids remain at the bottom of the tanks1 a rather unsatisfactory method2 or1 by chemical processes1 precipitating the sewage by chemical means1 and utilizing the products of such precipitation4 ,the chemical agents by which precipitation is accomplished are many and various2 among them are lime1 alum1 iron perchloride1 phosphates1 etc4 ,intermittent ,filtration4--,sewage may be purified mechanically and chemically by method of intermittent filtration by passing it through filter beds of gravel1 sand1 coke1 cinders1 or any such materials4 ,intermittent filtration has passed beyond the experimental stage and has been adopted already by a number of cities where such a method of sewage disposal seems to answer all purposes4 ,land ,irrigation4--,in this method the organic and other useful portions of sewage are utilized for irrigating land1 to improve garden and other vegetable growths by feeding the plants with the organic products of animal excretion4 ,flat land1 with a gentle slope1 is best suited for irrigation4 ,the quantity of sewage disposed of will depend on the character of the soil1 its porosity1 the time of the year1 temperature1 intermittency of irrigation1 etc4 ,as a rule1 one acre of land is sufficient to dispose of the sewage of #ajj to #aej people4 ,bacterial ,methods4--,the other biological methods1 or the so-called bacterial sewage treatment1 are but modifications of the filtration and irrigation methods of sewage disposal4 ,properly speaking the bacterial purification of sewage is the scientific application of the knowledge gained by the study of bacterial life and its action upon sewage4 ,in intermittent filtration the sewage is passed through filter beds of sands1 etc41 upon which filter beds the whole burden of the purification of the sewage rests4 ,in the bacterial methods the work of purification is divided between the septic tanks where the sewage is first let into and where it undergoes the action of the anaerobic bacteria1 and from these septic tanks the sewage is run to the contact beds of coke and cinders to further undergo the action of the aerobic bacteria1 after the action of which the nitrified sewage is in a proper form to be utilized for fertilization of land1 etc4 ,the septic tanks are but a modification of the common cesspool1 and are constructed of masonry1 brick1 and concrete4 ,there are a number of special applications of the bacterial methods of sewage treatment1 into which we cannot go here4 ,sewage ,disposal in the ,united ,states4--,according to its location1 position1 etc41 each city in the ,united ,states has its own method of final disposition of sewage4 ,either one or the other1 or a combination of two of the above methods1 is used4 ,the following cities discharge their sewage into the sea3 ,portland1 ,salem1 ,lynn1 ,gloucester1 ,boston1 ,providence1 ,new ,york1 ,baltimore1 ,charleston1 and ,savannah4 ,the following cities discharge their sewage into rivers and lakes3 ,philadelphia1 ,cincinnati1 ,st4 ,louis1 ,albany1 ,minneapolis1 ,st4 ,paul1 ,washington1 ,buffalo1 ,detroit1 ,richmond1 ,chicago1 ,milwaukee1 and ,cleveland4 ,worcester uses chemical precipitation4 ,in ,atlanta a part of the soil is cremated1 but the rest is deposited in pits #h x #aj feet1 and #e feet deep4 ,it is then thoroughly mixed with dry ashes from the crematory1 and afterwards covered with either grain or grass4 ,in ,salt ,lake ,city and in ,woonsocket it is disposed of in the same way4 ,in ,indianapolis it is composted with marl and sawdust1 and after some months used as a fertilizer4 ,a portion of the sewage is cremated in ,atlanta1 ,camden1 ,dayton1 ,evansville1 ,findlay1 ,ohio2 ,jacksonville1 ,mc,keesport1 ,pa42 ,muncie1 and ,new ,brighton4 ,in ,atlanta1 in #ahih1 there were cremated #b1cfb loads of sewage4 ,in ,dayton1 during #cj days1 there were cremated #a1ijj barrels of #cjj pounds each4 7,chapin1 ,mun4 ,san4 in ,u4 ,s47 ,the ,immediate ,disposal of ,sewage4--,the final disposition of sewage is only one part of the problem of sewage disposal2 the other part is how to remove it from the house into the street1 and from the street into the places from which it is finally disposed4 ,the immediate disposal of sewage is accomplished by two methods--the so-called dry1 and the water-carriage methods4 ,by the dry method we mean the removal of sewage without the aid of water1 simply collecting the dry and liquid portions of excreta1 storing it for some time1 and then removing it for final disposal4 ,by the water-carriage method is understood the system by which sewage1 solid and liquid1 is flushed out by means of water1 through pipes or conduits called sewers1 from the houses through the streets to the final destination4 ,the ,dry ,methods4--,the dry or conservacy method of sewage disposal is a primitive method used by all ancient peoples1 in ,china at the present time1 and in all villages and sparsely populated districts2 it has for its basic principle the return to mother earth of all excreta1 to be used and worked over in its natural laboratory4 ,the excreta are simply left in the ground to undergo in the soil the various organic changes1 the difference in methods being only as regards the vessels of collection and storage4 ,the methods are3 7#a7 ,cesspool and privy vault4 7#b7 ,pail system4 7#c7 ,pneumatic system4 ,the ,privy ,vault is the general mode of sewage disposal in villages1 some towns1 and even in some large cities1 wherever sewers are not provided4 ,in its primitive and unfortunately common form1 the privy vault is nothing but a hole dug in the ground near or at some distance from the house2 the hole is but a few feet deep1 with a plank or rough seat over it1 and an improvised shed over all4 ,the privy is filled with the excreta2 the liquids drain into the adjacent ground1 which becomes saturated1 and contaminates the nearest wells and water courses4 ,the solid portion is left to accumulate until the hole is filled or the stench becomes unbearable1 when the hole is either covered up and forgotten1 or the excreta are removed and the hole used over again4 ,this is the common privy as we so often find it near the cottages and mansions of our rural populace1 and even in towns4 ,a better and improved form of privy is that built in the ground1 and made water-tight by being constructed of bricks set in cement1 the privy being placed at a distance from the house1 the shed over it ventilated1 and the contents of the privy removed regularly and at stated intervals1 before they become a nuisance4 ,at its best1 however1 the privy vault is an abomination1 as it can scarcely be so well constructed as not to contaminate the surrounding soil1 or so often cleaned as to prevent decomposition and the escape of poisonous gases4 ,the ,pail ,system is an economic1 simple1 and1 on the whole1 very efficient method of removing fresh excreta4 ,the excreta are passed directly into stone or metal water- and gas-tight pails1 which1 after filling1 are hermetically covered and removed to the places for final disposal4 ,this system is in use in ,rochedale1 ,manchester1 ,glasgow1 and other places in ,england4 ,the pails may also be filled with dried earth1 ashes1 etc41 which are mixed with the excreta and convert it into a substance fit for fertilization4 ,the ,pneumatic ,system is a rather complicated mechanical method invented by ,captain ,lieurneur1 and is used extensively in some places4 ,in this system the excreta are passed to certain pipes and receptacles1 and from there aspirated by means of air exhausts4 ,the ,water-carriage ,system4--,we now come to the modern mode of using water to carry and flush all sewage material4 ,this method is being adopted throughout the civilized world4 ,for it is claimed a reduction of the mortality rate issues wherever it is introduced4 ,the water-carriage system presupposes the construction and existence of pipes from the house to and through the street to the place of final disposition4 ,the pipes running from the house to the streets are called house sewers2 and when in the streets1 are called street sewers4 ,the ,separate and ,combined ,systems4--,whenever the water-carriage system is used1 it is either intended to carry only sewage proper1 viz41 solid and liquid excreta flushed by water1 or fain water and other waste water from the household in addition4 ,the water-carriage system is accordingly divided into two systems3 the combined1 by which all sewage and all waste and rain water are carried through the sewers1 and the separate system1 in which two groups of pipes are used--the sewers proper to carry sewage only1 and the other pipes to dispose of rain water and other uncontaminated waste water4 ,each system has its advocates1 its advantages and disadvantages4 ,the advantages claimed for the separate system are as follows3 7#a7 ,sewers may be of small diameter1 not more than six inches4 7#b7 ,constant1 efficient flow and flushing of sewage4 7#c7 ,the sewage gained is richer in fertilizing matter4 7#d7 ,the sewers never overflow1 as is frequently the case in the combined system4 7#e7 ,the sewers being small1 no decomposition takes place therein4 7#f7 ,sewers of small diameter need no special means of ventilation1 or main traps on house drains1 and can be ventilated through the house pipes4 ,on the other hand1 the disadvantages of the separate system are3 7#a7 ,the need of two systems of sewers1 for sewage and for rain water1 and the expense attached thereto4 7#b7 ,the sewers used for sewage proper require some system for periodically flushing them1 which1 in the combined system1 is done by the occasional rains4 7#c7 ,small sewers cannot be as well cleaned or gotten at as larger ones4 ,the separate system has been used in ,memphis and in ,keene1 ,n4 ,h41 for a number of years with complete satisfaction4 ,most cities1 however1 use the combined system4 ,,chapter ,v ,sewers ,definitions4--,a sewer is a conduit or pipe intended for the passage of sewage1 waste1 and rain water4 ,a ,house ,sewer is the branch sewer extending from a point two feet outside of the outer wall of the building to its connection with the street sewer1 etc4 ,materials4--,the materials from which sewers are manufactured is earthenware vitrified pipes4 ,iron is used only for pipes of small diameter2 and as most of the sewers are of greater diameter than six inches1 they are made of other material than iron4 ,cement and brick sewers are frequently used1 and1 when properly constructed1 are efficient1 although the inner surface of such pipes is rough1 which causes adherence of sewage matter4 ,the most common material of which sewers are manufactured is earthenware1 vitrified pipes4 ,vitrified pipes are manufactured from some kind of clay1 and are salt-glazed inside4 ,good vitrified pipe must be circular and true in section1 of a uniform thickness1 perfectly straight1 and free from cracks or other defects2 they must be hard1 tough1 not porous1 and have a highly smooth surface4 ,the thicknesses of vitrified pipes are as follows3 #d inches diameter #a_/b inch thick #f #a_/af #h #c_/d #ab #a ,the pipes are made in two- and three-foot lengths1 with spigot1 and socket ends4 7,gerhardt47 ,sewer pipes are laid in trenches at least three feet deep1 to insure against the action of frosts4 ,construction4--,the level of the trenches in which sewers are laid should be accurate1 and a hard bed must be secured1 or prepared1 for the pipes to lie on4 ,if the ground is sandy and soft1 a solid bed of concrete should be laid1 and the places where the joints are should be hollowed out1 and the latter embedded in cement4 ,joints4--,the joints of the various lengths must be gas-tight1 and are made as follows3 into the hub 7the enlargement on one end of the pipe7 the spigot end of the next length is inserted1 and in the space left between the two a small piece1 or gasket1 of oakum is rammed in2 the remaining space is filled in with a mixture of the best ,portland cement and clean1 sharp sand4 ,the office of the oakum is to prevent the cement from getting on the inside of the pipe4 ,the joint is then wiped around with additional cement4 ,fall4--,in order that there should be a steady and certain flow of the contents of the sewer1 the size and fall of the latter must be suitable2 that is1 the pipes must be laid with a steady1 gradual inclination or fall toward the exit4 ,this fall must be even1 without sudden changes1 and not too great or too small4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ae4 ,a ,,brick ,,sewer4 ,the following has been determined to be about the right fall for the sizes stated3 #d-;inch pipe #a foot in #dj feet #f #a #fj #i #a #ij #ab #a #abj ,flow4--,the velocity of the flow in sewers depends on the volume of their contents1 the size of the pipes1 and the fall4 ,the velocity should not be less than #abj feet in a minute1 or the sewer will not be self-cleansing4 ,size4--,in order for the sewer to be self-cleansing1 its size must be proportional to the work to be accomplished1 so that it may be fully and thoroughly flushed and not permit stagnation and consequent decomposition of its contents4 ,if the sewer be too small1 it will not be adequate for its purpose1 and will overflow1 back up1 etc42 if too large1 the velocity of the flow will be too low1 and stagnation will result4 ,in the separate system1 where there is a separate provision for rain water1 the size of the sewer ought not to exceed six inches in diameter4 ,in the combined system1 however1 when arrangements must be made for the disposal of large volumes of storm water1 the size of the sewer must be larger1 thus making it less self-cleansing4 ,connections4--,the connections of the branch sewers and the house sewers with the main sewer must be carefully made1 so that there shall be no impediment to the flow of the contents1 either of the branches or of the main pipe4 ,the connections must be made gas-tight2 not at right angles or by ,t branches1 but by bends1 curves1 and ,y branches1 in the direction of the current of the main pipe1 and not opposite other branch pipes2 and the junction of the branch pipes and the main pipe must not be made at the crown or at the bottom of the sewer1 but just within the water line4 ,tide ,valves4--,where sewers discharge their contents into the sea1 the tide may exert pressure upon the contents of the sewer and cause backing up1 blocking up the sewer1 bursting open trap covers1 and overflowing into streets and houses4 ,to prevent this1 there are constructed at the mouth of the street sewers1 at the outlets to the sea1 proper valves or tide flaps1 so constructed as to permit the contents of the sewers to flow out1 yet prevent sea water from backing up by immediately closing upon the slightest pressure from outside4 ,house ,sewers4--,where the ground is made1 or filled in1 the house sewer must be made of cast iron1 with the joints properly calked with lead4 ,where the soil consists of a natural bed of loam1 sand1 or rock1 the house sewer may be of hard1 salt-glazed1 and cylindrical earthenware pipe1 laid in a smooth bottom1 free from projections of rock1 and with the soil well rammed to prevent any settling of the pipe4 ,each section must be wetted before applying the cement1 and the space between each hub and the small end of the next section must be completely and uniformly filled with the best hydraulic cement4 ,care must be taken to prevent any cement being forced into the pipe to form an obstruction4 ,no tempered-up cement should be used4 ,a straight edge must be used inside the pipe1 and the different sections must be laid in perfect line on the bottom and sides4 ,connections of the house sewer 7when of iron7 with the house main pipe must be made by lead-calked joints2 the connection of the iron house pipe with the earthenware house sewer must be made with cement1 and should be gas-tight4 ,sewer ,air and ,gas4--,sewer gas is not a gas at all4 ,what is commonly understood by the term is the air of sewers1 the ordinary atmospheric air1 but charged and contaminated with the various products of organic decomposition taking place in sewers4 ,sewer air is a mixture of gases1 the principal gases being carbonic acid2 marsh gas2 compounds of hydrogen and carbon2 carbonate and sulphides of ammonium2 ammonia2 sulphureted hydrogen2 carbonic oxide1 volatile fetid matter2 organic putrefactive matter1 and may also contain some bacteria1 saprophytic or pathogenic4 ,any and all the above constituents may be contained in sewer air in larger or smaller doses1 in minute or toxic doses4 ,it is evident that an habitual breathing of air in which even minute doses of toxic substances and gases are floating will in time impair the health of human beings1 and that large doses of those substances may be directly toxic and dangerous to health4 ,it is certainly an error to ascribe to sewer air death-dealing properties1 but it would be a more serious mistake to undervalue the evil influence of bad sewer air upon health4 ,ventilation4--,to guard against the bad effects of sewer air1 it is necessary to dilute1 change1 and ventilate the air in sewers4 ,this is accomplished by the various openings left in the sewers1 the so-called lamp and manholes which ventilate by diluting the sewer air with the street air4 ,in some places1 chemical methods of disinfecting the contents of sewers have been undertaken with a view to killing the disease germs and deodorizing the sewage4 ,in the separate system of sewage disposal1 where sewer pipes are small and usually self-cleansing1 the late ,colonel ,waring proposed to ventilate the sewers through the house pipes1 omitting the usual disconnection of the house sewer from the house pipes4 ,but in the combined system such a procedure would be dangerous1 as the sewer air would be apt to enter the house4 ,rain storms are the usual means by which a thorough flushing of the street sewers is effected4 ,there are1 however1 many devices proposed for flushing sewers2 e4 g41 by special flushing tanks1 which either automatically or otherwise discharge a large volume of water1 thereby flushing the contents of the street sewers4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,plumbing ,purpose and ,requisites for ,house ,plumbing4--,a system of house plumbing presupposes the existence of a street sewer1 and a water-supply distribution within the house4 ,while the former is not absolutely essential1 as a house may have a system of plumbing without there being a sewer in the street1 still in the water-carriage system of disposal of sewage the street sewer is the outlet for the various waste and excrementitious matter of the house4 ,the house-water distribution serves for the purpose of flushing and cleaning the various pipes in the house plumbing4 ,the purposes of house plumbing are3 7#a7 to get rid of all excreta and waste water2 7#b7 to prevent any foreign matter and gases in the sewer from entering the house through the pipes2 and 7#c7 to dilute the air in the pipes so as to make all deleterious gases therein innocuous4 ,to accomplish these results1 house plumbing demands the following requisites3 7#a7 ,receptacles for collecting the waste and excreta4 ,these receptacles1 or plumbing fixtures1 must be adequate for the purpose1 small1 noncorrosive1 self-cleansing1 well flushed1 accessible1 and so constructed as to easily dispose of their contents4 7#b7 ,separate ,vertical ,pipes for sewage proper1 for waste water1 and for rain water2 upright1 direct1 straight1 noncorrosive1 water- and gas-tight1 well flushed1 and ventilated4 7#c7 ,short1 direct1 clean1 well-flushed1 gas-tight branch pipes to connect receptacles with vertical pipes4 7#d7 ,disconnection of the house sewer from the house pipes by the main trap on house drain1 and disconnection of house from the house pipes by traps on all fixtures4 7#e7 ,ventilation of the whole system by the fresh-air inlet1 vent pipes1 and the extension of all vertical pipes4 ,definitions4--,the ,house ,drain is the horizontal main pipe receiving all waste water and sewage from the vertical pipes1 and conducting them outside of the foundation walls1 where it joins the house sewer4 ,the ,soil ,pipe is the vertical pipe or pipes receiving sewage matter from the water-closets in the house4 ,the ,main ,waste ,pipe is the pipe receiving waste water from any fixtures except the water-closets4 ,branch ,soil and ,waste ,pipes are the short pipes between the fixtures in the house and the main soil and waste pipes4 ,traps are bends in pipes1 so constructed as to hold a certain volume of water1 called the water seal2 this water seal serves as a barrier to prevent air and gases from the sewer from entering the house4 ,vent ,pipes are the special pipes to which the traps or fixtures are connected by short-branch vent pipes1 and serve to ventilate the air in the pipes1 and prevent siphonage4 ,the ,rain ,leader is the pipe receiving rain and storm water from the roof of the house4 ,materials ,used for ,plumbing ,pipes4--,the materials from which the different pipes used in house plumbing are made differ according to the use of each pipe1 its position1 size1 etc4 ,the following materials are used3 cement1 vitrified pipe1 lead2 cast1 wrought1 and galvanized iron2 brass1 steel1 nickel1 sheet metal1 etc4 ,cement and ,vitrified ,pipes are used for the manufacture of street and house sewers4 ,in some places vitrified pipe is used for house drains1 but in most cities this is strongly objected to2 and in ,new ,york ,city no earthenware pipes are permitted within the house4 ,the objection to earthenware pipes is that they are not strong enough for the purpose1 break easily1 and cannot be made gas-tight4 ,lead ,pipe is used for all branch waste pipes and short lengths of water pipes4 ,the advantage of lead pipes is that they can be easily bent and shaped1 hence their use for traps and connections4 ,the disadvantage of lead for pipes is the softness of the material1 which is easily broken into by nails1 gnawed through by rats1 etc4 ,brass1 ,nickel1 ,steel1 and other such materials are used in the manufacture of expensive plumbing1 but are not commonly employed4 ,sheet ,metal and ,galvanized ,iron are used for rain leaders1 refrigerator pipes1 etc4 ,wrought ,iron is used in the so-called ,durham system of plumbing4 ,wrought iron is very strong2 the sections of pipe are twenty feet long1 the connections are made by screw joints1 and a system of house plumbing made of this material is very durable1 unyielding1 strong1 and perfectly gas-tight4 ,the objections to wrought iron for plumbing pipes are that the pipes cannot be readily repaired and that it is too expensive4 ,cast ,iron is the material universally used for all vertical and horizontal pipes in the house4 ,there are two kinds of cast-iron pipes manufactured for plumbing uses1 the standard and the extra heavy4 ,the following are the relative weights of each3 ,standard4 ,extra ,heavy4 #b-;inch pipe1 #d lbs4 per foot #e-a_/b lbs4 #c #f #i-a_/b #d #i #ac #e #ab #ag #f #ae #bj #g #bj #bg #h #be #cc-a_/b ,the light-weight pipe1 though extensively used by plumbers1 is generally prohibited by most municipalities1 as it is not strong enough for the purpose1 and it is difficult to make a gas-tight joint with these pipes without breaking them4 ,cast-iron pipes are made in lengths of five feet each1 with an enlargement on one end of the pipe1 called the hub or socket1 into which the other1 or spigot1 end is fitted4 ,all cast-iron pipe must be straight1 sound1 cylindrical and smooth1 free from sand holes1 cracks1 and other defects1 and of a uniform thickness4 ,the thickness of cast-iron pipes should be as follows3 #b-;inch pipe1 #e_/af inches thick #c #d #c_/h #e #g_/af #f #a_/b ,cast-iron pipes are sometimes coated by dipping into hot tar1 or by some other process4 ,tar coating is1 however1 not allowed in ,new ,york1 because it conceals the sand holes and other flaws in the pipes4 ,joints and ,connections4--,to facilitate connections of cast-iron pipes1 short and convenient forms and fittings are cast4 ,some of these connections are named according to their shape1 such as ,l1 ,t1 ,y1 etc4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #af4 ,,different ,,forms ,,and ,,fittings4 ,iron ,pipe is joined to ,iron ,pipe by lead-calked joints4 ,these joints are made as follows3 the spigot end of one pipe is inserted into the enlarged end1 or the hub1 of the next pipe4 ,the space between the spigot and hub is half filled with oakum or dry hemp4 ,the remaining space is filled with hot molten lead1 which1 on cooling1 is well rammed and calked in by special tools made for the purpose4 ,to make a good1 gas-tight1 lead-calked joint1 experience and skill are necessary4 ,the ring of lead joining the two lengths of pipe must be from #a to #b inches deep1 and from #a_/b to #c_/d of an inch thick2 #ab ounces of lead must be used at each joint for each inch in the diameter of the pipe4 ,iron pipes are sometimes connected by means of so-called rust joints4 ,instead of lead1 the space between the socket and spigot is filled in with an iron cement consisting of #ih parts of cast-iron borings1 #a part of flowers of sulphur1 and #a part of sal ammoniac4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ag4 ,all connections between ,lead ,pipes and between ,lead and ,brass or ,copper pipes must be made by means of wiped solder joints4 ,a wiped joint is made by solder being poured on two ends of the two pipes1 the solder being worked about the joint1 shaped into an oval lump1 and wiped around with a cloth1 giving the joint a bulbous form4 ,all connections between ,lead ,pipes and ,iron ,pipes are made by means of brass ferrules4 ,lead cannot be soldered to iron1 so a brass fitting or ferrule is used2 it is jointed to the lead pipe by a wiped joint1 and to the iron pipe by an ordinary lead-calked joint4 ,putty1 ,cement1 and ,slip joints should not be tolerated on any pipes4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ah4 ,traps4--,we have seen that a trap is a bend in a pipe so constructed as to hold a quantity of water sufficient to interpose a barrier between the sewer and the fixture4 ,there are many and various kinds of traps1 some depending on water alone as their seal1 others employing mechanical means1 such as balls1 valves1 lips1 also mercury1 etc41 to assist in the disconnection between the house and sewer ends of the pipe system4 ,the value of a trap depends3 7#a7 on the depth of its water seal2 7#b7 on the strengths and permanency of the seal2 7#c7 on the diameter and uniformity of the trap2 7#d7 on its simplicity2 7#e7 on its accessibility2 and 7#f7 on its self-cleansing character4 ,the depth of a trap should be about three inches for water-closet traps1 and about two inches for sink and other traps4 ,traps must not be larger in diameter than the pipe to which they are attached4 ,the simpler the trap1 the better it is4 ,traps should be provided with cleanout screw openings1 caps1 etc41 to facilitate cleaning4 ,the shapes of traps vary1 and the number of the various kinds of traps manufactured is very great4 ,traps are named according to their use3 gully1 grease1 sediment1 intercepting1 etc42 according to their shape3 ,d1 ,p1 ,s1 ,v1 bell1 bottle1 pot1 globe1 etc42 and according to the name of their inventor3 ,buchan1 ,cottam1 ,dodd1 ,antill1 ,renk1 ,hellyer1 ,croydon1 and others too numerous to mention4 ,the ,s trap is the best for sink waste pipes2 the running trap is the best on house drains4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ai4 ,,forms ,,of ,,traps4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bj4 ,,forms ,,of ,,traps4 ,loss of ,seal by ,traps4--,the seals of traps are not always secure1 and the causes of unsealing of traps are as follows3 7#a7 ,evaporation4--,if a fixture in a house is not used for a long time1 the water constituting the seal in the trap of the fixture will evaporate2 the seal will thus be lost1 and ingress of sewer air will result4 ,to guard against evaporation1 fixtures must be frequently flushed2 and during summer1 or at such times as the house is unoccupied and the fixtures not used1 the traps are to be filled with oil or glycerin1 either of which will serve as an efficient seal4 7#b7 ,momentum4--,a sudden flow of water from the fixture may1 by the force of its momentum1 empty all water in the trap and thus leave it unsealed4 ,to prevent the unsealing of traps by momentum1 they must be of a proper size1 not less than the waste pipe of the fixture1 the seal must be deep1 and the trap in a perfectly straight position1 as a slight inclination will favor its emptying4 ,care should also be taken while emptying the fixture to do it slowly so as to preserve the seal4 7#c7 ,capillary ,attraction4--,if a piece of paper1 cotton1 thread1 hair1 etc41 remain in the trap1 and a part of the paper1 etc41 projects into the lumen of the pipe1 a part of the water will be withdrawn by capillary attraction from the trap and may unseal it4 ,to guard against unsealing of traps by capillary attraction1 traps should be of a uniform diameter1 without nooks and corners1 and of not too large a size1 and should also be well flushed1 so that nothing but water remains in the trap4 ,siphonage and ,back ,pressure4--,the water in the trap1 or the seal1 is suspended between two columns of air1 that from the fixture to the seal1 and from the seal of the trap to the seal of the main trap on house drain4 ,the seal in the trap is therefore not very secure1 as it is influenced by any and all currents and agitations of air from both sides1 and especially from its distal side4 ,any heating of the air in the pipes with which the trap is connected1 any increase of temperature in the air contents of the vertical pipes with which the trap is connected1 and any evolution of gases within those pipes will naturally increase the weight and pressure of the air within them1 with the result that the increased pressure will influence the contents of the trap1 or the seal1 and may dislodge the seal backward1 if the pressure is very great1 or1 at any rate1 may force the foul air from the pipes through the seal of the traps and foul the water therein1 thus allowing foul odors to enter the rooms from the traps of the fixtures4 ,this condition1 which in practice exists oftener than it is ordinarily thought1 is called back pressure4 ,by back pressure is therefore understood the forcing back1 or1 at least1 the fouling1 of the water in traps1 due to the increased pressure of the air within the pipes back of the traps2 the increase in air pressure being due to heating of pipes by the hot water occasionally circulating within them1 or by the evolution of gases due to the decomposition of organic matter within the pipes4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ba4 ,,non-,,syphoning ,,trap4 ,copyright by the ,j4 ,l4 ,mott ,iron ,works4 ,a condition somewhat similar1 but acting in a reverse way1 is presented in what is commonly termed siphonage4 ,just as well as the seal in traps may be forced back by the increased pressure of the air within the pipes1 the same seal may be forced out1 pulled out1 aspirated1 or siphoned out by a sudden withdrawal of a large quantity of air from the pipes with which the trap is connected4 ,such a sudden withdrawal of large quantities of air is occasioned every time there is a rush of large column of water through the pipes1 e4 g41 when a water-closet or similar fixture is suddenly discharged2 the water rushes through the pipes with a great velocity and creates a strong down current of air1 with the result that where the down-rushing column passes by a trap1 the air in the trap and1 later1 its seal are aspirated or siphoned out1 thus leaving the trap without a seal4 ,by siphonage is therefore meant the emptying of the seal in a trap by the aspiration of the water in the trap due to the downward rush of water and air in the pipes with which the trap is connected4 ,to guard against the loss of seal through siphonage nonsiphoning traps have been invented1 that is1 the traps are so constructed that the seal therein is very large1 and the shape of the traps made so that siphonage is difficult4 ,these traps are1 however1 open to the objection that in the first place they do not prevent the fouling of the seals by back pressure1 and in the second place they are not easily cleansable and may retain dirt in their large pockets4 ,the universal method of preventing both siphonage and back pressure is by the system of vent pipes1 or what plumbers call back-air pipes4 ,every trap is connected by branches leading from the crown or near the crown of the trap to a main vertical pipe which runs through the house the same as the waste and soil pipes1 and which contains nothing but air1 which air serves as a medium to be pressed upon by the back-pressure air1 or to be drawn upon by the siphoning1 and thus preventing any agitation and influence upon the seal in the traps2 for it is self evident that as long as there is plenty of air at the distal part of the seal1 the seal itself will remain uninfluenced by any agitation or condition of the air within the pipes with which the trap is connected4 ,the vent-pipe system is also an additional means of ventilating the plumbing system of the house1 already partly ventilated by the extension of the vertical pipes above the roof and by the fresh-air inlet4 ,the principal objection urged against the installation of the vent-pipe system is the added expense1 which is considerable2 and plumbers have sought therefore to substitute for the vent pipes various mechanical traps1 also nonsiphoning traps4 ,the vent pipes are1 however1 worth the additional expense1 as they are certainly the best means to prevent siphonage and back pressure1 and are free from the objections against the cumbersome mechanical traps and the filthy nonsiphoning traps4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,plumbing ,pipes ,the ,house ,drain4--,all waste and soil matter in the house is carried from the receptacles into the waste and soil pipes1 and from these into the house drain1 the main pipe of the house1 which carries all waste and soil into the street sewer4 ,the house drain extends from the junction of the soil and waste pipes of the house through the house to outside of the foundations two to five feet1 whence it is called house sewer4 ,the house drain is a very important part of the house-plumbing system1 and great care must be taken to make its construction perfect4 ,material4--,the material of which house drains are manufactured is extra heavy cast iron4 ,lighter pipes should never be used1 and the use of vitrified pipes for this purpose should not be allowed4 ,size4--,the size of the house drain must be proportional to the work to be performed4 ,too large a pipe will not be self-cleansing1 and the bottom of it will fill with sediment and slime4 ,were it not for the need of carrying off large volumes of storm water1 the house drain could be a great deal smaller than it usually is4 ,a three-inch pipe is sufficient for a small house1 though a four-inch pipe is made obligatory in most cities4 ,in ,new ,york ,city no house drains are allowed of smaller diameter than six inches4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bb4 ,,system ,,of ,,house ,,drainage1 ,,showing ,,the ,,plumbing ,,of ,a ,,house4 7,h4 ,,bramley47 ,fall4--,the fall or inclination of the house drain depends on its size4 ,every house drain must be laid so that it should have a certain inclination toward the house sewer1 so as to increase the velocity of flow in it and make it self-flushing and self-cleansing4 ,the rate of fall should be as follows3 ,for #d-;inch pipe #a in #dj feet #e #a #ej #f #a #fj ,position4--,the house drain lies in a horizontal position in the cellar1 and should1 if possible1 be exposed to view4 ,it should be hung on the cellar wall or ceiling1 unless this is impracticable1 as when fixtures in the cellar discharge into it2 in this case1 it must be laid in a trench cut in a uniform grade1 walled upon the sides with bricks laid in cement1 and provided with movable covers and with a hydraulic-cement base four inches thick1 on which the pipe is to rest4 ,the house drain must be laid in straight lines1 if possible2 all changes in direction must be made with curved pipes1 the curves to be of a large radius4 ,connections4--,the house drain must properly connect with the house sewer at a point about two feet outside of the outer front vault or area wall of the building4 ,an arched or other proper opening in the wall must be provided for the drain to prevent damage by settling4 ,all joints of the pipe must be gas-tight1 lead-calked joints1 as stated before4 ,the junction of the vertical soil1 waste1 and rain-leader pipes must not be made by right-angle joints1 but by a curved elbow fitting of a large radius1 or by ,y branches and #de deg4 bends4 ,when the house drain does not rest on the floor1 but is hung on the wall or ceiling of the cellar1 the connection of the vertical soil and waste pipes must have suitable supports1 the best support being a brick pier laid nine inches in cement and securely fastened to the wall4 ,near all bends1 traps1 and connections of other pipes with the house drain suitable hand-holes should be provided1 these hand-holes to be tightly covered by brass screw ferrules1 screwed in1 and fitted with red lead4 ,no steam exhaust1 boiler blow-off1 or drip pipe shall be connected with the house drain or sewer4 ,such pipes must first discharge into a proper condensing tank1 and from this a proper outlet to the house sewer outside of the building must be provided4 ,main ,traps4--,the disconnection of the house pipes from the street sewer is accomplished by a trap on the house drain near the front wall1 inside the house1 or just outside the foundation wall but usually inside of the house4 ,the best trap for this purpose is the siphon or running trap4 ,this trap must be constructed with a cleaning hand-hole on the inside or house side of the trap1 or on both sides1 and the hand-holes are to be covered gas-tight by brass screw ferrules4 ,extension of ,vertical ,pipes4--,by the main trap the house-plumbing system is disconnected from the sewer1 and by the traps on each fixture from the air in the rooms2 still1 as the soil1 waste1 and drain pipes usually contain offensive solids and liquids which contaminate the air in the pipes1 it is a good method to ventilate these pipes4 ,this ventilation of the soil1 waste1 and house drain pipes prevents the bad effects on health from the odors1 etc41 given off by the slime and excreta adhering in the pipes1 and it is accomplished by two means3 7#a7 by extension of the vertical pipes to the fresh air above the roof1 and 7#b7 by the fresh-air inlet on the house drain4 ,by these means a current of air is established through the vertical and horizontal pipes4 ,every vertical pipe must be extended above the roof at least two feet above the highest coping of the roof or chimney4 ,the extension must be far from the air shafts1 windows1 ventilators1 and mouths of chimneys1 so as to prevent air from the pipes being drawn into them4 ,the extension must be not less than the full size of each pipe1 so as to avoid friction from the circulation of air4 ,the use of covers1 cowls1 return bends1 etc41 is reprehensible1 as they interfere with the free circulation of air4 ,a wire basket may be inserted to prevent foreign substances from falling into pipes4 ,fresh-air ,inlet4--,the fresh-air inlet is a pipe of about four inches in diameter2 it enters the house drain on the house side of the main trap1 and extends to the external air at or near the curb1 or at any convenient place1 at least fifteen feet from the nearest window4 ,the fresh-air inlet pipe usually terminates in a receptacle covered by an iron grating1 and should be far from the cold-air box of any hot-air furnace4 ,when clean1 properly cared for1 and extended above the ground1 the fresh-air inlet1 in conjunction with the open extended vertical pipe1 is an efficient means of ventilating the air in the house pipes2 unfortunately most fresh-air inlets are constantly obstructed1 and do not serve the purpose for which they are made4 ,the ,soil and ,waste ,pipes4--,the soil pipe receives liquid and solid sewage from the water-closets and urinals2 the waste pipe receives all waste water from sinks1 washbasins1 bath tubs1 etc4 ,the material of which the vertical soil and waste pipes are made is cast iron4 ,the size of main waste pipes is from three to four inches2 of main soil pipes1 from four to five inches4 ,in tenement houses with five water-closets or more1 not less than five inches4 ,the joints of the waste and soil pipe should be lead calked4 ,the connections of the lead branch pipes or traps with the vertical lines must be by ,y joints1 and by means of brass ferrules1 as explained above4 ,the location of the vertical pipes must never be within the wall1 built in1 nor outside the house1 but preferably in a special three-foot square shaft adjacent to the fixtures1 extending from the cellar to the roof1 where the air shaft should be covered by a louvered skylight2 that is1 with a skylight with slats outwardly inclined1 so as to favor ventilation4 ,the vertical pipes must be accessible1 exposed to view in all their lengths1 and1 when covered with boards1 so fitted that the boards may be readily removed4 ,vertical pipes must be extended above the roof in full diameter1 as previously stated4 ,when less than four inches in diameter1 they must be enlarged to four inches at a point not less than one foot below the roof surface by an increaser1 of not less than nine inches long4 ,all soil and waste pipes must1 whenever necessary1 be securely fastened with wrought-iron hooks or straps4 ,vertical soil and waste pipes must not be trapped at their base1 as the trap would not serve any purpose1 and would prevent a perfect flow of the contents4 ,branch ,soil and ,waste ,pipes4--,the fixtures must be near the vertical soil and waste pipes in order that the branch waste and soil pipes should be as short as possible4 ,the trap of the branch soil and waste pipes must not be far from the fixture1 not more than two feet from it1 otherwise the accumulated foul air and slime in the waste and soil branch will emit bad odors4 ,the minimum sizes for branch pipes should be as follows3 ,kitchen sinks #b inches ,bath tubs #a-a_/b to #b ,laundry tubs #a-a_/b to #b ,water-closets not less than #d ,branch soil and waste pipes must have a fall of at least one-quarter inch to one foot4 ,the branch waste and soil pipes and traps must be exposed1 accessible1 and provided with screw caps1 etc41 for inspection and cleaning purposes4 ,each fixture should be separately trapped as close to the fixture as possible1 as two traps on the same line of branch waste or soil pipes will cause the air between the traps to be closed in1 forming a so-called cushion1 that will prevent the ready flow of contents4 ,all traps must be well supported and rest true with respect to their water level4 ,vent ,pipes and ,their ,branches4--,the purpose of vent pipes1 we have seen1 is to prevent siphoning of traps and to ventilate the air in the traps and pipes4 ,the material of which vent pipes are made is cast iron4 ,the size of vent pipes depends on the number of traps with which they are connected2 it is usually two or three inches4 ,the connection of the branch vent to the trap must be at the crown of the trap1 and the connection of the branch vent to the main vent pipe must be above the trap1 so as to prevent friction of air4 ,the vent pipes are not perfectly vertical1 but with a continuous slope1 so as to prevent condensation of air or vapor therein4 ,the vent pipes should be extended above the roof1 several feet above the coping1 etc42 and the extension above the roof should not be of less than four inches diameter1 so as to avoid obstruction by frost4 ,no return bends or cowls should be tolerated on top of the vent pipes4 ,sometimes the vent1 instead of running above the roof1 is connected with the soil pipe several feet above all fixtures4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bc4 ,,leader ,,pipe4 ,rain ,leaders4--,the rain leader serves to collect the rain water from the roof and eaves gutter4 ,it usually discharges its contents into the house drain1 although some leaders are led to the street gutter1 while others are connected with school sinks in the yard4 ,the latter practice is objectionable1 as it may lead the foul air from the school sink into the rooms1 the windows of which are near the rain leader2 besides1 the stirring up of the contents of the school sink produces bad odors4 ,when the rain leader is placed within the house1 it must be made of cast iron with lead-calked joints2 when outside1 as is the rule1 it may be of sheet metal or galvanized-iron pipe with soldered joints4 ,when the rain leader is run near windows1 the rules and practice are that it should be trapped at its base1 the trap to be a deep one to prevent evaporation1 and it should be placed several feet below the ground1 so as to prevent freezing4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,plumbing ,fixtures ,the receptacles or fixtures within the house for receiving the waste and excrementitious matter and carrying it off through the pipes to the sewer are very important parts of house plumbing4 ,great care must be bestowed upon the construction1 material1 fitting1 etc41 of the plumbing fixtures1 that they be a source of comfort in the house instead of becoming a curse to the occupants4 ,sinks4--,the waste water from the kitchen is disposed of by means of sinks4 ,sinks are usually made of cast iron1 painted1 enameled1 or galvanized4 ,they are also made of wrought iron1 as well as of earthenware and porcelain4 ,sinks must be set level1 and provided with a strainer at the outlet to prevent large particles of kitchen refuse from being swept into the pipe and obstructing it4 ,if possible the back and sides of a sink should be cast from one piece2 the back and sides1 when of wood1 should be covered by nonabsorbent material1 to prevent the wood from becoming saturated with waste water4#ah ,no woodwork should inclose sinks2 they should be supported on iron legs and be open beneath and around4 ,the trap of a sink is usually two inches in diameter1 and should be near the sink2 it should have a screw cap for cleaning and inspection1 and the branch vent pipe should be at the crown of the trap4 ,washbasins4--,washbasins are placed in bathrooms1 and1 when properly constructed and fitted1 are a source of comfort4 ,they should not be located in bedrooms1 and should be open1 without any woodwork around them4 ,the washbowls are made of porcelain or marble1 with a socket at the outlet1 into which a plug is fitted4 ,wash ,tubs4--,for laundry purposes wooden1 iron-enameled1 stone1 and porcelain tubs are fitted in the kitchen or laundry room4 ,porcelain is the best material1 although very expensive4 ,the soapstone tub is the next best2 it is clean1 nonabsorbent1 and not too expensive4 ,wood should never be used1 as it soon becomes saturated1 is foul1 leaks1 and is offensive4 ,in old houses1 wherever there are wooden tubs1 they should be covered with zinc or some nonabsorbent material4 ,the wash tubs are placed in pairs1 sometimes three in a row1 and they are generally connected with one lead waste pipe one and a half to two inches in diameter1 with one trap for all the tubs4 ,bath ,tubs4--,bath tubs are made of enameled iron or porcelain1 and should not be covered or inclosed by any woodwork4 ,the branch waste pipe should be trapped and connected with the main waste or soil pipe4 ,the floor about the tub in the bathroom should be of nonabsorbent material4#ai ,refrigerators4--,the waste pipes of refrigerators should not connect with any of the house pipes1 but should be emptied into a basin or pail2 or1 if the refrigerator is large1 its waste pipe should be conducted to the cellar1 where it should discharge into a properly trapped1 sewer-connected and water-supplied open sink4 ,boilers4--,the so-called sediment pipe from the hot-water boiler in the kitchen should be connected with the sink trap at the inlet side of the trap4 ,urinals4--,as a rule1 no urinals should be tolerated within a house2 they are permissible only in factories and office buildings4 ,the material is enameled iron or porcelain4 ,they must be provided with a proper water supply to flush them4 ,overflows4--,to guard against overflow of washbasins1 bath tubs1 etc41 overflow pipes from the upper portion of the fixtures are commonly provided4 ,these pipes are connected with the inlet side of the trap of the same fixture4 ,they are1 however1 liable to become a nuisance by being obstructed with dirt and not being constantly flushed2 whenever possible they should be dispensed with4 ,safes and ,wastes4--,a common usage with plumbers in the past has been to provide sinks1 washbasins1 bath tubs1 and water-closets1 not only with overflow pipes1 but also with so-called safes1 which consist of sheets of lead turned up several inches at the edge so as to catch all drippings and overflow from fixtures2 from these safes a drip pipe or waste is conducted to the cellar1 where it empties into a sink4 ,of course1 when such safe wastes are connected with the soil or waste pipes1 they become a source of danger1 even if they are trapped1 as they are not properly cared for or flushed2 and their traps are usually not sealed4 ,even when discharging into a sink in the cellar1 safes and safe waste are very unsightly1 dirty1 liable to accumulate filth1 and are offensive4 ,with open plumbing1 and with the floors under the fixtures of nonabsorbent material1 they are useless4 ,water-closets4--,the most important plumbing fixtures within the house are the water-closets4 ,upon the proper construction and location of the water-closets greatly depends the health of the inhabitants of the house4 ,water-closets should be placed in separate1 well-lighted1 perfectly ventilated1 damp-proof1 and clean compartments1 and no water-closet should be used by more than one family in a tenement house4 ,the type and construction of the water-closets should be carefully attended to1 as the many existing1 old1 and obsolete types of water-closets are still being installed in houses1 or are left there to foul the air of rooms and apartments4 ,there are many water-closets on the market1 some of which will be described2 the best are those made of one piece1 of porcelain or enameled earthenware1 and so constructed as always to be and remain clean4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bd4 ,,pan ,,water-,,closet4 7,,gerhard47 ,the ,pan ,closet4--,the water-closet most commonly used in former times was a representative of the group of water-closets with mechanical contrivances4 ,this is the pan closet1 now universally condemned and prohibited from further use4 ,the pan closet consists of four principal parts3 7#a7 basin of china1 small and round2 7#b7 a copper six-inch pan under the basin2 7#c7 a large iron container1 into which the basin with the pan under it is placed2 and 7#d7 a ,d trap1 to which the container is joined4 ,the pan is attached with a lever to a handle1 which1 when pulled1 moves the pan2 this describes a half circle and drops the contents into the container and trap4 ,the objections to pan closets are the following3 7#a7 ,there being a number of parts and mechanical contrivances1 they are liable to get out of order4 7#b7 ,the bowl is set into the container and cannot be inspected1 and is usually very dirty beneath4 7#c7 ,the pan is often missing1 gets out of order1 and is liable to be soiled by adhering excreta4 7#d7 ,the container is large1 excreta adhere to its upper parts1 and the iron becomes corroded and coated with filth4 7#e7 ,with every pull of the handle and pan1 foul air enters rooms4 7#f7 ,the junctions between the bowl and container1 and the container and trap1 are usually not gas-tight4 7#g7 ,the pan breaks the force of the water flush1 and the trap is usually not completely emptied4 ,valve and ,plunger ,closets are an improvement upon the pan closets1 but are not free from several objections enumerated above4 ,as a rule1 all water-closets with mechanical parts are objectionable4 ,hopper ,closets are made of iron or earthenware4 ,iron hopper closets easily corrode2 they are usually enameled on the inside4 ,earthenware hoppers are preferable to iron ones4 ,hopper closets are either long or short2 when long1 they expose a very large surface to be fouled1 require a trap below the floor1 and are1 as a rule1 very difficult to clean or to keep clean4 ,short hopper closets are preferable1 as they are easily kept clean and are well flushed4 ,when provided with flushing rim1 and with a good water-supply cistern and large supply pipe1 the short hopper closet is a good form of water-closet4 ,the washout and washdown water-closets are an improvement upon the hopper closets4 ,they are manufactured from earthenware or porcelain1 and are so shaped that they contain a water seal1 obviating the necessity of a separate trap under the closet4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #be4 ,,long ,,hopper ,,water-,,closet4 7,,gerhard47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bf4 ,,short ,,hopper ,,water-,,closet4 7,,gerhard47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bg4 ,,styles ,,of ,,water-,,closets4 ,flush ,tanks4--,water-closets must not be flushed directly from the water-supply pipes1 as there is a possibility of contaminating the water supply4 ,water-closets should be flushed from flush tanks1 either of iron or of wood1 metal lined2 these cisterns should be placed not less than four feet above the water-closet1 and provided with a straight flush pipe of at least one and one-quarter inch diameter4 ,the cistern is fitted with plug and handle1 so that by pulling at the handle the plug is lifted out of the socket of the cistern and the contents permitted to rush through the pipe and flush the water-closet4 ,a separate ball arrangement is made for closing the water supply when the cistern is full4 ,the cistern must have a capacity of at least three to five gallons of water2 the flush pipe must have a diameter of not less than one and one-quarter inch1 and the pipe must be straight1 without bends1 and the arrangement within the closets such as to flush all parts of the bowl at the same time4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bh4 ,,flushing ,,cistern4 ,yard ,closets4--,in many old houses the water-closet accommodations are placed in the yard4 ,there are two forms of these yard closets commonly used--the school sink and the yard hopper4 ,the school sink is an iron trough from five to twelve or more feet long1 and one to two feet wide and one foot deep1 set in a trench several feet below the surface with an inclination toward the exit2 on one end of the trough there is a socket fitted with a plug1 and on the other a flushing apparatus consisting simply of a water service-pipe4 ,above the iron trough brick walls are built up1 inclosing it2 over it are placed wooden seats1 and surrounding the whole is a wooden shed with compartments for every seat4 ,the excreta are allowed to fall into the trough1 which is partly filled with water1 and once a day1 or as often as the caretaker chooses1 the plug is pulled up and the excreta allowed to flow into the sewer with which the school sink is connected4 ,these school sinks are1 as a rule1 a nuisance1 and are dangerous to health4 ,the objections to them are the following3 7#a7 ,the excreta lies exposed in the iron trough1 and may decompose even in one day2 and it is always offensive4 7#b7 ,the iron trough is easily corroded4 7#c7 ,the iron trough1 being large1 presents a large surface for adherence of excreta4 7#d7 ,the brickwork above the trough is not flushed when the school sink is emptied1 and excreta1 which usually adheres to it1 decomposes1 creating offensive odors4 7#e7 ,the junction of the iron trough with the brickwork1 and the brickwork itself1 is usually defective1 or becomes defective1 and allows foul water and sewage to pass into the yard1 or into the wall adjacent to the school sink4 ,by the ,tenement ,house ,law of ,new ,york1 the use of school sinks is prohibited even in old buildings4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bi4 ,,school ,,sink ,,after ,,several ,,months' ,,use4 7,j4 ,,sullivan47 ,yard ,hopper ,closets4--,where the water-closet accommodations cannot1 for some reason1 be put within the house1 yard hopper closets are commonly employed4 ,these closets are simply long1 iron-enameled hoppers1 trapped1 and connected with a drain pipe discharging into the house drain4 ,these closets are flushed from cisterns1 but1 in such case1 the cisterns must be protected from freezing2 this is accomplished in some houses by putting the yard hopper near the house and placing the cistern within the house2 however1 this can hardly be done where several hoppers must be employed4 ,in most cases1 yard hoppers are flushed by automatic rod valves1 so constructed as to flush the bowl of the hopper whenever the seat is pressed upon4 ,these valves1 as a rule1 frequently get out of order and leak1 and care must be taken to construct the vault under the hopper so that it be perfectly water-tight4 ,an improved form of yard hopper has been suggested by ,inspector ,j4 ,sullivan1 of the ,new ,york ,health ,department1 and used in a number of places with complete satisfaction4 ,the improvement consists in the doors and walls of the privy apartment being of double thickness1 lined with builders' lining on the inside1 and the water service-pipes and cistern being protected by felt or mineral wool packing4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cj4 ,j4 ,,sullivan',s ,,improved ,,yard ,,hopper ,,closet4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ca4 ,a ,,modern ,,water-,,closet4 7,j4 ,l4 ,mott ,iron ,works47 ,yard and ,area ,drains4--,the draining of the surface of the yard or other areas is done by tile or iron pipes connecting with the sewer or house drain in the cellar4 ,the bell or the lip traps are to be condemned and should not be used for yard drains4 ,the gully and trap should be made of one piece2 the trap should be of the siphon type and should be deep enough in the ground to prevent the freezing of seal in winter4 ,,footnotes3 #ah ,waterproof paint or tiling should be used for this purpose4--,,editor4 #ai ,tiling1 linoleum1 concrete1 etc41 as opposed to wood or carpets4--,,editor4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,defects in ,plumbing ,the materials used in house plumbing are many and various1 the parts are very numerous1 the joints and connections are frequent1 the position and location of pipes1 etc41 are often inaccessible and hidden1 and the whole system quite complicated4 ,moreover1 no part of the house construction is subjected to so many strains and uses1 as well as abuses1 as the plumbing of the house4 ,hence1 in no part of house construction can there be as much bad work and scamping done as in the plumbing2 and no part of the house is liable to have so many defects in construction1 maintenance1 and condition as the plumbing4 ,at the same time1 the plumbing of a house is of very great importance and influence on the health of the tenants1 for defective materials1 bad workmanship1 and improper condition of the plumbing of a house may endanger the lives of its inhabitants by causing various diseases4 ,defects in ,plumbing4--,the defects usually found in plumbing are so many that they cannot all be enumerated here4 ,among the principal and most common defects1 however1 are the following3 ,materials4--,light-weight iron pipes2 these crack easily and cannot stand the strain of calking4 ,sand-holes made during casting2 these cannot always be detected1 especially when the pipes are tar-coated4 ,thin lead pipe2 not heavy enough to withstand the bending and drawing it is subjected to4 ,location and ,position4--,pipes may be located within the walls and built in1 in which case they are inaccessible1 and may be defective without anyone being able to discover the defects4 ,pipes may be laid with a wrong or an insufficient fall1 thus leaving them unflushed1 or retarding the proper velocity of the flow in the pipes4 ,pipes may be put underground and have no support underneath1 when some parts or lengths may sink1 get out of joint1 and the sewage run into the ground instead of through the pipes4 ,the pipes may be so located as to require sharp bends and curves1 which will retard the flow in them4 ,joints4--,joints in pipes may be defective1 leaking1 and not gas-tight because of imperfect calking1 insufficient lead having been used2 or1 no oakum having been used and the lead running into the lumen of the pipe2 or1 not sufficient care and time being taken for the work4 ,joints may be defective because of iron ferrules being used instead of brass ferrules2 through improperly wiped joints2 through bad workmanship1 bad material1 or ignorance of the plumber4 ,plumbers often use ,t branches instead of ,y branches2 sharp bends instead of bends of forty-five degrees or more2 slip joints instead of lead-calked ones2 also1 they often connect a pipe of larger diameter with a pipe of small diameter1 etc4 ,traps4--,the traps may be bad in principle and in construction2 they may be badly situated or connected1 or they may be easily unsealed1 frequently obstructed1 inaccessible1 foul1 etc4 ,ventilation4--,the house drain may have no fresh-air inlet1 or the fresh-air inlet may be obstructed2 the vent pipes may be absent1 or obstructed2 the vertical pipes may not be extended4 ,condition4--,pipes may have holes1 may be badly repaired1 bent1 out of shape1 or have holes patched up with cement or putty2 pipes may be corroded1 gnawed by rats1 or they may be obstructed1 etc4 ,the above are only a few of the many defects that may be found in the plumbing of a house4 ,it is1 therefore1 of paramount importance to have the house plumbing regularly1 frequently1 and thoroughly examined and inspected1 as well as put to the various tests1 so as to discover the defects and remedy them4 ,plumbing ,tests4--,the following are a few minor points for testing plumbing3 7#a7 ,to test a trap with a view to finding out whether its seal is lost or not1 knock on the trap with a piece of metal2 if the trap is empty1 a hollow sound will be given out2 if full1 the sound will be dull4 ,this is not reliable in case the trap is full or half-full with slime1 etc4 ,another test for the same purpose is as follows3 hold a light near the outlet of the fixture2 if the light is drawn in1 it is a sign that the trap is empty4 7#b7 ,defects in leaded joints can be detected if white lead has been used1 as it will be discolored in case sewer gas escape from the joints4 7#c7 ,the connection of a waste pipe of a bath tub with the trap of the water-closet can sometimes be discovered by suddenly emptying the bath tub and watching the contents of the water-closet trap2 the latter will be agitated if the waste pipe is discharged into the trap or on the inlet side of trap of the water-closet4 7#d7 ,the presence of sewer gas in a room can be detected by the following chemical method3 saturate a piece of unglazed paper with a solution of acetate of lead in rain or boiled water1 in the proportion of one to eight2 allow the paper to dry1 and hang up in the room where the escape of sewer gas is suspected2 if sewer gas is present1 the paper will be completely blackened4 ,the main tests for plumbing are3 7#a7 the ,hydraulic or water-pressure test2 7#b7 the ,smoke1 or sight test1 and 7#c7 the ,scent1 or peppermint1 etc41 test4 ,the ,water-pressure ,test is used to test the vertical and horizontal pipes in new plumbing before the fixtures have been connected4 ,it is applied as follows3 the end of the house drain is plugged up with a proper air-tight plug1 of which there are a number on the market4 ,the pipes are then filled with water to a certain level1 which is carefully noted4 ,the water is allowed to stand in the pipes for half an hour1 at the expiration of which time1 if the joints show no sign of leakage1 and are not sweating1 and if the level of the water in the pipes has not fallen1 the pipes are water-tight4 ,this is a very reliable test1 and is made obligatory for testing all new plumbing work4 ,the ,smoke ,test is also a very good test4 ,it is applied as follows3 by means of bellows1 or some exploding1 smoke-producing rocket1 smoke is forced into the system of pipes1 the ends plugged up1 and the escape of the smoke watched for1 as wherever there are defects in the pipes the smoke will appear4 ,a number of special appliances for this test are manufactured1 all of them more or less ingenious4 ,the ,scent ,test is made by putting into the pipes a certain quantity of some pungent chemical1 like peppermint oil1 etc41 the odor of which will escape from the defects in the pipes1 if there are any4 ,oil of peppermint is commonly used in this country for the test4 ,the following is the way this test is applied3 all the openings of the pipes on the roof1 except one1 are closed up tightly with paper1 rags1 etc4 ,into the one open pipe is poured from two to four ounces of peppermint oil1 followed by a pail of hot water1 and then the pipe into which the oil has been put is also plugged up4 ,this is done1 preferably1 by an assistant4 ,the inspector then proceeds to slowly follow the course of the various pipes1 and will detect the smell of the oil wherever it may escape from any defects in the pipes4 ,if the test is thoroughly and carefully done1 if care is taken that no fixture in the house is used and the traps of same not disturbed during the test1 if the openings of the pipes on the roofs are plugged up tightly1 if the main house trap is not unsealed 7otherwise the oil will escape into the sewer71 and if the handling of the oil has been done by an assistant1 so that none adheres to the inspector--if all these conditions are carried out1 the peppermint test is a most valuable test for the detection of any and all defects in plumbing4 ,another precaution to be taken is with regard to the rain leader4 ,if the rain leader is not trapped1 or if its trap is empty1 the peppermint oil may escape from the pipes into the rain leader4 ,care must be taken1 therefore1 that the trap at the base of the rain leader be sealed2 or1 if no trap is existing1 to close up the connection of the rain leader with the house drain2 or1 if this be impossible1 to plug up the opening of the leader near the roof4 ,instead of putting the oil into the opening of a pipe on the roof1 it may be put through a fixture on the top floor of the house1 although this is not so satisfactory4 ,various appliances have been manufactured to make this test more easy and accurate4 ,of the ,english appliances1 the ,banner patent drain grenade1 and ,kemp's drain tester are worthy of mention4 ,the former consists of a thin glass vial charged with pungent and volatile chemicals4 ,one of the grenades1 when dropped down any suitable pipe1 such as the soil pipe1 breaks1 or the grenade may be inserted through a trap into the drain1 where it is exploded4 7,taylor47 ,kemp's drain tester consists of a glass tube containing a chemical with a strong odor2 the tube is fitted with a glass cover1 held in place by a string and a paper band4 ,when the tester is thrown into the pipes and hot water poured after it1 the paper band breaks1 the spring opens the cover1 and the contents of the tube fall into the drain4 ,recently ,dr4 ,w4 ,g4 ,hudson1 an inspector in the ,department of ,health of ,new ,york1 has invented a very ingenious peppermint cartridge for testing plumbing4 ,the invention is1 however1 not yet manufactured1 and is not on the market4 ,,chapter ,x ,infection and ,disinfection ,disinfection is the destruction of the infective power of infectious material2 or1 in other words1 disinfection is the destruction of the agents of infection4 ,an infectious material is one contaminated with germs of infection4 ,the germs of infection are organic microoerganisms1 vegetable and animal--protozoa and bacteria4 ,the germs of infection once being lodged within the body cause certain reactions producing specific pathological changes and a variety of groups of symptoms which we know by the specific names of infectious diseases1 e4 g41 typhoid1 typhus1 etc4 ,among the infectious diseases known to be due to specific germs are the following3 typhoid1 typhus1 relapsing fevers1 cholera1 diphtheria1 croup1 tuberculosis1 pneumonia1 malaria1 yellow fever1 erysipelas1 septicaemia1 anthrax1 tetanus1 gonorrhea1 etc42 and among the infectious diseases the germs of which have not as yet been discovered are the following3 scarlet fever1 measles1 smallpox1 syphilis1 varicella1 etc4 ,the part of the body and the organs in which the germs first find their entrance1 or which they specifically attack1 vary with each disease2 thus1 the mucous membranes1 skin1 internal organs1 secretions1 and excretions are1 severally1 either portals of infection or the places where the infection shows itself the most4 ,the agents carrying the germs of infection from one person to the other may be the infected persons themselves1 or anything which has come in contact with their bodies and its secretions and excretions2 thus1 the air1 room1 furniture1 vessels1 clothing1 food and drink1 also insects and vermin1 may all be carriers of infection4 ,sterilization is the absolute destruction of all organic life1 whether infectious or not2 it is therefore more than disinfection1 which destroys the germs of infection alone4 ,a ,disinfectant is an agent which destroys germs of infection4 ,a ,germicide is the same2 an agent destroying germs4 ,an ,insecticide is an agent capable of destroying insects2 it is not necessarily a disinfectant1 nor is a disinfectant necessarily an insecticide4 ,an ,antiseptic is a substance which inhibits and stops the growth of the bacteria of putrefaction and decomposition4 ,a disinfectant is therefore an antiseptic1 but an antiseptic may not be a disinfectant4 ,a ,deodorant is a substance which neutralizes or destroys the unpleasant odors arising from matter undergoing putrefaction4 ,a deodorant is not necessarily a disinfectant1 nor is every disinfectant a deodorant4 ,the ideal disinfectant is one which1 while capable of destroying the germs of disease1 does not injure the bodies and material upon which the germs may be found2 it must also be penetrating1 harmless in handling1 inexpensive1 and reliable4 ,the ideal disinfectant has not as yet been discovered4 ,for successful scientific disinfection it is necessary to know3 7#a7 the nature of the specific germs of the disease2 7#b7 the methods and agents of its spread and infection2 7#c7 the places where the germs are most likely to be found2 7#d7 the action of each disinfectant upon the germs2 and 7#e7 the best methods of applying the disinfectant to the materials infected with germs of disease4 ,disinfection is not a routine1 uniform1 unscientific process2 a disinfector must be conversant with the basic principles of disinfection1 must make a thorough study of the scientific part of the subject1 and moreover must be thoroughly imbued with the importance of his work1 upon which the checking of the further spread of disease depends4 ,physical ,disinfectants ,the physical disinfectants are sunlight1 desiccation1 and heat4 ,sunlight is a good disinfectant provided the infected material or germs are directly exposed to the rays of the sun4 ,bacteria are killed within a short time1 but spores need a long time1 and some of them resist the action of the sun for an indefinite period4 ,the disadvantages of sunlight as a disinfectant are its superficial action1 its variability and uncertainty1 and its slow action upon most germs of infection4 ,sunlight is a good adjunct to other methods of disinfection2 it is most valuable in tuberculosis1 and should be used wherever possible in conjunction with other physical or chemical methods of disinfection4#bj ,desiccation is a good means of disinfection1 but can be applied only to very few objects2 all bacteria need moisture for their existence and multiplication1 hence absolute dryness acts as a good germicide4 ,meat and fish1 certain cereals1 and also fruit1 when dried1 become at the same time disinfected4 ,heat is the best1 most valuable1 all-pervading1 most available1 and cheapest disinfectant4 ,the various ways in which heat may be used for disinfection are burning1 dry heat1 boiling1 and steam4 ,burning is of course the best disinfectant1 but it not only destroys the germs in the infected materials1 but the materials themselves2 its application is therefore limited to articles of little or no value1 and to rags1 rubbish1 and refuse4 ,dry ,heat4--,all life is destroyed when exposed to a dry heat of #aej deg4 ,c4 for one hour1 although most of the bacteria of infection are killed at a lower temperature and in shorter time4 ,dry heat is a good disinfectant for objects that can stand the heat without injury1 but most objects1 and especially textile fabrics1 are injured by it4 ,boiling4--,perhaps the best and most valuable disinfectant in existence is boiling1 because it is always at command1 is applicable to most materials and objects1 is an absolutely safe sterilizer and disinfectant1 and needs very little if any preparation and apparatus for its use4 ,one half hour of boiling will destroy all life2 and most bacteria can be killed at even a lower temperature4 ,subjection to a temperature of only #gj deg4 ,c4 for half an hour suffices to kill the germs of cholera1 tuberculosis1 diphtheria1 plague1 etc4 ,boiling is especially applicable to textile fabrics and small objects1 and can readily be done in the house where the infection exists1 thus obviating the necessity of conveying the infected objects elsewhere1 and perhaps for some distance1 to be disinfected4 ,steam4--,of all the physical disinfectants steam is the most valuable because it is very penetrating1 reliable1 and rapid2 it kills all bacteria at once and all spores in a few minutes1 and besides is applicable to a great number and many kinds of materials and objects4 ,steam is especially valuable for the disinfection of clothing1 bedding1 carpets1 textile fabrics1 mattresses1 etc4 ,steam can be used in a small way1 as well as in very large plants4 ,the well-known ,arnold sterilizers1 used for the sterilization of milk1 etc41 afford an example of the use of steam in a small apparatus2 while municipal authorities usually construct very large steam disinfecting plants4 ,a steam disinfector is made of steel or of wrought iron1 is usually cylindrical in shape1 and is covered with felt1 asbestos1 etc4 ,the disinfector has doors on one or both ends1 and is fitted inside with rails upon which a specially constructed car can be slid in through one door and out through the other4 ,the car is divided into several compartments1 in which the infected articles are placed2 when thus loaded it is run into the disinfector4 ,the steam disinfectors may be fitted with thermometers1 vacuum formers1 steam jackets1 etc4 ,gaseous ,chemical ,disinfectants ,physical disinfectants1 however valuable and efficient1 cannot be employed in many places and for many materials infected with disease germs1 and therefore chemicals have been sought to be used wherever physical disinfectants could not for one or more reasons be employed4 ,chemicals are used as disinfectants either in gaseous form or in solutions2 the gaseous kinds are of especial value on account of their penetrating qualities1 and are employed for the disinfection of rooms1 holds of ships1 etc4 ,there are practically but two chemicals which are used in gaseous disinfection1 and these are sulphur dioxide and formaldehyde4 ,sulphur ,dioxide4--,sulphur dioxide 7,,so#b7 is a good surface disinfectant1 and is very destructive to all animal life2 it is one of the best insecticides we have1 but its germicidal qualities are rather weak2 it does not kill spores1 and it penetrates only superficially4 ,the main disadvantages of sulphur dioxide as a disinfectant are3 7#a7 that it weakens textile fabrics2 7#b7 blackens and bleaches all vegetable coloring matter2 7#c7 tarnishes metal2 and 7#d7 is very injurious and dangerous to those handling it4 ,there are several methods of employing sulphur in the disinfection of rooms and objects1 e4 g41 the pot1 candle1 liquid1 and furnace methods4 ,in the pot methods crude sulphur1 preferably ground1 is used2 it is placed in an iron pot and ignited by the aid of alcohol1 and in the burning evolves the sulphur dioxide gas4 ,about five pounds of sulphur are to be used for every #a1jjj cubic feet of space4 ,as moisture plays a very important part in developing the disinfecting properties of sulphur dioxide1 the anhydrous gas being inactive as a disinfectant1 it is advisable to place the pot in a large pan filled with water1 so that the evaporated water may render the gas active4 ,for the purpose of destroying all insects in a room an exposure of about two hours to the gas are necessary1 while for the destruction of bacteria an exposure of at least fifteen to sixteen hours is required4 ,in the application of disinfection with sulphur dioxide1 as with any other gas1 it must not be forgotten that gases very readily escape through the many apertures1 cracks1 and openings in the room and through the slits near doors and windows2 and in order to confine the gas in the room it is absolutely necessary to hermetically close all such apertures1 cracks1 etc41 before generating the gaseous disinfectant4 ,the closing of the openings1 etc41 is done by the pasting over these strips of gummed paper1 an important procedure which must not be overlooked1 and which must be carried out in a conscientious manner4 ,when sulphur is used in candle form the expense is considerably increased without any additional efficiency4 ,when a solution of sulphurous acid is employed1 exposure of the liquid to the air suffices to disengage the sulphur dioxide necessary for disinfection4 ,the quantity of the solution needed is double that of the crude drug1 i4 e41 ten pounds for every #a1jjj cubic feet of room space4 ,formaldehyde4--,at present the tendency is to employ formaldehyde gas instead of the sulphur so popular some time ago4 ,the advantages of formaldehyde over sulphur are3 7#a7 its nonpoisonous nature2 7#b7 it is a very good germicide2 7#c7 it has no injurious effect upon fabrics and objects2 7#d7 it does not change colors2 and 7#e7 it can be used for the disinfection of rooms with the richest hangings1 bric-a-brac1 etc41 without danger to these4 ,formaldehyde is evolved either from paraform or from the liquid formalin2 formerly it was also obtained by the action of wood-alcohol vapor upon red-hot platinum4 ,formaldehyde gas has not very great penetrating power2 it is not an insecticide1 but kills bacteria in a very short time1 and spores in an hour or two4 ,paraform 7polymerized formaldehyde2 trioxymethylene7 is sold in pastilles or in powder form1 and when heated reverts again to formaldehyde2 it must not burn1 for no gas is evolved when the heating reaches the stage of burning4 ,the lamps used for disinfection with paraform are very simple in construction1 but as the evolution of the gas is very uncertain1 this method is used only for small places1 and it demands two ounces of paraform for every #a1jjj cubic feet of space1 with an exposure of twelve hours4 ,formaldehyde is also used in the form of the liquid formalin either by spraying and sprinkling the objects to be disinfected with the liquid1 and then placing them in a tightly covered box1 so that they are disinfected by the evolution of the gas1 or by wetting sheets with a formalin solution and letting them hang in the room to be disinfected4 ,the method most frequently employed is to generate the formaldehyde in generators1 retorts1 and in the so-called autoclaves1 and then to force it through apertures into the room4 ,of the other gaseous disinfectants used1 hydrocyanic acid and chlorine may be mentioned1 although they are very rarely used because of their irritating and poisonous character4 ,hydrocyanic ,acid is frequently used as an insecticide in ships1 mills1 and greenhouses1 but its germicidal power is weak4 ,chlorine is a good germicide1 but is very irritating1 poisonous1 and dangerous to handle2 it is evolved by the decomposition of chlorinated lime with sulphuric acid4 ,chlorine gas is very injurious to objects1 materials1 and colors1 and its use is therefore very limited4 ,chemicals ,used as ,disinfectants ,solution of chemicals1 in order to be effective1 must be used generously1 in concentrated form1 for a prolonged time1 and1 if possible1 warm or hot4 ,the strength of the solution must depend upon the work to be performed and the materials used4 ,the method of applying the solution differs4 ,it may consist in immersing and soaking the infected object in the solution2 or the solution may be applied as a wash to surfaces1 or used in the form of sprays1 atomizers1 etc4 ,the most important solutions of chemicals and the ones most frequently employed are those of carbolic acid and bichloride of mercury4 ,carbolic ,acid4--,in the strength of #a3ae1jjj carbolic acid prevents decomposition2 a strength of #a3a1jjj is needed for the destruction of bacteria1 and a three per cent to five per cent solution for the destruction of spores4 ,carbolic acid is used1 as a rule1 in two per cent to five per cent solutions1 and is a very good disinfectant for washing floors1 walls1 ceilings1 woodwork1 small objects1 etc4 ,the cresols1 creolin1 lysol1 and other solutions of the cresols are more germicidal than carbolic acid1 and are sometimes used for the same purposes4 ,bichloride of ,mercury 7corrosive sublimate7 is a potent poison and a powerful germicide2 in solutions of #a3ae1jjj it stops decomposition2 in solutions of #a3b1jjj it kills bacteria in two hours2 and in a strength of #a3ejj it acts very quickly as a germicide for all bacteria1 and even for spores4 ,corrosive sublimate dissolves in sixteen parts of cold and three parts of boiling water1 but for disinfecting purposes it should be colored so that it may not be inadvertently used for other purposes1 as the normal solutions are colorless and may accidentally be used internally4 ,the action of the bichloride is increased by heat4 ,formalin is a forty per cent solution of formaldehyde gas1 and its uses and methods of employment have already been considered4 ,potassium ,permanganate is a good germicide1 and weak solutions of it are sufficient to kill some bacteria1 but the objections against its use are that solutions of potassium permanganate become inert and decompose on coming in contact with any organic matter4 ,furthermore1 the chemical would be too expensive for disinfecting purposes4 ,ferrous ,sulphate 7copperas7 was formerly very extensively used for disinfecting purposes1 but is not so used at present1 owing to the fact that it has been learned that the germicidal power of this material is very slight1 and that its value depends mostly upon its deodorizing power1 for which reason it is used on excreta in privy vaults1 etc4 ,lime4--,when carbonate of lime is calcined the product is common lime1 which1 upon being mixed with water1 produces slaked lime2 when to the latter considerable water is added1 the product is milk of lime1 and also whitewash4 ,whitewash is often used to disinfect walls and ceilings of cellars as well as of rooms2 milk of lime is used to disinfect excreta in privy vaults1 school sinks1 etc4 ,whenever lime is used for disinfecting excreta it should be used generously1 and be thoroughly mixed with the material to be disinfected4 ,disinfection of ,rooms ,practical disinfection is not a routine1 uniform1 and thoughtless process1 but demands the detailed1 conscientious application of scientific data gained by research and laboratory experiments4 ,disinfection to be thorough and successful cannot be applied to all objects1 material1 and diseases in like manner1 but must be adjusted to the needs of every case1 and must be performed conscientiously4 ,placing a sulphur candle in a room1 spilling a quart of carbolic acid or a couple of pounds of chlorinated lime upon the floors or objects1 may be regarded as disinfection by laymen1 but in municipal disinfection the disinfector must be thoroughly versed in the science of disinfection and be prepared to apply its dictates to practice4 ,rooms4--,in the disinfection of rooms the disinfectant used varies with the part of the room as well as with the character of the room4 ,when a gaseous disinfectant is to be used sulphur dioxide or formaldehyde is employed1 with the tendency lately to replace the former by the latter4 ,wherever there are delicate furnishings1 tapestries1 etc41 sulphur cannot be used on account of its destructive character2 when sulphur is employed it is1 as a rule1 in the poorer class of tenement houses where there is very little of value to be injured by the gas1 and where the sulphur is of additional value as an insecticide4 ,whenever gaseous disinfectants are used the principal work of the disinfector is in the closing up of the cracks1 apertures1 holes1 and all openings from the room to the outer air1 as otherwise the gaseous disinfectant will escape4 ,the closing up of the open spaces is accomplished usually by means of gummed-paper strips1 which are obtainable in rolls and need only to be moistened and applied to the cracks1 etc4 ,openings into chimneys1 ventilators1 transoms1 and the like must not be overlooked by the disinfector4 ,after the openings have already been closed up the disinfectant is applied and the disinfector quickly leaves the room1 being careful to close the door behind him and to paste gummed paper over the door cracks4 ,the room must be left closed for at least twelve1 or better1 for twenty-four hours1 when it should be opened and well aired4 ,walls and ,ceilings of rooms should be disinfected by scrubbing with a solution of corrosive sublimate or carbolic acid2 and in cases of tuberculosis and wherever there is fear of infection adhering to the walls and ceilings1 all paper1 kalsomine1 or paint should be scraped off and new paper1 kalsomine1 or paint applied4 ,metal ,furniture should first be scrubbed and washed with hot soapsuds1 and then a solution of formalin1 carbolic acid1 or bichloride applied to the surfaces and cracks4 ,wooden ,bedsteads should be washed with a disinfecting solution and subjected to a gaseous disinfectant in order that all cracks and openings be penetrated and all insects be destroyed4 ,bedding1 ,mattresses1 ,pillows1 ,quilts1 etc41 should be packed in clean sheets moistened with a five per cent solution of formalin1 and then carted away to be thoroughly disinfected by steam in a special apparatus4 ,sheets1 ,small ,linen and ,cotton ,objects1 ,tablecloths1 etc41 should be soaked in a carbolic-acid solution and then boiled4 ,rubbish1 ,rags1 and ,objects of ,little ,value found in an infected room are best burned4 ,glassware and ,chinaware should either be boiled or subjected to dry heat4 ,carpets should first be subjected to a gaseous disinfectant1 and then be wrapped in sheets wetted with formalin solution and sent to be steamed4 ,spots and stains in carpets should be thoroughly washed before being steamed1 as the latter fixes the stains4 ,woolen ,goods and ,wool are injured by being steamed1 and hence may be best disinfected by formalin solutions or by formaldehyde gas4 ,books are very difficult to disinfect1 especially such books as were handled by the patient1 on account of the difficulty of getting the disinfectant to act on every page of the book4 ,the only way to disinfect books is to hang them up so that the leaves are all open1 and then to subject them to the action of formaldehyde gas for twelve hours4 ,another method sometimes employed is to sprinkle a five per cent solution of formalin on every other page of the book2 but this is rather a slow process4#ba ,stables need careful and thorough disinfection4 ,all manure1 hay1 feed1 etc41 should be collected1 soaked in oil1 and burned4 ,the walls1 ceilings1 and floors should then be washed with a strong disinfecting solution applied with a hose2 all cracks are to be carefully cleaned and washed4 ,the solution to be used is preferably lysol1 creolin1 or carbolic acid4 ,after this the whole premises should be fumigated with sulphur or formaldehyde1 and then the stable left open for a week to be aired and dried1 after which all surfaces should be freshly and thickly kalsomined4 ,food cannot be very well disinfected unless it can be subjected to boiling4 ,when this is impossible it should be burned4 ,cadavers of infected persons ought to be cremated1 but as this is not always practicable1 the next best way is to properly wash the surface of the body with a formalin or other disinfecting solution1 and then to have the body embalmed1 thus disinfecting it internally and externally4 ,disinfectors1 coming often as they do in contact with infected materials and persons1 should know how to disinfect their own persons and clothing4 ,so far as clothing is concerned the rule should be that those handling infected materials have a special uniform#bb which is cleaned and disinfected after the day's work is done4 ,the hands should receive careful attention1 as otherwise the disinfector may carry infection to his home4 ,the best method of disinfecting the hands is to thoroughly wash and scrub them for five minutes with green soap1 brush1 and water1 then immerse first for one minute in alcohol1 and then in a hot #a3a1jjj bichloride solution4 ,the nails should be carefully scrubbed and cleaned4 ,,footnotes3 #bj ,blankets1 carpets1 and rugs should be frequently hung out on the line in the bright sunlight4--,,editor4 #ba ,unless books are valuable it is best to burn them4 ,paper will hold germs for several weeks4 ,recent experiments show that certain pathogenic bacteria1 including the bacilli of diphtheria1 will live for twenty-eight days on paper money4--,,editor4 #bb ,duck1 linen1 or any washable material will do4--,,editor4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,cost of ,conveyed ,heating ,systems#bc ,in our variable climate1 with its sudden and extreme changes in temperature1 the matter of heating and ventilation demands the serious attention of all houseowners and housebuilders4 ,the most common method of heating the modern dwelling is by a hot-air furnace in the cellar1 with sheet-metal ducts for conveying the heated air to the various rooms4 ,the advantages of a furnace are cheapness of installation and1 in moderate weather1 a plentiful supply of warm but very dry air4 ,the disadvantages are the cost of fuel consumed1 the liability of the furnace to give off gas under certain conditions1 and the inability to heat certain rooms with some combinations of temperature and wind4 ,the cost of installing a furnace and its proper ducts in a ten-room house is from #bej to #cej2 such a furnace will consume fifteen to twenty tons of anthracite coal in a season in the latitude of ,new ,york ,city4 ,the hot-air system works better with compact square houses than with long1 rangy structures4 ,for a house fully exposed to the northwest blasts1 one of the other systems should be considered4 ,perhaps the next most popular arrangement is a sectional cast-iron hot-water heater1 with a system of piping to and from radiators in the rooms to be heated4 ,hot-water heating has many advantages1 some of which are the warmth of the radiators almost as soon as the fire is started and after the fire is out2 the moderation of the heat2 the freedom from sudden changes in amount of heat radiated2 the absence of noise in operation1 and the low cost in fuel consumed4 ,some of the disadvantages are the high cost of installation and the lack of easy or ready control 7as the hot water cools slowly1 and shutting the radiator valves often puts the whole system out of adjustment74 ,a hot-water heating plant for a ten-room house will cost #djj to #fjj1 according to the type of boiler2 the corresponding fuel consumption will be twelve to sixteen tons of coal per season4 ,the third system in common use is by steam through radiators or coils of pipe connected to a cast-iron sectional boiler1 or a steel tubular boiler set in brickwork4 ,this system is in use in practically all large buildings2 and its advantages are the moderate cost of installation 7as the single-pipe system is very efficient and the pressure to be provided against in connections and fittings is slight72 the ease of control 7since any good equipment will furnish steam in twenty minutes from the time the fire is started1 and fresh coal thrown upon the fire with a closing of dampers will stop the steam supply in five minutes--or any radiator may be turned on or off in an instant72 the ability to heat the entire house in any weather1 or any single room or suite of rooms only2 and1 lastly1 the moderate fuel consumption4 ,the disadvantages of steam heat are no heat1 or next to none1 without the production of steam1 involving some noise in operation1 and danger of explosion4 ,steam equipment in a ten-room house will cost #cjj to #eej1 the lower price being for a sectional boiler and the higher for a steel boiler set in brickwork4 ,the fuel consumed will be from ten to fifteen tons per season4 ,both hot-water and steam systems require supplementary means of ventilation4 ,placing the radiators in exposed places1 as beneath windows1 in the main hall near the front door1 in northwest corners and near outside walls1 will insure some circulation of air2 and1 if one or two open fire places be provided on each floor1 there will be1 in most cases1 sufficient ventilation without the use of special ducts4 ,,footnotes3 #bc ,see ,chapter ,,iii for full discussion4--,,editor4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,,transcriber',s ,,note4 #a7 ,figure numbers 7which aren't contiguous7 have been preserved4 #b7 ,part ,,iii1 ,chapter ,v4 ,the table showing thickness of vitrified pipes reads3 #d inches diameter #a_/b inch thick #f #a_/af #h #c_/d #ab #a ,the thickness figure for the #f inch pipe has been left as originally printed1 but probably is incorrect 7logically it should be somewhere between #a_/b inch and #c_/d inch thick74 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------